'En Esur ('Ein Asawir). III, excavations in the Bronze Age cemetery 9789654067461, 9789654067478, 9654067463

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IAA Reports, No. 68

‘En Esur (‘Ein Asawir) III Excavations in the Bronze Age Cemetery

Yehuda Dagan and Shelley Sadeh

With contributions by

Daniella Bar-Yosef Mayer, Anat Cohen-Weinberger, Yossi Nagar

JERUSALEM 2021

IAA Reports Publications of the Israel Antiquities Authority Editor-in-Chief: Zvi Greenhut Series and Production Editor: Shelley Sadeh Volume Editor: Viviana R. Moscovich Front Cover: Burial Cave 567 toward the end of the excavation (photograph, Yehuda Dagan) Back Cover: Intact and restored pottery vessels from the burial caves (photographs, Yehuda Dagan and Clara Amit) Cover Design, Production, Layout and Typesetting: Ann Buchnick-Abuhav Illustrations: Anna Iamim, Bracha Zilber, Dov Porotsky Printing: Digiprint Zahav Ltd. Copyright © 2021, The Israel Antiquities Authority, Jerusalem POB 586, Jerusalem, 91004 ISBN 978-965-406-746-1 EISBN 978-965-406-747-8 www.antiquities.org.il

Contents

ABBREVIATIONS

iv

PREFACE

v

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Yehuda Dagan and Shelley Sadeh

1

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

Yehuda Dagan and Shelley Sadeh

9

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY Shelley Sadeh

63

CHAPTER 4: THE INTERMEDIATE BRONZE AGE POTTERY

Shelley Sadeh

197

CHAPTER 5: THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE IIA POTTERY

Shelley Sadeh

201

CHAPTER 6: PETROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF VESSELS FROM BURIAL CAVES 548, 562 AND 567

Anat CohenWeinberger

213

CHAPTER 7: THE FLINT ARTIFACTS

Shelley Sadeh and Yehuda Dagan

235

CHAPTER 8: THE GROUNDSTONE OBJECTS

Shelley Sadeh and Yehuda Dagan

239

CHAPTER 9: THE METAL OBJECTS

Yehuda Dagan and Shelley Sadeh

245

CHAPTER 10: THE BEADS

Daniella E. Bar-Yosef Mayer

249

CHAPTER 11: THE HUMAN SKELETAL REMAINS

Yossi Nagar

267

CHAPTER 12: SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS: EARLY BRONZE AGE BURIAL CAVES IN THE ‘EN ESUR CEMETERY

Shelley Sadeh and Yehuda Dagan

273

REFERENCES

281

APPENDIX 1: LOCUS LIST

289

iv

Abbreviations

ANGSBA BAR Int. S. BASOR ESI HA–ESI HA IEJ IJES JAS JFA JIPS NEAEHL NEAEHL 5 OIP RB SAOC

Annual of the Nelson Glueck School of Biblical Archaeology British Archaeological Reports (International Series) Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research Excavations and Surveys in Israel Ḥadashot Arkheologiyot–Excavations and Surveys in Israel Ḥadashot Arkheologiyot Israel Exploration Journal Israel Journal of Earth Sciences Journal of Archaeological Science Journal of Field Archaeology Journal of the Israel Prehistoric Society (Mitekufat Haeven) E. Stern and A. Lewinson-Gilboa eds. The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land 1–4. Jerusalem 1993 E. Stern ed. The New Encyclopedia of Archaeological Excavations in the Holy Land 5: Supplementary Volume. Jerusalem 2008 Oriental Institute Publications Revue Biblique Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization

v

Preface

The excavations presented in this volume began as a simple surface clearing of quarries and installations hewn into bedrock outcrops, prior to construction of the ‘Iron Interchange of the Cross-Israel Highway (Road 6). Such projects usually yield little or no in-situ finds, and are difficult or impossible to date. However, to the surprise of all involved, we became immersed in the intense and exciting excavation of a protohistoric burial-cave cemetery, whose existence at this location was previously unsuspected. Complete pottery vessels preserved for over 5000 years in almost pristine condition were literally popping out of the ground before our eyes. And so, a simple salvage excavation of surface features turned into a complex cave, excavation under difficult conditions, which continued for two seasons and a total of eight months. But this was only the beginning. The restoration, drawing, photographing and processing of thousands of finds has taken many years to complete, and the subsequent analysis of these finds took some additional years. I am grateful to all the researchers and colleagues who helped us reach the point where the fruits of our labor are finally being realized in the publication of this volume. The excavations (IAA Permit No. A-3822/2002, Cross-Israel Site 201) were directed by Yehuda Dagan, assisted by two area supervisors, Abed Alam (Cave 548) and Amani Abu-Ḥamid (Cave 567), and by Jacob Sharvit (Area 600), and carried out by the capable and experienced workers from nearby Umm el-Faḥm. The administrator was the late Shlomo Ya‘aqov-Jam. The field photographs were taken by Yehuda Dagan, with the assistance of Tsila Sagiv. Surveying was carried out by Abraham Hajian at the beginning of the excavation, followed by Anna Iamim, who also prepared the plans and to whom we are greatly indebted. Yossi Nagar conducted several anthropological examinations in the field. Studio photographs of the finds were taken by Clara Amit. The pottery was restored by Roni Gat, drawn by Miriam Mamoukian, Irena Lidsky Reznikov and Alina Pikovsky, and the plates were prepared by Carmen Hersch. The pottery was processed and analyzed by Shelley Sadeh, who also analyzed the flint assemblage with the assistance of Ofer Marder and Hamoudi Khalaily, as well as the stone and metal finds. The flint and stone artifacts were drawn by Leonid Zeiger, and the groundstone and metal artifacts by Carmen Hersch. The beads were processed by Daniella Bar-Yosef Mayer. Uzi Salzman and the Cross-Israel Highway surveyors aided us in our understanding of the geology of the region. Leticia Barda of the IAA prepared a map of the various excavations and soundings in the cemetery (see Fig. 1.3). We were further assisted and advised by Emanuel Eisenberg, Eli Yannai, and the late Ram Gophna. Tsach Horowitz, the Haifa District Archaeologist, and Iyad Adwa, the Subdistrict Archaeologist, also contributed to the excavations’ success. We wish to thank

vi

Yehuda Cohen and Yaki Mor of the Cross-Israel Highway Company, who accompanied the fieldwork, and especially the late Reuven Levon, director of the Cross-Israel Highway Company, for his patience, support and enthusiasm. Our thanks are also extended to the IAA Publications Department, in particular the volume editor, Viviana R. Moscovich, the graphic artist Ann Buchnick-Abuhav, the previous series editor of the IAA Reports, Ann Roshwalb Hurowitz, and the previous and present heads of the department, Judith Ben-Michael and Zvi Greenhut, respectively. Yehuda Dagan Jerusalem, 2021

Y. Dagan and S. Sadeh, 2021, En Esur ( Ein Asawir) III (IAA Reports 68)

Chapter 1

I ntroduction Yehuda Dagan and Shelley Sadeh

The Site and Its Setting

712 000

712 000

711 000

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S

yn

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e 710 000

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709 000

Road

6

to

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a Ro

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‘Iron Interchange

709 000

206 000

205 000

204 000

Road 6

202 000

203 000

The protohistoric cemetery of ‘En Esur is located in the northern Sharon plain (Fig. 1.1), north of Ḥadera–‘Afula Road 65 and within a radius of about 1 km east of Tel Esur (Tell Asawir). The excavations were conducted under the auspices of the Israel Antiquities Authority (IAA; for a preliminary report, see Dagan and Sadeh 2008), within the framework of large-scale salvage excavations along the route of the Cross-Israel Highway (Road 6), where a ramp connecting the major ‘Iron (Barqai) Interchange of Road 6 with Road 65 was constructed (Fig. 1.2). The excavations were initiated following a pre-construction survey conducted in the pine forests on the slopes north of Road 65, which revealed agricultural installations

708 000

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km 204 000

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1

203 000

0

Fig. 1.1. The site in the ‘En Esur cemetery on the eastern fringe of the Sharon coastal plain.

2

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Fig. 1.2. Construction of the ‘Iron Interchange of the Cross-Israel Highway. In the foreground:the site at the end of the excavation; looking south.

and quarries buried below the topsoil (Dagan 2010a; Yannai 2010a). The site (Site 201 in the Cross-Israel numbering system; map ref. 203235/709885) was originally designated ‘Ḥorbat Gilan South,’ as it lies c. 1 km south of the small Roman–Byzantine site of Ḥorbat Gilan North, destroyed in the 1970s when the hill was cleared for cultivation by Kibbutz Barqai (‘Ouda 2008).1 This hilltop site commands an extensive view of the entire area. It

The site had originally been surveyed by one of the authors (Yehuda Dagan) in 1994 as part of a major survey undertaken along the route of the Cross-Israel Highway (Dagan 2010a). In August 2002 it was partly excavated by Ahmed ‘Ouda (2008). In the latter excavations, remains of a small agricultural settlement dating to the Late Roman–Byzantine periods (fourth–fifth centuries CE) were uncovered. During the months of November 2002–January 2003, further excavations at the site were conducted by Yehuda Dagan (Site 202, Permit No. A3625/2002), with the assistance of Shlomo Ya‘aqov Jam (administration), Tsila Sagiv (photography), Vadim Essman, Slava Pirsky, Tanya Kornfeld and Abraham Hajian (surveyors). Eight 5 × 5 m squares were excavated down to bedrock on either side of the previously exposed W501 (‘Ouda 2008: Plan 1), exposing it for a length of c. 17 m. Iron Age sherds were recovered in depressions in the bedrock, and Hellenistic and Byzantine sherds on the bedrock, unconnected to any architectural remains. 1

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

3

was originally assumed that these simple rock-hewn features were to be associated with this small site. However, it promptly became evident, as cist burials and rock-hewn tombs were revealed below the quarries, that the present site is situated well within the area of the ancient cemetery of the protohistoric site of ‘En Esur (Yannai 2006; Elad, Paz and Shalem 2020a, and further references therein) and the Bronze Age site of Tel Esur (Zertal 2003). This cemetery is located on the northern bank of Naḥal ‘Iron, near its western outlet to the alluvial plain. The region forms part of the Menashe Syncline, situated near the Umm el-Faḥm Anticline to its south, with Naḥal ‘Iron flowing along the seam between these two geological formations (see Fig. 1.1). The region enjoys fertile soil, rich vegetation and precipitation of 800–900 mm per year. The vicinity of the tell and the ancient settlements was blessed with a copious water supply from the ‘En Esur springs (for a detailed description of the site’s environment and geology, see Yannai 2006:2–4; 2016:9). Through the Naḥal ’Iron valley ran an important historical trade route that connected the southern parts of the Land of Israel with the northern kingdoms, which had a considerable influence on the site’s development and prosperity. Prior to the excavations, a pine forest and a thick layer of rendzina soil covered the site (see Fig. 1.2), protecting and hiding the underlying antiquities. The bedrock is composed of soft chalk formations covered by a harder nari crust formation (see Yannai 2006:3).

Previous R esearch and Excavations The perennial water sources and fertile soil in this area have attracted large populations since prehistoric times. The rich and extensive Bronze Age cemetery around Tel Esur has been investigated by numerous archaeologists and researchers over the years (Fig. 1.3; Gophna and Sussman 1969; Dothan 1970, 1993; Yannai 1996, 2002a, 2002b, 2016; Yannai and Horowitz 1996, 1998; Yannai and Grosinger 2000; Gorzalzcany and Sharvit 2010). A survey undertaken by Yehuda Dagan in the pine forests around the site at the time of the excavation revealed that the cemetery extended 1.5 km east of the tell, up to the edge of the nari crust formation. Yannai termed this eastern burial area ‘the eastern cemetery,’ while several burial caves to the south of Naḥal ‘Iron were designated ‘the southern cemetery’ (Yannai 2016). The EB IB burial caves uncovered in the present and previous excavations can be associated with the nearby settlement that was occupied from the Pottery Neolithic period through EB IB (Yannai 2006; Elad, Paz and Shalem 2018, 2019, 2020a, 2020b). However, to date, no evidence of an EB II settlement has been found at the site, neither in surveys (Gophna 1974; pers. comm.) nor excavations (Zertal 2003; Yannai 2006; Elad, Paz and Shalem 2018, 2019, 2020a, 2020b); thus, the origin of the population that buried its dead in this cemetery at the beginning of EB II remains an enigma. The occupation gap during EB II–III is mirrored in the almost-total absence of tombs from this period in the cemetery. The cemetery was used again during the Intermediate Bronze Age, although no settlement of this period is known in the immediate vicinity (Yannai 2016:231). The tell site, Tel Esur, was apparently first settled during MB IIA (Zertal 2003:11), and the cemetery continued uninterrupted throughout this period and onward.

4

204 000

203 000

201 000

202 000

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

The Eastern Cemetery 710 000

Tel Esur

(Gorzalczany and Sharvit 2010) 710 000

The Site

(Yannai 1996)

‘Iron Interchange (Yannai 2016)

‘En Esur Protohistoric Settlement (Yannai 2006)

ad

65

Na

l h. a

‘I r

Kibbutz Barqai

on

709 000

Road 6

709 000

Ro

(Dothan 1970)

Ḥarish Junction 203 000

202 000

201 000

500 m 204 000

0

The Southern Cemetery

Fig. 1.3. Location map of the site and other excavated tombs in the cemetery (after Gorzalczany and Sharvit 2010: Fig. 5; prepared by Leticia Barda).

The extensive quarries exposed in the present project can be dated to the Late Roman–Byzantine periods (fourth–fifth centuries CE) and were probably connected to the nearby Roman–Byzantine site of Ḥorbat Gilan North (see above; ‘Ouda 2008). Another part of this large quarry was excavated some 300 m to the east (Gorzalczany 2007), with similar findings.

The Excavations The excavations were conducted in two seasons, from December 2002 through March 2003, and during the following summer, May through August 2003. In preparation for construction of the major ‘Iron Interchange of Road 6, some 7 dunams of pine forest that had covered the area were cut down, and the bedrock surface, which slopes gently southward to Naḥal ‘Iron, was mechanically exposed. This revealed the extensive quarries and agricultural installations hewn into the nari rock over an area of 62 × 110 m in Area 500 (Fig. 1.4), and over c. 300 sq m in Area 600. The ancient quarrying activity had actually removed the upper layer of nari rock to varying depths. During the initial clearing of the quarries in Area 500, locus numbers were assigned to the quarried nari outcrops. At that time, depressions penetrating the thin nari crust into

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

5

Fig. 1.4. The cleared bedrock exposing the quarries and installations; looking northeast.

the softer chalk rock below were discerned. Some of these proved to be pit burials disturbed by the tractor activity, and few finds remained. Further clearing revealed that many of these cavities were cave openings, penetrating much deeper into the underlying layer of soft chalk (Figs. 1.5, 1.6). The cave openings were seemingly arranged in rows, suggesting a densely crowded necropolis (see Fig. 2.5). In most cases, the quarrying activities had not damaged the caves’ openings, which at some point in antiquity had been closed with large blocking stones and then further sealed with piles of smaller fieldstones. In the first excavation season, some pit burials and the remains of a caved-in burial cave (Cave 555) were excavated, until the excavation was ceased due to a re-planning of the highway’s route. Excavation at the site was renewed in May 2003. At this point, the road’s original width had been narrowed due to the discovery of the burial caves, and only four burial-cave openings remained within the revised stretch of the planned road (Caves 561, 562, 567, 548); consequently, the project’s primary efforts now concentrated on them. The first two weeks of work at the site were disrupted by religious groups who attempted to prevent the excavations. After these disruptions ceased, and as the excavation progressed, it became clear that the caves’ roofs might collapse; to prevent this, the layer of hard nari rock above the caves was removed by mechanical means (Fig. 1.7).

6

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Fig. 1.5. Openings to burial caves between the nari outcrops, looking east.

Fig. 1.6. The cleared bedrock exposing the quarries, installations and cave entrances, looking south.

Fig. 1.7. Tractor removing the nari roof above a burial cave prior to excavation.

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

7

The Publication The clearing of the Roman–Byzantine quarries and agricultural installations, and their relationship with the earlier, underlying necropolis, is briefly described in Chapter 2, which focuses on the excavation of the four large, intact burial caves (548, 561, 562, 567) revealed in Area 500, below the quarries. The caves were fully exposed, revealing their complete layout—some having numerous entrances and chambers, and displaying a variety of burial practices. The caves were initially hewn and used toward the end of EB IB, and continued through the EB IB–EB II transition period. In three caves (548, 562, 567), several burial loci containing early EB II vessels were detected, and several isolated Intermediate Bronze Age vessels were also recovered. In Cave 562, two clearly stratified burial levels dating to EB IB and MB IIA were revealed, separated by a layer of alluvial silt. The approximately 2500 pottery vessels retrieved from the four caves are presented in Chapters 3–5, according to the three main periods: the Early Bronze Age, the Intermediate Bronze Age2 and the Middle Bronze Age IIA. An extensive petrographic study of 64 specimens from these periods is addressed in Chapter 6. The four caves also yielded rich assemblages of small finds, including several flint tools of a ceremonial/funerary nature (Chapter 7), two stone maceheads and four limestone stelae (Chapter 8), copper or bronze weapons and other metal utensils, and bronze and gold rings and earrings (Chapter 9), stone beads (mainly quartz and carnelian) and rare ‘mud-paste’ beads (Chapter 10), and lumps of ocher, probably used in the production of red paint to decorate pottery, or in the funerary rituals.3 Unfortunately, the anthropological remains were poorly preserved, and their analysis is based mainly on dental evidence (Chapter 11). The archaeological, cultural and historical contexts of the finds are discussed in Chapter 12.

Formerly EB IV/MB I.

2

Unfortunately, the ocher lumps and their documentation were lost before they could be processed or analyzed.

3

Y. Dagan and S. Sadeh, 2021, En Esur ( Ein Asawir) III (IAA Reports 68)

Chapter 2

The Stratigraphy Yehuda Dagan and Shelley Sadeh

Introduction Two stretches of quarries, Areas 500 and 600, covering hundreds of square meters (Plan 2.1), were exposed at the beginning of the excavations. The quarries, as well as most of the exposed, rock-hewn agricultural installations, can be dated to the Roman–Byzantine periods based on quarrying techniques, their proximity to the Ḥorbat Gilan settlement dated to the same period (see Chapter 1), and other similarly dated quarries in the region (see, e.g., Gorczalzany 2007; Gorczalzany and Sharvit 2010). The Menashe Hills were intensively quarried in ancient times, the stonecutters exploiting the upper layer of hard nari crust due to its suitability for masonry blocks. The ancient stonecutters were clearly aware of the earlier installations, graves and tombs hewn into the chalk bedrock below the nari stratum they were quarrying, and in the case of the burial caves, they carefully avoided damaging them.

Areas 500 and 600 An area of c. 10 dunams (62 × 110 m) was mechanically cleared by heavy equipment, removing the pine forest and the layer of topsoil to expose the bedrock surface, which slopes gently southward (7–9°) to Naḥal ‘Iron (see Chapter 1: Fig. 1.4). This clearing revealed a large area of quarries in the nari rock. In fact, the entire northern slope of Naḥal ‘Iron, up to c. 1.5 km east of Tel Esur, is covered by ancient quarries still buried under the soil and forests (see Chapter 1). The ancient stonecutters were interested in the upper layer of nari stone, 0.5–0.7 m thick in Area 500 and somewhat thicker in Area 600, which covered the softer chalk below. Nari stone is hard enough for good-quality masonry, but soft enough to be easily worked. In many places, when the stonecutters began to extract stones, or the nearby inhabitants hewed cisterns and winepresses into nari outcrops, they encountered cave openings that cut down into the soft-chalk bedrock below the nari. They apparently chose to respect these caves and blocked their entrances with fieldstones (e.g., Caves 561, 562, 571). However, some caves had already been destroyed and robbed in antiquity (e.g., Cave 566). In many places, the quarrying activity had removed the upper nari layer to an average depth of 0.4–0.5 m. The imprints of quarried stone blocks of varying sizes were preserved in most quarries, and could be measured; in some cases, undetached blocks remained in place. The stepped shape of some of the quarried outcrops results from the technique used to remove the stones; such stepped quarries are known throughout the Roman Empire. A

10

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Area 500

561

Road 6

Area 600

to Ro

ad 6

562

526

500

555 548 571

561

574

563

562

566

Area 500

see Inset 0

555 548 574 567

566

20 m

Plan 2.1. Inset: Area 500: the four caves encompassed by the ramp.

563

Rock-Hewn Features Excavated Caves

0

Road

567

Excavated Caves

20 m

65

Plan 2.1. Schematic plan of Areas 500 (see inset) and 600 on the planned route of the ramp to the Cross-Israel highway.

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

11

similar stretch of quarries was unearthed about the same time some 300 m east of the present excavation, and dated by the excavator to the fourth–fifth centuries CE (Gorzalczany 2007, and see there for a detailed discussion of the quarrying techniques). In Area 500, the quarries cut into some of the agricultural installations, which included leveled surfaces, depressions, pits, channels of various sizes and several winepresses, also hewn into the nari layer. Therefore, these installations were clearly earlier than the quarries, although it is impossible to determine how much so or to what period they belong. Among the quarried nari outcrops, at least 18 depressions penetrated the thin nari crust and the softer chalk layer underneath. Many of these depressions proved to be pit burials that had been disturbed by the tractor activity; in these pits, measuring c. 0.4 × 0.5 m and c. 0.6 m deep, only a few human bones (not anthropologically examined) and worn, unidentifiable sherds remained, suggesting single burials. Other pits proved to be the entrances to burial caves hewn deep into the chalk bedrock; some of the caves were preserved intact, while others had partially or entirely collapsed. Very few pottery sherds were recovered while cleaning the surface, as the topsoil had been scraped away by the tractors. Only a few well-worn Roman–Byzantine, Middle Bronze Age and EB I sherds could be recognized. The burial caves were earlier than the quarrying and hewn installations, which in most cases encircled them without damaging them. The cave openings were closed with large blocking stones, and then at some point the entrances were further sealed with piles of smaller fieldstones. While the blocking stones probably date to the original period of use of the caves for burial, i.e., the Early, Intermediate or Middle Bronze Age, the further piling of stones in the openings was most likely carried out in the Roman or Byzantine periods (see Cave 571, below), whether out of respect, superstition or security reasons, when the tomb entrances were revealed during quarrying activities. During the area’s initial survey, the hewn features, depressions and pits in Area 500 were assigned locus numbers ranging from L500 to L576 (Plan 2.1). Most of these features comprised small, quarried nari outcrops with negatives of masonry blocks of varying sizes, and little more can be said of them. The burial caves discovered below them received the same number as the associated quarry. The route of the highway ramp was revised several times, resulting in many of the loci remaining outside the actual excavation area and not being further investigated. The four fully excavated intact caves that remained within the route of the ramp (Caves 548, 561, 562, 567) are described in detail below. In Area 600, some 60 m to the north, 300 sq m were cleared and ten quarried nari outcrops were revealed (L600–L609; Plan 2.2), including two winepresses (L601, L608). In this area, no earlier tombs had apparently been hewn into the underlying bedrock, allowing the stonecutters to cut deeper into the nari layer without fear of uncovering a tomb cavity; the thicker nari layer in this locale may have deterred the EB I inhabitants from hewing their tombs here. Table 2.1 presents the major loci defined in Areas 500 and 600; the most notable cases are described briefly below (for the ceramic terminology, see Chapter 3).

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YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

81 65

608 1 1

607

605

604

606 609

602 601

603

600

0

78 30

4 m

Plan 2.2. Area 600.

81 65

Treading 608 floor

81 52

Collection vat

1

81 26 Plug 1

81 01

81 34

80 99

Quarry 81 39

81 18 Stone 81 13

81 17 81 09

81 27

2 m

0 82 00 81 50

81 45

Treading floor Quarry

81 00 80 50

Vat

Plug 1-1

Plan 2.2a. Winepress 608.

13

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

Table 2.1. Major Loci in Areas 500 and 600 (measurements in m; D = depth, L = length, H = height) Locus

Quarry

500

Winepress*

Undetached Block

Pit Grave

Burial Cave**

TF 1.60 × 1.85 D 0.3 CV 0.40 × 0.75

504

+

+

508

+

526

+

542

10 × 10, D 0.4

548

+

40.5 sq m; excavated

551

+

Destroyed

555

+

Entrance corridor; 3 steps; burial chamber partially excavated

561

+

21 sq m; excavated

562

+

60 sq m; excavated

1.6 × 1.6

Entrance; not excavated

L 3.5

563

3 cave entrances; not excavated

566

3 × 4.5

Collapsed; not excavated

567

+

32 sq m; excavated

571

+

Shaft; diam. 2 m; D 1–2; entrance to burial cave; not excavated

574

Shaft; diam. 2 m; D 2; entrances to 2 burial caves; not excavated

600

2.5 × 2.5, D 1.0

601

+

602

3 × 3, D 0.6

603

3 × 4, D 0.35

605

Stepped

606

4 × 10, D 1.7

608

1.5 × 2.0

609

1.6 × 1.6, D 0.3

0.65 × 1.20 TF 1.5 × 1.6 D 0.1–0.2 CV 0.5 × 0.7 D 0.7

TF 1.7 × 2.5 CV 0.6 × 1.1 D 0.5

0.45 × 0.75, H 0.3

* TF = treading floor; CV = collection vat ** rounded to 0.5 m

Rock-Hewn Features Winepress 500 (Plan 2.3; Fig. 2.1). A complete and well-preserved winepress (2.5 × 3.0 m) hewn into a nari outcrop on the area’s eastern border. It comprised a treading floor (1.60 × 1.85 m, 0.3 deep) and to the west, connected by a channel, a collection vat (0.40 × 0.75 m, 0.30 m deep) with a depression for collecting the must. To the south was an additional hewn depression.

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YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

73 62 73 48 73 45

1

73 61

500 Treading floor

73 15 73 50 73 07 73 45

73 49

Collection vat 73 02

1

73 70 73 35 73 25 73 15

0

2 m

Fig. 2.1. Winepress 500, looking southwest. 74 00

73 00

Collection vat 73 00

Treading floor 1-1

Plan 2.3. Winepress 500.

Quarry 526 (Fig. 2.2). A quarry with an undetached block (c. 3.5 m long) and disengagement channels surrounding it.

Fig. 2.2. Quarry 526, partially hewn block.

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

15

Quarry and Cave 548. A completely excavated burial cave (see below). Quarry and Cave 551 (Fig. 2.3). Below a quarry, a burial cave destroyed by later quarrying activities. It was not excavated, and only a few EB IB sherds were recovered inside.

Fig. 2.3. Cave 551.

Quarry and Cave 555 (Plan 2.4, Fig. 2.4). A quarry and a cave underneath. This cave was only partially excavated. The southern part of the roof had collapsed or been destroyed in antiquity. The cave was entered from the south, and appears to have continued westward. In the 3–4 sq m excavated, the cave’s height reached barely 1 m from floor to ceiling. A short, 1.4 m entrance corridor sloped gently down to an oval-shaped entrance chamber, 1 m wide, with three steps down to the opening of the tomb chamber, 0.84 m wide. The steps were partially hewn into the bedrock and covered with flat stone slabs. The few pottery vessels are dated to EB II. Left of the entrance, in L701, a broken platter and a complete but shattered Abydos jug (not illustrated; B6014, B60321) were found lying in the upper level of the locus, not far below the collapsed roof (Fig. 2.4); underneath was a complete, miniature pear-shaped juglet of metallic-like ware (B6003). In the northeastern corner (L708), near two stones on the floor of the cave, was an Abydos or ‘proto-Abydos’ juglet with a bowl above it (B6043). Among the human remains in the burial chamber were a skull and a jaw bone, but the bones were unfortunately not examined by the anthropologist due to the difficult conditions.

Basket nos. are provided for selected vessels that were not drawn, but are preserved in the IAA storerooms (see Chapter 3). 1

16

1

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

66 93

67 82 67 69

Pottery Skull L708 Jaw bone L701

Pottery 66 86

66 98 67 06

1

67 25

Entrance Corridor

0

2 m

68 00 67 69 67 25 67 00

66 00

67 06

66 98 66 86

67 14

L701

L708 66 93

1-1

Plan 2.4. Plan and section of Cave 555.

Fig. 2.4. Cave 555.

Quarry and Cave 561. A completely excavated burial cave (see below). Quarry and Cave 562. A completely excavated burial cave (see below).

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

17

Locus 563 (Fig. 2.5). A row of at least three burial-cave openings on the eastern border of the area, which may have continued in either direction; however, this locus was not further explored as it remained outside the excavation area (see Plan 2.1).

Fig. 2.5. Locus 563, three burial caves in a row, looking southeast.

Quarry and Cave 566 (Fig. 2.6). A large complex of quarries around an empty burial cave on the southern edge of the area (see Plan 2.1). The roof had collapsed or was removed in antiquity. The cave apparently had stairs leading down to a chamber with what appears to have been a low stone wall around a burial enclosure, as seen in other caves; openings to further rooms were discerned.

Fig. 2.6. Quarry and Cave 566.

Quarry and Cave 567. A completely excavated burial cave (see below).

18

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Quarry and Shaft 571 (Plan 2.5; Figs. 2.7, 2.8). A 66 98 large quarry to the north of a hewn oval-shaped 66 78 shaft (c. 2 m in diameter; Fig. 2.7). At the bottom Quarry 67 10 of the shaft was the opening to a burial cave that 571 had been sealed with a large, flat blocking stone 66 70 67 08 (Fig. 2.8) and then further blocked with a pile of 66 78 66 67 66 91 66 83 fieldstones. The shaft yielded no finds, and the 66 71 Shaft cave was not excavated. A narrow separating wall 65 64 had been left between the quarry and the shaft, 66 63 evidence that the quarrymen were aware of the latter. Round shafts leading to tomb openings 0 2 m blocked by a large boulder are a well-known Plan 2.5. Quarry and Shaft 571. phenomenon in the Intermediate Bronze Age, and other such tombs have been excavated in the same cemetery (Yannai 2016:127–187) and, for example, at Jebel Qa‘aqir (Dever 1993:666) and at sites in the Shephelah (Dagan 2006:30*; Yitzhak Paz, pers. comm. 2014).

Fig. 2.7. Quarry and Shaft 571, looking north.

Fig. 2.8. Shaft 571, with blocking stone over entrance, looking north.

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

19

Shaft 574 (Fig. 2.9). Some 2 m to the east of Shaft 571, another oval-shaped shaft led down to two cave openings blocked by large stones and piles of fieldstones. No finds were recovered in the shaft, and the cave was not excavated.

Fig. 2.9. Shaft 574, looking east.

Quarry 600 (see Plan 2.2; Fig. 2.10). A large bedrock exposure, 2.5 × 2.5 m, used for quarrying building stones, reaching a depth of up to 1 m. To the north of the quarry, a partially hewn block (0.65 × 1.20 m) was still attached to the bedrock, encircled on three sides by an 8 cm wide detachment channel.

Fig. 2.10. Undetached block north of Quarry 600, looking north.

20

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Winepress 601 (Plan 2.2; Fig. 2.11). A hewn winepress with a treading floor (1.5 × 1.6 m, 0.1–0.2 m deep), and in its southwestern corner a collection vat (0.5 × 0.7 m, 0.7 m deep) with a depression (0.1 m in diameter) in the middle for collecting the must. This winepress was later reused as a quarry.

Fig. 2.11. Winepress 601, looking north.

Winepress-Quarry 608 (see Plan 2.2a; Fig. 2.12). A winepress hewn into a large bedrock outcrop (4.5 × 5.5 m), with an asymmetrical treading floor (1.7 × 2.5 m) from which a channel transferred the must to a collection vat (0.6 × 1.1 m, 0.5 m deep). Inside the channel was a stone plug. After the winepress suffered cracks and a partial shifting of the treading floor, it was turned into a quarry (1.5 × 2.0 m); a still-attached block (0.45 × 0.75 m, 0.3 m deep) remained in the floor.

Fig. 2.12. Winepress 608, with quarry in threading floor, looking east.

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

21

The Four Intact Bronze Age Burial Caves in Area 500 The new, narrower route of the highway encompassed the openings of only four intact burial caves (548, 561, 562, 567; see Plan 2.1: Inset), which became the focus of the excavation. As the excavation progressed, it became clear that the roofs of the caves might collapse; thus, following the recommendation of the geologist of the Cross-Israel project, the layer of hard nari rock above the caves was removed by mechanical means under strict supervision so as not to damage their contents. As a result, the parts of the caves where the roof was removed were excavated stratigraphically, from the upper layers down to the lower layers, rather than from the entrance inward. Still, the latter method was also used in some instances, as in Cave 562, where ‘windows’ were excavated into the deposits below a nari overhang (see below), and many balks were left to maintain control of the stratigraphy. All the soil removed from Caves L548, L562 and L567 was dry-sieved through a 5 mm mesh. The caves are described below in sequential order. Cave 548 (Plans 2.6–2.11; Figs. 2.13–2.24) This cave is located in the southern part of Area 500 (see Plan 2.1). Most of the nari layer above the cave had been hewn to various depths but remained largely intact. This symmetrical, well-planned and executed, heart-shaped cave (c. 40.5 sq m; Fig. 2.13; Plan 2.6) has a wide, well-made staircase with five or six hewn steps leading down to the floor from the south (Fig. 2.14). Room A, on the east, and Room B, on the west, are separated by a large unhewn block of rock that was left protruding some 3 m into the cave to support the roof, which reached a height of c. 1.5 m above the cave floor. The area near the entrance, between the two rooms, was designed Room C, although it was never actually a separate room. In a few places, the roof had collapsed in antiquity, perhaps due to quarrying activity above.

Fig. 2.13. Cave 548 at the end of the excavation, looking north.

22

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Fig. 2.14. Cave 548, the entrance stairs, looking southeast.

The roof over the central part of the cave (Room C) was removed by tractor at the beginning of the excavation, and, as work progressed, more of the roof was taken off (Fig. 2.15). Below a thick layer of dark brown alluvium was a layer of debris from the partially collapsed roof in this location, comprising chunks of nari and a white-colored matrix; sporadic EB II pottery was found just beneath this debris (e.g., L106, L108, L114, L132.1, L139, L141; Plan 2.6). At a somewhat lower level, burial layers rich in human skeletal

Fig. 2.15. Cave 548, removal of nari roof over Cave 548.

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

23

remains and almost-complete EB IB pottery vessels were revealed, although many of the vessels had been overturned and smashed in place (e.g., lower L139, lower L141, L165). A rich collection of intact vessels was recovered in L206, including an EB II Metallic Ware platter. The excavation continued east of the entrance (L142) into Room A (c. 15.5 sq m) up to a line or platform of stones (W163; Plan 2.7; Fig. 2.16). Wall 163, if indeed a wall, or perhaps a partition, was apparently several courses high and had tumbled over, spilling any later burials that had rested on or above it. A large quantity of pottery and bones, as well as beads and several earrings, were found both below and above this wall (Fig. 2.17). Along the southern wall of Room A, as a continuation of W163, was what appeared to be a rectangular burial enclosure (Figs. 2.18, 2.19), although no locus was isolated at the time. After the removal of W163, a balk was left in place, and the section (Fig. 2.20) clearly shows a layer of white collapsed debris upon the burial layer against the southern wall, and the penetration of alluvial soil. Further excavation into Room A, behind W163, revealed that the roof had indeed collapsed over most of the eastern part, and a layer of silt had entered above this. The collapse comprised large nari blocks and a white-colored matrix (L204). Immediately underneath, EB II vessels were found resting on stones apparently arranged as either paving or a platform (L158; Plan 2.8) upon which the deceased were laid. Locus 196, in the northernmost part of Room A, comprised c. 1 m of silt that had entered through a breach; the silt was sterile apart from a worn Roman sherd. Below it, L246 comprised a layer of soil and small stones (0.5 m thick) containing worn, unidentified sherds and one complete Intermediate Bronze Age amphoriskos (see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.1:2). The Intermediate Bronze Age vessel may have belonged to a later burial that made use of

Fig. 2.16. Cave 548, W163 in Room A to the right, looking north.

24

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

the depression caused by the collapsed roof, and thus dates the collapse to earlier than that period. On the other hand, and less likely, this vessel may have been washed in with the silt during or after the Roman–Byzantine period. Below this layer, L257, which contained both EB IB and EB II pottery, lay upon a stone platform(?) (L258; Plan 2.9; Fig. 2.21); L259, underneath the stones, also contained a mixture of EB IB and EB II pottery (see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.47), as well as a notched Canaanean flint blade (see Chapter 7: Fig. 7.1:1). It could be that the EB II people built a platform that penetrated the earlier burial levels.

Fig. 2.17. Cave 548, Locus 165 below W163 to the right, looking north.

Fig. 2.18. Cave 548, Room A and W163 in the center, looking northeast.

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

Fig. 2.19. Cave 548, the rectangular enclosure against the southern wall of the cave in Room A, looking west.

Fig. 2.20. Cave 548, the eastern face of the balk in Room A, after removal of W163; L175 on floor of cave, L246 soil fill (note Intermediate Bronze Age vessel in L246), L204 collapse debris, L196 silt fill.

25

26

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Fig. 2.21. Cave 548, stone platform(?) in Room A (L258), looking north.

Room B, on the western side of the central unhewn block, measured c. 9 sq m. An apparent area of roof collapse in the southern part of this room (L140) yielded EB II pottery in the upper layer, and EB IB pottery and beads in the lower layer, including a concentration of 25 copper beads and a serpentine pendant that may have originated in southeastern Turkey (see Chapter 10: Fig. 10.1:26). The upper layer also yielded an Intermediate Bronze Age vessel either inserted or washed-in following the roof collapse (see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.1:4). Further north in Room B, where the roof had survived mostly intact, another stone paving or platform(?) was evident (L190; Plan 2.9). In the northwestern corner, at the highest level, near the partially collapsed roof (L153), EB II pottery was recovered among the debris, representing an EB II burial inserted from above through a breach (Fig. 2.22; see Plan 2.7). Below the collapsed roof debris,

Fig. 2.22. Cave 548, EB II vessels in situ in Room B (L153).

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

27

L220 contained EB II pottery, and below it, L236 yielded EB IB pottery. A fieldstone wall apparently closed off the northwestern corner of Room B in a lower level (W207/ W221; Plans 2.9, 2.10; Fig. 2.23). Below or incorporated into W207 was a rectangular enclosure, similar to that in Room A, which contained a mixed collection of vessels of both EB IB and EB II (L203; Plans 2.10, 2.11; Fig. 2.24).

Fig. 2.23. Cave 548, Wall 207 in Room B, on the left, looking northeast.

Fig. 2.24. Cave 548, Room B, L203.

28

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Cave 548: Discussion Over 600 vessels were found in this well-planned and executed tomb, most attributed to EB IB, including several Egyptian/Egyptianized vessels, and some to EB II (see Chapter 3). An Intermediate Bronze Age amphoriskos, presumably part of a later burial, had been inserted through a breach in the roof (L246). The only flint tool discovered in this cave was a large Canaanean blade that may have been used as a reaping knife (L259). A single gold earring was also found (L206). The bead assemblage from this cave is particularly interesting, containing beads made of ‘mud paste’ unknown to date in the Levant, although parallels are known in contemporaneous Predynastic Egypt (Chapter 10: Fig. 10.1:17– 19). In addition, some 25 copper beads were recovered, apparently strung together with dentalium shells, along with a chlorite pendant (L140). The skeletal remains of at least 16 individuals were found (see Chapter 11: Table 11.1), a relatively low number in relation to the number of vessels and the size of the cave, compared to other caves in the cemetery (see Table 12.1). Fieldstones were evidently brought into the cave to construct partition walls and burial platforms, probably in both phases of the Early Bronze Age. Several flat stones were noted on the bedrock, suggesting the use of columns to further support the roof (see Fig. 2.13). Unfortunately, the roof collapsed upon the burials in several areas, causing damage and disturbances, and silty soil entered through the breaches, as clearly seen in the sections (see, e.g., Fig. 2.20). The EB II pottery layers seem to have been best preserved below areas where the roof had collapsed, the debris actually ‘sealing’ them in place and protecting them from post-depositional disturbances. In one place at least, an isolated Intermediate Bronze Age jar had apparently washed-in along with the alluvium (L140).

29

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

65 22 65 20

64 20

+

63 87

L159.1

L218 L219

L238

L153 W207 W221

#L256

L197 L237

L198

63 79

L220 L236

63 66

63 76

63 68

L190 65 21

64 15

64 82

65 25

Room B

L203

#

#L140

64 56

64 68 64 50

65 12

65 22

63 73

L205

63 68

L257 L258 63 58 #63 72 L259

65 24

L204

L132.1

L168

63 69

63 59

63 60

L127.3

L158

3

16

66 67

L141

L114

63 59

63 70

L235 63 75

L108

Room C 66 18

64 92

Room A

63 65

66 74

L152

L106

L105.1 65 92

65 10

W

66 63

63 98

L204 L163 L241 L245.1

L139 L142 #L165=L175

63 74 66 24

63 98

63 58

63 71 63 58

63 54

65 19 63 76

L143.2

L206

63 66

L117

L196 L246

L102

66 20

L103

L133

63 90

65 16

64 55 64 74

64 97

66 20

65 28 65 31

66 30

65 37

66 28

66 41 66 20

EB II Locus

66 29

Entrance

Plan 2.6. Plan of Cave 548 and main loci.

0

2 m

30

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

64 56

64 58

1

L159.1

L153 63 71

Fill

1

*

Fallen ceiling blocks

63 65

Layer of vessels on floor 1-1

not to scale 64 56

L140

64 62

64 64

63 88 63 88

64 33

L141

63 88

L158 L139

3

16

W

63 80

64 13

64 68

64.20

64 50

64 77 64 74 65 28 65 37

66 28 0

Plan 2.7. Cave 548: W163 in Room A and section of Fill 159.

2

m

31

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

65 22

64 20

+

65 20

65 41

+

64 15

63 68

W207

64 82

64.04 63.98 63.76

65 21

65 25

Room B 63 77 64.04 63.70

65 19

65 24

L140

64 56

L196 L246

64 68 64 50

63 73

63 69

W

65 22

L258

L158 65 10

3

16

L241 L245.1

63 60

L141

66 24

L204

Room A 63 75

63 65

65 92

63 90

66 20

64 55 64 97 65 28 65 31

65 37

66 20 66 29 0

Plan 2.8. Cave 548: platform(?) in Room A.

2 m

32

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

65 22 65 20

L198

L218 L219

64 33 64 12

65 41

L190

64.04

L203

63.76

W 20

7

64 82

63.98 63.76

65 21 63 77

65 25

Room B

64.04 63.70

L196 L246 L257 L258 L259

65 24 64 56

64 68

L246

65 19

64 50 65 22

65 10

64 28

65 01

Room A

66 24

63 75 64 92 63 65

65 92

63 90

66 20

65 16

64 55 64 97 65 28 65 31

65 37

66 20

Pottery

66 29 0

Plan 2.9. Cave 548: stone platform in Room A, and a wall (W207) in Room B.

