Encyclopaedia Britannica [11, 3 ed.]

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ENCrCLOPJEDIA BRITANNICA;

D I C T I OF6 NARY ARTS, SCIENCES, AND

MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE^ Conftrufted on a PLAN, BY WHICH

THE DIFFERENT SCIENCES AND ARTS Are digefted into the

TREATISES

FORM

of Diftindt

SYSTEMS,

OR

COMPRKUB NDINO

The

HISTORY, THEORY,

and PRACTICE, of each,

according to the Lateft Dii'coveries and Improvements; AND

FULL

EXPLANATIONS

GIVEN OF THE

VARIOUS DETACHED PARTS OF KNOWLEDGE, WHETHER RELATING TO

NATURAL

Including

and

ARTIFICIAL Objedts, or to Matters ECCLESIASTICAL, CIVIL, MILITARY, COMMERCIAL, &C.

ELUCIDATIONS

of the molt important Topics relative to and the OECONOMY of LIFE :

RELIGION, MORALS,

MANNERS,

A

of all the Countries, Cities, principal Mountains, Seas, Rivers, drc. throughout the WORLD* A General HISTORY, dncient and Modirriy of the different Empires, Kingdoms, and States* AND An Account of the LIVES of the mod Eminent Perfons in every Nation, from the earlieft ages down to the prefent times. DESCRIPTION

Computed frem the-writings of the btji Authors, in fe-vera! languages ; the maft approved Diaionaries, as well of general feienee as of its particular branches ; the Tranfaeiicm, foutnuls, and Memoirs, of Learned Societies, both at home and abroad\ the AIS. Leaures of Eminent Profejfors on different jcunces ; and a variety of Original Materials, furnijhed by an Extenftve Correfpondence. THE THIRD EDITION, IN EIGHTEEN VOLUMES, GREATLY IMPROVED,

ILLUSTRATED WITH FIVE HUNDRED AND FORTY-TWO COPPERPLATES.

VOL. XL 1NDOCTI DlSCjtNT, ST si M E N T MKMItflSSE PBRITI.

EDINBURGH. PRINTED FOR A. BELL AND C. MACFARI^UHAR*

MDCCXCVII,

Cntereu in stationers! ^atl in eermsi of ttje

of Jparttament

ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA,

MED ''Utility

them ^ 01 yJ

-jl /rEDAL, denotes a piece of metal in^the form J_Vx of coin, fuch as was either current money ‘ among the ancients, or flrtick on any particular occafion, in order to preferve to pofterity the portrait of fome great perfon, or the memory of fome illuftrious action. Scaliger derives the word medal from the Arabic methalia ; a fort of coin with a human head upon it. But the opinion of Vofiius is generally received; viz. that it comes from metadum, “ metalof which fubftance medals are commonly made.

of c

SECT.

I.

Utility of Medals in Hijlory, and various other Sciences.

THERE are few ftudies of more importance to hiftory than that of medals ; the foie evidence we can have of the veracity of an hiftorian being only fuch collateral documents as are evident to every body, and cannot be falfified. In modern times, thefe are found in public memoirs, inflruttions to ambafladors, and flate papers of various kinds. Such memorials, however, are fubjeft to various accidents, and belides commonly remain in the countries where they are firft publifhed, and cannot therefore give to the world at large that perfect and.entire fatisfa&ion which ought to be derived from genuine hiftory; fo that more durable and widely diffufed monuments are dill to be wilhed for. Such are public buildings, infcriptions, and datues ; but thefe, excepting a few indances of the two lad, are always confined to particular countries; fo that medals alone remain as infallible documents of truth, capable of being diffufed over all countries in the world, and of remaining through the lated ages. Various The fird who Ihowed the importance of medals *in writers on afcertaining the dates, and arranging the order of medals. events, in ancient hidory, by means of medals, was Vaillant, in his Hidory of tie Kings of Syria, printed at Paris in 1681. By medals alone, he has been enabled to fix the chronology and important events of hidory, in the three mod ancient kingdoms of the world, viz. Egypt, Syria, and Parthia. Many coins have been difeovered fincC his time, which confirm the accounts he has given. He was followed in this method by Father Hardouin, though with lefs 'fuccefs. Hardouin’s bed work is his Nerodiades, or Series of Succeffors to Herod king of Judrea. The fame plan was purfued by Noris, in.his learned Treatife on the Syro-Macedonian princes, and by Bayer •iV0L. XI. Part K

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in his Hiftory of Ofrhoene, as well as by Froelich, in Guilty of the work intitled Annales Regum et Rerum Vien. 1754, and another named Kevenhullers Regum ’ ■ ‘f veterum Numifmdta Anecdota aucl Ferrara, "ien. 1752, 4to, of which Froelich was properly the author. Corfini and Cary likewife publilhed works of a fimilar nature ; the former in 1744, Ue Minnifari, aliorumque Armenia Regum, Nummis, See. 5 the latter in 1752, Hijloire des Rais de Thrace, et du Bofphore Cimmerien, eclaircie par les Medal lies. ■ 4 The ftudy of the Greek coins does not diow the Of the dates of events, though it tlluftrates the chronology Greek of reigns. This defect, however, is abundantly fup-coins* plied by thofe of Rome, which commonly mark the date of the prince’s confulfhip, the year of his tribunician power; giving alfo, upon the reverfe, the reprefentation or poetical fymbol of fome grand event. The year of the tribunician power is fometimes imagined by antiquaries to he fynonymous with that of the emperor’s reign: but this is not the cafe; and Mr Pinkerton is at fome pains to fet them right ifl this refpeft. He finds fault with Julius Caefar, when he affumed the fovereign authority, for taking upon him the title of Perpetual Diftator, af-being fynonymous with that of king or abfolute governor, which the Romans abhorred. “ He ought (fays our author), under the difguife of fome fupreme magiftratc of annual ele&ion, to have lulled the people with a dream, that they might terminate his power when they pleafed; or that he himfelf would refign it, when the necefiities of ftate which had required his temporary elevation had fubiided.” To this error Mr Pinkerton aferibes .. 3. the affaflination of the Di&ator,' and commends the policy of Auguftus, who, with far inferior abilities, Au'uftus continued in poffeffion of the moft abfolute authority to fecure as long as he lived. The tribunelhip was an office ofhls P0,Wer> annual eleftion.; and if put into the hands of any others than plebeians, muft have been the fupreme power of the Hate, as it belonged to that office to put a negative upon every public meafure whatever. Auguftus, being of feriatorial rank, could not affume this office ; but he invefted himfelf with the tribunichn power, which had the advantages of appearing to be only a temporary fupremacy, though in truth it was continued during his whole lifetime. Towards the end of his reign, he frequently affumed his deftined fucceffor, Tiberius, for his colleague, though in the beginning he had enjoyed it alone. This, with his artifice of refigning his power every ten years, and A re-affuming

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MED Utility

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of re-affuming it at the defire, as was pretended, of the

ftor'-in&ci fenate> fecured his fovereignty as long as he lived.— His example was followed by his fucceflbrs ; fo that mod of them have the infeription ¥ribunicia Potejlate upon their medals, with the date affixed to it thus, TV. Pot. Vll. Yet though this date generally implies the year of the emperor’s reign, it fometimes happens that the emperor, by fpecial favour from a former prince, had been endowed with this title before he came to the throne, as being the fucceffor to that prince, of which we have already given an inftance in Tiberius. Befides the tribunician power, the emperors very frequently enjoyed that of the confuls; and the date of their confulffiip is frequently expreffed in their coins. The office of Pontifex Maximus was likewife affumed by the Roman emperors in order to fecure themfelves in their authority ; which, Mr Pinkerton obferves, was one of the moft efficacious artifices they could have fallen upon. “ In the Greek heroic times (fays he), king and prieft were carefully united in one perfon ; and when fovereigns arofe in Denmark and Sweden, the fame plan was followed, as appears from Snorro, and other writers. Nothing could lend more fecurity to the perfon of the monarch than an office of fupreme fanftity, which alfo confirmed his power by all the terrors of fuperftition. Even the Chriftian fyftem was afterwards debafed by a mock alliance with government ; though it be clear from the whole New Tefiament, that fuch an alliance is fubverfive of its genuine inftitution, and the great;eft of all its corruptions. But the Roman Catholic clergy, in the dark ages, were the authors of ‘ no church no king,’ for their own intereft ; while the Roman emperors only fought to ftrengthen their power by the dark awe of fuperftition. The title of Pontifex Maximus was fo important, that'it was retained even by the Chriftian emperors till the time of Gratian. Its influence in the ftate’was, indeed, prodigious. Cicero obferves, that to this office were fubjeft temples, altars, penates, gods, houfes, wealth, and fortune of the people.— That of augur is alfo borne by many emperors; and its authority was fuch, that by the law of the twelve tables no public bufinefs could be tranfafted without a declaration from the augur concerning its event.— The pro-confular power was alfo given to Auguftus and the other emperors. It conferred a direft authority over all the provinces, and implied the emperor to be chief pro-conful, or governor of each, and of all. Another fpecial power affigned to the emperors, but not occurring on coins, was the Jus Relationis Tertia, 2>uartte, &c. or the right of making three or four motions in the fenate on the fame day, while the fenators could only propofe one. Hence our author infers, that medals afford the moft authentic documents of the Roman hiftory, in particular, that could have been invented by man.— The hiftories of Nerva and Trajan are much-better elucidated by medals than by authors; for the hiftory of Suetonius ends with Domitian, and the Hifloria Juguja Scriptores begins with Adrian: fo that the reigns of the two emperors juft mentioned are almoft tinknown ; and Mr Pinkerton is furprifed that none of the learned have attempted to fupply the defeS.

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“ Capitolinus (fays he), in his life of Maximinus Ju- Utility 0f nior, is quite puzzled to know if Maximus and Pu- t|lem • ^ ^ ^ c r ftory. &c. pienus were two emperors, or two names for the fame. J f Had he happened on any of thofe coins which bear -M. CL. PUPIENUS MAXIMUS AUG. he would have feen at once that Maximus was only another name for Pupienus.” 4 Medals are ufeful in other fciences befides Mftory. Ufe of meIn geography, we find the fituation of towns de-dals *n geo“ srap tennined by their vicinity to fome poted river, moun• tain, &c. Thus, MArxin nM XIUTAO r {hows that Magnefia was fituated under Mount Sipylus. In like manner, it is drown from-a medal, that Ephefus !1 ood on the river Cayfter; and there is extant a medal, bearing an infeription, which fignifies Alexandria on the Scamander ; a name given to Troy by Alexander the Great. The reverfe has upon it the famous Apollo Smintheus of Homer. In natural hiftory, alfo, medals jn na^uraj i are ufeful chiefly from the coins ftruck on the celubra- hiftory. tion of the fecular games, in which the figures of various animals are preferved ; and thus it may very often be determined whether any animal be known to the ancients or not. On many of the Greek medals are feveral uncommon plants and animals. Thus, on moil of the medals of Cyrene is the figure of the celebrated Syiphlum ; and on thofe of Tyre, the fhell-fifti from which the famous Tyrian purple was procured. 6 By means of medals, alfo, the exa& delineations of tn architect many noble edifices are preferved, though not even a ture. veftige of their ruins be now exifting; fo that the ufes of them to the architedft are very confiderable. To (n ^ gn{. the connoiffeur they are abfolutely neceffary ; becaufe arts, by them alone he is enabled to aferibe ancient bulls and (latues to their proper perfons, with multitudes of other points of knowledge which cannot be othtrwife determined. The elucidations of obfeure paffages in ancient authors by means of medals are fo numerous and well known, that it is needlefs to infill upon them. Mr Addifon has treated the connexion betwixt medals and poetry at confiderable length; but Mr Pinkerton finds fault with him for preferring the Latin to the Greek poets. He obferves alfo, that the knowledge of Greek medals is moft neceffary for a fculpg tor, and perhaps an architeft ; but an acquaintance Latin mewith Latin ones is preferable for a poet, or perhaps a da^s of ufe toa oet painter. The reafon of this difference is, that the P * former generally have on the obverfe the head of fome king, god, or goddefs, of exquifite relief and workmanftn'p ; but the reverfe feldom affords much fancy of lymbol in the early Greek coins; and in the imperial Greek coins, is chiefly impreffed with the temples of their deities. To a perfon of poeKcal imagination, however, the Roman coins afford the greatell entertainment, from the*fine perfonifications and fymbols to be found on their reverfes; of which our author gives the following inftances: ~ ^ “HAPPINESS has fometimes the caduceus, or wandPerfonificaof Mercury, which,Cicero, i. Offic. tells us was thought,tlonsonRe” to procure every wifh. She has in a gold coin of ye.man verus heads of poppy, to exprefs that our prime blefs lies in oblivion of misfortune. “ HOPE is reprefented as a fprightly girl, walking quickly, and looking, ftraight forward. With her left * hand.

Sea. IL Utility of hand die holds up her t em ft ury

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MEDALS. garments, that they may not im-

’ Pe^e t^ie rapidity of her pace ; while in her right hand c ' fhe holds forth the bud of a flower; an emblem infinitely more fine than the trite one of an anchor, which is the fymbol of Patience and not of Hope. This perfonification, with fome others, mull have been very familiar to the ancients ; for often in this, and in a few more inllances, no name, as SPES AUG. or the like, is inferted in the legend. “ ABUNDANCE is imagined as a fedate matron, with a cornucopia in her hands, of which Ihe fcatters the fruits, and does not hold up her cornucopia and keep the contents to. herfelf, as' many modern poets and painters make her do. “ The Emperor Titus, having caufe to import a great fupply of corn during a fcarcity at Rome, that fupply, or the ANNONA, is finely reprefented as a fedate lady, with filled cornucopia in her left hand, which flie holds upright, to indicate that Ihe does not, however, mean to fcatter it, as Abundance has a title to do, but to give it to Equity to deal out. This lafl: particular is fhown by her holding a little image of Equity, known by her fcales and hajln pura, or pointlefs fpear, in her right hand, over a balket filled with wheat. Behind the ANNONA is the prow of a fhip decked with flowers, to imply that the corn was brought by fea (from Africa), and that-the fhips had had a profperous voyage. The bell poet in the world would not have given us a finer train of imagery ; the bell painter would have been puzzled to exprefs fo much matter in fo fmall a compafs. “ SECURITY Hands leaning upon a pillar, indicative of her being free from all defigns and purfuits ; and the pofture itfelf correfponds to her name. Horace, in defcribing the wife man, mentions his being teres atque rotundas ; round and poliflied, againll all the rules of chance : an idea feemingly derived from the column upon which this ideal lady reclines. “ The emblems of PIETY, MODESTY, and the like, are equally appofite and poetical. “ The happinefs of the Hate is pidlured by a Ihip failing before a profperous breeze : an image than which the fuperlative genius of Gray could find none more exquifite ; and he has accordingly ufed it in his moll capital production “ The Bard,” with due fuccefs. “ The different countries of the then known world are alfo delineated with great poetical imagery. It affords patriotic fatisfaftion-in particular to a Briton, to fee his native illand often reprefented upon the ear- ( hell imperial coins fitting on a globe, with a fymbol of military power, the labarum in her hand, and the ocean rolling under her feet. An emblem almoft prophetic of the vail power which her dominion over the fea will always give her, provided Ihe exerts her element of empire with due vigour and perfeverance. “ Coins alfo prefent us with Achaia, Africa, Alamannia, Alexandria, Arabia, Armenia, Alia, Bithynia, Cappadocia, Dacia, Dardania, Egypt, Gallia, Hifpania, Italia, Judasa, Macedon, Mauritania, Pannonia, Parthia, Phrygia, Sarmatia, Sicily, Scythia, Syria, and the rivers Danube, Nile, Rhine, Tyber. This perfonification of provinces feems to have arifen from the figures of provinces carried in triumphs ; as the perfonification of our old poets fprung from the

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ideal perfons aClually repvefented in the myllenal Utility of pJays. _ _ _ “ There is one colonial medal of rude execution of Augullus and Agrippa, which has an high claim to merit in difplaying the ancient poetical imagery. It is infcribed IMP. and Divi. F. and on the reverfe, the conqueft of Egypt is reprefented by the metaphor of a crocodile, an animal almoll peculiar to that country, and at that period elleemed altogether fo; which is chained to a palm-tree, at once a native of the country, and fymbolic of vidtory. ro “ As the n?verfes are fo ufeful for knowledge of vTedals ufc> perfonification, fymbols of countries and adlions, and ful to a ain the like ; fo the portraits to be feen on old coins ard P ter. no lefs important to a painter; the high merit of A great number of them, in every charadler,juitly intitling them to be regarded as the bell lludies in the world. Not to mention, that, to an hilloric painter, the feience of ancient medals is abfolutely neceffary, that he may delineate his perfonages with the features they really bore while in exillence. This can only be attained in this way, or from llatues and bulls; any one of which will colt as much as hundreds of medals j and indeed a colledtion of fuch is only attainable by princes.” The fame things which render the Itudy of medals p0 arfcu]p; important to a painter, do Hill more fo to a fculptor;tor. and in this particular, the Hudy of the Greek coins is remarkably ufeful. The Ikill of the Greeks in the art of fculpture has always been admired throughout the world ; and on their coins the heads of feveral deities are reprefented in the mofl exquifite alto-relievo. Our author therefore thinks it Hrange, that the Grecian coins Ihould have hitherto been fo little attended to by men of learning and tafle. They may have been looked upon, he fuppofes, as belonging only to the province of the antiquary ; but he affures us, that the Greek medals will afford fatisfaction to the perfons wdio value them only as pieces of workmanlhip. In moH refpedls, they" greatly excel thofe of Rome even in its bell times ; which our author fuppofes to have been from the days of AuguHus to A-, drian. “ In the days of Adrian, in particular (fays he), the Roman mint feems to have been the very feat of art and genius; vvitnefs the yafi number of exquifite perfonifications, engraven with equal workman fli ip, which fwarm on the medals of that prince. Yet from his time down to Poflhumus, coins of admirable workmanfliip are to be found. Thofe of the FauHinas and Lucilla deferve particular mention. There is one, and not an uncommon one, of the latter in great brafs, which yields to nothing of the kind. The reverfe is a Venus with the name around her. The portrait of the obverfe feems to fpring from the field of the coin ; it looks and breathes, nay talks, if you truff your eyes. The coins of Tarfus are extremely remarkable for a kind of perfpedlive in the figures, as Froelich obferves. On others are found triumphal arches, temples, fountains, aquedudls, amphitheatres, circi, hippodromes, palaces, bafilicas, columns and obeliiks, baths, fea-ports, pharofes,, and the like. Thefe furnifh much pleafure and infiruftion to the architedl, and ferve to form his taHe to the ancient manner ; that manner which unites perfedl fimplicity with fublimity and grace ; that manner which every A 2 age

MEDALS.

Difference betwixt a medalHft and anti■quary.

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age adpilres, iii proportion as it has genius to imi- moft important to their country, but leave its anti- Hiftory. tate.” quities to chance. Every thing is important but our hiftoiy ; and. we are profound in. every ancient matter SECT. IL Entertainment arlf.ngfrom the Study that is fuperficial; and fuperficial in what is profound.. cf Medals. Even England cannot boail of one general hiltorian, but trufts to the inaccuracy of Rapin,. and the ignoBESIDES the purpofes which the ftudy of medals rant neatnefs of: Hume. It is therefore no wonder anfwers in the ufeful arts, a great variety of fources of that, the ftudy of antiquity is here ridiculous, though, entertainment are to be found in it. Mr Pinkerton moft important in other countries; none requiring cbfervesj that the moft barbarous nations are more greater talents, learning, or induftry. But the hiftopleafed with the rudeft efforts of art, than with the ric antiquary has the pleafure of benefiting fociety, , mqftr admirable works of nature ; and that m proper- and enlightening-whole nations, while the medallic has tion as the powers of the mind are large and various, only an innocent amufement. This amufement, con* Inch are alfo the pleafures which it receives from thofe fidered merely as riling from antiquarian objeas, has iaperlative produaions of art, which can only be the not been explained,.though.felt.by moil people, and offspring of vaft genius. Hence works of art are more by the learned. It- feems analogical with that agreeable both to the enlightened and to the ignorant, which- we derive from an extenfive profpea : for as The chief amufement, therefore, which attends, the the mind delights to expand itfelf into diftant places, ftudy of medals,, originates from the ftrength and fpi- fo alfo into diftant. times. We.connect ourfelves with rit, the finifli and beauty, which the engraver has dif- thefe times, and feel as it were a double exijtence. The played in the execution of them.. It belides gives a paffions are Angularly affe&ed by.minutepircumllances, kind of perfonal acquaintance with the perfons of whom though mute to generalities ; and the relids of antithey are the reprefentations. Portraits have always quity imprefs us more than its general hiftory.” been highly entertaining'to mankind ; and our author is of opinion, that the love of them gave rife both to SECT III. Hijlory,of Medals. painting and fculpture. They are no where to be found fo ancient, numerous, and fo well preferved as THE ftudy of medals is not of very ancient date; in medals. Amufement is alfo derived even from the None of the claflic writers give any account of collecreprefentations of ideal heads and perfons; nay, .even tions of them ; though indeed many little particulars from the minuteft fymbols. Thus the Greek coins of are paffed without notice by them. In the times cities prefent us with heads of deities of exquifite °f the Greeks, a colle&ion • of fuch Coins, as. then workmanfhip, apparently copied from ftatues or paint- exifted muft have been but little regarded, as confiftJiigs; fo that we may even guefs at the works of A- log onIy °f thofe ftruck by the numerous little nates pelles and Praxiteles from fome of the Greek medals, which at that time ufed the Greek chara&ers and lan» Their reverfes afford ftill greater variety ; there being guage. Hence they would have had an air of fcarce an objeft either in art or nature which is not domeftic coinage, and no attention would have been reprefented upon fome of them : and to the fatisfac- paid to them, however exquifite their workmandxip tion arifrng from a view of thefe, we may likewife add might have.been. The little intercourfe at that time that of beholding, in a-lively manner, the dreffes, man - carried on betwixt the different provinces alfo, greatly ners and cuftoms, religious and civil ceremonies, of impeded any communication of knowledge to thofe the. ancients: fa that: from medals we may obtain an. who wrote hiftories; fo that it is no wonder to find inteiefting hiftory of manners which, though very any fmall collections that might then have exifted allately cultivated, may perhaps afford the moft ufeful together unnoticed by them. and entertaining of all the provinces of hiftory. Almoft as foon as any communication was opened GreekcoinsThere is a very-confiderable difference betwixt the between the Greeks and Romans, the latter treated imitated kyftudy of medals and that of a mere antiquary. The. the arts of the Greeks with all due refpeft and ap-!ilc Rolatter frequently feems to take delight in coins mere- plaafe. Their coins were imitated by the Romans, mans‘ ly in proportion to their ruft and deformity.; fo that: and preferved in cabinets by tbe fenators among their it is often a recommendation of fome of their pieces, choiceft treafures. Suetonius informs us, that on fothat neither portrait, reverfe, nor legend, can be dif- lemn occafions Auguftus was accuftomed to prefent covered ; at. leaft in fuch manner as can be intelligibly his friends with medals of foreign Rates and princes, explained. “ The delight of the antiquarift (fays Mr along with other valuable teftimonies of Ins friendftnp. Pinkerton) may be called a depraved appetite of the In a more advanced period of the Roman empire, mind, which feeds on tralh, and fills itfelf with empti- however, individuals would undoubtedly form collecnefs. It is perhaps a mere childilh curiofity mingled tions of coins peculiar to their own llate ; for Dr with caprice and hypochondricifm. Again ft this cha- S.tukeley, in. Ids MedaUic Hiftory of Caranfius, in-, rafter the ridicule of Severus is;particularly Ihot, but forms us, that a complete feries- of filver coins was with little effeft ; for our antiqu'ifts exceed in vilions lately found in Britain, containing all, the emperors and nonfenfe. I fay nntlqutjls ; for the name of anti- down to Caraufius inclufively. From Banduri we quary is facred. ~£>y antiquary, in foreign countries, alfo know, that; certain. Greek coins were fpecially is implied a man who illuftrates their ancient laws, pveferved by the Romans ; and it appears from their : manners, poetry, but efpecially their ancient.hiftory. code, that ancient gold and filver coins were made ufe There, men of the raoft elevated minds are antiquaries;. of inftead of gems; to which diftinftion thofe of Sicily as Muratori, Leibnitz, Montefquteu, Du Bos. Here were particularly intitled. From the decline of the men of takots will not ftoop, forfooth, to ftudies the Roman empire till towards the end of the 5th centa*7*

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ry, almoft all branches of literature were involved in darknefs, and the medallic fcience among the reft. While the Chriftian dominion of Conftantinople lafted, indeed, almoft all the arts and fciences may be faid to have been kept within its own boundaries} though the Arabs and eaftern nations had fome arts and fciences of their own : but after the deftru&ion of the imperial city by the Turks, the Greeks were once more compelled to become fathers to the European Science. Even before this time, indeed, fome veftiges of a revival of literature had appeared in Italy; “and fo intimate and neceffary a connexion (fays Mr Pinkerton) has now the ftudy of medals-with that of ancient erudition, that on the earlieft appearance of a revival of the latter, the former was alfo difclofed.” Ue'Z1CUS* other forms. The AjiavJixov or money of Aryandes, who was made governor of Egypt by Cambyfes, is made mention of by Hefychius; but none of them, as far as is known, have reached our times. They muft have been marked with Perfian charadters, if with any. The coin of Queen Philijlis is mentioned by the fame writer, and many of thefe pieces are ftill extant; but we know not where this queen reigned, nor does there feem to be any method of finding it out. Mr Pinkerton inclines to believe, that (he prefided over Sicily ; and as a confirmation of that fuppofition, mentions fome inferiptions of BAXIAISXAS Iuan and it is remarkable, that moft of them which have reached us are of a very late period, with the names of B magiilrates

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MED Anc'cnt magiflrates infcribed upon them. Some of thefe bear . Money. < ^ name 0f MIthridates ; and few are older than the v " era of that prince ; who, it is well known, took the city of Athens in his war with the Romans. I fufpe& (fays Mr Pinkerton) that no Athenian coins of filver are pofterior to Sylla’s infamous deftruftion of that city : an event the more remarkable, as Sallull tells us, that Sylla was learned in Greek. Indeed Ca. ligula, Nero, and moil of the pefts of fociety, have been learned men, in fpfte of a noted axiom of Ovid, ingenuas didic'ijje feliciter artes Emollet mores, nec ft nit ejfe feros.

It is ftill more remarkable, that the fabric of Athenian coins is almoil univerfally very rude : a lingular circumflance, if we refleft how much the arts fkmrifhed there. It can only be accounted for from the excellence of their artills being fuch as to occalion all the good ones to be called into other countries, and none but the bad left at home. In like manner, the coins ftruck at Rome in the imperial times are excellent, as being done by the beft Greek artifts; while thofe of Greece, though famous at that time for pro* ducing miraculous artiils, are during that period commonly of very mean execution. The opulence of Athens in her days of glory was very great; owing in an eminent degree to her rich commerce with the kingdoms dm the Euxine fea ? carried on chiefly from Delos, which belonged to Athens, and was the grand centre of that trade.” Hence it has become matter of furprife to Neumann, that when there are fo many coins of Mycene, an illand even proverbially poor, there Ihould be none of Delos. But Mr Pinkerton accounts for this from Mycene’s being a free ftate, and Delos fubjeft to Athens. “ It may be well fuppofed (fays he', that Athens had a mint at Delos; and fuch Athenian coins as have fymbols of Apollo, Diana, or Latoha, were ftruck in this iftand.'5 36 The copper-money of the Greeks is next fn antiGreek cop- qU;ty to the filver. Mr Pinkerton is of opinion, that per money. jt was not ufe(j at Athens till the 26th year of the Peloponnefian war ; about 404 years before Chrift, and 300 after filver was firft coined there. The firft copper coins were thofe of Gelo of Syracufe, about 490 B. C. 37 The chalcos of brafs, of which eight went to the Of the chal- £}ver 0bolus, feems to have been the firft kind of 0, ^ ' Greek coin. At firft it was looked upon as of fo little confequence, that it became proverbial; and to fay that a thing was not worth a chalcos, was equivalent to faying that it was worth nothing. As the Greeks became poor, however, even this diminutive coin was fubdivided into two, four, nay eight rixTa. or fmall Coins; but our author cenfures very feverely thofe who have given an account of thofe divifions. “ Pollux and Suidas, copying from him (fayshe), tell us, that there were feven lepta to one chalcos; a number the moft unlikely that can be, from its indivifibility and incapacity of proportion. “ Pollux Ijved in the time of Commodus, fo was too late to be of the fmalleft authority : Suidas is four or five centuries later, and out of the queftion. Pliny tells us, that there were ten chalci to the obolus; Diodorus and Cleopatra that there were ffix ; Ifidorus fays there were four; and if fuch writers differ about the

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larger denomination, we may well imagine that the Ancient fmaller equally varied in different ftates ; an idea fup- M,ney- , ported by thefe undeniable witneffes the coins which remain. Moft of the Greek copper-coin which has reached our times confifts of chalci; the lepta bei.ng fo fmall as to be- much more liable to be loft.” In Dr Hunter’s cabinet, however, there are feveral of the dilepta of Athens: and from being ftamped with the reprefentation of two owls, feem to be the fame with the filver diobolus: “ a circumftance (fays Mr Pinkerton) of itfelf fufficient to confute Pollux; for a dilepton can form no part of feven; a number indeed which never appeared in any coinage of the fame metals, and is contradidtory to common fenfe. It may be obferved, that the whole bcafs coins of Athens publiftied by Dr Combe are reducible to four fixes, which may Be the lepton, dilepton, tetralepton or hemichalcos, and 38 chalcos. The firft is not above the fixe of one of king lepton, James I.’s farthing tokens; the laft about that of our^.et>tou* common, farthing.” The lepta was alfo called as beings change for the poor. The Kofap®-, perhaps fo called from the figure of a wolf upon it, was the coin of a particular ftate, and if of brafs muft have weighed three chalci. The other names of the copper-coins of Greece are but little known. Lycurgus ordered iron money to be coined at Sparta ; but fo periftiable is this metal, that none of that kind of money has reached our times. After the conqueft of Greece by the Romans, moft of the coins of that country diminiflied very much in their value, the gold coinage being totally difeontinued: though fome of the barbarous kings who ufed the Greek charadter Fwere permitted to coin gold, but they ufed the Roman model; and the ftandard ufed by the few cities in Alia who fpoke the Greek, language in the times of the emperors is entirely unknown. Copper feems to have been the only metal coined at that time by the Greeks themfelves ; and that upon the Roman ftandard, then univerfal through the empire, that there might be no impediment to the circulation of currency. They retained, however, fome of their own terms, ufing them along with thofe of the Romans. The ajfarion or ajfarium of Rome, the name of the diminifhed as, being 16 to the drachma or denarius, the obolus was fo much diminiflied in value as to be ftruck in brafs not much larger than the old chalcus, and valued at between two and three affaria; which was indeed its ancient rate as to the drachma. This appears from the copper coins of Chios, which have their names marked upon them. The brafs obolus, at firft equal in fixe to the Roman feftertiusor large brafs, leffensby degrees to about the fixe of a filver drachma. From the badnefs of the imperial coinage in Greece alfo, it appears that brafs was very fcarce in that country, as well as in all the cities ufing the Greek charadfers; being found moftly in the weftern countries of the Roman empire. The 3p time of this declenfion in fixe of the Greek coins is Era of the by Mr Pinkerton fuppofed to have been from Au- declenfion guftus down to Gallienus. He is of opinion, however, Grjetsointhat the copper obolus, at firft above the fixe of large age. brafs, was ufed in Greece about the time of its firft fubje&ion to Rome ; and that the lepta ceafing, the chalci came in their room, with the dichalcus and the hemiobolion of brafs. With

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Ancient . M°ney.