2 m

33

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

63 97 65 22

+

65 20

L219

64 20

L220 L236 63 79

64.04

64 15 64 26

W

22

1

65 41

W

20

7

64 82

65 21

65 25

Room B

63.98 63.76 64.04 63.70

63 77

L196 L246 L257 L258 L259

65 24 64 56 64 68

L246

65 19

64 50

L140

63 87 63 69

65 22

65 10

64 11

L141

65 01

Room A

66 24

63 75 64 92 63 65

65 92

65 16

63 90

66 20

64 55 64 97 65 28 65 31

65 37

Pottery

66 20 66 29 0

Plan 2.10. Cave 548: W207/W221 in Room B.

2 m

34

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

65 22 64 20

+

65 20

L256 63 80 63 71

63 80 #

+

64 15 64 26

+

63 78

65 41

64 00

L237 63 76 #

L203 65 21

63 68

64 82

#

65 25

Room B

L196 L246 L257 L258 L259

65 24 63 77 64 56

64 68

L246

65 19

64 50 65 22

63 73

65 10

63 69

63 60

65 01 66 24

Room A

63 75 64 92

63 65

65 92

63 90

65 20

65 16

64 55 64 97 65 28

65 31

65 37

66 20

Pottery

66 29 0

Plan 2.11. Cave 548: rectangular burial enclosure (L203) in Room B.

2 m

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

35

Cave 561 (Plan 2.12; Figs. 2.25–2.33) This is the northernmost cave excavated in this project. The soil was only partially sieved, and an unknown number of finds, including complete vessels, were unfortunately stolen from the storage container prior to processing. The cave roof was removed prior to excavation due to the danger of collapse. The cave (c. 21 sq m) was entered from the east through a shallow, descending corridor hewn into the bedrock (L109) and bordered on the north by a line of worked fieldstones. The corridor was later filled with stones (Fig. 2.25), probably sometime during the quarrying-activity period, as among the stones were pieces of Byzantine glass and worn pottery sherds. The cave’s entrance, at the end of the corridor, had been sealed with larger stones (Fig. 2.26). After a three-step descent (L182), a narrow opening (0.47 × 0.55 m) gave access to a rectangular burial chamber (Room A, c. 2.5 × 3.0 m). The room was filled with dark brown alluvium mixed with small fieldstones; a few worn Byzantine sherds found in the upper layer (L172, L177) suggest that the cave was blocked only during or after this period. The burial chamber had a leveled bedrock floor, c. 2 m below the roof. The walls were coarsely hewn, and in several places on the eastern wall, the marks of the chiseling tool could be discerned. On the eastern side of Room A, a 0.33–0.40 m wide bench was left unhewn in the wall (Fig. 2.27). On the other side of the room, in the northwestern corner, a structure built of worked, squarish fieldstones stood on the cave floor and apparently enclosed a burial space containing at least three interments (L185, L186; Figs. 2.28, 2.29), one partially articulated (L185), suggesting primary burial (see Chapter 11). This corner had been disturbed, and the shape of the original construction(s) surrounding the burials is uncertain; there may have

Fig. 2.25. Cave 561: the corridor leading to the entrance of Cave 561 filled with fieldstones, looking north.

36

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Fig. 2.26. Cave 561: the entrance to the cave sealed with large stones, looking west.

Fig. 2.27. Cave 561: Room A in foreground, bench on right, looking east.

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

Fig. 2.28. Cave 561: Room A, stones delimiting a burial; several complete vessels at bottom right, looking west.

Fig. 2.29. Cave 561: Room A in foreground, Room B in background, looking northeast.

37

38

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

been both a rectangular and a circular enclosure, as in Room B (see below). Pottery, flint pieces and a gold earring (L188) were exposed while cleaning the floor outside the burial enclosure(s), on the eastern side of the room. Unfortunately, these vessels were among the stolen items. To the north of Room A, a second burial chamber (Room B; c. 2.5 × 2.5 m) was accessed through a hewn entranceway (L112; Fig. 2.29) where complete pottery vessels and a flint tabular scraper were recovered. Room B was more carefully hewn than Room A and, like the latter, was filled with alluvium mixed with small fieldstones (L173, L174, 178). The western half of the room yielded many EB IB pottery vessels below a general layer of alluvium. When the alluvium was removed, an elliptical-shaped stone wall was exposed, c. 1 m in width, which encircled the interments of four or five individuals, including a child, with beads, gold earrings, a bronze dagger and pottery vessels (L179, L183, L184; Figs. 2.30, 2.31). A control balk was left in the center of the room (L180) during excavation. The stone burial circle was built of one or two courses of unworked fieldstones, differing from the stones of the burial enclosure in Room A, which had been worked to a squarish shape. East of this burial circle, and partially below it (Fig. 2.30), was a second burial surrounded by an apparently rectangular stone wall. A thin layer of light-colored soil separated the two burial phases. This earlier burial enclosure contained human bones; however, as the room had been disturbed, it was unclear which of the bones and nearby vessels came from inside the enclosure. In the surrounding fill and on the floor of the room, c. 0.4 m below the upper burial circle, human bones were scattered together with EB IB pottery vessels, some of the latter complete (L187, L189; Fig. 2.32; for the pottery, see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.48). Among the stones of the circular enclosure, a complete bronze blade was found (L184; Fig. 2.33), with two of the six nails that originally attached it to the handle still preserved (see Chapter 9: Fig. 9.2:3). A second tabular scraper was revealed during removal of Balk 180.

Fig. 2.30. Cave 561: Room B, elliptical stone wall with earlier, rectangular burial on right, looking north.

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

Fig. 2.31. Cave 561: Room B, elliptical stone wall around burials, looking northeast.

Fig. 2.32. Cave 561: vessels accompanying burials in Room B (close-up of Fig. 2.30).

Fig. 2.33. Cave 561: complete bronze blade among stones of the elliptical wall in Room B, just above meter stick.

39

40

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Cave 561: Discussion Cave 561, measuring 21 sq m, was the smallest of the four caves. Based on the pottery finds, it was hewn in EB IB, beginning with Room A, into which the entrance led. Room B was hewn differently from Room A and somewhat later, but still within EB IB. The users of this tomb may have added another room rather than expand Room A further west due to the proximity of other burial caves in this area. The burial enclosure in Room A’s northwestern corner had been disturbed sometime in antiquity, and the stones scattered around, apparently by ancient tomb robbers prior to the sealing of the cave. The anthropological remains suggest a minimum of 16 interments in this cave, and the finds include a minimum of 23 pottery vessels, many of fine quality, some intact and some probably imported from other regions (see Chapter 6), a bronze dagger, a gold earring, and two apparently unused, tabular flint scrapers. Thus, this tomb seems to have belonged to individuals of a higher social-economic class than those interred in nearby Tomb 80, some 300 m east of Cave 561 (Gorzalczany and Sharvit 2010). 69 06 68 90

L175 L178

L173

69 02 68 88 69 13 68 95

2

69 03 68 99

L179 L183 L184

68 97

L187 L189

Room B 68 93

68 98

L174 L180

69 02

68 77

1

L112

71 02

70 76

70 62

L182

2

68 88 68 77

68 78 68 68

L186

Room A

68 22 68 63 68 71

1

2

3

70 71

L109 69 60

L185

69 13

L188

L177

0

70 85

Entrance 70 80

70 69

L172 0

2

m

1

71 00

71 00

Entrance

70 55

70 00

70 48 70 00

Stair 3 Stair 2

69 00

Stair 1 Balk

68 00

69 13

69 00

L188

1-1

L179

Balk

L173 L184

Bones 68 00

Plan 2.12. Plan and Sections of Cave 561 and main loci.

2-2

41

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

Cave 562 (Plans 2.13–2.16; Figs. 2.34–2.44) Cave 562 is located to the south of Cave 561 (see Plan 2.1). It was composed of four distinct burial chambers (A, B, C, D) that were apparently hewn at different times during EB IB, each with its own entrance, and joined together at some later stage, still within this period, into one large space measuring c. 60 sq m (Plan 2.13; Fig. 2.34). This is the only cave excavated in this project that was reused after the Early Bronze Age, during MB IIA, although this phenomenon is known from other caves in this cemetery (see Chapter 12). Entrance 1, on the west, was found sealed with fieldstones (Fig. 2.35), and the later quarrying activities clearly avoided harming it. Excavation began by clearing the opening (Fig. 2.36) and the descending steps (L100); however, after several days, the nari roof had to be removed due to danger of collapse. From this point, the excavation was conducted for the most part stratigraphically, from the upper to lower levels, leaving balks in selected locations (Fig. 2.37).

D

C

B

A

Fig. 2.34. Cave 562 at end of excavation, with four burial chambers and five entrances, looking southeast.

42

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Fig. 2.35. Cave 562: Entrance 1 filled with fieldstones.

Fig. 2.36. Cave 562: Entrance 1 after clearing.

Fig. 2.37. Cave 562: excavation in Room B using multiple balks.

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

43

Entrance 1 led down three hewn steps into the area designated Area B (Plan 2.13, Fig. 2.38). East of this entrance, a small niche in the wall (L156.2) contained a single juglet. Immediately to the west of the entrance, a roughly square area designated Room A was hewn deeper into the bedrock than Room B. Near Entrance 1, a set of basalt grinding stones (in L122) and a basalt mortar (in L113) suggest a short episode of domestic use, probably sometime after the cave’s final use for burials. Another entrance (Entrance 2) with three descending steps, was discovered in the cave’s northern wall, perhaps the entrance to Room C. Another entrance into Room B (Entrance 3), to the east of Entrance 1, appears to have been added at a later stage. Excavation of this room revealed a rich layer of MB IIA burials (L130.1, L162; Fig. 2.39) comprising many skeletal remains, two bronze spearheads and pottery vessels smashed more or less in situ, although some burials seemed to have been pushed aside to make room for later ones within the same period. Below this layer of MB IIA burials was an earlier burial horizon dating to EB IB. The northern balk of L162 in

Fig. 2.38. Cave 562: stairs leading down into Room A, looking southwest.

Fig. 2.39. Cave 562: layer of smashed MB IIA pottery.

44

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Room B displayed the following stratigraphic sequence, from top to bottom: an alluvial fill above the horizon of MB IIA burials, at one point covered by stones from a roof collapse; another layer of alluvial fill underneath this MB IIA horizon; a layer of white chalky sediment (crumbling detritus from the roof); and the lowest layer of EB IB burials (Fig. 2.40; Plan 2.14: Section 1-1). A roughly circular row of stones was discerned in L152 in the EB IB burial level, apparently an enclosed burial circle as in Cave 561.

Fig. 2.40. Cave 562: section in L162, with the upper MB IIA burial layer separated from the lower EB IB layer by a level of alluvium and white sediment.

Due to the heavy overhang of nari rock on the northern side of the cave (Fig. 2.41), which had not been removed by the tractor, it was decided to open stratigraphic ‘windows’ beneath it to examine the deposits eastward (Fig. 2.42), thus revealing another burial space, designated Room C, where the two burial horizons found in Room B continued. The sloping alluvium layers in the eastern part indicated a breach or entrance into the cave somewhere to the northeast, and excavation toward the northern wall of the cave revealed an entrance to Room C from the east (Entrance 4). No steps were found here, and the entrance was through a steep corridor or shaft. This entrance was most certainly in use during MB IIA, perhaps even added during that period, as evidenced by the concentration of MB IIA finds in its vicinity (L231, L247, see Plan 2.13), including a lamp found very close to the opening, within the layers of alluvium (Fig. 2.42). Room C may have initially been a separate burial cave in EB IB, and sometime in that period, enlargement of one of the caves resulted in the joining of the spaces into one large burial chamber. In the northern half of Room C, only EB IB material was uncovered, as well as what appeared to be disturbed walls (Plan 2.14).

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

Fig. 2.41. Cave 562: excavation in Room B, below the nari roof, looking northeast.

Fig. 2.42. Cave 562: the ‘windows’ opened below the nari roof; Entrance 4 into Room C at upper left, with MB IIA lamp near the opening, just below the roof (arrow).

45

46

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Fig. 2.43. Cave 562: Room D in foreground, looking northeast.

Fig. 2.44. Cave 562: stairs leading down to Room D, looking south.

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

47

After removal of another segment of the nari roof to the southeast, a fourth burial chamber, Room D, was revealed at a lower level than Rooms B and C (Fig. 2.43). Room D had its own entrance in the cave’s southern wall, with an apparent corridor or vestibule opening from the southeast (L295.1, L298; Plan 2.15) leading to steps descending from the south (Entrance 5; Fig. 2.44). This entrance, sealed with large fieldstones, was only discerned from the inside. The room contained almost exclusively EB IB material. Fieldstone arrangements suggesting pavements and/or walls attested to disturbed burial constructions (Plan 2.15), as seen in other caves (e.g., Caves 548, 561, 567). In one case, a curved wall was discerned, perhaps part of a burial circle (L282, L289). A row of three pillar bases was set into the floor, delimiting the western side of the room (see Fig. 2.34). Clusterings of vessels amidst the numerous bones seem to suggest individual funerary kits. A distinct burial containing a skull, long bones and vessel offerings was discerned along the eastern wall (in L297). A small niche in this wall (L301) contained bones and a collection of GBW bowls and a few other vessels (see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.74). Vessels of the latest phase of the EB IB–EB II transition were found near the entrance (L294; see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.69), along with a necklace of shells, a ring, an earring and a macehead placed next to a skull. A small, isolated collection of MB IIA vessels was also recovered near the southern entrance (L285; Plan 2.16). Cave 562: Discussion This cave complex of four burial chambers is the largest burial cave excavated in this project. It is composed of three or four individual burial caves with separate entrances (it is unclear if Rooms A and B were actually ever separate rooms) apparently joined together sometime during EB IB, when the caves were enlarged to accommodate further burials (see Fig. 2.34). Several flat stones placed on the bedrock floor suggest the use of wooden columns to support the roof. A minimum of 137 interments in the EB IB layer (with a more likely estimate of 160) and 15 in the MB IIA layer were determined (see Chapter 11), accompanied by some 790 intact or almost-intact pottery vessels, most of which (622) date to EB IB (see Chapters 3, 5). Several domestic groundstone items, two maceheads, at least four stone stelae, a number of metal items (including an EB IB blade and two MB IIA bronze spearheads), as well as jewelry items, such as a shell necklace, many stone and ‘mud-paste’ beads, and bronze and gold rings and earrings, also originated in this cave. The numerous fieldstones found among the sediments were probably brought-in to erect walls outlining separate burials, as seen in other burial caves (e.g., Cave 561), or pavements separating burial levels (e.g., Cave 548). However, in this cave, no distinct walls or stone arrangements could be discerned with certainty, probably due in part to disturbance by the later MB IIA burial level. The vast number of pottery vessels attests to this cave’s prolonged use during EB IB and into the transitional EB IB–EB II period, and then again in MB IIA. The EB IB vessels were found throughout the cave, even in the darkest corners, dating the joining of the four chambers into one large burial cave to this period. In contrast, the MB IIA burials were clearly concentrated near Entrances 1, 3 and 4 and the areas between them (Plan 2.16); those who made use of this cave during MB IIA did not enter the northern parts of Rooms A and C, nor, apparently, into Room D.

48

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Entrance 4

Entrance 2 67 66 67 87

+ 67 48

67 38

L124 67 25 67 37

+

Room A

+

67 43

L137

67 25

Entrance 1

L130.1

67 90

L100

67 44

Room B

68 65 68 50

67 32 +

+ 68 28

L209 L208

67 47

67 25

L144

68 45

67 34

L215 L224 66 98

67 37

L127.2 L126

67 48

67 40

+

L248 67 47

L247 L250

67 45

L145

L146 L152

L107

67 24 +

67 56 67 6

+ +

67 33

67 46 L136 67 37

67 70

68 73

L162

67 71+ 67 37

L122

L105.2

67 48 + 67 37 + 67 43

67 46

67 17

L113

L231

L129

Room C

67 33 +

67 10 L123

67 43

L125

67 35

L147

67 57

+

67 59 67 98 67 94

L192

L181

68 01

L261 L268

+

L271 +

L283 L279

67 19 67.31

Room D

L301

66 73

66 82

L296

L297 L282

+ L280 66 72 L292 L289 66 83 L288 67.08 66 71

L281 L290

67 80

L269.2

L286

67 12

66 89

67 00

+ 67 92

L272 66 87 L287 L299 L300

L274 L276 L277

67 97

69 34

66 58 + 67 13

L230

L251

67 87

L156.2 68 33

Entrance 3

L193

L285

66 95

67 55

L293 L294

67 51 69 26

Entrance 5 L295.1/2 L298 L302 L303

68 71

0

Plan 2.13. Plan of Cave 562 showing entrances and main loci.

69 05

2 m

49

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

1

67.93

67.50

67.84

67.88

67.40

67.92 67.30 67.60

L147 67.24

67.81

Room C

67.80 67.49 67.89

Room A 67.14 67.30

67.42

67.10 67.01

L162

69.62 67.76

L152 Bones

L136

1

Room B 67.66 68.01

0

2 m

Nari Chalk

Alluvium L162

MB IIA

EB IB

L152 Chalk detritus EB IB 1 Plan 2.14. Cave 562:1 Rooms A, B and C and Section 1-1.

50

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

67 47 + 68 45

67 32 + 67 54

Room C

67 71 67 47

67 19

67 44

70.07

66 98 66 58 +

67 59

Room B

67 24

67 25 67 13

67 87

66 84

67 33 67 00

68 33 66 89 69 34

68 01

L301

Room D

67 00

L297

67 12 67 47 67 30

67 52 67 80 +

68 89

67 55

L294

L295.5 L298 68 71

L282

69 26

Entrance 5

68 71

69 05

0

2 m

Plan 2.15. Cave 562: Room D with disturbed stone constructions. Entrance 4

Entrance 2 +

L231

Room C

L147

L248

*

+

L247

Room A

L162 L130.1 L136

L113 L107

Room B

Entrance 1

L209 L152 L224 L271

L193 L274

Entrance 3

*

Room D

L261

L280

+

L285 MB IIA Pottery

* 0

MB IIA Bronze spearhead 2 m

Entrance 5

Plan 2.16. Cave 562: locations of MB IIA finds within the cave.

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

51

Cave 567 (Plans 2.17–2.24; Figs. 2.45–2.57) This rounded cave (c. 32 sq m; Plan 2.17) is located in the southern part of Area 500, c. 2 m to the east of Cave 548 (see Plan 2.1; Fig. 2.45). The well-hewn entrance on the south had been sealed with a large blocking stone (Fig. 2.46) and then covered with a pile of small fieldstones. From this entrance, six steps descended into the cave (L107.2). The quarries overlapping the cave probably caused the roof in the northeastern corner to cave in. Several flat stone slabs were set into depressions in the bedrock on an east-west axis, suggesting that wooden columns supported the roof. An opening in the northeastern corner of the cave led to another room, which was not excavated as it lay outside the planned route of the road. A number of niches hewn into the walls contained bones and pottery, a phenomenon not discerned in other caves (Fig. 2.47).

Fig. 2.45. Cave 567 at the end of the excavation; Cave 548 in the background, looking west.

52

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Fig. 2.46. Cave 567: entrance to the cave, with blocking stone to the right, looking north.

Fig. 2.47. Cave 567: niches in the southern wall, east of the stairs, looking south.

Initially, a tractor removed the southern roof of the cave and some of the uppermost alluvial fill. The cave was excavated in sections, beginning with the southwestern quarter, and a central balk was left throughout the excavation (Fig. 2.48). Its removal in the final days of excavation may have resulted in some mixing of the loci (e.g., L148, see Chapter 3).

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

53

Fig. 2.48. Cave 567: the southwestern quarter of the cave, L134 above L149.

Immediately upon excavation in the area near the stairs, many pottery vessels and human bones were revealed (L107.2, L111, L115, L116); as the excavation advanced northward, at least two burial levels were discerned, often associated with stone rows, perhaps low walls separating the burials (L134 above, L149 below (Fig. 2.48). In L135, east of the balk, was a child burial (Plan 2.18). A niche to the east of the stairs (L171) contained a single burial of an individual aged 20–29 (see Chapter 11) and several vessels. Toward the western wall, some stone rows and a possible burial enclosure were uncovered (Fig. 2.49). Apparent concentrations of vessels, together with long bones and often a skull,

Fig. 2.49. Cave 567: stone wall in L156–L157, center left; note stone slab on floor in L151.

54

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

were noted in several places on either side of the walls (e.g., L156, L157, L169; Plan 2.19), in a pit hewn in the bedrock (L151); and around two flat stones lying on bedrock (pillar bases? L138, L155). At a lower level, a line of stones that apparently closed off the cave’s western side was also surrounded by pottery and bones (L253, L260, L263; Plan 2.20). In the northwestern corner, an opening in the nari layer had been filled with small fieldstones (Fig. 2.50), suggesting another entrance to the cave blocked at a later time, like most of the tomb openings. Sometime during EB IB, part of the ceiling in the center of the cave collapsed/ crumbled (L160, L161) and EB IB burials were found both below and above the debris. East of the central balk, large nari blocks also point to a roof collapse in antiquity (Fig. 2.50). To the north, the remainder of the roof was removed by tractor to enable completion of the excavation. Below the alluvial fill (L210, L211), large nari stones seem to indicate another roof collapse in this area (L212, L213; see Plan 2.19), below which was a layer of silty sterile soil (L216, L217, L222, L223). In L226 and L227, on the western and eastern sides of the cave (Fig. 2.51; see Plan 2.17), in brown silty soil mixed with much white chalky sediment, a few vessels were recovered, as well as a flint reaping knife (see Chapter 7: Fig. 7.1:2). The entrance to another room on the east remained unexcavated (Fig. 2.52). In the northeastern wall, additional niches were discovered; one of these, in L233 (the niche did not receive a separate locus number), contained a skull and long bones, vessels (Fig. 2.53), and a retouched Canaanean blade (see Chapter 7: Fig. 7.3). Along the northern wall, just west of the central balk (L240.1), a seemingly rectangular-shaped, ossuary-like structure containing one or more burials––a skull and long bones (L239)––was discerned

Fig. 2.50. Cave 567: possible northern entrance to cave filled with fieldstones, upper center; to right of central balk are nari blocks probably fallen from roof.

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

Fig. 2.51. Cave 567: white chalky sediment containing bones and vessels (L227); to the right is the entrance to the eastern room, looking north.

Fig. 2.52. Cave 567: entrance to the eastern room.

Fig. 2.53. Cave 567: burial niche in L233, upper center, containing bones and vessels.

55

56

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

(Figs. 2.54, 2.55); it was soon revealed to be half of a large holemouth pithos with vessels around it––including a smaller holemouth jar (in L266) and an amphoriskos (in L243)––as well as an earring (in L244; Plan 2.21). After the bottom side of the pithos was removed, further burials containing vessels, beads and an earring were revealed (L253, L254, L262, L265; Plan 2.22, Fig. 2.56). To the west of the pithos, below the area where a stone fill had been discerned earlier, a rock protrusion suggests a poorly hewn staircase of three steps(?), perhaps another entrance (Fig. 2.57). At this level, the area to the west of the central balk was rich in burials, including many complete vessels (L260) found alongside a low stone wall oriented southwest–northeast. Further Fig. 2.54. Cave 567: pithos burial (L240.1), surrounded by vessels. west, near the cave wall, L242 also yielded many burials with complete vessels still standing in situ, perhaps protected between the cave wall and the stone-built wall (see Plan 2.20). In the bedrock floor, some pit-like depressions (e.g., L270) contained human bones, several vessels, beads and other small finds, probably representing individual burials.

Fig. 2.55. Cave 567: pithos burial, with bones inside.

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

Fig. 2.56. Cave 567: after removal of the pithos burial, looking north.

Fig. 2.57. Cave 567: toward the end of the excavation; to left of central balk are possible stairs of a northern entrance, looking northeast.

57

58

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Cave 567: Discussion Cave 567 represents a single burial chamber with a southern entrance, perhaps also a northern entrance(?), and at least one additional room to the east. Flat stone slabs were strategically set into the bedrock, suggesting the use of columns to support the roof. Fieldstones were evidently used to build low walls and perhaps also burial enclosures, as seen in other burial caves (e.g., Caves 548, 561). Some burials were placed in pits hewn into the bedrock floor, and in one case, half a large pithos served as a burial container. Approximately 45 interments were identified, some of skulls and long bones and some showing partial articulation, suggesting disturbed primary burials (see Chapter 11). The finds include almost 1000 vessels, most of them attributed to a late phase of EB IB (see Chapter 3), and several Predynastic Egyptian vessels. A number of vessels can be attributed to EB II, mainly metallic platters and Abydos jugs. These were not discerned in separate loci or a higher stratum, although the ‘spatial’ stratigraphy of the loci reveals a clustering from the eastern room’s entrance westward (L130.2, L148, L166, L170, L242; Plan 2.23), suggesting that this eastern room may also have contained EB II burials. A teapot dated to the Intermediate Bronze Age was retrieved from the balk in L111, and another vessel possibly of similar date was recovered in L115 (Plan 2.23; see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.1:1, 6), both near the southern entrance to the cave. 64 11

64 20

64 15

64 20 64 15

L240.1 L243 L252 L229 L232

65 50 64 15 65 41

L226

L211 L213

64 07

L234 L242

L121

L169

To eastern room

L214 64 13 64 07 65 59

L170

65 32

L155 63 67 63 54

L120

L138

65 52

L150

L272

L127.1 64 92

64 20 64 13

L149 L151

L126 L156

65 86

L148

L134

L157 64 07

64 15 64 10 L232

L265 64 11 L233 64 11 64 03 L228 L244 L255 L254 L227 L270 L253 L263 L262 L130.2 L266 L260 L267 L164 L254 L166 L161 L131.1 L135 L160 L275

64 16

64 08

65 80

64 18 64 10

L239

L154

64 88

L210 L212 L216 L222

L118

L119

L115

L116

65 80

L273

65 86

L171

63 68

63 81

L110 L111

65 51

L107.2 64 09 65 55

65 26

64 90

Entrance

Pottery

65 84

Bones 0

65 53

Plan 2.17. Cave 567 and main loci.

2

m

59

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

L131.1 64 33 64 04 63 87

64 05

L164

L135 64 10 63 86

63 81

Skull of child

L134

L156

L149 63 81

63 88

L150 L115 L116 L111

L171 Pottery

L107.2

Bones 0

2 m

Plan 2.18 Cave 567: excavation in southern part of cave, on either side of central balk.

64 10 +64 16

Skull 64 12

Bones Skull

64 35 64 20 64 06 64 07 64 01

64 12 64 01/63 99

L169

64 20 64 15

64 06 63 93

+64 22 64 10

64 00 63 91

63 96 63 87

64 33 64 01 * 63 91

L170

+63 92 63 96

L155 63 76 63 46

63 67 63 54

L151

L157

L156

64 00 63 91 63 99

L138

L171 64 38 64 25

Pottery Bones 0

Plan 2.19. Cave 567: stone walls along western side of cave.

2

m

60

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

65 80

64 17 64 10 65 50

L240.1

65 41 63 99 63 90 63 98

63 94 63 83 64 88 64 13 63 98

63 88 63 82 63 97 63 90

63 97 63 94

64 13 64 10

L270 64 00

65 86 63 94

64 03 63 84

L254 63 94 L262 63 84

63 94 63 84

63 89 63 80 63 86 63 84 63 76 63 86 63 81 63 71

L253 63 98 L267 63 91

63 90 63 99 L266 63 94 63 95 63 89 63 94 63 88 63 96 63 87 63 93 63 87 63 95 63 90 63 99 63 89 63 99 63 86

63 89

63 96

63 98 63 90

63 88

63 77 63 74

63 95 63 89

63 98

63 92 63 88

64 18 64 16

L260 L263

L242

64 10

63 71

65 59

65 32

63 90 63 86

63 67 63 54

65 52

65 80 65 86 64 92

63 81

65 51

63 68

64 09 65 55

65 26

64 90

65 84

Pottery Bones 0

65 53

Plan 2.20. Cave 567: excavation in northern half of cave.

2 m

61

2

CHAPTER 2: THE STRATIGRAPHY

1

65 80

L243

64 10

65 50 L240.1

L252

64 16 L239 63 99 64 18 64 08 64 18 64 16 L244

2

65 41

L255

64 17 64 10

65 86

64 13 64 10

63 97 63 91

1

L253 L266 L260 L263

65 59

65 32

63 99 63 94 64 88

64 13 64 00

63 71

L242

63 67 63 54

65 52

63 99 63 89 63 99 63 86 65 80 65 86

64 92

63 81

65 51

63 68

64 09 65 55 65 26

64 90

65 84

Pottery Bones 0

2 m

65 53

65 00

65 00

Balk

Balk

Fallen block

Collapsed Nari

64 24

L240.1

L243

64 00

1-1

L239

64 16

L240.1

64 00

2-2

Plan 2.21. Cave 567: pithos burial in L240.1, and sections.

62

YEHUDA DAGAN AND SHELLEY SADEH

Pottery 64 19 64 04

65 50

Skulls

Steps

65 41

L265

64 36 64 09 64 06

63 77

L254 L262

65 86

64 04 63 96 63 84 63 78

L253 L260 L260

*

Bones

65 80

63 75

0

2 m

Plan 2.22. Cave 567 after removal of pithos burial.

65 62 65 68

65 80

65 50 65 86 65 41

L170

L166

65 59

L130.2

L242 64 88

L148

63 71

65 52 65 38 64 08

65 80

64 92

64 64

*

L115

*

65 51 65 53

63 68

63 81

65 86

L111 EB II Vessels

65 55 65 84

* 0

Intermediate Bronze Age Vessels 2

m

65 51

Plan 2.23. Cave 567: location of loci containing EB II and Intermediate Bronze Age vessels.

Y. Dagan and S. Sadeh, 2021, En Esur ( Ein Asawir) III (IAA Reports 68)

Chapter 3

The Early Bronze Age Pottery Shelley Sadeh

Introduction The Early Bronze Age pottery assemblages from the four excavated burial caves (548, 561, 562, 567) represent an uninterrupted sequence from EB IB into early EB II, including the elusive ‘transition’ period—when far-reaching social and cultural changes took place, including the transition from village to urban life at many tells. At the settlement site of ‘En Esur, the large EB IB village was apparently abandoned by this stage, and if habitation did continue there, it was on a much smaller scale, barely detected even in surveys (see Chapter 1; Gophna 1974:148; Yannai 2016:229).1 Thus, the apparent continuity of the pottery sequence in the cemetery is of significance, attesting to the uninterrupted use of the traditional burial grounds even after the inhabitants no longer occupied the nearby settlement. As there is little clear-cut vertical stratigraphy in the caves, and the sequence relies largely on horizontal/spatial stratigraphy, we present a short typological discussion of the Early Bronze Age pottery from the four caves, to establish the terminology and range of the assemblage, with parallels and representative pottery figures (Figs. 3.1–3.26). A typological-chronological development can be discerned through EB IB and into the beginning of EB II in this large pottery repertoire, enabling an attempt to differentiate stratigraphically––both vertically and horizontally––between at least three Early Bronze Age phases (i.e., EB IB, EB IB–EB II transition, early EB II) in each cave, and diachronic trends are analyzed. In this manner, we hope to clarify the development of ceramic forms and the typological sequence during this critical period of social upheaval, which is rarely recognized in settlement sites. Due to the exceptional amount and excellent preservation of the Early Bronze Age vessels from the four caves (c. 2290 minimum number of vessels), great care has been taken to document and preserve as many vessels and as much data as possible. Petrographic analyses were conducted on a large sampling of 64 representative specimens (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1). Some 260 complete or almost-complete vessels were recovered from the four caves during excavation, all of which were drawn and photographed. Also, all the sherds from the excavations were collected and brought to the IAA laboratory, where they were

The pottery from the extensive, renewed IAA excavations at the protohistoric settlement carried out during 2018–2019, has only been briefly described in preliminary reports (e.g., Elad, Paz and Shalem 2018, 2019, 2020a, 2020b), and is not related to in the present study. However, the results do not seem to change these conclusions. 1

64

SHELLEY SADEH

expertly restored by Roni Gat over a period of several years, yielding over 2000 additional fully or partially reconstructed vessels. It was assumed that while vessels may have been smashed and even scattered by post-depositional forces, including (ancient) tomb robbers, all the pieces remained within the caves. Numerous vessels that were too smashed or crumbled for reconstruction, have been preserved, as is, in the IAA storerooms. Even after all these efforts, many sherds remained that could not be re-assembled, and from these, diagnostic sherds were processed and counted. Finally, a minimum number of vessels was established per cave (Table 3.1), based on vessel rims only. Every effort was made to avoid counting sherds from the same vessel. The relatively standardized repertoire of funerary vessels, even in the handmade EB IB assemblage, facilitated the identification of even the smallest rim fragments to the specific vessel type, although it was not always possible to differentiate between the rims and necks of small juglets, amphoriskoi and teapots. The bulk of the material from the tombs discussed here dates to EB IB. A plethora of typological schemes have been designed for EB IB ceramic assemblages; therefore, we have chosen to use a much-simplified typology based on the one employed by Eli Yannai (2006) in the report of the occupation strata he excavated at nearby ‘En Esur, which was presumably the origin of the deceased buried in the caves. The numerous variations within each type have been extensively published in the past, for example, from other tombs excavated at ‘En Esur (Dothan 1970; Yannai 1996, 2016; Gorzalczany and Shavit 2010), at Ha-Zore‘a (Meyerhoff 1989), Megiddo (Guy 1938), Tell el-Far‘ah N (Vaux and Stève 1949; Vaux 1951), Sha‘ar Efrayim (Brink 2011), Ḥorbat Ḥani (Lass 2003), Ḥorbat Tinshemet (Brink and Grosinger 2004), Azor (Ben-Tor 1975) and Jericho (Kenyon 1960). As EB IB ceramic assemblages have been so extensively published, only selected examples of the over 2000 vessels were chosen to be illustrated, based on a number of criteria, such as representative examples of common shapes and fabrics, vessels of unusual shape or fabric, vessels originating in specific loci of interest, etc. This selection process took place prior to the in-depth study of the stratigraphy and the assemblages and therefore not all loci of special interest are fully illustrated, and not all vessels of special interest were drawn. This situation most affects the discussion and illustration of funerary kits (see below). Although the inhabitants of EB IB ‘En Esur left the site for some other location, they apparently retained the tradition of burial in the cemetery around the site into EB II, as evidenced by the pottery. Comparative material for this transition period between the end of EB IB, when sites in this region were often abandoned, and the urban EB II culture, is still relatively rare and ambiguous. Several tombs excavated in this cemetery (Yannai 2016, and see references therein) present mixed EB IB–EB II assemblages, as do the tombs at Tell el-Far‘ah N (see above) and a tomb at Bet Yeraḥ (Mazar, Amiran and Haas 1973). The tomb at Gadot is apparently a rare example of a small, unmixed, late EB I–EB II transition–early EB II assemblage (Greenberg 2001a), as is an unpublished tomb excavated in the area of Ramat Bet Shemesh (pers. obs.; see Dagan 2010b:171, Site 219). Numerous burial caves in proximity to Tel Qashish, probably representing a similar phenomenon to the cemetery around ‘En Esur, apparently display an EB IA through EB III sequence (Salmon 2008),

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

65

although it is unclear if any EB IB–EB II transition material was present. In addition, nonfunerary assemblages attributed to the ‘transition’ period were identified in a pit at Tel Te’o (Eisenberg, Gopher and Greenberg 2001), in a pit in Area EY at Bet Yeraḥ (Eisenberg and Greenberg 2006), in Building MA at Bet She’an (Rotem 2012), and in post-Stratum III ‘fills’ at Tel Qashish (Zuckerman 2003). For typological outlines for the EB II phase, we turned mainly to the ceramic assemblage from the occupation strata at the tell of Qiryat Ata (Golani 2003). The EB II occupation at most tell sites, when present, is a fully developed urban culture established upon the abandoned EB IB occupation with no intervening sequence, as at Bet Yeraḥ (Greenberg et al. 2006) and Tel Qashish (Ben-Tor, Bonfil and Zuckerman 2003), or a new urban settlement without a prior EB I occupation, as at Dan (Greenberg 1996:85). At some sites, the EB II phase does not exist, the tells being reoccupied only in EB III, as, for example, at Megiddo and Bet She’an. At several sites, settlement was never resumed after EB IB, as at ‘En Esur and Tel Shalem. Qiryat Ata, on the eastern fringes of the northern coastal plain, is the only site apparently showing an uninterrupted EB IB–EB II stratigraphic sequence (although a gap in the ceramic typology can be discerned, see Golani 2003). As noted above, we have kept a minimum number of types, as the handmade character of the bulk of the pottery presented in the following typology can render almost every individual vessel a subtype of its own, a characteristic that almost certainly was of no significance to the ancient potter or the ancient consumer, nor to the function or purpose of the vessel. As is evident from the ceramic parallels, the repertoire of ‘En Esur falls securely within the northern ceramic tradition of the Land of Israel; it is closely related to the EB IB traditions of the Jezreel Valley, while contacts with the Samarian Hills (Tell el-Far‘ah N), the Jordan Valley and the southern part of the country are also evidenced. In many cases, the state of preservation of the vessels from the caves is outstanding, surviving complete with the polished red slip intact. In other cases, however, only traces of slip remain, and some vessels crumbled when removed from the soil matrix. The preservation of the vessels is apparently dependent mainly on the quality of the wares, which is extremely variable in this assemblage, and their interaction with the chemical composition of the soil. Ceramic Technology Most vessels are handmade and attributed to EB IB. The few EB II vessels stand out in their wheel-turned forms. Fabrics In the preliminary analysis stages, the vessels were divided by the author into several main groups based on fabric, as determined by macroscopic examination. This division into ‘fabric groups’ (as opposed to ‘petrographic groups’, see Chapter 6) was an important tool for processing such a large quantity of material (correlation between these and the petrographic groups is detailed below).

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Fabric Group 1. This very common ware, varying in color from orange to orange-brown, with numerous small to medium, white, gray and a few red inclusions and light to dark gray cores, corresponds mainly with the local Petrographic Group A (see Chapter 6). This fabric was used to make both fine and crude vessels––dependent on firing conditions and degree of levigation––mainly knobbed, gutter-rim bowls, deep, incurved bowls, ‘imitation’ Gray-Burnished Ware (GBW) bowls, as well as juglets, amphoriskoi and teapots. In some cases, the fabric is very dense resulting in relatively heavy vessels; these are usually fine, well-levigated and well-fired specimens. All these ‘orange-ware’ vessels were red slipped, either with a thin, washy, orange-red (self?) slip or a thick, dark red slip that is usually well preserved, although sometimes the surface has cracked. Many vessels, especially the dark red-slipped examples, were burnished or highly polished (i.e., no marks of a burnishing tool are visible), and most or all of them were probably similarly treated. However, in cases where only traces of the slip remained, this could not be determined. Many vessels show ‘fireclouding,’ usually those of poorer quality, indicative of unstable firing conditions, plausibly open-firing rather than in a kiln, or dense stacking within the kiln. This orange ware can be identified with the local ware used to produce all the vessels in another burial cave within the cemetery (Tomb 80), dated to EB IB (see Chapter 6; Cohen-Weinberger 2010). The excavators of Tomb 80 attributed the lack of other wares and imports, and the absence of GBW bowls, to the low socio-economic level of the deceased (Gorzalzany and Sharvit 2010). Fabric Group 2. This is a beige, light brown or beige-gray ware, gritty, with many small to very fine, white, dark, sometimes red inclusions. It was used to make mainly GBW bowls, deep, inturned bowls, platter bowls, non-metallic platters, and many other vessel types. This group corresponds mainly with the local Petrographic Group B, Groups G and H originating in the Jezreel Valley, and Group I from Lower Cretaceous outcrops in eastern Samaria, Upper Galilee or the Hermon massif (see Chapter 6). Differentiation between these was not readily evident to the naked eye. It is equivalent to the local ‘buff’ ware of Jezreel-Valley provenance defined at Qashish, of which all the GBW, gutter-rim and knobbed bowls there were made (Zuckerman 2003:57). The GBW bowls of this light colored, gritty ware in the four caves discussed here were often, but not always, fired to a gray color with a gray surface and subsequently polished; in some cases, there appears to have been a gray slip or probably a self-slip. The deep inturned bowls, platter-bowls, and even platters of this ware were always red slipped, and often (or always?) burnished; the platters frequently display radial burnishing marks. There is some intermingling of wares and types, with GBW-shaped bowls appearing in orange ware with a red or gray-black slip (termed here ‘imitation’ GBW) and small closed vessels in beige, gritty ware. Fabric Group 3. This distinctive and much less common group comprises a pale-colored ware apparently tempered largely with vegetal matter that had disintegrated during firing, leaving voids and a ‘pock-marked’ surface and resulting in light-weight vessels. Often, only traces

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of the poor-quality slip, or watery wash, can be detected. This ware was used for making a variety of vessels, including juglets and poor-quality GBW-shaped bowls (termed here ‘pseudo’ GBW, see below), and it is suggested that this was perhaps a cheap alternative used only for votive vessels that were not actually intended for use. A similar ware was described for GBW bowls found at Bet Yeraḥ, where the voids were attributed to the expansion of limestone temper caused by minor spalling (Esse 1989:80). In the burial caves at Azor, a group of vessels made of inferior (but local) ware was discerned, termed ‘second-rate’ vessels (Ben-Tor 1975:16), which included all the types found in the assemblage, as is the case here. Unfortunately, only a few examples of this fabric group were petrographically analyzed, and as their composition was indeterminate, they could not be ascribed to any one group. One appears to have originated in eastern Samaria (Chapter 6: Table 6.1:28), and another, of Petrographic Group N, apparently not of southern-Levantine provenance (Chapter 6: Table 6.1:21). Fabric Group 4. This group represents the classic EB II metallic ware, which correlates with Petrographic Group I. In Cave 548, a large number of metallic-ware platters were recovered, made of typical brick-red ware imported from the area of Mt. Hermon (termed NCMW after Greenberg and Porat 1996). Several of these were petrographically sampled (see Chapter 6), and it was confirmed that they did indeed belong to the NCMW family. A small number of other vessel types, mainly jugs, were also made of this ware. Fabric Group 5. This metallic-like group includes, for example, sporadically appearing ‘Aphek’ bowls (Beck 1985) made of a brown, metallic-like ware, and indeed, the petrographic analysis points to their provenance in the coastal area (see Chapter 6). Also, in all the caves, vessels of well-levigated and highly fired, brown- to pink-colored clays with a metallic ring and often with a gray core, were present in low percentages in late EB IB and EB IB–EB II transition contexts (Table 3.1: ‘metallic-like’ ware). Petrographic analysis attributed them mainly to the Lower Cretaceous Group I, although some examples made of local ware can perhaps be attributed to a local initiative to produce high-quality wares. These may be associated with what has been termed ‘proto-metallic’ ware (Paz 2006:283; Paz, Shoval and Zlatkin 2009; Gophna and Paz 2017; Paz, Segal and Nadelman 2018:146; although the wares they sampled all originated in Lower Cretaceous sources). The sporadic appearance, in late EB IB and transition contexts, of ware with a ‘metallic ring’, is mentioned, for example, at Qiryat Ata (Golani 2003), Rishpon (Gophna and Paz 2017) and Abu Ḥamid (Paz, Segal and Nadelman 2018), and overlapping of the metallicware industry between late EB IB and EB II has been noted mainly in Jordan Valley sites (see, e.g., Eisenberg 1996; Fischer 2000:208; Eisenberg and Greenberg 2006:347; Greenberg and Eisenberg 2006:126; Paz 2006:283; Rotem 2012). In the descriptions of the specific pottery types below, when attribution to one of the macroscopically defined fabric groups is clear, the following terms are used for convenience: orange ware; light brown or beige-gray gritty ware; pale, light-weight, pockmarked ware; metallic ware/NCMW; and metallic-like ware.

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Soon after the excavation, following preliminary processing, 64 samples were chosen for petrographic analysis, among them examples of both representative and unusual fabrics and shapes (see Chapter 6). Manufacturing Techniques Most of the vessels from the caves were handmade with coils (for a description of EB IB ceramic technology, see, for example, Golani 2003:83; Rotem 2012:166–167). Fine carinated bowls, GBW bowls and platters were probably made in molds, with the upper part added above the carination and wheel-finished (see Beck 1985:20). In most EB IB assemblages, some small closed vessels, such as juglets, amphoriskoi and teapots, were formed by joining two hemispherical halves, perhaps also made in molds (see, e.g., Brink and Grosinger 2004:91–92, who termed this technique ‘dual mode’; see also Ben-Ari 2010:88–89). This technique is clearly evident in many of the vessels in the caves discussed here, with a band of clay added at the joint and smoothed, creating a slight carination; then the neck, rim and handles were attached. In the caves at Azor, in the southern part of the country, this technique was prevalent (over 60% of the vessels), although slightly different, with the two halves ‘clasping’ each other (Ben-Tor 1975:14–16). These vessels from the Azor caves are characterized by an omphalos base, which is rare at ‘En Esur. In the ‘En Esur caves discussed here, the ‘dual-mode’ technique does not seem to be restricted to any particular type of ware, and many of the vessels were locally made; however, such vessels are usually of finer ware and esthetically proportioned with a carination at the joint. This technique continued into the EB IB–EB II transition, and perhaps even into EB II (see Fig. 3.31:13). It is interesting to note that a similar technique was also employed in the Intermediate Bronze Age (EB IV; see Eisenberg 2012:35). In many cases, the rims of vessels, irrespective of their body-forming method, were finished on a tournette. An unusual technique of joining the two parts of the ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs was noted in the present assemblage. The cylindrical necks were first inserted into a hole in the upper body of the jug, and then an additional layer of clay was applied over the joint and the inserted cylinder, from the shoulder up to the rim, for extra strength (see Fig. 3.23). This technique probably explains the high frequency of mostly intact cylindrical necks in the assemblage compared to the rest of the thin-walled body, which had crumbled away. The thick, distinctive ‘proto-Abydos’ and ‘Abydos’ bases also survived in relatively large numbers. Surface Treatment As noted above, the majority of the Early Bronze Age assemblage from the caves was red slipped, and most of the EB IB vessels were probably burnished as well, although the burnishing was not always preserved. This stands in contrast to the assemblage from the occupation strata, where burnished red slip is much less apparent (e.g., Golani 2003: Table 4.5). Imported GBW bowls and some local, imitation GBW were gray slipped (most probably self slipped) and then burnished.

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Potters’ Marks Potters’ marks were discerned only on two vessels from the caves. A five-point star was incised after firing on the base of a lamp-bowl (Fig. 3.41:3); parallels were found on the base of a platter at Kefar Ata (Amiran 1969:88), at EB IB ‘En Shadud (Braun 1985:56, No. 12), and on a closed vessel at Tel Bet She’an (Rotem 2012: Pl. 10:1). Somewhat reminiscent potters’ marks are seen on NCMW jar bases at Tel Te’o (Greenberg 2001b: Fig. 8.2:20–22). Similar star symbols also appear on Chalcolithic–EB I tabular flint scrapers, with parallels, for example, on items from Miẓpe Shalem in the Judean Desert (Bar Adon 1989: Figs. 18:1, 2; 19:2). The second potter’s mark is a simple cross on a ledge handle at the rim of a platterbowl (Fig. 3.40), a mark that has numerous parallels, such as on a jug base from an EB II burial at Bet Yeraḥ (Mazar, Amiran and Haas 1973: Fig. 5:5), and a jug base from Tell Abu al-Kharaz (Fischer 2000: Fig. 12.2:8).

Typology This section presents the vessel types and the relative frequencies of the major vessel categories in each cave (Table 3.1) and discusses the typological range of the pottery assemblages of the four caves. Considering the EB IB to EB II time span and the varying chronological ranges in each cave, the combined percentages for all four caves are clearly of little value. The breakdown for each cave is most relevant for determining their precise positioning within the chronological sequence, and consequently, continuity and change within the Early Bronze Age ceramic assemblage (see below). As bowl shapes are often used as a fossile directeur for the various Early Bronze Age phases, a specific breakdown of the bowl types is presented in Table 3.2. The typological descriptions are arranged from open to closed and, in general, from small to large forms. Representative examples of each type were chosen for illustration (Figs. 3.1–3.26). Whenever a specific vessel underwent petrographic analysis, a reference is given to Table 6.1 in Chapter 6. Basket numbers of specific vessels that are mentioned but not illustrated are cited in parentheses when these are preserved in the IAA storerooms (see above). In the discussion of assemblages from individual loci, which follows the typological description, the figures are arranged typologically within each locus (Figs. 3.27–3.109). However, the accompanying discussion makes an attempt to isolate and describe individual clusters (funerary kits) whenever possible, rather than the locus as a whole, as loci were often arbitrarily determined. When it was not possible to illustrate all the vessels from a locus, representative examples of the different types were selected. Exceptional vessels were, for the most part, illustrated.

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Table 3.1. Relative Frequency of Main EB IB-II Pottery Categories in the Four Caves (in Sequence from Earliest to Latest) Cave 561 Type

N

Cave 567

% of Cave Assemblage

N

Cave 562

% of Cave Assemblage

N

% of Cave Assemblage

Cave 548

Total

N

N

% of Cave Assemblage

% of Total Assemblage

Open Vessels Bowls

8

35

GBW Platters

66

7

127

21

93

14

294

13

227

23

99

16

30

5

356

16

19

3

51

8

76

3

6

Total Open

8

35

299

30

245

40

174

27

726

38

Juglets

6

30

256

26

119

19

121

18

502

22

Amphoriskoi

4

20

234

24

113

18

140

21

491

21

Teapots

4

5

73

7

36

6

32

5

145

6

Small jars

22

2

14

2

9

1

45

2

(Egyptian/ Egyptianized jars)*

(5)

Closed Vessels

(2)

Jugs

1

1

Cylindrical-necked jugs (‘proto-Abydos’)

3

10

(Abydos bases)*

2

(1)

Storage jars

5

7

Holemouth jars

2

1

Miscellaneous rims (closed)

(7)

9

1

11

1

38

6

51

2

(13) 1

8

(14) 01

20

1

3

1

5

90

10

77

13

128

19

296

13

Total Closed

15

65

686

70

378

60

485

73

1564

62

Total

23

100

985

100

623

100

659

99

2290

100

(11)

1

2

(41)

6

(Metallic-like ware)*

0.03

* Specific forms/wares in parentheses are included in total of relevant type

Table 3.2. Relative Frequency of EB I–II Bowl Types in the Four Caves (in Sequence from Earliest to Latest) Bowl Type

Cave 561

Cave 567

Cave 562

Cave 548

N

N

N

N

Footed cup Cup-bowl Small hemispherical

2

‘Aphek’

% of bowl Assemblage

% of bowl Assemblage 1

4

2

9

3

24

10

3

2

13

4

16

7

31

18

4

2

8

99

40

30

227

(Imitation/pseudo)*

% of bowl Assemblage

4

1

GBW

% of bowl Assemblage

76

(12)

(56)

4.5 17

(3)

Knobbed

1

12

4

28

11

7

4

Gutter-rim

1

10

4

11

4

15

9

Deep incurved/ platter-bowls

3

13

4

27

11

8

6

2

19

8

51

Platters (Metallic)*

(4)

(Non-metallic)*

(2)

4.5 29

(17) (19)

(34)

Miscellaneous

1

4

1

13

5

21

12

Total

8

299

99

245

100

174

100

*Specific forms/wares in parentheses are included in total of relevant type

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Open Vessels (Figs. 3.1, 3.2) Footed Cups (Fig. 3.3:1–4) This is a relatively rare vessel type, even in burial contexts. It seems to first appear in EB IB (although somewhat similar vessels appear in Chalcolithic contexts, e.g., at Abu Maṭar, see Commenge-Pellerin 1987: Fig. 22:8) and continues at least into the Intermediate Bronze Age, as in Cave B3 at ‘En Esur, where an example was found in a single burial together with a spherical amphoriskos and a jar (Mahajna 2006), and at Sha‘ar Ha-Golan (Eisenberg 2012: Fig. 42:11). These cups thus represent a long-standing tradition and are of little chronological significance. In the cave assemblages discussed here, eight vessels of this type were found, four in Cave 567 and four in Cave 562. Although they differ somewhat in shape, ranging from simple V-shaped cups with a pronounced base (Fig. 3.3:1) and footed cups (Fig. 3.3:2, 3) to an elaborate ‘goblet’ (Fig. 3.3:4), they are all attributed to the same type due to their small, relatively consistent size, fine local ware (Fabric Group 1;

0

10

Fig. 3.1. Hemispherical bowls.

0

10

Fig. 3.2. Assorted bowls.

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Fig. 3.3 ► No.

Type

Cave

Locus

Basket

1

Footed cup

567

135

2410.1

2

Footed cup

562

145

2525.2

3

Footed cup

567

260

3460.2

4

Footed cup

567

270

3440

5

Deep cup-bowl

548

165

2781

6

Deep cup-bowl

548

206

2947.4

7

Deep cup-bowl

567

148

2523.2

8

Deep cup-bowl

562

271

3456

9

Deep cup-bowl

562

282

3430

10

Hemispherical bowl

567

267

3401

11

Hemispherical bowl

548

140

2459

12

Hemispherical bowl

562

269

3431.1

13

Hemispherical bowl

548

206

2991

14

Hemispherical bowl

567

110

2104

15

Hemispherical bowl

567

111

2052.3

16

Hemispherical bowl

567

107

2058.1

17

Hemispherical bowl

548

206

3016.3

18

Hemispherical bowl

548

140

2638.2

19

Carinated bowl

562

271

3502.3

20

Carinated bowl

562

271

3502.2

21

Carinated bowl

562

271

3473.2

22

Carinated bowl

548

140

2596

Petrographic Group A, see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:35), red slip, often polished, and fine finish with attention to detail. The base is almost always differentiated from the body, splaying out to different degrees and often rounded, smoothed and slipped. This suggests that the base was visible, and was actually not a base, and that the vessel perhaps functioned as a lid. Parallels to the example in Fig. 3.3:1 were found in other ‘En Esur tombs (e.g., Dothan 1970: Fig. 7:22, 23). Petrographic analysis of one of these parallels indicated a provenance in the region of Tell el-Far‘ah N (Yannai 1996:3*), although all the examples in the present assemblages seem to be of local manufacture. Other parallels to this shape were found at EB IB ‘En Shadud (Braun 1985) and in the EB II pillared building at Bet Yeraḥ (Eisenberg and Greenberg 2006: Fig. 8.61:4). Several examples from Phase I at Tell Abu al-Kharaz in the Jordan Valley illustrate the distinctly rounded bases seen in Fig. 3.3:2, 3 (Fischer 2000: Fig. 12.2:2–4). The footed cup in Fig. 3.3:4 is very similar to an EB IB example from an ‘En Esur tomb (Dothan 1970: Fig. 7:21) and to examples from an EB II Bet Yeraḥ tomb (Mazar, Amiran and Haas 1973: Fig. 6:32). Based on the similarity of a vessel from Jericho (and see also Fig. 3.3:4 here) to a silver goblet from an EB IB burial context at Tell el-Far‘ah (N), Amiran (1979) proposed that the ceramic vessels were imitations of silver goblets. In a previous publication, she suggested that they could have been imitations of stone cups, for example, Egyptian alabaster vessels (Amiran 1969:67).

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1

2

6

5

10

9

13

3

4

7

8

11

14

12

15

16

19 17

18

20

21

0

10

22

Fig. 3.3. Cups and bowls.

Small, Deep, Rounded Cup-Bowls (Fig. 3.3:5–9) Numerous examples of this type were found, some small and crude (Fig. 3.3:5), some with a lug handle, resembling a modern teacup (Fig. 3.3:6). Several show red-line painting on their interior (e.g., Fig. 3.59:1), and another is made of whitish-beige clay with black lines on a white (self?) slip on its interior and red slip on its exterior (Fig. 3.3:7). A fine V-shaped cup has a red-painted cross on the base (Fig. 3.3:8), and a crude conical example, with a pointed base, cannot stand up (Fig. 3.3:9). All represent simple shapes typical of EB IB. Some were used as lamps, as evidenced by the soot marks on their rims.

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Small Hemispherical Bowls (Fig. 3.3:10–18) Small hemispherical bowls, both deeper examples with everted rims (forming an S-shaped profile, Fig. 3.3:10–12) and shallow ones (Fig. 3.3:13–18), were prevalent in the caves and mostly used as lamps (termed lamp-bowls), as evidenced by their blackened rims. They appear in all fabrics and range from crudely shaped (Fig. 3.3:13, 14) to delicate, thin-walled, red-polished examples (Fig. 3.3:15, 16). Most were finished on a tournette, red slipped, often polished; others have a band of red ‘lipstick’ on the rim. While some certainly served to light the way for the burial party, it is obvious that such bowls were an important element of the EB IB funerary assemblage that accompanied the deceased, explaining the presence of some apparently unused specimens. An outstanding example is a fine, white-beige bowl with an inscribed star on the base, presumably a potter’s mark (Fig. 3.3:17). This specific example, belonging to Petrographic Group H (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:20), was imported from the Jezreel Valley or eastern Lower Galilee. It was not always possible to distinguish between the rims of these simple hemispherical bowls and those of small hemispherical knobbed bowls (see below). Larger, shallow hemispherical bowls (diam. c. 20 cm) are usually made of fine ware and red polished; one example from an EB IB–EB II transition context in Cave 548 is made of brown-red, metallic-like ware and red slipped (Fig. 3.3:18). Fine Carinated ‘Aphek’ Bowls (Fig. 3.3:19–22) Most of these distinctive carinated bowls were found in late EB IB or transition-period contexts in Cave 548. Although these bowls are considered a hallmark of EB II (e.g., Qiryat Ata, see Golani 2003: Fig. 4.24:25, 26), they began to appear in late EB I contexts at sites such as Afeq, Tell el-Far‘ah N (Beck 1985:24–25) and Bet Yeraḥ (Paz 2006: Fig. 7.21:5). All the examples presented here were made of the characteristic fine, well-levigated, metallically fired, reddish-brown to dark brown ware of coastal origin (Chapter 6: Table 6.1:7), usually burnished without slip. One example has a blackened rim, revealing that they also functioned as lamps. A set of three such bowls, of slightly varying sizes, was found in Cave 562 (L271; Fig. 3.3:19–21), together with a bowl of the same ware but of a different, deeper, less-carinated shape, somewhat resembling a GBW bowl but red burnished (Fig. 3.64:4), similar to EB II bowls from Tel Te’o (Greenberg 2001b: Fig. 8.1:9), Gadot (Greenberg 2001a: Fig. 14:4) and the Bet Yeraḥ EB II tomb (Mazar, Amiran and Haas 1973: Fig. 6:33), all made of metallic ware. Together with these bowls, in the same locus, were a GBW bowl (Fig. 3.64:6), and a deep, incurving bowl, finds suggesting a late EB IB–transition-period context. An example from Cave 548 is of similar ware and shape but red slipped and less carinated with a lug handle (Fig. 3.3:22). A similar variety of bowl shapes in this ware is also seen at Afeq, suggesting that all these bowls were imported from their core geographical area of production, between Afeq and Tell el-Far‘ah N (see Chapter 6; Beck 1985). Knobbed Bowls (Fig. 3.4:1–3) These rounded bowls have simple inturned rims and knobs, usually pointed, arranged just below the rim, almost always in an odd number (e.g., 5, 9, 11, 13, 15, 17, 21; a single

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example has 10 knobs [Fig. 3.4:2]). They range in size from miniature votive vessels (diam. 7 cm; e.g., Fig. 3.4:1) to large bowls (diam 26 cm.; e.g., Fig. 3.4:3). In some examples, the rims were finished on a tournette before applying the knobs. Most are made of the local orange ware (Fabric Group 1), some of the beige gritty ware (Fabric Group 2)––perhaps imported from the Jezreel Valley––and others of the pale, light-weight ware (Fabric Group 3). Most are red slipped and polished, regardless of their ware. Some examples are burnt on their interior or both inside and out, as opposed to just the rim, suggesting they may have been used in the funerary ceremony. Isolated examples are made of beige-gray GBW fabric with a gray surface; a unique example of such a GBW-ware knobbed bowl has nine knobs plus a squarish pierced lug handle (for hanging? Fig. 3.81:1), and the miniature example in Fig. 3.4:1 is made of orange ware with a gray-burnished slip, imitating a GBW bowl. Knobbed bowls are a relatively local phenomenon in the region of the Jezreel Valley– northern Sharon–Lower Galilee in EB IB, and were found, for example, at ‘En Esur, Qiryat Ata, Tel Qashish and ‘En Shadud. They are often considered part of the GBW tradition (e.g., Zuckerman 2003:36), as they appear in both gray-burnished as well as red-burnished versions. In the cave burials discussed here, the GBW version is very rare. Gutter-Rim Bowls (Fig. 3.4:4–6) These vessels are basically rounded bowls with an inturned rim, clearly related to the knobbed bowls (above), with an addition to the upper rim forming an inner ridge that served some purpose, perhaps to hold a lid (Yannai’s S-shaped bowls, 2006:87). They are almost always made of fine, orange-brown ware, red slipped and polished (Fabric Group 1), and have four standard, elongated knob/ledge handles (some have wavy ledge handles). They range from miniature votive examples (e.g., Fig. 3.4:4), to large examples (Fig. 3.4:6), although most fall within the medium-size range (e.g., Fig. 3.4:5). The large examples, one of which has a spout (Fig. 3.47:5), resemble the bowls found in domestic contexts (Yannai 2006: Fig. 4.53). These bowls, like the knobbed bowls (above), are also a regional phenomenon of the Jezreel Valley–northern Sharon–Lower Galilee in EB IB and have a similar distribution. No examples in GBW ware have been found to date. Gray-Burnished Ware (GBW) Bowls and Variants (Fig. 3.5) All the GBW bowls in the ‘En Esur burial caves belong to variations of Wright’s Type 3 (1937, 1958), which is equivalent to Yannai’s Types E and F at the ‘En Esur settlement site (2006:85), and represent a regional phenomenon stretching from the northern coastal plain through the Jezreel Valley to the Samarian Hills (Tell el-Far‘ah N) and into the western Galilee (Yannai 1996). The tradition of these bowls began in EB IA with the hallmark sinuous-profiled burnished bowls bearing four to six knobs attached at the carination. By EB IB, the GBW bowls had developed into a deeper carinated shape without knobs, made of similar ware. These bowls were exported to many sites in the country, and during the EB IB they appear as far afield as Tel Te’o in the north and Palmaḥim in the south (Braun 1996).

76

SHELLEY SADEH

1

2

3

4

6

0

5

10

Fig. 3.4. Knobbed and gutter-rim bowls. No.

Type

Cave

Locus

Basket

1

Knobbed bowl

567

148

2562.2

2

Knobbed bowl

562

294

3588

3

Knobbed bowl

567

111

2062.1

4

Gutter-rim bowl

567

110

2110

5

Gutter-rim bowl

562

152

2719

6

Gutter-rim bowl

548

140

2550

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

77

The mass-produced Type 3 GBW bowls appear in various wares in the assemblage from the ‘En Esur caves and probably represent different and perhaps competing workshops. Despite this, the handmade technique results in almost every vessel being slightly different from the next, ranging in size from 10 cm (Fig. 3.5:1) up to over 20 cm in diameter. In Cave 567, which yielded the largest quantity of GBW bowls (c. 76% of all bowls, see Table 3.2), the majority fall within the mid-range (diam. 14–16 cm). In Cave 548, with the lowest frequency (17%), most bowls fall within the smaller range (diam. 10–12 cm), while in Cave 562 (40%) they do not seem to cluster into a specific size. This tendency may have a chronological significance, as Yannai suggested an apparent downsizing trend in ‘En Esur Tombs 3 and 20, from relatively large bowls (diam. 20–24 cm) to smaller examples (diam. 15–18 cm; Yannai 2016:112). The degree and location of the carination also varies considerably, from a rounded, gentle S-shape (e.g., Fig. 3.5:5) to a sharp carination (e.g., Fig. 3.5:7), and the shape of the rim varies from a simple everted rim to an exaggerated hammer-rim (Fig. 3.5:6, 9). It appears that most Type 3 bowls were finished on a tournette, suggested as the reason for the lack of knobs in these later GBW bowls (e.g., Yannai 2006:86), although knobs were apparently added, after turning, on the knobbed bowls. Several fine GBW bowls upon fenestrated pedestals were also recovered (e.g., Fig. 3.5:4). An apparent ‘degenerate’2 type of GBW, discerned mainly in Cave 567, has a rounded body, an everted rim, and often a ridge applied at mid-body in an apparent attempt to imitate the typical carination (Fig. 3.5:10, 11); similar examples were noted at Qiryat Ata (Golani 2003: Fig. 4.2:11). The quality and type of ware and surface treatment range from the fine, gray, ‘classic’ GBW ware to ‘imitation’ and ‘pseudo’ GBW wares. The beige gritty ware, well-fired to a gray surface and sometimes burnished, represents the ‘classic’ GBW bowl tradition that developed from the earlier EB IA knobbed GBW bowls (Wright’s Type 1), and was manufactured in the Jezreel Valley (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:13, 52). Apparent local attempts at imitation appear in the local orange ware (Fabric Group 1; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:3), slipped in gray to black (e.g., Figs. 3.5:11; 3.74:3). We have termed these ‘imitation’ GBW, with some examples being finely made. Another ware used to make GBW bowls is the pale, light-weight, crumbly fabric sometimes tending to gray (Fabric Group 3; Figs. 3.5:7, 3.64:5). We have termed these ‘pseudo’ GBW, as they perhaps represent specialized production of non-functional vessels designed for funerary use. This phenomenon was observed at Tell el-Far‘ah, where most GBW bowls (belonging to Wright’s Type 2) were made of light-colored, crumbly, poor-quality ware (Goren and Zuckerman 2000:175). These ‘pseudo’ GBW vessels were meant to look like the real ones but were virtually unusable. In contrast to the GBW bowls from the caves, it is noteworthy that the GBW bowls from Stratum II at ‘En Esur (Yannai 2006:90) do not seem to have been burnished. Perhaps, the poor quality of the slip, or self-slip, resulted in the complete erosion of the surface due to the post-depositional conditions at the site. Examples of red-slipped versions were

An admittedly subjective label.

2

78

SHELLEY SADEH

1 2

3

5 6

7

4

8

10 11 0

9

10

Fig. 3.5. Gray Burnished Ware bowls and variants. No.

Cave

Locus

Basket

1

548

140

3103.1

2

548

140

2463.1

3

567

120

2351

4

562

297

3617

5

567

120

2367.2

6

567

262

3375

7

562

271

3502.4

8

567

127

2744.2

9

562

268

3433

10

567

118

2331.2

11

567

170

2806.2

discerned in the burial assemblages discussed here (e.g., Fig. 3.5:5), a variant found in the EB IB occupation strata at ‘En Esur (Yannai 2006:90), Qiryat Ata (Golani 2003:88) and Tel Qashish (Zuckerman 2003:58). Some examples are of relatively fine ware (e.g., Figs. 3.38; 3.47:2), and one bowl with a thick, red, cracked (‘crackled’) slip shows a somewhat different shape, with a narrower and slightly concave base (Fig. 3.5:8), perhaps related to the deep, incurved bowls (see below). Another bowl, similar in shape to the GBW bowls, is made of fine, metallically fired and red-slipped ware (Fig. 3.5:2), although it is somewhat lopsided.

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It has been suggested by Esse (1989:81) that the GBW tradition died out before the end of EB IB at some sites (e.g., in the Jordan Valley) and was replaced by the deep platter-bowls, termed by Esse ‘Crackled-Ware’ bowls (see below). This phenomenon was not discerned in ‘En Esur Stratum II, although this stratum may not have continued until the end of the period (Yannai 2006), or at Qiryat Ata and Megiddo, where Crackled-Ware bowls seem to coexist with GBW bowls until the end of EB IB and continue into EB II, which seems to be the case in the caves discussed here (see below, Deep Incurved Bowls). This phenomenon probably has a regional explanation, as discussed by Zuckerman (2003:59). As petrographic analyses suggest that the GBW bowls at ‘En Esur originated in the Jezreel Valley (see Chapter 6; Yannai 2016:213), they may have survived longer in their original region, with the distribution system beyond this region breaking down during the EB I–II transition, alongside the temporary disruption of the social fabric, as suggested by the abandonment of the occupation at ‘En Esur at this time. A noteworthy example of the continuity of this tradition into the transition phase are the bowls of GBW shape but made of metallic-like brown ware (see Fig. 3.5:2), further suggesting that the GBW tradition continued into at least the EB IB–II transition period. The absence of GBW bowls in several EB IB burial caves, for example, in Cave 561 (see below) and Tomb 80 (Gorzcalzany and Sharvit 2010) in the ‘En Esur cemetery, and at Sha‘ar Efrayim (Brink 2011) in the northern Sharon, must be due to factors other than the chronological sequence, perhaps a lower socio-economic class, as suggested by Gorzcalzany and Sharvit (2010). Deep, Incurved Bowls and Platter-Bowls (Fig. 3.6:1–10) A single example of a large, deep, red-slipped krater-bowl with sloping walls and ledge handles at mid-body (Fig. 3.6:1) was found at the entrance to Cave 548. Such krater-bowls are common domestic vessels at EB IB occupation sites, and an exact parallel is seen at nearby Qiryat Ata (Golani 2003: Fig. 4.3:7). The relatively large, deep bowls with rounded walls found in the caves have inturned rims that vary in shape from simple––similar to the knobbed bowls (e.g., Fig. 3.6.2 with four knobs)––to hammer-like (Fig. 3.6:3) and flattened (Fig. 3.6:4) rims. Parallels are known at most late EB IB sites in the north of the country––in the northern coastal plain, the Jezreel Valley, western Galilee and the Jordan Valley––appearing alongside the other typical EB IB types seen in the occupation stratum, and continuing into early EB II. While in some occupation sites in the Jordan Valley, e.g., Bet Yeraḥ (Eisenberg and Greenberg 2006:347), Tel Shalem (Eisenberg 1996) and Tel Kitan (Eisenberg and Rotem 2016: Fig. 5:4–8), these are the most common type of large bowls and appear to replace the GBW bowls, in the ‘En Esur burial caves the GBW bowls continue alongside them. At Bet Yeraḥ, where they are termed ‘Crackled Ware’ (the ‘crackled’ slip probably resulting from a flawed manufacturing technique; Esse 1989:80, Figs. 13, 14), this type also includes the bowls termed here ‘knobbed bowls,’ made of the same buff-gray ware; at Qiryat Ata, they are termed deep bowls with rounded, sharply inturned rims. Some (later?) examples of GBW from the present assemblages, which have lost their carination and barely retain their S-shape, also show some similarity to these bowls (e.g., Fig. 3.5:5).

80

SHELLEY SADEH

Fig. 3.6 ► No.

Type

Cave

Locus

Basket

1

Deep incurved bowl

548

102

2003

2

Deep incurved bowl

562

268

2347.2

3

Deep incurved bowl

567

116

2283.1

4

Deep incurved bowl

562

271

3513.2

5

Deep incurved bowl

567

157

3140.3

6

Platter-bowl

562

289

3567

7

Platter-bowl

548

205

2945.1

8

Platter-bowl

548

106

2037.2

9

Platter-bowl

567

110

2567.4

10

Platter-bowl

562

261

3387

11

Platter

562

268

3431.3

12

Platter

562

287

3548.4

13

Platter

548

236

3125.1

14

Platter

567

170

2807

Platter-bowls are similar in shape to the deep, incurved bowls, but shallower, with triangular, sharply inturned rims, and are distinctly platter-like in shape and technique, representing the transition to platters (Figs. 3.6:6–10; 3.7). The example in Fig. 3.6:7, bearing a potter’s mark on the ledge handle, was petrographically attributed to the Jezreel Valley (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:16). The close affinity with platters of the EB II repertoire has been noted at many other sites, and the type has been termed platter-bowls or ‘protoplatters’ (e.g., Eisenberg 1996; Paz 2006:287). It would appear that there was a fluid transition, not necessarily chronologically sequential, from GBW and knobbed bowls to rounded incurved bowls, platter-bowls and platters, which took place during the late EB IB–II transition. It is noteworthy that in the ‘En Esur caves, the incurved bowls are characterized by added knobs near the rim, which probably reflects the continuation of the knobbed-bowl traditions first manifested in the early knobbed GBW bowls (Wright’s Type 1) and carried on in the knobbed bowls and gutter-rim bowls from the western Jezreel Valley–northern Sharon region. In other regions (e.g., the Jordan Valley), these incurved bowls are included in Esse’s ‘Crackled’ bowl category (Esse 1989:80; see also Greenberg and Eisenberg 2006:123, Fig. 5.74:6-616). In the caves discussed here, only a few examples of what could be termed a crackled slip were retrieved. Most of the deep incurved bowls and shallower platter-bowls present local ware and treatment. A few small, perhaps votive examples were found, such as a bowl made of metallically fired ware (similar to ‘Aphek’ ware) with a triangular rim (Fig. 3.6:9). Platters (Figs. 3.6:11–14) As mentioned above, the transition from deep incurved bowls and platter-bowls to platters was fluid (see also Golani 2003:121), represented by the relatively shallow platter-bowls with short upright, triangular or inturned rims. Typologically, this type probably developed

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

2 1

3

5

4

6

7

8 0

10

Fig. 3.6. Deep incurved bowls, platter-bowls and platters.

81

82

SHELLEY SADEH

9 10

11

12

13

14 0

10

Fig. 3.6 (cont.). Platter-bowls and platters.

out of the deep bowls with sharply inturned rims, becoming shallower over time (see above). At some point in the very late EB IB, platter-bowls and metallic-ware platters from the north (NCMW; see Chapter 6) began to appear in the repertoires, usually attributed to a ‘transition’ period between EB IB and EB II (e.g., Eisenberg and Greenberg 2006:347; Paz 2006:287). The two types continued into EB II, although the hallmark NCMW platters with a ‘tool-cut’ concavity below the outer rim finally dominated the platter assemblage by later EB II. In the ‘En Esur cave assemblages discussed here, examples of platters as large as 40–50 cm in diameter have been preserved (e.g., Fig. 3.6:14). As with the deep incurved bowls, the platter-bowls and platters of local ware are also characterized by one or two knobs or a pierced lug handle at the rim. In Cave 562, 19 platters were all made of local ware (Fabric Groups 1, 2), none had a concavity below the outer rim, and all were red slipped and burnished on the outside and inner rim, or on both the exterior and interior. In contrast, in Cave 567, only six platters were discerned, four of metallic ware (Fabric Group 4) with a concavity below the rim and red slipped. In Cave 548, at least 51 examples of platters were recovered, a third made of metallic ware (see Table 3.2), often unslipped, a few with red slip in and out, while the remaining examples were made of local wares (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:10), most of them with red slip on the interior and exterior and some with a concavity below the outer rim (Fig. 3.6:13), indicating they were manufactured in the same technique. This distribution

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

0

83

10

Fig. 3.7. Platter-bowl.

clearly illustrates the evolution of this type during the EB IB–EB II transition. Two of the metallic-ware platters from Caves 548 and 567 were petrographically examined (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:12, 60) and identified as belonging to the classic NCMW family. It should be noted that some have repair holes on either side of ancient cracks, testifying to their value (e.g., Fig. 3.35:1). Closed Vessels The vast majority of the closed vessels from the four caves represent the typical, wellknown votive vessels found in EB IB–II burial assemblages, comprising over 50% of the combined ceramic assemblage (Table 3.1). They appear in all wares, from finely levigated and well fired, red burnished and elegantly formed, to crude, lopsided, pockmarked vessels with a washy slip. A phenomenon noted in these vessels is the deliberate, post-firing drilling of small holes into the lower body.3 In most cases, it is quite clear that the holes were deliberately drilled to render the vessels useless, and it would require patience and skill to drill a vessel without breaking it. Thus, it can be assumed that the hole had a cultic significance and served a purpose in the funerary rites, perhaps to ritually ‘kill’ or ‘sacrifice’ the vessel so it would accompany the deceased into the afterlife; or more practically, to prevent its removal and reuse later on. This practice may have been more widespread in EB I burials, but was not noticed and/or noted in previous reports. At least 24 purposely holed vessels were discerned: one in Cave 548, eight in Cave 562 and 15 in Cave 567, a distribution that may indicate that the practice decreased into EB II. Four types of vessels were holed: eight juglets, nine amphoriskoi, five teapots and two small jars. The majority seem to be relatively fine-made, red-slipped vessels of light brown-beige ware (Fabric Group 2; e.g., Fig. 3.67:3), some are of orange ware (Fabric

It is assumed that the holes were drilled after firing and use; however, it is possible that some were holed prior to firing, like the holes prepared before the attachment of spouts. This would imply that the vessels were designed especially as burial offerings. Support for this may be the apparently deliberate holes in several bases made at the time of firing (e.g., Fig. 3.91:3). 3

84

SHELLEY SADEH

Group 1; e.g., Fig. 3.62:10), while others are more crudely made of beige pockmarked ware (Fabric Group 3; e.g., Fig. 3.78:6). Therefore, these holes do not appear to have been specific to any type of vessel or ware. This practice is also evident in a small assemblage of the EB IB–II transition period from Ramat Bet Shemesh, where some of the smaller closed vessels had clearly been punctured (see Fig. 3.118; Dagan 2010: Site 19). A holed teapot was also recovered in Qiryat Ata Stratum II (Golani 2003:97, Fig. 4.8:9). In Cave 567, two relatively large, holed vessels, an amphoriskos (not illustrated) and a jar (L135; see Fig. 3.19:11), both made of crude brown, pockmarked ware, have larger holes that generated cracking around them. Two large amphoriskoi found together in the same locus (L116), one of cruder orangey ware, the other of beige ware, and a teapot, also show large holes (Fig. 3.79:5, 11). Several vessels have holes in the base (e.g., Fig. 3.76:8). Two vessels found together (L154), an amphoriskos made of pockmarked ware with netburnishing (Fig. 3.92:2), and a teapot with a sharp, high carination, made of fine ware fired to black with a black slip (Fig. 3.92:3), have uniquely-shaped holes in the base, perhaps made by the insertion of olive pits. Thus, these two vessels may have been produced with the express purpose of being offered as holed funerary vessels, with the potter having found a clever solution for producing such a product. Juglets (Figs. 3.8–3.10) Almost all the juglets are of the high-loop-handled type with a relatively closed mouth, made in a wide variety of wares, shapes and sizes, although nearly all can be described as small and squat or globular. Many are made of two hemispherical halves joined together (see above), a technique that lends them a slightly carinated shape (e.g., Fig. 3.8:12, 18). Other examples were coil-made, with the coils still visible (e.g., Fig. 3.8:10, 11). The rims are simple, upright or everted, and most necks are short or almost non-existent (Fig. 3.9). Juglets with a taller neck, a more elongated body and a lower handle appear later in the EB IB and the transition period (Fig. 3.10), heralding the EB II Abydos jugs (see below). The bulk of the high-loop-handled juglets are small, around 10 cm in height. A few miniature examples were also found (e.g., Fig. 3.8:1). Some small squat vessels have a relatively wide mouth resembling modern teacups (e.g., Fig. 3.8:2–4) and are often referred to in the literature as ‘cups,’ although it is difficult to determine if they actually

Fig. 3.8 ► No.

Cave

Locus

Basket

1

548

165

2795

2

548

236

3162.2

3

562

297

3616

4

562

300

3638

5

562

298

3633

6

562

298

3634

7

548

165

2836

8

567

107

2045

9

548

203

2923

10

562

268

3450

11

562

300

2644

12

548

140

2642

13

562

268

3429

14

562

215

3046

15

562

152

2684

16

562

113

2171.1

17

562

224

3057

18

567

115

2276

19

567

148

2560

20

548

114

2158.2

21

562

271

3485

85

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

1

2

3

7

6

14

12

15

18

9

8

11

10

5

4

13

17

16

19

20

21 0

Fig. 3.8. Juglets.

10

86

SHELLEY SADEH

0

10

Fig. 3.9. High-loop-handled juglets.

0

10

Fig. 3.10. High loop-handled juglets with tall necks.

had a different function from the more narrow-mouthed vessels with a high handle. Medium-sized to large juglets, over 15 cm high, are relatively rare in burial assemblages. Several examples of high-loop-handled juglet-jugs stand up to 20 cm high, but they are

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87

still included in the juglet category due to their squat shape and high handles. The most outstanding example, from Cave 567, is actually a hybrid juglet-teapot (Fig. 3.8:19) with an unusual, red-painted body decoration of lines and dots and a sculpted ibex(?) head on the handle. The body shape of this juglet-teapot is very common in the caves, and the clay is of local provenance (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:53). The decoration on the handle is very similar to a decoration of horns on a jug from Building MA at Bet She’an (Rotem 2012: Pl. 14:17), and reminiscent of a jug handle with a ‘reptile’ from Bet Yeraḥ Area EY (Eisenberg and Greenberg 2006: Fig. 8.51:1), both from late EB IB–II transition contexts. Several other large juglet-jugs originated in later (EB II?) contexts. In Cave 548 (L114), a large juglet or jug was found, with a somewhat wider mouth and a handle that does not rise above the rim (Fig. 3.8:20). This vessel resembles a type common in EB II assemblages, which, compared to typical EB IB types, is somewhat taller, more elongated, with a less-defined neck joint, a wider mouth and a lower handle (Amiran 1969:58, Pl. 15:12). Parallels were found in EB II–III strata at Bet Yeraḥ (Eisenberg and Greenberg 2006:356, Fig. 8.59:8, referred to as a ‘mug’), in the Bet Yeraḥ EB II tomb (Mazar, Amiran and Haas 1973: Fig. 6:9), in the ‘transitional’ phase in Building MA at Bet She’an (Rotem 2012: Photographs 4.27–4.30), and in the Asherat (Smithline 2001: Fig. 22:9–10) and Gadot tombs (Greenberg 2001a: Fig. 14:20). Numerous other juglet-jugs of this later type were found, mainly in Cave 548 (e.g., Fig. 3.8:21). The example in Fig. 3.8:9 was found together with a classic EB II ‘Abydos’ jug with vestigial handles (Fig. 3.22:9). An example of this later juglet type from Cave 567 was made of brown metallic-like ware and red slipped (Fig. 3.93:2). In Caves 562 and 567 were found high-loop-handled juglets with net burnishing on red slip (Figs. 3.8:5; 3.81:5)–– characteristic of the EB II ‘Abydos’ jugs––which appears on jugs and juglets in the Jordan Valley from Tel Kitan (Eisenberg and Rotem 2016: Fig. 7) to Jericho (Kenyon 1960). Thus, we see the typical squat EB IB juglets alongside the more elongated, transitionperiod ones in all four caves, net-burnishing on the typical EB IB high-loop-handled juglets in three caves, and the beginning of the EB II ‘mugs’ in Cave 548. The body of one juglet is oval in shape (Fig. 3.102:5), a phenomenon seen in a few small jars as well (Fig. 3.19:10). It is uncertain if they were deliberately shaped this way or deformed during the manufacturing process. Juglet with Cylinder-Seal Impression (Fig. 3.11). A unique find from Cave 562 (L152) is a high-loop-handled juglet with a cylinder-seal impression rolled along the carination at the widest part of the body, where the two halves had been joined together. Unfortunately, as the impression lies on the carination rather than on a flat surface, it is unclear, although enough is discernible to attribute it to the EB IB animal-procession style characterized by three-legged, horned and tailed quadrupeds usually arranged in a tête-bêche pattern, well-known from the northern Levant and as far as Mesopotamia (Ben-Tor 1978:9–11, Class II). Examples of such seal impressions have been retrieved from EB IB–II contexts in Israel, mainly in the north of the country, and to date, almost all appear on the upper parts of large storage jars––pithoi or holemouth jars of metallic ware––as at Qiryat Ata Area S (Golani 2014: Fig. 21:2), Megiddo (Engberg and Shipton 1934: Figs. 10B–11B),

88

SHELLEY SADEH

0

4

Fig. 3.11. Juglet with cylinder-seal impression (Cave 562, L152).