With refpeA to the gold coins of the Greeks, Mr Pinkerton is of opinion that none of that metal was coined before the time of Philip of Macedon, as none 4Q va but denies that the as, or libra, a coin, was from Sicilian model. The Sicilians had indeed a coin named but it was of filver, and of equal value to. the Eginean ftandard, ten of which went to the Sicilian He differs from Gronovius, that the ftandard of jEgina was ufed at Corinth, and of courfe at Syracufe 5 as it appears from Arillotle, that the Sicilians had a talent or ftandard of their own. The Sicilian obolus or contained alfo 12 ounces or chalci, fo named at firft becaufe they weighed an ounce weight; but the 0f Hiero weigh more than a troy ounce; and the brafs coins of Agrigentum are marked with cyphers as far as fix: the largeft weighing only 186 grains, or about one third of the primitive ounce. Our author denies that even the Roman denarius took its rife from the Si 501. as would alfo the medal of James IV. The co- portrait upon coins is never adorned with it. So ronation medal of Francis and Mary is worth 201. great an averfipn had the Romans to kingly power, BrioFs coronation medal fold in 1755 only for two that they rather allowed their emperors to affume the guineas at Dr Mead’s fale ; but would now bring 20I. diadem radiated; crown, thanit tobecomes wear a if fold according to rarity. but afterthethefymbol time ofof divinity, Condantine no The Englift coins ftruck in Ireland are of much the common. The radiated crown appears firft on the fengl-fti fame price with thofe of the native country ; but the pofthumous coins of Auguftus as a mark of deificaSt Patrick’s halfpence and farthings are rather fcarce, tion, but in fomewhat more than a century became Ui S and the rare crown of white metal is worth 41. The common. The laurel crown, at firft a badge of conqueft, was gun-money of James 11. and all other Irifli coins are afterwards permitted by the fenate to be worn by Juvery common. lius Csefar, in order to hide the baldnefs of his head. From him all the emperors appear with it on their Se6l. X. Arrangement of Medals, ■with the In- medals, even to our own, times. In the lower empire Jlruftion to be derived from them. the crown is fometimes held by a hand above the head. Having thus given a full account of every thing in as a mark of piety. Befides thefe, the naval, mural, general relative to medals, we muft now come to fome and civic crowns, appear on the medals bot-h of empeparticulars refpe&ing their arrangement, and the enter- rors and other eminent men, to denote their great actainment which a medallift may expeft from the trouble tions. The laurel crown is alfo fometimes worn by and expence he is at in making a collection. the Greek princes. The Arfacidas of Parthia wear It has already been obferved, that one of the prin- a kind of faft round the head, with their hair in rows cipal ufes of medals is the elucidation of ancient hif- of curls like a wig. The Armenian kings have the tory. Hence the arrangement -of his medals is the tiara, a kind of cap which was efteemed the badge of firft thing that muft occur in the formation of a cabi- imperial power in the eaft. Conical caps are feen on net. The moft ancient medals with which we are ac- the medals of Xerxes, a petty piirice of Armenia, quainted are thofe of Alexander 1. of Macedon, who and Juba the father, the former having a diadem began to reign about 501 years before Chrift. The around it. m feries ought of confequence to begin w ith him, and to The impious vanity of Alexander and his fucceftbrs Symbols be fucceeded by the medals cf Sicily, Caria, Cyprus, in affuming divine honours is manifeft on their medals, d,vin>ty on Heraclia, and Pbntus. Then follow Egypt, Syria, where various fymbols of divinity are met with. Some ^ the Cimmerian Bofphorus, Thrace, Bithynia, Par- of them have an horn behind their ear, either to de- and j,;s thia, Armenia, Damafcus, Cappadocia, Paphlagonia, note their ftrength, or that they were the fucceffors of ceffors. Pergamus, Galatia, Cilicia, Sparta, Pasonia, Epirus, Alexander, to whom this badge might be rapplied as Illyricum, Gaul, and the Alps, including the fpace of the fon of Jupiter Ammon. This, how ever, Mr time from Alexander the Great to the birth of Chrift, Pinkerton obferves, is the only one of. thefe fymbols and w'hich is to be accounted-the third medallic feries which certainly denotes an earthly fovereign, it being of ancient monarchs. The laft'feries goes down to doubted whether the reft are not all figures of gods.—. the fourth century, including fome of the monarchs According to Eckhet, even the horn and diadem be-^ of Thrace, Bofphorus, and Parthia, with thofe of long to Bacchus, who invented the latter to cure his Comagene, Edefla or Ofrhoene, Mauritania, and headachs ; and, according to the fame author, the. Judsea. A moft diftinft feries is formed by the Ro- only monarch who appears on coins with the horn is man emperors, from Julius Casfar to the deftruftion Lyiimachus. We are informed, however, by Plutarch, of Rome by the Goths; nay for a much longer pe- that Pyrrhus had a creft of goats horns to his helmet i riod, were it not that towards the latter part of it. and the goat we know was a fymbol of Macedon. the coins become fo barbarous as to deftroy the beau- Perhaps the fucceflbrs of Alexander wore this badge ty of the colleftion. Many feries may be formed of the horn in confequence. The helmet likewife freof modern potentates. quently appears on.the heads of fovereigns, and ConBy means of medals we can with great certainty ftantine I. has helmets of various forms curioufly ordetermine the' various ornaments worn by ancient namented. princes as badges of diftindtion. The Grecian kings The diadem is w’orn by moft of the Greek queens, by ;; have generally the diadem, without any other orna- Orodaltis, .daughter of Lycomedes, king of Bithynia .; . ment; and though in general the fide of the face is and though the Roman emprefies never appear with felcm nf to view, yet in fome very ancient Greek and it, yet this is more than compenfated by the variety of fovereign prefented Roman confular coins, full faces of excellent wTork- their head-dreffes.- Sometimes the bull of an emprefs authority. manftiip are met with. On feveral coins alfo two or is fupported by a crefcent, to imply that fte w'as the three faces are to be feen, and thefe are always ac- moon as her huftand was the fun of the ftate. The counted very valuable. toga, or veil drawn over the face, at firft implied that The diadem, which was.no more than a ribbon tied the perfon was invefted with the pontifical office ; and round the head wdth a floating knot behind, adorns accordingly we find it on the bufts of Julius Casfar, all the Grecian princes from firft to laft, and is almoft while Pontifex Maximua. It likewife implies the auD2 gurfhip,

Sefl. X. 28 Med A L S. Arrange-&c. gurflup, the augurs having a particular kind of gown in one of the departments of the rude mark, or in an ment Arrangernenr, ca]ie(j Janat with which they covered their heads when hollow fquare: and this again is fucceeded by a more , ’ J '' sbferving an omen. In latter times this implies only perfect image, without any mark of the hollow fquare. confecration, and is common in coins of empreffes. Some of the Greek coins are hollow in the reverfe, as It is firft met with on the coins of Claudius Gothicus thofc of Caulonia, Crotona, Metapontum, and fome as the mark of confecration of an emperor. The other ancient cities of Magna Grecia. About 500 nimbus, or glory, now appropriated to faints, has been B. C. perfect reverfes appear on the Greek coins, of already mentioned. It is as ancient as Auguftus, but exquifite relief and workmanfhip. “ The very mufis not to be met with on many of the imperial medals, cles -of men and animals (fays Mr Pinkerton) are ieen, even after it began to be appropriated to them. There and will bear inipeftion with the largeft magnifier as is a curious coin, which has upon the reverfe of the ancient gems. The ancients certainly had not eyes common piece with the head of Rome Urbs Roma, different from ouVs ; and it is clear that they muft have in large brafs, Conftantine I. fitting amid vidlories magnified obje&s. A drop of water forms a microand genii, with a triple crown upon his head for Eu- feope ; and it is probable this was the only one of the rope, Afia, and Africa, with the legend Securitas ancients. To Greek artifts we are indebted for the beauty of the Roman imperial coins; and thefe are Romas. fo highly finifhed, that on fome reverfes, as that of Portrays- though£enera ^ only half the the bullbody is given upon medals, Nero’s decurfion, the adventus and progrejfus of variiipoi/m fometimes or more ; in which dais. latter cafe the hands often appear with enfigns of ma- ous, emperors, the fundator pacts of Severus, the feajefty in them ; fuch as the globe faid to* have been in- tures of the emperor, riding or walking, are as exa£b troduced by Auguftus as a fymbol of univerfal domi- as on rthe obverfe. But though the bell Greek arnion ; the feeptre fometimes confounded with the con- tifts w ere called to Rome, yet the Greek coins under fular ftaff, a roll of parchment, the fymbol of legifla- the Roman emperors are fometimes well executed, tive power, and an handkerchief exprelfive of the power and always full of variety and curiofity. No Roman over the public games, where the emperor gave the or Etrufcan coins have been found of the globular fignal Some princes hold a thunderbolt, flowing that form, or indented on the reverfe like the early Greek. their power on earth was equal to that of Jupiter in The firft Greek are fmall pieces of filver, while the Heaven ; while others hold an image of Viffory. Roman are large maffes of copper. The former are Medals likewife afford a good number of portraits ftruck ; the latter call in moulds. The reverfes of the of illuftrious men ; but they cannot eafily be arranged Roman coins are very uniform, the prow of a fhip, a in chronological order, fo that a feries of them is not car, or the like, till about the year 100 B. C, when to be expedfed. It is likewife vain to attempt the various reverfes appear on their confular coins in all formation of a feries of gods and goddeffes to be foun4 metals. The variety and beauty of the Roman impeon ancient coins. Mr Pinkerton thinks it much bet- rial reveifes are well known. The medallift much vater to arrange them under the feveral cities or kings lues thofe which have a number of figures; as the whofe names they hear. A colledfion of the portraits Puella FauJUnianee, of Fauftina, a gold coin no larger of illuftrious men may likewife be formed from medals than a fixpence, which has 12 figures ; that of Trajan, of modern date. regna ajpgnata, has four; the congiarium of Nerva five ; allocution of Trajan feven } of Hadrian 1,0 ; o£ JUverfes of afford ^‘eanrever fes ofvariety ancientof inftrudlion Greek andandRoman coins the Probus 12. Some Roman medals have fmall figures Greek ami infinite amufement. Roman They contain figures of deities at full length, with on both as the Jpolloni fanSo of Julian II. Such coins. their attributes and fymbols, public fymbols and diver- have not fides, received any peculiar name among the medalfions, plants, animals, &c. &c. and in fhort almoft lifts. Others have only a reverfe, as the noted fpintrievery objedl of nature or art. Some have the por- ati, which have numerals I. II. &c. on . the obtrait of the queen, fon, or daughter of the prince verfe.” i*y whofe image appears on the face or obverfe ; and thefe The names of the deities reprefented on the rever- Of,esthe deiare efteemed highly by antiquaries, not only becaufe fes of Greek coins are never expreffed ; perhaps, as Mr j. '-epre-0 every coin ftamped with portraits on both fides is ac- Pinkerton fuppofes, out of piety, a fymbolical repre-^^P * counted valuable, but becaufe they render it certain fentation of their attributes being all that they thought £u;nJ,‘ that the perfon reprefented on the reverfe was the proper to delineate ; but the Roman coins always exwife, fon, or daughter of him who appears on the press the name, frequently with an adjuntl, as Veneri obverfe ; by which means they afiift greatly in the ad- Victrici, &c. In others, the name of the empejufting of a feries. Some, however, with two portraits ror or emprefs is added t as Pudiciti.® August®, arc common, as Auguftus, the reverfe of Caligula; round an iraa^e of Modefty; Virtus Augusti, a and Marcus Aurelius, reverfe of Antoninus Pius. legend for an image of Virtue. We find more art and defign in the reverfes of the The principal fymbols of the divine attributes to Roman medal’s than of the Greek r but, on the oilier with on the Greek medals are as follow: hand, the latter have more exquifite relief and work- be t.metJupiter known on the coins of Alexander the manfhip. The very ancient coins have no reverfes, Great by his iseagle but when the excepting a rude mark ftruck into the metal refem- figure occurs only onandthethunderbolts; of coins, he is dibling that of an inftftiment with four blunt points on ftingiwfhed'by a laurel crown,obverfes and placid counwhich the coin was ftruck ; and was owing to its ha- tenance. Jupiter Ammon is known, bybearded the ram’sving been fixed by fuch an inftrument on that fide hern twilling round his ear ; a fymbol of power and to receive the imprelfion upon the other. To this ftrength, affumed by fome of the fucceffors of Akxfuceeeds the image of a dolphin, or fbme fmall animal, ander the Great, particularly by Lyfimaehus. 2. Nep3

sea. X. M E l > A L S. *5 Neptune is known bybuthishetrident, or befometimes with a diadem, fometimes without any Arrange • .ateArrangenr, 6cc, jng2.drawn by fea-horfes; is fcldoradolphin, met with on badge, which is reckoned a fufficient diftindlion, as the other goddefies all wear badges. Sometimes fhe • 1 ' the Grecian coins. 3. Apollo is dillinguifhed by an harp, branch of appears as the goddefs of marriage ; and is then veiled laurel, or tripod; and fometimes by a bow and arrows. to the middle and fometimes to the toes. She is In the character of the. Sun, his head is furrounded known by the peacock, a bird facred to her from the with rays •, but when the butt only occurs, he has a fable of Argus. fair young face, and is crowned with laurel. He is 2. Minerva is very common on the coins of Alexander the Great; and her butt has been miftaken by frequent on the coins of the Syrian princes. 4. Mars is diftinguiflied by his armour, and fome- the celebrated painter Le Brun for the hero himfelf. times by a trophy on his Ihbulders. His head is She is very eafily diftinguifhed by the helmet. Her . armed with a' helmet, auid lias a ferocious counte- fymbols are, her armour ; the fpear in her right hand, and the aegis, with a Medufa’s head, in her left; an ovvT’ nance. 5. Mercury is reprefented as a youth, with a fmall commonly Handing by her. cap on his head, wings behind his ears and on his 3. Diana of Ephefus is commonly reprefented on feet. He is known by the cap, which refembles a the Greek imperial coins; and appears with a great fmall hat, and the wings. He appears alfo with the number of breatts, fuppofed to denote univerfal Nacaduceus, or wand twined with ferpents, and the mar- ture. She is fupported by two deer, and carries a Jupium, or purfe, which he holds in his hand. pannier of fruit upon her head. The butt of this 6. iEfculapius is known by his bufhy beard, and goddefs is known by the (mefeent on her brow, and' his leaning on a club with a ferpent twitted round iometimes by the bow and quiver at her fide. it. He fometimes occurs with his wife Hygeia or 4. Venus is known by an apple, the prize of beauHealth, with their fon Telefphorus or Convalefcence ty, in her hand. Sometimes ftie is diftinguittied only between them. by her total want of drefs; but is always to be known 7. Bacchus is known by his crown of ivy or by her extraordinary beauty, and is fometimes adorned vine, his diadem and horn, with a tiger and fatyrs with pearls about the neck. around him. 5. Cupid is fometimes met with on the Syrian 8. The figure of Hercules is common on the coins coins, and is known by his infancy and wings. of Alexander the Great, and has frequently been mi- 6. Cybele is known by a turreted crown and lion flaken for that of the prince himfelf. He appears or is feen in a chariot drawn by lions. fometimes as a youth and fometimes with a beard. 7. Ceres is known by her garland of wheat, and is He is known by the club, lion’s Ikin, and remarkable common on the Sicilian coins ; that ifland being reapparent ftrength; fometimes he has a cup in his hand, markable for its fertility. Sometimes fhe has two ferand a poplar tree, as a fymbol of vigour, is fometimes pents by her, and is fometimes drawn in a chariot by added to the portrait. them. She carries in her hands the torches with 9. The Egyptian Serapis is known by his bufhy which Ihe is fabled to have gone in fearch of her beard, and a meafure. upon his head. daughter Proferpine. 10. Apis is delineated in the form of a bull, with a 8. Proferpine herfelf is fometimes met with on flower of the lotos, the water-lily of the Nile, fup- coins with the name of or the pofed by Macrobius to be a fymbol of creation; and 9. The Egyptian Ifis. has a bud or flower on her Jamblichus tells us, that Ofiris was thought to have head ; a fymbol of the perpetual bloom ef the inhahis throne in it. bitants of heaven. She carries alfo a fiftrum in her xi. Harpocrates, the god of Silence, appears with hand. his finger on his mouth ; fometimes with the fiftrum in 10. The Sidonian Aftarte appears on a globe fuphis left hand ; a fymbol common to molt of the.Egyp- ported on a chariot with two wheels, and drawn by tian deities. two horfes. 12. Canopus, another Egyptian deity, appears in Thefe are the deities moft commonly reprefented on the fhape of an human, head placed on a kind of pitch- the Greek coins.. The more uncommon are, Saturn er. “ This deified pitcher (fays Mr Pinkerton) feems with his feythe, or with a hook on the He-raclian to refer to an anecdote of ancient fuperftition, .which, coins ; . Vulcan with his tongs, on the reverfe of a coin I. believe, is recorded by Plutarch. It feems fome Per- of Thyatira, reprefented at work in the prefence of fian and Egyptian prietts had a conteft which of their Minerva. Adranus, a Sicilian god, is fometimes redeities had the fuperiority. The Egyptian faid, that prefented on coins with a dog. Anubif, an Egypa fmgle vafe, facred to Serapis, would extinguifh the tian deity, has a dog.’s head.. Ati* is known by his whole power of the Perfian deity, of fire. The expe- Phrygian bonnet; Caftor and Pollux by a liar on the riment was tried; and the wily Egyptian, boring holes head of each ; Dis, by his old face, di fheveiled hair in the vafe and flopping them with wax, afterwards and beardj and a hook ; Flora by her crown of flowfilled the vafe with water; which, guttling through ers ; Nemefis by her wheel-; and Pan by his horns and the holes as the wax melted, extinguiflted the Perfian ears belonging to fome kind of beaft. deity. Hence the vafe was deified.” There are likewife to be found on medals many x^te 0f 13. The Holy Senate and Holy People, appear fre- different fymbols by themfelves; of the moft remark-Symyol*« quently on Greek imperial coins,.fometimes reprefent- able of which we (hall give the following table, with ed as old men with beards, at others as youths. their fignifieations : The goddefles reprefented on medals are, Symbols. Signification.x. Juno) reprefented by a beautiful young woman, 1. Vafes with-fprigs, « Solemn games. 2. SaaaU.^

M

E D A I s: Sea. XI; Signification. Symbols. Signification. Arranee* I CMyftic rites of Pie world pre- ment» &cJ>.| ferved by the ' 2 Bacchus. Coin ftruck 35. Globe on an altar with three I gods for the x at Antioch, ftars. j three fons of 3. Anchor on Seleucian medals, < where an anI LConftantine r chorwasdug LSecurity. .' 1 36. Fort and gate, ^ up. 37. Tribuli, a kind of Chevaux de ^ Unknown. 4 a * inerted hamper " ^ ^ {Covered tripod. Prize, 38. Altar or tripod, Piety. 39. Dolphin, 5. Bee, Apollo. 40. Le&ifternia, Feftivals. 41. Lituus, or twifted wand, 6. Laurel, Augurfhip. 42. Apex, or cap with firings, 7. Reed, Pontificate. 43. Thenfa, or chariot employed to ( Confecrationof 8. Ivy and grapes, carry images, l an emprefs. 9. Poppy, 44. Peacock, Ditto. ( Confecrationof 10. Corn, 45. Eagle, a 1. Owl and olive, I an emperor. is. Dove, The legends put upon medals are defigned as ex- *17 planations of them ; but as the compafs of even the 13. Torch, " large ft coins does not admit of any great length of infcription, it has always been found neceflary to ufe 14. Mudnis, or conic Hone, abbreviations; and in readily decyphering thefe lies a confiderable part of the difficulty of the fcience. This, Symbols of Countries, &c. however, is greater in the Roman than in the Greek medals; for the Greeks commonly infert as much of •15. Pomegranate flowers, Rhodes. the word as is fufficient to enable us eafily to under16. Owl, - Athens. ftand its meaning ; but it is common for thofe who at17. Pegafus, Corinth. tempt to explain letters that do not often occur, to 18. Wolf’s head, Argos. fall into very ridiculous errors. Of this Mr Pinker19. Bull’s head, - Boeotia. ton gives a moft remarkable inftance in Fortunius Li-„* 20. Minotaur’s head and labyrinth, Crete. cetus, a learned man, who finding upon a coin of A- taker of For21. Horfe’s head, Pharfalia. drian the letters r. ia. fignifying the 14th year of thattU5 tuniusLice22. Lion, - Marfeilles. 23. Tortoife, - Peloponnefus. emperor’s reign, imagined that they flgnified Lucer- ‘ nas invenit Delta ; “ Delta invented lanthorns and 24. Sphinx, - Scio. 25. Three legs joined, as in the Ifle Jo-IC1m thence afcribed the origin of lanthorns to the Egypof Man-money, Man-monev. / tians. Tables explaining the meaning of the abbreviations found upon medals have been publilhed by Pa26. Horfe, Theflaly. 27. The crefcent, Byzantium(A). tin, Urfatus, and others. C Suppofed to be 28. Bull, 2 a river. Sect. XL Of Medallions, Medalets, &c. C A colony drawn 29. Enfign, with the letters col. ■< from one le- Besides the ordinary coins of the ancients, which pafled in common circulation through the country, C gion. 5 Apis, ftrcngth there were others of a larger fize, which are now term30. Bull, \ or fecurity. ed medallions. Thefe were ftruck on the commencef Peace and con- ment of the reign of a new emperor and other folemn 31. Caduceus, occafions : frequently alfo, by the Greeksin particular, \ cord. 32. Cornucopia, Abundance. as monuments,-of gratitude or of flattery. Sometimes 33. Pontifical hat, Priefthood. they were mere trial or pattern pieces; and thofe of com- abound after the time of Maximian with the words 34. Parazonium, - — 2,C Baton Tres Monette on the reverfe. The common opinion mand.

Symbols. _ \ 2. Small cheft or hamper, with ferpent leaping out. c

(a) This appears Cn the early coins of Byzantium, with the legend btzantin xit. “ the preferver of Byzantium.” The reafon of this was, that when Philip of Macedon befieged the city, and vras about to ftorm it in a cloudy night, the moon flione out on a fudden and difcgvered, him ; by which means the inhabitants had time to colle& their forces and repulfe him. . The Turks, on entering Conftantinople, found this badge in many places ; and fufpe&ing fome magical power in it, aflumed the fymbol and its power to themfelve® ; fo that the crefcent is now the chief Turkilh enfign.

Sea. XT. MED Medal-&c. is,denarius that allaureus, the Roman piecesexceeding of gold exceeding the lions, all in filver the denarius, 'J" * and all in brafs exceeding the feilertius, went under the denomination of medallions: but Mr Pinkerton thinks that many of thefe large pieces went in circulation, tho’ not.very commonly, as our five and two guinea pieces, filver crowns, &c. do in this country* The fineft medallions were prefented by the mint-mafters to the emperor, apd by the'emperor to his friends, as fpecimens of fine workmanfiiip. The belt we have at p; Tent are of brafs, and many of them compofed of two forts of metal; the centre being copper, with a ring of brafs around it, or the contrary ; and the infcription is fometimes confined to one of the metals, fometimes not. There is a remarkable difference between the Greek and Roman medallions in point of thicknefs ; the latter being frequently three or four lines thick, while the other feldom exceed one. Very few medallions, however, were ftruck by the Greeks before the time of the Roman emperors ; but the Greek medallions of the emperors are more numerous than thofe of the Romans themfelves. All thefe pieces, however, are of fuch high price that few private perfans are able to purchafe them. In the laft: century Chriffina queen of Sweden procured about 300. In the king of France’s cblle£fion there are 1200; a number formerly fuppofed not to exifl ; and Dr Hunter’s collection contains about 400, exclufive of the Egyptian. Befides thefe large pieces, there are fmaller ones of a fize fomewhat larger than our half-crowns; and by Italian medallifls are called medaglion cini, or fmall medallions. They are ftill fcarcer than the large kind. tI^ e There is ftill a third kind, which have almoft efca@f meda- Pmijfdia d thefcattered notice ofamong medallifts, viz. theonfmall lots. the people folemncoinsocca-or fions ; fuch as thofe ftruck for the flaves. on account of. the faturnalia ; counters for gaming ; tickets for baths and feafts; tokens in copper and in lead; ,&c. Thefe are diftinguiftied by Mr Pinkerton by the name of medalets. Many, or perhaps almoft all, of thofe ftruck for the faturnalia were fatyrical; as the Haves had then a licence to ridicule not only their mafters but any perfon whatever. Mr Pinkerton mentions one of the moft common pieces of this kind, which has on the obverfe the head of an old woman veiled,, with a laurel crown ; the reverfe only s. c.‘ within a wreath. Baudelot is of opinion that it is the head of Acca Laurentia, the nurfe of Romulus, to whom a feftival was ordained. “ Perhaps (fays Mr Pinkerton), it was ftruck in ridicule of Julius C or the fouth part of Spain, clelialtic coins of France, Germany, Denmark, Swewhere there were a great many Roman colonies, and den, Norway, &c. Thofe of Denmark and Sweden which was fertile to a proverb. The Mo.refque coins are numerous, but the Norwegian coins of this denoof Spain, like thofe of the reft of the Mohammedan mination are rare. Mr Pinkerton defcribes a filver ftates, prefent us only with infipid infcriptions on both one in his pofieffion as having arms and a mitre, with fides. Indeed the Mohammedan religion, by its abfo- the infcription on one fide Sanctus Olaws Rex lute refufal to allow the reprefentation of any living Norvey ; on the reverfe Olaws Dei Gra. Arcef. creature, has prevented the progrefs of coinage in any Nid’sen, meaning Nidrosiensis, or archbilhop of degree throughout thofe regions which it has over- Nu/ros, now Drontheim., fpread. The infcriptions on the ancient Spanilh 18. Bohemia. The coinage of this kingdom appears at a very early date, viz. in the year 909, under coins are in the Ciific or old Arabic characters. 13. Portugal. No defcription of the coins of this duke Boleflaus 1. Thefe coins are followed by othera. of Boleflaus II. and Emma his wife in 970 ; of Bokingdom has yet appeared. 14. Germany. No account of the German coins leflaus III. in 1002 ; Jaromir in 1020 ; Udalrich iulias been publilhed ; though it is well known that not 1030, and other princes. The iraffeate money of Otonly the emperors, but many of the cities, particular- tocar I. was coined in 1197. 19. Poland. The coinage of this country is nearly ly thofe called Han/e-towns, iflued money ; and many as ancient as that of Bohemia. The coins are on the of the coins iflued by the cities were fuperior in eleGerman model, but no particular account of them has gance even to thofe iflued by the emperors. 1 c. Denmark. Here the coinage begins with Ca- been publiftied. Ruffia. None of the Ruffian money appears nute the Great in 1014. The pieces are at firft ex- to 20. tremely rude, ornamented only with rings and runic be more ancient than the 13th century. The firft charaifters. Thefe are fucceeded by copper pieces, are the kopecks or filver pennies, which have upon them fome of which have a crofs, others a paitoral ftafF on rude figures of animals on one fide,, and a man Handone fide, with the letter A on the other. Later coins ing with a bow or fpear on the other. There are likehave ftrokes 1111, &c. all round them ; but thofe of wife coins of-Mbfeow ftruak by Ariftoteles the archiHarold, Hardicanute, and Magnus Bonus, in 1041, tect in 1482. The roubles or dollars and their halfs. are of neat workmanlhip, and have the portraits of the There are fome of the impoftor Demetrius in 1605, princes at half length. The coins of Nicolas or Niel, which are very fcarce. as he is called by the Dane , are mde, as well as thofe 21- Pruffia. The firft Pruflian coins were ftruck . of Waldemar I. and the celebrated Margaret. In at Culm by the Teutonic knights in 1230. They 1376 Olaf caufed money to be ftruck with a grinning were filver pennies, and upon the German plan. In full face, with a crowned O upon the other fide. the, next century were ftruck fliillings,, groats, and “ The Swedes (fays Mr Pinkerton) took thefe coins fchots; the laft were the largeft, and are extremely extremely ill, as they thought they grinned at them.” rare. They have the Pruflian ftiield, an eagle furSilver was firft coined in Denmark by Philippa mounting a crofs, with a rofe-lhaped border, moneta queen of Eric, and daughter to Henry IV. of. Eng- dominorum Prussije-.: on the reverfe is a crofs fleurie, within a border of a fimilar kind, having the inland. 16, Sweden. The coinage of this kingdom began fcription HONOR MAGISTRI, JUSTITSAM DILIGIT. in 818 under Biorno, on the plan of Charlemagne. Gold coins were ftruck. in the fame century. In the The coins are marked with a crofs. Next follow time of Copernicus the money was fo debafed,. thofe of Olaf in 1019 ; which Mr Pinkert#n fuppofes that t2 or 13. marks were worth but one of pure to have been the firft true Swedifti coins ; and that filver. the art of coinage firft pafled from England into Den- 22. England. The Englifh coins are of various kinds.. mark in the time of Canute the Great, and from Den- 1 it. Heptarchic. Thefe are only of two forts, viz. mark into Sweden. Thefe coins were ftruck on the theJkeatta or penny of filver, and theJlyca of copper. Englifh model. During the time that Sweden was Few of the pennies appear till after the year 700 lubjeft to Denmark, or miferably harafled by the though fome are met with which bear the name of Danes, the coins of both kingdoms were the fame ; Ethelbert I. king of Kent, as old as 560. At firft but after the time of Guilavus Vafa many elegant pie- they had only rude figures of Jerpents, but in latter 5 timsa.-