Tel Qashish (Ben-Tor 1993: Figs. 3–5), ‘En Shadud (Braun 1985: Fig. 32) and, further north, at Dan (Greenberg 1996:142–149, Figs. 3.41, 3.42) and probably also at Abu edhDhahab near ‘Akko (Getzov 2004: Fig. 10:1). The examples from Megiddo, Qashish and ‘En Shadud are very similar, and it has been suggested that they were made by the same artist (Ben-Tor 1993:49–50); the three-legged quadrupeds are schematically arranged têtebêche, alternating between an animal with short horns and a long curly tail and an animal with long curled horns and a short tail. The example on the juglet from Cave 562, although distorted, is clearly freer in design, and the animals are not in a tête-bêche pattern. Animals with short horns and long, elaborate curly tails, and others with long curled horns and short tails are discernible, along with other figures that are unfortunately obscured. This is the only example known to date of an animal-procession cylinder-seal impression appearing on a small, typical EB IB high-loop-handled juglet.The slightly carinated shape of the juglet, resulting from the joining of its two halves, is prevalent in the burial caves (see Fig. 3.54:2, 3, from the same locus). However, the fabric is apparently of unknown provenance and may have originated in the northern Syrian coast (Petrographic Group I, see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:61). It had been burned to black, perhaps in a ceremony (like some of the knobbed bowls, see above) or in an attempt to create a gray surface(?). Thus, although the shape and manufacturing technique of this juglet are typical of the local EB IB traditions, the artistic style of the seal, and apparently also the fabric, are of northern Syrian provenance, making this vessel an enigma.4

Several small sherds with remnants of cylinder-seal impressions featuring animals and human figures were recently found in the renewed excavations at ‘En Esur (Paz et al. 2018). 4

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

89

Amphoriskoi (Figs. 3.12, 3.13) Amphoriskoi are present in similar frequencies in all four caves (c. 20% of the total assemblage), similar to the juglets (Table 3.1), and appear in all the common wares present in the caves. Most are made of fine, light-brown to beige ware (e.g., Fig. 3.12:9) with a thick, dark red-polished slip that often covers the base as well. Others are made of orange ware, either fine and formed of two halves (e.g., Fig. 3.12:11) or crudely fashioned with a red washy slip. One amphoriskos was burnt on the interior and the rim (Fig. 3.76:12), indicating that something had been burned inside it. The amphoriskoi can be divided into four types. Type 1, the most common, is the classic ‘northern’ shape (Figs. 3.12:1–9; 3.13), with a high everted neck, a flat base, a rounded, sometimes quite squat body (Fig. 3.12:5), and two handles from shoulder to mid-neck (Zuckerman’s ‘gourd’ shape, 2003:38). In other cases, the vessel shape is more elongated or somewhat piriform (Fig. 3.12:8, 9, respectively; Fig. 3.14). This vessel type appears in all sizes, and a collection can be seen in Cave 567 (L115; Fig. 3.78:7–11). Type 2 resembles the first type in size and shape but has two lug handles on the shoulders (Figs. 3.12:10–13; 3.15); some have a distinctly bag-shaped body (Fig. 3.12:10, 11). Petrographic analysis of a similar example from Tinshemet in the Lod Valley (Brink and Grosinger 2004: Fig. 3:61) indicated a Tell el Far‘ah N provenance. However, petrographic analysis of the present repertoire indicates that at least some of these were local products (see Chapter 6). They are a prevalent type in the Azor caves (Ben-Tor 1975: Type D1), where all the pottery was apparently of local manufacture. A unique example of a ridgedneck teapot (Fig. 3.17:13) has the body of an amphoriskos of this type. Type 3 is usually small with a spherical or bag-shaped body, a tall narrow neck, a rounded base and pierced lug handles on the shoulders (Figs. 3.12:14–17; 3.15). This type is not found in the nearby ‘En Esur, Qashish or Qiryat Ata settlements and is usually considered of Jordan Valley origin, as it is most common at sites such as Tel Kitan (Eisenberg and Rotem 2016: Fig. 7:7), Bet She’an (Rotem 2012: Fig. 13:12–15) and Tel Shalem (Eisenberg 1996: Fig. 17:16), and especially in the south, e.g., in the Azor caves (Ben-Tor 1975: Type D2), Jericho (e.g., Kenyon 1960: Tombs A127, Figs. 23–25) and ‘Arad (Amiran 1978: Pl. 10). It first appears in EB IB and continues into early EB II, as seen in the Bet Yeraḥ EB II tomb (Mazar, Amiran and Haas 1973), Jericho (Kenyon 1960: Tombs A127, D12, A108) and ‘Arad (Amiran 1978:42). Amphoriskoi of Type 4 are small spherical vessels with two ledge handles at midbody (Figs. 3.12:18–25; 3.16). They are included in the amphoriskos category even though their handles appear to be decorative rather than functional (they are sometimes termed ‘jars’; see Ben-Tor 1975). These vessels can perhaps be understood as small votive offerings representing the large pithoi found at domestic sites such as Tel Kitan (Eisenberg and Rotem 2016: Fig. 10). The ledge handles are often wavy (Fig. 3.12:23, 24). One example has an unusual elongated body with upturned knobs (Fig. 3.12:25), and one is very squat, with two doubly pierced lugs (Fig. 3.12:22). Several examples have a swollen neck (e.g., Fig. 3.12:24), one of them with an additional set of ledge handles on the swollen neck (Fig. 3.81:7). A similar vessel was found in the ‘En Esur tomb excavated by Dothan (1970: Fig. 7:28), and another at Qiryat Ata (Golani 2003: Fig. 4.8:16). Several of these small vessels

90

SHELLEY SADEH

1

2

3

5

4

6

7

0

8

10

9

Fig. 3.12. Amphoriskoi. No.

Type

Cave

Locus

Basket

No.

Type

Cave

Locus

Basket

1

Type 1

548

158

2841

10

Type 2

562

261

3320

2

Type 1

567

149

2611

11

Type 2

562

162

2674.1

3

Type 1

562

271

3514

12

Type 2

562

130

2378

4

Type 1

562

271

3468

13

Type 2

562

289

3573

5

Type 1

562

295

3601

14

Type 3

562

268

3428

6

Type 1

567

115

2264.1

15

Type 3

567

111

2052.1

7

Type 1

567

115

2215

16

Type 3

562

289

3572

8

Type 1

567

115

2213

17

Type 3

562

289

3569

9

Type 1

567

115

2281

18

Type 4

567

135

2437

19

Type 4

567

115

2286.1

20

Type 4

567

166

2788

21

Type 4

548

165

2832

22

Type 4

567

169

2776

23

Type 4

567

270

3480

24

Type 4

567

115

2266.3

25

Type 4

548

206

3165

26

Type 4

548

114

2840

27

Hybrid

548

140

2641.1

91

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

10

11

14

16

15

18

13

12

17

20

19

22

23

25

26 0

21

24

27 10

Fig. 3.12 (cont.).

92

SHELLEY SADEH

0

10

Fig. 3.13. Type 1 squat amphoriskoi.

0

10

Fig. 3.14. Type 1 piriform amphoriskoi.

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

0

10

Fig. 3.15. Types 2 and 3 amphoriskoi.

0

10

Fig. 3.16. Type 4 amphoriskoi.

93

94

SHELLEY SADEH

bear red-painted lines on an unslipped surface (e.g., Fig. 3.86), of either beige ware (Fabric Group 2; Fig. 3.12:20) or orange ware (Fabric Group 1), perhaps imitations of imported ‘pajama-style’ vessels from the Jordan Valley (Braun 1996:215). The painted base in Fig. 3.59) has a parallel at Qiryat Ata (Golani 2003: Fig. 4.8:16); the petrographic analysis of this vessel from Qiryat Ata indicated an origin in the Jordan Valley (Golani 2003:99). An unusual amphoriskos of the fourth type has two vertical, vestigial loop handles (Fig. 3.12:21), similar to those of EB II Abydos jugs; vestigial handles are also seen on a larger example (Fig. 3.12:26) showing the elongated shape and wide neck of the latetype juglet-jugs and made of metallic-like ware with vertical burnishing. Similarly shaped vessels, without handles, were found at EB III Bet She’an (Ziv-Esudri 2012: Pl. 39:8) and Dan (Greenberg 1996: Fig. 3.26:6). A large, red-slipped amphoriskos-jar with thumb-impressed ledge handles at midbody was found near the entrance to Cave 562 (Fig. 3.49). Another large amphoriskos from Cave 567 (Fig. 3.99:3) has ledge handles at mid-body joined by a rope-like strip that encircles the vessel. Similar examples were found in domestic contexts at Qiryat Ata (Golani 2003: Fig. 4.9:1) and ‘Afula (Amiran 1969: Pl. 14:4). A vessel made of red-brown, metallic-like ware with a profiled rim and a tall neck (Fig. 3.27), its shape suggesting foreign influence or provenance, was found near the entrance of Cave 548, together with a typical EB IB krater-bowl (see above). A similar vessel was found in ‘En Esur Tomb 3, attributed to the late phase of EB IB (Yannai 2016: Fig. 2.10:15). Another unusual vessel is a large, hybrid amphoriskos-juglet made of two halves with one pierced lug on the shoulder and a high loop handle from shoulder to rim (Fig. 3.12:27). Amiran illustrates two examples of a similar hybrid type from Jericho (1969: Pls. 13:11; 15:13) dating to EB IB and EB II. A large amphoriskos with two lug handles from shoulder to neck may be of Intermediate Bronze Age date (Fig. 3.33:5; see also Chapter 4: Fig. 4.1:5) due to its shape, which resembles vessels of this period from Megiddo (see Amiran 1969:73; Pl. 24:19), and its ware, which differs petrographically from that of the EB I–II vessels (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:9). Teapots (Figs. 3.17, 3.18) Teapots make up c. 6% of the funerary assemblages in each of the four caves (see Table 3.1). They are mostly well-formed vessels, with attention to detail, made of fine ware with a thick, good-quality slip, and often polished. Amiran divided this category into two broad types (1969:43), those with a narrow neck and a ridge at the neck joint, and those with a wider mouth that usually have horizontal loop handles on the shoulder. The ridged-neck teapots are always elegant, finely finished vessels (Fig. 3.17:1–4). They are relatively standardized, although each differs from the next in the details. They all have a strongly everted neck, usually but not always with a ridge at the joint. Most are carinated, often in the upper body, with the carination at times so sharp that it creates a flat shoulder (e.g., Fig. 3.17:1). The bent spout rises upward from the shoulder (Fig. 3.17:2–4). Each teapot has a single lug handle attached at the carination point, usually at a 90-degree angle to the right of the spout. Some of these handles are quite pointed, and it is evident

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

95

that they were not designed to hold the vessel and pour, as in modern-day teapots, so they probably served for hanging the vessel. Some teapots have a double spout (Fig. 3.17:4). The ridged-neck teapots are made of local, fine light brown to beige ware (Fabric Group 2; e.g., Fig. 3.17:1), fine orange ware (Fabric Group 1; e.g., Fig. 3.17:2) and pale, light-weight, pockmarked ware, one with a double spout (Fabric Group 3; Fig. 3.17:4). Some teapots are imports from the Jezreel Valley (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:59), and others, made of two hemispherical halves, apparently originated in the Tell el-Far‘ah N area (Figs. 3.17:4; 3.51:6; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:28). The second type has a generally rounded, sometimes squat body, with a short, wider neck and an often out-splayed rim. Two lug handles are attached to the shoulders on either side of the bent spout (e.g., Fig. 3.17:5–10). The shape is reminiscent of amphoriskoi, although amphoriskoi never have a splayed rim. One example has red-painted vertical lines (Fig. 3.96), and another has an oval mouth and a channel-rim (Fig. 3.17:10), usually considered an EB II feature found on jars. A variation of this second type has two horizontal ‘basket’ handles on the shoulders, and the rim is not splayed (Fig. 3.17:8). The latter variation is more common at sites further south (e.g., Azor, see Ben-Tor 1975: ‘Kettles’ Type F; Ḥorbat Ḥani, see Lass 2003: Fig. 21:15). In Cave 567, a collection of teapots from the same locus (L242; Fig. 3.102:8–11) included two ridged-neck types, one of fine red-polished beige ware with a crooked handle (without a ridge), the other of crude orange ware, and two with short wider necks and lug handles on either side of the spout, one made of fine red-polished ware and the second of pale pockmarked ware. This collection illustrates the variety of shapes and wares of the same vessel type that can appear side by side. A variety of hybrid teapots was also observed in this assemblage. The unique, large hybrid juglet-teapot (Fig. 3.8:19) with painted decoration and an ibex head on the handle is described above in the juglet category. Several examples exhibit a combination of the two teapot types described above, with a squat, awkward-shaped body sloping upward to the neck and a splayed rim. The handle is located at a 90 degree angle to the spout, as in the ridged-neck teapots, but on the lower, widest part of the body (Fig. 3.17:12). A pair found together in Cave 567 (L115; Fig. 3.78:15, 16) are both made of an unusual brown ware with black grits, and each has the lug handle on a different side. A teapot from Jericho dated to EB IB has a similar squat body sloping upward to the rim (Amiran 1969:12:17). Other examples of hybrid teapots combining features of both types include vessels with a lug handle on either side of the spout but with an everted neck and a ridge at the joint (e.g., Fig. 3.17:11). Another example has the body of an amphoriskos with an everted, ridged neck (Fig. 3.17:13) A vessel from Cave 562 of local orange ware can be described as a hybrid ridgedneck teapot-Abydos jug (L147; Fig. 3.17:14), with an ovoid body treated with vertical burnishing, a small lug handle at mid-body opposite the spout, and an everted neck with a ridge at the joint. This vessel, apparently from a very late EB IB context (see below), already displays characteristic EB II features both in its shape and surface treatment. Although rare, teapots seem to continue into EB II in burial contexts, together with Abydos jugs, as seen in nearby Tomb 40 (Yannai 2016:85) and an example from the tomb at Asherat

96

SHELLEY SADEH

2

1

3

4

5

7

6

10 8

9

0

10

Fig. 3.17. Teapots.

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

11

12

13

14 0

10

Fig. 3.17 (cont.). Teapots. No.

Cave

Locus

Basket

1

567

115

2244

2

567

107

2064

3

567

149

2485

4

562

136

2452

5

548

140

2569

6

567

149

2491

7

567

118

2323

8

562

268

3407

9

567

115

2241.1

10

548

127.3

2346

11

567

149

2468

12

567

149

2482

13

567

116

2269

14

562

147

2527.2

97

98

SHELLEY SADEH

0

10

Fig. 3.18. Teapots.

(Smithline 2001: Fig. 22:6), which is of a type absent at ‘En Esur. Our hybrid example is further evidence of the co-existence of these two vessel types in the EB IB–II transition period, at least in burial contexts. Small Jars (Figs. 3.19–3.21) These small, jar-like containers, comprising c. 2% of the assemblages in each of the four caves, are basically amphoriskoi-shaped vessels without handles (Figs. 3.19, 3.20), some relatively large (e.g., Fig. 3.19:11, 12), some made of two halves (e.g., Fig. 3.19:7). A few examples are made of fine ware (e.g., Fig. 3.19:7), although most are of cruder orange ware and are misshapen and lopsided, often with fire clouding (Fig. 3.19:5). However, it should be noted that even crude examples are red slipped. The example in Fig 3.19:6 is especially deformed and also burnt. Several miniature jars (Fig. 3.19:1–4), apparently made of local ware, have a bag-shaped body. Some small jars (Fig. 3.21) are indicative of the Egyptian influence at the end of EB IB (e.g., Brink 2002:18–19). Two small bag-shaped jars from Cave 567 (Fig. 3.21:1, 2), both made of brown, silty, crumbly ware with a flakey surface and traces of red slip, were imported from Egypt (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:58). Identical jars can be seen to the south at ‘En Besor (Gophna 1995: Fig. 8:18–20), originating in the Egyptian Stratum III, between the EB IB Stratum IV and the EB II Stratum II. A similar, miniature Egyptianized jar with a folded rim from the same cave is made of crude, local orange ware (Fig. 3.21:3),

99

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

2

1

5

9

3

6

4

8

7

10

11

12

0

10

Fig. 3.19. Small jars. No.

Cave

Locus

Basket

1

567

148

2564.2

2

567

262

3335

3

567

121

2362

4

567

254

3310

5

567

120

2350.2

6

567

115

2248.4

7

567

119

2305

8

567

115

2209

9

548

165

2773

10

548

203

2924.1

11

567

135

2439

12

567

110

2138

while another from Cave 548 (Fig. 3.21:4) is made of fine brown clay and red slipped. A jar from Cave 548 of unusual shape (Fig. 3.21:5), also made of red-brown silty clay, resembles Egyptian vessels known from sites in the south of the country at the very end of EB IB, as at Al-Maghar (Gophna, Paz and Taxel 2010), also made of red-brown ware, and ‘En Besor (Gophna 1995: Fig. 8:24–26). This vessel has a close parallel in ‘En Esur Tomb 3, where it is described as made of ‘Nile clay’ (Yannai and Braun 2001:45). Another jar of foreign shape, with a sharply carinated shoulder, is made of unusual, heavy, dark-gray ware with

100

SHELLEY SADEH

0

10

Fig. 3.20. Small jars.

1

2

3

4

5 6

7

0

10

Fig. 3.21. Egyptian and Egyptianized vessels. No.

Type

Cave

Locus

Basket

1

Drop-shaped jar

567

154

2616

2

Drop-shaped jar

567

116

2200.1

3

Miniature jar

567

232

3115.1

4

Drop-shaped jar

548

114

2245.2

5

Small jar

548

220

3072.2

6

Small jar

567

149

2472

7

Jar

567

148

2618.2

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

101

white grits of unknown provenance (Fig. 3.21:6; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:56). Finally, a delicate, red-slipped, Egyptianized jar with a tubular lug handle from Cave 567 is included here (Fig. 3.21:7), made of beige ware and imported from the Jezreel Valley (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:54). Jugs (Fig. 3.22–3.24) Most of the jugs in the assemblage belong to the type with a relatively tall, narrow, cylindrical neck, an ovoid body, a flat base, a handle (usually strap) from rim to shoulder, red slip and vertical burnish (Amiran 1969: Pl. 17). Although some examples are relatively small juglets, they are included with the jugs due to their shape. Thin-walled jugs made of brick-red metallic ware originating in apparent EB II contexts have been termed here ‘Abydos’ jugs, while those made of local ware that appear in contexts from EB IB up to the end of the EB IB–II transition period have been termed cylindrical-necked ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs (see Zuckerman 2003:60, Fig. 15:6; Eisenberg and Greenberg 2006: Fig. 8.51:3). The latter appear mainly in the common light brown to beige ware (Fabric Group 2), some in orange ware (Fabric Group 1; e.g., Fig. 3.85:2; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:50), while others are of a fine, well-fired brown ware with a metallic ring (Fabric Group 5). All these jugs are characterized by vertically burnished red slip on the cylindrical neck, sometimes with net-burnishing on the body. In many cases, only the cylindrical necks have survived (with or without the attached handle) due to their production method (and thus the term used here). The cylindrical neck was inserted into the hole in the body, and then an additional layer of clay was applied on the neck, the joint and part of the shoulder, reinforcing the joint (Fig. 3.23). Relatively large numbers of these vessels’ thick bases were also recovered, mainly in Cave 548, although the thin, fragile, intervening walls had shattered. Thus, in most cases, it was not possible to associate the bases with specific necks. However, in Cave 567 (L267), a sherd of a red net-burnished body and a sherd of a strap handle could be associated (Fig. 3.22:7), and in Cave 548 (L140), a net-burnished Abydos base was found together with a cylindrical neck (Fig. 3.22:8). The broken bases were sometimes reused as lamps. Most of the ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs originated in Cave 548. In L114 (see Fig. 3.28), several such jugs of varying shapes appear together, made of both crude as well as metalliclike ware. Some ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs also appear in Caves 562 and 567, for example in L147, where two are of local orange and light-brown wares (Fig. 3.24). A classic EB II Abydos jug found in Cave 548 (Fig. 3.22:9) is characterized by its metallic ware and the addition of two vestigial loop handles at mid-body (NCMW; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:15). Several of these later Abydos jugs survived intact in Cave 548, perhaps because they represent the latest and final burial level in the cave. Notably, in several ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs, the handle is attached from mid-neck to shoulder (Figs. 3.22:6, 8; 3.41:6), a feature usually attributed to EB II jugs (Amiran 1969:62), although Amiran describes a few examples from tombs, of a somewhat different shape, as predecessors of the EB II jug (1969:46, Pls. 9:27; 11:17). Other examples of jugs with handles from mid-neck to shoulder originated in EB II contexts at other sites (see, e.g., Mazar, Amiran and Haas 1973: Fig. 5:5–19; Greenberg 1996: Fig. 28:5; 2001a: Fig. 14:10–11; Smithline 2001: Fig. 22:7, 8).

102

SHELLEY SADEH

1

2

4

3

6 7 5

8

9 0

10

Fig. 3.22. Jugs. No.

Cave

Locus

Basket

1

548

140

2639

2

548

140

2547

3

548

140

2641.2

4

548

114

2203.2

5

548

114

2177.2

6

548

140

2459.2

7

567

267

3396

8

548

140

2593.2

9

548

203

2942.2

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

0

103

2

Fig. 3.23. Cylindrical jug necks: method of production (photograph: Yehuda Dagan).

0

5

Fig. 3.24. ‘Proto-Abydos’ jug (Cave 562; L147).

No ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs appear in the EB IB occupation stratum at ‘En Esur, suggesting that occupation ceased before these jugs were introduced. Parallels to the jugs from the four caves discussed here were found in EB II burial contexts: in Tomb 40 in the ‘En Esur cemetery (Yannai 2002b: Fig. 22.1:7–9; 2016:220), in the Gadot tomb (Greenberg 2001a: Fig. 14:7–9), in the Bet Yeraḥ tomb (Mazar, Amiran and Haas 1973: Fig. 5:1–4) and in Jericho Tomb 108 (Kenyon 1960:16–40). Parallels were also found in the EB II settlement strata at Bet Yeraḥ (Eisenberg and Greenberg 2006: Figs. 8.54:4–6; 8.56:10), Qiryat Ata (Golani 2003: Fig. 4.29) and ‘Arad (Amiran 1978: Fig. 25:1–19). Earlier occurrences are seen in contexts attributed to the ‘transitional’ period in Tomb 3 in the ‘En Esur cemetery (Yannai 2002b: Fig. 22.1:34; 2016:220) and Building MA at Bet She’an (Rotem 2012: Figs. 13:1; 21:21). A possibly even earlier example could be a jug from a late EB IB context in Area EY at Bet Yeraḥ (Eisenberg and Greenberg 2006: Fig. 8.51:3).

104

SHELLEY SADEH

Jars (Fig. 3.25) Very few storage jars, both necked and holemouth, were found in the caves, as is characteristic of burial assemblages. Jars were recovered near the entrances of both Caves 562 (L100; Fig. 3.25:1) and Cave 567 (L107.2; Fig. 3.75.1), both difficult to date more precisely than EB IB–II. The largest necked storage jar in the assemblage (Fig. 3.25:2), found in Cave 548 in a locus containing many late (EB II) vessels (L175), has a profiled, triangular rim and at least one small decorative knob at mid-body. Parallels are seen in later assemblages (e.g., EB II Qashish, see Zuckerman 2003: Fig. 68, Type SJ IIb; Bet Yeraḥ Area UN, see Paz 2006: Fig. 7.22:9). Funerary vessels of EB II are usually larger, for example, the Abydos jugs (see, e.g., Figs. 3.34:4; 3.39:2) and the platters (e.g., Fig. 3.43:1). Also found in Cave 548, the upper part of a jar with a channel-rim, made of fine, thin-walled, reddish metalliclike ware (Fig. 3.25:3), is paralleled in the EB II metallic ware at Bet Yeraḥ (Eisenberg and Greenberg 2006: Fig. 8.58:4), while at Qashish such jars are defined as an EB II–III type (Zuckerman 2003: Fig. 60:7), and at Dan, as a late EB II vessel (Greenberg 1996:102). In contrast, a channel-rim jar was found in the EB IB stratum at Qiryat Ata (Golani 2003: Fig. 4.12:4). A small holemouth jar was found in Cave Fig. 3.25 ► No. Cave Locus Basket 562 (Fig. 3.65), made of fine, well-fired, beige-gray 1 562 100 2009 ware, similar in shape and rim to the large holemouth 2 548 175 2860.1 jars from occupation strata but with a concave base. 3 548 139 2530.1 Another small, perhaps votive holemouth from Cave 4 548 206 3016.4 548 is better termed a holemouth-bowl, although 5 567 240.1 3380 it is red slipped only on its exterior (Fig. 3.25:4). One large holemouth jar-pithos was found lying on its side in Cave 567 (Fig. 3.25:5), used as a burial container (L240.1; see Chapter 2). It was made of crude, burnt(?), dark brown-gray fabric with many large white inclusions and a black core, and shows the typically thickened rim seen in holemouth jars from EB IB occupation strata at ‘En Esur (Yannai 2006: Fig. 4.56) and Qiryat Ata (Golani 2003: Fig. 4.50).

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

105

2

3

1

4

0

10

5

Fig. 3.25. Jars.

Miscellaneous Ceramic Objects (Fig. 3.26) In Cave 562, two apparent stands (L136, L192; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:27, 34) were crudely made of coils, with their interior unsmoothed and clay lumps still adhering to the inner base (Fig. 3.26:1). Parallels to such stands are found in EB IB contexts at Megiddo (Greenberg 2006: Fig. 10.2:10–12), and similar stands also appear in Khirbet Kerak Ware (for an example from ‘Afula, see Amiran 1969: Pl. 19:14). A ceramic disc pierced in four places along the perimeter (Figs. 3.26:2), also found in Cave 562 (L107), was probably a lid that could be tied to the mouth of a vessel with string, perhaps to four lug handles or four holes (e.g., the small jar with four holes in its rim from ‘En Esur Tomb 3; see Yannai 2016: Fig. 2.16:3, 4), or it may have been the lid of the jar found nearby (L100; see Fig. 3.49). A strange oblong object with rounded ends, one pierced and the other apparently joined to another object, also found in L107, remains unidentified (see Fig. 3.50:13). In Cave 548, in an apparent early EB II context (L220), a unique figurine of a bird had originally been attached to another ceramic object.

106

SHELLEY SADEH

2

0

1

10

3 0

2

Fig. 3.26. Miscellaneous ceramic objects. No.

Type

Cave

Locus

Basket

1

Stand

562

192

2897

2

Lid

567

107

2044.4

3

Bird figurine

548

220

3074

Analysis of the Early Bronze Age Pottery Assemblages from the Four Caves and Chronological Insights In this discussion, the Early Bronze Age pottery assemblages of each cave are presented (in numerical sequence: 548, 561, 562, 567) according to pottery-bearing loci (see Chapter 2). When locus numbers were assigned to large areas where no specific features were discerned, the discussion relates to individual baskets or clusters of vessels, although the accompanying figures are arranged typologically. The figures for each locus present the most complete and/or representative vessels, those of possible chronological significance, and any unusual forms that were deemed of interest.5 Thus, they are not numerically representative of the complete assemblage in each locus. The figures for each locus are arranged from open to closed forms, and follow the typological sequence presented above. Basket numbers are given in the text (in parentheses) for non-illustrated examples preserved for future reference (see above).

Although all intact and full-profile vessels, as well as most diagnostic parts were drawn, so many are almost identical that it was unnecessary to publish them all. 5

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

107

One of the main goals of this discussion is to pinpoint, as precisely as possible, the chronological position of each cave’s loci/baskets/groupings within the time span ranging from the late EB IB to the beginning of EB II, and consequently, to obtain the chronological sequence of each cave. In addition, an attempt is made to understand the burial process and its various stages in each cave, as represented by the ceramics, and to define the standard funerary kit for each burial phase in terms of ceramic forms and wares. However, it should be noted that this last goal was often hindered, especially in Cave 548, by the jumbled state of the finds. Cave 548 Cave 548, a heart-shaped cave with three rooms (A, B, C; see Chapter 2: Plan 2.1), contained numerous complete and almost-complete vessels and many sherds, for a minimum number of 659 vessels following restoration. Unfortunately, the vessels and sherds in this cave were often scattered over several loci, mixed with skulls and long bones, most probably the result of localized roof cave-ins that crushed the vessels and the consequent seeping-in of runoff and alluvial soil (for example, a Roman sherd was recovered in L196, a layer of silt; see Chapter 2). This is unfortunate, as this cave contains the highest number of vessels clearly attributable to the elusive transition phase––when new ceramic traditions infiltrated from the north, characterized by metallic wares––and to the classic EB II repertoire. Locus 102 (Fig. 3.27). Near the cave entrance, a large bowl or krater with thumb-indented ledge handles (see Fig. 3.6:1) and a complete amphoriskos of an unusual, foreign form, made of metallic ware were retrieved. Locus 106. Near the entrance, in the upper levels of the locus, a number of cylindrical jug necks, net-burnished sherds and distinctive bases belonging to Abydos and ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs were recovered, together with sherds of non-metallic platter-bowls of varying sizes, including large-sized examples (up to 40 cm) that are indicative of a transitional stage or even an early EB II burial horizon in this location. Also recovered were numerous typical EB IB GBW bowls, knobbed bowls, platter-bowls with flattened inturned rims, high-loophandled juglets, amphoriskoi and teapots.

0

5

Fig. 3.27. Amphoriskos, brick-red metallic ware (Cave 548, L102, B2008).

108

SHELLEY SADEH

Locus 108. The higher baskets at the center of the cave contained concentrations of EB II sherds: many platter-bowls and platters, cylindrical necks, a jug with degenerate handles made of a pink metallic-like ware (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:2), and a juglet with similar handles. The lower baskets yielded many sherds of the typical EB IB hemispherical bowls, juglets, amphoriskoi and ridge-necked teapots. Locus 114 (Fig. 3.28). This locus covered a relatively extensive area in central Room C. The highest baskets revealed a delicate, carinated ‘Aphek’ bowl (B2246), fragments of NCMW platters (B2157–8, B2165), a platter-bowl with a thickened, inturned ledge rim and knob handles (Fig. 3.28:1), and many Abydos jugs with cylindrical necks and netburnished bodies (3.28:2–5) of both metallic and non-metallic ware. One example has a handle extending from mid-neck to shoulder (Fig. 3.28:3), usually considered a late EB II feature (Amiran 1969:62), although this one is made of relatively crude ware. Together with these were a jug with a high strap handle but apparently of a late––perhaps early EB II––type (Fig. 3.28:6), a jug with a wide neck made of fine, light-colored ware, also of a later type (Fig. 3.28:7), and an amphoriskos of metallic-like ware with two vestigial lug handles and vertical burnishing, like the Abydos jugs (Fig. 3.28:8). These finds indicate a date within the transition period, and perhaps even into early EB II. Found close together, and seemingly in situ, were an Abydos jug of fine brown metallic-like ware with vertical burnishing (Fig. 3.28:2), a small, drop-shaped jar of fine, light-brown ware (Fig. 3.28:9), probably of Egyptian influence, and a relatively crude jar typical of EB IB funerary assemblages (Fig. 3.28:10), although perhaps more elongated in shape. This cluster suggests a transitional context. Also scattered in this locus were fragments of loop-handled juglets, many amphoriskoi of various shapes, and sherds of ridge-necked teapots, probably of an earlier EB IB burial level damaged by the later activity. Locus 117. Noteworthy in this locus, among typical EB IB juglets and amphoriskoi, is a fine teapot with an oval-shaped mouth and an out-splayed channel rim, the latter usually considered an EB II feature (cf. Fig. 3.17:10). Locus 127.3. In this locus, located in the center of the cave, was a burial with the poorly preserved remains of a typical EB IB burial kit: a simple hemispherical, red-slipped bowl, a high-loop-handled juglet, a large amphoriskos and a teapot with an out-splayed rim (see (Fig. 3.17:10). Near this cluster of vessels was a red-slipped, cylindrical jug neck with a pinched mouth, suggesting its contemporaneity with the other vessels.

109

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

1

2

3

5

4

7

6

8

0

9

10

10

Fig. 3.28. Cave 548, L114: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Platter-bowl

2166.3

Orange, gray core, crumbly, red slip

2

Abydos jug

2245.1

Light brown, metallic-like, wheel made

3

Jug

2249

Light brown, crude heavy ware, gritty, red slip

4

Abydos jug

2203.2

Brick-red, metallic ware

5

Jug

2177.2

Light brown, red slip, vertical burnish on neck

6

Jug

2246.3

Light brown, red slip

7

Jug

2158.2

Fine, white, sandy; Petrographic Group H? (No. 2)

8

Amphoriskos-jug

2246.2

Red-gray metallic-like ware, vertical burnish

9

Small jar

2245.2

Fine, light brown, red slip

10

Small jar

2245.3

Light brown, crude heavy ware, gritty

110

SHELLEY SADEH

Locus 132.1 (Fig. 3.29). In the clearance of the roof collapse near the entrance to Room B, several cylindrical jug necks, net-burnished sherds and bases of Abydos jugs, all made of red metallic ware (e.g., B2392, B2402) were found, along with sherds of a ‘pseudo’ GBW bowl of light-weight yellowish ware, a knobbed bowl showing evidence of having been burned, various juglets, an amphoriskos and a line-painted base (Fig. 3.29). Presuming this is a homogenous burial horizon, it illustrates the presence of the ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls alongside metallic-ware jugs.

0

5

Fig. 3.29. Base of closed vessel, pale pinkish ware, red-painted net pattern (Cave 548, L132.1, B2402.2).

Locus 139 (Fig. 3.30). A thick layer of vessels and sherds was found at the entrance to Room A, below the stones of the roof collapse. At the highest elevation were an ‘Aphek’ bowl (Fig. 3.30:1) and a metallic-ware, channel-rim jar (Fig. 3.30:4). Underneath were a brickred metallic-ware platter (B2551.1) and sherds of a net-burnished jug, along with a juglet, an amphoriskos and a teapot, suggesting an individual funerary kit. Beneath this cluster were found an ‘imitation’ GBW bowl on a fenestrated stand made of local orange ware (Fabric 1) with a gray slip (Fig. 3.30:2; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:3), a non-metallic platter (B2457), a small juglet of a late shape (Fig. 3.30:3), several high-loop-handled juglets, teapots and cylindrical necks, one with the handle from mid-neck to shoulder (B2532). This locus illustrates the superimposing of three burials from three periods: an EB II burial lying upon one dated to the transitional period and, below the latter, a very late EB IB burial horizon.

1 3

4

2 0

10

Fig. 3.30. Cave 548, L139: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

‘Aphek’ bowl

2457

Brown, metallic-like

2

GBW bowl on fenestrated stand (‘imitation’)

2307

Brown-orange, burnished gray slip on exterior; Petrographic Group A or B(?) (No. 3)

3

Miniature juglet

2529

Beige, light gray core, many fine grits, red slip

4

Channel-rim jar

2530.1

Fine, red-brown, metallic-like

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

111

Locus 140 (Fig. 3.31). This locus extends over the southern part of Room B, from the balk on the southern side of the room up to W207/W221 in the north. The highest level immediately below the roof collapse revealed a concentration of a crude, S-shaped, wheelfinished bowl (Fig. 3.31:1), a hemispherical bowl (B2442.1), an unusual amphoriskos (Fig. 3.31:20), a vertically burnished, cylindrical neck with a handle from mid-neck (Fig. 3.31:17) and another cylindrical neck of metallic ware. Nearby was an unusual, elongated, red-slipped amphoriskos perhaps of Intermediate Bronze Age date (Fig. 3.31:21; see Chapter 4; Chapter 6: Table 6.1:4). The vessels underneath included the usual late EB IB funerary assemblage of gutter-rim and ledge-rim bowls, non-metallic platter-bowls, an unusual, ‘degenerate’ GBW-shaped bowl made of brown, metallic-like ware (Fig. 3.31:11), high-loop-handled juglets, amphoriskoi, teapots and a jug similar to the Abydos type (Fig. 3.31:14) but of cruder ware. Further to the east, at a relatively low elevation for an EB II burial, were a unique, shallow bowl with a flat rim, made of metallic-like ware (Fig. 3.31:3), an amphoriskos with an unusual black slip (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:5), a metallic-ware jar and an Abydos jug. In a nearby concentration of sherds were a delicate platter-bowl made of brown metallic-like ware similar to that of the ‘Aphek’ bowls (Fig. 3.31:4), an ‘Aphek’ bowl with a knob (Fig. 3.31:5; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:7), a V-shaped bowl of metallic-like ware (Fig. 3.31:9), an Abydos jug base and cylindrical neck with the handle from mid-neck to shoulder (Fig. 3.31:18), and sherds of a vessel made of black ware with a bar handle (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:6). Fragments of typical EB IB vessels were also scattered here, such as hemispherical bowls, a gutter-rim bowl (Fig. 3.31:7), GBW bowls (Fig. 3.31:10, 12) and high-loop-handled juglets and teapots––one with a splayed rim (Fig. 3.31:22). Another cluster of transition period–EB II pottery comprised a metallic-ware hemispherical bowl (Fig. 3.31:6), non-metallic platters (B2638), a metallic-like platter, a fine, carinated high-loop-handled juglet made of two joined halves of metallic-like ware (Fig. 3.31:13), an unusual juglet of a late, elongated shape with a tall neck (Fig. 3.31:15), similar to another in L203 (see Fig. 3.39:3), an almost-complete, metallic-ware Abydos jugjuglet (Fig. 3.31:16), a cylindrical neck with a handle from mid-neck to shoulder (B2644) and a strangely-shaped ‘hybrid’ amphoriskos-jug with both a loop handle and a pierced lug made of two halves of beige-pink ware (Fig. 3.31:19). Along with these were typical EB IB vessels, including a knobbed bowl, a GBW bowl, a deep bowl with an inturned rim and a non-metallic platter. These baskets attest to the coexistence of imported metallicware (NCMW) Abydos jugs alongside local juglets made of two halves in metallic-like ware and, apparently, also the typical EB IB funerary vessels. Removal of the balk on the southern side of L140 revealed a cylindrical neck with a handle from mid-rim (B3054) and a unique carinated bowl (Fig. 3.31:8), as well as the ubiquitous GBW bowls, high-loop-handled juglets, amphoriskoi, ridge-necked teapots and small jars.

112

SHELLEY SADEH

1

3

2

5

4

6

8

7

9

10 11

13

17

12

15

14

18 0

16

19 10

Fig. 3.31. Cave 548, L140: selected vessels.

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

20

21

113

22

0

10

Fig. 3.31 (cont.). Cave 548, L140: selected vessels.

▲ ◄ Fig. 3.31 No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

S-shaped bowl

2459.1

Fine, light orange, red slip in and out

2

Shallow bowl

2594

Red, red slip in and out

3

Shallow bowl

2549.5

Light brown, metallic-like gray core, red slip in and out

4

Platter-bowl

2567.4

Dark red-brown, metallic-like

5

‘Aphek’ bowl

2596

Red-brown, metallic-like; Petrographic Group J (No. 7)

6

Hemispherical bowl

2638.2

Brick-red metallic ware, red slip in and out

7

Gutter-rim bowl

2550

Orange, red slip in and out

8

Bowl

3079.2

Fine, beige, gray core, red slip in and out

9

V-shaped bowl

2567.2

Beige, gritty, metallic-like, red slip in and out

10

GBW bowl

3103.1

Fine, beige, gray surface

11

‘Degenerate’(?) GBW bowl

2463.1

Brown, metallic-like

12

GBW bowl

3103.2

Beige-gray, gray surface

13

Juglet

2642

Fine, light brown, metallic-like red slip

14

Juglet

2547

Crude, orange, light weight with many voids

15

Juglet

2640

Fine, light brown

16

Abydos jug/juglet

2641.2

Very fine, gray-brown, metallic ware; Petrographic Group I? (No. 8)

17

Jug

2459.2

Brown, gray core, red slip with vertical burnish

18

Abydos jug

2593.2–3

Light brown, gray core, red slip with vertical burnish on neck, net burnish on body

19

Amphoriskos-jug

2641.1

Beige-pink, light-weight, red slip

20

Amphoriskos

2460

Crude, light brown, red slip

21

Amphoriskos

2461.3

Crude, crumbly brown, gray core, red slip (IBA?)

22

Teapot

2569

Light brown, red slip

114

SHELLEY SADEH

Locus 141 (Fig. 3.32). This locus in Room C is the continuation, at the same elevation, of L139 in Room A to its east. The vessels included a crudely-formed lamp-bowl (Fig. 3.32:1), hemispherical bowls, juglets, amphoriskoi, a small amphoriskos with ledge handles and a ridge-necked teapot with an unusual wavy rim (Fig. 3.32:2)––all typical of EB IB–– together with a single cylindrical neck of non-metallic ware (B2767.1). Locus 142. This layer of sherds at the entrance to Room A, below L139, yielded the base of a brick-red, metallic-ware Abydos juglet (B2768). A separate group of EB IB vessels included a hemispherical lamp-bowl, a platter-bowl (B2730), a juglet, an amphoriskos and a small jar, as well as beads and a bronze earring. This cluster appears to be the in-situ funerary kit of a single EB IB burial.

1

2 0

10

Fig. 3.32. Cave 548, L141: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Hemispherical bowl

2767.2

Crude, light brown-gray, large grits

2

Ridged-neck teapot

2466

Orange, red slip

Locus 143.2 (Fig. 3.33). A layer of sherds and vessels, located in the north of Room A, contained hemispherical bowls (B2654.1), an ‘Aphek’ bowl, a knobbed bowl with a cracked slip ranging from red to black showing evidence of having been burned (Fig. 3.33:1), non-metallic platters, high-loop-handled juglets (one with a splayed rim), a classic EB II Abydos jug (Figs. 3.33:2) and fragments of others, and a reddish metallic-ware jar with a channel rim (Fig. 3.33:4). This concentration appears to represent a well-preserved EB II burial layer laid upon an earlier EB IB level. In the layer below this EB II burial were a knobbed bowl made of GBW fabric (B2659), an amphoriskos bearing soot marks and a ridged teapot, representing an in-situ EB IB funerary kit. Lying to the side was an amphoriskos with a wavy rim, made of distinctive yellowishwhite ware (Fig. 3.33:3; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:9), which can probably be attributed to an Intermediate Bronze Age burial inserted into a breach in the roof (L246; see Chapters 2, 4).

115

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

2

1

4

0

3

10

Fig. 3.33. Cave 548, L143.2: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Knobbed bowl

2654.5

Burnt to gray, red-gray slip

2

Abydos jug

2654.4

Red-brown, metallic ware, red slip, vertical burnish

3

Amphoriskos

2658

White-yellow, sandy, light weight, traces of red slip; Petrographic Group N (No. 9) (IBA?)

4

Channel-rim jar

2656.3

Red-orange metallic ware

Locus 153 (Fig. 3.34). This locus is the balk removal in the northwestern corner of Room B. In the highest level, in a white layer representing detritus from the collapsed roof, were a brick-red, metallic-ware platter with a concavity below the rim (Fig. 3.34:1), a teapot with a splayed rim (Fig. 3.34:5), cylindrical necks of Abydos jugs and one complete example of such a jug (Fig. 3.34:6), and many beads. Underneath this layer were found hemispherical bowls and a non-metallic platter, apparently imported from the Jezreel Valley (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:10), high-loop-handled juglets (Fig. 3.34:2) and several amphoriskoi, including a small example with carelessly applied ledge handles (Fig. 3.34:3) and another with a swollen neck and one or two handles from neck to shoulder (Fig. 3.34:4). Here again, an EB II burial with a platter, jugs and a teapot lay upon and disturbed an EB IB burial level.

116

SHELLEY SADEH

1

3 2

4

5

6 0

10

Fig. 3.34. Cave 548, L153: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Platter

2619.2

Brick-red metallic ware, red slip in and out

2

Juglet

2605.2

Fine, light brown-orange, red slip and burnish

3

Amphoriskos

2604.2

Orange

4

Juglet-amphoriskos

2599.3

Light brown, red slip

5

Teapot

2610.1

Brown-orange, red slip

6

Abydos jug

2608.2

Brick-red metallic ware, red slip

Locus 158 (Fig. 3.35). This locus is located east of W163 in Room A, on a pavement or a platform within white-colored soil representing crumbled roof debris. In the highest level was a metallic-ware platter with repair holes (Fig. 3.35:1). Underneath it was a layer of sherds which included those of a high-loop-handled juglet, a small juglet with two pierced lugs on the shoulders and net burnishing on the body (B2644), a squat miniature amphoriskos (Fig. 3.35:2), a cylindrical neck with the handle from mid-neck, and many beads. Locus 159.1. On the northern side of Room B, a burial contained a metallic-ware platter (B2672.1) and a small EB II(?) jar of fine brown ware, along with beads, an earring, and a metal pin. Underneath, a layer of sherds on the floor of the room contained typical EB IB bowls, juglets and amphoriskoi.

117

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

1

2 0

10

Fig. 3.35. Cave 548, L158: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Platter

2929

Brick-red, metallic ware, gray core, repair holes

2

Miniature amphoriskos

2841

Brown, red slip

Locus 165 (Fig. 3.36). An accumulation at the entrance to Room A, along W163, yielded many intact EB IB vessels, perhaps protected by the wall. These included a small crude cup (Fig. 3.36:1), a gutter-rim bowl (Fig. 3.36:2), four high-loop-handled juglets (Fig. 3.36:3–6), four amphoriskoi—including a red-slipped example with a tall tapering neck and two lug handles on the shoulder (Fig. 3.36:7), an unusual squat example with two doubly pierced lug handles (Fig. 3.36:8), an amphoriskos-jar found under a stone in the wall, with two attachments that appear to be degenerate loop handles (Fig. 3.36:9), and a typical amphoriskos with two strap handles (Fig. 3.36:10)—two lopsided jars (Fig. 3.36:11, 12), and sherds of a lamp and several bowls and teapots, as well as beads and metal objects. The ceramic assemblage in this locus appears to represent an EB IB burial horizon of two or three interments with accompanying offerings, arrayed alongside W163.

118

SHELLEY SADEH

2 1

4

3

6

5

7

9

8

10

12

11 0

10

Fig. 3.36. Cave 548, L165: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Cup

2781

Crude, light brown-orange, finger marks

2

Gutter-rim bowl

2771.2

Fine, white-beige, gritty, red slip

3

Juglet

2795

Light brown, small white, gray and red, and large white grits

4

Juglet

2836

Fine, light orange, red slip

5

Juglet

2774

Brown, red slip

6

Juglet

2775

Fine, beige, red slip

7

Amphoriskos

2782

Beige, gray core, red slip

8

Amphoriskos

2776

Light brown, red slip

9

Amphoriskos-jar

2832

Light orange, red slip

10

Amphoriskos

2818

Beige-brown, red slip

11

Small jar

2773

Crude, orange

12

Small jar

2785

Crude, light brown, gritty

Locus 175 (Fig. 3.37). This locus, situated alongside L165 and against W163, reached the bedrock. As in L165, a large number of vessels remained intact here. In the upper level, a pocket of EB II vessels contained Abydos-like juglets (Fig. 3.37:1, 2) and a large EB II jar with double knobs at mid-body (Fig. 3.37:3). Underneath these vessels were sherds of a deep inturned-rim bowl and a ‘pseudo’ GBW bowl, a high-loop-handled juglet, a large amphoriskos and a large teapot, as well as beads and metal objects. Below W163, a

119

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

V-shaped bowl, a hemispherical bowl, a fine-ware gutter-rim bowl and a fine GBW bowl, as well as sherds of high-loop-handled juglets and amphoriskoi were found together with a metallic-ware platter-bowl and a metallic-ware juglet (B2864, B2896). Apparently, some disturbance was caused to the burials in this location, resulting in metallic-ware items being found below the wall along with EB IB vessels.

1

2

3 0

10

Fig. 3.37. Cave 548, L175: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Juglet

2845

Crude light brown, large gray and white and small white grits

2

Juglet

2844

Fine brown, metallic-like

3

Jar

2860.1–2

Beige, red slip

Locus 197 (Fig. 3.38). Along the northwestern wall of Room B, at the highest level just below the roof collapse, was a deep bowl reminiscent in shape of the ‘degenerate’ GBW bowls with an added ridge in place of the carination, but red slipped (Fig. 3.38), along with a simple lamp-bowl, a yellow-ware teapot and sherds of a large crude jar. At a lower level were a typical EB IB lamp-bowl, a juglet and an amphoriskos. This sequence may point to a date somewhat later than the EB IB horizon for the ‘degenerate’ GBW bowls (see above). Locus 198. A metallic-ware platter, a high-loop-handled juglet and an amphoriskos were retrieved from the highest level in the northern part of Room B, among the collapsed roof debris.

0

5

Fig. 3.38. Bowl, beige ware, gray core, red slip in and out (Cave 548, L197, B2913.2)

120

SHELLEY SADEH

Locus 203 (Fig. 3.39). This locus centers around and below the stones in L190 along the western wall near the entrance of Room B. Within what appears to be a square or rectangular enclosure were two metallic-ware platters (Fig. 3.39:1), a late-type juglet (Fig. 3.39:2), an Abydos jug (Fig. 3.39:3) and a cylindrical neck of another (B2943), indicative of at least one EB II burial. Around and below the enclosure were EB IB bowls, non-metallic platters, amphoriskoi, a ridged-neck teapot and an unusual jar with an oval-shaped body (Fig. 3.39:4). It would appear that in this locus, an EB II burial enclosure containing two platters, a jug and a juglet was inserted into an EB IB burial layer.

1 2

3

4 0

10

Fig. 3.39. Cave 548, L203: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Platter

2826

Brick-red metallic ware

2

Juglet

2923

Light brown, red slip

3

Abydos jug

2942.2

Brick-red metallic ware, vertical burnish; Petrographic Group I (No. 15)

4

Small jar

2924.1

Crude, light brown, large grits, red slip; oval-shaped body

Locus 205 (Fig. 3.40). In the upper level of an earth-and-stone fill in the northwest of Room A were found a large, non-metallic, red-slipped platter-bowl with an inturned ledge rim and a ledge handle(s) with an incised potter’s mark (Fig. 3.40; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:16), an amphoriskos of reddish metallic-like ware of local provenance (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:17), two Abydos bases and a net-burnished sherd (B2945.1). The non-metallic platter and the local metallic-like ware suggest a very early EB II date.

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

0

121

10

Fig. 3.40. Platter-bowl, light brown ware, red slip, incised cross on ledge handle (Cave 548, L205, B2945.1)

Locus 206 (Fig. 3.41). Located on the northern side of the entrance to Room A (adjacent to L205), the accumulation above the cave floor contained many complete vessels. In the highest level was a concentration comprising a crude lamp (Fig. 3.41:1), a fine hemispherical lamp-bowl with a five-pointed star incised on the base, made of beige gritty ware imported from the Samarian Hills (Fig. 3.41:3; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:20), metallic platters (B2986, B2993.1), a small ‘proto-Abydos’ juglet with a handle from the midneck (Fig. 3.41:6), an Abydos jug with a cylindrical neck and strap handle (B2993.1), an Abydos base and a small holemouth jar (Fig. 3.41:12), along with yellow-ware sherds of an unidentified vessel (B2993). Underneath this concentration were found a deep cup-bowl with a lug handle near the base (Fig. 3.41:2), a ledge-rim platter-bowl with ledge handles (Fig. 3.41:4), a deep, incurved bowl with wavy ledge handles and red ‘crackled’ slip (Fig. 3.41:5), an unusual small jar of red metallic-like ware with a decorative knob near the rim and a small lug near the base (Fig. 3.41:11), which has parallels in numerous EB II contexts, as at Asheret

122

SHELLEY SADEH

1

2

3

4

5

6

8

7

11

10 0

9

12 0

2

13 10

0

2

Fig. 3.41. Cave 548, L206: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Lamp-bowl

2991

Crude, light brown, burnt inside and on rim

2

Cup-bowl

2947.1

Brown, gritty, red slip

3

Hemispherical bowl

3016.3

White-beige, gritty, red band on rim, soot marks on rim, five-point star incised on base

4

Platter-bowl

2947.3

Brown, red slip in and out

5

Deep incurved bowl

2947.2

Beige-gray, red slip

6

’Proto-Abydos’ juglet

3016.2

Beige-gray, gritty

7

Amphoriskos

3165

Fine, orange, red slip

8

Amphoriskos

2990

Fine, orange, red slip

9

Teapot

3014.2

Fine, beige, sandy, red slip

10

Miniature jar

2959

Light brown, fine grits and many voids, red slip

11

Small jar

2947.5

Very fine, red metallic ware, thin walls

12

Small holemouth jar

3016.4

Brown, red slip

13

Incised body sherd

2978

Beige

123

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

(Smithline 2001: Fig. 27:12) and Tel Qashish (Ben-Tor and Bonfil 2003: Fig. 58:3), as well as sherds of typical juglets and amphoriskoi, gold earrings and beads. This locus would seem to represent a transition-period or early EB II burial context. Slightly lower, other complete vessels included a knobbed bowl, a fine amphoriskos (Fig. 3.41:8), a ridge-necked teapot (with the ridge above the joint) made of two halves (Fig. 3.41:9), a miniature, drop-shaped jar, perhaps of Egyptian influence (Fig. 3.41:10) and, nearest the bedrock, a small, unusually shaped amphoriskos with two pushed-up, pierced knobs on the shoulders (Fig. 3.41:7). A body sherd of a closed vessel with part of an incised vegetal design (Fig. 3.41:13) is the only example of incised decoration in this cave, although several vessels with similar patterns were found in Cave 567 (e.g., L149). Also found in this level were sherds of typical hemispherical bowls, juglets, amphoriskoi and ridge-necked teapots. Locus 220 (Fig. 3.42). Immediately beneath the roof collapse (L218) in Room B was the upper part of a metallic-ware Abydos jug (Fig. 3.42:1) and an unusual Egyptian(?) miniature jar made of silty red-brown clay (Fig. 3.42:2), similar to one from ‘En Esur Tomb 3 made of ‘Nile clay’ (see Yannai and Braun 2001:45). Other sherds represent a GBW bowl with a black slip (B3083), high-loop-handled juglets, amphoriskoi and a unique figurine of a bird (Fig. 3.42:3), which was originally attached to another clay object.

2

0

1

3 0

2

Fig. 3.42. Cave 548, L220: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Abydos jug

3072.1

Red, metallic ware

2

Miniature jar

3072.2

Fine, red-brown, silty

3

Bird figurine

3074

Light brown, red slip

10

124

SHELLEY SADEH

Locus 236 (Fig. 3.43). In Room B, immediately beneath L220, a red metallic-ware platter (B3160) was assigned to this locus, although it had apparently toppled down from above (see Chapter 2). A few centimeters below, a concentration of vessels and sherds included non-metallic platters (Fig. 3.43:1), a squat, cup-bowl of metallic-like ware (Fig. 3.43:2) and a high-loop-handled juglet (Fig. 3.43:3), as well as parts of bowls, platter-bowls, high-loophandled juglets, amphoriskoi and a ridge-necked teapot.

1

0

2

10

3

Fig. 3.43. Cave 548, L236: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Platter

3125.1/2

Light brown, red slip

2

Cup-bowl

3162.2

Beige, metallic-like

3

Juglet

3122

Light brown, light weight, many voids; Petrographic Group N (No. 21)

Locus 237 (Fig. 3.44). In the northwestern part of Room B, a concentration of sherds, perhaps related to L236, included a lamp-bowl, a metallic platter with a lug handle (Fig. 3.44), a gutter-rim bowl and amphoriskoi. Locus 238. Below L220, alongside L236 in the northern part of Room B, was a metallicware platter (B3126.1); underneath it was a concentration of sherds containing a GBW bowl, a ridge-necked teapot, a small closed vessel and yellow-ware sherds.

0

5

Fig. 3.44. Platter, red metallic ware (Cave 548, L237, B3125.3).

125

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

Locus 241 (Fig. 3.45). To the east and south of W163 in Room A, below the roof collapse (L204), was a small platter-bowl of a type usually dated to EB II (Fig. 3.45:1). Somewhat lower, within a dense concentration of bones, was a platter-bowl with a lug handle below the carination (Fig. 3.45:2), a GBW bowl (Fig. 3.45:3), a squat, red-burnished amphoriskos, and many sherds of bowls, high-loop-handled juglets, amphoriskoi, ridged-neck teapots— one of which has incisions on the ridge and is made of an unusual yellowish ware (Fig. 3.45:4)—and a small jar, all apparently of EB IB date.

2

1

4

0

3

10

Fig. 3.45. Cave 548, L241: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Platter-bowl

3217

Beige

2

Platter-bowl

3218

Beige, red slip

3

GBW bowl

3214.2

Gray-beige

4

Teapot

3153.2

Yellow-beige, gray core, red slip; Petrographic Group G (No. 22)

Locus 245.1 (Fig. 3.46). In the southern part of Room A, on the cave floor below the stones of W163, was an unusual amphoriskos with a tall narrow neck and one or two lug handles on the shoulder, a type seen sporadically in other ‘En Esur caves. Alongside it were several fragmentary teapots and other small EB IB vessels. Locus 256. In the northwest of Room B, on the cave floor below a white fill near the wall, was a cluster of EB IB vessels comprising a small, crumbly lamp-bowl, a bowl with a flat rim, an amphoriskos, a ridge-necked teapot and a miniature jar, probably representing a single funerary kit.

0

5

Fig. 3.46. Amphoriskos, light brown ware (Cave 548, L245.1, B2243)

Locus 257. In Room A, below a layer of alluvium (L246) and above the stone platform in L258, finds included fragments of cylindrical necks (B3329)—one of red metallic ware with a handle from mid-neck, of EB II date—together with EB IB sherds of a gutter-rim bowl, a high-loop-handled juglet and an amphoriskos.

126

SHELLEY SADEH

Locus 259 (Fig 3.47). On the cave floor in Room A, underneath the stones in L258, was a concentration of pottery that included a small, rounded but lopsided S-shaped bowl made of fine ware with a red star painted on the base (Fig. 3.47:1), a small carinated bowl of fine ware (Fig. 3.471:2), an unusual S-shaped bowl (Fig. 3.47:3), a knobbed bowl with radial burnish (Fig. 3.47:4), a large gutter-rim bowl with a spout (Fig. 3.47:5), a juglet of a late type (Fig. 3.47:6), usually dated to EB II, a juglet with a strap handle made of eggshell-thin ware, cylindrical necks of Abydos jugs, one with an oval mouth, as well as additional sherds of bowls, amphoriskoi and a rim of a crude-ware holemouth jar. It appears that the vessels from an early EB II burial horizon were associated with the stone platform (L258), and reached the lowest floor level of the cave due to the disturbance it caused (see Chapter 2).

1

2

3

5

6

4 0

10

Fig. 3.47. Cave 548, L259: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

S-shaped bowl

3374

Fine, red slip, red-painted star on base

2

Carinated bowl

3364.2

Fine, light brown, red slip

3

S-shaped bowl

3363.3

Light brown, well-fired, red slip in and out

4

Knobbed bowl

3363.2

Red slip in and out, radial burnish inside

5

Gutter-rim bowl with spout

3364.3

Brown, gray core, red slip in and out

6

Juglet

3364.4

Fine, beige, gray core

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

127

The EB IB–II Funerary Assemblage from Cave 548 Some 659 Early Bronze Age vessels were recovered in Cave 548, attributed to three burial periods: late EB IB, the transition period and the very beginning of EB II. In a number of cases, it appears that the EB II burials lay immediately below the roof collapse or were inserted into the collapsed roof debris, and a similar phenomenon was noted in nearby Tomb 80 (Gorzalczany and Sharvit 2010). An episode of alluvial penetration may have caused some measure of intermingling of the burial horizons. Only in isolated cases can a specific concentration of vessels be identified as lying more or less in situ. Based on the ceramic analysis, the cave was originally hewn in the late EB IB, a horizon characterized by the typical EB IB burial assemblages; in a number of places, individual clusters representing EB IB funerary kits can be discerned. Burial continued into the transition period, and vessel clusters that can be attributed to this phase are characterized by various combinations of the typical EB IB hemispherical bowls, knobbed bowls, juglets, amphoriskoi, teapots and jars, accompanied by nonmetallic-ware platter-bowls, platters, jugs with cylindrical necks and vertical burnishing (‘proto-Abydos’), and the appearance of metallic platters. Platters of both types are ubiquitous throughout the cave (c. 30% of the bowl assemblage, see Table 3.2), while the GBW bowls comprise 17% of the bowls, suggesting a phase in which the platter-bowls and platters began to replace the GBW bowls. However, GBW bowls do continue to appear late into the sequence in lesser amounts and in degenerate forms, as in L139 and L140, some made of local orange clay with a gray slip (‘imitation’ GBW). Other transitional types that appear together with the earlier EB IB types include ‘Aphek’ bowls of various shapes, juglets of later type that are more elongated with loop handles that do not rise above the rim (Figs. 3.47:6; 3.39:3; 3.41:6) and teapots with a splayed channel rim (Fig. 3.31:22). A few Egyptianized vessels can be attributed to this phase as well (Fig. 3.42:2). It is also evident that a variety of vessels made of metallic-like ware (‘proto-metallic’) began to appear in small numbers already in this transition period, a prelude to the EB II wave of imports, when this ware could comprise almost 50% of the ceramic assemblage (Greenberg and Porat 1996). The composition of the funerary kit remains the same, although the vessel shapes and wares are changing. In contrast, the classic EB II funerary kit is more limited and conventional, corresponding to the introduction of mass-production beginning with the NCMW industry (Greenberg and Porat 1996:19), apparently consisting mainly of lamp-bowls, platters, juglets and Abydos jugs (cf. the EB II tomb at Bet Yeraḥ, see Mazar, Amiran and Haas 1973). It is evident that over most of the cave, especially in areas where the roof had collapsed, the EB II inhabitants of the region buried their dead upon the earlier EB IB burials. However, in most loci, no clear stratigraphic evidence is available to help separate the various assemblages, apart from the overall slightly higher elevations of the findspots of the EB II wares. In isolated cases, EB II burial constructions apparently penetrated down to bedrock (e.g., L203, L259), causing mixture of the material.

128

SHELLEY SADEH

Cave 561 Cave 561, a small burial cave with two rooms (A, B; see Chapter 2: Plan 2.12), contained relatively few finds and was used over a relatively short period toward the end of EB IB. Only 23 vessels were identified, in association with at least 16 deceased (see Chapter 12: Table 12.1), although an unknown number of intact vessels were stolen during the excavation (see Chapters 1, 2). The description of the vessels follows their location within the cave, although the figure is arranged typologically (Fig. 3.48). At the bottom of the entrance steps (L182), a complete, rather lopsided, classic type of amphoriskos made of common, light-brown ware

2

1

3

4

5

7

6

0

8

10

9

Fig. 3.48. Cave 561: selected vessels. No.

Type

Locus

Basket

Description

1

Hemispherical bowl

112

2091.1

Light orange, small black grits, red slip in and out

2

Hemispherical bowl

112

2087

Fine, beige, gritty, red slip and light burnish on exterior

3

V-shaped bowl

112

2086

White-beige, finely levigated, red net-pattern on white (self?) slip on exterior and base

4

Deep incurved bowl

186

2881.2

Fine, brown-orange, dark red slip in and out, soot clouds

5

Miniature amphoriskos

189

2908

Fine, brown, gritty, red slip

6

Amphoriskos

189

2906

Fine, orange-brown, red slip and light burnish (also on base)

7

Amphoriskos

182

2874

Light brown, red slip

8

Miniature holemouth jar

112

2084

Crude, light brown, gray core, heavy, neck and handle filed down

9

Teapot

189

2894

Fine, brown ware, red slip and high polish

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

129

with a cracked red slip (Fig. 3.48:7) was recovered together with sherds of a large bowl. Further into the cave, in the opening between the two rooms (L112), several complete and partially complete vessels were retrieved, including a set of three fine-ware bowls: two of them are shallow, hemispherical bowls finished on a tournette, one of light orange, red-slipped ware (Fig. 3.48:1), the other of beige, gritty, red-burnished ware (Fig. 3.48:2); the third is a deeper, V-shaped bowl of white-beige ware with a well-executed net pattern painted in red on the exterior and the base, over a white (self?) slip (Fig. 3.48:3). Also recovered in this part of the cave were a miniature high-loop-handled juglet, a high-loophandled juglet of brown-orange ware that crumbled during restoration, and another of crude, heavy, light-brown ware, whose neck and handle had apparently been filed down to form a small votive holemouth jar (Fig. 3.48:8). In a stone enclosure (L185, L186) containing several interments, were found the upper part of a fine, delicate, incurved bowl with a flattened ledge rim, well-fired, made of dark brown-orange ware and red-slipped with fire clouding (Fig. 3.48:4), the spout of a teapot and beads. Unfortunately, a number of intact vessels from this area disappeared at the time of excavation. In Room B, east of the balk (L174), only a sherd of a red-slipped, knobbed bowl of brown crumbly ware could be identified. The poorly preserved pottery finds from the burial circle (L184), comprising at least two teapots of brown-orange crumbly ware (B2876), along with beads, an earring and a bronze dagger (see Chapter 9: Fig. 9.2:3), accompanied the interment of four to five individuals, one of them a child. In L189, representing a second burial level, were a complete miniature amphoriskos of fine, red-slipped, beige gritty ware (Fig. 3.48:5), a fine, classic squat-shaped amphoriskos of brown–orange ware, red-polished also on the base (Fig. 3.48:6), a fine red-polished, carinated, ridge-necked teapot of brown ware (Fig. 3.48:9), and a fine red-slipped juglet of light brown ware. In L187, the lowest locus, below the stones of the circle, was a fine, deep, incurved bowl with a flattened rim, made of dark brown ware and red slipped, similar to that in Fig. 3.48:4. The EB IB Funerary Assemblage from Cave 561 The ceramic vessels from Cave 561 were in the main poorly preserved, and several crumbled or disintegrated during removal or restoration. Interestingly, the surviving complete or partially complete vessels are all fine, well-levigated, well-fired ceramics of both the orange ware and the light brown-beige ware discerned in the other caves (Fabrics 1, 2). The poorer-quality, less well-fired wares did not survive well the conditions of this cave. If any vessels made of the pale porous ware were present, they did not survive. The white-slipped and red net-painted bowl may have originated in the Jordan Valley, as petrographic analyses of vessels of this type from other sites have indicated (e.g., Golani 2003:99). Based on macroscopic examination, the teapots were apparently all made of the local orange fabric. Stratigraphically, it would seem that the assemblage in L112, which contained highquality vessels, including fine shallow hemispherical bowls finished on a tournette and the net-painted V-shaped bowl, as well as a tabular scraper noteworthy for its fine workmanship

130

SHELLEY SADEH

(another was recovered nearby, see Chapter 7), represents the latest burial offerings. The incurved bowl found in L186 of Room A may also represent a later phase, as it has parallels in the EB II Stratum I at Qiryat Ata (Golani 2003: Fig. 4.24:20). The remaining types are all standard EB IB forms typical of funerary assemblages. Although this is a small sample of only 23 vessels (see Table 3.1), it is noteworthy that no evidence of GBW bowls was discerned. However, this absence does not appear to be due to chronological factors, nor does it seem to indicate a lower socioeconomic status (as in Tomb 80 in this cemetery, see Gorzalczany and Sharvit 2010). Cave 562 This cave comprised four separate rooms (A, B, C, D; see Chapter 2: Plan 2.13), each with its own entrance, which were joined together at some point in time, perhaps as early as the Early Bronze Age. In general, two distinct burial levels were discerned, a layer containing MB IIA vessels and many bones, separated by alluvial wash and white chalky sediment from the layer containing EB IB vessels and many bones (see Fig. 2.39). However, intermixing occurred in some places, and a few loci seem to belong to the EB IB–II transition period. At least 623 Early Bronze Age vessels were recovered in this cave, including complete, almost-complete and restored vessels, as well as unrestorable rim sherds. In many cases, small clusters of vessels associated with skulls and long bones apparently represent the typical EB IB funerary kit. Locus 100 (Fig. 3.49). On the steps of Entrance 1, along with beads, bones and MB IIA vessels, the EB IB sherds included a hemispherical lamp-bowl and a large, relatively intact EB IB jar with ledge handles (Fig. 3.49) made of local ware (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:24).

0

10

Fig. 3.49. Jar, brown-orange ware, red slip (Cave 562, L100, B2009)

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

131

Locus 107 (Fig. 3.50). At the bottom of the entrance steps, a rich assemblage of EB IB pottery included numerous intact vessels, such as two relatively rare footed cups (Fig. 3.50:1, 2), hemispherical bowls (Fig. 3.50:3), some with pierced lug handles, S-shaped bowls, a knobbed bowl (Fig. 3.50:4), fine, red-burnished, gutter-rimmed bowls, juglets made of two halves (Fig. 3.50:5–7), one with a hole drilled in the lower body, amphoriskoi made of both the typical orange and light brown gritty wares, many with the burnished red slip still intact (3.50:8) and two with wavy ledge handles (Fig. 3.50:9, 10), several fine teapots with ridged necks made of both common wares (Fig. 3.50:11), a fine redburnished jar, several juglet bases reused as lamps and a unique item, perhaps a handle (Fig. 3.50:12). A concentration contained several hemispherical bowls, one used as a lamp, high-loop-handled juglets, amphoriskoi, the upper part of a cylindrical-necked juglet and a disc-shaped sherd, apparently a lid, with four drilled holes around the edges (Fig. 3.50:13). A metallic-like sherd with black-painted lines on a white slip was apparently locally produced (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:26). The finds from this locus represent the typical EB IB funerary assemblage. Locus 113. The EB IB sherds found in this locus included typical hemispherical bowls, high-loop-handled juglets and amphoriskoi; noteworthy are a platter-bowl and a cylindricalnecked jug, usually diagnostic of the EB IB–II transition phase. In addition, a shallow basalt bowl or mortar(?) with soot around the rim suggests reuse as a lamp (see Chapter 8). Loci 123 and 124. A few EB IB sherds found along the southwestern wall of Room A included fragments of a GBW bowl together with an ‘imitation’ GBW bowl (B2370.1) of orange fabric (Fabric 1). Fig. 3.50 ► No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Footed cup

2068.2

Dark brown-orange, red slip

2

Footed cup

2068.3

Dark brown-orange, red slip

3

Hemispherical bowl

2058.1

Orange, red slip

4

Knobbed bowl

2056.1

Light orange, red slip and burnish in and out

5

Juglet

2071

Fine, light brown, red slip

6

Juglet

2075

Fine, brown, gray core, red slip

7

Juglet

2114

Fine, light brown, red slip

8

Amphoriskos

2116

Fine, light brown, red slip and burnish

9

Amphoriskos

2076

Fine, light brown

10

Amphoriskos

2117

Fine, light brown, red slip and light burnish

11

Teapot

2064

Fine, orange ware, well-levigated, red slip and light burnish

12

Unidentified object with rounded ends (handle?)

2056.3

Brown

13

Lid

2044.4

Light brown

132

SHELLEY SADEH

1

2

3

5

8

4

6

7

9

10

12

13

11 0

10

Fig. 3.50. Cave 562, L107: selected vessels.

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

133

Locus 136 (Fig. 3.51). This EB IB locus in Room B yielded a red-burnished hemispherical lamp-bowl, two amphoriskoi (Fig. 3.51:2, 3), red-burnished but crudely made with coils still visible inside the neck, one apparently burnt (Fig. 3.51:3), and several teapots, including a fine, red-burnished, ridged-neck (Fig. 3.51:5) and a finely shaped, sharply carinated example with a double spout (Fig. 3.51:6), made of two halves, out of pale, lightweight, pockmarked ware. Petrographic analysis suggests the latter was imported from eastern Samaria (Tell el-Far‘ah N? see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:28), as apparently were many examples of this vessel type. During removal of the balk, a fine red-burnished juglet (Fig. 3.51:1) and a fine, red-burnished teapot (Fig. 3.51:4) were assigned to this locus.

1

3

2

5

4

6 0

10

Fig. 3.51. Cave 562, L136: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Juglet

2413

Fine, light brown, large grits, red slip and light burnish

2

Amphoriskos

2420

Light orange, fine grits, red slip, soot marks inside and out

3

Amphoriskos

2451

Light brown, fine grits, crudely formed, red slip, soot marks inside and out

4

Teapot

2414

Fine light orange, red slip

5

Teapot

2450

Fine, light brown, gritty, red slip and light burnish

6

Teapot

2452

Fine white-beige, light weight, many voids, traces of red slip; Petrographic Group I? (No. 28)

134

SHELLEY SADEH

Locus 145 (Fig. 3.52). Located in the northeastern area of Room B and continuing into Room C, this exclusively EB IB locus contained a footed cup (Fig. 3.52:1), hemispherical bowls, one used as a lamp, a red-burnished knobbed bowl, several gutter-rimmed bowls with wavy ledge handles, one red-burnished, and several amphoriskoi and juglets––one crude example with beads inside (Fig. 3.52:2).

0

1

10

2

Fig. 3.52. Cave 562, L145: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Footed cup

2525.2

Light orange, gritty, red slip

2

Juglet

2505.1

Crude, light brown, red slip

Locus 147 (Fig. 3.53). This locus in Room A yielded a strangely shaped jug made of local orange ware (Fabric 1; Fig. 3.53:1)––possibly deformed during production––that resembles an EB II juglet from Gadot (Greenberg 2001a: Fig. 14:11), and an Abydos-like jug,

2

1

3 0

10

Fig. 3.53. Cave 562, L147: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Juglet

2514

Orange

2

Jug

2525.3

Light brown, gray core, red slip, vertical burnish

3

Teapot-jug

2527.2

Orange, dark gray core, red slip, vertical burnish; Petrographic Group A or B? (No. 29)

135

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

red slipped and vertically burnished, made of light brown, non-metallic clay (Fig. 3.53:2). These two jugs were found together, suggesting that both belong to the latest EB IB phase. Also in this locus, apparently associated with the two jugs, were assorted typical EB IB vessels, such as a knobbed bowl and several ridge-necked, red-burnished teapots, one of them an unusually shaped teapot-jug made of local orange ware (Fig. 3.53:3; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:29), with an elongated body, an unusual pierced lug handle placed low on the body, and vertical burnishing on the body resembling Abydos jugs. Locus 152 (Fig. 3.54). An EB IB burial circle delineated by a row of stones, probably similar to those of Cave 561 (see above), seems to have existed at the center of Room B. The EB IB assemblage associated with it included a small, fine, gutter-rim bowl (Fig. 3.54:1) made of light brown-beige ware, and an outstanding collection of intact, high-loophandled juglets, including both fine and crude examples of orange and light brown-beige wares, such as a crude juglet of orange ware with a red slip (Fig. 3.54:2; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:31) and a fine, slightly carinated example of light brown ware (Fig. 3.54:3). The most outstanding example is a carinated juglet apparently made of beige ware but

2

1

4

3

5 0

10

Fig. 3.54. Cave 562, L152: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Gutter-rim bowl

2719.1

Fine, light brown, red slip in and out

2

Juglet

2811.1

Light orange, red slip; Petrographic Group A (No. 31)

3

Juglet

2758

Light brown-beige, small white grits, red slip

4

Amphoriskos

2719.2

Fine, light brown, well-levigated, red slip

5

Teapot

2705

Red burnished

136

SHELLEY SADEH

mostly burnt to black, decorated with a cylinder-seal impression rolled around the body at the carination (see Fig. 3.11) and a row of incisions at the neck. The style of the seal is a well-known, northern Levant animal-procession design, although its location on the body of a juglet is as yet unique (see discussion above). However, the shape of the juglet is very similar to the others accompanying it (e.g., Fig. 3.54:2, 3). A variety of intact amphoriskoi included a crude, misshapen example with fire clouds (B2754), a fine example made of heavy, red-brown ware (B2721), and a relatively large, fine, globular vessel made of light brown-beige ware, with a rounded base and pierced lug handles on the shoulders (Fig. 3.54:4). Teapots included a fine, red-burnished, carinated example with a splayed rim, two lug handles on the shoulder, a bent spout and a deliberately drilled hole in the lower body (Fig. 3.54:5). One small jar was originally a juglet with a filed-down handle (B2706). Fragmentary vessels include a GBW bowl, a knobbed bowl and a gutter-rim bowl, two deep bowls with flattened rims, and a rim of a small closed vessel with painted vertical red stripes (‘pajama-style’). Locus 162 (Fig. 3.55). The uppermost locus in the center of Room B contained a squat EB IB amphoriskos made of two halves joined together of fine, heavy, orange ware and red burnished. It is identical in shape to an example from the EB IB burial cave at Tinshemet, whose provenance was apparently the area of Tell el-Far‘ah N or the western Galilee, based on petrographic analysis (Brink and Grosinger 2004:90; Fig. 3:5), although the example here was made of local orange clay (Fabric 1; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:33).

0

10

Fig. 3.55. Amphoriskos, fine, heavy, orange-brown ware, red slip and burnish; Petrographic Group A (Cave 562, L162, B2674.1).

Locus 181 (Fig. 3.56). To the east of Entrance 3, the EB IB vessels included two juglets (Fig. 3.56:1), an amphoriskos and three small jars: a fine red-burnished example, an example that was originally a juglet with a filed-down handle and a deliberate hole in the lower body (Fig. 3.56:2), and a crude, red-slipped jar made of orange ware (Fig. 3.56:3). Locus 192. East of L181 was a large, crudely made vessel of pinkish-beige ware of local provenance (see Fig. 3.26:1; Chapter 6: Table 6.1:34), with unsmoothed coils on the interior, as well as pieces of clay stuck to the walls, indicating it was a stand, a vessel type known in EB contexts at Megiddo (Greenberg 2006: Fig. 10.2:10–12) and in Khirbet Kerak Ware at ‘Afula (Amiran 1969: Pl. 19:14).

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1

2

3 0

10

Fig. 3.56. Cave 562, L181: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Juglet

2854

Light brown, light gray core, well-levigated

2

Small jar

2850.1

Light brown, gritty, red slip, handle filed off

3

Small jar

2855

Orange, small white grits, red slip

Locus 202 (Fig. 3.57). This EB IB burial at the eastern end of Room B yielded a redburnished footed cup of local orange ware (Fig. 3.57:1; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:35), a hemispherical lamp-bowl, a juglet, an amphoriskos and two teapots, one ridge-necked and the other with a splayed rim (Fig. 3.57:2), and two small jars, one crude and red-slipped (Fig. 3.57:3).

2

1

0

3 10

Fig. 3.57. Cave 562, L202: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Footed cup

3001.2

Light brown-orange, red slip and burnish; Petrographic Group A (No. 35)

2

Teapot

2931

Light brown-orange, large white grits, red slip

3

Small jar

2966

Light brown, small white grits, red slip

Locus 215 (Fig. 3.58). An EB IB burial layer underneath a layer of MB IIA burials at the eastern end of Room B contained two apparent clusters of vessels. One contained a small, hemispherical lamp-bowl, crudely shaped although the rim was apparently finished on a tournette (Fig. 3.58:1), three juglets—two crude (Fig. 3.58:2) and another of spherical shape with a tall neck made of fine, light brown ware (Fig. 3.58:3)—as well as a fine amphoriskos (Fig. 3.58:4) of the same ware and bag-shape as that in L162 (see Fig. 3.55), and a small, lopsided, red-slipped jar (Fig. 3.58:5). Another cluster comprised a GBW bowl together with a ‘pseudo’ GBW bowl and three amphoriskoi of various sizes.

138

SHELLEY SADEH

2

1

3

5

4 0

10

Fig. 3.58. Cave 562, L215: cluster of vessels representing a typical EB IB funerary kit. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Hemispherical bowl

3048

Light brown, red slip in and out

2

Juglet

3047

Light brown, red slip

3

Juglet

3045

Light brown, red slip

4

Amphoriskos

3044

Light orange, red slip

5

Small jar

3049

Light brown, red slip

Locus 224 (Fig. 3.59). Along the eastern wall of the cave between Rooms C and D, below an MB IIA burial layer, a cluster of vessels comprising a fragmentary deep cup with red stripes on white slip both inside and out (Fig. 3.59:1), a deep platter-bowl with a lug on the rim, and a red-burnished platter, perhaps represents the EB IB–II transition phase. At a lower level was a concentration of well-preserved EB IB vessels, including a large crude juglet (Fig. 3.59:2), a fine squat amphoriskos of orange ware with a thick red slip, and a fine, red-burnished teapot with a splayed rim (Fig. 3.59:3). Another concentration comprised numerous fragmentary vessels, including three hemispherical bowls, two gutterrim bowls, a GBW bowl, a red-burnished platter, four amphoriskoi, a ridged-neck teapot and an omphalos base of a closed vessel with red stripes (Fig. 3.59:4), as well as many beads. Unrelated to the vessel clusters lay a large crude jar of light-colored ware with self slip (Fig. 3.59:5; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:37), of similar ware to an amphoriskos in Cave 548 (L143.2); both of them are of unknown provenance and resemble Intermediate Bronze Age vessels (see Chapter 4). Loci 231, 245.2, 247. These loci, located near Entrance 4 into Room C, contained mainly MB IIA pottery above a layer of alluvial soil. Below the alluvium, a few vessels are apparently to be associated with the EB IB–II transition phase: a cylindrical-neck jug in L231, a platter-bowl with a triangular rim in L245.2, and a GBW bowl, a platter and a juglet of brick-red ware in L247.

139

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

1

2

3

0

4

10

5

Fig. 3.59. Cave 562, L224: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Cup

3167

Beige-white, red-painted vertical stripes on white (self?) slip inside and out

2

Juglet

3057

Light brown, soot marks

3

Amphoriskos

3060

Fine, brown-red, gritty, red slip

4

Base of closed vessel

3055.3

Fine, beige, fine grits, red-painted lines on self-slip; Petrographic Group G (No.36)

5

Small jar

3058

Crude, beige, light weight, white self-slip, many voids; Petrographic Group N (No. 37) (IBA?)

Locus 250 (Fig. 3.60). Near Entrance 4 into Room C, a concentration of EB IB pottery included a deep, red-slipped cup (Fig. 3.60:1), a small, fine, hemispherical bowl (Fig. 3.60:2), an S-shaped bowl, two ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls, three amphoriskoi and a teapot.

1

2

3 0

4 10

Fig. 3.60. Cave 562, L250: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Cup

3290.4

Red slip in and out

2

Hemispherical bowl

3290.2

Fine, beige, red slip

3

Juglet

3283

Crude, brown, heavy

4

Juglet

3276

Fine, light brown, red slip

140

SHELLEY SADEH

Nearby, probably part of the same burial context, were three juglets, one crude and heavy (Fig. 3.60:3), another made of fine ware of unusual piriform shape, which contained bones inside (post depositional?; Fig. 3.60:4). Locus 261 (Fig. 3.61). Near Entrance 3 into Room B, below an MB IIA burial horizon, was a rich Early Bronze Age pottery layer. Two platters and a cylindrical-necked jug with vertical burnish (B3361) apparently represent a separate EB IB–II transition funerary kit. Two additional clusters were noted: (1) one hemispherical bowl, one knobbed bowl, one GBW bowl, one S-shaped cup-bowl and four amphoriskoi; (2) a red-burnished platterbowl with a lug handle, like the one in L268 (see Fig. 3.62:5), a fine juglet (Fig. 3.61:1), a lopsided amphoriskos of local beige ware with two pierced knobs (Fig. 3.61:2; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:39) and two similar bag-shaped amphoriskoi, one crude (Fig. 3.61:3) and one fine (Fig. 3.61:4).

1

3

2 0

4

10

Fig. 3.61. Cave 562, L261: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Juglet

3324

Fine, light brown-beige, many gray grits, red slip

2

Amphoriskos

3321.2

Beige; red slip; Petrographic Group A? (No. 39)

3

Amphoriskos

3320

Light brown

4

Amphoriskos

3326

Fine, beige, red slip, soot inside and out

Locus 268 (Fig. 3.62). Revealed below L261, this locus yielded a rich assemblage of typical late EB IB funerary vessels, including a footed cup, two crude lamp-bowls––both hemispherical with an everted rim, one made of light brown ware (Fabric Group 2; Fig. 3.62:1), the other of orange ware (Fabric 1; Fig. 3.62:2), a fine knobbed bowl with 13 knobs (Fig. 3.62:3), a fine, ‘classic,’ carinated GBW bowl fired to gray with a gray slip (Fig. 3.62:4) alongside four ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls (e.g., B3431, B3445) and several redburnished, non-metallic platters (Fig. 3.62:5). Eight juglets included both fine examples (e.g., Fig. 3.62:6, 7) and a crude, pockmarked vessel (Fig. 3.62:8) with coils clearly visible inside (all made of local ware and red slipped). Ten amphoriskoi, many with the red burnishing still visible, included a miniature example with a strange bag shape, a conical neck and two pierced lug handles (Fig. 3.62:9) and a large fine example (Fig. 3.62:10) with a deliberately drilled hole in the lower wall. Also in this assemblage were several teapots,

141

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

1

2 3

4

5

6

7

8

10

9

11 0

10

Fig. 3.62. Cave 562 L268: selected vessels.

142

SHELLEY SADEH

◄ Fig. 3.62 No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Lamp-bowl

3401

Light brown-beige, rough surface, soot on rim

2

Lamp-bowl

3432.1

Light orange, red slip, burnt inside and on rim

3

Knobbed bowl

3425

Fine light brown, red slip in and out, soot marks outside

4

GBW bowl

3433

Dark brown-gray, gray core, gray (self?) slip

5

Platter

3431.3

Brown, red slip and burnish outside

6

Juglet

3399

Orange, fine grits, red slip

7

Juglet

3429

Fine, light brown-orange, red slip

8

Juglet

3450

Light brown, red slip, coils visible on surface

9

Miniature amphoriskos

3428

Beige

10

Amphoriskos

3423

Fine, orange, red slip

11

Teapot

3407

Light brown

one with uncommon horizontal ‘basket’ handles that was crudely made of light brown ware (Fig. 3.62:11), and several cylindrical necks of jugs. A cluster of vessels contained two ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls, two platters, one juglet, three amphoriskoi, two teapots and two cylindrical necks. Locus 269.2 (Fig. 3.63). To the east of L268 was a cluster of vessels comprising a redburnished hemispherical bowl, two fine, red-slipped amphoriskoi of light brown ware (Fig. 3.63:1), a fine red-burnished teapot with a ridged neck and a bent spout (Fig. 3.63:2) and numerous beads.

1

2 0

10

Fig. 3.63. Cave 562, L269.2: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Amphoriskos

3404

Fine, light brown, red slip

2

Teapot

3406

Fine, light orange, red slip and light burnish

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

143

Locus 271 (Fig. 3.64). On the northern side of Room D was a rich EB IB assemblage containing a wide variety of bowl types and numerous juglets and amphoriskoi. The outstanding bowl assemblage included a deep conical cup of fine orange ware, red slipped with a red ‘X’ painted on the base (see Fig. 3.3:8), two fine hemispherical bowls, three ‘Aphek’ bowls of different sizes (Fig. 3.64:1–3), a knobbed bowl, five fine, delicate S-shaped or carinated bowls, one with a lug and red slipped, made of brown metallic-like ware similar to that of the ‘Aphek’ bowls (Fig. 3.64:4)—noteworthy are parallels made of classic NCMW found in EB II contexts at Gadot (Greenberg 2001a), Tel Te’o (Greenberg 2001b: Fig. 8:19) and the Bet Yeraḥ tomb (Mazar, Amiran and Haas 1973: Fig. 6:33)—eight GBW bowls including a small pedestal bowl (pedestal missing; Fig. 3.64:5), two ‘imitation’ GBW bowls of fine, local orange ware, three ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls of light-colored, lightweight, pockmarked ware (Fig. 3.64:6), a deep platter-bowl with a flat rim and a lug handle (Fig. 3.64:7) and finally, two platters with lug handles at the rim (B3513.1). It is interesting to note the apparent presence, in the same context, of knobbed bowls and GBW bowls and their imitations together with ‘Aphek’ bowls and platters. The closed vessels include eight juglets (Fig. 3.64:8), one apparently with a drilled hole (Fig. 3.64:9, hole not illustrated), eight amphoriskoi, some burnished (Fig. 3.64:10– 12), three ridge-necked teapots, a small jar and a large jar. Locus 279. A cluster of vessels in Room D contained a red-burnished knobbed bowl, two ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls and a burnt jar of red gritty ware. Locus 280. Toward the southern wall of Room D were a rim sherd of an S-shaped bowl, resembling a GBW bowl in shape, made of a fine, light-colored fabric of unknown provenance (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:40), together with an orange-ware amphoriskos. Locus 281. Near the steps down into Room D was another example of a typical EB IB funerary kit comprising a cup-bowl, a hemispherical bowl, a GBW bowl, a juglet, an amphoriskos and a teapot. A metal blade with rivets still in place was also recovered here (see Chapter 9). Locus 282. Between the stone courses of an apparent curved wall on the eastern side of Room D were a crude, miniature conical cup-bowl of unusual shape, used as a lamp (see Fig. 3.3:9), and a juglet. Locus 284. This locus represents a funerary kit comprising a GBW bowl, a juglet and an amphoriskos.