Tables; g8 MED A L S, Modern times 'legends were Kkewife added. Moft of thefe From the year 1601 to the prefent time the coins of Modern Cu n8, ? remain the fapie. * , Coins- j pennies have pagan fymbols upon them. The ftyca England Gold was coined in England by Henry III. in was only coined in Northumberland, and was a very 1257 ; the piece was called ^ gold penny, and was lar^mall piece about the value of half a farthing. one ; and the execution is by no 2d. Goins of the chief nwvarchs of England. Mr ger thanbadtheforfilver the time. The feries of gold coinage, ■Pinkerton denies that an end was put to the heptar- means commences properly from Edward III. In chy by Egbert in 832, as is commonly fuppofed; however, monarch firft ftruck florins, in imitation of .though he owns that he was chief monarch of the coun- 1344 inthisItaly ; and it is remarkable, that though thefe try, as feveral others had been before him. Edgar, thofe at the time they were firft iffued bore only fix who reigned in 959, according to him was the firft coins king of England ; and the coins of the chief monarchs ftiilUngs value, they are now intrinfically worth *98. ; form almoft a complete feries from the time of Egr fo much has the value of gold increafed fince that bert to Edgar. The only chief monarch of whom time. The half and quarter florin were ftruck at the there are no coins is Ethel bald, who reigned in 857. fame time, but only the laft has been found. The Moft of thefe coins bear rude portraits ; but the re- florin, however, beingYound inconvenient, gave place verfes are fometimes curious and interefting. Same to the noble, of 6s. 8d. value, and exaftly half a mark. The latter had its name from being a limited fum in have view§,of cathedrals and other buildings ; particu- accounts ; and was eight ounces in weight, two-thirds ' Jarly one of Edward the Elder in 900 ; which has the cathedral of York with three rows of windows, round of the money pound. It is fometimes alfo called felias being one half of the commercial pound of 16 arched as the other Saxon and Norman buildings,; the bra, Gothic arch being quite unknown till after the 12th ounces. The noble had its name from the nobility of century. Some coins of Anlaf king of Northumber- the metal; the gold of which it was coined being of land have the famous raven, the Daniih cnlign ; and the fineft fort. Sometimes it is called Rofe Noble, thofe of other princes have frequently very curious re- from both fides being impaled in an undulating circle. It continued with the half and quarter noble to be the verfes. > 3d. Ecclefqflic coins appear of the archbifhops of Can- only gold coin till the angels of Edward IV. appeared terbury, Wulfred, in 804, Ceolnoth in 830, and Pleg- in 1465. Thefe had their name from being ftamped with the image of Michael and the dragon. The anmund in 889. 4th. Coins of the lings of England. The iilver pen- gelites of 3 s. 4d. value were fubftituted in their place. ny, which had begun dining the heptarchy, continued In 1527 Henry VIII. added to the gold coins the to be the general coin after the kingdom had been crown and half-crown at their prefent value; and the united under one head; and extends in a continued fame year he gave fovereigns of 22 s. 6d. and ryals of feries from Egbert almoft to the prefent reign. The ns. 3d. angels at 7 s. 6d. and nobles at their old value -only kings wanting are Edmund Ironfide, Richard I. of 6s. 8d. In 1546 Ije caufed fovereigns to be coined and John. At firft the penny weighed 224- grains ; of the value of 2os. and half fovereigns in proportion. but towards the clofe of the reign of Edward III. it His gold crown is about the fize of our (hilling, and fell to 18 grains ; and in that of Edward IV. to 12. the half-crown of fixpence, but thin. All his coins, In the time of Edward VI. it was diminifhed to eight however, gold as well as filver, are much debafed ; and grains; and in Queen Elizabeth’s reign to yf-j-; at it was not without much labour and trouble that Edward VI. brought it back to its former ftandard. On which it ftill continues. Halfpennies and farthings were firft ftruck in filver the union of the two crowns, James gave the fovereign by Edward I. in 1280 ; the former continued to the the name of unite; the value continuing of 20s. as time of the commonwealth, but the latter ceafed with before. He coined alfo rofe-ryalsof 30s. value, fpurEdy/ard VI. The groat was introduced by Edward ryals of 15 s. angels of 10s. and angelets of 5 s. UnIII. in 1354, and continues to this day, though not der the commonwealth, the fovereign got the name of in common circulation. The half-groat or two- the twenty-Jhilling piece, and continued current till the pence is of the fame date, and alfo continues to the coinage of guineas. Thefe were fo called from their prefent time. being coined of Guinea gold, and were at firft only to Shillings were firft coined by Henry VII. in 1503. go for 20s. though by an univerfal but tacit confent At firft it was called tejloon, from the tejle, tcte, or head they always pafled for 21s. Half-guineas, double of the king upon it; the name Jhilling being derived guineas, and five guinea pieces, were alfo coined dufrom the German fchelling; under which appellation ring the fame reign ; which ftill continue, though the coins had been ftruck at Hamburgh in 1407. The two latter are not in common circulation. Quarter crown was firft coined in its prefent form by Henry guineas were coined by George I. and likewife by his VIII. Formerly it had appeared only in gold, whence prefent majefty ; but they were found fo troublethe phrafe of crowns of gold; though thefe indeed fome on account of their fmall fize, that they were (lopwere the largeft gold coins known for a long time in ped within a year or two when received at the bank France and other countries on the continent, being of England ; and thus are not to be met with at preworth about 10s. fterliug. They had their name from fent. A few pieces of 7 s. value have likewife been the crown ftamped on one fide, and were firft coined coined, and are known by the lion above the helmet; by Charles VI. in 1384, and continued till the time but none have been iflfued. In 1688 the guinea rofe of Toms XIV. The half-crown, fixpence, and three- 2is. 6d. and continued to increafe in value till pence, were coined by Edward VI. In 15^8 Queen to1696, when if was as high as 30 s.; but after the reElizabeth coined three halfpenny, and in 1561 three in 1697 and 169811 fell by degrees, and in 1717 farthing, pieces ; but they were difcontinued in 1582. coinage was at its old ttandard of 21s. and at that time filver

3^ Tables. MED A L S. iModem s fixed at its prefent ftandard value, viz. as i to 15^ ed by the vaft ranfom of David II. after which it be- Modern: came necefiary to reduce its fize ; and fo much did this . Co^vns- wa in weight. Though the firft money coined in Britain, as we diminution affecl England, that Edward III. found have already obferved, was copper, yet, excepting the himfelf obliged to leffen the Engliih coin alfo. The Northumbrian ftycas, no copper coin was found in diminution of the Scottiih coin, however, continued England from the time of the Saxon conqueft till the ftill to go on until it became imprailicable to keepyear 167.1. An averfion to a copper coinage it feems par with that of England. In the firft year of Rowas prevalent throughout the nation ; and Queen Eli- bert III. it pafled only for one half its nominal value zabeth, who without hefitation ufed bafe money for in England : in 1393, Richard II. ordered it only to Ireland, yet fcrupled at coining copper for England. go for the weight of the genuine metal it contained. This want of fmall coin occafioned fuch an increafe of In 1600 it had funk to fuch a degree as to pafs only private tokens for halfpennies and farthings, that it be- for a twelfth part of the Englifh money, and conticame a ferious obje& to government; and in 1594a cop- nued at that low ebb till the coinage of Scotland was per coinage was ferioufly thought of. This year a fmall entirely cancelled by the Union of the two kingcopper coin was ftruck about the fize of a filver two- doms. pence, with the queen’s monogram on one fide, and a Of filver coins we have only pennies till the year rofe on the other; the running legend on both fides t 293, when Edward I. having coined halfpence and being the pledge of a halfpenny. Of this there farthings, Alexander III. of Scotland coined alfo are patterns both in copper and filver, but both of halfpence, of which we have a few, but no farthings them foon fell into difufe. On the 19th of May 1613, are to be met with ; but there are filver farthings of King James by royal proclamation iffued farthing to- Robert I. and David II. The latter introduced the kens. They are generally of the fame fize with the groat and half-groat, which completed the fet df Scbttwo pence, with two feeptres in faltier furmounted ti(h filver. It continued unaltered till the time of with a crown, and the harp upon the other; with an Queen Mary, when they all ceafed to be coined in intention, as it would feem, that if they were refufed filver, on account of the high price of that metal. in England they might pafs in Ireland. In 1635 In 1553 {hillings were firft coined, with the buft of Charles 1. coined thofe with the rofe inftead of the the queen on one fide and the arms of France and harp ; but the circulation of thefe was entirely flopped Scotland on the other. The filver crown was firft by the vaft number of counterfeits which appeared, coined in 1565, which went for 30 s. Scots; lefftr and by the king’s death in 1648. After this the pri- pieces of 20 s. and 10s. having likewife.beeij ftruck,. vate tokens began again to circulate, till put a flop to and marks of filver, worth 3:8. 4 d. Englifii, were alfo by the coinage of farthings in 1672. The workman- coined about the fame time. Thefe coins have upon fhip of the tokens is quite contemptible. In 1672 them the marks xxx. xx. x. to denote their value. the halfpence as well as the farthings which had been They are commonly called Cruickftone. dollars, from ftruck two years before began to circulate. They the palm-tree upon them, rniftaken for a remarkable were of pure Swedilh copper, the dyes engraved by yew at Cruickfton near Glafgow, where Henry DarnRocttier ; and they continued till the year 1684, when ley refided. It is deferibed, however, m the aft as a fome difputes arofe about the copper lately obtained palm,, with a “ fhell-padoc” (a tortoife) crawling up; from theEnglilh mines. Tin farthings were coined with This alludes to Darnley’s marriage with the queen, as a ftud of copper in the centre, and inferibed round the the motto from Propertius Dat Gloria Vires alfo edge as the crown pieces, with nummorum famulus-, implies. The motto Nemo me Impune Laces set 1685 or 1686. In 1685 halfpence of the fame kind firft appears on the Scottiftr coins in 1778,.and the inwere coined; and the tin coinage continued till the vention isgiven to the celebrated Buchanan; In 1582, year 1692, to the value of more than L. 65,000; but the crown of an ounce weight went for 40 s. Scots* next year the tin was all called in by government, and and was accordingly marked XL. ; in 159-7 the mark the capper coinage recommenced. The farthings of was L. the Scottifh money being then only one-tenth Queen Anne are all trial pieces excepting thofe of the Englilh : the mark was LX in 1601, the value ®f 1714, the laft. year of her reign. “ They are (fays being then reduced to .one twelfth, at which it has Mr Pinkerton) of exquifite workmanftiip, exceeding ever fince continued. In the time of Charles I. half moft copper coins either ancient or modern, and will marks, 40 and 20 penny^pieces, were coined. In 1675 do honour to the engraver Mr Croker to the end of the Scottifh dollars firft appeared,. in value 56 s. Scots* time. The one, whofe reverie is Peace in a car, pax with, halves and quarters of proportional value. In missa per orbem, is the moft etteemed ; and next to 1686,. James VII. coined 60,. 40, 20, 10, and 5 Si it the Britannia under a portal.. The other half- pieces; but only thofe of 4pand Tos. are known,, pence and farthings are lefs valuable. with thefe numbers under the buft. At the Union of 23. Scotland. Silver pennies of Alexander I. who the kingdoms, ail the Scottifti coins were called in* reigned in 1107, are believed to exift ; and there cer- and recoined at Edinburgh, with the mark, e undertainly are fome of Alexander II. in 1214. There are the buft to diftinguifti it;, fince which„there has been hkewife coins of David in 1124; but perhaps none of no coinage in. Scotland. The Sccttifti-filver coins are Malcolm IV. his fucceffor, whofe reign was-very fhort; equal, if not fuperior,. in the workmanfhip There are many coins of William I. in. 1165; and in .general the Englilh. a large hoard of his pennies was found at Invernefs in to Gold'was .firft. iffued by Robert II. about 30 years1780. Edward III. of England had coined the fame The money of Scotland continued to be of the fame after metal in that The pieces were at firft called: value with that of England till,tlie . country was drain.- St Andrew’s,country. from the figure of that tutelar Saint upon.

MEDAL S. Tables, upon the crdt's, and who appears on the obverfe with bafement of the coin which at that time took place in Modern the arms of Scotland, and on the reverfe a lion in a England extended alfo to Ireland ; but in 1601 copper ^"im. Ihield. The lion was another name for the largeft gold halfpence and farthings were coined alfo for this king- " , " U coin in Scotland, from the arms of the kingdom upon dom. Thefe circulated in Ireland when James VI. it. The next was the unicorn, under-James HI.; iffued his farthing-tokens of copper, the latter being which were followed by the bonnet-pieces of James V. of two fizes, that if they failed in England they might Thefe laft are of admirable workman iliip, being almoft be fent to Ireland as pennies and halfpence. In 1635 equal to the ancient coins in. this refpedt. In imita- a mint was eftablifhed in Dublin by Charles I. but it tion of the French, the monarch we fpeak of dimi- was flopped by the Irifh maflacre, and the many difniihed the fize of the coin without leflening its weight; turbances which followed ; ftnce which time the fcheme an improvement .not adopted by the Engliflt for a has not been refumed. After the maffacre, St Pa•whole century. The laft gold coined in Scotland was trick’s halfpence and farthings were coined by the Pa■ the piftole and half piftole, of twelve and fix pounds pifts, bearing the legends Flore at Rex, and on the Scots. Thefe coins have the fun under the head. The reverfe Ecce Grex ; on the farthing Quiescat gold coins of Scotland fell in the fame proportion Plebs. Copper-tokens were ftruck by towns and tradefmen, as in England and Scotland. In 1680, halfwith the filver. The copper coinage cf'Scotland is of more early pence and farthings were iffued by authority, with the date than that, of England. It was preceded by mo- harp and date. In'1689, James II. having invaded ney of billon, or, copper wafhed with filver, called black Ireland, inftituted a mint, and coined fhillings and ; money. James III. firft coined black farthings in half-crowns of all the refufe metal he could find, par1466 ; and this is recorded by hiftorians as one of his ticularly fome brafs guns were employed, whence the greateft faults. This kind of coinage, however, con- coinage is commonly called gun-money. Even this tinued as late as the reign of James VI. In his time metal, however, foon became fo fcarce, that a diminuthe true copper coinage began ; but as the value, of tion in its fize is quite apparent from June 1689 to Scottifh money was now declined almoft to the ut- July 1690; and as the month of their mintage is moft, the pieces fuddenly affumed a form almoft re- marked upon them, this decreafe is eafily perceived. fembling that of the French coins. The bodle, fo In March 1690, pennies of lead mixed with tin were called from Bothwell the mintmafter, being equal in iffued ; and on the 15 th of June the fame year, crowns fize to the Hard, and worth two pennies Scottifh, was of white metal were coined; but thefe are now very ftruck. The billon coin, formerly called bas-p'iece, fcarce. In 1722, the patent for coining halfpence and and worth fix pennies Scots, was now coined in cop- farthings was given to William Wood, which excited per, and termed the haw-bee. Thus it correfponded fuch difcontent in Ireland. From the fmall fize allowwith the French half fol and Englifh halfpenny, ;the ed by the patent to thefe pieces, it was fuppofed that Scots penny being now equivalent to the French de- the patentee would have gained 60,0001. but as he nier. Some pieces named Atkivfons were coined by caufed them to be ftruck of a fize Hill fmaller, his James VI. in 1582, when the Scottifh money was to gains were eftimated at 100,000 1. The coins, howthe Englifh as I to 8 ; but on its being flill farther ever, are of admirable workmanfhip, and very fine reduced, they went for 8 pennies, a third more than copper, bearing the beft portrait of king George I. the value of the baw~bee. Befides thefe there were to be found any where. Sir Ifaac Newton, at that the hardie and plack, the former being worth three time at the head of the mint, declared that they were and the latter four pennies Scots. This coinage con- fuperior to the Engliih coins in every thing except the tinued through the reigns of Charles I. and II. but fize. In 1737 the Irifh halfpence and farthings, with Scottish coins of the former are, perhaps, the fcarceft the harp on the reverfe, were coined, and continue to of any. the prefent time. In 1760, there was fuch a fcarcity 24. Ireland. The firft coins introduced into this king- of copper coin, that fome private perfons applied for dom feem to have been tbofe of the Danes, and which leave to coin halfpence, which appeared with a very have only a number of ftrokes around them inftead of bad portrait of George II. and the words Voce Peletters. In the tenth century, however, this coinage ru li around it. No gold or filver has been coined in had been confiderably improved ; and in 930 and 994 Ireland fince the maflacre of 1641. there are pennies ftruck in Dublin, with the infcripTable V. Modern Medals, properly fo called. tion on Dvfli or Dyfli, Dujlin or Dyflin being the Danifh name of that city. There are iikevvife coins 1. Scottifh medals. Thefe take the lead in the preof the Irifh princes themfelves, and of the Englifh fent article, the firft modern medals of gold being monarchs, ftruck in Ireland as early as the ninth cen- thofe of David II. ftruck between the years 1330304 tury ; and it i; aflerted by fome, that Irelan* even in 1370. Only two of them now exift; one in the colthefe days had been conquered by England ; of which, of Mr Barker of Birmingham, and the other indeed, thefe coins feem to be a proof. None of the le&ion in that of Dr Hunter. In 1478, there is a medai of Inih coins of Henry II. are to be met with, but we James III. fent to the flirine of St Amboife in France-. have fome of the coins of John ; and from his time It is deferibed ;of two inches and a third in diameto that of Henry V. the Irifh coins are known by a ter ; the weightasnear ounces ; having on the obtriangle inclofmg {.he king’s head, which;appears alio verfe a beardleB king,twowith hair, fitting on a upon the coins of other nations at this period- The throne, holding in one hand along fword in the harp does not appear upon the Irifh coins till the time other a Afield, with the Scottifhnaked arms. On the borof Henry VIII. Till the time of this monarch, the ders of the canopy above the throne is an inferipuon Englifh and Iriih coins are the fame; but the fame de- in Gothic letters, in mi deffen, being corrupt NJ 20!. French

4* Tables. MED A L S. of a great number of illuflrious men were Modem defencethe| acanopy commonis. motto the portraits a Medal?. French Scottilh forarms.In myAbove Villa inBerdone by him in this manner ; .and in the Britifh Mu~~ J ‘--"“v—^rici : the reverfe bears St Andrew and his crofs, feum is a large brafs medal of Pifano by himfelf.— SALVUM FAC POPULUM TUUM DOMINE. There IS Other artifts were Boldu, Marefcotto, Matthsens de Sperandes, Mifaldone, &c. Towards the end alfo a medal of James IV. in the collar of St Michael, Paftus, the century, however, the medals began to affume having on the reverfe a Doric pillar furmounted by a aofmore appearance ; and the Papal ones are young Janus, Handing on a hill, beyond which ii the not only elegant molt elegant but the mofl ancient feries Pea, and land on either fide. This, however, is by of all thethemodern medals. The improvement began Pome fufpe&ed to be a forgery. of Alexander V I. fo famous for his own The moft remarkable Scottiih medals are thofe of in the reign and thofe of his nephew Casfar Borgia. His the unfortunate Mary. The firft is properly French, crimes, Julius II. Leo X. Hadrian VI. and Clehaving been iffued at her coronation as queen of fucceffors, had many of their medals defigned by RaFrance, along with her hufband king Francis II. ment VII. Julio Romano, and other eminent painters, On the obverfe of this piece there are portraits of phael, the engraving executed by artifls of equal merit. Francis and Mary, face to face, with three legends and Among thefe were the celebrated Cellini, and the noted around them, the outermoft containing their titles; Paduan of Roman coins, Cavino and Baffiano. the middle one the following fentence: hora nona In 1644forgers Cormanni, a medallic artiit, was imprifoned dominus j. h. s. eipiravit belli clamans; the innermoft the name of the city (Paris). On the on account of a piece which reprefented the Pope upT reverfe are the arms of France and Scotland. Fine on one fide, and Olympia Maidalchina, the relation of teftoons were alfo coined upon the fame plan, and are his holinefs, on" the other- The unfortunate Cornow fo rare that Dr Hunter gave ten guineas for one he manni poifoned himfelf. About this time the family has in his colle&ion. The fame portraits appear on of the Hamerani, originally from Germany, began to the fine crown of Mary and Henry, in 1565, which engrave the papal medals ; which they did with furis fo rare as to be dleemed a medal of the higheft va- prifing merit for feveral generations. Each of the lue ; and Mr Pinkerton imagines, that if brought to daughters did a fine medal, as we are informed by Venuti. a fale it would bring 40 or 50 guineas. Another remarkable medal of Mary reprefent- her Befides the papal medals, there are many iflued by full faced, and weeping, with the infeription, O God the various Hates of Italy. There are medals o(' GRANT PATIENCE IN THAT I SUFFER VRANG. The Frederic II. of Sicily in 1301, of feveral Venetian gereverfe has in the centre, Quho can compare with nerals in 1509, of Alfonfo duke of Ferrara in 1511, ME IN GRIEF, I DIE AND DAR NOCH'T SEEK RE- and of the celebrated Andrew Daria in 528. LIEF; with this legend around, Hourt not the 3 French medals. Till the reign of Louis XIV. (figure of a heart) quhais joy thou art. There the medals of this country are neither fine nor numeare alfo many counters of this unfortunate princefs, rous ; but this monarch exceeds all modern princes in being thin filver-pieces of the fize of a (hilling. “They this way. Many of his pieces are well defigned and all appear (fays Mr Pinkerton) to have been done in executed, though objectionable on account of their France by Mary’s direction, who wa fond of de- falfehood. vices. Her cruel captivity could not debar her from 4. Danifli medals. Thefe appear of ChriHian II. intercourfe with her friends in France, who muft with in ij 16, of Frederic' and Sophia in 1542, of Fredepleafure have executed her orders, as affording her a ric I. and ChriHian III. in bonnets worn in the 16th little confolation.” century. The elephant of the houfe of Oldenburg is The coronation medal of Charles I. ftruck at Edin- frequent upon Danifh medals. burgh for his inauguration, June 18. i66y, is remark- 5. Swedifii medals ' hefe begin with GuHavus able as being the only one ever coined of Scottifh gold, Vafa ; and feveral of ChriHina are likewife to be met and the firft in Britain Itruck with a legend on the with. There are alfo fome curious ones of Charles XIL edge. With refpeft to the workmanfhip, it is inferior 6. Dutch medals Thefe begin in < 566; and many to Simon’s. Of thefe medals only three are known to of them are remarkable for maps and plans, which muH exift, of which one is in the Mufeum. It is not un- be very intereHing to poilerity. “ Had the Greeks and common in (liver; in which cafe it fometimes wants Romans (fays Mr Pinkerton) given us maps and plans, the legend on the edge. what a fine fyllem of ancient geography and topo2. Italian medals. Thefe appear in the 15th cen- graphy a cabinet of medals muH have been!’’ tury, and from that time fucceffively in moft Euro- 7. Medals of Spain, Portugal, and Germany. The pean countries. Vittore Pifano, a painter of Verona, Spanifh medals began with Gonfalo in 503, many is celebrated as the reftorer of the art, but it remains of which are curious and intereHing. Under Cha V. to be accounted for how the medals of king David al- there are many curious'Spanifh medals; but thofe of ready mentioned came to exifl fo long before. Mr Germany begin with Frederic in 14J4. :'hey are exPinkerton confiders this artifl rather as an inventor tremely numerous ; as we may eafily fuppofe from the than a reftorer, his medals having no refemblance to greatnefs of the empire, and the various Hates which the ancient coins, as being large, and all call. They compofe it. There is a famous medial of SebaHian were fit ft modelled in wax, then a mould taken from king of Portugal, famous for his unfortunate expedithe model in fine fand, and other ingredients. After tion into Africa in 1578; with his bull, full face, and a good caft was procured, it was touched up, and three quarters in length. On the reverfe is a (hell-fi(h made a model for the reft. Thefe medals of Pifano in the fea, with the moon and (even Hars, bearing the are almofl always inferibed Opus Ptfani Piaoris. The infeription Serena Calsa pavent. There is alfo a Vol.XI. Parti. F curioua

42 > M E D A L S. Tables. Modern !o^engc-(Ti?.pccl coin of the fame with tlie arms medals of private perfons in England; fa thafit may Ahbreviations Medals. curious of portUgal, and the king’s name and title : On the juftly be faid, that this country for medals exceeds al" * ""l^ reverfe is a crofs with the infciiption In hoc signo moft every other in Europe. To this account of modern coins and medals we VINCES, 1578. of another fet called Jitge piecesy and 8. Satyric medals Thefe began almoft as foon as lhall addwerethatiffued during the time of a fiege in cafes the knowledge of the art of coining medals was revived. which urgent neceffity. Thefe were formed of any kind They feem to have been almoft unknown to the an- ofof metal; fometimes of no metal; and Patin mentions cients. One indeed of the Emperor Gallienus is fup- a remarkable one ftruck at Leyden in 1 ^74, when the pofed to have been fatyric. It has on the front the place was befieged the Spaniards. It was of thick emperor’s butt, with the infcription Gallien.e aug. paper or pafteboard,byhaving a lion rampant, with this the reverfe is Peace in a car. Pax Ubique; but this has been proved to be only a blundered coin. Some infcription, pvgno pro patria, 1574; and on the other ancient medals, however, are not liable to this reverfe, Lvgdvnvm Batavorvm. There are various of Charles I. both in gold and filver, fome obje&ion. The firft modern fatyric medal publifhed fiege-pieces was that of Frederic king of Sicily in. 1501 againft of the latter being of the value of zo ftiillings his antagonift Ferdinand king of Spain. It has on The nummi brafteati are a fpecies of modern coins between counters and money; and have their one fide the head of Ferdinand, with the infcription fomewhat Ferdinandus r. ar. vetus vulpes orbis ; on name from the word bractea, a fpangle or thin of metal. They are commonly little thin plates of" the reverfe a wolf carrying off a ftieep, Jvgvm mjevm bit svave est et onvs mevm leve. Many others have filver, ftamped as would feem with wooden dies upon been ftruck, of which the wit would now perhaps be one fide only, with the rude impreffion of various fidifficult to be found out: but of all nation- the Dutch gures and inferiptions. Moft of them are ecclefiaftic, have moft diftinguifhed themfelves in this way j and and were ftruck in Germany, Switzerland, Denmark, paid very dear for their condmft, as they brought upon Sweden, Norway, and a few in Poland. They conthemfelves by one or two fatyric medals the whole tinued to be in ufe in Germany till the end of the 15th century; and fome are ftill ufedin Switzerland at this power of France under Louis XIV. q Engliih medals. The firft of thefe is in the duke day. ef Devonffiire’s colleftion. It is of a large fize, and Table of Abbreviations vfed in the Legends of done on the plan of the early Italian medals. It has Medals ; from Mr Pinkerton. on the reverfe the arms of Kendal, with the infcription TEMPORE OBS1DION1S TURCORUM, MCCCCLXXX. On the other fide is a portrait with 10. kendal rhodi Ariminum t v r c V p e l l e r I v s It wa found laft century in Knaref* Athens, Argos, Aulus, A- APIM Arfinoe APT. Aryca. pi imiAtritz;,or “firit;Kphe-as AP2I. borough foreft; but Mr Pinkerton has no doubt of A. fylum; APX. Apxugtvs or , high Eptcnav A. its having been done in Italy. The next is that of fians, firft people of Alia” priett or niagiftrate Henry VIII. in 1545, and is of gold, larger than the A2IAPX. Afiarchs, prefidents Abdera, Abydus erown-piece, with the king’s head upon the obverfe, A. onAbbaffus, of Afylum the games of Afiii(B) Hcllefpont AT. AB. Abydns inonEgypt and three legends within each other, including his ABT. Abydus Heliefpont, A. T. UpoToi ' X vpia. c , Firft of titles, See. The reverfe contains two inferiptions, de- A0. AP.l. Afncarus Aphytalaws Ambracia ferior to the antique. There are many good medals AMBP. A. E.(«»»,-, Prefident ME. MET. Megara, MegalopohPAK. Heraclea& lis Melite MET. MtyxMf, Great ©A. Thafiis MEX. Meflana ©E. ThefpLae META. Metapontum ©E2. Theffalonica M. MHTPO. Metropolis ©E. ©HB. Thebaj MI. Miietus MK. of Cappadocia, I.JEPAPT. IEP. Itpx;,Hverapytha Sacred coinsMazaka of Mithridates VI. on MOP. Morgantia IKAP. Hiccara MT. Mycenae I At. Ilium rlea tor. Julis a city, or Julius MTP. MTTI.MjMytilene IOTA. Julia N mA. Hippana N. Naupados IP.IX. Irene Inf. Pellerin. NA3. Naxos U'us, Iftisea N A T A PX. ' N avapxitoi, enjoying K Quintus NE.a fea-port K.K. Cains; Kou.•»;). y .v.jy REX . Tic • HE.FE . 4-3.P. MA£* VY E . thb.* . /AO. when the love of Jafon for Glauce the king’s daugh- rites, Marciane, Amariace, and Syro-Media. By a ter interrupted their harmony, and Medea was divor- later divifion, however, all thefewere reduced to two; ced. Medea revenged the infidelity of Jafon, by cau- the one called Media Magna, the other Media Atrerfing the death of Glauce, and the deltrudtion of her patia, or Amply Atropatene. Media Magna was bound family. She alfo killed two of her children in their ed by Perfis, Parthia, Hyrcania, the Hyrcanian Sea father’s prefence ; and when Jafon attempted to punifh and Atropatene, and contained the cities of Ecbatan the barbarity of the mother, (he fled through the air Laodicea, Apamea, Raga, Rageia or Ragea, &c. upon a chariot drawn by winged dragons. From Co- Atropatene lay between the Cafpian mountains and rinth Medea came to Athens, where, after ihe had un- the Cafpian Sea. dergone the neceflary purification of her murder, fhe This country originally took its name from Madai, married king iEgeus, or (according to others) lived the third fon of Japhet ; as is plain from Saripture, in an adulterous manner with him. From her condudf where the Medes are conftantly called Madai. Among ■with vEgeus, Medea had a fon who was called Medus. profane authors, fome derive the name Media, from Soon after, when Thefeus wilhed to make, himfelf one Medus the fon of Jafon and Medea ; others from known to his father, Medea, jealous of his fame and a city called Media. Sextus Rufus tells us that in his fearful of his power, attempted to poifon him at a time it was called Medena, and from others we learn feaft which had been prepared for his entertainment. that it was alfo called Aria. The moft probable hiHer attempts, however, failed of fuccefs, and the fight ftory of the Medes is as follows. of the fword which Thefeus wore by his fide convin- This people lived in fubje&ion to the Affyrians till ced iEgeus that the ftranger againft whofe life he had the reign of Sennacherib, when they threw off the yoke, fo bafely confpired was his own fon. The father and and lived for fome time in a ftate of anarchy. But at the fon were reconciled ; and Medea, to avoid the laft, rapine and violence, the natural confequences of puniihment which her wickednefs deferved, mount- fuch a fituation, prevailed fo much that they were coned her fiery chariot and difappeared through the air. ftrained to have recourfe to fome kind of government, She came to Colchis ; where, according to fome, ihe that they might be enabled to live in fafety. Accordwas reconciled to Jafon, who had fought her in her na- ingly, about 699 B. C. one Dejoces having procured tive country after her fudden departure from Corinth. himfelf to be chofen king, united the fcattered tribes She died at Colchis, as Juftin mentions, when Ihe had into which the Medes were at that time divided; and been reftored to the confidence of her family. After having applied himfelf as much as poflible to the civideath fhe married Achilles in the £lyfian fields, ac- lization of his barbarous fubjeCts, left the throne to cording to the traditions mentioned by Simonides. his fon Phraortes, after a reign of 53 years. The murder of Mermerus and Pheres, the youngeft of . The new king, who was of a warlike and enterpriJafou’s children by Medea, is not to be attributed to fing difpofition, fubdued almoft all the Upper Afia lythe mother, according to Elian ; but to the Corin- ing between Mount Taurus and the river Halys which thians, who affaflinated them in the temple of Juno runs through Cappadocia into the Euxine Sea. Elated Acrsea. To avoid the refentment of the gods, and with this good fuccefs, he invaded Affyria, the empire to deliver themfelves from the peftilence which vifited of which was now much declined, and greatly weaktheir country after fo horrid a maflacre, they engaged ened by the revolt of many nations which had followthe poet Euripides for five talents to write a tragedy, ed the example of the Medes. Nebuchodonofor < which cleared them of the murder, and reprefented Chyniladan, however, the reigning prince, having afMedea as the cruel affaffin of her own children. And fembled what forces he could, engaged Phraorte", debefides, that this opinion might be the better credit- feated, took him prifoner, and put him to death ; afed, feftivals were appointed, in which the mother was ter which, entering Media, he laid wafte the country, reprefented with all the barbarity of a fury murdering took the metropolis of Ecbatan kfelf, and levelled it with the ground. her own fons. MEDEOLA, climbing African asparagus, On the death of Phraortes, his fon Cyaxares was plain botany : A genus of the hexandria order, belong- ced on the throne. He was no lefs valiant and entering to the trigynia clafs of plants; and in the natural prifing than his father, and had better fuccefs againft method ranking under the nth order, Sarmentacece. the Aflyrians. With the remains of that army which There is no calyx; the corolla is fexpartite and revolu- had been defeated under his father, he not only drove ted ; the berry trrfpermous. Its charafters are thefe: the conquerors out of Media, but obliged Chyniladan The flower has no empalement; it has fix oblong oval to fhut himfelf up in Nineveh. To this place he impetals, and fix awl-lhaped. ftamina terminated by in- mediately laid dofe fiege; but was obliged to give over cumbent fummits; and three horned germina termi- the enterprize on account of an irruption of the Scynating the ftyle ; the germina afterward turn to a thians into his own country. Cyaxares engaged thefe roundifh trifid berry with three cells, each contain- new enemies with great refolution; but was utterly ing one heart-ihaped feed. There are two fpe- defeated; and the conquerors over-ran not only all Mecies. dia, but the greateft part of Upper Afia, extending MEDIA, now the province of Ghilan in Perfia, their conquefts into Syria, and as far as the confines once the feat of a potent empire, was bounded, ao of Egypt. They continued mailers of all this vaft V-ol. XI. Part L 0 tradl