144

SHELLEY SADEH

1

2 5 3

6 4

7

8

9

10

11

12 0

10

Fig. 3.64. Cave 562, L271: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

‘Aphek’ bowl

3502.3

Fine, dark brown, metallic-like, thin walls

2

‘Aphek’ bowl

3502.2

Fine, dark brown, metallic-like, thin walls

3

‘Aphek’ bowl

3473.2

Fine, dark brown, metallic-like, thin walls

4

Carinated bowl

3495

Fine, dark brown, metallic-like, red slip on exterior

5

GBW bowl and top of pedestal

3471

Beige, gray core, gray slip(?)

6

‘Pseudo’ GBW bowl

3502.4

Light orange, light weight, many voids

7

Platter-bowl

3513.2

Red slip on exterior

8

Juglet

3468.1

Fine, red slip

9

Juglet

3516

Orange, red slip

10

Amphoriskos

3514

Fine, light brown, red slip

11

Amphoriskos

3453

Light brown, red slip

12

Amphoriskos

3468.2

Fine, light brown, red slip

145

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

Locus 286 (Fig. 3.65). Near the eastern wall of Room D were fragmentary EB IB vessels of the typical assemblage, noteworthy among which are an ‘Aphek’ bowl, a large number of GBW vessels, at least half of them of the ‘pseudo’ GBW type, a red-burnished platter and a small holemouth vessel of beige-gray ware, well fired and finished on a tournette (Fig. 3.65), together with many beads.

0

5

Fig. 3.65. Small holemouth jar,

beige-gray ware, well-fired Locus 287 (Fig. 3.66). On the floor on the western side of (Cave 562, L286, B3541.3). Room D was a fragmentary EB IB assemblage consisting of many GBW bowls together with a platter with a small lug handle below the carination (Fig. 3.66:1) and many juglets––one squat and crudely made (Fig. 3.66:2)––and amphoriskoi.

1

2 0

10

Fig. 3.66. Cave 562, L287: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Platter

3548.4

Light brown, red slip in and out

2

Juglet

3545

Light brown

Locus 289 (Fig. 3.67). Vessels collected among the stones of a curved wall (see L282) included a ‘pseudo’ GBW bowl, a platter-bowl with a lug handle and red slip on the exterior (Fig. 3.67:1), two juglets and four amphoriskoi. Three of the amphoriskoi have lug handles on the shoulder: a small globular vessel of light brown ware (Fig. 3.67:2), an intact example of fine, light brown ware with a deliberately drilled hole (Fig. 3.67:3) and a large amphoriskos of fine, light-colored ware with a slight omphalos base (Fig. 3.67:4). Petrographic analysis of an example similar to the latter, with an omphalos base, from Tinshemet (Brink and Grosinger 2004: Fig. 3:6), indicated a provenance near Tell el-Far‘ah N. A ridged-neck, carinated, red-burnished teapot (Fig. 3.67:5) of similar ware to the latter amphoriskos, may also have been imported from the east. Locus 290. On the southern side of Room D, this locus represents a typical funerary kit of a GBW bowl, an orange-ware ‘imitation’ GBW bowl, one juglet and two amphoriskoi.

146

SHELLEY SADEH

1

2

4

3

5

0

10

Fig. 3.67. Cave 562, L289: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Platter-bowl

3567

Light brown, red slip on exterior

2

Amphoriskos

3572

Light brown

3

Amphoriskos

3569

Fine, light brown

4

Amphoriskos

3573

Fine, light brown-orange, red slip

5

Teapot

3575

Fine, light brown-orange, red burnished

Locus 293 (Fig. 3.68). Near Entrance 5 into Room D was a ‘proto-Abydos’ jug with a cylindrical neck, made of fine, local orange ware (Fabric 1) and red slipped.

0

5

Fig. 3.68. ‘Proto-Abydos’ jug, fine orange ware, red slip (Cave 562, L293, B3577)

147

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

Locus 294 (Fig. 3.69). Near the entrance to Room D were a finely polished, rounded bowl of dark brown, well-fired ware similar to that of the ‘Aphek’ bowls (Fig. 3.69:1), and a fine, miniature knobbed bowl with a thick red slip (Fig. 3.69:2), burnt inside and on the rim. Along a line of stones (a wall?), clusters of vessels were discerned: (1) a cup-bowl, a ‘pseudo’ GBW bowl and a juglet with a double handle (B3599); (2) two S-shaped cups, a hemispherical lamp-bowl, a knobbed bowl, two GBW bowls, one ‘imitation’ GBW bowl and two ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls; (3) two ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls, a platter with a lug handle, a bag-shaped amphoriskos with lug handles and two small closed vessels. Several vessels found together included a crude juglet (Fig. 5.69:3), a fine delicate juglet (Fig. 3.69:4), a heavy globular juglet (Fig. 3.69:5), fragments of a juglet with a double handle (B3592), a heavy, miniature, bag-shaped jar (Fig. 3.69:6) and a large fineware jar (Fig. 3.69:7).

2

1

3

5

6 0

4

7 10

Fig. 3.69. Cave 562, L294: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

S-shaped bowl

3640

Fine, dark brown, red slip and polish

2

Miniature knobbed bowl

3588

Fine, light brown, thick red slip in and out, burnt inside and on rim

3

Juglet

3598

Crude, light brown

4

Juglet

3590

Light brown, red slip

5

Juglet

3589

Fine, beige, gritty, red slip

6

Small jar

3583

Light brown, heavy, red slip

7

Small jar

3586

Light brown, red slip

Locus 295.1 (Fig. 3.70). In the entrance corridor leading into Room D, a group of poorly preserved EB IB sherds included five ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls, one of them with a blackburnished slip, an ‘imitation’ GBW bowl of orange ware, a red-burnished platter and several rim sherds of closed vessels. Among these were also two sherds of Byzantine bowls.

148

SHELLEY SADEH

Another group of sherds contained several hemispherical bowls, a fine, shallow bowl of pinkish-beige ware with a burnished orange slip (Fig. 3.70:1), three amphoriskoi, one of them a large, squat, red-burnished amphoriskos of fine, light brown ware (Fig. 3.70:2), and fragments of one or two teapots.

1

2 0

10

Fig. 3.70. Cave 562, L295.1: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Shallow bowl

3609

Fine, pinkish beige, orange slip

2

Amphoriskos

3601

Fine, light brown-orange, red slip and burnish

Locus 297 (Fig. 3.71). At the lower level of the curved wall in the eastern part of Room D (see L282), clustered alongside a skull, were a fine GBW bowl on a fenestrated pedestal made of gray ware with a gray surface (Fig. 3.71:1), a crude juglet (Fig. 3.71:2) and a

1

0

2

10

3

Fig. 3.71. Cave 562, L297: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

GBW bowl on fenestrated pedestal

3617

Gray, gray surface

2

Juglet

3616

Crude, light brown-orange, red slip

3

Juglet

3619

Dark brown, red slip

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

149

fine juglet (Fig. 3.71:3). Nearby, two vessels were found together: a ‘pseudo’ GBW bowl (B3614.2) and a crude, misshapen juglet of light brown ware. Scattered in the locus were sherds of a knobbed bowl, a ‘pseudo’ GBW bowl, three amphoriskoi and a teapot. Locus 298 (Fig. 3.72). In the entrance corridor to Room D were a fine juglet with net burnishing on red slip (Fig. 3.72:1), a juglet of an apparently later type with a low loop handle (cf. Bet Yeraḥ tomb; Mazar, Amiran and Hass 1973: Fig. 6:9) and a hole drilled in the body (Fig. 3.72:2, hole not illustrated), and numerous beads. Nearby were four GBW bowls, a platter, an amphoriskos, a teapot and a red-burnished lid (5 cm diam.; Fig. 3.72:3).

2

1

0

3 10

Fig. 3.72. Cave 562, L298: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Juglet

3633

Fine, light brown, red slip, net burnishing

2

Juglet

3634

Fine, light brown, red slip

3

Lid

3625.3

Rounded base, red slip, burnish

Locus 300 (Fig. 3.73). In the north-central part of Room D was a concentration of two fine, S-shaped cup-bowls, one with horizontal red burnishing (Fig. 3.73:1), along with sherds of a knobbed bowl, four GBW bowls, rims of closed vessels and part of a cylindrical neck. Scattered nearby were numerous GBW bowls of all types, including a small complete example (B3627), a fine example made of beige clay fired to dark gray with a burnished, orange-red mottled slip (Fig. 3.73:2) and five ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls (B3654). Several different types of juglets included a crude, miniature, beige juglet (Fig. 3.73:3), a crude, heavy, lopsided juglet that cannot stand up (Fig. 3.73:4), a fine-ware juglet with coils visible on the exterior and red slip or red stripes (Fig. 3.73:5), a juglet with fire clouds (Fig. 3.73:6) and a large jug.

150

SHELLEY SADEH

1 0

10

4

3

2

5

6

Fig. 3.73. Cave 562, L300: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

S-shaped cup-bowl

3629

Fine beige, red slip and burnish on exterior

2

GBW bowl

3650.1

Fine, beige-dark gray, orange-red-black mottled surface, burnished; Petrographic Group C (No. 41)

3

Miniature juglet

3643

Crude beige

4

Juglet

3638

Crude light brown, heavy

5

Juglet

3644

Fine ware, red slip

6

Juglet

3645

Beige, fire clouds

Locus 301 (Fig. 3.74). In a burial niche in the floor along the eastern wall of Room D, the vessels included several GBW bowls, such as three beige-gray GBW bowls (Fig. 3.74:1) and a small GBW bowl with a gray surface that was originally attached to a pedestal (Fig. 3.74:2), along with two crudely made, misshapen vessels: a juglet (Fig. 3.74:4) and a jar with fire clouds (Fig. 3.74:5). Also in this niche were a gold ring and beads. Removal of stones to the north revealed fragments of an ‘Aphek’ bowl, a knobbed bowl made of the same material as ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls (i.e., light-weight, pockmarked ware), three ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls, an ‘imitation’ GBW bowl with red slip (Fig. 3.74:3) and four rim sherds of closed vessels. In the continuation of this locus in the northeastern corner of the room, was a cluster of fragmentary vessels: a fine, red-burnished cup, six GBW bowls, two ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls, a platter with red burnishing inside (B3659), a jug and four rims of closed vessels. Also in this part of the locus were numerous sherds of GBW bowls and closed vessels. Locus 302. A ‘pseudo’ GBW bowl was found below the stones that sealed Entrance 5 (B3658).

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CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

1

3

2

0

4

10

5

Fig. 3.74. Cave 562, L301: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

GBW bowl

3642.2

Beige, gray core

2

GBW bowl

3649.2

Beige-gray, gray surface

3

‘Imitation’ GBW bowl

3656

Light brown-orange, red slip

4

Juglet

3661

Light brown, red slip

5

Small jar

3648.1

Crude, light orange, fire clouds

The EB IB, EB IB–II Transition Funerary Assemblage from Cave 562 Most loci in Cave 562 represent the typical EB IB funerary assemblage, while some reflect the elusive EB IB–II transition phase, which does not appear in the settlement site of ‘En Esur (Yannai 2000, 2006, 2016); the burials from this latter phase appear to be concentrated near the entrances, without penetrating deeper into the cave (L113, L224, L231, L261, L293). In a few places, groups of stones seem to indicate the presence of burials enclosed by a row of stones (e.g., L152, L282, L294), as seen in Cave 561 (above), which contain particularly rich finds, such as the seal-impressed juglet (L152). Clusters of vessels, most clearly discerned in Room D where the burials remained undisturbed by the later MB IIA activity (e.g., L281, L290, L298), attest to the basic EB IB funerary kit of one hemispherical lamp-bowl, at least one juglet––perhaps the personal cup of each deceased––and an amphoriskos, with varying additions of other types of bowls (mainly GBW and variations), teapots and small jars, perhaps depending on the affluence and/or status of the interred individual(s). Small bowls and broken jar bases used as lamps were found in most loci. Clusters representing the transition phase contain various combinations of lamps, ‘Aphek’ bowls and various bowl forms made of the same ware, platter-bowls, platters and jugs with cylindrical necks, strap handles and vertical burnishing, made of nonmetallic ware (‘proto-Abydos’). As noted, these seem to concentrate near the entrances. It is noteworthy that in the same contexts with these apparently later features were GBW bowls of both the ‘classic’ and the ‘imitation’ types, as well as the ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls and ‘degenerate’ forms.

152

SHELLEY SADEH

GBW bowls are relatively common in this cave (16%; 40% of the bowl assemblage), of which over 50% are ‘imitation’ GBW and ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls, the former made of local orange ware (Fabric 1) and the latter made of pale, light-weight, pockmarked ware (with many voids; Fabric 3) and then treated with a gray or red slip, of which only traces remain. Juglets and amphoriskoi are the most numerous types of closed vessels (19% and 18%, respectively; see Table 3.1). No vessels showing Egyptian influence were identified in this cave, contrasting with the finds from Caves 548 and 567 (see below), although a number of vessels demonstrating a southern connection were present (e.g., vessels with red line painting on a white-slipped background, i.e., ‘pajama-style’), while others (e.g., teapots and amphoriskoi) were probably imported from eastern Samaria (Tell el-Far‘ah N) and the ‘Aphek’ bowls originating in the region between Afeq and Tell el-Far‘ah N (see above). Metallic and metallic-like wares are extremely rare, also contrasting with the finds in Caves 548 and 567. Most of the vessels, both fine and crudely made, were produced of the most common wares, which were recognized in all the caves: the local orange ware (Fabric 1), the beige gritty ware (Fabric 2), and the pale, light-weight, pockmarked ware (Fabric 3), the latter used to produce apparently non-functional vessels such as the ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls, teapots and even a knobbed bowl. Such a specialized line of funerary ware, apparently not functional as day-to-day utensils, suggests some kind of incipient specialization within the ceramic industry. A number of vessels, misshapen with exterior fire clouding, represent poorly made and poorly fired examples, perhaps also specially made for votive purposes. Very few of the vessels from this cave appear to have been made of two hemispherical halves joined together (‘dual-mode’ technique), a method apparently more common in the other caves and discerned at other EB IB sites (see above). This does not seem to have a chronological significance and must be attributed to the workshops that produced the votive vessels; noteworthy in this respect are the two unique and strangely shaped vessels made of the same local orange ware offered together in L147. An interesting phenomenon is the apparent use of some of the knobbed bowls, and at least one GBW bowl, for burning, as evidenced by their blackened interiors (in contrast to blackened rims of lamp-bowls). A relatively large storage jar was found intact near the cave entrance (L100), as in Cave 567 (L107.2; see below), perhaps connected with burial rituals or the domestic use of the entrance to the cave at some point in time. Cave 567 The material from this single-chamber burial cave (see Chapter 2: Plan 2.17) was well preserved, and a minimum of 985 Early Bronze Age vessels were recovered, many of these complete, almost-complete or restored vessels. Some clusters of vessels could be discerned, presumably representing the typical funerary kit, and these appear to have been more or less in situ. The bulk of the vessels can be dated securely within the EB IB horizon, yet some loci contained vessels diagnostic of the later transition period or the beginning of EB II, most of these apparently clustering in the central-east area of the cave (see Chapter 2: Plan 2.24).

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

153

Loci 107.2, 110, 111 (Figs. 3.75–3.77). In the area of the entrance to the cave was a thick burial layer containing many vessels of the typical EB IB burial assemblage. While the figures present the vessels in typological order, the following discussion attempts to single out the various phases and clusters of vessels. At the bottom of the steps (L107.2) were GBW bowls, a gutter-rim bowl, a miniature high-loop-handled juglet, amphoriskoi and a large jar (Fig. 3.75) made of fine gray ware. On either side of the entrance (L110; Fig. 3.76), numerous concentrations of vessels were recognized, numbering over 60 pieces that included 12 bowls, 14 high-loophandled juglets, 24 amphoriskoi, 8 teapots and 3 jars. The highest baskets contained a cup of metallic-like ware, a red-slipped knobbed bowl, a GBW bowl, a ‘pseudo’ GBW bowl, an elongated amphoriskos, an unusual teapot with horizontal basket handles (Fig. 3.76:15) and a net-painted jug (B2031), along with a bronze dagger (see Chapter 9: Fig. 9.2:1). These later types were probably among the final interments in the cave, dating to the EB IB–II transition period. The lower baskets in L110, down to floor level, contained a rich concentration of bowls, including one hemispherical bowl (Fig. 3.76:1), two knobbed bowls, one of crude gray ware with a dark slip (Fig. 3.76:3), and two gutter-rim bowls. In addition, this locus revealed an interesting assortment of small and miniature vessels, including a small knobbed bowl (Fig. 3.76:2), a small gutter-rim bowl (Fig. 3.76:4), a miniature juglet (Fig. 3.76:8) with a deliberate hole in the base, a small amphoriskos burnt black inside (Fig. 3.76:12) and a small teapot (Fig. 3.76:17). Also recovered from this locus were a variety of juglets (3.76:5–7) and amphoriskoi (Fig. 3.76:9–11), two of unusual shape with a high straight neck and pierced loop handles on the shoulders (Fig. 3.76:10, 11), jars (3.76:13, 14) and a teapot with a double spout (Fig. 3.76:16). On the floor level near the entrance (L111; Fig. 3.77), adjacent to L110, several concentrations of vessels representing individual funerary kits displayed a rich variety of types: (1) four vessels comprising a hemispherical bowl (Fig. 3.77:1), a juglet, a miniature

0

5

Fig. 3.75. Jar, fine gray ware (Cave 567, L107.2, B2024.2).

154

SHELLEY SADEH

1

2

4

3

5

6

7 0

8

10

Fig. 3.76. Cave 567, L110: selected vessels.

▲

Fig. 3.76 ► No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Hemispherical bowl

2104

Crude, orange

2

Small knobbed bowl

2093.3

Light brown-orange, red slip in and out

3

Knobbed bowl

2093.2

Crude, beige, gray core, large inclusions, dark red and dark gray slip

4

Small gutter-rim bowl

2110

Fine, orange, thick red slip in and out

5

Juglet

2147

Fine, light brown, red slip

6

Juglet

2120

Fine, light brown-orange, thick deep-red slip, light burnish also on base

7

Juglet

2150

Fine, light brown-beige, sandy, red slip

8

Miniature juglet

2145.1

Crumbly red-brown, hole drilled in base

9

Amphoriskos

2088

Light brown-orange, heavy, red slip, soot marks

10

Amphoriskos

2142

Fine, beige, red slip and polish also on base

11

Amphoriskos

2139

Crude, orange-brown, heavy, traces of red slip, fire clouds

12

Amphoriskos

2093.4

Red-brown, burnt black inside and on rim

13

Small jar

2138

Light brown ware, heavy, traces of red slip

14

Small jar

2136

Crude, light brown, red slip

15

Teapot

2080

Light brown, gray core, Petrographic Group A? (No. 42)

16

Teapot

2127

Fine, brown, fine grits, thick red slip, double spout

17

Teapot

2111

Orange, red slip and burnish

155

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

16 0

17

10

Fig. 3.76 (cont.). Cave 567, L110: selected vessels.

amphoriskos (Fig. 3.77:4) and a fine teapot; (2) a large knobbed bowl (Fig. 3.77:3) and a large amphoriskos; (3) two hemispherical bowls, one of them finely made with lipstick decoration on the rim imported from the Jezreel Valley (Fig. 3.77:2; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:45), one knobbed bowl, one juglet with red vertical stripes and three amphoriskoi. Also found were an amphoriskos of pale, pockmarked ware (B2051) and an intact, red-slipped teapot (Fig. 3.77:5). Locus 115 (Fig. 3.78). On the western side of the cave, among many complete and smashed vessels, some clusters of vessels could be discerned: (1) a lamp-bowl (Fig. 3.78:1), a juglet, three small amphoriskoi––one an amphoriskos-jar with a swollen, churn-like neck imported from the Jezreel Valley (Fig. 3.78:13; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:47)––and two teapots

156

SHELLEY SADEH

1

2

3

5

4 0

10

Fig. 3.77. Cave 567, L111: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Hemispherical bowl

2052.3

Fine, light brown, red slip and burnish inside and out

2

Hemispherical bowl

2069.2

Fine, white-beige, gritty, red slip outside and inner rim; Petrographic Group H (No. 45)

3

Knobbed bowl

2062.1

Brown, gray core, gritty, red slip inside and out

4

Miniature amphoriskos

2052.1

Fine, beige, sandy

5

Teapot

2059.2

Red slip

(Fig. 3.78:15); (2) a hemispherical bowl, a high-loop-handled juglet and two amphoriskoi–– one large and one small; (3) a hemispherical bowl, two juglets, three amphoriskoi (one miniature), three teapots (Fig. 3.78:14) and a small jar; (4) a fine hemispherical bowl (Fig. 3.78:2), one large bowl, two juglets and one amphoriskos; (5) a shallow bowl, two juglets, four amphoriskoi, one large (Fig. 3.78:10), and a miniature jar (Fig. 3.78:25). Notable in this locus (see also L116) is the number of incised, branch-like decorations comprising lines of punctures apparently representing vegetation (e.g., Fig. 3.78:8, 11), and the teapots with splayed rims (Fig. 3.78:15–17). Many juglets were produced by joining

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

157

two halves (e.g., Fig. 3.78:4), as were an amphoriskos, two teapots (Fig. 3.78:19, 20) and a small jar (Fig. 3.78:23). Some vessels had been deliberately holed (e.g., Fig. 3.78:6). Two teapots of an unusual, unwieldy squat shape with high, inclining necks (one has a splayed rim, the other is missing) and a lug handle to the side of the spout on the widest part of the body (each on the opposite side), are made of unusual, fine brown ware (Fig. 3.78:15, 16). Another unusual teapot has a cup-like rim (Fig. 3.78:18), while another has a ridged neck and high horizontal shoulders from which the spout rises (Fig. 3.78:21). The small jar in Fig. 3.78:24 is made of crude, dark brown ware and is very deformed and partially burnt (it may be of IBA date; see Chapter 4: Fig. 4.1:6). Noteworthy also are the unrestorable remains of a large jar (B2274, B2275). Very little evidence of GBW bowls was detected in this locus, and the few bowls appear to be lamp-bowls. This locus contained mostly closed vessels, with a relatively large number of different, mostly fine wares, unusual-shaped vessels and incised decorations, perhaps representing a concentration of imports. The ridged teapot in Fig. 3.78:19 was Fig. 3.78 ► No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Lamp-bowl

2266.1

Fine, beige, red slip in and out, soot marks on rim

2

Hemispherical bowl

2278.2 (+2213)

Fine, white-orange-pink, delicate, red slip in and out

3

Hemispherical bowl

2243.1

Fine, light brown, delicate, red slip in and out, burnt black inside (not on rim)

4

Juglet

2276

Light brown, light weight, gritty, lots of white grits and voids, traces of red slip

5

Juglet

2248.2

Fine, light brown, gray core, red slip, burnt on inside and fire clouds outside

6

Juglet

2255.3

Light brown, light weight, lots of voids, red slip

7

Amphoriskos

2214

Fine, light brown, red slip

8

Amphoriskos

2215

Light brown-orange, red slip, incised leaf on shoulder

9

Amphoriskos

2216

Fine, light brown, red slip

10

Amphoriskos

2281

Beige, gritty, red slip

11

Amphoriskos

2257.1

Fine, light brown, well-fired, red wash, fire clouds

12

Miniature amphoriskos

2286.1

Red slip

13

Amphoriskos

2266.3

Light orange, red slip; Petrographic Group H (No. 47)

14

Teapot

2277.3

Fine, orange

15

Teapot

2266.2

Fine, brown, red slip, light burnish

16

Teapot

2255.2

Fine, brown, black grits, red slip

17

Teapot

2241.1

Fine, light brown, gritty, small gray and white grits, red slip

18

Teapot

2264.2

Light brown, red slip

19

Teapot

2230

Light brown, thick red slip; Petrographic Group I (No. 46)

20

Teapot

2210

White, gritty, red slip and burnish

21

Teapot

2244

Fine, beige, gritty, red slip

22

Small jar

2288.2

Crude, dark orange

23

Small jar

2209

Light brown, red slip

24

Small jar

2248.4

Crude, dark brown, dark gray core, small red grits, burnt (IBA?)

25

Miniature jar

2288.3

Light brown, heavy, red slip, burnt

158

SHELLEY SADEH

1

4

7

2

3

5

6

8

9

11

10

12

13 0

10

Fig. 3.78. Cave 567, L115: selected vessels.

159

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

14

16

15

17

20

23

18

19

21

22

24

25 0

10

Fig. 3.78 (cont.). Cave 567, L115: selected vessels.

160

SHELLEY SADEH

imported from the Samarian Hills, and the amphoriskos in Fig. 3.78:13 originated in the Jezreel Valley (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:46, 47, respectively). Locus 116 (Fig. 3.79). This locus is basically the continuation of L115 to the east and is also characterized by the presence of only a few bowls. Clusters of vessels included (1) one bowl, two juglets, two amphoriskoi and two teapots; (2) two knobbed bowls, a hammer-rim bowl made of white-beige ware with a ridge in place of the carination (Fig. 3.79:1), which can be considered a ‘degenerate’ variation of the typical GBW carinated bowl, two juglets and four amphoriskoi; (3) one deep incurved bowl with a hammer-rim (Fig. 3.79:2), two juglets and four amphoriskoi. Other notable vessels include GBW-shaped bowls of local orange-brown clay (Fabric 1) that can be considered ‘imitations’ (B2186.2, B2225), a squat juglet (Fig. 3.79:3), a number of vessels made of two halves (Fig. 3.79:4, 6), a large amphoriskos with a large drilled hole (Fig. 3.79:5), an amphoriskos decorated with a vegetal pattern of incised punctures (Fig. 3.79:7), an amphoriskos with unusual, down-turned ledge handles (Fig. 3.79:8), one teapot with a ridged neck and an incised vegetal pattern (Fig. 3.79:9) and three with splayed rims (Fig. 3.79:10–12) resembling one in L115 (see Fig. 3.78:17). The small drop-shaped jar in Fig. 3.79:13, made of brown sandy fabric, was probably an Egyptian import, like the drop-shaped jar in L154 (see Fig. 3.92:4).

Fig. 3.79 ► No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

‘Degenerate’ GBW bowl

2282.1

White-beige, crude crumbly

2

Deep incurved bowl

2283.1

Red slip

3

Juglet

2221

Light brown, gritty, orange-red slip, fire clouds

4

Juglet

2268

Fine, orange, red slip

5

Amphoriskos

2290.2

Light brown-orange, red slip

6

Amphoriskos

2206

Fine, light brown-orange, red slip

7

Amphoriskos

2283.3

Red slip, incisions around shoulder

8

Amphoriskos

2226.1

Brown, red slip

9

Teapot

2269

Light brown-beige, red slip, incisions on ridge, handles and shoulder

10

Teapot

2228

Fine, orange, red slip

11

Teapot

2236

Fine, light brown-orange, red slip

12

Teapot

2223

Fine, light brown, red slip

13

Small jar

2200.1

Brown, sandy, crumbly, red slip

161

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

1

2

8

7

6

5

11

4

3

9

10

13

12 0

10

Fig. 3.79. Cave 567, L116: selected vessels.

162

SHELLEY SADEH

Locus 118 (Fig. 3.80). West of L116 lay a small, deep, S-shaped bowl with a rounded base, similar to EB II bowls (Fig. 3.80:1). This locus differs from L115 and L116 in the presence of many types of GBW bowls. Clusters of vessels include (1) two GBW bowls, a bowl with a ridge made of beige gritty ware, probably a ‘degenerate’ version of GBW (Fig. 3.80:2), two fine high-loop-handled juglets, a fine amphoriskos and a teapot with a splayed rim and two lug handles on the shoulders (Fig. 3.80:6, as seen in L115 and L116); (2) a degenerate GBW bowl with a ridge, a high-loop-handled juglet, two amphoriskoi and a fine, carinated, ridged-neck teapot with a double spout (B2340); (3) a GBW bowl with a pronounced hammer-rim, a fine hemispherical bowl with a beveled rim and four elongated knob handles resembling those of a gutter-rim bowl, treated with a fine, dark red polished

1

2

0

10

4

3

5

7

6

Fig. 3.80. Cave 567, L118: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

S-shaped bowl

2339

Orange red, red slip

2

‘Degenerate’ GBW(?) bowl

2331.2

White-beige, gritty, crumbly

3

Gutter-rim bowl

2344.2

Fine dark brown-orange, dark slip, polish

4

Deep incurved bowl

2347.2

Crude brown, dark core, heavy, large-medium grits, (‘crackled’?) red slip in and out

5

Juglet

2326

Crude light orange, gray core, heavy, red slip, soot marks

6

Teapot

2332.1

Beige, pitted surface, red slip or stripes(?)

7

Small jar

2325

Fine orange, red slip

163

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

slip (Fig. 3.80:3), two high-loop-handled juglets, five amphoriskoi and one ridged-neck teapot; (4) a fine knobbed bowl with dark slip (B2347), three GBW bowls, a large incurved bowl with (four?) elongated, turned-down knobs and a ‘crackled’ red slip (Fig. 3.80:4), two high-loop-handled juglets (Fig. 3.80:5), two amphoriskoi, one teapot, a red-slipped jar (Fig. 3.80:7) and a painted sherd. A bronze dagger (see Chapter 9: Fig. 9.2:2) and many beads were also recovered in this locus. Locus 119 (Fig. 3.81). In the continuation of L118 to the northeast, clusters of vessels included (1) one hemispherical bowl, three high-loop-handled juglets and one amphoriskos; (2) two GBW bowls, one rounded and of a rather clumsy ‘degenerate’ type with black

1

2

3

6

5

4

7

0

10

8

Fig. 3.81. Cave 567, L119: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Miniature knobbed bowl

2314.1

Fine, beige-gray, heavy, gray surface

2

GBW bowl

2343.2

Beige-pinkish, black-gray slip

3

‘Degenerate’ GBW bowl

2320.2

Light orange, well-fired, dark gray-black slip(?); Petrographic Group B (No. 48)

4

Base of bowl

2338.2

Light brown, sandy, red-painted ‘X’ on inner base

5

Juglet

2308

Fine, light brown, red slip with burnished net pattern

6

Juglet

2315

Light brown-orange, red slip

7

Amphoriskos

2812.2

Dark brown, many white grits, red slip

8

Small jar

2305

Fine, light brown, red slip, fire clouds

164

SHELLEY SADEH

slip (Fig. 3.81:3), two juglets, one produced of two halves, and an amphoriskos; (3) a small GBW bowl made of light brown-pinkish ware with dark-gray slip and a ridge at the carination (Fig. 3.81:2), four high-loop-handled juglets, two made of two halves, and four amphoriskoi. Other noteworthy vessels include a miniature knobbed bowl of GBW ware with a gray surface and a pierced lug handle that perhaps served to hang it (Fig. 3.81:1), the base of a bowl with a red-painted ‘X’ over white (self?) slip on the inner base (Fig. 3.81:4), a small, fine, high-loop-handled juglet with a high neck, a ledge at the joint and a red-burnished net decoration (Fig. 3.81:5), a juglet with a rounded base (Fig. 3.81:6), a small amphoriskos with a swollen churn-like neck and two knobs on the neck, perhaps a decoration or serving to attach a lid (Fig. 3.81:7), and a fine jar made of two halves (Fig. 3.81:8). Locus 120 (Fig. 3.82). After removing the balk in the south-central part of the cave, a number of clusters of vessels were discerned: (1) a fine, red-slipped, S-shaped bowl (Fig. 3.82:1), two high-loop-handled juglets, an amphoriskos with a rounded base, similar to the example in L119 (see Fig. 3.81:6), and a teapot with a splayed rim made of metallic-like

1 2

4

3

6

5 0

7 10

Fig. 3.82. Cave 567, L120: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

S-shaped bowl

2364.2

Fine, brown, red slip

2

GBW bowl

2351.1

Fine, light brown, gritty

3

‘Imitation’ GBW bowl

2367.2

Light brown-orange, metallic-like, red slip; Petrographic Group A (No. 49)

4

Juglet

2350.1

Light orange-brown, red slip

5

Amphoriskos

2350.3

White, many black grits, red slip

6

Miniature teapot

2353

Fine, light brown, red slip

7

Small jar

2350.2

Beige, light weight

165

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

ware; (2) an intact ‘classic’ GBW carinated bowl made of light brown clay (Fig. 3.82:2) and two additional such examples; (3) in the lowest level of this locus, a GBW bowl, two ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls and an unusual bowl in the shape of a GBW carinated bowl, made of red-slipped, metallic-like brown-orange ware (Fig. 3.82:3; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:49), a high-loop-handled juglet, two amphoriskoi and a ridged-neck teapot; (4) a high-loophandled juglet (Fig. 3.82:4), a large amphoriskos with coils visible on the inner neck (Fig. 3.82:5) and a small deformed jar (Fig. 3.82:7). Also noteworthy is a fine, miniature, ridgedneck teapot (Fig. 3.82:6). Locus 121 (Fig. 3.83). Further north into the cave, three almost-intact juglets, two of them relatively squat in shape (Fig 3.83:1, 2), a crude miniature jar (Fig. 3.83:3) and fragments of a cylindrical neck of a jug were recovered.

3

2

1

0

10

Fig. 3.83. Cave 567, L121: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Juglet

2355

Light brown-beige, gritty, red slip

2

Juglet

2352

Crude ware, red slip

3

Miniature small jar

2362

Crude, light brown-gray, small quartz grits

Loci 126 and 127.1 (Fig. 3.84). These loci contained sherds of the typical EB IB funerary assemblage, including a gutter-rim bowl and a GBW-shaped bowl with a slightly concave, overlapping base, made of beige clay with a ‘crackled’, dark red-black slip (Fig. 3.84:1), and a squat juglet (Fig. 3.84:2).

1

2 0

10

Fig. 3.84. Cave 567, L127.1: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

GBW bowl(?)

2744.2

Beige, gritty, crumbly, (‘crackled?’) dark red-black slip

2

Juglet

2750

Dark brown, red slip

166

SHELLEY SADEH

Locus 130.2 (Fig. 3.85). On either side of the central balk were found numerous smashed vessels, including a brick-red metallic platter (Fig. 3.85:1), indicating an EB II context, and a cylindrical neck of a jug with vertical burnishing on red slip, made of local brown-orange ware (Fig. 3.85:2).

1

2

0

10

Fig. 3.85. Cave 567, L130.2: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Platter

2400.2

Brick-red metallic ware, red slip in and out

2

Cylindrical neck of a jug

2400.1

Brown-orange, red slip, vertical burnishing; Petrographic Group A (No. 50)

Locus 131.1 (Fig. 3.86). In the northern half of the cave, on either side of the central balk, a layer of pottery sherds included a small, lopsided amphoriskos-jar with sloppily painted, vertical red stripes (Fig. 3.86), resembling two others from L166 and L266 (see Figs. 3.97:3; 3.107:3), and the cylindrical neck of a jug that joined with the netburnished body and strap handle in L267 (see Fig. 3.108:2).

0

5

Fig. 3.86. Amphoriskos, light brown ware, sloppy red-painted vertical stripes (Cave 567, L131.1, B2409.1).

Locus 134 (Fig. 3.87). On the western side of the central balk, below L130.2, two almostcomplete profiles belong to a fine red-slipped amphoriskos (Fig. 3.87:1) and a fine, redburnished miniature teapot (Fig. 3.87:2), both of elongated shape.

1

2 0

10

Fig. 3.87. Cave 567, L134: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Amphoriskos

2406.1

Light brown, red slip

2

Miniature teapot

2406.2

Fine light brown, red slip and burnish

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

167

Locus 135 (Fig. 3.88). On the eastern side of the central balk, below L131.1, scattered vessels included a fine, red-slipped footed cup with a string-cut base (Fig. 3.88:1), a fine amphoriskos with a rounded base (Fig. 3.88:3), an amphoriskos with a deliberately made hole (Fig. 3.88:4) and a squat, miniature amphoriskos with two ledge handles (Fig. 3.88:6). Clusters of vessels included (1) a small gutter-rim bowl, a classic, squat-shaped amphoriskos (Fig. 3.88:5) and two fine teapots; (2) at the lowest level, a group of vessels comprised two high-loop-handled juglets (Fig. 3.88:2), an amphoriskos, a teapot and a miniature teapot with four handles (Fig. 3.88:7); (3) around a child burial near the cave wall were one small and one medium-sized amphoriskos, a teapot with a splayed rim and lug handles on the shoulders (Fig. 3.88:8) and a relatively large jar, together with numerous shells.

2

1

3

4

5

7

6

8 0

10

Fig. 3.88. Cave 567, L135: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Footed cup

2410.1

Brown-orange, gray core, red slip in and out

2

Juglet

2495

Light brown, red slip

3

Amphoriskos

2494

Fine, light brown, red slip and burnish

4

Amphoriskos

2493

Light brown-beige, many voids, traces of red slip

5

Amphoriskos

2424

Fine, light brown, red slip

6

Miniature amphoriskos

2437

Light brown, red slip

7

Miniature teapot

2412.2

Fine, red slip

8

Teapot

2498.2

Red slip, also on base

168

SHELLEY SADEH

Locus 138. On the bedrock in the southwestern area of the cave, next to a pillar base, was a burial associated with a funerary kit of one GBW bowl, one teapot an undefined closed vessel, along with metal objects and many beads. Locus 148 (Fig. 3.89). In the center of the cave on the eastern side of the central balk, below L135, late material such as a metallic platter and other metallic-ware sherds (B2523) may have fallen from a higher level during cleaning of the balk. A large concentration of pottery toward the center of the cave contained a miniature, fine, knobbed bowl made of orange ware with a burnished gray slip (imitating GBW ware; Fig. 3.89:1), a hemispherical bowl, and a remarkable assortment of GBW bowls, both complete and rim sherds, including one with an apparently unburnished gray surface (Fig. 3.89:2), one with a gray-burnished surface (Fig. 3.89:3), a GBW bowl with a ridge in place of the carination and a fenestrated stand in GBW ware (Fig. 3.89:4) that matches a bowl in L260 (see Fig. 3.105:2). Alongside these bowls were two juglets (Fig. 3.89:6), a large, fine amphoriskos (Fig. 3.89:7), a miniature jar made of silty clay, perhaps with painted stripes (Fig. 3.89:11), and a large juglet-teapot with a unique ibex head sculpted on the handle and a design of red stripes and dots on a white wash (Fig. 3.89:9). Other vessels scattered in this locus included a gutter-rim bowl, the lower part of a deep, rounded bowl painted with black radial lines on the interior and red-slipped on the exterior (Fig. 3.89:5), a juglet, a teapot (Fig. 3.89:8) made of two halves with a squat body and splayed rim, like the examples in L115 (see Fig. 3.78:15), a teapot with four handles, a juglet/jug handle similar in size and ware to that with the ibex head, decorated with an incised pattern (Fig. 3.89:10), a small, delicate Egyptianized jar with at least one tubular handle near the rim (Fig. 3.89:12; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:54) and several unidentified metallic-like sherds.

Fig. 3.89 ► No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Miniature knobbed bowl

2562.2

Fine, orange-pink, gray slip, burnished

2

GBW bowl

2564.4

Gray, gritty, gray surface

3

GBW bowl

2564.3

Beige-gray, gray surface (gray self-slip?), burnished

4

GBW fenestrated stand

2587

Fine, gray, gray surface, traces of dark slip(?), fits with GBW bowl in Fig. 3.105:2 (L260, B3317)

5

Bowl

2523.2

White-gray, gray core, black-painted radiating lines on the interior (on white slip?), traces of red slip on the exterior

6

Juglet

2665

Fine, light brown, red slip and burnish

7

Amphoriskos

2563

Fine, light brown-orange, red slip

8

Teapot

2543.2

Fine, brown gritty, red slip

9

Juglet-teapot

2560

Fine, light brown-orange; red stripes and dots on white slip; Petrographic Group A (No. 53)

10

Jug rim and handle

2620

Fine, light brown, red slip, incisions on handle

11

Miniature small jar

2564.2

Fine, beige, silty, red vertical stripes(?)

12

Jar

2628.2

Beige-pink, gritty, red slip and burnish; Petrographic Group H? (No. 54)

169

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

1

3

2

5

4

6

7

8

9

11 12

10

0

10

Fig. 3.89. Cave 567, L148: selected vessels.

170

SHELLEY SADEH

The GBW bowls from this locus reveal a variety of types and sizes, including the ‘classic’ carinated bowls with hammer rims, bowls with a ridge in place of the carination, knobbed bowls and a fenestrated stand. Most of these bowls are made of the typical beige gritty fabric fired partially or completely to gray, with a plain gray surface (e.g., Chapter 6: Table 6.1:52, imported from the Jezreel Valley), while others have a burnished gray surface. A number of examples are made of local orange ware with a gray-burnished slip (i.e., ‘imitation’ GBW). Locus 149 (Fig. 3.90). In the center of the cave, on the western side of the central balk, below L134 and parallel to L148, was a large quantity of closely packed vessels, beads and several metal rings. It was possible to identify several clusters of vessels: (1) a small gutter-rim bowl (Fig. 3.90:1), a small, ridged GBW bowl(?) (Fig. 3.90:2) and numerous closed vessels; (2) a GBW bowl and several rims of closed vessels; (3) a GBW bowl, a juglet with a sooty exterior and two unidentified rims; (4) a GBW fenestrated stand made of light brown fabric with a dark gray slip (Fig. 3.90:5), a juglet, a crude, globular, high-loophandled juglet and an amphoriskos; (5) a miniature juglet, a small juglet and a fine, ridgedrim teapot with a sooty exterior (B2490), along with numerous unidentifiable sherds; it is probable that two additional juglets (Fig. 3.90:6, 7) and a fine teapot with a splayed rim and two lug handles (Fig. 3.90:10) should be associated with this last concentration; (6) a juglet, two amphoriskoi, a squat teapot (Fig. 3.90:11) like that in L115 (see Fig. 3.78:15), made of fine orange ware with a red-orange slip, and a small, squat jar of unusual shape and distinctive black clay (burnt?), which would appear to be of foreign influence

Fig. 3.90 ► No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Gutter-rim bowl

2584.2

Red slip in and out

2

Carinated GBW(?) bowl

2584.3

Light brown

3

GBW bowl(?)

2554.1

Beige-gray, gritty

4

GBW bowl

2554.2

Beige, gray outer surface

5

GBW fenestrated stand

2469.2

Light brown, red to dark gray slip

6

Juglet

2557

Light brown, traces of red slip

7

Juglet

2613

Crude, light brown, traces of red slip

8

Miniature amphoriskos

2611

Fine, light brown, red slip

9

Amphoriskos

2480

Fine, light brown-orange, red slip, soot marks

10

Teapot

2491

Fine, brown, red slip

11

Teapot

2482

Fine, light orange, red-orange slip, also on base

12

Teapot

2468

Fine, light brown, red slip, incised decoration on ridge, handles and around shoulder

13

Teapot

2484

Fine, light brown, gritty, many fine black and white grits, red slip, burnt inside and out

14

Small jar

2472

Heavy, gray-black (burnt); Petrographic Group E? (No. 56)

171

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

2

1

4

6

9

12

3

5

8

7

11

10

13 0

14 10

Fig. 3.90. Cave 567, L149: selected vessels.

172

SHELLEY SADEH

(Fig. 3.90:14), although the petrographic analysis suggests a local provenance (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:56); (7) a fine shallow bowl, a juglet of metallic-like ware of local provenance (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:55) and three amphoriskoi of different sizes. Other vessels worthy of note include what may be a ‘degenerate’ GBW bowl (Fig. 3.90:3), a ‘classic’ GBW bowl with a gray surface (Fig. 3.90:4), a miniature squat amphoriskos (Fig. 3.90:8), a large, red-slipped amphoriskos with a drilled hole showing signs of having been burned (Fig. 3.90:9), a teapot with incised lines on the neck and shoulders and a vegetal design on the handles (Fig. 3.90:12) and another fine, ridged-neck teapot, burnt inside and out (Fig. 3.90:13). One sherd of a small, closed, thin-walled vessel with net burnishing is of unknown origin (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:57). Locus 151 (Fig. 3.91). Below L149, to the west of the central balk, a burial in a pit hewn in the bedrock contained a funerary kit comprising a GBW bowl (Fig. 3.91), a juglet and two teapots, along with an earring and a shell.

5

0

Fig. 3.91. GBW bowl, fine brown ware (Cave 567, L151, B2581.2).

Locus 154 (Fig. 3.92). Below L130.2, a concentration of several vessels, including a gutter-rim bowl (Fig. 3.92:1), an amphoriskos with a pockmarked surface, holes in the base (made deliberately with olive pits?) and a red net-burnished pattern (Fig. 3.92:2), a carinated, ridged-neck teapot made of gray ware with an unusual black slip, also with a hole in the base apparently made with an olive pit (Fig. 3.92:3; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:59, imported from the Jezreel Valley), and an Egyptian, drop-shaped jar (Fig. 3.92:4) made of the same brown sandy ware with a flakey surface as the vessel in L116 (see Fig. 3.79:13; see also Chapter 6: Table 6.1:58).

1

2

3

0

4

10

Fig. 3.92. Cave 567, L154: an EB IB funerary kit from a burial pit in floor of cave. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Gutter-rim bowl

2618.2

Red slip in and out

2

Amphoriskos

2617

Beige gritty, many voids, surface pitted, base has large oval-shaped holes (from olive pits?), red slip, net burnish

3

Teapot

2623

Fine, dark gray, black slip (burnt?), thin walls but large white grits, a hole in base (from an olive pit?); Petrographic Group H (No. 59)

4

Small jar

2616

Brown, sandy, flakey surface, traces of red slip, burnt on bottom; Petrographic Group O (No. 58)

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

173

Locus 155 (Fig. 3.93). Below L148, on the eastern side of the cave, burials with many vessels and sherds lay around a large, flat stone on the bedrock. The vessels included a delicate, red-slipped hemispherical bowl (Fig. 3.93:1) and a GBW bowl, and a cluster of one bowl, two juglets––one of which was made of brown, metallic-like fabric with a low loop handle, indicative of a later date (Fig. 3.93:2)––and one amphoriskos.

1

2 0

10

Fig. 3.93. Cave 567, L155: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Hemispherical bowl

2634.1

Fine, brown, red slip in and out

2

Juglet

2627.2

Fine, light brown, metallic-like, thin walls, red slip

Locus 156 (Fig. 3.94). South of a row of stones near the western wall were a GBW bowl, a large amphoriskos and a tall neck of a jug with a handle from neck to shoulder (Fig. 3.94) that has later, EB II parallels in metallic ware (e.g., Greenberg 2001a: Fig. 14).

0

5

Fig. 3.94. Jug, beige, sandy ware, red slip (Cave 567, L156, B 2633.2).

Locus 157 (Fig. 3.95). North of the row of stones were several vessel clusters in relatively poor condition: (1) a juglet made of two halves and a miniature red-burnished amphoriskos; (2) a GBW bowl, a fine-ware bowl with an unusual round base and wheel marks, burnt on the outside (Fig. 3.95:1), a juglet and an amphoriskos; (4) three amphoriskoi and a ridged-neck teapot; (5) two hammer-rim GBW bowls (Fig. 3.95:2), a large, heavy, incurved platter-bowl with indented ledge handles (Fig. 3.95:3), a high-loop-handled juglet and a miniature jar.

174

SHELLEY SADEH

2 1

3 0

10

Fig. 3.95. Cave 567, L157: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Deep bowl

2630.2

Fine, brown-gray, mottled surface, wheel-made(?)

2

GBW bowl

3140.2

Fine, gray

3

Deep incurved bowl

3140.3

Crude, brown, heavy, gray core, red slip inside and out

Locus 161 (Fig. 3.96). Underneath an apparent roof collapse in the north-central part of the cave, typical EB IB vessels were found scattered over the surface, including, of note, a fine-ware teapot, red slipped with vertical red-painted stripes on the outer neck (Fig. 3.96). Locus 164. This burial layer, crushed below ceiling collapse, contained three high-loop-handled juglets and three amphoriskoi.

0

10

Fig. 3.96. Teapot, fine brown ware, red slip, vertical red stripes on neck (Cave 567, L161, B2741).

Locus 166 (Fig. 3.97). Below the burial level in L161, a cluster of vessels contained two GBW bowls, two ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls of light-weight orange ware, one with a gray slip (Fig. 3.97:1), the other with a cracked surface, probably the remains of a slip (Fig. 3.97:2), three high-loop-handled juglets, one of brown metallic-like clay, a small, fine amphoriskos, two high-loop-handled juglets, a fine piriform amphoriskos, an amphoriskos with crooked, wavy ledge handles made of light-weight orange ware with a cracked surface and red stripes (Fig. 3.97:3; perhaps an attempt at imitating a ‘pajama-style’ vessel), a ridged-neck teapot of orange ware and the lower body of an Abydos jug, wheel-finished, of brown metallic ware (Fig. 3.97:4). Locus 169. Below L166, an individual burial comprised a high-loop-handled juglet made of two halves and an apparently deliberately made hole, two amphoriskoi, one with two wavy ledge handles (similar to Fig. 3.97:3), made of orange ware with a cracked red slip, a squat amphoriskos with a tall neck of orange ware and a crude teapot of brown ware.

175

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

1

2

4

3

0

10

Fig. 3.97. Cave 567, L166: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

‘Pseudo’ GBW bowl

2780.3

Light orange, light-weight, gray slip

2

‘Pseudo’ GBW bowl

2780.4

Light orange, cracked outer surface (remains of slip?)

3

Amphoriskos

2788

Light orange, red stripes

4

Abydos jug

2780.2

Brown, metallic, wheel-made, red slip

Locus 170 (Fig. 3.98). Near the entrance to the (unexcavated) eastern room lay a large, brickred metallic-ware platter with red slip measuring (54 cm diam.; Fig 3.98:1), suggesting an EB II penetration, perhaps from the adjacent room. Along the eastern side of the cave, below a burial layer of smashed vessels (L164) diagnostic EB IB sherds included a degenerate variation of a GBW bowl with a rounded rim and a ridge in place of a carination, made of brown-orange ware with a black-gray surface (Fig. 3.98:2). Locus 171. In a niche in the southeastern wall of the cave alongside a single burial of a young individual, were a GBW bowl (B3071), an amphoriskos and a fine-ware teapot with a splayed rim (B2826), as well as the lower half of a miniature squat vessel of pink ware, apparently imported from the Samarian Hills (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:61).

1

2

0

10

Fig. 3.98. Cave 567, L170: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Platter

2807

Brick-red metallic ware, red slip; Petrographic Group I (No. 60)

2

‘Imitation’ GBW bowl

2806.2

Brown-orange, fine white and some large white grits, black-gray surface

176

SHELLEY SADEH

Locus 232 (Fig. 3.99). Below some large stones in the northeastern corner of the cave, a burial was accompanied by a small crude hemispherical bowl, a typical red-slipped, gutterrim bowl of brown ware, a GBW bowl with a black surface with a small juglet inside it (B3239), a platter-bowl (B3138), a juglet made of two halves (Fig. 3.99:1), a small fine amphoriskos, a teapot with a splayed rim, no ridge at the joint, red-slipped and burnished on the base as well (Fig. 3.99:2), a large jar or amphoriskos of fine beige ware, red slipped, with two ledge handles joined by a ridge (Fig. 3.99:3), and a miniature Egyptianized jar (Fig. 3.99:4).

1

3

2 0

4

10

Fig. 3.99. Cave 567, L232: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Juglet

3133

Brown, gritty, white grits, red slip

2

Amphoriskos-jar

3184

Fine, beige, gritty, red slip

3

Teapot

3251

Beige, red slip

4

Miniature jar

3115.1

Light brown-orange, light-weight, many voids, fire clouds

Locus 233 (Fig. 3.100). Near the northeastern wall, a cluster of vessels contained a small, hemispherical, red-slipped bowl with a profiled rim made of orange ware (Fig. 3.100:1), a shallow bowl of fine brown ware similar to the ware of the ‘Aphek’ bowls (Fig. 3.100:2) and used as a lamp, two ‘classic’ GBW bowls of beige-gray ware (Fig. 3.100:3) and sherds of an amphoriskos and a juglet. In a niche in the wall near the eastern entrance to the cave, a group of vessels around a burial comprised a small amphoriskos with a narrow neck and triangular lugs (B3132), a fine, ridged-neck, carinated teapot with a triangular handle and black fire clouds (Fig. 3.100:4) and part of another small closed vessel, probably a juglet.

177

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

1

2

3

4 0

10

Fig. 3.100. Cave 567, L233: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Hemispherical bowl

3213.3

Orange-brown, red slip in and out

2

Shallow lamp-bowl

3213.2

Fine, light brown, metallic-like, red slip outside, soot on rim

3

GBW bowl

3213.4

Beige-gray, gritty

4

Teapot

3148

Fine, light brown, many black grits, red slip, fire clouds

Locus 240.1 (Fig. 3.101). This locus number was assigned to a large holemouth jar or pithos found lying on its side in the northern part of the cave and used as a burial container. One half was in situ, measuring 0.6 m wide and c. 0.8 m long, made of dark-brown gritty ware with a black core containing many white inclusions. Pieces of the vessel were found in several nearby loci, including the base in L232 and part of the rim in L265.

0

5

Fig. 3.101. Holemouth jar, dark brown gritty ware, black core, large white inclusions (Cave 567, L240.1, B3380/3457/2356).

178

SHELLEY SADEH

Locus 242 (Fig. 3.102). This relatively undisturbed locus located along the western wall of the cave and sealed below a layer of white sediment from the crumbling roof, contained two levels of vessels, each c. 0.15 m deep, densely packed with no evidence of clustering. The vessels in the upper level were mostly crushed, and restoration revealed 27 complete or almost-complete vessels, including a cup, two bowls (one GBW), one platterbowl, eight juglets, ten amphoriskoi (two large examples) and five teapots. At a lower level were many intact vessels still standing, in-situ, among the burials. Noteworthy are a red-slipped, hemispherical bowl made of orange clay, with no evidence of soot at the rim (Fig. 3.102:1), a platter of orange, metallic-like ware, red slipped with a triangular rim and concavity below the rim (Fig. 3.102:2), two fine, high-loop-handled juglets made of light brown ware with thick red slip, made of two halves (Fig. 3.102:3, 4), the upper part of a juglet with an oval-shaped mouth and body (deformed? Fig. 3.102:5), two fine miniature amphoriskoi (B3269.1), an amphoriskos with a drilled hole (Fig. 3.102:6) and a fine, squat amphoriskos made of light brown fabric with a deep red slip (Fig. 3.102:7). An interesting set of four teapots comprised two contrasting pairs: a fine, ridged-neck example with a burnished, dark red-orange slip, made of two halves (Fig. 3.102:8), and a lopsided example of a similar shape, of crude orange ware with a cracked surface, carelessly made with no ridge at the neck, a crooked handle and poor-quality slip (Fig. 3.102:9); and, alongside these, a squat teapot of fine, light-brown ware with a red slip (Fig. 3.102:10) and a lopsided example of the same type with a very bent spout, made of light-weight, pockmarked fabric with a red slip (Fig. 3.102:11).

Fig. 3.102 ► No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Hemispherical bowl

3245

Fine, orange, red slip in and out

2

Platter

3272.1

Orange, metallic-like, red slip inside

3

Juglet

3249

Fine, light brown, gray core, red slip

4

Juglet

3267

Fine, light brown gritty, some large white grits, thick, dark red slip (also on base), polished

5

Juglet

3207

Fine, beige, gritty, thick red slip, oval-shaped body

6

Amphoriskos

3203

Fine, light orange, small white and large red grits, red slip

7

Amphoriskos

3247

Light brown, red slip

8

Teapot

3204

Fine, red slip and burnish

9

Teapot

3264

Light orange, cracked red slip

10

Teapot

3209

Fine, light brown, red slip and light burnish

11

Teapot

3268

Light brown, light-weight, many voids, red slip, also on base

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

1 2

5 4

3

7

6

8

10

9

11 0

10

Fig. 3.102. Cave 567, L242: selected vessels.

179

180

SHELLEY SADEH

Locus 254 (Fig. 3.103). This disturbed burial layer in the northeastern part of the cave contained parts of a GBW bowl and a stand that appear to join (Fig. 3.103:1), sherds of a crude miniature cup-bowl, a platter, a crumbled juglet and two small amphoriskoi. Two vessels were found together: a fine juglet of a burnt, dark gray-brown ware with black sooty patches (Fig. 3.103:2) and a miniature bag-shaped jar also made of burnt dark gray ware with a red-black slip (Fig. 3.103:3), suggesting they were burned together.

2

1

3 0

10

Fig. 3.103. Cave 567, L254: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

GBW bowl on stand

3291.2

Fine, beige (two parts)

2

Juglet

3312

Fine, dark brown, gray core, red slip, burnt, soot marks

3

Miniature jar

3310

Dark brown-gray, light-weight, red-black slip, burnt, soot marks

Locus 255 (Fig. 3.104). To the west of the pithos burial in L240.1, among typical EB IB vessels, was a deep platter-bowl with an incurved rim, at least one ledge handle on the rim (Fig. 3.104), and numerous repair holes.

0

5

Fig. 3.104. Platter-bowl, beige, gray core, red slip, repair holes (Cave 567, L255, B3379).

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

181

Locus 260 (Fig. 3.105). This burial level on the western side of the cave contained many intact and almost-intact vessels interspersed among the stones of a partition wall. Some vessels were still standing in situ, protected by the wall, and several small closed vessels were nestled in GBW bowls. Noteworthy among the intact vessels are a fine footed cup,

1

2 2

0

4

3

5

7

6

8

9 0

10

Fig. 3.105. Cave 567, L260: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Footed cup

3460.2

Light brown-orange, red slip

2

GBW bowl

3317

Fine, beige-pink, gray outer surface, traces of dark slip

3

Juglet

3462

Fine, light brown, deep red slip, also on base, burnished

4

Juglet

3301

Fine, brown, heavy

5

Amphoriskos

3307

Light brown, red slip

6

Amphoriskos

3306

Light brown, red slip

7

Small jar

3297

Fine, dark brown-orange, gray core, red slip, fire clouds

8

Small jar

3298

Light brown, light-weight, gritty, many voids, traces of red slip

9

Small jar

3299

Fine, brown, red slip

182

SHELLEY SADEH

lacking the rim, with a rounded base (Fig. 3.105:1), a miniature hemispherical bowl of fine thin ware, although crudely shaped (of local ware, see Chapter 6: Table 6.1:63), a finely made GBW bowl of beige clay with a gray surface and traces of a dark slip (Fig. 3.105:2), which may have been attached to a pedestal stand (see L148; Fig. 3.89:4), a fine juglet made of two halves, with a wheel-finished neck and a dark red, polished slip also on the base (Fig. 3.105:3), a carinated juglet of fine, heavy ware (Fig. 3.105:4), a small juglet, burnt on the interior, also made of fine heavy ware (B3302), found inside a (broken) GBW bowl, a roughly shaped amphoriskos of sandy ware made of two halves (B3303), also found inside a GBW bowl, a small red-slipped, globular amphoriskos with two wavy ledge handles (Fig. 3.105:5), a small, red-slipped, globular amphoriskos (Fig. 3.105:6) and a fine piriform jar with black fire clouds (Fig. 3.105:7). A small, red-slipped, lopsided jar (Fig. 567.31:8) made of light-weight, pockmarked ware was found together with a large red-slipped jar (Fig. 567.31:9) made of fine brown ware. Locus 262 (Fig. 3.106). Below L254, in the central-eastern part of the cave, several intact or almost-intact vessels were recovered, including a GBW bowl of fine, beige gritty ware, burnt on the exterior (Fig. 3.106:1), a miniature globular amphoriskos made of crude, light orange ware (Fig. 3.106:2), a globular teapot also made of crude, light orange ware (B3376), and a miniature bag-shaped jar made of the same ware but red slipped (Fig. 3.106:3). Sherds of three juglets and two amphoriskoi were also recovered.

2

1 0

3 10

Fig. 3.106. Cave 567, L262: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

GBW bowl

3375

Light brown-beige, gritty, burnt on the exterior

2

Miniature amphoriskos

3336

Crude, light brown-orange

3

Miniature jar

3335

Crude, light brown-orange, red slip

Locus 266 (Fig. 3.107). In the central-western part of the cave, a cluster of vessels contained the remains of a GBW bowl, several high-loop-handled juglets, including a miniature example (B3410) and a small example of white-beige ware (B3411) found inside part of a larger vessel, a squat juglet made of light orange, light-weight, pockmarked ware (Fig. 3.107:1), a burnt juglet (B3413) and the lower part of a small holemouth jar made of similar ware to that of the large pithos in L240.1. Nearby, a fine red-slipped juglet (Fig. 3.107:2) was found together with a miniature, red-slipped juglet (B3420.3), both made of fine lightbrown ware. A lopsided juglet made of heavy, light-brown, crumbly ware with red-painted vertical stripes (Fig. 3.107:3), similar to the amphoriskos in Fig. 3.86, was found at a very low level.

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

2

1

183

3 0

10

Fig. 3.107. Cave 567, L266: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Juglet

3472

Crude, light orange, light weight, red slip

2

Juglet

3420.2

Light brown, large white grits, red slip

3

Juglet

3438

Light brown, heavy, crumbly, red-painted vertical stripes

Locus 267 (Fig. 3.108). Alongside L262, two miniature, red-slipped, S-shaped bowls and a large amphoriskos were found together (B3478), and nearby was a crude, globular, redslipped juglet made of light orange ware (Fig. 3.108:1) as well as an earring and beads. Another cluster included a high-loop-handled juglet and a teapot, both of fine brown ware, and several sherds of a ‘proto-Abydos’ jug with a net-burnished design (Fig. 3.108:2)––its cylindrical neck was recovered in L131.1 (see above)

1 2 0

10

Fig. 3.108. Cave 567, L267: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1 2

Juglet

3479

Crude, light brown-orange, red slip

Jug

3396

Two sherds, fine brown, red slip, net burnish on body

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Locus 270 (Fig. 3.109). In the north-central part of the cave, burials in pits or depressions in the bedrock included EB IB vessels, noteworthy of which are a fine, footed cup-goblet of light brown ware with a thick, polished red slip (Fig. 3.109:1), a small lopsided juglet made of crude beige ware (Fig. 3.109:2), a small bag-shaped amphoriskos with two wavy ledge handles made of crude orange ware (Fig. 3.109:3), and two small teapots with a splayed rim––one made of fine, light brown ware, the other of beige ware (B3464).

1

3

2 0

10

Fig. 3.109. Cave 567, L270: selected vessels. No.

Type

Basket

Description

1

Cup-goblet

3440

Fine, light brown-orange, fine white grits, thick red slip; Petrographic Group A (No. 64)

2

Juglet

3480.2

Crude, beige

3

Amphoriskos

3480.1

Crude, orange, red slip

The EB IB, EB IB–II Transition/Beginning of EB II Funerary Assemblage from Cave 567 Cave 567 was the best-preserved of the four caves, and among the 985 vessels, a large number were well-preserved and largely intact, many of them still standing more-or-less in situ. Thus, it is possible to distinguish concentrations or clusters of vessels that attest to individual funerary kits or offerings for several associated interments (e.g., Loci 110, 115, 116, 118, 119, 149, 151, 171, 233, 267). Most of these clusters clearly comprise various combinations of the typical, well-known EB IB votive vessels: small hemispherical bowls, both fine and crude, often used as lamps; knobbed and gutter-rim bowls of various sizes; GBW bowls of the typical carinated type and/or various imitations thereof; deep incurved bowls with ledge handles; small, high-loop-handled juglets; amphoriskoi of various sizes and shapes; small teapots of different shapes; and the often crude, lopsided jars of various sizes. In general, the funerary kits contain several closed vessels to each open bowl, sometimes nestled within a GBW bowl. In this cave, GBW bowls are very common (76% of the bowls), as compared to the other caves (e.g., 17% in Cave 548); however, ‘imitation’ and ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls are much less frequent (5% of the GBW bowls) than in the other caves (e.g., 50% of the GBW bowls in Cave 562; see Table 3.2). Notable in this respect is the relatively large number of an apparently ‘degenerate’ type of GBW, usually made of the typical beige ware fired to gray, but rounded in shape with an everted rim, without a carination, in place of which a raised

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ridge was often attached at mid-body ‘as if’ carinated. Platters are few (c. 2% of the bowls) compared to Cave 548 (29%); juglets are the most numerous closed vessels (26% of the assemblage), followed closely by the amphoriskoi (24% see Table 3.1). Large jars and pithoi are rare; the remains of only about five such vessels were discerned. A few small closed vessels show signs of having been burned, and one GBW bowl was burnt on the exterior, not on the interior, as in Cave 562. It is interesting that, in this cave, certain features tend to cluster together, perhaps indicating burial assemblages originating in the same potter’s workshop; for example, in L110 is a large cluster of miniature vessels, in L115 and L116 are at least five incised vessels with similar vegetal patterns and several teapots of a particular shape, and in L154 are two vessels with holes made with olive pits(?) seemingly intentionally inserted into the base to create a deliberate hole and render the vessels unusable. There are also groupings of several vessel types made of the same ware (e.g., L262), and several vessels of the same type and shape but made of different wares, one fine and one low-quality (e.g., L242), all certainly a manifestation of acquisition behavior. The EB IB phase represented by the burial assemblages in Cave 567 resembles, for the most part, that uncovered in excavations at the habitation site of ‘En Esur (Yannai 2006), in the final occupation before the site was abandoned. However, the sporadic appearance of metallic-like wares and platters and ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs without any clear stratigraphy or separation––features not present in the occupation strata at the nearby site––indicate a somewhat later phase for some of the burials, extending into the EB IB–II transition period. Perhaps only a ‘spatial’ stratigraphy can be discerned, the distribution of the transitionperiod elements extending from the southern entrance northward into the center of the cave (Loci 110, 131.1, 148, 155, 156, 166). The distribution of the few latest, EB II vessels (metallic platters and Abydos jugs), some in an upper layer of silty sediment (Loci 130.2, 148, 166, 170, 242), clusters around the eastern entrance to another room and leads in a straight line to the western wall (see Chapter 2: Plan 2.24). Petrographic analyses (see Chapter 6) indicate that some of the ridged-neck teapots were brought from the Samarian Hills (probably the area of Tell el-Far‘ah N), as were some of the vessels made of metallic-like ware, although it is noteworthy that others were of local manufacture, suggesting that already prior to the wide spatial distribution of the NCMW, this ware was being copied and experimented with in other parts of the country. Some of the GBW bowls and small closed vessels were brought from the Jezreel Valley. A number of Egyptian and Egyptianized vessels are present in the assemblage (see Fig. 3.21), consistent with the late EB IB date of the material, including the drop-shaped jar (L154) imported from Egypt and similar to examples from the south of the country (e.g., ‘En Besor, see above), another of similar shape and made of the same dark brown, silty fabric with a flakey surface (L116), the fine, thin-walled Egyptianized jar with a tubular handle (L148) and a miniature jar made of the local, pockmarked ware (L232). A vessel of unusual shape and black fabric (L149) may also be of foreign influence. The six or seven examples of line-painted vessels may have been imported from the Jordan Valley, as has been indicated by petrographic studies of such vessels at other sites (see, e.g., Golani 2003:99), or may also be local imitations.

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Diachronic Trends in the Pottery Assemblages from the Four Burial Caves: EB IB through the EB IB–II Transition and into EB II The typological breakdown of the ceramic assemblages of each cave presented in Tables 3.1 and 3.2 suggests that the relative frequencies of vessel types have chronological significance, and diachronic trends can be discerned (Figs. 3.110–117). While the burials in each cave began toward the end of EB IB, when the nearby site was still inhabited, simple frequency seriation (see, e.g., Bortolini 2017:655–657) indicates that each cave was most intensely utilized within a specific time span, with some intermittent reuse in EB II, and then ceased. Thus, based on this seriation analysis of the ceramic assemblages, the four caves can be positioned in an overlapping chronological sequence spanning the period from the end of EB IB to the beginning of EB II in the following sequence: 561, 567, 562, 548. Despite the small assemblage from Cave 561, it represents a typical EB IB funerary assemblage, corresponding with the domestic assemblage from Stratum II at ‘En Esur (Yannai 2006), apart from an elusive, somewhat later phase than can perhaps be discerned in the uppermost levels that contained an EB II-type ledge-rim bowl and fine, wheelfinished hemispherical bowls. Due to the small, problematic sample (see above), this cave is not used in most of the seriation analyses. The bulk of the ceramic material from Cave 567 seems to fall within the late EB IB, equivalent to the end of the Stratum II settlement at ‘En Esur. In this cave, continuity into a later phase, following the abandonment of the Stratum II settlement of ‘En Esur, can also be discerned to a small extent and is to be attributed to the EB IB–II transition phase. These loci seem to be concentrated near the southern entrance leading to the central part of the cave, without penetrating much deeper. A few distinct loci and some sporadic vessels of EB II date can also be recognized in this cave near the eastern (unexcavated) opening to another room and spreading westward (see Chapter 2: Plan 2.24). The relative frequencies indicate that the greatest number of GBW bowls originated in this cave, mostly ‘classic’ GBW bowls with few ‘imitations’ (Figs. 3.110, 3.111). The still relatively few ‘Aphek’ bowls, platter-bowls (‘proto-platters’), platters, cylindrical-necked ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs and metallic-like (‘proto-metallic’) wares indicate a somewhat early position at the beginning of the EB IB–II transition sequence (Figs. 3.113–3.117). A sporadic EB II phase is noted. Analysis of the assemblage from Cave 562 seems to place much of the Early Bronze Age burials there at the end of the EB IB, as in Cave 567, with a more significant component continuing somewhat later into the EB IB–EB II transition period than seen in Cave 567, also concentrating near the various entrances. ‘Aphek’ bowls appear (Fig. 3.112), and the relative frequencies reveal an increase in platter-bowls and platters compared to Cave 567 (Figs. 3.113, 3.114), although they are still non-metallic. On the other hand, GBW bowls decrease to 40%, although these include over 50% ‘imitation’ and ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls alongside the ‘classic’ ware (Figs. 3.110, 111). This decreasing trend was noted by Yannai in his analysis of similar caves in this cemetery (see below). There is also an increase in cylindrical-necked jugs (Fig. 3.116).

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Most burials in Cave 548 seem to fall within the later, EB IB–II transition period, continuing into early EB II. Relative frequencies reveal a sharp decline in GBW bowls (to 17%; Fig. 3.110), which are also of smaller dimensions, contrasting with an increase in ‘Aphek’ bowls (Fig. 3.112) and platters (Fig. 3.114). Cylindrical-necked, ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs (Fig. 3.116), later-type juglets, jugs and mugs, and metallic-like wares are also more common (Fig. 3.117).

80

Cave 567

70

Cave 562

60

Cave 548

50 %

40 30 20 10 0

Fig. 3.110. Gray Burnished Ware bowls: % of bowl assemblage in each cave (earliest to latest).

60 Cave 567 50

Cave 562

40

Cave 548

% 30 20 10 0

Fig. 3.111. ’Imitation’ and ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls: % of GBW bowls in each cave (earliest to latest).

5 Cave 567

45 4

Cave 562

35

Cave 548

3 % 25 2 15 1 05 0

Fig. 3.112. ‘Aphek’ bowls: % of bowl assemblage in each cave (earliest to latest).

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12 Cave 567

10

Cave 562

8 %

Cave 548

6

4 2 0

Fig. 3.113. Platter-bowls (‘proto-platters’): % of bowl assemblage in each cave (earliest to latest).

35

Cave 567

30

Cave 562

25

Cave 548

20 % 15 10 5 0

Fig. 3.114. Platters (non-metallic and metallic): % of bowl assemblage in each cave (earliest to latest).

60 50 40 %

Cave 567 Cave 562 Cave 548

30 20 10 0

Fig. 3.115. Juglets and amphoriskoi: % of assemblage in each cave (earliest to latest).

CHAPTER 3: THE EARLY BRONZE AGE POTTERY

7

Cave 5 Cave 567

6

Ca 562 e5 Cav

5

Ca 548 e5 Cav

4 %

189

3 2 1 0

Fig. 3.116. Cylindrical-necked, ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs: % of assemblage in each cave (earliest to latest).

7

Cave 567

6

Cave 562

5 %

Cave 548

4 3 2 1 0

Fig. 3.117. Metallic-like (‘proto-metallic’) ware: % of assemblage in each cave (earliest to latest).

Comparison with repertoires and relative frequencies from other excavated caves in the ‘En Esur cemetery reveals similar trends. Dothan excavated one of the first tombs in the cemetery (1970), which contained a rich assemblage of c. 400 vessels. Although no statistical breakdown was supplied for this excavation, a rough approximation can be extrapolated from the data provided (see also Yannai 2016:87). The vast majority are typical EB IB funerary vessels, comprising two footed cups, bowls (15%), high-loophandled juglets (33%), amphoriskoi (23%), teapots (12%) and jars (2%). Several late-type jug/juglets and one cylindrical jug neck (Dothan 1970: Fig. 7:25) can also be discerned. The bowl assemblage (c. N = 60) appears to comprise mainly GBW bowls (c. N = 35), with a large component of ‘imitation’ GBW bowls (c. N = 20). While the percentage of bowls is relatively low compared to the four caves presented here, the predominance of the GBW bowls matches the situation in Caves 562 and 567, and the large percentage of ‘imitation’ GBW that in Cave 562.

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SHELLEY SADEH

Tomb 80 (Gorzalczany and Sharvit 2010) has a typical EB IB funerary assemblage, similar to those in Caves 561 and 567 and Dothan’s cave. Although no GBW bowls were found in Tomb 80, the reason was apparently not chronological, but rather related to economic factors––all the pottery is of local manufacture, and among the very few, mostly malformed bowls, an ‘imitation’ GBW, a deep incurved bowl and a platter-bowl are present (Gorzalczany and Sharvit 2010: Fig. 10:5, 7, 8). An isolated EB II burial interred in an upper level, above a roof collapse, was found in this tomb as well. Among the tombs excavated by Yannai in the 1990s, Tombs T1, T3, T20 and T40 also present an EB IB horizon associated by Yannai with Stratum II at the settlement (Yannai 1996; 2016: Table 1.1), and later ‘transitional’ burials. In Tomb T3, the later ‘transitional’ period was discerned in upper levels near the cave entrance and contained platters and ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs alongside the regular repertoire. Yannai recognized an even later phase in the transitional sequence in Tomb T40, without GBW bowls (Yannai and Grosinger 2000:153–156); if so, this would post-date our Cave 548. Yannai has proposed that GBW bowls decreased in size and frequency toward the end of the EB IB and disappeared before the end of EB IB (Yannai 2016:112–113; see also Braun 1996:240; Rotem 2012:136). The small EB IB assemblage of Cave 561 contains no GBW bowls, similar to the situation in Tomb 80 (Gorzalczany and Sharvit 2010), where the excavators attribute the phenomenon to economic factors. However, this does not seem to explain the case of Cave 561, where factors other than economics might have been involved. The quantities of GBW bowls in Caves 567, 562 and 548 (in descending order), and their appearance together with later transitional types (especially in Cave 548), clearly show that while GBW bowls declined in popularity, they continued to the very end of the EB IB–II transition period, at least in funerary assemblages, in this part of the country. This could be due to regional factors, as suggested by Zuckerman (2003:59), as the GBW tradition may have lingered longer in its home territory and disappeared sooner in more distant regions such as the Jordan Valley. The GBW bowls apparently disappeared at the very cusp of EB II (see above, Tomb T40). The phenomenon of what are here termed ‘degenerate’ forms of GBW bowls (e.g., with an added ridge instead of the carination) may also be a gradual development over time, as these types appear alongside the classic ones, especially in Cave 562. On the other hand, they may be a phenomenon associated with the funerary nature of the assemblages. In summary, while there was certainly some overlapping in the periods during which each cave was used for burial, we can assume, based on the relative frequencies, that, in general, Cave 561 represents the earliest phase among the four caves, dating within EB IB (with an intrusive EB II burial). The use of Cave 567 continued to the very end of EB IB (with negligible transition-period and EB II burial loci), with Cave 562 continuing into the EB IB–II transition period, and Cave 548 dating well within the transition period and continuing into the beginning of EB II (perhaps partly overlapping with Yannai’s Tomb T40; see above). Consequently, we can note a number of chronologically related trends in the evolution of ceramic types and their popularity during this time span (see Tables 3.1, 3.2, Figs 3.110–117). The GBW bowls decline (accompanied by a rise in imitations)

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while also decreasing in size and disappearing completely by the EB II; this contrasts with a rise in platters, first non-metallic, then metallic, which become ubiquitous in the EB II metallic ware. The frequency of gutter-rim bowls and deep incurved bowls rises within the EB IB–II transition period. They become shallower, with a sharper, more carinated incurved rim, evolving gradually into platter-bowls (‘proto-platters’) that coincide with the first appearance of platter shapes, still made in local, non-metallic ware. The small, thin-walled, wheel-finished hemispherical and ‘Aphek’ bowls also increase rapidly and continue into EB II. The small closed votive vessels, such as juglets, amphoriskoi, teapots and small jars, so characteristic of funerary assemblages and rare in occupation strata, maintain a more or less steady percentage in all the caves (Table 3.1, Fig. 3.115); most of the miscellaneous rims can also be attributed to small closed vessels. The popularity of the cylindrical-necked ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs rises notably, and they continue into EB II metallic ware. The number of metallic-like and metallic-ware vessels, though still small, is on the increase.

Conclusions and Summary: The Early Bronze Age Ceramic Assemblages in the Four Burial Caves The present study of the Early Bronze Age pottery assemblages from these burial caves illustrates the ceramic continuity and development over a transition period still not clearly recognized in stratified archaeological contexts. The study of the fabrics and the complementary petrographic analysis of a large sampling of sherd sheds light on the technologies and the social strategies of the pottery industries in this period and the interregional exchange of both artifacts and ideas. The attempt to isolate individual funerary kits opens a small window onto the beliefs and rituals that accompanied burial of the deceased. Relative Chronology The transition from the EB IB village culture to the full-blown EB II urban culture at the southern-Levantine tells is not, as yet, clearly represented in the stratigraphy or ceramic assemblage of any particular site. The seriation analysis carried out on the large assemblages from the four caves presented in this report (see above) illustrates the ceramic developments that took place over the period spanning from the end of EB IB through the transition period and into EB II. Much of the ceramic material from the four caves exemplifies the northern EB IB ceramic assemblage, characterized by gutter-rim bowls, knobbed bowls, GBW bowls, high-loop-handled juglets, rounded, squat amphoriskoi and elegant, ridged-neck teapots. The assemblages in Caves 561 and 562 are clearly of the late EB IB horizon (c. 3200–3000 BCE) seen in other caves in the ‘En Esur cemetery and known from the published domestic assemblages of this period found in the nearby settlements of ‘En Esur, Tel Qashish and Qiryat Ata. However, it seems that a significant number of burials in Caves 548, 562 and 567 postdate the abandonment of the Stratum II settlement at ‘En Esur. Already in the late EB IB at many habitation sites, prototypes of vessels that are hallmarks of EB II began to appear sporadically, such as various platter shapes, tall-necked jugs, channel-rim jars and

192

SHELLEY SADEH

metallic-like wares. Such sporadic appearances, already noted by Eisenberg at Tel Shalem (1996), are now being recognized more and more in recent publications of very late EB IB strata and termed, for example, ‘proto-platters,’ ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs, ‘proto-metallic ware,’ (e.g., Fischer 2000:208; Golani 2003; Paz 2006:283; Eisenberg and Greenberg 2006:347; Greenberg and Eisenberg 2006:126; Rotem 2012; Gophna and Paz 2017:638; Paz, Segal and Nadelman 2018:146). The beginning of the EB IB–II transition in the caves (c. 3100–2900 BCE) is evident in the assemblage of Cave 562 and even more so in Cave 548. It is characterized by such vessels as deep incurved bowls, platter-bowls or ‘proto-platters’, carinated ‘Aphek’ bowls, vertically burnished, cylindrical-necked, ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs and some metallic-like ware, their growing popularity evidenced in the transition period by the presence in some loci of platters and late forms of jugs. All these occur alongside the typical funerary components that continued in use from EB IB. That these new types coexisted with the typical EB IB types is clear in all the caves, not only in their presence together but also in the intermingling of forms and wares (e.g., the hybrid, vertically-burnished ridge-necked teapot-Abydos jug in L147). This transition is also evident in the nearby ‘En Esur Tombs T3, T20 and T40 (see Yannai and Grosinger 2000:155–156; Yannai 2016), and an ephemeral presence has also been detected in a few occupation strata at sites to the northeast, such as Bet Yeraḥ (Area EY; Eisenberg and Greenberg 2006) and Bet She’an (Rotem 2012) in the Jordan Valley, and at Abu al Kharaz in Transjordan (Fischer 2000) and, to the south, at Rishpon 4 (Gophna and Paz 2017) and Abu Ḥamid (Paz, Segal and Nadelman 2018). However, to date this transition phase is not evident in the pottery at the ‘En Esur settlement, which was abandoned at the end of the EB IB phase, nor at the nearby sites of Tel Qashish (apart from isolated fills?) and Qiryat Ata. In the present state of research, the continued presence of the former inhabitants in the area is only evidenced by the continuity in pottery development and burial traditions into the EB II at the ‘En Esur cemetery. Petrography An important contribution of this ceramic study is the large number of petrographic analyses that were conducted. The samples were chosen based on a number of criteria. One of our main objectives was to attempt to correlate the different fabric groups defined by eye during initial typological processing, based on color, texture, and visible tempering, with specific petrographic groups. This attempt revealed that, in general terms, the macroscopic division was consistent with the archaeometric results. Overall, the visibly defined fabrics include a very common local ware appearing in shades of orange (Fabric Group 1; Chapter 6: Petrographic Group A), which has also been identified at other ‘En Esur caves (see, e.g., Cohen-Weinberger 2010). This fabric was used to produce both fine, well-fired, well-finished vessels, and crude, crumbly versions of the same vessels. A light brown to beige-gray, gritty fabric was discerned, which was also very common and used to produce vessels in a range of shapes and quality (Fabric Group 2). Petrographically, this ware corresponds with several groups: Petrographic Group B, which is local; Groups G and H, which originated in the nearby Jezreel Valley or Lower Galilee; and Group I, from a Lower Cretaceous source in eastern Samaria (Tell el-Far‘ah N?) or the Mt. Hermon region.

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Our macroscopic examination was not able to distinguish between these four petrographic groups. Most of the GBW bowls were made of this ware, although the ‘imitation’ GBW bowls were made of the local orange ware. Other, less-common fabric groups identified by eye include a pale, light-weight ware that originally contained much vegetal temper (Fabric Group 3), treated with a poorly preserved red slip. This fabric was used to produce a range of vessel types, including what we have termed here ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls. Most of these vessels seem to have been virtually unusable due to the porous, crumbly texture of the fabric and may represent specimens produced solely for votive purposes. The few specimens examined are attributed to an unknown provenance (Petrographic Group N) or possibly to eastern Samaria, and they remain enigmatic. Also identified were ‘metalliclike’ wares, fired to a metallic ring (Fabric Group 5), which were revealed to be of both local and imported provenance. This identification is noteworthy, as the few so-called ‘proto-metallic ware’ vessels discovered at other sites and petrographically analyzed (e.g., Gophna and Paz 2017:638; Paz, Segal and Nadelman 2018:146) were all of Lower Cretaceous provenance. Metallic-ware vessels of a characteristic brick-red color (Fabric Group 4), which correspond to the classic EB II NCMW, were all of Lower Cretaceous–– eastern Samaria or Mt. Hermon––origin (Petrographic Group I). Thus, the petrographic analysis indicated several main sources for the EB IB and the transition-period vessels: the local vicinity of the site (Petrographic Groups A, B and other, minor groups), the Jezreel Valley or Lower Galilee (Petrographic Groups G and H), and eastern Samaria, probably the area of Tell el-Far‘ah N, and Mt. Hermon (Petrographic Group I). Roughly similar conclusions were reached in the petrographic analysis of another burial cave in the same cemetery (Yannai 2016:115–116), although the sample was small and the results were inconclusive. However, in EB IB burial caves further south, e.g., Ḥorbat Ḥani, Tinshemet and Sha‘ar Efrayim, the origins of the vessels were different. Apart from those of local manufacture, the vessels originated in the Shephelah (Taqiya Formation) and the Judean and Samarian Hills (Moẓa Formation), as well as Tell el-Far‘ah N (Cohen-Weinberger 2003:54–55; 2004:90). These results illustrate the regionalism characteristic of this period’s ceramic industries (see Yannai 1996; Ben-Ari 2010:89–91). The Tell-el-Far‘ah N ceramic industry was, already in this period, distributing its products far afield. Another aim in choosing the petrographic samples was to investigate the origins of certain specific types of vessels. For example, it was revealed that the classic GBW bowls originated in the Jezreel Valley, while their imitations were made of local orange ware. Ridged-neck teapots and certain amphoriskos types that were made of two joined halves (‘dual-mode’), which at other sites (e.g., Brink and Grosinger 2004) were imports from the Samarian Hills (probably the area of Tell el-Far‘ah N), in this repertoire were often locally produced of the same orange ware, using the same technique. Various kinds of ‘metalliclike’ vessels (‘proto-metallic’) were also revealed to be of local manufacture, alongside others that had been imported from regions of Lower Cretaceous sources in eastern Samaria. Vessels of rare or unusual shapes were often of local manufacture, while a very small number had been imported from Egypt and at least one example from the northern Syrian coast. Other vessels are of as-yet-undetermined provenance (see Chapter 6).