MED MED [ 50 ] Media traft of country for 28 years, till at laid Media was to divide the thorax and the lungs into two parts, and Mediat to fuftain the vifeera, and their falling from j;'| , I .. delivered from their yoke by a general maflacre at the one fide of the thorax to theprevent other. See Anatomy, Mec ins inftigation of Cyaxares. » -i After this deliverance, the Medes foon repofleffed n° IMthemfelves of the territories they had loft ; and once MEDIATE, or Intermediate^ fomething that more extended their frontiers to the river Halys, their Hands betwixt and connects two or more terms confiancient boundary to the weftward. After this we find dcred as extremes; in which fenfe it ftands oppofed to the Medes engaged in a war with the Lydians ; which, immediate. however, ended without any remarkable tranfaftion : MEDIATOR, a perfon that manages or tranfafts but on the conclufion of it, Cyaxares having entered between two parties at variance in order to reconcile into a ftrict alliance with Nebuchadnezzar king of Ba- them. The word, in Scripture, is applied, 1.T0 Jefus bylon, returned in conjunction with the Babylonians Chrift, who is the only interceflbr and peace-maker before Nineveh j which they took and levelled with between God and man, (1 Tim. ii. 5.) 2. To Mofea* the ground, putting moft of the inhabitants, to the who interpofed between the Lord and his people, to declare unto them his word; (Deut. v. 5. iii. 19.) fword. After this victory the Babylonian and Median em- MEDICAGO, Snail-trefoil, in botany: A pires feem to have been united : however, after, the genus of the decandria order, belonging to the diadeldeath of Nebuchadnezzar, or rather in his lifetime, phia clafs of plants ; and in the natural method ranka war enfued, which was not extinguifhed but by the ing under the 3 2d order, Papilionacea. The legumen diffolution of the Babylonian empire. The Medes, un- is compreffed and fere wed ; the carina of the corolla der Aftyages the fon of Cyaxares I. withftood the luring down from the vexillum. There are nine fpepower of the Babylonian monarchs; and under Cyrus cies, though only five are commonly cultivated in this and Cyaxares II. utterly deftroyed their empire by the country. They are low trailing plants, adorned with taking of Babylon, as is related under that article. fmall yellow flowers, fucceeded by fmall, round, fnaiiAfter the death of Cyaxares, the kingdom fell to Cy- (haped fruit, which are downy, and armed with a few rus, by whom the feat of the empire was transferred to fhort fpines. They are all eafily propagated by feeds. Persia, under which article the hiftory of Media now For the properties and culture of Lucern, a fpecies falls to be confidered, as alfo the manners, &c. of the of this genus, fee Agriculture, n° 183. MEDICINAL, any thing belonging to mediinhabitants. MEDIANA, the name of a vein or little veffel, made by the union of the cephalic and bafilic, in the Medicinal Springs, a general name for any fountain, the waters of which are of ufe for removing cerbend of the elbow. MEDIASTINUM, in anatomy, a double mem- tain diforders. They are commonly either chalybeate brane, formed by a duplicature of the pleura ; ferving or fulphureous. See Springs and Water. M E

D I

MEDICINE is the art of preventing, curing, or alleviating, thofe difeafes to which the human fpecies are fubje&ed. History ofJ Medicine. Orieint of J T h ei; fabulous hiftory the ancients derives this the art medicine tely from their ofgods; and, even among mmec a Tews; moderns, or opinion may juitly confidered tome as of are divine revelation.thatButit without adopt-be ing any fuppofition of which no probable evidence can be given, we may conclude that mankind were naturally led tQ it from cafual obfervations on the difeafes to which they found themfelves fubje&ed ; and that therefore, in one fenfe at leaft, it is as Ancient as the human race. But at what period it began to be practifed as an art, by particular individuals following it as a profeffion, is not known. The moft ancient phyficians we read of were thofe who embalmed the patriarch Jacob by order of his fon Jofeph. The facred writer ftyles thefe phyficians fer-vants to Jofeph : whence we may be allured that they were not priejls, as the firft phyficians are generally fuppofed to have been ; for in that age we know the Egyptian priefts were in fuch high favour, that they retained their li-

CINE. berty, when, through a public calamity, all the reft of the people were made Haves to the prince. It is not probable, therefore, that among the Egyptians religion and medicine were originally conjoined ; and if we fuppofe the Jews not to have invented the art, but received it from feme other nation, it is as little probable that the priefts of that nation were their phyficians as thofe of Egypt. That the Jewilh phyficians were abfolutely diftinct from their priefts, is very certain. Yet as the Jews refided for fuch a long time in Egypt, it is probable they would retain many of the Egyptian cuftoms, from which it would be very difficult to free them. We read, however, that when king Afa was difeafed in his feet, “ he fought not to the Lord, but to the phyficians.” Hence *we may conclude, that among1 the Jews the medicinal art was looked upon as a mere human invention ; and it was thought that the Deity never cured difeafes by making people acquainted with the virtues of this or that herb, but only by his miraculous power. That the fame opinion prevailed among the heathens who were neighbours to the Jews, is alfo probable from what we read of Ahaziah king of Judah, who having fent mefleogers to inquire 3

iHiftory. M E D I 'Origin ne.of jjof Baal-zebub god of Ekron concerning his difeafe, *9 Medic e not defire any remedy from him or his priefts* ’i ’ but limply to know whether he fhould recover or not. What feems moll probable on this fubjeft therefore is, that religion and medicine came to be mixed toge* ther only in confequence of that degeneracy into ignorance and fuperftition which took place among all nations. The Egyptians, we know, came at lall to be funk in the moft ridiculous and abfurd fuperllition ; and then, indeed, it is not wonderful to find their priefts commencing phyficians, and mingling charms, incantations, &c. with their remedies. That this was the cafe, though long after the days of Jofeph, we are very certain ; and indeed it feems as natural for ignorance and barbarifm to combine, religion with phyfic, as it is for a civilized and enlightened people to keep them feparate. Hence we fee, that j)~ * among all modern barbarians their prielts or conjurors I, are their only phyficians. tnong the among We are little acquainted the Hate of phyfic gyptians; the foEgyptians, that it with is needlefs to fay much 1 concerning them. They attributed the invention of medicine, as they did alfo that of many other arts, to Thoth, the Hermes or Mercury of the Greeks. He is faid to have written many things in hieroglyphic characters upon certain pillars, in order to perpetuate his knowledge, and render it ufeful to others. Thefe were tranfcribed by Agathodemon, or the fecond Mercury, the father of Tat, who is faid to have compofed books' of them, that were kept in the moll facred places of the Egyptian temples. T’he exiltence of fuch a perfon, however, is very dubious, and many of the books afcribed to him were accounted forgeries as long ago as the days of Galen ; there is alfo great reafon to fufpedt that thofe books were written many ages after Hermes, and when phyfic had/inade confiderable advances. Many of the books attributed to him are trifling and ridiculous; and though fometimes he is allowed to have all the honour of inventing the art, he is on other occafions obliged to lhare it with Ofiris, Ills, and Apis or Serapis. After all, the Egyptian phyfic appears to have been little elfe than a cofie&ion of abfurd iiiperllitions. Origen informs us, that they believed there were 3b demons, or gods of the air, who divided the human body among them ; that they had names for all of them; and that by invoking them according to (the part affecled, the patient was cured. Of natural medicines we hear of none recommended by the father of Egyptian phyfic ; except the herb moty, which he gave to Ulyfles in order to fecure him from the enchantments of Circe } and the herb mercury, of which he firll difcovered the life. Hio fucceflbrs made ufe of venefe&ion, cathartics, emetics, and, clyllers. There is no proof, however, that this praftice was ellablilhed by Hermes ; on the contrary, the Egyptians themfelves pretended that the firll hint ,of thofe rerpedies was taken from fome obfervations on brute animals. Venefedtion was taught them by the hippopotamus, which is faid to perform this operation upon itfelf. On thefe occafions, he comes out of the river, and ftrikes his leg againll a lharp-pointed reed. As he takes care to diredt the llroke againll a vein, the contequence mull be a confiderable effufion of blood'; and this being fuffered to run as long as the creature thinks proper, he at lall

CINE. 51 flops up the orifice with mtfd. The bint of clyflers Origin ie(iicineof was taken from the ibis a bird which is faid to give ■' -, itfelf clyfters with its bill, &c. They ufed venefec- ' tion, however, but very little, probably on account of the warmth of the climate ; and the exhibition of the remedies above mentioned, joined with abllinence, formed the moft of their pradlice. 3 The Greeks too had feveral perfons to whom they Among tbs attributed the invention of phyfic, particularly Pro-0165*13, metheus, Apollo or Prean, and iEfculapius ; which lall was the moft celebrated of any. But here we mull obferve, that as the Greeks were a very w arlike people, their phyfic feems to have been little elfe than what is now called furgery, or the cure of wounds, fractures, &c. Hence VEfculapius, and his pupils Chiron, Machaon, and Podalirius, are celebrated by Homer only for their Hull in curing thefe, without any mention of their attempting the cures of internal difeafes. We are not, however, to fuppofe that they confined themfelves entirely to furgery. They no doubt would occafionally preferibe for internal diforders ; but as they were moft frequently converfant with wounds, we may naturally fuppofe the greatell part of their fkill to have confifted in knowing how to cure thefe. If we may believe the poets, indeed, the knowledge of medicine feems to have been very generally diffufed. Almoll all the heroes of antiquity are reported to have been phyficians as well as warriors. Moll of them were taught phyfic by the centaur Chiron. From him Hercules received inftrudlions in the medicinal art, in which he is faid to have been no lefs expert than in feats of arms. Several plants were called by his name 5 whence fome think it probable that he found out their virtues, though others are of opinion that they bore the name of this renowned hero on account of their great efficacy in removing difeafes. Ariftasus king of Arcadia was alfo one of Chiron’s fcholars; and is fuppofed to have difcovered the ufe of the drug called jilph'ium, by fome thought to be afafastida. Thefeus, Telamon, Jafon, Peleus, and his fon Achilles, were all renowned for their knowledge in the art of phyfic. The laft is faid to have difcovered the ufe of verdegrife in cleanfing foul ulcers. All of them, however, feem to have been inferior in knowledge to Palamedes, who hindered the plague from coming into the Grecian camp after it had ravaged moft of the cities of Hellefpont, and even Troy itfelf. His method was to confine his foldiers to a dpare diet, and to oblige them to ufe much exercife. The praflice of thefe ancient Greek phyficians, notwithftanding the praifes bellowed on them by their poets, feems to have been very limited, and in fome cafes even pernicious. All the external remedies applied to Homer’s wounded heroes were fomentations ; while inwardly their phyficians gave them wine, fometimes. mingled with cheefe feraped down. A great deal of their phyfic alfo confifted in charms, incantations, amulets, &c. of which, as they are common to all fuperftitious and ignorant nations, it is fuperfluous to take any farther notice. In this way the art of medicine continued among the Greeks for many ages. As its firft profeffors knew nothing of the animal oeconomy, and as little of the theory of difeafes, it is plain, that whatever they did G2 mult

Hiftory. 52 M E D I CINE. 4 muftejnpincifm, have beeni intheconfequence of mere whatever is fuperfluous or hurtful, after Ihe has Hippo- | yfcrcui..pni-. moll ftridl and properrandom fenfeoftrials, the rejefting or n feparated it from the good. This is the foundation of ciatg;l' J ' ' word. Indeed, it is evidently impoflible that this or the dodlrine of depuration, concoflion^ and crilis in *" almoft any other art could originate from another fevers, fo much infilled upon by Hippocrates and moll fource than trials of this kind. Accordingly, we find, other phyficians. He fuppqfes alfo, that every thing that fome ancient nations were accuflomed to expofe has an inclination to be joined to what agrees with it, their fick in temples, and by the fides of highways, and to remove/from every thing contrary to it; and that they might receive the advice of every one who likewife that there is an affinity between the feveral paffed. Among the Greeks, however, iEfculapius parts of the body, by which they mutually fympawas reckoned the moll eminent pradlitioner of his thize with each other. When he comes to explain time, and his name continued to be*revered after his what this principle called nature is, he is obliged to death. He was ranked amongft the gods; and the prin- refolve it into heat, which, he fays, appears to have cipal knowledge of the medicinal art remained with fomething immortal in it. 8 I his family to the time of Hippocrates, who reckoned As far as he attempts to explain the caufes pf dif-°f tb6 himfelf the feventeenth in a lineal defeent from JEfcu- cafe, he refers much to the humours of the body, par- ^ ll lapius, and vrho was truly the firll who treated of me- ticularly to the blood and the bile. He treats alfo of ’ ,j effebls of lleep, watchings, exercife, and relt, and § dicine in a regular andisrational manner.have lived 400 the JhppQHippocrates, benefit or mifehief we may receive from them. traces. years before thewho birth offuppofed Chrill, tois the moll ancient allOf theall the caufes of difeafes, however, mentioned by author whofe writings exprefsly on the fubjeft of the Hippocrates, the moll general are diet and air. On medical art are preferred ; and he is therefore jullly 'the fubjefl of diet he has compofed feveral books, and confidered as the father of phyfic. All the accounts in the choice of this he was exa&ly careful; and the which we have prior to this time, if riot evidently fa- more fo, as his praftice turned almoll wholly upon it. bulous, are at the utmoll highly conjedlural. Even He alfo confidered the air very much ; he examined the medical knowledge of Pythagoras, fo much cele- what w inds blew ordinarily or extraordinarily ; he conbrated as a philofopher, can hardly be confidered as fidered the irregularity of the feafons, the riling and relling on any other foundation. But from the time fetting of liars, or the time of certain conllellations ; of Hippocrates, medicine, feparated from phflofophy alfo the time of the folllices, and of the equinoxes ; and religion, feems to have a (fumed the form of a fei- thofe days, in his opinion, producing great alterations ence, and to have been pra£lifed as a profeffion. It in certain dillempers. 9 may not, therefore, be improper to give a particular He does not, however, pretend to explain how, Hisnsdivi. 1 account of the Hate of medical knowledge as tranfmit- from thefe caufes, that variety of dillempers arifes ®® j ted to us in his writings. The writings of Hippo- which is daily to be obferved. All that can be ga- ‘ ^ i crates, however, it may be remarked, are even more thered from him with regard to this is, that the diffethan preferred. Nor is it wonderful that attempts rent caufes above-mentioned, when applied to the ^ fhould different parts of the body, produce a great vacn ts have been made to increafe the value of manu- riety of dillempers. Some of thefe dillempers he IT.tings. S Wri- fnence. P > byButattributing them areto tranfmitted a name of fuch emiaccounted mortal, others dangerous, and the retl eafily although what to us under the title of his works may' have been written by curable, according to the caufe from whence they different hands, yet the prefumption is, that moll, if fpring, and the parts on wffiich they fall. In feveral not all of them, are of nearly as early a date, and con- places alfo he dillinguiffies difeafes, from the time of tain the prevailing opinions of thofe times. their duration, into acute or Jhort, and chronical or According to the moll authentic accounts, Hippo- long. He likewife dillinguilhes difeafes by the parcrates was a native of the iiland of Cos, and born in ticular where" they prevail, whether ordithe beginning of the 88th Olympiad. In the writings nary orplaces extraordinary. The firll, that is, thofe tranfmitted to us as his, we find a general principle that are frequent and familiar to certain places,, adopted, to which he gives the name of Nature. To called endemic difeafes; and the latter, which ■this principle he aferibes a mighty power. “ Nature he fometimes in one place,, | (fays he) is of itfelf fufficient to every animal. She ravaged extraordinarily in another, wdiich feized great numbers at performs every thing that is neceffary to them, with- fometimes certain times, he called epidemic, that is, popular out needing the leaft inllruftion from any one how to difeafes; and of this kind the moll terrible is the do it.’* Upon this footing, as if Nature had been a plague. mentions a third kind, the principle endowed with knowledge, he gives her the oppofite ofHethelikewife former; and thefe he calls fporadic,. title of ju/?; and aferibes virtues or powers to her, 6r llraggling difeafes: thefe include all the diffewhich are het fervants, and by means of which fhe rent forts of diltempers which lall at any one feafon, performs all her operations in the bodies of animals : which are fometimes of one invade fort, and fometimes of and dillributes the blood, fpirits, and heat, through another. He dillinguilhed between all parts of the body, which by thefe means receive life which are hereditary, or born with us,thofeanddifeafes and fenfation. And in other places he tells us, that it which are contracted afterwards; and likewifethofe beis this faculty which gives nourilhment, prefervation, tween thofe of a kindly and fuch as are of a malignant and growth, to all things. ? nature, the former of which are eafily and frequently His idea The manner in which nature adls, or commands her cured, hut the latter give the phyficians a great •fnatuie. fubfervient power to aft, is by attra&ing what is deal of trouble, and are feldom overcome by all good and agreeable to each fpecies, and by retaining, their care. preparing, and changing it; and on the other fide in. Hippocrates remarked four ftages in dillempers.;. viz*.

^o

Hiftory. MED] CINE. , Hippocratca viz. the beginning of the difeafe, its augmentation, exceed 14 days, he confiders every fourth day as cn- Hq tical, or at leaft remarkable, by which we may judge ' difeafes ft^teasorterminate height, fatally, and itsdeath declination. comes in Inplacefuchof whether the crifis on the following fourth day will be v the declination. In the third ftage, therefore, the favourable or not; fo in thofe which run from 20 to change is molt confiderable, as it determines the fate 40 he reckons only the fevenths, and in thofe that exof the fick perron ; and this is moft commonly done ceed 40 he begins to reckon by 20. Beyond the by means of a cr'ifu. By this word he underftood any 120th he thinks that the number of days has no power fudden change in ficknefs, whether for the better or over the crifis. They are then referred to the general for the worfe, whether health or death fucceed im- changes of the feafons ; fome terminating about the mediately. Such a change, he fays, is made at that equinoxes ; others about the folftices ; others about time by nature either abfolving or condemning the the rifing or fetting of the ftars of certain conftellapatient. Hence we may conclude, that Hippocrates tions; or if numbers have yet any place, he reckons imagined difeafes to be only a difturbance of the ani- by months, or even whole years Thus (he fays),, mal economy, with which Nature was perpetually at certain difeafes in children have their crifis in the variance, and uling her utmoil endeavours to expel the feventh month after their birth, and others in their I offending caufe. Her manner of adling on thefe occa- feventh or even their 14th year. fions is to reduce to their natural ftate thofe humours Though Hippocrates mentions the 21ft as one whofe difcord occafions the diftuihance of the whole of the critical days in acute diftempers, as already body, whether in relation to their quantity, quality, noticed; yet, in other places of his works, he mixture, motion, or any other way in which they mentions alfd the 20th. The reafon he gives for become offenfive. The principal means employed by thh in one of thofe places of his works is, that the I HU opinion io nature end is whattheHippocrates calls concoSion. days of ficknefs were not quite entire. In general, Jgy thisfor hethisunderftood he is much attached to the odd days: ©f a crifls. matter lodged in the humours tobringing fuch a theftate,morbific as to however, infomuch that in one of his aphorifms he tells be eafily fitted for expulfion by whatever means nature uj, “ The fweats that come out upon the 3d, jth, might think moft proper. When matters are brought 7th, 9th, nth, 14th, 17th, 2ift,. 27th, 31ft, or to this pafs, whatever is fuperfluous or hurtful imme- 3-4111 day. , are beneficial ; but tbofe that come out diately empties itfelf, or nature points out to phy- upon other days fignify that the fick ftiall be brought ficians the way by which fuch an evacuation is to l@w, that his difeafe ftiall be very tedious, and that he be accompliihed. The crifis takes place either by ftiall be fubjeft to relapfes.” He further fays, “ That bleeding, ftool, vomit, fweat, urine, tumors or abf- the fever which leaves the fick upon any but an odd cefles, fcabs, pimples, fpots, &c. But thefe evacutions day is ufually apt to relapfe.” Sometimes, however, are not to be looked upon as the effedls of a true crifis, he confeffes that it is otherwife ; and he gives an inunlefs they are in confiderable quantity •> fmall difchar- ftance of a falutary crifis happening on the fixth ges not being fufficient to make a crifis. Oh the contra- day. But thefe are very rare inftanees, and therery, fmall difcharges are a fign that nature isdeprefied by fore cannot, in his opinion, overthrow the geveral the load of humours, and that (he lets them go thro’ rule. weaknefs and continual irritation. What comes fortb Befides the crifis, however, or the change which in this manner is crude, becaufe the diftemper is yet the fate of the patient, Hippocrates often too ftrong; and while matters remain in this ftate,. determines fpeaks of another, which only change; the fpecies of nothing but a bad or imperfect crifis is to be expedted. the diftemper, without reftoring the patient to health ; This ihows that the diftemper triumphs, or at leaft as when a vertigo is turned to an epilepfy, a tertian Ir is equal in ftrength to nature, which prognofticates fever to a quartan, or to a continual, &c. death, or a prolongation of the difeafe. In this- But what has chiefly contributed to procure the laft cafe, however, nature often has an opportunity vaft refpeft generally paid to Hippocrates,, is his in- Uoftics • of attempting a new crifis more happy than the for- duftry in. obferving the moft minute circumftances of mer, after having made freih efforts to advance the difeafes, and his exaftnefs in nicely deferibing every concodtion of the humours. — It muft here be obfe’rved, thing that happened before* and every accident that however, that, according to Hippocrates, concodtion appeared at the fame time with them ; and likewife cannot be made but in a certain time, as every fruit what appeared to give eafe, andr what to increafe the has a limited time to ripen ; for he compares the malady : which is what we call w> king the hijlory cf a humours which nature has digefted to fruits come to difeafe.—Thus he not only diftinguifhed one difeafir maturity. ffom another by the figns which properly belonged to The time required for eoncodlion depends on the each ; but by comparing the fame fort of diftemper differences among diftempers mentioned above. In which happened to feveral perfons, and the accidentsthofe which Hippocrates call -very acute, the digeftion which ufually appeared before and after, he could, or crifis happens by the fourth- day; in thofe which often foretel a difeafe before it came, and afterwards are only tfcate, it happens on the feventh, nth, or give a right judgment of the event of it. By this 14th day ; which laft is the longeft period generally way of prognofticating, he came to be exceedingly allowed by Hippocrates in dillempers that are truly admired: and this he carried to fuch a height, that, acute: though in fome places he ftretches it to it may juftly be faid to be his mafter-piece ;. and Celthe 20th, or 21 ft, nay, fometimas to the 40th fus, who lived after him, remarks, that fucceeding or 6cth days. All difeafes that exceed this laft term phyficians, though they found out feveral new thingsate called chronica!. And while in thofe difeafes that relating to the management of difeafes, yet were obli4. *

MEDICINE. Hi doty* get! to the writings of Hippocrates for all that they of thofe that rah upoft fnoarnfal fubjecls, than fuch as crates Hippoknew of figns. are accompanied with mirth. The firft thing Hippocrates confidered, when called When a patient breathes fall, and is oppreffed, it is Fromvr- he pre- we ought by noa method means toofaccullom ourfelvesthofeto who too Hippocrates obferves, that people ought to take great fervation and exaft living ; becaufe care- not to load themfelves with excrements, or ct health. ynice ave orjce begun to aft by this rule, if they vary in the keep them in too long ; and befides the exercife leafl. from it, find themfelves very ill; which does not above-mentioned, which carries off one part of them, happen to thofe who take a little more liberty, and and which he preferibed chiefly on this account, he live fomewhat more irregularly. Notwithftanding this, advifes people to excite and roufe up nature when he does not negleft to inquire diligently into what file flagged, and did not endeavour to expel the thofe who were in health ufed for food in his time. reft, or take care of the impediments by which fhe Diet. Here we cannot help taking notice of the prodigious was refifted. For this reafon he preferibed meats difparity between the delicacy of the people in our proper for loofening the belly; and when thefe days and in thofe of Hippocrates : for he takes great were not fufficient, he direfted the ufe of clyfters and pains to tell the difference between the fifth of a dog, fuppofitories. For thin and emaciated perfons he dia fox, a horfe, and an afs $ which he would not have refted clyfters compofed only of milk and oily unftudone if at that time they had not been ufed for vic- ous fubftances, which they mixed with a decoftion of tuals, at leaft by the common people. Befides thefe, chick-peafe ; but for fuch as were plethoric, they onlyhowever, Hippocrates {peaks of all other kinds of pro- made ufe of fait or fea-water. vifion that are now in ufe ; for example, falads, As a prefervative againft diftempers, Hippocrates milk, whey, cheefe, flefh as well of birds as of four- alfo advifed the ufe of vdmits, which he direfted to be footed beafts, frfth and fait fifh, eggs, all kinds of taken once or twice a month during the time of winter pulfe, and the different kinds of grain we feed on, as and fpring. The moft fimple of thefe were made of a well as the different forts of bread that are made of it. decoftion of hyffop, with an addition of a little vineHe alfo fpeaks very often of a fort of liquid food, or gar and fait. He made thofe that were of a ftrong and broth, made of barley-meal, or feme other grain, vigorous conftbution take this liquor in a morning fall, which they fteeped for fome time, and then boiled in ing ; hue fuch as were thin and weakly took it after water. With regard to drink, he takes a great deal fupper.—Venery, in his opinion, is wholefome, pro•of pains to diltinguifh the good waters from the bad. vided people confult their ftrength, and do not purThe bed, in his opinion, ought to be clear, fight, fue it to excefs ; which he finds fault with on all occawithout fmell or talle, and taken out of the fountains fions, and would have excefs avoided alfo in relation to that turn towards the eaft. The falt-waters, thofe fleep and watching. In his writings are likewife to that he calls hard, and thofe that rife out of fenny be found feveral remarks concerning good and bad air j ground, are the worft of all; he condemns alfo thofe and he makes it appear that the good or bad difpofithat come from melted fnow. But though Hippo- tion of this element does not depend folely on the difcrates makes all thofe diftiffftions, he advifes thofe .' ho ference of the climate, but on the fituation of every are in health to drink of the firft water that comes in place in particular. He fpeaks alfo of the good and their way. He fpeaks alfo of alum waters, and thofe bad effefts of the paflions, and recommends moderation that are hot; but does not enlarge upon their quali- in regard to them. ties. He advifes to mix wine with an equal quan- From what we have already related concerning the tity of water: and this (he fays) is the juft pro- opinions of Hippocrates, it may naturally be. conportion ; by ufing which the wine will expel what cluded, that for the moft part he would be contented is hurtful to the body, and the water will ferve to with obferving w hat the ftrength of nature is able to temper the acrimony of the humours. accompfifh without being aflifted by the phyfician. Exercife. For thofe that are in health, and likewife for fuch That this -was really the cafe, may be eafily perceived as are fick, Hippocrates advifes exercife. The books, from a perufal of his books entitled, “ Of epidemical however, which treat on this fubjeft, M. Le Clerc diftempers which are, as it were, journals of the conjeftures to have been written by Herodicus, who praftice of Hippocrates: for there we find him often firft introduced gymnaftic exercife into medicine, and doing nothing more than defdribing the fymptoms of a who is faid by Hippocrates himfelf to have killed feve- diftemper, and informing us what has happened to the ral people by forcing them to walk while they were af- patient day after day, even to his death or recovery, flifted with fevers and other inflammatory diforders. without fpeaking word of any kind of remedy. The advices given, in them eonfift moftly in direftions Sometimes, however, he did indeed make ufe of rt| for the times in which we ought to walk, and the con- medics ; but thefe were exceedingly fimple and few, dition we ought to be in before it; when we ought to in comparifon of what have been given by fucceed1 walk flowly, and when to run, &c.; and all this with ing praftitioners. Thefe remedies we fhall prefently refpeft-to different ages and temperaments, and with confider, after we have given an abridgement of .J; defign to bring the body down, or diffipate the huprincipal maxims on which his praftice is mours. Wreftling, although a violent exercife, is the founded. 13 _ J numbered with the reft. In the fame place alfo afferted in the firft place, That contra- Hismaiia*» mention is made of a play of the hands and fingers, Hippocrates or oppofites, are the remedies for each other; ^ which was thought good for health, and called chl- ries, and this maxim he explains by an aphorifm ; in w-hich eafCi ronomie ; and of an®ther diverfion which was perform- he fays, that’evacuations cure thofe diftempers which ed round a fort of ball hung up, which they called come from repletion, and repletion thofe that are caaN0 202. fed

Hrftory. M E D I Hippo cr: te; - fed by evacuation. So heat Is deftroyed by cold, and t ‘ ‘ cold by heat, &c. In the fecond place, he afferted, * ' that phylic Is an addition of what is wanting, and a ■fubtra&Ion or retrenchment of what is fuperfluous: an axiom which is explained by this, viz. that there are fome juices or humours, which in particular cafes ought to be evacuated, or driven out of the body, or dried up ; and fome others which ought to be reftored to the body, or caufed to be produced there again. As to the method to be tahen for this addition or retrenchv ment, he gives this general caution. That you ought to be careful how you fill up, or evacuate, all at once, or too quickly, or-too much; and that it is equally dangerous to heat or cool again on a hidden ; or rather, you cught not to do it: every thing that runs to an «xcefs being an enemy to nature. In the fourth place, Hippocrates allowed that we ought fometimes to dilate, and fometitnes to lock up: to dilate, or open the palfages by which the humours are voided naturally, when they are not fufSciently opened, or when they are clofed ; and, rm the contrary, to lock up orllraiten the paffages that are rdaxed,when the juices that pafs there ought not to pafs, or when they pafs in too great quantity. He adds, that we ought fometimes to fmooth, and fometimes to make roughs fometimes to harden, and fometimes to foften again; fometimes to make more fine or fupple; fometimes to thicken ; fometimes to roufe up, and at other times to ftupify or take away the fenfe; all in relation to the folid ■parts of the body, or-to the humours. He gives alfo this farther leffon, That we ought to have regard to the courfe the humours take, from whence they come, and whither they go ; and in confequence of thar, when they go where they ought not, that we make them -take a turn about, or carry them another way, almofl l^ce the turning the courfe of a river: or, upon other J , occafions, that we endeavour if pofiible to recal, or make the fame humour^ return back again ; drawing upward fuch as have a tendency downward, and drawing downward fuch as tend upward. We ought alfo to carry off, by convenient ways, that which is necef■fary to be carried off ; and not let the humours once evacuated enter into the veffels again. Hippocrates gives alfo the following inftru&ion, That when we do any thing according to reafon, though the fuccefs be not anfwerable, we ought not too eafily, or too haftily, to alter the manner of atffing, as long as the reafons for it are yet good. But as this maxim might fometimes prove deceitful, he gives the following as a corrector to it-: “ We ought (fay^s he) to mind with a great deal of attention what gives eafe, and what creates pain ; what is eafily fupported, and what cannot be endured.” We ought not to do any thing rafiily; but ought often to paufe, or wait, without doing any thing: by this way, if you do the patient no good, you will at leaft do him no hurt. Thefe are the principal and moil general maxims of the pra&ice of Hippocrates, and which proceed upon the fuppoiition laid down at the beginning, viz. that nature cures difeafes. We next proceed to confider particularly the remedies employed by him, which will ferve to give us further inftru&ions concerning his pra&ice. was ethe firft, the principal, and often the only His max- rerne^iet it! ing ims diet) refpe(3^)r mSc Vot. XL^ Part°fI.by this great phyfician to anfwer

CINE. the greateft part of the intentions above mentioned : cr: by means of it he oppofed moift to dry, hot to cold, Src.; and what he looked upon to be the moft confiderable point was, that thus he fupported nature, and affifted her to overcome the malady. The dietetic part of medicine was fo much the invention of Hippocrates himfelf, that he was very defirous to be accounted the author of it; and the better to make it appear that it was a new remedy in his days, he fays, exprefsly, that the ancients had wrote almoff nothing concerning the diet of the fick, having omitted this, point, though it was one of the moft effential parts of the art. The diet preferibed by Hippocrates for patients la-j-,^1 bouring under acute diftempers, differed from tliat!lcute which he ordered for thofe afflifted with chronicaleafes. ones. In the former, which require a more particular exactnefs in relation to diet, he preferred liquid food to that which was folid, efpecrally in fevers. For thefe he ufed a fort of broth made of cleanfed barley ; and to this he gave the name of ptifaiu The manner in which the ancients prepared a ptifan was as follows They firft fteeped the barley iu water till it was plumped up ; and afterwards they dried it in the fun, and beat it to take off the hulk. They next ground it j. and having let the flour boil a long time in the water, they put it out into the fun, and when it was dry they preffed it clofe. It is properly this flour fo prepared that is called ptifan. They did almoft the fame thing with wheat, rice,, lentils, and other grain : but they gave thefe ptifans the name of the grain from, whence they were extracted, as ptfan of lentils, rice, Ike* whereas the ptifan of barley was called Amply ptifany on account of the excellency of it. When they wanted to ufe it, they boiled one part of it in xo or 15 of wa-> ter; and when it began to grow plump in boiling,, they added a little vinegar, and a very fmall quantity of anife or leek, ta keep it from clogging or filling the ftomach with wind. Hippocrates preferibes this broth for women that have pains in their belly afterdelivery. “ Boil fome of this ptifan ffays he), with fome leek, and the fat of a goat, and give it to the woman in bed.” This will not be thought very Angular, if we refleA on w-hat has been hinted above concerning the indelicate manner of living in thofe times. He preferred the ptifan to all other food in fevers, becaufe it foftened and moiftened much, and was befides of eafy digeftion. If he was concerned in a continual fever, he would have the patient begin with a ptifan of a pretty thick coniiftence, and go on by little and little, leffening the quantity of barleyflour as the height of the diftemper approached ; fa that he did not feed the patient but with what he called the juice ofthe ptifan; that is, the ptifan ftrained, where there was but very little of the flour remaining, in order that nature being difeharged in part from the care of digefting the aliments, fhe might the more eafily hold out to the end, and overcome the diftemper, or the caufe of it. With regard to the quantity, he caufed the ptifan to be taken twice a-day by fuch patients as in health ufed to take two meals a-day, not thinking it convenient that thofe who were Tick fhould eat oftener than when they were well. He alfo would, not allow eating twice a-day to thofe who eat but once in that time when in health. In the paroxyfm of a H fever ,

j8: ' M E D I Hcrates pro- fever he gave nothing at all; and in all diftempers t v » where there are exacerbations, he forbid nourithment while the exacerbations continued. He let children eat more; but thofe who were grown up to man’s eftate, or were of an advanced age, lefs; making allowance, however, for the cuftom of each particular perfon, or for that of the country. But though he was of opinion that too much food ought not to be allowed to the fick, he was not of the mind of fome phyficians who prefcribed long abftinence, efpecially in the beginning of fevers. The reafon he gave for this was, that the contrary pra&ice weakened the patients too much during the firft days of the diftemper, by which means their phyficians were obliged to allow them more food when the illnefs was at its height, which in his opinion was improper. Befides, in acute diftempers, and particularly in fevers, Hippocrates made choice of refrelhing and moiftening nouriihment; and amongft other things prefcribed orange, melon, fpinach, gourd, and dock. This fort of food he gave to thofe that were in a condition to eat,-orie could takee fomething more than a ptifan. Drink made ^ of eight hpartscommonly of watergave and toonehisofpatients honey. was In fome diftempers they added a little vinegar; but befides thefe, they had another fort named *-vr.iv,, 0r mixture. One prefcription of this fort we find intended for a confumptive perfon ; it confifted of rue, anife, celery, coriander, juice of pomegranate, the rougheft red wine, water, flour of wheat and barley, with old cheefe made of goats milk. Hippocrates did not approve of giving plain water to the fick ; but though he generally prefcribed the drinks above mentioned, he did not abfolutely forbid the ufe of wine, even in acute diftempers and fevers, provided the patients were rot delirious nor had pains in their head. Befides, he took care to diftinguifti the wines proper in thefe cafes: preferring to all other forts white-wine that is clear and has a great deal of water, with neither fweetnefs nor flavour. 16 are the moft remarkable particulars acute concernDletischro gThefe prefcribed by Hippocrates dink dikafcs. Jftnem ptheers.diet;,•> chronical ones he made veryin much ufe of milk and whey; though we are not certain whether this was done on account of the nourifliment expe&ed from them, or that he accounted them medicines. There were many difeafes for which he judged the His maxims bath was a proper remedy ; and he takes notice of all the circumftances that are necefiary in order to ' caufe the patient receive benefit from it, among which the following are the principal. The patient that bathes himfelf muft remain ftill and quiet in his place without fpeaking while the affiftants throw water oven his head or are wiping him dry t for which laft purpofe he defired them to keep fponges, inftead of that inftrument called by the ancients Jlrigil, which ferved to rub off from the fkin the dirt and naftinefs left upon it by the unguents and oils with which they anointed themfelves. He mull alfo take care not to catch cold; and muft not bathe immediately after eating and drinking, nor eat or drink immediately after coming cut of the bath. Regard muft alfo be had whether the patient has been accuRomed to bathe while in

C I N E. Hiftory.. health, and whether he has been benefited or hurt by it Laftly, he muft; abftain from the bath when the —-- , body is too open, or too coftive, or when he is toa ~ v'"**"; weak; or if he has an inclination to vomit, a great lofs of appetite, or bleeds at the nofe. The advantage of the bath, according to Hippocrates, confifts in moiftening and refrefhing, taking away wearinefs, making the fkin foft and the joints pliant; in provoking urine, making the noftrils open, and opening the other excretories. He allows two baths in a day to thofe who have been accuftomed to it in health. ,3 In chronical diftempers Hippocrates approved very Hk maxim#! much of exercife, though he did not allow it in acuteexer refpodting ones: but even in thefe he did not think that a pa- e‘fe. tient ought always to lie a-bed; but tells us, that “we muft fometimes pufh the timorous out of bed, and roufe up the lazy.” When he found that diet and exercife were not 19 ; fiifficient to eafe nature of a burden of corrupted hu- rHis,eamaximsmours, he was obliged to make ufe of other means, 0f lur' fi aaun ‘nS which purgation was one. By this word he underftood t £ • all the contrivances that are made ufe of to difeharge the ftomach and bowels ; though it commonly fignifies only the evacuation by the belly by ftool. This evacuation he imagined to be occafioned by the purgative medicines attracting the humours to themfelves. When, firft taken into the body, he thought they attradied that humour which was moft fimilar to them, and thenthe others, one after another.—Moft of the purgatives ufed in his time were emetics alfo, or at leaft were very violent in their operation downwards. Thefe were the white and black hellebore; the firft of which is now reckoned among the poifons. He ufed alfo the Cnidian berries, which are nothing elfe but the feeds of thymelea or chamaelea ; cneorum peplium, which is a fort of milk-thiftle ; thapfia ; the juice of hippophae, a fort of rhamnus ; elaterium, or juice of the wild cucumber; flowers of brafs, coloquintida, fcammony the magnefian ftone, &c. As thefe purgatives were all very ftrong, Hippocrates was extremely cautious in their exhibition. He did not preferibe them in the dog-daysnor did he ever purge women with child, and very feldom children or old people. He principally ufed purgatives inchronical diftempers ; but was much more wary in acute ones. In his books intitled “ Of Epidemical Hiftempers,” there are very few patients mentioned lowborn he gave purgative medicines. He alfo takes notice exprefsly, that thefe medicines having been given in cafes of the diftempers of which he was treating,, had produced very bad effefts. We are not, however, from this to conclude, that Hippocrates abfolutely condemned purging in acute diftempers; for in fome places he exprefsly mentions his having given them with fuccefs. He was of opinion, for inftance, that purging was good in a pleurify when, the pain was feated below the diaphragm.; and in this cafe he gave black hellebore, or fome peplium mixed with the juice of laferpitium, which is fuppofed to have been our afafstida. The principal rule Hippocrates gives with relation, to purging is, that we ought only to purge off the humours that are conco&ed, and not thofe that are yet crude, taking particular care not to do it at the beginning of the diftemper, left the humours fhould

Hiftory. M E D I CINE. 59 Hippo- bej^ dlfturbed orhowever, ftirred upithewhich pretty often. to be drank. For the fame purpofe he ufed Hippocrates. firft: happens who remarked tlpt ordered e was not> whey, and alfo cows and afles milk; adding a little fait, cratt8, -v , ^ it would be of ill confequence to ftir the humours in to it, and fometimes letting it boil a little. If he gave “" the beginning of an acute diftemper. The Egyptian affes milk alone, he caufed a great quantity of it to be phyficians had before obferved the fame thing. By taken, fo that it muft of neceffity loofen the body. In the beginning of a diftemper, Hippocrates underftood one place he prefcribes no lefs than nine pounds of it all the time from the firft day to the fourth complete. to be taken as a laxative, but does not fpecify the Hippocrates imagined that each purgative medicine time in which it was to be taken. With the fame inwaS adapted to the carrying off fome particular hu- tention he made ufe of fuppofitories and clyfters. The mour; and hence the diftinftion of purgatives intohy- former were compounded of honey, the juice of the dragogue, cholagogue, &c. which is now juftly explo- herb mercury, of nitre, powderof colocynth, and other ded. In confequence of this notion, which prevailed fliarp ingredients, to irritate the anus. Thefe they long after his time, he pretended that we knew if a pur- formed into a ball, or into a long cylindrical mafs like gative had drawn from the body what was fit to be eva- a finger. The clyfters he made ufe of for fick people cuated according as we found ourfelves well or ill upon were fometimes the fame with thofe already mentionit. If we found ourfelves well, it was a fign that the ed as preventives for.people in health. At other times medicine had effe&ually expelled the offending humour. he mixed the deco&ion of herbs with nitre, honey, and On the contrary, if we were ill, he imagined, whatever oil, or other ingredients, according as he imagined he quantity of humour came away, that the humour which could by that means attradl, waih, irritate, or foften. caufed the illnefs ftill remained ; not judging of the The quantity of liquor he ordered was about 36ounces; goodnefs or badnefs of a purge by the quantity of from which it is probable he did not intend that it matters that were voided by it, but by their quality fhould all be ufed at one time. and the effeft that followed after it. On fome occafions Hippocrates propofed to purge Vomits were alfo pretty much ufed as medicines by the head alone. This pradtice he employed, after purHippocrates. We have already feen what thofe were ging the reft of the body, in an apoplexy, inveterate which he prefcribed to people in health by way of pains of the head, a certain fort of jaundice, a conpreventives. With regard to the fick, he fometimes fumption, and the greateft part of chronical diftemadvifed them to the fame, when his intentions were pers. For that purpofe he made ufe of the juices of only to cleanfe the ftomach. But when he had a mind feveral plants, as celery; to which he fometimes added to recal the humours', as he termed it, from the inmoft aromatic drugs, making the patients fnuff up this mixreceffes of the body, he made ufe of brifker remedies. ture into their noftrils. He ufed alfo powders comAmong thefe was white hellebore ; and this indeed he pounded of myrrh, the flowers of brafs, and white moft frequently ufed to excite vomiting. He gave hellebore, which he caufed them put up into the nofe, this root particularly to melancholy and mad people ; to make them fneeze, and to draw the phlegm from and from the great ufe made of it in thefe cafes by the brain. For the fame purpofe alfo he ufed what Hippocrates and other ancient phyficians, the phrafe he calls tetragonon, that is, “ fomething having four to have need of hellebore, became a proverbial expreffion angles;” but what this was, is now altogether unfor being out of one’s fenfes. He gave it alfo in de- known, and was fo even in the days of Galen. The fluxions, which come, according to him, from the latter phyfician, however, conjedlures it to be antimobrain, and throw themfelves on the noftrils or ears, or ny, or certain flakes found in it. fill the mouth with faliva, or that caufe ftubborn pains In the diftemper called empyema (or a co'ledlion of in the head, and a wearinefs or an extraordinary hea- matter in the breaft), he made ufe of a very rough mevinefs, or a weaknefs of the knees, or a fwelling all over dicine. He commanded the patient to draw in his the body. He gave it to confumptive perfons in broth tongue as much as he was able; and when that was done, of lentils, to fuch as were afflidted with the dropfy he endeavoured to put into the hollow of the lungs a < ailed leucophlegmatia, and in other chronical diforders. liquor that irritated the part, which, railing a violent But we do not find that he made ufe of it in acute di- cough, forced the lungs to difeharge the purulent ftempers, except in the cholera morbus, where he fays matter contained in them. The materials that he ufed he preft ribed it with benefit. Some took this medi- for this purpofe were of different forts; fometimes cine falling; but moft took it after fupper, as was com- he took the root of arum, which he ordered to be monly pra&ifed with regard to vomits taken by way boiled with a little fait, in a fufficient quantity of waof prevention. Thereafon why he gave this medicine ter and oil ; diffolving a little honey in it At other moft commonly after eating was, that by mixing with times, when he intended to purge more ftrongly, he the aliments, its acrimony might be fomewhat abated, took the flowers of copper and hellebore ; after that and it might operate with lefs violence on the mem- he (hook the patient violently by the (boulders, the branes of the ftomach. With the.fame intention alfo better to loofen the pus. This remedy, according to he fometimes gave a plant called Jefamoides^ and fome- Galen, he received from the Cnidian phyficians ; and < times mixed it with hellebore. Laftly, in certain it has never been ufed by the fucceeding ones, probably cafes he gave what he called foft or fweet hellebore. becaufe the patients could not fuffer it. 20 This term had fome relation to the quality of the hel- Blood-letting was another method of evacuation His maxim* lebore, or perhaps to the quantity he gave of it. pretty much ufod by Hippocrates. Another aim he bi^fpedting loo us, that he has terror and dejection of mind. The difeafe is to be obferved fimilar diforders an hundred times over, removed by mild aperients and. antihyfledcs joined which were always certainly and fafely cured by the Peruvian bark. with the bark. Of the convulfive tertian we have a moft remarkable with other Diforders. j 3 inftance in the Edinburgh Medical Effays, Vol. V. The Tertian complicated Sp. l.var. 4. The patient wa3 a farmer’s fon about 26 years of age, Tertiana fcorbutica, Sauv. fp. 9. Etmuller1. Tiof a llrotig plethoric habit of body. He had laboured mteus. under an ague half a-year, and had taken a great Tertiana fypbilitica, Sauv. fp. 17. Deidier. deal of bark. While he was telling his cafe to the verminofa, Sauv. fp. 18. Stiffer. irt aft. furgeon (Mr Baine of Pembroke), he was fuddenly Tertiana Helmftad. Lanfcif. de noxis palud. Pringle. taken with a violent flamping of his feet ; and the Van den Bofch. de court, vermin. , convulfibns gradually afeended from the foies of the TheRamascsuni. fcorbutic tertian, according to Sauvages, is feet to his legs, thighs, belly, back, and fhoulders. exceedingly anomalous, its periods being fometimes His head was then moft violently convulfed, with a much anticipated, and fometimes poftponed. It total deprivation of fpeech ; but he had a moft difilial is exceedingly obftinate, and will much return if the body vociferation, that might have been heard at a con- be not cleared of its fcorbutic taint. The patient siderable diftance, his abdomen and thorax working is affected with lancinating pains of a wandering and heaving violently and unufually in the mean time. ture. The urine lets fail a dufky red ftdiment, na-or This fit having lafted half an hour, a profufe fweat a thick branny matter is eopioufly fcattered .up and broke out over all his body, which relieved him ; and down in it, feemingly tinged w*ith blood. The he then became capable of anfwering fuch queflions ufual fymptoms of feurvy, viz. livid fpots, and rotas were put. Thefe extraordinary fits, he faid, had fetid gums, alfo frequently occur. For this the been occafiohed by a fright, and his neighbours had ten Peruvian bark is very ufeful, both as a febrifuge and concluded that he was bewitched They returned antifeorbutic. fometimes twice a-day, and always at the times the A tertian accompanied with worms is taken noague ufed to return. During the paroxyfm his pulfe tice of by Sir John Pringle in his treatife on the difi was very high and quick, his face much inflamed, eafes of the army. The worms, he tells us, were of and his eyes ready to ftnrt out of his head. After the round kind ; and though we are by no means to the fit was over, he complained of a moft torturing them the eaufe of the fever, they never failed pain of the bowels. His tongue was generally moift, reckon make it worfe,. occafioning obftinate gripings or and he had a fuppreffion of urine.—This formidable toficknefs at ftomach- In thefe cafes flitches were fredifeafe, however, was totally fubdued by the ufe quent; being flatulent, were not often relieved by of the bark, mereurials, antifpafmodics, opiates, and bleeding.but, The worms were difeharged by vomiting faline,draughts. as

Pra&ice; M E D I Febres aS well as By ftool Few difeharging thefe worms, he commonly gave half a drachm of rhubarb with 12 grains of calomel; without obferving any inconvenience from fuch a large dofe of mercury. Anthelmintics, which aft flowly, had little chance of doing good; for though worms will fometimes lie long in the bowels, without giving much uneafinefs to a perfon otherwife well, yet in a fever, efpecially one of a putrid kind (to which his intermittents always feemed to incline), the worms being difturbed by the increafe of heat, and the corruption of the humours in the prima via, begin to move about, and ftruggle to get out. Lancifius, who makes this remark, adds, that upon opening the bodies of feme who had died at Rome of fevers of this kind, wounds were found in the inteftines made by the biting of the worms; nay, that fome of them had even pieiced through the coats of the guts, and lay in the cavity of the abdomen. Pringle never had any inftance of this; but knew many cafes in which the worms efcaped by the patient’s mouth, though there had been no previous retching to bring them up. One foldier was thrown into violent convulfions, but; was cured by the abovementioned powder. J-37 The Tertian varizd from its Origin. Sp. L var. 5. Tertiana accidentalis, Sauv. Sp. 12. Sydenham. Tertiana a fcabie, Sauv. fp. 12, Juncker,Xzb. 80. Hoffman, II. p. 12. The exiftenee of fevers of this kind, as we have already obferved, is denied by Dr Cullen ; the accidental fever of Sauvages was faid to arife from any flight error in the non-naturals, and confequently was very eafily cured. That which arofe from the repulilon of the itch, was cured as foon as the eruption returned. The Tertian with only a rem'ffton between-the ; Remittent Tertian. Tritasophya, Sauv.fits. Gen. Sp. 8y. II.Sag. p. 695. Tritaeus, Lin. 21. Hemitritaea, Lin. 23. Tertianae remittentes et continuse Auftorum. Tertianse fubintrantes, proportionate, fubcontinuse; Torti. Tertiana ftibcontinua, Sauv. fp. 19, Quotidiana deceptiva, fp. 2. Amphimerina femiquintana, Sauv. fp, 24. Tritaeophya deceptiva, Sauv. fp. 10. Caufos Hippocratis. TritKophya caufus, Sauv. fp. 2; Febris ardens Boerhaavu, aph. 738 ? Tertiana perniciofa, qua? fimulata tertiani circuitus effigie lethalis, et milk accidentibus periculofiffimis implicata, exiftit. Lud. Mercatus. Tertiana peftilens, P. Sal. Diverfus. Tertiana maligna peftilens, Riverii. Morbus Hungaricus.' Lang. Lerrib. Sennert. Languor Pannonicus, Ccler. Amphimerina Hungarica, Sauv. fp. 10. Hemitritasus peftilens, Schencl. ex Corn. Gamma. Febres peftilentes iEgyptiorum, Hlpin, Febris tertiana epidemia, Bartholin.

1

CINE. Febres epidemicse, autumni 1657 et 1658, Willis. Tc Febris fyneches epidemica, ab anno 1658 ad 1664. et poftea ab anno 1673 ad 1691, Morton. Febres autumnales incipientes, Sydenham. Affeftus epidemicus Leidenfis, Fr. Sylvii. Morbus epidemicus Leidenfis, 1669, Fanois. Tertianx perniciofae et peftilentes, et febres caftrenfes epidemise, Lancifi. Febres intermittentes anomalae et mail moris, Hoff, man. Febris cholerica minus acuta* Hoffman. Febris epidemica Leidenfis, anno 1719, Koker apud * Haller, Difp. tom. V. Amphimerina paludofa, Sauv. fp. 19. Febris paludum, Pringle. Bononienfis conftitutio hiemalis 1729, Beccari in A. N. C. Vol. III. Amphimerina biliofa, fp. 22. Febris caftrenfis, Pringle. Febris2 putrida epidemica, Huxkam de acre ad ann. I7 9*.biliofa . Laafanenfis, T'ffot. Febris Tritaeophya Wratiflavienfis, Sauv. fp. 3. Hahn. Epidemia verna Wratiflav. in App. ad. A. N. C. Vol. X. Tritaeophya Americana, Sauv. fp. 12. Febris ano mala Batava, Grainger. Morbus Naronianus, Pujati. Febris continua remittens, f/iV/aryV difeafes of Barbadoes. Febris remittens Indiae orientalis, Lind. diff. inaug. 1768. Febris critica et febr. biliofa aeftatis, Rouppe. Febris remittens regionum calidarum, Lind on the difeafes of hot climates. A. Tertiana cholerica five dyfenterica. Tort. Therap. Special, lib. iii. cap. 1. Lautter. Hift. Med. caf. 6. 16. 17. 20. Morion, App. ad Exerc. II. B. Tertiana fuberuenta five atrabrlaris. Tort, ibid.” Never feen by Cleghorn. C. Tertiana cardiaca, Tort. ibid. Lautter, Hift. Med. caf. 15. 15. 23. Amphimerina cardiaca, Sauv. fp. 5. Tritssophya affodes, Sauv. fp, 6. Febris continua affodes, Vog. 27. D. Tertiana diaphoretica, Tort. ibid. Tritaeophya typbodes, Sauv. fp. 4. Tritreophya elodes, Sauv. fpt. 5. Febris continua Ciodt^Vog. 21. E. Tertiana fyncopalis. Tort, ibid- Lautter. caf 11, 12. 13. 15. 16. Tritaeopbya fyncopalis, Sauv. fp. 1. Amphimerina fyncopalis, Sauv. fp. 4. Amphimerina humorofa, Sauv. fp. 6. Febris eontinua fyneepalis, Log. 29. F. Tertiana algida, Tort. ibid. Lautter, caf. 13. Amphimerina epiala, iSau^. fp. 3. Am-phimerina plrricodes, Sauv. fp. 7. Tritaeophya leipyria, Sauv. fp. 9. Tertiana leipyria, Sauv. fp. 23.- VaJcarenghi Med. Ration, p. 18. Febris continua epiala et leipyria, Vog. 19. et 24. G. Tertiana lethargica, Tort. ib. Tritaeophya carotica, Sauv. fp. 7. Lautter, J. 7. T4, Tertiaa»

in M E D I CINE. Pra violent diarrhoea, followed by a very bility, anxiety, and at the fame time an infatiable itchy.miliary eruption. On the fourth day came on hunger. copious fweats, Ipafms of the lower jaw, naufea, invo- 5. Tritaophya elodes, was an inflammatory epideluntary palling of urine, flight delirium, a flux of icho- mic, but not contagious, terminating about the 14th ^ rous matter from the noftrils, an exceeding tough fpit- or 21 ft day. The difeafe came on in the night-time, ting, an epilepfy, and death. Profefibr Hahn, who with difturbed reft; univerfal weaknefs, watchings, gives the hiftory of this difeafe, was himfelf attacked by great heat and fweat, rednefs of the face and almoft it, and fuffered in the following manner. On the firft of the whole body, fparkling eyes, the tongue dry day was a violent feverifh paroxyfm v/ithout rigor, a and white ; a hard, tenfe, and turgid pulfe : about the fliarp pain in the occiput, and immediately an inflamma- third day a kind of frenzy frequently came on with the tory pain over the whole head; the feet were extremely feverilh paroxyfm, the forerunner of an univerfel mi- . cold, and the extremities rigid with fpafms. The pain liary eruption ; or, what was worfe, with purple fpots contmned to increafc daily to fuch a degree, that the fo clofe together, that they looked like an eryfipelasof ■N" 203.

Practice. M E D I v Febres 1 of the whole body. Sometimes blifters of the fize **""v of fmall pearls, filled with acrid ferum, appeared on the neck, armpits, and trunk of the body, wdiich were of all others the moft dangerous. There was a variety of the difeafe, which our author calls the humorails, and in which the pulfe was foft and feeble, with greater weaknefs over the whole body, and the difpolition to deep more frequent than in the other ; the eyes languid; the tongue very white, but not dry ; and worms were difch'arged. 144 6. Triuopbya ajfodes. This fpecies arofe from a foulnefs of the prim* fiae, and the effluvia of waters in which hemp had been fteeped. It began with rigor, followed by great heats, reftleffnefs, tolling of the limbs, terrible faintings, immoderate third, drynefs of tongue, delirium, and at length exceffive watchings; thefe lad, however, were lefs dangerous than vertigoes or comatofe difpofitions, which brought on convullions or apoplexies. 7. Trhteophya carotica. This had exacerbations H5 every other evening ; and its diftinguifhing fymptom was an exceffive inclination to deep, preceded by a fevere headach, and followed by delirium, and fometimes convulfipns; the tongue was black, and the patient infenfible of third after the delirium came on. In thofe cafes v/here the difeafe proved fatal, a fubfultus tendinum and other grievous fymptoms came on. 9. Trltaophya leipyria is only a variety of the tritae146 ophya caufus, already defcribed. 10. Tritaophya deceptiva This fpecies at fird aflumes the appearance of a continued fever; but afterwards degenerates into a remittent, or even an intermittent. It is defcribed by Sydenham, but attended with no remarkable fymptoms. n. The lad of Sauvages’s fpecies of Tritaeophya 248 belonging to the remitting tertian is the simericana. This, acccording to Sauvages, is the ardent fever with which the Europeans are ufually feized on their fird coming to America, and generally carries off one half of them. Of this there are two varieties, the wry acute and the acute. The very acute ends before the feventh day. It comes on a few days after the perfon’s arrival, with lofs of appetite, with dyfpnoea and fighing from weaknefs, head-ach, laffitude, pain of the •loins : a pyrexia fucceeds, with great third, fweat, and heat; the ficknefs increafes, naufea comeson, with vomiting of porraceous bile; the tongue rough, the extremities often cold ; watching, furious delirium ; and the patient frequently dies on the third day. Copious fweats, and a plentiful hemorrhagy from the nofe on the fifth day, but not fooner, are ferviceable ; but a bilious diarrhoea is the bed crifis of all. The acute kind terminates mod frequently on the ninth, but very rarely goes beyond the fifteenth day. Death frequently comes on between the fourth and feventh days. It begins with head-ach, pain in th§ loins, and fometimes fhivering ; great laffitude, dyfpnoea, third; burning fever, increafing every thirdrday; inflation of the abdomen, pain at the pit of the tlomach, naufea, and bilious vomiting. Such is the date of the difeafe within twenty-four hours. The eyes are red, and full of tears ; the urine pellucid ; there is a low delirium, and continual anxiety ; the tongue is dry and red, and fometimes, though rarely, black, which is a dill worfe fign; the pulfe, formerly Itrong and Von. XI. Part I.

C T N E. 113 full, finks about the fourth day, and becomes terrfe Tertiana.^ and fpafmodic : if a carus then comes on, the patient dies the fifth or fixth day ; but if the pulfe keeps up, and no carus comes on, a crifis is to be expe&ed by fweat, by a copious hemorrhagy from the nofe, or, which is dill more fafe, by a bilious diarrhcea, which is never falutary if it comes on before the fifth day. To the remitting tertian alfo belong the following fpecies mentioned by Sauvages, viz. 1. Tertlana fubc'ontinua. This begins like a genuine 149 tertian, and at fird hath didindf paroxyfms ; but thefe grow gradually more and more obfcure, the difeafe acquiring daily more of the appearance of continued fever, by which it is to be didinguidied from the other varieties of this fpecies. It is not unfrequently joined with thofe fymptoms which attend the fatal fever already mentioned ; as cardialgia, cholera, fyncope, &c. but in a much lefs degreel The difeafe commonly begins with little or no fenfe of cold, but rather a fenfation of heat; when the tertian is doubled, it has firft a llighter and then a more fevere fit; and thus goes on with an exacerbation on the even days: and though it fhould'change from a double into a iingle tertian, we are dill to fufpect it, if a weak fit is the forerunner. of a very drong one. This change of the tertian into a continued fever is alfo to be prognodicated if a heat remarkable to the touch is perceived on the day of intermiffion, together with fome didurbance of the pulfe, third, and drynefs of the tongue ; all of which fhow an univerfal tendency to infiammation: the fame is foretold by the urine being in fmall quantity, and very red, or of a fa.ffron colour; alfo an ulcerous or aphthous infiammation of the throat, with difficulty of fwallowing, or any very fevere fymptom coming on in the beginning of the difeafe, excepting only a delirium, which is eafily removed. 2. Spuotidiana deceptiva. This is a diforder of an j inflammatory kind, with a drong tendency to putrefcency, and fometimes affumes the form of a quotidian. In it the patient frequently complains of cold when he really is hot, and the remiffion is very indidinft; and the difeafe is known by the great languor of the patient and the foulnefs of his tongue. 3. /Jmphimcrina cardiaca is an acute malignant fever, , with daily exacerbations, attended with fainting and * vomiting of green bile. Afterwards, the weaknefs increafing, the patient’s extremities grow cold, and aprofufe fweat comes on, which is frequently fucceeded by death on the fourth day. Another fpecies refembling this Sauvages calls the fyncopalis ; ♦ at the cardiaca differs from it in being attended with cardialgia. 4. bed by the Britifh phylicians under many different names, and appearing under various forms, according to the different conltitutions of the patients. This fever in the Eaft Indies, according to Dr Lind of Windfor, generally comes on fuddenly, and begins with a fenfe of debility and a very great lownefs of fpirits. Thefe fymptoms are attended with a greater or lefs degree of chillinefs, a dizzinefs, a naufe i, very acute pains in the head and loins, and a trembling of the hands ; the countenance is pale, the Ikin commonly very dry and corrugated, the eyes dull and heavy, the pulfe quick and fmall, the breath generally difficult, and interrupted with hiccough. As

M E D I CINE. Pra&ice, As the paroxyfm increafes, the chillinefs now an which was before on the fltin vanifhes on the firil ap- Tertians, then gives way to irregular heats, which foon become pearance of the fever. But thopgh thefe were the ——v——* violent and permanent; the naufea likewife incrtafes; general fymptoms of this diforder, they varied in the and in fome there comes on a vomiting, in which they different fubjedts, and at different feafons of the fame throw up a great deal of bile. Sometimes bile is year. The pulfe, for example, in fome, was quick in likewife voided by Hook The fkin grows red ; the the beginning of the diforder; in others, it varied eyes fmall, and fometimes not a little inflamed. The with the other fymptoms. The fkin was generally pulfe becomes fuller, and the breath more difficult, dry in the beginning of the fit; but in fome it was attended with great reftlefihefs and a troublefome moifl, and covered with fweat from the very fird third:; notwithftanding which (fo great is the naufea) beginning of the difeafe. In the month of September, the patient cannot endure any kind of liquids. The when the diforder raged mod, the remiffions were tongue becomes foul, and the pain of the head and very imperfedf and obfcure ; but, on the return of loins more violent; a delirium then follows ; a flight winter and the healthy feafon, they became more remoifture appears on the face, and from thence fpreads gular, and the difeafe affumed the appearance of an to the other parts ; whilft the violence of the other intermitting fever, to fuch a degree as at length not fymptoms abates, and Ihows the beginning of a re- to be didinguifhed from it. In fome the remiffions miflion, which is completed-by plentiful fweats. could fcarce be perceived, and the fever continued forOn the fever’s remitting, the pulfe returns almofl: to two weeks without any material change for the better its natural date ; the pains of the head and loins dill or the worfe. At this time numbers were feized with continue, though fomewhat lefs violent, as likewife it. When the diforder continued for any time wiihthe naufea and want of appetite. When the difeafe out a change, it generally ended in death ; while the gains drength, the remiffion is fcarcely obvious, and weather grew better, it fometimes, in the fpace of a is immediately followed by another paroxyfm ; which few days, from a common fever became an intermitbegins, not indeed with fo great a fliivering, but is at- ting one, and the patient recovered, unlefs his liver, tended with a greater pain of the head, the greated which was fometimes the cafe, happened to be affe&ed. anxiety, a heartburn, naufea, vomiting, and bilious The cure of an inflammation of the liver proved undools. The matter mod commonly evacuated by vo- certain and tedious ; as it was commonly followed by mit and Aool is whitifh like chalk and water, or curd- a colliquative diarrhoea, which generally endangered' led milk which is vomited by fucking children, when the patient’s life.—Every fucceeding paroxyfm was the curd is much broke down. A heat, immoderate obferved to be more dangerous than the preceding; third, and delirium, now come on. The tongue be- the third generally proved fatal; fome died during comes more foul; the teeth and infide of the lips are the fird. When this happened, the fever, in the lancovered with a black crud ; the breath grows hot and guage of the country, was called a puta, that is a drong fetid : another remiffion-enfues, attended with afweat; fever. but this remiffion is both Ihorter and lefs obvious than This difeafe, according to Hr Lind of Haflar hofthe fird. pital, is the autumnal fever of all hot countries, the This fecond reraiffion is fucceeded by a paroxyfm, epidemic difeafe between the tropics, and the difeafe in which the fymptoms are fax more violent than in mod fatal to Europeans in all hot and unhealthy clithe former ; that which the patient difcharges by vo- mates. All authors agree that intermittents in genemiting and purging is more fetid; the mouth, teeth, ral, but particularly this dangerous kind of them, are and infide of the lips, are not only covered with a produced by heat and moidure. Dr Lind of Windblack crud, but the tongue becomes fo dry and diff, for remarks, that the European feamen are very fubthat the patient’s vice can fcarce be heard. Vio- je& to the fever above mentioned when they happen < lent delirium, with reii. dfnefs and anxiety, come on to arrive at Bengal in autumn. They are predifpochiefly during the paroxyfm ; nor do thefe fymp- fed to it from the nature of their food, their confinetoms abate till the fever remits, and the patient ment on board, the very great heats to which they fwealts. are expofed during the voyage, and their lying for When the fever becomes fo violent, during the hours together expofed to the night colds. thud fit, as to end in death, which is generally the Mod of the meat ufed by the crews of thofe diips cafe, fome of the fick have a coma ; in others the de- is faked, and often in a putrid date, without any freflt lirium becomes more violent. The difcharges now vegetables, they having only bifcuits, and fome other become more fetid, and have a cadaverous fmell; the farinaceous matters. The quantity of the vinous or dools are involuntary ; the pulfe is fo quick, fmall, and fpirituous liquors allowed them is by far too fmall to irregular, that it is fcarce to be counted, or even felt; fubdue the putrefcent difpofition of their animal-food. a cold fweat is diffufed over the whole body, efpecially Their fluids confequently become, from day to day, the head and neck : the face becomes Hippocratic more and more putrefcent, and of courfe the more apt and convulfed ; the patient picks the bed-clothes; a to breed and contrail this diforder. This difpofition fubfultus tendinum comes on ; the fick lie conflantly is likewife induced by their being dewed very clofe toon their backs, and infenfibly Hide down to the foot gether, and that for a confiderable length of time, and of the bed ; their extremities grow cold ; they are then in a foul air, efpecially when the weather happens to be feized with convulfions, with which the fcene clofes. too dormy to permit the hatches and port-holes to be In this fever, the urine, which at the beginning is open. J>ale, becomes of a deeper colour by degrees, but keptThough heats they endure in the voyage to Inwithout depofiting any fediment. There feldom or dia are lefstheconfiderable than thofe of the country itnever appear any pctechiae, and the prickly heat felf, yet they are too much for an European conditution 6 to

Practice. M E D I Febres to bear, 'Hie general heat at fea within the tropics is about 84° of Fahrenheit’s thermometer, which is fufficient to relax them, and promote a corruption of their humours, efpecially when it coincides with the above caufes. It likewife creates a languor and indolence, which alone are fufficient to increafe that putrefcence. Thefe caufes are apt to be confiderably aggravated by the mens being often expofed, when on duty, for hours together, to rain, damp, and cold air; a circumftance which frequently happens to them when working their Ihips up the river Ganges in the night-time. Hence the perfpiration is checked, and the excrementitious fluid which ufed to be difcharged by the Ikin being •retained in the body, contributes, he thinks, very much towards the predifpofition to this difeafe. But the moft powerful of all the remote caufes is juftly thought to be the effluvia of marlhes replete with putrid animal-fubftances. We have not, however, been able to determine from what kind of putrid animal-fubftanees thefe effluvia derive their virus. For that every kind of putrefadtion has not fuch an effedl appears from this, that neither pradtical anatom ills, nor thofe who by their trades are expofed to the putrid effluvia of animals, for inllance fuch tanners and butchers as keep their (hops and flails very dirty, are more fubjedf than others to putrid difeafes. Nor are the (hip-ftewards and their fervants, whofe bufinefs it is to deliver out their provifions to the (hips crews, and who fpend the moft of their time amongft the putrid and rancid effluvia of the places in which thofe provifions are kept, more fubjedl to putrid fevers than their (hip-mates. But whatever be in this, we are well afiured that fome particular putrid fermentations produce noxious vapours, which, united with thofe of marlhes, render them more pernicious. Hence evidently proceeds the extreme unhealthfulnefs of a place called Culpi) on the eaftern bank of the Ganges. The fhores about it are full of mud, and the banks covered with trees. Oppofite to the place where the (hips lie there is a creek, and about a mile from its entrance Hands the town of Culpi: the (hips lie about a mile from the (bore. None of the failors on board the Chips ftationed at this place enjoyed their health. The burying ground alfo contributed not a little to fpread the infection The ground being marftiy, the putrid water flowed from the old graves into the new ones, which infe&ed the grave-diggers and thofe that attended the funerals; and from this caufe many were fuddenly feized while they were performing the laft duty to their companions. This place has ever been remarkable for the unhealthfulnefs of its air. It was once cuftomary to fend fome of the Company’s fervants here to receive the cargoes of the (hips, and fend them to Calcutta ; but fo many of them died on this duty, that the Company was at length obliged to difpenfe with it. Hence it plainly appears, how apt putrid animal and vegetable fubllances are to render the effluvia of fenny places more pernicious than they would otherwife be. The reafon why great Inundations of the Nile and Ganges are followed by a healthy feafon is, that by this means the putrid animal and vegetable fubftances difperfed over the contiguous countries are carried off into the fea.—The noxious vapours ariling from fens fpread but a little way. Dr Lind has often known (hips crews at a very little diftance from the

CINE. (liore quite free from this diforder. But although Tertians, thefe mar(h miafmata firft bring on the difeafe, yet * contagion particularly fpreads it, and renders it more epidemic. Thus the Drake Eaft Indiaman continued free from the diforder for two weeks together, when (he had no communication with the other (hips | whereas, as foon as the diforder was brought on board, many were feized with it within a few days in fuch a manner as to leave no room to entertain the leaft doubt concerning its peftilential nature. Dr Lind of Haflar hofpital has given a very curious and learned account of the appearance of this fever throughout the various parts of the globe. It was very common in England in the years 1765 and 1766, one obvious caufe of which was the prevalence of tire eaftern wind. This wind in England is often faid to bring with it a fog from the fea ; but the truth of the matter is, that in many places of this illand the eaftwind frequently raifes a copious vapour from water* mud, and all marffly or damp places. To this exhaling quality of the eaftern wind Dr Lind has often been an eye-witnefs. When the wind changes to the eaft, the mud fometimes fends up a vapour as thick as fmoke ; and the do&or has obferved two (Hh-ponds in his neighbourhood, one of frelh and the other of fait water, which on the approach of an eafterly wind fometimes alfo emit a denfe vapour, as from a pot of boiling water. In order to view this phenomenon di* ftin&ly, the perfon (hould (land at about 100 yards diftance from the rtiud or ponds. If the fun Ihines when the wind changes to the eaft, he will obferve a conftant fleam of vapours arifing out of the ponds, from about five to ten yards in height, while the air about him remains ferene. As the vapour or fog arifing from other bodies glides along the furface of the earth, and is brought by the eafterly wind to the ponds, he will (till be able, for fome time, to diftinguilh the vapours afcending perpendicularly out of the ponds from thofe which are carried in an horizontal direffion by the wind ; efpecially if the fun continues to dune, though faintly. This evaporating quality of the eaft-wind feems to manifeft itfelf alfo by its effe&s both on the thermometer and the human body ; for a thermometer hung over a damp piece of ground during the fogs or exhalations arifing from it, will often indicate a degree of cold below the freezing point. The chillinefs of the body, fo fenfibly perceived when inthisfituation, feems to proceed from the fame caufe, and to produce nearly the fame fenfations, which the damp arifing from the wet floor in a chamber communicates to thofe who happen to be in it. Winds are not conftant in their effefts. As we have fometimes warm weather with a north-wind, and fometimes very little heat with one blowing from the fouth; fo the fogs attending an eaft-wind are not conftant, neither is the evaporation above mentioned at all times to be perceived. It is poflible, however, that in all this there may be a deception ; and that inftead of luppofing the quantity of vapours exhaled to be in-creafed by an eafterly wind, the coldnefs of that wind may only condenfe and render vifible the vapours in the air at that time. But even this fuppofitipn is liable to great objeftions, as our coldeft north-winds feldom or never produce fuch an effeft, but on the contrary are attended with dry and ferene weather. P2 Be

u6 Febres

M EDI Be this as it will, however, an eaft-wind is ufually accompanied with a cold, damp, and unwholefome vapour, which is obferved to affeft the health both of animals and vegetables, and in many places to produce obftinate intermitting fevers, and alfo to occafion frequent rejapfes. In particular fpots of the low damp ifland of Portfea, the ague frequently prevails during the autumnal feafon, and in fome years is much more frequent and violent than in others. It is alfo obfervable, that this difeafe always attacks ftrangers, or thofe who have formerly lived on a drier foil, and in a more elevated fituation, with greater feverity than thofe v4io are natives of the ifland. The year 1765 was remarkable, not only for the long continuance of the eallerly winds, but for an exceffive degree of heat, which produced a more violent and general rage of thofe difeafes than had been known for many years before. In the month of Auguft the quickfilver in Fahrenheit’s thermometer-oftcn rofe to 82® in the middle of the day. This confiderable addition of heat, together with the want of refrefhing rains, greatly fpread the fever, increafed its violence, and even changed its form in many places. At Portfmouth, and throughout almoft: the whole ifland of Portfea, an alarming continual or remitting fever raged, which extended itfelf as far as Chichefler. At the fame time, .the town of Gofport, though diftant only one mile from Portfmouth, enjoyed an almofl total exemption from ficknefs of every kind ; whereas in the neighbouring villages and farm-hdufes, a mild regular, tertian aguer diftreffed whole families.’ The violence of the fever, w ithijs appearances in a continued,remitting,, or intermitting form, marked in fome meafure the nature of the foil. In Portfmouth the fymptoms were bad, worfe at Kingfton, and frill more dangerous and violent at a place called Half- i‘8 M E D I C I N E« Febres vers. In the iHand,of Minorca, too, Dr Cleghorn in- clans recommended the bank of a running river for the Tertianadt;1 forms us, that fevers of this kind prevail exceedingly ; fituation of a houfe, on account of its peculiar healththat their types are various, their fymptoms violent, fulnefs; and many invalids are fpnt by the modern the intermiffions fallacious, and that they frequently phyficians to the fea fide, only for the benefit of the and fuddenly prove fatal. It is more than probable, fea air. he adds, from the accounts of feveral phyficians and “ Where the failors are cleanly, and not too much travellers, that epidemical tertians are not wholly con* crowded, they are often as healthy during long voyfined to the coafts and iflands of the Mediterranean, ages at fea, as they would have been upon any part but that they are equally frequent and deltru&ive in of the land. Venice is not obferved to be lefs healthy many other parts of the globe ; and perhaps may be than London or Paris. deemed the anniverfary autumnal diftempers of moft “ Thofe who are much difpofed to fweat, lie many ,hot countries in the world. And though in the mild hours in bed-clothes impregnated probably with a lefj climate of Britain, a tertian may always eafily be wholefome moifture than would have been left in the cured when^ once it is difcovered ; yet in warm cli- fheets half-dried after walking; and I have not yet mates, fuch is the rapid progrefs of the diftemper, had reafon to think that any remarkable injury was that it is neceflary to know it in the very beginning, done to the health by the continuance of fuch fweats which is very difficult for thofe who have never feen almoft every night for weeks, and for months, except ;any but the tertians ufually met with in Britain. * what arofe from the too great copioufnefs of this evaFrom Dr Cleghorn’s account of Minorca, how- cuation. ever, it doth not appear why that ifiand ffiould be fo “ Children, and fuch as are troubled with the ftone, much infelled with fevers of this kind, fince it is far and thofe who, from other infirmities or age, confrom being a marffiy country ; nay, on the contrary, ftantly wet their beds with their urine, do not appear is very dry. The fouth wind, he obferves, is very to fuffer in their health on this account. J unhealthy ; and it is the prevalence of this wind which “ It is a common pra&ice, in fome diforders, to go brings on the fever: but ftill the difficulty is not re- to bed with the legs or arms wrapped in linen cloths moved, becaufe the fea-air is fo far from bringing on thoroughly foaked in Malvern water, fo that the ffieets fuch dangerous difeafes, that it is one of the greateft will be in many places as wet as they can be ; and I prefervatives againft them when it can be had. As have known thefe patients and their bedfellows receive to the moifture which muft neceffarily accompany an no Lirm from a continuance of this practice for many infular fituation, that cannot reafonably be admitted months. Nor can it be faid that the Malvern water is as a caufe of this or any other difeafe. In the Lon- more innocent than any other water might be, on acdon Medical Obfervations we find a paper on a fubjeft count of any ingredients with which it is impregnated; very fimilar to the prefent, namely, the mifchiefs pro- for the Malvern water is purer than that of any duced by lying in damp fiieets, or being expofed to other fpring in England which I ever examined or moill vapour. The author tells us, that he hardly knows heard of. a dillemper the origin of which hath not by fome been “ The greateft valetudinarians do not fcruple to upon their flieets ; and yet, afcribed to lying in a damp bed, or fitting in a wet fprinklethelavender-water fpirit is flown off, there is left what is as room; and yet he does not know any one which will when , certainly be produced by thefe caufes, and people truly water as if it had been taken from the river. frequently expofe themfelves to fuch caufes without “ Is it obferved, that laundreffes are peculiarly unfuffering any ill effe&s. “ It muft be owned indeed, healthy above other women, though they live half (fays he), that the vapours arifing from the bilge-water their time in the midft of wet linen, in an air fully fawith vapours ? Many other employments might of ffiips tend to produce a feurvy. The fwampy turated be mentioned, the perfons occupied in which arc plains alfo near the mouths of great rivers which are conftantly expofed to wet floors or pavements, or to often overflowed, and low grounds which cannot rea- be furrounded vapours, or to have their dily be drained, and thofe trafts of land where the clothes often wetwithforwatery many hours together. thicknefs and extent of the woods keep the ground it the coldnefs of wet linen which is to be feared? moift and half putrid for want of ventilation, are de- But“ Isffiirts ftieets, colder than any unfrozen water ftrudlive to the neighbouring inhabitants, by occa- be, areandfafely worn and lain in by many perfons, fioning obftinate intermittents in the colder climates, can who, during a hard froft, neither warm their ffiirts and peftilential fevers in the hotter regions. But all nor their Iheets.—Or does the danger lie in the dampthis mifehief arifes not merely from moifture, but from nefs ? But then how comes it to pafs, that a warm or an unventilated and putrid moifture ; for the inoffen•fivenefs of mere wetnefs, untainted with putridity, may cold bath, and long-continued fomentations, can be without the deftrudtion of thofe vyho ufe them ? be reafonably inferred from the following confidera- uled, from both together ? Yet we have long heard tions. The air is often fully faturated with moifture, ofOrtheis itthicknefs and continuance of the cold fogs in and could not be more filled by the vapours ariling the feas north-weft of England, but have never yet from a chamber covered with water ; and yet neither is any epidemical diftemper produced by it, nor been told of any certain ill effedt which they have upon are thofe remarkably aggravated with which the lick thofe that live in thefe countries.” •happen at that time to be affli&ed. The air from With regard to the caufes of fevers, however. Dr rivers and from the fea is probably more repleniftied Lind is of opinion, that noxious vapours arifing from with vapours than inland countries cleared of their the earth are for the moft part to be blamed. Even woods : yet the .moft celebrated of the ancient phyfi- in countries feemingly dry, and where violent rains are not

Praftice. M E D 1 c 1 N E. Febres 1 not frequent, lie thinks that the air may load itfelf tans appeared fo very extraordinary and incredible to Ter w v with putrid exhalations from the ground ; and that, fome of Dr Lind’s readers, that he thought proper ~""'' except in the burning defarts of Arabia or Africa, to publiftr a further corroboration of the fads abovepeople are nowhere exempt from difeafes occafioned mentioned. “ A gentleman (fays he), who had long by putrid moiilure. In moft of the hot countries, refided at Cape Coaft caftle, informed me, that during however, the pernicious effects of the putrid vapours the time of this fog, being in the upper chambers of are by no means equivocal. In Guinea, they feem to the fort, the boards of the floor flirunk fo much, that be more extraordinary than any where elfe in the he could difcern the candles burning in the apartments world ; neither indeed can it be fuppofed, that a hot below him (there are no plafter ceilings ufed in thofe and moift atmofphere can be without putrefcency. It hot countries), and that he could then even diftinmay in general be remarked, that in fultry climates, guiflr what people were doing in the apartments or during hot weather, in all places fubjeft to great below; the feams of the floor having opened above rains, where the country is not cleared and cultivated, half an inch, while the fog lafted, which afterwards, but is over-run with thickets, fhrubs, or woods, efpe- upon its being difpdled, became clofe and tight as cially if there are marfhes or ftagnating waters in the before.” neighbourhood, frcknefs may be dreaded, and particu- In this country the rains and dews feem to be poflarly the remitting fever of which we now treat. The feffed of qualities almoft equally pernicious with the fens,even in different counties ofEngland, are known to fogs. This much is certain, that in Guinea, many be^ very prejudicial to the health of thofe who live near of the principal negroes, and efpecially of the mulattoe them, and ftill more fo to ftrangers; but the woody Portuguefe, take the utmoft precaution to avoid being and marfliy lands in hot countries are much moi-e per- wet with thofe rains, efpecially fuch as fall firft. At nicious to the health of Europeans. In all thofe un- the fetting in of the rainy feafon, they generally fhut healthy places, particularly during fogs or rains, a raw themfelves up in a clofe well-thatched hut, where they vapour, difagreeable to the fm'ell, arifes from the earth, keep a conftant fire, fmoke tobacco, and drink brandy, and efpecially in the huts or houfes. But of all the as prefervatives againft the noxious quality of the air vapours which infeft the torrid zone, the moft malig- at that time.. When wet by accident with the rain,, nant and fatal are the harmattans : They are faid to they immediately plunge themfelves into falt-water, if arife from the conflux of feveral rivers in the king of near it. Thofe natives generally bathe once a-day,Dormeo’s dominions at Benin (the moft unwholefome but never in the frefti water rivers when they are overpart of Guinea), where travellers are obliged to be flown with the rains : at fuch times they prefer for carried on mens backs for feveral days journey, through that purpofe the water of fprings. The firft rains fwampy grounds, and over marlhes, amidft {linking which fall in Guinea arc commonly fuppofed to be ooze, and thickets of mangrove trees which are an- the moft unhealthy. They have been known, in 4S nually overflown. Thefe vapours come up the coaft hours, to render the leather of the {hoes quite mouldy to a furprifing diftance, with the fouth-eaft and north- and rotten ^ they {lain clothes more than any other eaft winds : and it has been obferved, that in their rain ; and foon after their commencement, even places progrefs they have often changed both the courfe of formerly dry and parched fwarm with frogs. At this the winds and of the fea currents. The times of their time {kins, part of the traific of Senegal, quickly geappearance at Cape Coaft are the months of Decem- nerate large worms; and it is remarked,. that the ber, January, or February. The north-eaft and fouth- fowls, which greedily prey on other infe&s, refufe to eaft winds are always unhealthy, but particularly fo feed on thefe. It has been farther obferved, that during the harmattan feafon. Some years this vapour woollen cloths wet in thofe rains, and afterwards hang is fcarcely perceptible ; but in others it is thick, noxi- up to dry in the fun, have fometimes become full of ous, and deftruftive to the blacks as well as whites.— maggots in a few hours. — It is alfo probable, that as The mortality is in proportion to the denfity and du- in fome of thofe- countries the earth, for fix or eight ration of the fog. It has a raw putrid fmell; and is months of the year, receives no moifture from the foinetimes fo thick, that a perfon or houfe cannot be heavens but what falls in dews, which every night redifcerned through it, at the diftance of 15 or 20 yards: new the vegetation, the furfaceof the ground in many and it continues fo for 10 or 14 days ; during which places becomes hard and incruftated with a dry fcurt, it opens the {earns of {hips, fplits or opens the crevices which pens up the vapours below: until by the conof wood as if ftirunk or dried with a great fire, and tinuance of the rains for. fome time, this cruft is deftroys both man and beaft.—In the year 1754 or foftened, and .the long pent up vapours fet free. That 1755,. the mortality occafioned in Guinea by this* thefe dews do not'penetrate deep into the earth is evi{linking fog was fo great, that in feveral negro towns dent from the conftant drynefs and hardnefs of fuch of ground in thofe countries as are not covered the living were fcarce fufficient to bury the dead.— fpots grafs and other vegetables. Thus the large rivers Twenty women brought over from Holland by a new with governor to the Caftle del Mina, perifhed,. together in the dry feafon being confined within narrow bounds, a great part of their channel uncovered, which with moft of the men in the garrifon. The gates of leave Cape Coaft caftle were {hut up for want of centinels having its moifture totally exhaled, becomes a folid to do duty ; the blacks dying at this time as well as hard cruft ; but no fooner the rains fallj than by dethe white people. It is liicky that it is only in fome grees this long parched up cruft of earth and clay gra years that harmattans are fo very thick and noxious, dually foftens, and the ground, which before had not otherwife that part of the country would be depopu- the leaft fmell, begins to emit a ftench, which in four lated. It is obferved that all fogs are extremely un- or five weeks becomes exceedingly noifome, at which healthy in thofe parts, particularly before and after the time the ficknefs is generally moft violent. rainy feafons } but the above account, of the harmat* This ficknefs, however, is not different from the remitting*

MED! C I N E. PrafHcie remitting fever which has been defcribed under fo in apparent good health. The white people in general Tertiana. ;| many various ' forms ' and names. An ' inflammatory, ‘' ‘became^ellow ; their ftomach could not receive much | fever is feldom obferved, during the feafon of ficknefs, food without loathing and, retchings. Indeed it is no in this part of the world ; and we fhall conclude our wonder that this ficknefs proved fo fatal, that recovedefcription of the amphimerina paludofa with fome ex- ries from it were fo tedious, and that they were attradts from the furgeon!s journal of a fhip that failed tended with fluxes, dropfies, the jaundice, ague-cakes, up the rivers of Guinea. and other dangerous chronical diftempers. It feetned “ On the 5th of April we failed up the river of more wonderful to me that any white people ever recoGambia, and found all the Englifh in the fort in ver, while they continue to breathe fo peftiferous an air perfedt health. The furgeons of the fadlory informed as that at Catchou during the rainy feafon. We were, me, that a relaxation of the itomach, and confequent- as I have already obferved, 30 miles from the fea, ly a weakened digeftion, feemed to bring on moft of in a country altogether uncultivated, overflowed with the difeafes fo fatal to Europeans in the fickly feafon. water, furrounded with thick impenetrable woods, and They were generally of a bilious nature, attended ith flime. The air was vitiated, noifome, with a low fever, fometimes of a malignant, at other and thick; infomuch that the lighted torches or candles ^times of a remitting kind-.—On the 12th of April, burnt dim, and feemed ready,to be extinguiflied : even after failing 30 miles up the river St Domingo, we the human voice loll its natural tone. The fmell of the came to Catchou, a town belonging to the Portuguefe, ground and of the houfes was raw and offenlive; but the in Lat. 20° N. In this town were only four white -vapour ariling from putrid water intheditcheswas much people, the governor and three friars. The number worfe. All this, however, feemed tolerable, when comof whites in the trading {hips were 51. One morn- .pared with the infinite numbers of infedls fwarming ing, towards the latter- end of April, a little rain fell. every where, both on the ground and in the < ■On the 13th of May there was a fecond Ihower, w'hich, as they feemed to"be produced and cherilhed by accompanied with a tornado, sOn the iSth of May the putrefaction of the atmofphere, fo they contributed -it rained the whole day ; and the rain continued, with greatly to increafe its impurity. The wild bees from but fhort intervals, until the beginning of Oftober. the, woods, together with millions of ants, over-ran “ In the month of June, aknoft two-thirds of the and dellroyed the furniture of tire houfes; at the fame white people were taken ill. Their ficknefs could not time, fwarms of cockroaches often darkened the air. -be well charaderifed by any denomination commonly .and extinguilhed even candles in their flight; but the -applied to fevers.;,it ho,wever approached neareft to greatdl plague was the murquettos and fand-flies, . what is called a nervous fever, as the pulfe was always whofe inceffant buzz and painful flings were more low, and the brain and nerves feemed principally infupportable than any fymptom of the fever. BeaffeCled. It had alfo a tendency to frequent yemif- fides all thefe, an incredible number of frogs on the -fions. It began fometimes with a vomiting, but banks of the river made fuch a conftant and dif-oftener with a delirium. Its attack was commonly in agreeable croaking, that nothing but being accuftomthe night ; and the patients, being then delirious, were ed to fuch an hideous noife could permit the enjoy.apt to run into the open air., I obferved them fre- ment of natural fleep. In the beginning of O&ober, quently recover their fenfes for a Ihort time, by means as the rains abated, the weather became very hot; .of the heavy rain which fell upon their naked bodies. the woods were covered with abundance of dead frogs, .But the delirium foon returned: they afterwards be- and other vermin, left by the recefs of the river; all came comatofe, their pulfe funk, and a train of ner- the mangroves and flirubs were likevvife overfpread vous fymptoms followed; their Hein often became with flunking flyne.” yellow; bilious vomitings and llools were frequent After fo particular- a defeription of the remitting fefymptoms. The fever reduced the .patient’s ftrength ver in many different parts of the world, we prefume fo much, that it was generally fix weeks or two it will be needlefs to take notice of any little, varieties, .months before he was able to walk abroad. A con- which may occur in the warm parts of America, as fuming flux, a jaundice, a dropfy, or obltruftions in both the nature and cureof the diftemper are radically -the bowels, were the confequences of it. Of 51 the fame : neither (hall we lengthen out this article white men, being the companies of four fhips which with further deferiptions of remitting fevers from the .were at Catchon, one-third died of the- fever, and Works of foreign authors, as, from what we have alone-third more of .the flux, and other difeafes confe- ready faid,.their nature cannot well be miftaken. quent upon it; and of thefe not one was taken ill till, Cure. The great difficulty in the cure of remitting fevers arifes from their not being Ample difeares, but a the rains began. “ I believe, on the whole face of the earth, there complication of feveral others. Fevers,.properly fpeakis'fcarce to be found a more .unhealthy country than ing, have but,three or four different appearances which ;this during tlie rainy feafon : and the idea 1 then con- they can affume without a complication. One is, when ceived of our white people was by making.a compa- they are attended with’ a phlogiftic diatliefis; another rifon of their breathing fuch a noxious air, with a is, when they affu.me the -form of .genuine intermitnumber of river-fifli put into llagnating water; where, tents ; a third is, when they produce a great debility of s the water corrupts, the lifh gro.v lefs lively, they the nervous fyflem ; and the fourth is, when along droop, pine away, and many di with this debility there is alfo a rapid tendency to pu“ Thus ome perfons became dull, inactive, or flight- trefadlion. If, therefore, all thefe fpecies happen to -ly delirious, at intefvals ; and, without being fo much make an attack at once, the moft dangerous fever we /.s confined to their beds, they expired in that delirious can imagine will be produced; and however contrary and comatofe ftate in lefs than 48 hours, after being it may be to our theories to admit the pofiibility of N° 203. fuch

Pra&ice. M E D I Febres fuch an attack, the truth the faA Js tdo often conv firmed by fatal experience. In the beginning of remittent fevers, for inftance, the fymptoms indicate a high degree of inflammation : but if the pra&itioner attempts to remove this inflammation by blood-letting or other evacuations, the pulfe finks irrecoverably, and the per on dies with fuch fymptoms as (how that the nervous fyftem has been from the beginning greatly affefted; at the fame time the high ftimulants and cordials, or the bark, which would have conquered the nervous part of the difeafe, increafe the inflammatory part of it to fuch a degree, that, by a too early exhibition of them the patient alfo dies, but after another manner. In the remitting fever of the Eaft Indies, Dr Lind of Windfor formed the following indications of cure, i. To allay the violence of the fever. 2. To evacuate the putrid humours, and take great care to prevent the body from inclining to putrefa&ion. 3- To keep up the ftrength of the patient as much as poffible during the diforder. 4. To lofe no time in preventing the return of the paroxyfms. To allay the violence of the fever, every thing that can contribute to increafe it ought to be carefully avoided or removed ; fuch as great heat, too itrong a light falling on the eyes, noife, and motion. If during the paroxyfm the head and loins be affe&ed with violent pains, the pulfe be full and hard, and the heat v intenfe, bleeding may be ufed, but with the greateft caution : for, however ufeful this operation may be in cold climates, the fuccefs of it in warm ones is fo far from being certain, that the lives of the patients have been often very much endangered, nay even deitroyed by it. Dr Badenoch, and the furgeon of the Ponlborne, endeavoured each of them to relieve two patients by blood-letting ; and the confequence was, that each of them loft one patient. Dr Lind bled two patients; one of whom was Mr Richardfon, the firft mate of the fliip, who complained of a moft violent pain in his head, with a full hard pulfe. About four or five ounces of blood were taken from him, by which he was greatly relieved : nor was the cure retarded by it; nay, the fever afterwards became lefs irregular. At the time the other patient was bled, the difeafe was exceedingly frequent and violent. He was fo earneft for bleeding, that he fired all the reft with the fame defire, fwearing, that by refufing them this only remedy, every one of them would be fent to their graves. To quiet them, therefore, an! get quit of their importunities, the Doftor complied with their requeft, and took about five or fix ounces from him who had been the firft to require it. The confequence was, that he immediately loft his ftrength; and in lefs than an hour, during which time he made his will, was carried off by the next fit. It is neceffary, however, to obferve, and indeed the Doftor himfelf makes the obfervation, with regard to thfe patient, that he was bled at an improper time, namely, between the fits; whereas, had he been bled in the hot fit, it is poflible he might have been relieved. In fupport of the advantages to be derived from bleeding under proper circumftances, we have the authority both of Cleghorn and Pringle. As Dr Cleghorn praftifed in a very hot country, his obfervations muft in the prefent cafe have greater weight Vol. XI. Part I.

G I N E. 12 than thofe of Pringle, who praftifed in a colder Tertiana.J one. The former acquaints us, that if he was called * in early enough, unlefs there was a ftrong contra-indication, he always ufed to take away fome blood from people of all ages 5 namely, from robuft adults, 10 or 12 ounces; from others a fmaller quantity, in proportion to their ftrength and years. And further, if a violent head-ach, obftinate delirium, and great heat or pains of the bowels, were urgent, the bleeding was repeated within a day or two. By this feafonable evacuation, he found the vehemence of all the paroxyfms fomewhat diminifhed ; the apyrexies became more complete ; the operation of emetics and cathartics rendered fafer and more fuceefsful; and the terrible fymptoms which happened about the height of the diftemper, fuch as ravfng fopor, difficulty of breathing, inflammations of the abdominal vifeera, &c. were either prevented or mitigated. But if the fever had continued for fome time before he was called, and the mafs of blood appeared to be too much melted down or inclined to a putrid diffolution, he either abftained from bleeding entirely, or took away a very fmall quantity, though fome importunate fymptoms might feem to require a larger evacuation. As to the time of performing the operation, he acquaints us, that it is fafe enough, except when the cold fit lafts or is foon expefted, or while the fltin is covered with critical fweats ; and that he ufually opened a vein in the beginning of the hot fit; by which means the fick were relieved, the immoderate heat of the body, which is often produftive of fatal effefts, was diminiffied, and the critical fweats brought on fooner and in greater abundance. But though Dr Lind found venefeftion to be of fuch pernicious tendency in his patients, cooling acidulated liquors were of the utmoft fervice, as they correfted the putrid humours, leffened the heat and third, and of courfe prevented the fever from arriving at fo great an height as it would otherwife have done. Thofe cooling liquors are the beft which are made up with fome farinaceous fubftance, as they moft eafily unite with our fluids. Foffile acids too, and cryftals of tartar, efpecially the latter, are of confiderable ufe, not only in this but in other fevers. The neutral falls, prepared with the juice of lemons, were likewife given with fuccefs during the heat of the fever. They leffen the naufea, the fits become more regular, and the remiffions more full; and they are particularly grateful when given in a ftate of effervefeenee. The good effefts of thefe draughts we are in a great meafure t® aferibe to the antifeptic quality of the fixed air extricated from them during the effervefcence ; of which we fhall fpeak more fully when treating of the typhous fevers. During the remiffion, it is proper to evacuate the putrid humours by fmall dofes of ipecacuanha, or rather tartar emetic. The tartar emetic indeed appears to be endowed with fome kind of febrifuge virtue, which Dr Cullen thinks is owing to its relaxing the febrile fpafm taking place in the capillary veffels. But fhould there appear any fymptoms of a topical inflammation in fome of the abdominal vifeera, a thing which never happens unlefs the diforder has been of fome Handing, vomiting is to be avoided, and we are to depend upon purgatives alone for the CL evacu-

122 MED! Febres cvacnatlofl of the putrid bile, which are always ufe« ' ful in the cure of this diforder. But all acrid and flrong purgatives are to be carefully avoided, and only the mild antifeptic ones made ufe of, fuch as cryilals of tartar, or tamarinds made up with manna or with Glauber’s fait. Under the article Gall, we have obferved, from Ur Percival, the effeft which vegetable acids have in fweeteningputrid bile; whence it feemsprobable, that a liberal ufe of thefe acids would be much more ferviccable than a repetition of any kind of purgatives. Though in thefe difeafes there is a great quantity of putrefcent bile colle&ed in the body, yet it feems much more probable that this is the ejfett rather than the eaufe of the diforder; and therefore, though we carry off the quantity collected ever fo often, more of the fame kind will ftill be produced by the putrefcent difpofition of the other fluids, at the fame time that the ftrength of the patient muff neceffarily be diminifhed by repeated evacuations, when it ought rather to be kept up by all poffible means. We ought well to obferve, however, that the mineral acids have not that property of fweetening putrid bile which the vegetable ones have ; and therefore the fame relief will not be given by them which might reafonably be expected from vinegar or lemon-juice. In order to keep up the ftrength of the patient, good food is abfolutely neceffary. Dr Lind allowed the fick fmall mcffes of' panada made with boiled rice and barley mixed with currants or raifins and prunes, feafoned with fugar and a little wine, efpecially claret. During the paroxyfms, they had gruel made of flour and rice, with fugar and the juice of acid fruit; and when the fit went off, a little wine was added to this mixture. The (hirts and bedding muft be very often changed and well aired ; their ftools, and all filth and naftinefs, are to be immediately removed; the places where they are lodged ftiould be well aired and frequently fprinkled with vinegar; and, in the laft place, the lick muft be exceedingly well nurfed. Blifters, according to Dr Lind, Ihould never be ufed till the fever has been of long continuance, or the fpirits and pulfe of the patient have begun to flag. But here our author has implicitly followed Dr Huxham, whofe theory concerning the ufe of blifters is now found to be erroneous. According to that celebrated author, blifters are capable of doing confiderable hurt in all cafes where there is a tendency to inflammation, by increafing the motion of the fluids and the ofciliatory power of the veffels, both of which are already too great. They are alfo improper, according to him, where there is a confiderable tendency of the fluids to putrefaftion; becaufe he fuppofes the falts of thefe flies to operate in the fame manner with volatile alkalies, that is, by diffolving and putrefying the blood ftill farther. But Sir John Pringle has fhown, that, in inflammatory fevers as well as thofe of the putrid kind, both blifters and volatile falts may be of fervice ; the latter, particularly, he hath experimentally proved to be fo far from promoting putrefaftion, that they are exceedingly ftrong antifepticSi In the Eaft Indies, Dr Lind found it abfolutely neceflary to exhibit the bark in large quantities, and as early as poffible. By this method he not only fe-

C T N E. Pradlic cured the patient from the imminent danger of death Tertianai to which he was expofed at every fit, but likewife con- -y-— quered thofe obftru&ions which were apt to enfue in the abdominal vifcera, and which are to be attributed to the continuance of the diforder, and not to the bark employed to cure it. He always gave the bark during the fecond remiffion, as all his care was during the firft to cleanfe the primse vias. He obferves, however, that it is to no purpofe to give the bark till the neceffary purgations are over; but affures us, that it never fails, unlefs from the coming on of a vomiting or diarrhoea it cannot be taken in fufficient quantities before the return of a paroxyfm. To prevent the medicine from vomiting or purging, he mixed a few drops of liquid laudanum with every dofe of it. Half a drachm was given every half hour in fome convenient vehicle, beginning as foon as the fever had confiderably abated, and the pulfe was returned nearly to its natural ftate; both which generally happened before the fweats were over. An ounce of the bark was fometimes found too little to check the fever, but an ounce and a half never failed. It muft be continued daily in fmall dofes till the patient has recovered his ttrength, and then a greater quantity muft be given, efpecially at the feafon when the rivers overflow the country. Dr Pringle found the autumnal remittents in the Netherlands complicated with a great many inflammatory fymptoms ; for which reafon it was generally found neceffary to open a vein in the beginning. The vernal and later autumnal remitting fevers are accompanied with pleuritic and rheumatic pains from the coldnefs of the weather, and on that account require more bleeding. A phyfician unacquainted with the nature of the difeafe, and attending chiefly to the paroxyfms and remiffions, would be apt to omit this evacuation entirely, and give the bark too foon, which would bring on a continued inflammatory fever. In thefe countries a vein may be fafely opened either during the remiffion or in the height of a paroxyfm; and our author alfo found good effe&s refulting from bleeding in the hot fits of the marfh-fever, even after it had almoft come to regular intermiffions. After bleeding, a purgative was ufually exhibited, of which he gives us the following formula. R. Infufi fense commun. jjiij. Elecft. Lenitiv. ^fs. Nitr. pur. ji. Tindt. fen. 5vi. M. Of this only one half was taken at once ; and if it did not operate twice in four hours, the remainder was then taken. This potion agreed with the ftomach, purged plentifully, and therefore waS a very ufeful compofition. Next morning, when there was almoft always fome remiffion, he gave one grain of emetic tartar rubbed with 12 grains of crabs-eyes, and repeated the dofe in two hours, if the firft had little or no effeft ; or at any rate in four hours. This medicine was intended not only to vomit, but alfo to operate by ftool, and excite a fweat. If thefe evacuations were procured, the fever generally became eafier, and was even fometimes cured. This he prefers to the ipecacuanha, and therefore in the latter years of his pra&iee difufed that root entirely. The fame medicine was repeated next day or the day following; ornot.if

MEDICINE. Practice, Febres not, a laxative dyfler was thrown in : and this me- threatening inflammations, to make frequent though —y—~ thod was continued till the fever either went off altoge- not copious evacuations by blood-letting. For by dether, or intermitted in fuch a manner as to be cured lay the inflammation quickly paffes from it firft to its laft or fatal ftage ; at leaft an imperfeft crifis in fuch by the bark. A limilar method was followed by Dr Huck in the inflammatory fevers enfues, which fixes an obftru&ion remitting fevers of the Welt Indies and North Ame- in the vifcera extremely difficult to remove. rica. In the beginning he let blood ; and in the firft It is indeed a general maxim with fome phyficians remillion gave four or live grains of ipecacuanha, with in the Weft Indies, that in moft acute diftempers bleedfrom half a grain to two grains of emetic tartar. This ing in that country is prejudicial. This is founded powder he repeated in two hours, taking care that the upon a fuppofition that the craffamentum of the blood patient Ihould not drink before the fecond dofe ; for is thinned, and the folids greatly weakened, by the then the medicine more readily palled into the bowels heat of the climate. It is therefore objefted, that after it had operated by vomiting. If after two hours bleeding in fuch an habit of body weakens the powers more the operation either way was fmall, he gave a of nature, and withdraws the ftrength which is rethird dofe, which commonly had a good effeft in quifite to fupport the patient until the crifis of the opening the firft paffages ; and then the fever either fever. went quite off, or intermitted in fuch a manner as to This reafoning is partly juft ; but, like all general yield to the bark. On the continent, he found little maxims, will admit of exceptions. Firft with regard difficulty after the intermiffion ; but in the Weft In- to failors, it is to be remembered, that they are more dies, unlefs he gave the bark upon the very firft inter- expofed to quick viciffitudes of heat, cold, damps, and miffion, though imperfect, the fever was apt to affume to various changes ©f the air and weather, than moft of a continued and dangerous form. the other inhabitants of the Torrid Zone. Add to In the remitting fevers of hot countries, however, this, that their intemperance, and the exceffes they it muft be obferved, that the lancet mull in all cafes be are apt to fall into whenever it is in their power to much more fparingly ufed than in fimilar difeafes of commit them, render them more liable to inflammathe colder regions; and we muft alfo be fparing of vene- tions than any other fet of people. Hence their diffeftion in thofe countries where the marlh effluvia are eafes require more plentiful evacuations than the landvery ftrong and prevail much. For this reafon Dr inhabitants of thofe parts of the world, and generally Lind of Haflar greatly condemns the praftice of in- they bear them better. But with regard to the nadifcriminate bleeding when people firft arrive in hot tives of the country, or thofe who have remained long climates. The firft difeafes indeed which occur in a there, it muft be proper to bleed them very fparingly, voyage to the fouthward are for the moft part of an making a fmall allowance for the different feafons of inflammatory nature, and owing to a fudden tranfition the year, the temperature of the air, and the fituafrom cold to hot weather. This occafions a fullnefs tion of the places where they refide. Thus, in fome and diftenfion of the veffels; whence all Europeans, parts, even on the ifland of Jamaica, at particular feaon their firft arrival under the tropic, bear evacuations fons, the weather is cool; wherefore, in thefe places, much better than afterwards. The practice of indif- and at fuch feafons, the inhabitants having their ficriminately bleeding, however, a number of the (hip’s bres more rigid, and a firmer crafis of their blood, bear company when they firft come into a warm latitude, is venefeftion much better. by no means found to anfwer the purpofe of a preven- In cold countries the ftate of the air greatly affifts tive. In fuch cafes, indeed, as plainly indicate a ple- in reftoring the impaired fpring of the fibres; wherethoric difpofition brought on by the heat, blood-let- as every thing almoft in warm weather, fuch as heat, ting is certainly ufeful. The figns of this are a pain moifture, &c. concur to relax and weaken the habit and giddinefs in the head ; a heavinefs and dulnefs of of body. Thus we may daily fee perfons in Britain, the eyes, which fometimes appear flightly inflamed : after having fuffered a moft fevere fit of ficknefs, rethere is alfo commonly a fenfe of weight and fulnefs cover their ftrength and fpirits in a few days, and in in the breaft, the pulfe at the fame time being quick a very ftiort time their natural conftitution. But the and oppreffed. cafe is very different in the fultry regions of the Torrid But the cafe is quite different after a longer conti- Zone, or indeed in any part of the - world where the nuance of fultry weather, and when the conftitution is heat of the feafon caufes the mercury to ftand for any in fome meafure habituated to the hot climate. For length of time at the 77th degree and upward of it is then obferved, that the fymptoms of inflamma- Fahrenheit’s thermometer. During fuch an excefs of tions in the bowels, even the moft dangerous, are not heat, debility after fevers is apt to remain with Eunear fo fevere in fuch climates as in cold countries ; ropean conftitutions for feveral months. In Jamaica, nor can the patidnts bear fuch large evacuations. The the convalefcents are fent to the cool fummits of the phyfician, however, muft take care not to be mifled mountains; but a retreat to a more northern climate by the apparent mildnefs of the fymptoms: for he will is often abfolutely neceffary to recover their wonted find, notwithftanding fuch deceitful appearances, that tone and vigour of body. It is a well-eftabliftied the inflammation makes a more rapid progrefs in hot obfervation, that the negroes and aborigines of the countries than in cold, fuppurations anil mortifications Torrid Zone cannot bear plentiful evacuations by the being much more fuddenly formed ; and that in general lancet. They commonly mix the moft ftimulating all acute diftempers come fooner to a crifis in the warm poignant fpices with their ordinary light food, and fouthern than in colder regions. Hence it is an im- this is found by experience fuitable to their conftiportant rule of practice in thofe climates, to feize the tutions. moft early opportunity, in the commencement of all As proper preventives for the dangerous fevers of Q^2 which

MEDICINE. Praiflicu winch wc are treating, Dr Lind on all occafions re- gularly, or rather abftemioufly ; refrefhed himfelf often Quartanii commends the avoiding of itagnant water, or putrid by eating a cool melon ; and mixed his ufual wirte, —“'V"“f marlhes; the ufe of proper food, cleanlinefs, and fo- which was Burgundy, with water. Yet notwithllandbriety. Of the 'propriety of removing from the neigh- ing his utmoil care, he was feized with a dyfentery ; bourhood of thole places whole peitilential effluvia pro- which would have quickly put an end to his life, had duce the diforders, we cannot poflibly entertain a not the fpeedy concluflon of that campaign permitted doubt ; and of the efficacy of proper food in prevent- him to make a quick retreat. ing putrid diforders he gives a remarkable inflance in At this unhealthy feafon, when hardly one imperial the Sheernefs man of war, bound to the Eail Indies. officer, much lefe their feveral domellics, efcaped thofe As they went out, the men being apprehenfive of malignant difeafes, the renowned Count Bonneval and lickneis in fo long a voyage, petitioned the captain his numerous retinue continued in perfedl health, to the not to oblige them to take up their fait provilions, furprife, or, to ufe the words of Dr Kramer, to the but rather to permit them to livs upon the other fpc- envy, of all who beheld him. The only precaution he eies of their allowance. It was therefore ordered, that ufed was to take, two or three times a-day, a fmall they Ihould be ferved with falt-meat only once a-week; quantity of brandy in which the bark was infufed ; and and the confequence was, that, after a palfage of five he obliged all his attendants and domellics to follow months and one day, the Ihip arrived at the Cape of his example. It is no lefs remarkable that the count, Good Hope without having a fingle perfon fick on placing his certain prefervation in the ufe of this board. As the ufe of Sutton’s pipes had been then Angle medicine, lived for many years afterwards in the newly introduced into the king’s Ihips, the captain moil unhealthy fpots of Hungary, without any attack was willing to afcribe part ol fuch an uncommon or apprehenfion of difeafe ; and continued to enjoy a healthfulnels to their beneficial effects; but it was foon perfect ftate of health during the hotteft and mod difeovered, that, by the neglect of the carpenter, the fickly feafons. And thus, with an unbroken and cock of the pipes had been all this while kept (hut. found conilitution, which is feldom the cafe of thofe This Ihip remained in India fome months, where none who reiide long in fuch climates, he lived to a great of the men, except the boat’s crew, had the benefit of age. There is an inllance produced by the fame augoing on Ihore; notwithllanding which, the crew con- thor of a whole regiment in Italy having been pretinued to enjoy the molt perfedt Hate of health ; they ferved by the ufe of the bark from the attack of thefe were, however, well fupplied with frelh meat. On malignant difeafes, viz. the flux, and bilious fever as it leaving India, knowing they were to flop at the Cape is frequently called, when the reft of the Auftrian of Good. Hope, and trufting to a quick paffage, and army, not purfuing that method, became greatly anthe abundance of refrelhments to be had there, they noyed with them. eat their full allowance of falt-meats, during a paffage The intemperance and irregular living of thofe Euof only 10 weeks; and it is to te remarked the air-pipes ropeans who vifit the hot climates is frequently accufed were now open. The effecl of this was, that when they as the caufe of their dellrudtion; but, our authorwere arrived at the Cape, 20 of them were affiidted in thinks, without fufficient reafon : for though intema moft miferable manner with fcorbutic and other dif- perance will make the body more liable to receive fuch orders. Thefe, however, were fpeedily recovered by difeafes, it will not bring them on. It mull by no the refrelhments they met with on Ihore. Being now means, however, be imagined, that in thefe climates thoroughly fenfible of the beneficial effects of eating, Europeans may with impunity be guilty of exceffes in in thefe fduthern climates, as little fait meat as pof- eating or drinking; for the lead error in that way will fible when at fea, they unanimoufly agreed, in their often prove fatal by debilitating the body, whofe utmolt llrength in time of full health was perhaps voyage home from the Cape, to refrain from their fcaree fufficient to refill the pellilential miafmata of too plentiful allowance of fait fielh. And thus the Sheernefs arrived at Spithead, with her full comple- theItatmofphere. appears, therefore, from the concurrent teftimony ment of 160 men in perfect health and with unbroken conftitutions ; having in this voyage of 14 months of the molt eminent phyficians, that the moft proper and 1 5 days buried but one man, who died in a mer- medicine to be ufed, either as a preventive or cure for remitting and intermitting diforders is the Peruvian curial falivation. Thus we fee, that a free and pure air is not a fuffi- bark, adminillered with proper precautions, and after ci&nt prefervative againft a putrefeent ftate of the the primne via have been evacuated of the putrid bimatter collected in them. In thofe fpecies of fluids, without proper food ; and, on the other hand, lious we have a very remarkable inllance of the ineffi- tritaophya, &c. belonging to this clafs, enumerated Sauvages, the fame remedies only were ufeful; but cacy of the moll falutary food to prevent putrid dif- by eafes, in a very noxious Hate of the a-tmofphere. In in that pellilential diltemper which he calls tritaophya Vratjlavieijis, he tells us, that walhing the body witK, the year 1717, at the fiege of Belgrade in Hungary, water fometimes hot fometimes cold, watery clyilers, the fever of the country, and the flux, occafioned a and moft extraoadinary mortality among the troops. The plenty of aqueous drink, were likewife of uie. dread of thefe difeafes caufed every one, as may na- Genus II. QUARTANA i the Qujartan Fever. turally be fuppofed, to have recourfe to different pre- Quartana auftorum, Sauv. Gen. 89. Lin. 17. cautions for felf-prefervation. Prince Eugene, the Peg. 3. Sag. 711. Hoffin. II. p. 23. Junck. tab. 81. commander in chief, had water and the provifions for his table fent him twice a-week from Vienna. The The Genuine Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1. A. pure fiream of the river Kahlenberg was regularly Quartana legitima, Sauv. l. Sydenham de morb. brought to him: he avoided all exceffes; and lived reacut. cap. v. jDefcription.

I Praaice. M E, D I CINE. , fe|,res Dcfeription. The genuine quartan, according to The Triple Quartan. Sp. I. var. r. E. - 'v Juncker, keeps its form more exadly than other inter- Quartana triplex, Sauv- fp. 5. Vog. Jp. 14. Barmiuents; fcarcely coming on at any other time than tholin, c. 1. 95. four or five in the afternoon. The cold is lefs violent This comesH.onanat. every day, but the quartan type is than in the tertian j but is very perceptible, though it ftill preferred by the times of acceffion ; that is, the doth not proceed to fuch a height as to make the time of the fourth paroxyfm’s coming on anfwers to limbs fhake ; and continues for about two hours. It is of the firft, the fifth to the fecond, the fixth to preceded and accompanied by a langour both of body that and mind. There is fddom any vomiting unlefs when the third, &c. the ftomach is manifeftly overloaded with aliment; nei- The Quartan, accompanied with Symptoms of other ther is there any diarrhoea, but the belly in general is difeafes. Sp. I. var. 2. rather bound, not only on the days on which the pa- Quartana cataleptica, Sauv. fp. 7. Bond, polyalth. roxyfm takes place, but alfo on the intermediate ones. vol. I. p. 805. The heat, which flowly fucceeds the cold, is lefs Quartana comatofa, Sauv. fp. 15. Werholf. de febr. C. Pifonis Obferv. de morbis a colluvie ferof, troublefome to the patient by its violence than by the ujjcafy drynefs of the fkin, which is fcarce ever moiobf. 166, 167. 168, 169, 171, 172, 173, 174. ftened with fweat. This heat rarely continues longer Quartana8epileptica, Sauv. fp. 8. Scholzii Conf. than four or fix hours, unlefs perhaps at the firft or fe379> 3 hyfterica, °cond paroxyfm. It is accompanied alfo with a giddi- Quartana Sauv. fp. to. Morton, Pyret, nefs and dull pain of the head. On the termination exerc. 1. cap. ix. H. 10, 11. of the paroxyfm, the patient returns to a middling Quartan? nephralgica, Sauv. fp. 9, ftate of health, and continues in the fame for the reft Quartana metaftatica, Sauv. fp. 17. of the intermediate days; only there remains fome- Quartana amens, Sauv. fp. 12. Sydenham de morb, what of a loathing, and a deep-feated pain as if the acut. cap- v. perfon was all over bruifed or broken, which kind of Quartana fplenetica, Sauv. fp. 2. Elmuller, Coll, fenfation the phyficians are wont to call ojltocopus. csnfult. caf 25. The fit returns every fourth day, and that precifely at The Quartan complicated with other Difeafes. Sp. I. the fame hours, being rarely poftponed. var. 3. Caufes of, and perjons fubjcci to, this diforder. The fyphilitica, Sauv. fp. 6. Plateri, ^bferv. fame general caufes concur in producing this as in other Quartana L. III. p. 676. Edin. Eff. art. xlvii. obf. 8. intermittents, namely marfh miafmata, and whatever can Quartana arthriticia, Sauv. fp. it. Mufgr. d&Arthr. difpofe the body to be eafily affe&ed by them. Stufympt. cap. ix. H. 4. et 5. dious people, and thofe of a melancholic turn, are Arthritis febrifequa, Sauv. fp. to. faid to be particularly fubjeft to quartans ; but what febricofa, Sauv. fp. ro. Werlholf. de are the immediate caufes which produce a return of Arthritis febr. Cockburn de morbis oavigantium, obf. 19. the fits every fourth day, inftead of every day, or every Quartana fcorbutica, Sauv. i’p. 14. Barthol. de med. third day, muft probably lie for ever concealed, as deDan. diff. iv. Tim. L, VIIL caf. 18. pending upon the fecret and inexplicable mechanifm of the human body. The Remitting Quartan. Sp. IT. Prognofis. A Ample quartan, where there is no Tetartophya, S.'mv. gen. 85. Sag. 699. Lin. 21. reafon to dread any induration of the vifcera, may very Quartana ren^’tttens au&orum. certainly admit of a cure ; and the prognofis can Var. I. T'l-tartaphya fimplex, Sauv. fp r. never be unfavourable, unlefs in cafes of extreme 2. Amphimerina femiquartana, Sauv. fp. 23. weaknefs, or where the diftemper hath been unfkilful3. Tetartophya femitertiana, Sauv.1 fp. 5. ly treated. 4. Tetartophya maligna, Sauv. fp . 6. Lautter. Cure. This does not in the leaft differ from that Hift. med. caf. 21. M. Donat. L. III. which hath been fully laid down for the fimple tertian, cap. 14. ex M. Gatenaria Horfl. L. I. obf. 15. and which it is therefore needlefs to repeat here. 5. Tetartophya carotica, Sauv. fp. 4. Wrtlholf. de febr. Bianchi Hift. hep. pars III. The Duplicated Quartan. S- j var T g conft. ann. 1718, p. 751. JJ4 6. Tetartophya fplenalgica, Sauv. fp. 2. duplicam, ThisQuartana is entirely fimil^ to the {j;|u l;;cated tertian ai„ 7. Tetartophya, hepatalgica, Sauv. 3. Car. • ready mentioned; ^.oper al}owance b€;ng made for the Pif. in prefat. p. 33. difference betw-'.en the type of a tertian and quartan. 8. Amphimerina fpafmodica, Sauv. fp. 16. To oftheauthors. tertian or quartan feversabove alfo mentioneddifbelong the ifrThe Tr .pficated Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1.-• C.—• “r* raticce all thofe *55 .^rtana tripheata, Sauv. fp, 16. £ iy jn tbe fjjghtAscircumftance of the type ffofe hath three paroxyfms every fourth day, while tbeer onintermitting and remitting tertians already deferir th&intermediate days are entirely free from fever. bed at length, it is unneoeffary here to take up time in defetibing every minute circumftance related by The Double Quartan. Sp. I. var. 1. D. phyficians concerning them, efpecially as it could conduplex, Sauv. fp. 3. Vog. fp. 13. ‘156 In Quartana the double quartan, the fits come on eveiy day tribute nothing towards the laying down a better meexcept the third ; but fo that the firft paroxyfm an- thod of cure than what hath been already fuggefted. fwers to the third, the fecond to the fourth,,and fo on. Genus

125

M E D I Genus III. QtJOTIDIANA ; the Quotidian Fever. 1 Quotidiana’ auftorum, Sauv. gen. 86. Lin. 15. F'og. I. Hojfm. II. 33. Junck. tab. 79. The Genuine Quotidian. Sp. 1. var„i. A. Quotidiana iimplex, Sauv. fp. 1. Quotidiana legitima, Sennert. de febr. cap. 18. Defcription. This kind of fever generally comes on about fix or feven o’clock in the morning, beginning with a confiderable degree of cold and ftiivering, which lafts for about an hour ; and is often accompanied with vomiting, or fpontaneous diarrhoea, or both. It is fucceeded by a pretty ftrong heat, accompanied with thirft, reftlelfnefs, and pain of the head. When the heat abates a little, a fpontaneous fweat commonly follows, and the whole paroxyfm rarely exceeds fix hours. It returns, however, every day almoft always at the fame hour, unlefs it be evidently difturbed. Caufes of, and perfonsfubjecl to, the difeafe. The fame general caufes are to be afiigned for the quotidian as for other intermittents. This kind occurs but rarely ; and is faid to attack people of a phlegmatic temperament rather than any other: alfo old people rather than young, and women rather than men. The prognofis and method of cure are not different from thofe of tertians and quartans. The Parto/Quotidian. Sp. x. var. 1. B. Quotidiana partialis, Sauv. fp. 16. Cnoffel, E N. C. I). 1. A. III. obf. 205. Edin. Med. Eff. vol. i. art. 3 t. vol. ii. art, 16. Quotidiana cephalalgica, Sauv. fp. 6. Mart, pyretol, exerc . i. hift. 27. Van Swieten in Boerh. p. 534. Cephalalgia intermittens, Sauv. fp. 7. Cephalaea febricofa, Sauv. fp. 4. Quotidiana ophthalmica, Morton, ibid. hift. 17. Van Sovteten, ibid. Ophthalmia febricofa, Sauv. fp. 23. Thefe diftempers attack only fome particular part of the body, as the head, the eye, arm, &c. producing periodical affe&ions of thofe parts returning once in 24 hours ; and are to be cured by the bark, as other intermittents. They are known to belong to this clafs, by the evident intermiffion of the pain or other affection of the part. The quotidiana hyjlerica, Sauv. fp. 3. quotidiana catarrbalis, Sauv. fp. 9, and quotidiana dranguriofa, Sauv. fp". 11 • feem to be fymptomatic diiorders. The Remitting Quotidian. Sp. II. Amphimerina, Sauv. gen. 84. Lin. 20. Quotidiana continua, Vog. 15. Quotidianse remittentes et continuae audlorum. Amphimerina latica, Sauv. fp. 1. Febris continua lymphatics, Etmulicr, Coll. conf. caf. 32. River. Obf. cent. x. obf. 57. Amphimerina fingultuofa, Sauv. fp. 14. Febris continua Lyngodes, Vog. 26. Concerning thefe alfo nothing remains neceffary to be mentioned in this place, having already fo fully difcuffed the remitting fevers in all the different parts of the world, Many other varieties of thefe fevers mentioned by different authors are to be accounted merely Symptomatic.

CINE. Tratfice. Sect. II. CONTINUED FEVERS. .3rn*c'“-. Continue, Sauv. clafs ii. ord. I. Vog. clafs I. ord. 2* Sag. 666. Boerh. 727. Continentes, Lin. clafs. ii. ord. x. Stahl. Caf. mag. 35. Caf. min. 87. Junck. 58. Sennert. de febr. L. ii. cap. 2. et 10. Genus IV. SYNOCHA. ^ Synocha, Sauv. gen. 80. Lin. 12. Junck. 58. Synocha, five febris acuta fanguinea, Hojfm. II. 105. Synochus, Vog. 16. Continua non putris, Boerh. 720. Ephemera, Sauv. g. 79. Boerh. 728. Junck. 57. Diaria, Lin. 11. Febris infiammatoria audiorum. Defcription. The moft Ample kind of fynocha is the ephemera or diary fever It begins without any fenfation of cold or fhivering, unlefs there be fome internal inflammation, or the, fmall-pox or meafles happen to be prefent. A continual heat without any intermiffion conftitutes the effence of this difeafe. The heat, however, is more tolerable than in the fynocha properly fo called. In fome the pains of the head are pungent and throbbing, anf^ering to the pulfations of the arteries ; but in others they are dull and heavy. The face is red and bloated ; and there is a remarkable laffitude of the limbs, with a ftrong, full, and frequent pulfe. The urine is red, and depofits a fediment almoft of the colour of orange-peel; and in the very firft day of the difeafe, figns of concodtion (according to the Hippocratic phrafe) appear. The fever commonly goes off with a gentle fweat, but fometimes, though more rarely, with an hemorrhagy of the nofe. Its fhorteft period is 24 hours ; but if it goes beyond the fourth day, it is then a fynocha properly fo called. The Ample fynocha, according to Vogel, begins with cold and ftiivering, fucceeded by vehement heat, rednefs, and drynefs of the fkin. The face, efpecially, is very red, and the thirft intenfe. The head is either pained or heavy. The patient either doth not fieep at all, or is difturbed with dreams. A moift fweat then breaks out all over the fkin. The pulfe is full, quick, and frequent; the judgment is fometimes a little difturbed: young people are apt to be terrified with imaginations ; and they for the moft part incline to fieep : the refpiration is difficult, and the belly coftive ; at the fame time that a tenfive kind of laffitude is perceived over the whole body. ft. complete crifis takes place either on the fourth or at the fartheffi on the eleventh day. The chara&eriftic marks of the fimple fynochus, therefore, are, A rednefs of the face, moifture of the fkin, a ftrong and frequent pulfe. Caufes of, andperfonsfubjecl to, this difeafe. As we have already remarked of intermittents, fb muft we alfo now remark of continued fevers, that it is impoffible to difcover thofe minute caufes which occafioii the difference of type betwixt one inflammatory fever and another, though moft authors pretend to enumerate thefe'with great certainty. Thus Juncker tells us, that the caufe of the fimple ephemera is plethora, together with any immoderate agitation and commotion of the fluids while in that ftate. Vogel reckons among the caufes of his febris diaria, paffions of the mind, pain, want, expofure to the fun, &c. ; a repulfion or abforption 2 of

127 pradice. M E D I CINE. Febres of certain humours ; wounds, fraftures, luxations, &c. ; be compenfated by circumftances which determine it ' Synocha. 'v >»—v fo that in general we may reckon every thing tending to produce a relaxation and revulfion. A11 motion of the body is to be avoided as much to increafe the aftion of the arterial fyftem to be in as a.poffible, and that ptffture only chofen which emcertain circumftances a caufe of inflammatory fever.— ploys the feweft mufcles, and keeps none of them long Hence we find thole are moll fubjeft to the fynocha in a ftate of contraftion. as it accelerates whofe conftitution is either naturally robuft, or who refpiration, is particularly toSpeaking, be avoided. It muft alare expofed to thofe caufes which tend to produce an fo be obferved, that every motion of the body is more increafed aftion of the arterial fyitem ; fuck as hard ftimulant in proportion as the patient is weaker. labour, high living, &c. exercife of the mind is alfo to be avoided, Prognofts. The mod Ample kind of fynocha, that 3. Thea ftimulus to the body ; ’but here an exception is, the ephemera or diary fever, is commonly cured asis being to be made in the cafe of a delirium coming on, without the alfiftancS of medicine, and therefore the when prefenting of accuftomed objefts may diprognofis is for the molt part favourable : yet, if it be vert thetheirregular train of ideas then arifing in the improperly treated by heating medicines, it may eafily be converted into the other kind ; or, if there be a pu- mind. 4. The prefence of recent aliment in the ftomach trid difpofition of the fluids, into a fever of a very proves a ftimulus to the fyftem, and ought dangerous nature. The fame thing is to be underltood thereforealways to be as moderate as poffible. A total abeven of the molt violent kind ; for Ample inflamma- ftinence fome time may be of fervice ; but as this tory fevers are not dangerous unlefs complicated with cannot beforlong with fafety, we muft avoid an affeftion of fome particular part, as the pleura, Ito- the ilimulus of continued aliment by choofing that kind whiclxmach, See. gives the leaft. Alimentary matters are alfo to be acCure. Dr Cullen objefts to the plan of thofe counted more ftimulant in proportion to their alkalewho are for leaving the cure of continued fevers to the feent and this leads us to avoid all animal, operations of nature ; becaufe thefe operations are nei- and ufequalities; vegetable food. For the fame reafon, ther certain in themfelves, nor are they fo well under- aromatic only and fpirituous liquors are to be avoided ; ftood as to enable us to regulate them properly ; and in anfwering the prefent indication, we muft abit is likewife poffible to fuperfede them by art. The and ftain from all fermented liquors except thofe of the plan therefore on which he proceeds is, to form his loweft quality. Other ftimuli are, the fenfation of indications of cure upon the means of obviating the thirft, crudities or corrupted humours in the ftomach, tendency to death in fevers; and thefe he reduces to a preternatural retention faeces in the inteftines, three., i. To moderate the violence of re-aftion.— and a general acrimony ofof the all the humours, which is 2. To remove or obviate the caufes of debility ; and, in molt fevers to be fufpefted. Thefe are to be re3. To obviate or correft the tendency of the fluids to moved by fuch methods as the urgency of the fympputrefaftion. toms require, by diluting liquors, vomiting, the ufe of The jirjl indication may be anfwered, r. By all acids, laxative clyfters, and large quantities of antifepthofe means which diminilh the aftion of the heart and tic drinks. arteries. 2. By thofe which take of the fpafm of the [2.j The• fecond method of moderating the vioextreme velfels, which, according to his theory, is the lence of reaftion is by the employment of certain fechief caufe of violent re-aftion. I. The aftion of the heart and ai • cries may be dimi- dative powers, with a view to diminifh the aftivity of whole body, and particularly that of the fanguinilhed, 1. By avoiding or moderating thofe irritations the fyftem. The firft of thefe to be mentioned is which, in one degree or other, are almoft conllantly ferous application of cold. Heat is the chief fupport of applied to the body. 2. By the ufe of certain feda- the the aftivity of the animal-fyjlem ; and the fyftem is tive powers. 3. By diminiming the tenfion or tone therefore provided with a power of generating heat in of the arterial fyftem. [1.] The irritations above-mentioned are the im- itfelf: but at the fame time we may obferve, that this preflions made upon our fenfes, the exercife ofthe body would go to excefs, were it not conftantly moderated a cooler temperature in the furrounding atmofphere. and mind, and the taking in of aliments. The avoid- by ing of thefe as much as pofiible, or the moderating When, therefore, the generating power of heat in the their force, makes what is properly called the aniiphlo— fyftem is increafed,. as is commonly the cafe in fevers, is neceffary not only to avoid all further means of giflic regimen, proper to be employed in almoji every itincreafing it, but alfo to apply air of a cooler tempecontinued fever. This regimen is to be direfted in rature ; or at leaft to apply it more entirely and freely the following manner. x. Impreffions on the external fenfes, as ftimulant than in a ftate of health. This is fhown, from fome obfervations, to be a very powerful means of moto the fyftem, and a chief fupport of its aftivity, late the violence of reaftion ; but -what is the fhould be avoided as much as poffible ; efpecially fuch . derating of its operation, to what circumftances of fever as are of a ftronger kind, and which give pain and mode applies, or what limitations it lequires,uneafinefs. No impreffion is to be more carefully itareparticularly not yet fully afeertained. guarded againft than that of external heat ; and at Another power very frequently employed the fame time every other means of increafing the heat, in fevers, isfedative certain medicines known in the of the body is to be fhunned. Both thefe precautions materia medicathatbyof the of refrigerants. The are to be taken as foon as a hot ftage is fully formed, chief of thefe are acids ofnamekinds when fufficiently and to be attended to during its continuance, except diluted, and which are, in allfeveral refpefts, remedies in certain cafes, where a determination to fweating is Btxeffary, or where the ftimulant tffefts of heat may adapted to continued fevers. Thofe efpecially in ufe are..:

MED I C I N E. Practice arc the vitriolic and vegetable; and on many accounts is even more immediately drawn from thefe is drawn Synocha. the latter are to be preferred. Another fet of refrige- off flowly ; fo the evacuation will not, in proportion to rants are the neutral falts formed of the vitriolic, ni- its quantity, occafion fuch a fudden depletion of the trous, or vegetable acids, with alkalies either fixed or red veffels as bloo'd-letting does; and therefore cannot volatile. All thefe neutrals, while they are diffolved aft fo powerfully in taking off the phlogiftic diathefi* in water, generate cold ; but as that cold ceafes foon of the fyftem. after the diffolution is finifhed, and as the falts are ge- At the fame time the evacuation may induce a connerally exhibited in a diflblved ftate, their refrigerant fiderable degree of debility; and therefore, in thdfe 'power in the animal body does not all depend upon cafes in which a dangerous ftate of debility is likely to their power of generating cold with water. Nitre is occur, purging is to be employed with a great deal of the refrigerant chiefly employed; but all the others, caution ; and this caution is more difficult to be obcompounded as above mentioned, partake more or lefs ferved than in the cafe of blood-letting : and it is furof the fame quality. Befides thefe neutrals, fome me- ther to be noticed, that as purging takes off in fome tallic falts have alfo been employed in fevers, particu- meafure the determination of the blood to the veffels larly the fugar of lead : but the refrigerant powers of on the furface of the body, it feems to be an evacuathis fait are by no means afeertained, and its deliteri- tion not well adapted to the cure of fevers. ous qualities are too well known to admit of its being II. The other method of moderating the violence of reaftion in fevers is by the exhibition of thofe refreely ufed[3.] The third general method of diminifhing the medies fuited to take off the fpafm of the extreme vefrea&ion of the fyftem, is by leffening the tenfion, tone, fels, fuppofed to be the irritation which chiefly fupand activity of the fanguiferous fyftem. As the acti- ports the reaftion. The means to be employed for vity of the fyftem in a great meafure depends upon the this purpofe are either internal or external. tone, and this again upon the tenfion, of the veflels, Fi/y?, The internal means are, I. Thofe which degiven to them by the quantity of fluids they contain, termine the force of the circulation to the extreme vefit is evident, that the diminution of the quantity of fels ort the furface of the body, and, by reftoring the thefe muft diminiih the a&ivity of the fanguiferous tone and aftivity of thefe veffels, overcome the fpafm fyftem. The moft efficacious means of diminifhing on their extremities. 2. Thofe medicines which have the quantity of fluids is by the evacuations of blood- the power of taking off fpafm in any part of the fyletting and purging. The former is evidently one of ftem, and which are known under the title of Antithe moft powerful means of ^iminifhing the activity of S P A 3 MODI CS. the whole body, and efpecially of the fanguiferous fy- (x.) Thofe remedies which -are fit to determine to ftem ; and it muft therefore be the moft effectual the furfac e of the body are, 1. Diluents. 2. Neutral means of moderating the reaction in fevers. When falts. 3. Sudorifics. 4. Emetics. the violence of reaction, and its conftant attendant 1. Water enters, in a large proportion, into the a phlogiftic diathefis, are fufficiently evident; when compofition of all the animal fluids, and a large quanthefe conftitute the principal part of the difeafe, and tity of it is always diffufed through the whole of the may be expected to continue through the whole of it, common mafs. In a found ftate, the fluidity of the mafs depends upon the quantity of water preas in the cafes of fynocha ; then blood-letting is the whole principal remedy, and may be employed as far as the fent in it. Water therefore is the proper diluent of fymptoms of the difeafe may feem to require, and the our mafs of blood, and other fluids are diluent only in conftkution of the patient will bear. It muft, how- proportion to the quantity of water they contain. ever, be remarked, that a greater evacuation than is In a healthy ftate, alfo, the fulnefs of the extreme neceffary may occafion a flower recovery, and render veffels and the quantity of excretion are in proportion the quantity of water prefent in the body. But in the perfon more liable to a relapfe, or bring on other tofever, though the excretions be in fome meafure interdifeafes. It is alfo to be obferved, that this evacuation is the more effectual, as the blood is more fud- rupted, they continue in fuch quantity as to exhale more fluid parts of the blood ; and, while a pordenly drawn off, and as the body is at the fame time the more free from all irritation, and therefore when tion of them is at the fame time neceflarily retained in larger veffels, the fmaller, and the extreme vefit is in a pofture in which the feweft mufcles are in the fels, both from the deficiency of fluid and their own action. With regard to purging, when we confider the contrafted ftate, are lefs filled, and therefore allowed quantity of fluids conftantly prefent in the cavity of to remain in that condition. To remedy this contrafted' ftate, nothing is more neceffary than a large the inteftines, and the quantity which may be drawn fupply of water or watery fluids taken in by drinking off from the innumerable excretories that open into or otherwife ; for as any fuperfluous quantity of wathis cavity, it will be obvious, that a very great eva- ter cuation may be made in this way ; and if this be done is forced off by the feveral excretories, fuch a force ky a ftimulus that is not at the fame time communi- applied may be a means of dilating the extreme veffels, cated to the reft of the body, it may, by emptying and of overcoming the fpafm affefting their extremiboth the cavity of the inteftines and the arteries which ties. Accordingly, the throwing in of a large quanfurnifh the excretions poured into it, induce a confi- tity of watery fluids has been, at all times, a remedy derable relaxation in the whole fyftem ; and is there- much employed in fevers ; and in no inftance more refore fuited to moderate the violence of reaftion in fe- markably than by the Spanifh and Italian phyficians, vers. But it is to be obferved, that as the fluid drawn in the ufe of what they call the dtesta aquea. This from the excretories opening into the inteftines is not praftice confifts in taking away every other kind of all drawn immediately from the arteries, and as what1 aliment and drink, and in giving, in divided portions, every N0 204'

M E D i Practice. Febre; every day for feveral days together, fix or eight pounds of plain water, generally cold, but fometimes warm. All this, however, is to be done only after the difeafe has continued for fome time, and at leaft for a week. 2. A fecond means of determining to the furface of the body, is by the life of neutral falls. Thefe neutrals, in a certain dofe, taken into the ftomach, produce foon after a fenfe of heat upon the furface of the body ; and, if the body be covered dofe and kept warm, a fweat is readily brought out. The fame medicines taken during the cold ftage of a fever, very often put an end to it, and bring on the hot one; and they are alfo remarkable for flopping the vomiting which fo frequently attends the cold ftage of fevers. All this fhows, that neutral falts have a power of determining the blsod to the furface of the body, and may therefore be of ufe in taking off the fpafm which fubfifts there in fevers. The neutral molt commonly employed in fevers, is that formed of an alkali with the native acid of vegetables. But all the other neutrals have more or lefs of the fame virtue ; and perhaps fome of them, particularly the ammoniacal falts, poffefs it in a ftronger degree. As cold water taken into the ftomach often Ihows the fame diaphoretic effects with the neutral falts, it is probablt-that the effect of the latter depends upon their refrigerant powers. 3. A third method of determining to the furface of the Body, and taking off the fpafm fublifting there, is by the ufe of fudorifics and of fweating. The propriety of this remedy has been much difputed ; and many fpecious arguments may be adduced both for and againft the practice. In its favour may be urged, 1. That in healthy perfons, in every cafe of increafed a£tion of the heart and arteries, a fweating takes place, and is, feemingly, the means of preventing the bad effects of fuch increafed action. 2. That, in fevers, their moft ufual folution and termination is by fpontaneous fweating. 3. That, even when excited by art, is has been found ufeful at certain periods, and in certain fpecies of fever.—On the other hand, it may be urged againft the praflice of fweating, j . That in fevers, as a fpontaneous fweating does not immediatelycome on, there are fome circumftances different from thofe in the ftate of health, and which may render it doubtful whether the fweating can be fafely excited by art. 2. That in many cafes the practice has been attended with bad confequences. The means commonly employed have a tendency to produce an inflammatory diathefis; which, if rot taken off by the fweat fucceeding, muft be increafed with much danger. Thus fweating employed to prevent the acceflions of intermitting fevers has often changed them into a continued form, which is always dangerous. 3. The utility of the practice is doubtful, as fweating, when it happens, does not always give a final determination, as muft be manifeft in the cafe of intermittents, and in many continued fevers which are fometimes in the beginning attended with fweatings which do not prove final; and, on the contrary, whether they be fpontaneous or excited by art, they feem often to aggravate the difeafe. From thefe confiderations, it is doubtful if the practice of fweating can be admitted very generally ; but, at the fame time, it is alfo very doubtful if tbs failure Vol. XI. Part L

CINE. of the practice, or the mifehiefs faid to arife from it, have not been owing to the improper condudl of the practitioner. With refpeft to the laft, it is almoft agreed among phyficians, 1. That fweating has been generally hurtful when excited by ftimulant, heating, and inflammatory medicines. 2. That it has been hurtful when excited by much external heat, and continued with a great increafe of the heat of the body. 3. That it is always hurtful when it does not relieve ^ and rather increafes the frequency and hardnefs of the pulfe, the anxiety and difficulty of breathing, the headach, and delirium. 4. That it is always hurtful if it be urged when the fweat is not fluid, and when it is partial and on the fuperior parts of the bodyonly. In thefe cafes, it is probable, that either an inflammatory diathefis is produced, which increafes the fpafm on the extreme veffels ; or that, from other caufes,-the fpafm is too much fixed to yield eafily to the increafed aftion of the heart and arteries ^ and upon either fuppofition it muft be obvious, that urging the fweat may produce determinations to forne of the internal parte, with very great danger. Notwithilanding thefe doubts, however, it ftill remains true, 1. That iweating has been offen ufeful in. preventing the acceffions of fevers when they have been certainly forefeen, and a proper conduft employed. 2. That even after fevers have in fome meaiure come on, fweating has interrupted their progr.-fs when properly employed, either at the very beginning of the difeafe, or during its approach and gradual formation. 3. That even after pyrexiae have continued for fome time, fweating has been fuccefsfully employed in curing them, as is particularly exemplified in the cafe of a rheumatifm. 4. That certain fevers produced by a very powerful fedative contagion, have bee» generally treated moft fuccefsfully by fweating. Thefe rnftances are in favour of fweating, but give no general rule y and it muft be left to farther experience to determine how far any general rule can be efta-* bliffied in’this matter. In the mean time, if the practice of fweating is to be attempted, the following rules may be laid dow n for the coriduft of it 1. That ii fweat ftvould be excited without the ufe of ftimulant inflammatory medicines. 2. That it ftiould be excited with as little external heat, and with as little in* creafe of the heat of the body, as poffible. 3. That, when excited, it fhould be continued for a due lengthof time ; not lefs than 12 hours, and fometimes For 24? or 48 hours ; always, however, fuppofing that it proceeds without the dangerous circumftances alreadymentioned. 4. That for fome part of the time, and' as long as the perfon can ealily bear, it fhould becarried on without admitting of fleep. 5. That it Ihould be rendered univerfal over the w-hole body ; and therefore particularly that care fliould be taken to bring the fweating to the lower extremities. 6. That the practice fhould be rendered fafer by moderate purging excited at the fame time. 7. That it fliould not be fuddenly checked by. cold any how applied to the body. When attention is to be given to thefe rules, the fweating may be excited, 1. By warm bathing, or a. fomentation of the lower extremities. 2. By frequent draughts of tepid liquors,.chiefly water, rendered more R grateful'

jf ^ © M E D I Febres grateful ty the addition of a light aromatic, or more "'“'’'V—-, powerful by that of a fmall quantity of wine. 3. By giving fome dofes of neutral falts. 4. Mofl efFe&iially, and perhaps moft fafely, by a large dofe of an opiate, joined with a portion of neutral falts, and of an emetic. The fourth mean of determining to the furface of the body, and thereby taking off the fpafm affefting "- the extreme veffels, is by the ufe of emetics. Thefe, particularly of the antimonial kind, have been enw ployed in the Cure of fevers ever lince the introduftion of chemical medicines; and though of late their ufe has become very general, their efficacy is ftill difputed, and their manner of operating is differently explained. Vomiting is in many refpe&s ufeful in fevers ; as k evacuates the contents of the flomach, as it emulges the biliary and pancreatic dufts, and evacuates the contents of the duodenum, and perhaps alfo of a larger portion of the inteflines; as it agitates the whole of the abdominal vifeera, it expedes the circulation in them, and promotes their feveral fecretions ; and laftly, as it agitates alfo the vifeera of the thorax, it has like effeeb there. It is not to this caiife, however, that we are to impute the effeft vomiting has in determining to the furface of the body. This mull be attributed to the particular operation of emetics upon the mufcular fibres of the flomach, whereby they excite the adlion of the extreme arteries on the furface of the body, and by this means effedluallydetermine the blood to thefe veffels, remove the atony, and take off the fpafm affedling them. For this purpofe they are exhibited ih two different ways ; that is, either in fuch dofes as may excite full and repeated vomitings, or in fuch dofes as may excite ficknefs and -naufea only, with little or no vomiting at all. Full vomiting is well fuited to determine to the fitrface of the body, and thereby to obviate the atony and fpafm which lay the foundation of fever. Thus, vomiting excited a little before the expecled acceffion of the paroxyfm of an intermittent, has been found to _prevent the paroxyfm altogether. It has been obferved alfo, that when contagion has been applied to a perfon, and firfl difcqvers its operation, a Vomit given jr-has prevented the fever which might otherwise have been expefted. Thefe are the advantages to be obtained by exciting vomiting at the firfl approach of fevers, or of the paroxyfm of fevers; and they may alfo be applied after fevers are formed, to take off, perhaps entirely, the atony and fpafm, or at leafl to moderate thefe, fo that the fever may proceed more gently and fafely. It is feldom, however, that vomiting is found to produce a final folution of fevers ; and after they are once formed, it is commonly neceflary to repeat the vomiting feveral times ; but this is attended with inconvenieney, and fometimes with difadvantage. The operation of full vomiting is t ran fitary, and the exercife of vomiting is a debilitating power; and therefore, when the vomiting does not remove the atony and fpafm very entirely, it may give occafion to their recurrence with greater force. For thefe reafons, after fevers are fully formed, fome phyficians have thought proper to emiploy emetics in naufeating dofes only. Thefe are cajsilie of exciting the a£lion of the extreme velkls,

CINE. Pra&leW and them operarion is more permanent. At the fame Synoehai |! time they often fhow their power by exciting fome de- ——v***^ gree of fweat, and their operation is rendered more fafe by their commonly producing fome evacuation by flool. But naufea continued for any great length of time, is to moft patients a feUfation highly diftreffing, and almoft infufferable. The emetics chiefly in ufe at prefent are, ipecacuanha and antimony. The former may be employed for determining to the furface of the body : but, even ia very fmall dofes, it fo readily excites vomiting, that it is with difficulty employed for the purpofe of nauftating only ; and in whatever manner employed, there is realon to fufpedl that its effefls are lefs permanent, and lefs powerfully communicated from the flomach to the reft of the fyftem, than thofe of antimony. This Lift is therefore generally preferred ; and its preparations, feemingly various, may all be reduced to two heads ; one comprehending thofe in which the reguline part is in a condition to be afted upon by acids, and therefore on meeting with acids in the ftomach it becomes adlive ; and another, comprehending thofe preparations in which thereguline part is already joined with an acid, rendering it adlive. Of each kind there are great numbers, but not differing effentially from one another; the two moft worthy of notice are, the calx nitrata antimonii and emetic tartar, or antimonium tartarifatum, of the Edinburgh difpenfatory. Both thefe are very efficacious medicines ; but the latter feems preferable, becaufe its dofe is capable of being better afcertainedj though the former, on account of its flower operation, may have fome advantages, and in certain cafes be more efficacious as a purgative and fudorific. The calx nitrata antimonii, when firft introduced into the pharmacopoeia of the Edinburgh college, was fuppofed to be very nearly, if not precifely, the fame with a medicine which has of late been highly celebrated in the cure of fevers. Dr James’s powder. But from later and more accurate obfervations, there is now reafon to believe that the pulvis antimonialis of the London pharmacopoeia, formed by the calcination -of antimony with hartfhorn, approaches more nearly to that celebrated arcanum. But at any rate, the calx antimonii nitrata, the pulvis antimonialis, and James’s powder, are probably not effentially different from each other. The two latter, however, have the moft near refemblance; and accordingly the Edinburgh college in the laft edition of their pharmacopoeia have introduced an article under the title of antimonium calcaren-pho/phoratum, which they confider as fo much fimilar to James’s powder, that they have ufed as a fynonyme for it, the title of pulvis Jacobi. The time moft proper for exhibiting thefe medicines is a little before the acceffion, wffien that can be certainly known. In continued fevers the exacerbations are not always very obiervable; but there is reafon to believe, that one commonly happens about noon or foon after it; and that thefe, therefore, are the mofl proper times for exhibiting emetics. With rcfpedl to the manner of adminiftration, that of the calx nitrata i - fimple, as the whole of what is thought a proper dofe may be given at once; and no more can be properly given till the next acceffion. The adminiftration of the emetic tartar is different. It is to be given in fmall dofes, not fufficient to excite miting-vo-$

M E D I C I N E. 131 Fra dice. Ecbres mitlng; and thefe dbfes are to,be repeated after fliort revulfion affeft the general diftributlon of the fluids. Typhus. »-—v intervals for feveral times, till ficknefs, naufea, and The evacuation, however, is fo confiderable as to affed ""n * fome, though not much, vomiting come on. The dif- the neighbouring veffel^ and the manifeft utility of near the part affeded in inflammatory difeafes ference of adminiftration mutt depend upon the dofe, bliftering us to think, that bliftering, by deriving to the and the length of the interval at which it is given. If leads it be intended that the medicine thould certainly ope- Ikin, and producing an effufibn there, relaxes the fpafm rate by ftool, the dbfes are made fmall, and the inter- of the deeper feated veffels. It is in this manner, moft vals long. On the contrary, when vomiting is proper, probably, that the tumor of a joint, from an effufion or when much purging oOght to be avoided, and there- into the cellular texture under the Ikin, takes off the fore fome vomiting mult be admitted, the dofe.r are rheumatic pain formerly affeding that joint. Analomade larger, and the intervals firorter. With refpe£t gous to this, probably, is the good effed of bliftering to both kinds of preparations, the repetition is to be in continued fevers; and arifcs from the relaxation of made at the times of acceffion, but not very often: for the fpafm of the extreme veffels by a communication if the lirft exhibitions, duly managed, have little effect, of the bliftered part with the reft of the Ikin. A blifter it is feldom that the after exhibitions have much ; and may be employed at any period in continued fevers ; it fometimes happens that the repeated vomiting, and but it will be-of moft advantage in the advanced Rateefpecially repeated purging,, does harm by weakening of fuch fevers, when, the reaction being weaker, all ambiguity from the ftimulating power of bliftering is the patient. (■2.) The other fet of internal medicines which are removed, and when it may heft concur with, other cirfuppcfed ufaful in taking off the fpafm of the extreme cumftances tending to a final folution of the fpafm. velfels, are thofe named aniifpafmociic. But whatever From this view of the matter, it will appear, that may be the virtues of fome of them in this way, fuch the part of the body to which blilters ought to be apis their power of llimulating at the fame time, that plied is indifferent, except upon the fufpicion of topical very few of them can with fafety be adminiffered in affediou, when the bliftering is- to be made as near as fevers of an inflammatory nature. Almoff: the only poflible to the part affeded. Whether finapifms and , one which can with fafety be exhibited in thefe cafes other rubefacientia ad in a manner analogous to what ]; is camphor; and the operations of this are by no means has been luppofed of bliftering may be doubtful; but well afcertained. Dr Huxham mentions it as a cor- their effeds in rheumatifm .and other inflammatory reftor of the acrimony of cantharides; and'affures us, difeafes render it probablethat it very effeftually promotes a-diaphorefis. But 2. The other external means of taking off the fpafm from the remarks of other practitioners, we have no of the extreme veffels is warm bathing. This was juft reafon to fuppofe that it aCts perceptibly in a dofe frequently, and in different circumftances, employed of five or fix grains, though in 15 or 20 it produces a by the ancients ; but has, till very lately, been negleded by modern phyficians. As the heat of the particular kind of intoxication; Secondly, The external means fuited to take off the bath ftimulates the extreme veffels, and, with the fpafm of the extreme veffels, arc bliftering and warm- 'concurrence of moifture, alfo relaxes them, it feems to be a fafe ftimulus, and well fuited to take off the bathing. 1. What are the effeCts-of bliftering fo frequently fpafm affeding .thefe veffels. It may be applied to employed in fevers, is not yet agreed upon among phy- the whole body by immerfion; but this is in many ficians. Dr Cullen is of opinion, that the fmall quan- refpeds inconvenient; and whether fome of the intity of cantharides abforbed. from a bliftering plafter, conveniences of immerfion might not be avoided by is not fufficient to change the confiftence of the mafs a vapour-bath, is not yet determined by experience ; of blood ; and therefore, that fuch a quantity can nei- but from extenfive experience it appears, that moft of ther do good by refolving phlogiltic lentor if it exifts, the purpofes of warm bathing can be obtained by a fonor do harm by increafing the dilfolution of the blood mentation of the legs and feet, if properly adminiarifing from a putrid tendency in it. The effefts of ftered, and continued for a due length of time, not cantharides upon the fluids, therefore, may be.entirely lefs than. an. hour. The marks of the good effeds of neglefted. The inflammation produced by the appli- fuch a fomentation are, the patient’s bearing it eafily, cation of cantharides to the Ikin,Affords a certain proof jts relieving delirium, and inducing fleep. of their ftimulant power: but in many perfons the efV. TYPHUS; the Typhous Fever. fed of that ftimulus is not confiderable ; in many it is- Genus Typhus, Sau-v. Gen. 82.. Sag. 677.. not communicated to the whole fyftem; and even when it does take place in the whole fyftem, it feems to be I. Typhus mitior, or the Slow Nervous Fever. Sp. I. 16(S' taken off very entirely by the effufion and evacuation of var. T. ferura from the bliftered part. It may be concluded, Febris maligna hedica cofivulfira, five lues therefore, that neither much good is to be expe&ed, Willis, de morb. covulfiv. cap. 8. nor much harm to be apprehended, from the ftimulant Febris peftiiens, Fracaflor. de morb. contag. L. II. power of bliftering; and the certainty of this conclucap. 4. lion is eftablilhed by the great benefit arifing from the peftiletis fine charadere veneni, Forejl, L. VI. proper pratfice of bliftering in inflammatory difeafes. Febris obf. Much has been imputed to the evacuation made by Febris 26. hedica peftiiens, Forejl, L. VI. obf. 32. bliftering ; but it is never fo confiderable as to affed Febris nova ann. 1685, Sydenham, Sched. monitor. the whole fyftem; and therefore can neither by a hid- Febris putrida nervofa, Wintringh. Com. Nofolog, den depletion relax fcfre fanguiferous fyftem, nor by any ad ann. 1720, 1721. R2 Febris '

M E D I Febris lenta nervota, Huxham on fevers, chap. 8. Febris contagiofa, Lind on ftvCrs and infeftion, pa[Jim. Typhus nervofus, Sauv, fp. 2. Typhus comatofus, Sauv. fp. 3. Tritaeophya typhodes Mangeti, Sauv. fp. II. Raym, Fori, de febribus. Defcrlption. Of all the defcriptions vet have of the nervous fever, that of Dr Huxham is perhaps the beft. According to him, the patient at firfl: grows fomewhat liftlefs, and feels flight chills and (hudders, with uncertain fiuQies of heat, and a kind of wearinefs all over, like what is felt after great fatigue. This is always attended with a fort of heavinefs and dejeftion of fpirit, and more or lefs of a load, pain, or giddinefs of the head ; a naufea and difrelifli of every thing foon follows, without any confidcrable third;, but frequently with urging to vomit, though little but intipid phlegm is brought up. Though a kind of lucid interval of feveral hour^ fometimes intervenes, yet the fymptdms return with aggravation, cfpecially towards night; the head grows more giddy or heavy; the heat greater; the pulfe quicker, but weak; with, an op.preffive kind of breathing. A great torpor, or obtufe pain and coldnefs, affe&s the hinder-part of the head frequently, and oftentimes a heavy pain is felt on the top all along the coronary future; this, tmd that of the back-part of the head, generally attend nervous fevers, and are commonly fucceeded by fome degree of a delirium. In this condition the patient often continues for five or fix days, with a heavy, pale, funk countenance 5 feemingly not very fick, and yet far from being well; reftlefs, anxious, and commonly ■quite void of deep, though fometimes very drowfy and heavy; but although he appears to thofe about him aftually to deep, he is utterly infenfible of it, and denies that he doth fo. The pulfe during all this time is quick, weak, and unequal; fometimes fluttering, and fometimes for a few moments flow; nay, even intermitting, and then, with a hidden flufh in the face, immediately very quick, and perhaps foon after furprifingly calm and equal; and thus alternately. The heats and chills are as uncertain and unequal; fometimes a fudden colour and glowarife in the cheeks, while •the tip of the nofe and ears is cold, and the forehead at the fame time in a cold dewy fweat. Nay, it is very common, that a high colour and heat appear in the face, when the extremities are quite cold. The urine is commonly pale, and often limpid ; frequently of a whey colour, or like vapid fmall-beer, in which there is either no manner of fediment, or a kind of loofe matter like bran irregularly fcattered up and *lown in it. The tongue at the beginning is feldom or never dry or difcoloured, but fometimes covered with a thin whitifh mucus: at length, indeed, it often •appears very dry, red, and chapped, or of the colour of pomegranate-rind; but this mcftly at the clofe of the difeafe : yet, however dry the tongue and lips feem, the patient fcarce ever complains of thirft, though fometimes of a heat in the tongue. About the feventh or eighth day, the giddinefs, pain, or heavinefs of the head become much greater, with a conftant noife in it, or tinnitus aurium ; which is very difturbing to the fick, and frequently brings on a delirium. The load on the praecordia, anxiety and faint-

C I N E. Pra