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The petrographic analyses indicate inter-regional exchange during EB IB, the transitional period, and into EB II, probably on a level of itinerate potters. Thus, in EB IB, little standardization is seen between form, quality and ware, reflecting local wares, local technological traditions, and the presence of numerous local industries and workshops; also, a broad range of types, both finely and crudely made, appeared in both local and imported wares. For example, while many of the GBW bowls and small closed vessels were brought from the Jezreel Valley region, others were manufactured (imitated) in the vicinity of the site. Some of the small closed vessels made of two halves and some of the ridged-neck teapots were brought from Samaria (Tell el-Far‘ah N), while others were produced (imitated) closer to the site. This is also the case with the vessels made of metalliclike ware, some originating in eastern Samaria, while others were of local manufacture, suggesting that already prior to the extensive spatial distribution of the NCMW, this ware was being experimented with in other parts of the country. The six or seven examples of line-painted vessels (‘pajama-style’) in the present assemblages may also have been manufactured (imitated) in the nearby Jezreel Valley, as one analyzed example suggests, although others may have been imported from the Jordan Valley, as has been indicated by petrographic studies of such vessels at other sites (see, e.g., Golani 2003:99). Thus, the study of the fabrics and the petrographic results indicate a rich exchange of ideas and a thriving local industry producing imitations. Some of these workshops may have explicitly specialized in poor-quality vessels for votive purposes, such as the ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls and others that seem unsuitable for regular use. Such workshops were not limited to the cemetery’s vicinity, as such crude votive vessels were also brought from a distance. The few imports from more distant foreign sources include several Egyptian vessels in Cave 567 (see Fig. 3.21), consistent with the late EB IB date of the material, such as two drop-shaped jars of similar shape and the same dark-brown, silty fabric. A fine, thinwalled, Egyptianized jar with a tubular handle was imported from the Jezreel Valley (see Fig. 3.21:7). A juglet with a seal impression may have originated in the northern Syrian coast (see Fig. 3.11). Excavations in other caves in this cemetery have revealed a wide range of vessels imported from distant regions, including Egypt, the northern Levant and Anatolia (see Yannai and Braun 2001). Ceramic Funerary Kits Attempts were made to identify individual funerary kits, which could be attributed to a single burial or several deceased buried together. Of course, the extremely poor preservation of the bones significantly impeded these attempts (see Chapter 11). It is evident that certain burials, both single and multiple, were enclosed by rows of stones, as in Cave 561. Unfortunately, in many cases the outlines of stones had been disturbed, and formations were difficult to discern during excavation. In other EB IB burial caves, as at Sha‘ar Efrayim in the coastal plain (Brink 2011), and at Ramat Bet Shemesh in the Shephelah (Yehuda Dagan, pers. comm.), spatially distinct groupings of two to three small funerary vessels were discerned.

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In certain loci in Caves 561, 562 and 567, clusters of vessels could be discerned, most comprising at least one lamp-bowl, a high loop-handled juglet, an amphoriskos and a teapot or jar. In Cave 567, it would seem that many of the funerary kits also contained at least one GBW bowl. In general, open and closed vessels appeared in a 1:2 ratio. Storage jars were not an element of the funerary kit. In the early EB II burial loci in Cave 548, most burials seemingly comprised a platter and at least one Abydos jug, with variations in other components such as juglets, amphoriskoi and teapots––continuing the earlier EB IB traditions. This phenomenon was also discerned at Ramat Bet Shemesh in the Shephelah (Fig. 3.118).

0

10

Fig. 118. Vessels from an Early Bronze Age burial at Ramat Bet Shemesh (photograph: Yehuda Dagan).

Thus, it would seem that, in general, the standard ceramic burial offerings that accompanied the deceased in EB IB comprised a lamp, a bowl and several small closed votive vessels, sometimes purposely holed as well as the deceased’s personal beaded ornaments and occasionally other valued objects (see also Ben-Ari 2010:82). Other concentrations of vessels, clearly not designating individual offerings, were observed, such as groups or stackings of the same vessel type (e.g., GBW bowls, ‘Aphek’ bowls, platters, juglets, teapots), perhaps to be attributed to burial rituals. In contrast, the presence of clusters of vessels with the same decoration (e.g., vegetal patterns in L115, L116) or made of the same ware (e.g., L271), may be the result of acquisition from specific workshops.

Y. Dagan and S. Sadeh, 2021, En Esur ( Ein Asawir) III (IAA Reports 68)

Chapter 4

The I ntermediate Bronze Age Pottery Shelley Sadeh

A number of closed vessels recovered from Caves 548, 562 and 567 can be attributed to the Intermediate Bronze Age (IBA)1 based on shape and petrographic analysis (Fig. 4.1). Most of them are isolated, out-of-context finds apparently representing single interments of the period. The teapot in Fig. 4.1:1, retrieved from a balk in Cave 567 (L111), is made of yellowish-white ware and appears to have a self-slip. It has a wide everted mouth, a squat body, a wide, flat base and two small loop handles, one of them connecting the spout to the neck. This vessel is typical of the Intermediate Bronze Age (Amiran 1969: Pl. 22), and very similar examples were recovered in another burial cave in the same cemetery (Yannai 2016: Fig. 5.21, and see there for further parallels). The petrographic analysis could not establish its provenance (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1: No. 44), and it is the only example of this ware among the petrographic samples. A large globular amphoriskos with an everted neck, two small loop handles attached from shoulder to neck and a wide flat base (Fig. 4.1:2), also representing a typical Intermediate Bronze Age shape (Amiran 1969: Pl. 24:19; Yannai 2016: Fig. 5.17:10–12), is made of beige, gritty ware. It was found almost intact below a layer of silt that had washed in through an opening in Cave 548 (L246), near an earlier EB II burial (see Chapter 2). After the cave’s initial use in EB IB, a breach was apparently exploited later on for single burials during both EB II and the Intermediate Bronze Age. A jar with a wide, flat base (Fig. 4.1:3), made of crude, pale, light-weight ware with a self-slip, was recovered from Cave 562 in a mixed context of EB IB and MB IIA burials (L224). This jar resembles, in shape, the amphoriskos in Fig. 4.1:2 and Intermediate Bronze Age vessels from another cave in the cemetery (Yannai 2016: Fig. 5.19B). However, it could be an EB IB vessel (see Chapter 3: Fig. 3.59:5). Petrographic analysis assigned it to Group N, of unknown origin (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1: No. 37). It should be noted that another sherd of the same Petrographic Group N from Cave 562 (L280; see Chapter 6: Table 6.1: No. 40), belongs to a vessel resembling a GBW bowl, made of light-colored, light-weight ware (see Chapter 3). The amphoriskos in Fig. 4.1:4, found in a context immediately below the roof collapse in Cave 548 (L140), has an elongated shape, unusual in the assemblages from this cemetery; it is made of crude, yellowish ware with traces of a red slip, and apparently originated in the nearby Menashe Hills (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1: No. 4). It is the only

Sometimes termed EB IV, EB/MB or MB I.

1

198

SHELLEY SADEH

2

1

3

5

4

6 0

10

Fig. 4.1. Intermediate Bronze Age pottery. No.

Type

Cave

Locus

Basket

Description

1

Teapot

567

111

2053

Yellowish white, small white and gray grits, white (self?) slip; Petrographic Group L (No. 44)

2

Amphoriskos

548

246

3288

Beige, gritty

3

Jar

562

224

3058

Crude, beige, light weight, many voids; Petrographic Group N (No. 37)

4

Amphoriskos

548

140

2461.3

Crude, yellowish, crumbly, gray core, red slip; Petrographic Group F (No. 4)

5

Amphoriskos

548

143.2

2658

Yellowish, sandy, light weight, many voids, traces of red slip; Petrographic Group N (No. 9)

6

Small jar

567

115

2248.4

Crude, dark gray-brown (burnt on one side), dark gray core, small red and white grits

example of Petrographic Group F, although the fabric is visually similar to Petrographic Group N. Similar elongated shapes are seen in Intermediate Bronze Age assemblages from southern Israel (e.g., Amiran 1969: Pl. 22; Yannai and Nagar 2014: Figs. 3.20–3.22). Another amphoriskos, also of Petrographic Group N (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1: No. 9), is spherical with a wavy rim and a rounded base (Fig. 4.1:5). This shape is seen in many Intermediate Bronze Age burial contexts in this cemetery (Yannai 2016: Figs. 17, 30A) and elsewhere in the country (see, e.g., Amiran 1969: Pl. 23; Yannai 1993: Fig. 2:112, 14; Getzov, Stern and Parks 2001: Fig. 3:6, without handles). As it was found in Cave 548 (L143.2) near the apparent Intermediate Bronze Age burial in L246 (see above), it could perhaps belong to the same burial.

CHAPTER 4: THE INTERMEDIATE BRONZE AGE POTTERY

199

The vessel in Fig. 4.1:6 originated in an EB IB context in Cave 567, close to the area where the teapot in Fig. 4.1:1 was recovered. It is included here because of its striking resemblance to a jar from an Intermediate Bronze Age context in another cave in the same cemetery (Yannai 1996: Fig. 7:3), also misshapen, with a bowed neck and a relatively wide base. The example illustrated here was burnt, turning the color of the ware to dark graybrown. Four of these vessels were selected for petrographic analysis in the initial processing stages, as they stood out in shape, ware and technology. Two are of unique and unknown provenance (Petrographic Groups F, L), while two belong to Petrographic Group N, also of an unknown source. It is noteworthy that a few EB IB sherds are also of Group N, and together they represent a rather enigmatic collection of vessels made of apparently nonlocal ware appearing in EB IB and the Intermediate Bronze Age. It should also be noted that similar Intermediate Bronze Age vessels from caves in the same cemetery are of local manufacture, based on petrographic analysis (Yannai 2016:162), and all originate in the typical shaft tombs of the period.

Y. Dagan and S. Sadeh, 2021, En Esur ( Ein Asawir) III (IAA Reports 68)

Chapter 5

The Middle Bronze Age IIA Pottery Shelley Sadeh

Introduction In Cave 562, an upper burial level dated to MB IIA1 was discovered some 0.5–1.0 m below the roof that had been removed by mechanical means prior to excavation (see Chapter 2). This level rested upon a layer of alluvial soil separating it from the lower EB IB burial levels (see Chapter 2: Fig. 2.39). The bulk of the MB IIA material was discovered at the center of the cave, in the areas labeled Rooms B and C (see Chapter 2: Plan 2.16), evidence that the rooms had already been joined into a single space by this time. There is a distinct distribution of the MB IIA pottery around the northeastern entrance (Entrance 4; L231, L247, L248), in the center of the cave (Loci 130.1, 152, 162, 193, 209, 274) and, to a lesser extent, near the two western entrances (Entrance 1: L107, L113; Entrance 3: L261). Thus, it can be deduced that the MB IIA population did not know of Entrances 2 or 5, and did not venture into the darker corners of Rooms A, C and D. The only exception is a small group of four vessels, including a bowl, two jugs and a juglet, from L285 near the southern entrance into Room D, all of which crumbled upon retrieval (except for the juglet in Fig. 5.7:9). This group apparently represents an isolated penetration into this entrance. Two lamps were recovered in the cave, one near Entrance 1 (L113) and the other very close to Entrance 4 in the north (L231; Fig. 5.9). A similar phenomenon can perhaps be seen in Tomb 4 of the same cemetery (Yannai 2016:189). Some 169 vessels were recovered in this burial level, most well-preserved and intact or crushed in place by sediment build-up (Fig. 5.1). Examination of the anthropological remains in the field resulted in an estimate of 15 interments (see Chapter 11: Table 11.3), yielding an average of 11 vessels per deceased (see Chapter 12: Table 12.1).

0

10

Fig. 5.1. Middle Bronze Age IIA pottery in situ.

The terminology here follows NEAEHL 5:2120.

1

202

SHELLEY SADEH

Typology The MB IIA material appears to be a homogenous funerary assemblage belonging to a burial horizon deposited over a relatively short time span. Most vessels were made of the two main local wares described above in the Early Bronze Age assemblage, one orange, the other beige to light brown. Petrographic analysis was conducted on only a few MB IIA vessels of seemingly unusual ware (see Chapter 6). The results indicated that all were of local production: a painted sherd of a jug (Fig. 5.6:4; Petrographic Group E), a thin-walled jar apparently burnt black (not illustrated; Petrographic Group D), and a simple, straight-walled bowl made of a pale yellowish ware (Fig. 5.2:2; Petrographic Group B). A few vessels were made of a red, hard-fired metallic-like ware. Almost all the vessels were wheel-made, with a few isolated exceptions; many were red slipped, and some of these were also burnished or polished; some jugs and juglets display vertical burnishing on the red slip. Many body sherds of jars and jugs bear combing on the outer surface. One jug shows black- and red-painted bands on a reddish surface (Fig. 5.6:3), and another jug sherd exhibits black-painted lines (Fig. 5.6:4). Juglets are the most numerous vessel type, making up c. 42% of the assemblage, bowls and jugs appear in equal frequencies (c. 25%) and jars are few (c. 7%; Table 5.1). Two Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglets are also represented (Fig. 5.8). The relative frequencies were determined based on the count of rims and large portions of vessels. Every effort was made not to count the same vessel twice, facilitated by the relatively small size of the assemblage. This ceramic funerary repertoire bears a close resemblance to burial assemblages from a tomb in the same ‘En Esur cemetery (Gophna and Sussman 1969: Fig. 4), tombs at Tel Burga, a site less than 1 km to Table 5.1. The MB IIA the northwest (Golani 2011), ‘Afula in the Jezreel Pottery Assemblage Valley (Gal and Covello-Paran 1996) and Tur‘an in Type of Vessel N % the Lower Galilee (Gershuny and Eisenberg 2005), Bowls and kraters 43 25 as well as to assemblages from sites further afield, Jars 11 7 Jugs 42 25 such as Tel Afeq on the ‘Akko Plain (Shalem 2008: Juglets 71 42 Fig. 9), and Tel Yosef (Covello-Paran 2001) and Tel Lamps 2 1 Dan Stratum XII (Ilan 1996b) in Upper Galilee, all 169 100 Total securely dated within MB IIA. Open Bowls (Fig. 5.2) Aside from several small hemispherical examples (Fig. 5.2:1), and others with straight walls (Fig. 5.2:2, 3), most bowls can be ascribed to the open rounded type (Fig. 5.2:4–10) characteristic of MB IIA in the southern Levant (Ilan 1996b: Fig. 4.104:1–6; Gershuny and Eisenberg 2005: Fig. 3:1, 2; Golani 2011: Figs. 12, 13, and references therein; Yannai 2016: Fig. 6.9). The straight-walled bowl in Fig. 5.2:2 was petrographically analyzed, and a probable local origin was posited (see Chapter 6: Table 6.1: No. 38). Several rim shapes are present, all common MB IIA forms: simple rounded (Fig. 5.2:5), inturned (Fig. 5.2:6), beveled (Fig. 5.2:8), everted and profiled (Fig. 5.2:9) and folded with a ridge at the bottom (Fig. 5.2:10). Flat or disc bases are the most common shapes, characteristic of MB IIA (Amiran 1969: Pl. 25); some disc bases are slightly concave (e.g., Fig. 5.2:8). A few low ring bases were also noted.

CHAPTER 5: THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE IIA POTTERY

2

1

203

3

5

4

6

7

8

9

10 0

10

Fig. 5.2. Open bowls. No.

Locus

Basket

Description

1

274

3484.2

Light brown, white grits

2

248

3168

Pale yellow, medium white grits

3

248

3170

Fine, beige-white, small white grits

4

152

2553.2

Fine, red burnish

5

113

2235

Brown, many white grits, soot marks

6

113

2171.2

Light brown, white grits

7

159.1

2669

Orange, red slip

8

261

3444

Light brown, small white grits

9

276

3520

Dark brown, small white and large gray grits

10

261

3387

Orange, gray core, small white grits

Carinated and S-Shaped Bowls (Fig. 5.3) Only two profiles of such bowls were recovered, and a few other sherds can be assigned to these types. The relatively open carinated bowl in Fig. 5.3:1 has a sharp carination, a disc base, and red slip inside and out, perhaps more characteristic of a later phase within MB IIA. A similar example was found in the tomb excavated by Dothan in the same cemetery (see Yannai 2016: Fig. 6.9:7). The S-shaped bowl in Fig. 5.3:2 has a piriform body and a

204

SHELLEY SADEH

relatively high neck with a ridge at the joint. The higher neck also suggests a later date within MB IIA. Such carinated and S-shaped bowls are a feature of MB IIA assemblages (Amiran 1969: Pl. 27:1–4), as seen at Tel Burga (Golani 2011: Fig. 12:4–6), Tur‘an (Gershuny and Eisenberg 2005: Fig. 3:3, 4, 9), and Tel Dan (Ilan 1996b: Fig. 4.104.10).

0

1

10

2

Fig. 5.3. Carinated and S-shaped bowls. No.

Type

Locus

Basket

Description

1

Carinated

209

3671

Fine dark brown, red slip

2

S-shaped

274

3509

Thin, delicate, gray, gray slip (two parts)

Kraters (Fig. 5.4) Figure 5.4:1 shows the ring base and rounded lower body of a large bowl or krater. One loop-shaped leg of another large bowl or krater is attached to a ring base (Fig. 5.4:2), and it probably belonged to a vessel standing on three loop-shaped legs. Similar bowls, usually smaller, are seen in MB IIA assemblages at Tel Burga (Golani 2011: Fig. 13:5), Tur‘an (Gershuny and Eisenberg 2005: Fig. 3:10), Tel Afeq (Shalem 2008: Fig. 9:11, 12), Tel Yosef (Covello-Paran 2001: Fig. 7:3) and Tel Dan (Ilan 1996b: Fig. 4.104:6), as well as at Megiddo attributed to MB IIB (Amiran 1969: Pl. 29:8, 11).

0

1

10

2

Fig. 5.4. Kraters. No.

Locus

Basket

Description

1

113

2234

Light brown, red slip outside and on base

2

274

3503.2

Light brown

Jars (Fig. 5.5) A number of jars were recovered in this burial layer. A single complete storage jar from L274 is a typical MB IIA type with a tall neck and folded rim with a ridge at the bottom, an oval body with two opposing loop handles, and a small flat base (Fig. 5.5:1). A similar jar was recovered in the tomb excavated by Dothan in this cemetery (see Yannai 2016:

CHAPTER 5: THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE IIA POTTERY

1

2

3

5

4 0

10

Fig. 5.5. Jars.

205

206

SHELLEY SADEH

◄ Fig. 5.5 No.

Locus

Basket

Description

1

274

3499

Brown, white grits

2

193

2938

Beige-white

3

113

2172

Brown

4

261

3389

Brown, small white and gray grits

5

261

3443

Dark brown-orange, large white grits

Fig. 6.6:2). Parallels are found at numerous sites, such as Tel Burga (Golani 2011: Fig. 14:4), Tel Yosef (Covello-Paran 2001: Fig. 12:13) and ‘Afula (Gal and Covello-Paran 1996: Fig. 22:9). Another rim of a large jar with a short, thickened, flattened rim (Fig. 5.5:2) is relatively rare in such assemblages in the region; a somewhat similar example from Megiddo was dated by Amiran to MB IIB–IIC (1969: Pl. 32:9). Several small jars without handles with an externally thickened rim and a concave inner profile were also observed in the present assemblage (Fig. 5.5:3–5); they are a typical early MB IIA feature (Amiran 1969: Pl. 31; Gal and Covello-Paran 1996: Fig. 23:2; Covello-Paran 2001:153; Golani 2011:87). Similar jars were found in Tomb 45 in the same cemetery (Yannai 2016: Fig. 6.4:2, 3). Jugs (Fig. 5.6) Jugs make up about 25% of the MB IIA assemblage and include several examples of various sizes with relatively wide necks and a simple beveled rim (Fig. 5.6:1, 2). Parallels were found in Tomb 45 of the same cemetery (Yannai 2016: Fig. 6.4:5) and at Megiddo (Amiran 1969: Pl. 33:5). A relatively large jug of similar shape, with a simple rim, a piriform body and a flat base, is decorated with red and black painted bands on a reddish surface and a ‘necklace’ pattern at the base of the neck (Fig. 5.6:3). Vessels with this decoration, sometimes termed Southern-Levantine Painted Ware (Ilan 1996a), were also retrieved from another tomb in this cemetery (Gophna and Sussman 1969: Fig. 4:3), from Megiddo, although of a somewhat different shape (Amiran 1969: Pl. 33:2, 3), and ‘Afula (Gal and Covello-Paran 1996: Fig. 23:3, 10). This painted decoration is considered a hallmark of MB IIA (Golani 2011:92). At Tel Dan, the ‘necklace’ decoration is ascribed to a later phase within MB IIA (Ilan 1996a:158). Another sherd of similar ware, with black-painted lines and a net pattern, probably belongs to the same family (Fig. 5.6:4). Other jugs of similar shape have a cut-away trefoil rim (Fig. 5.6:5–9). The cut-away rim is a common feature in northern MB IIA assemblages (Shalem 2008:100). The upper part of the jug in Fig. 5.6:10, resembling juglet types (see below), has a narrower neck, a pinched rim, a double handle, and is red slipped and burnished.

CHAPTER 5: THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE IIA POTTERY

1

2

4 3

5 0

10

Fig. 5.6. Jugs.

207

208

SHELLEY SADEH

6

7

10

9

8

0

10

Fig. 5.6 (cont.). Jugs. No.

Locus

Basket

Description

1

152

2675.1

Light brown, white grits

2

274

3485

Brown, white grits

3

274

3511

Light brown, red- and black-painted design

4

100

2013

Red, white grits, red- and black-painted design

5

274

3474

Fine, light brown, small gray grits, red slip

6

247

3235.2

Beige

7

162

2673.1

Orange

8

231

3195

Light brown, white grits

9

209

3025

Light brown, white grits

10

193

2934

Light brown, red slip, vertical burnishing

CHAPTER 5: THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE IIA POTTERY

209

Juglets (Fig. 5.7) The mug-like jug/juglet in Fig. 5.7:1 is unusual in burial assemblages. Amiran termed similar vessels assigned to the MB IIA ‘goblets or chalices,’ as they apparently developed from the preceding Intermediate Bronze Age goblets (1969:95, Pl. 28:2–4). Juglets are the most common vessel type in this burial assemblage (c. 42%), most showing typical MB IIA red-slipped, oval-shaped bodies, often slightly squat (Gophna and Sussman 1969: Fig .4:1, 2; Gershuny and Eisenberg 2005:9, Fig. 8:3–7; Yannai 2016: Fig. 6.10). Some juglets tend toward a piriform shape, and one example has relatively pronounced shoulders, more typical of MB IIB (Fig. 5.7:3). A few have an elongated body tapering to a point (Fig. 5.7:10, 11), also more typical of MB IIB (Amiran 1969: Pl. 34:9, 10) but nevertheless appearing in MB IIA burial assemblages, for example in a tomb in this cemetery (Yannai 2016: Fig. 6.10), and in burials at ‘Afula (Gal and Covello-Paran 1996: Fig. 25:2), Sha‘alabim (Singer-Avitz and Levy 1993: Fig. 2:7–13), Tel Afeq (Shalem 2008: Fig. 9:21, 22) and Fassuta, where they are attributed to the transitional MB IIA–IIB (Gershuny and Aviam 2010: Fig. 11:6). In many cases, the rims are missing. The rim shapes include mainly simple or pinched rims on a swollen upper neck, with a few examples of ridged or ‘collarette’ rims (Fig. 5.7:2) and stepped rims with an inner gutter (Fig. 5.7:4), both typical MB IIA forms (Amiran 1969: Pl. 33; Gophna and Sussman 1969: Fig. 4:4, 5; Yannai 2016: Fig. 6.10:10–12), although stepped rims are sometimes considered a transitional MB IIA–IIB shape (Gershuny and Eisenberg 2005:11; Gershuny and Aviam 2010:38). Many juglets have double and even triple handles, and most have a small, flat (Fig. 5.7:6, 8, 9), gently pointed (Fig. 5.7:4, 7) or small disc base (Fig. 5.7:2, 3), all characteristic of MB IIA. A few pointed bases, more common in MB IIB assemblages, were also recovered (Fig. 5.7:5, 10, 11). It is noteworthy that no examples of the later, cylindrical juglets were recovered.

Fig. 5.7 ► No.

Locus

Basket

Description

1

261

3358.2

Orange

2

231

3150

Light brown, white and gray grits, red slip, vertical burnish

3

193

2915

Reddish brown, well levigated, red slip

4

209

3026

Light brown, red polished

5

113

2170

Light brown, white grits

6

247

3224

Dark brown

7

152

2652.2

Orange, sandy, red grits

8

147

3229

Dark brown-reddish

9

285

3540

Beige, white and gray grits

10

248

3169

Light brown, sandy, white grits

11

130.1

2380

Fine, white-beige, sandy

210

SHELLEY SADEH

1

2

3

9

7

6

5

4

8

11

10

0

10

Fig. 5.7. Juglets.

211

CHAPTER 5: THE MIDDLE BRONZE AGE IIA POTTERY

Tell el-Yahudiyeh (TEY) Juglets (Fig. 5.8)2 Three TEY juglets are represented in the assemblage. They are all made of dark gray to black ware, and the incised and pricked designs are filled with white chalk paste. The juglet in Fig. 5.8:1, with the neck and rim missing, is decorated with three horizontal bands resembling Bietak’s Piriform Type 1b (Bietak 1988). The bands are decorated with patterns filled with coarsely pricked dots, which are more common in earlier 1 TEY vessels (Cohen-Weinberger 2007:52). The upper band contains upright-pointing triangles, the middle band shows an unusual design of 2 incised zigzags, and the lower band contains pendant triangles. No exact parallel for this decoration was found, but examples of incised zigzag decorations are known from other sites, such as Afeq (Kh. Kurdaneh; Cohen-Weinberger 2007: Pl. 3.2:5) and Nahariyya (Kaplan 1980: 5 0 Fig. 134q; Cohen-Weinberger 2007: Pl. 3.8:6). Fig. 5.8. Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglets. The example in Fig. 5.8:2, of which only No. Locus Basket Description the base and lower body are preserved, bears a 1 193 2914 Fine, black decoration of six pendant triangles extending 2 230 3196.2 Fine, black down to the button base; it is difficult to attribute this juglet to any of the known types. A fragment of the neck and shoulder of a third juglet is decorated with two narrow, horizontal bands incised with coarse dots. Petrographic analysis of these three juglets indicates that they were all made from different raw materials probably originating in the vicinity of the site, which illustrates the decentralized production of this ware (see Chapter 6; Cohen-Weinberger 2007). Lamps The lamp uncovered in L113 is a typical, rounded MB IIA lamp, while that from L231, near the northern entrance to the cave, appears to be of a later type with a sharply pinched spout, usually assigned to MB IIB–IIC (Fig. 5.9; Amiran 1969: Pl. 59).

Fig. 5.9. Lamp, light brown ware (L231, B3151). ►

0

2

My thanks to Anat Cohen-Weinberger for her help in writing this description of the TEY vessels.

2

212

SHELLEY SADEH

Conclusions This assemblage falls within MB IIA, as evidenced by the presence of beveled-rim bowls, bowls with mostly flat and disc bases, a storage jar with an elongated, folded rim, small handleless jars with profiled rims, a painted jug, jugs and juglets with ridged and stepped rims and mostly oval-shaped bodies, and by the lack of cylindrical juglets that began to appear toward the end of MB IIA (Singer-Avitz and Levy 1993:13*). The assemblage can perhaps be more precisely assigned to the middle or second half of the period based on the presence of several ring-based bowls, a few piriform juglets with pronounced shoulders and button-like bases, and elongated dipper juglets with pointed bases.

Y. Dagan and S. Sadeh, 2021, En Esur ( Ein Asawir) III (IAA Reports 68)

Chapter 6

Petrographic Analysis of Vessels From Burial Caves 548, 562 and 567 Anat Cohen-Weinberger Introduction This study presents the petrographic analysis of 64 vessels from three Bronze Age burial caves (548, 562, 567) excavated in the ‘En Esur cemetery (see Chapter 2). Most analyzed samples date from the late phase of Early Bronze Age I (EB IB), five from EB I–II (Table 6.1:2, 8, 14, 43, 50), eight from EB II (Table 6.1:1, 12, 15–17, 55, 57, 60), four from the Intermediate Bronze Age (IBA; Table 6.1:4, 9, 37, 44) and three from MB IIA (Table 6.1:25, 32, 38). Three MB IIA Tell el-Yahudiyeh juglets from the site were previously analyzed by the author (Cohen-Weinberger 2007; see also Chapter 5, this volume). Many imported vessels along with local imitations were found in the various excavations in the Early Bronze Age burial caves and the adjacent ‘En Esur protohistoric settlement (e.g., Yannai and Grosinger 2000; Yannai and Braun 2001; Paz, Elad and CohenWeinberger 2021), probably related to the site’s location on one of the major trade routes of the ancient Near East. Previous petrographic analyses of pottery from the protohistoric settlement and the nearby cemetery concentrated mainly on imported vessels or distinctive wares such as the Gray Burnished Ware (e.g., Goren 1991; Goren and Zuckerman 2000; Yannai and Braun 2001:45, 48, 50; Yannai 2006:93, Table 4.2; Cohen-Weinberger 2016), and these constitute a comparative database. However, no studies were conducted of local vessels and raw materials, aside from the EB I pottery from Tomb 80 (Cohen-Weinberger 2010; Gorzalczany and Sharvit 2010) and a limited sample from Intermediate Bronze Age tombs (Cohen-Weinberger 2016). The present study analyzes a large, representative selection of typical EB IB to EB II vessel forms and a variety of common ware types (first defined by eye by the excavators during processing, see Chapter 3), aiming to describe the raw materials used and define any distinguishable differences in the raw materials of each ware type in an attempt to determine the provenance of the vessels in general. Several unique vessels were also selected for analysis. Large-scale excavations recently took place at the protohistoric settlement site of ‘En Esur (2017–2019; Elad, Paz and Shalem 2020), and future research will enable comparison of the raw materials used for the vessels in the settlement and in the tombs.

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ANAT COHEN-WEINBERGER

Methodology The pottery was macroscopically divided by the excavators during the processing and typological analysis into several major and minor fabric groups (see Chapter 3), from which they chose 64 pottery samples for petrographic analysis. The analyzed samples are presented here according to petrographic groups, based on raw-material characteristics. Besides describing the attributes and potential provenance of these raw materials, this study also examines the degree of correspondence between the macroscopic and petrographic divisions.

Geological Setting The geological-setting assessment of ‘En Esur and its surrounding area presented here aims at identifying the potential provenance of the raw materials. Paleogene chalk and marl of the Menashe Hills Syncline dominate the lithology around the site, and the close vicinity is covered by chalk and marl of the Paleocene Taqiye Formation and chalk and chert rocks of the Eocene Adulam Formation (Sneh et al. 1996; Sneh, Bartov and Rosensaft 1998). The area is also characterized by rendzina soils that generally develop on chalky rocks and by Quaternary colluvial-alluvial soils and grumusols along Naḥal ‘Iron (Ravikovitch 1970; Ministry of Agriculture 1987). South of the site, the Umm el-Faḥm Anticline is characterized by Cenomanian– Senonian carbonate rocks and volcanic intercalations of basalts and tuffs (Picard 1956; Sass 1968:115–116; Sneh et al. 1996; Segev et al. 2002). The dominant volcanic rocks in the Umm el-Faḥm Anticline are basaltic lava flows, except for the youngest unit, which consists of pyroclasts (Segev et al. 2002:298). Basaltic hills are exposed in the Jezreel Valley (Picard 1956; Sneh, Bartov and Rosensaft 1998). West of the site, the area is characterized by Quaternary kurkar (calcareous sandstone) ridges and ḥamra soil (Ravikovitch 1970; Sneh, Bartov and Rosensaft 1998), with sand dunes dominating the coastal area. Quartz is the principal component in Israeli coastal sand; the carbonatic percentages in the sand between Ḥadera and ‘Atlit are usually low (about 8%; Nir 1989:12–15). The coastal sand west of the site derived mainly from the Nile, though some components derived from the valleys that drain the Menashe Hills. Sediments rich in clay are essential for pottery manufacture. Potential raw materials for local pottery production include the Paleocene marls of the Taqiye Formation exposed at the site and eastward along Naḥal ‘Iron, and clayrich alluvium and soils such as ḥamra, grumusols and rendzina.

R esults The petrographic groups are presented according to the proximity of the raw materials to the site. Table 6.1 displays the results of the petrographic analysis according to cave, locus and basket numbers.

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215

Group A. This group is characterized by an optically active matrix (Fig. 6.1). Silty quartz grains (up to 10%) appear in the clay, as well as opaques (60

Total MNI

1

16

268

YOSSI NAGAR

Cave 561 At the time of excavation, this burial cave was stratigraphically divided into upper and lower levels within EB IB, and the bones from each level were examined separately. The bones from the upper level were found scattered, and the original burial practices could not be reconstructed. However, partial anatomical articulation of lower limb bones was noticed in the lower level of the cave (L185), indicating a disturbed primary burial (the direction of the burial could not be determined). The other bones in this level were also scattered. The remains in the cave comprised a skull vault, postcranial fragments and teeth, representing at least 16 individuals (Table 11.2); sex could not be determined. Table 11.2. Age Distribution in Cave 561 Age Group (Years)

NB–4

5–9

15–19

20–29

30–39

Upper Level

1

1

2

1

2

1

8

1

1

1

1

1

5

1

1

3

4

Lower Level (L184, L189) Lower Level (L185)

1

Total MNI

2

10–14

2

3

40–49

50–59

>60

Total MNI

3 2

16

Cave 562 At the time of excavation, this cave was stratigraphically divided into two levels dated to EB IB and MB IIA, and the bones from each level were examined separately. The bones were found scattered, and the original burial practices could not be reconstructed. The remains included a skull vault and postcranial fragments and teeth, representing at least 137 individuals in the EB IB level and 15 in the MB IIA level (Table 11.3). Based upon measurements of the femoral head of adult individuals (Bass 1987:219–220), at least 10 males and 10 females were identified in loci dated to EB IB (see Table 11.5), and one male and one female in the MB IIA level. As with Cave 548, not all the bones from this cave were examined, and about 20% of the EB IB bones were taken for immediate reburial.

Table 11.3. Age Distribution in Cave 562 Age Group (Years)

NB–4

5–9

10–19

20–29

30–39

40–49

>60

Total MNI

EB Level

41

13

27

16

20

6

50–59 9

5

137

MB Level

4

1

2

2

2

1

1

2

15

Total MNI

45

14

29

18

22

7

10

7

152

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Cave 567 The bones in this burial cave were found scattered, and the original burial practices could not be reconstructed. However, partial anatomical articulation of a skull vault and a few postcranial bones was noted, indicating a disturbed primary burial (the direction of the burial could not be determined). The remains included a skull vault and postcranial fragments and teeth, representing at least 44 individuals. In addition, the bones from a small burial niche (L171), examined separately, belonged to a male individual aged 20–29 (Table 11.4). At least 12 males and 8 females were identified in Cave 567 (see Table 11.5), based upon measurements of the femoral head of adult individuals (Bass 1987:219–220). Table 11.4. Age Distribution in Cave 567 Age Group (Years)

NB–4

5–9

10–14

15–19

20–29

30–39

40–49

50–59

>60

Total MNI

General Area

11

5

2

3

7

7

3

3

3

44

L171

1

Total MNI

11

5

2

3

1

8

7

3

3

3

45

Discussion Although the bones from the four burial caves were extremely fragmentary and examined cursorily on-site, sieving of the soil yielded a relatively large sample of teeth available for study, revealing a minimum of 214 individuals buried in these caves during the Early Bronze Age, and 15 during the Middle Bronze Age. The skeletal population in both periods included infants, children and adults in a wide age range; both sexes were represented in nearly equal numbers for the Early Bronze Age (Table 11.5). Based upon the data in Table 11.5, life expectancy of this period’s population was calculated, using a life table (Ubelaker 1974), as 29 years at birth and 28 years by the age of 10. The mortality curve (Fig. 11.1), reconstructed from the life table, shows a pattern typical of a ‘regular,’ civilian historical population (Nagar and Winocur 2016). The regularity of the demographic results (unlike the burial of soldiers, for example) allows extrapolating the minimum number of individuals buried in the two caves that were only partially examined: as some 20% of the Early Bronze Age bones from Caves 548 and 562 were not examined (see above), the MNI can be roughly estimated at 20 individuals for Cave 548 and 160–170 for Cave 562.

Table 11.5. Age Distribution of the Early Bronze Age Skeletal Population Age Group (Years)

NB–4

5–9

10–19

20–29

30–39

40–49

50–59

1

>60 1

M

F

1

Total MNI

Cave 548

5

1

3

4

1

Cave 561

2

2

3

3

4

16

Cave 562

41

13

27

16

20

6

9

5

10

10

137

Cave 567

11

5

5

8

7

3

3

3

12

8

45

Total MNI

59

21

38

31

32

10

14

9

23

18

214

2

16

270

YOSSI NAGAR 40

Percent Death

30

20

10

0

NB-9

10–19

20–29

30–39

40–49

50–59

>60

Age Group (years)

Fig. 11.1. Mortality curve of the Early Bronze Age skeletal population in the four burial caves.

Other burial caves in the ‘En Esur Bronze Age cemetery were also anthropologically examined by the author, using the same age- and sex-estimation methodologies as for the present assemblage (Nagar 2010; Nagar and Winocur 2016). Although some scholars suggest that these estimations might be biased (e.g., Walker and Johnson 1988; Hoppa and Saunders 1998), the large sample sizes and the diminishing of interobserver error allowed us to confidently compare these results. Table 11.6 demonstrates that life expectancy by the age of 10 was 27–28 years in the large ‘En Esur Tomb T3 (Nagar and Winocur 2016), the Barqai South tomb (excavated by Y. Lerer; Nagar 1996) and in the four tombs discussed here, but only 22 years in the smaller Tomb 80 (Nagar 2010). As a population’s socioeconomic status largely affects its life expectancy (e.g., Powell 1988), this supports the hypothesis of Gorzalczany and Sharvit (2010) that the population buried in Tomb 80 was of a lower socioeconomic status than that of other excavated caves in the cemetery, based on the relatively inferior quality of the offerings, as well as the distance of the tomb from the settlement. It should be noted, however, that Tomb 80 is not very far from the present excavated caves, therefore distance from the settlement might not necessarily be a reflection of socioeconomic status (Table 11.6). In summary, the human remains from the ’En Esur Early Bronze Age burial caves presented here represent a minimum number of 214 individuals, although a slightly higher estimate of 240–260 is a more probable figure. These burial caves form part of one of the most extensively studied Early Bronze Age cemeteries in Israel. Therefore, despite the bones’ extremely poor state of preservation and the need to cursorily analyze the material under very inconvenient physical field conditions, the results that were obtained make the ‘En Esur cemetery a central site for the study of southern Levant palaeodemography.

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Table 11.6. Comparison Between Early Bronze Age Burial Caves in the ‘En Esur Cemetery Site

MNI

Location in Relation to Protohistoric Settlement

Life Expectancy by Age 10

Caves 548, 561, 562, 567

214

c. 900–1100 m east

28 years

Tomb T3 and Barqai South Tomb

154

c. 200–300 m south

27–28 years

94

c. 1400–1500 m east

22 years

Tomb 80

The presence of infants, children and adults of both sexes in all four caves attests to the ‘regularity’ of the sample, being typical of historical cemetery populations. Both the life expectancy and mortality curves are similar to corresponding data reported earlier for ‘En Esur Tomb T3 and the Barqai South tomb (Nagar 1996; Nagar and Winocur 2016). All these examples probably represent populations of higher socioeconomic status than that of Tomb 80, for which a lesser quality of burial goods and lower life expectancy of the deceased were reported.

R eferences Bass W.M. 1987. Human Osteology: A Laboratory and Field Manual. Columbia, Mo. Hillson S. 1986. Teeth. Cambridge. Hoppa R. and Saunders S. 1998. The MAD Legacy: How Meaningful is Mean Age-at-Death in Skeletal Samples. Human Evolution 13:1–14. Gorzalczany A. and Sharvit J. 2010. An Early Bronze Age Tomb of the ‘Common People’(?) in the ‘En Esur (‘Ein Asawir) Cemetery. ‘Atiqot 64:85–112. Nagar Y. 1996. Anthropological Report Barkai South 2526/96 (IAA Archives). Jerusalem (Hebrew). Nagar Y. 2010. Human Skeletal Remains from Tomb 80 in the ‘En Esur Cemetery. ‘Atiqot 64:121– 124. Nagar Y. and Winocur E. 2016. Skeletal Remains from Tomb T3: Reconstruction of Some Demographic Parameters. In E. Yannai. ‘En Esur (‘Ein Asawir) II: Excavations at the Cemeteries. Jerusalem. Pp. 121–126. Powell M.L. 1988. Status and Health in Prehistory: A Case Study of the Moundville Chiefdom. Washington, D.C. Ubelaker D.H. 1974. Reconstruction of Demographic Profiles from Ossuary Skeletal Samples. A Case Study from the Tidewater Potomac (Smithsonian Contributions to Anthropology 18). Washington, D.C. Walker P.L. and Johnson J.R. 1988. Age and Sex Biases in the Preservation of Human Skeletal Remains. American Journal of Physical Anthropology 76:183–188.

Y. Dagan and S. Sadeh, 2021, En Esur ( Ein Asawir) III (IAA Reports 68)

Chapter 12

Summary and Conclusions: Early Bronze Age Burial Caves in the ‘En Esur Cemetery Shelley Sadeh and Yehuda Dagan The burial caves discussed in this volume are part of an extensive burial ground in the vicinity of the protohistoric settlement of ‘En Esur and the later Tel Esur. The site is located at a major intersection of one of the ancient Near East’s main international highways and trade routes connecting, from the earliest times, the southern empire of Egypt and the northern kingdoms in Syria, Anatolia, Mesopotamia, and those even farther east. The site’s particular location, fertile hinterland and perennial water sources attracted large populations from prehistoric times onward, and by EB IB it was one of the country’s largest known EB IB settlements (Yannai 2006:1; Elad and Paz 2018). Even in periods when the settlement was apparently abandoned, the firmly rooted tradition of burying the dead in its cemetery continued almost uninterrupted for millennia. Numerous burial caves of this cemetery have been excavated and studied over the years (for a history of research, see Chapter 1; Gorzalzcany and Sharvit 2010; Yannai 2016), while many more, from the Early Bronze Age and later periods, are buried below the Cross-Israel Highway (Road 6) or lie still undiscovered below the pine forests and the nari stone crust that stretch for over 1.5 km to the east of the tell. The four relatively intact Early Bronze Age burial caves and their immediate vicinity in the eastern part of this vast necropolis documented in the current project constitute an invaluable contribution to our knowledge of the society, trade relations and, particularly, that period’s burial customs in this region, providing a rich source of data for further studies in these fields. The main burial period in the four caves falls within the latter part of EB IB, which can be roughly dated to 3200–3000 BCE. However, each cave presents a somewhat different chronological range, stretching also into the EB IB–II ‘transition’ (c. 3100–2900 BCE) and early EB II (c. 3000–2800 BCE), thus spanning several hundred years (see Mazar 2012:18– 20; Rotem 2015:41–44). Although all the caves present basic similarities in concept, burial customs and grave goods, as also evidenced throughout most of the southern Levant during this period, each cave differs in planning and shape and presents interesting variations of the burial customs and offerings, attesting to contacts and influences from both nearby regions and distant cultures. Basic Cave Formations All four caves were originally hewn during the EB IB. The basic shape of the tombs— irregularly rounded chambers hewn into the soft chalk below a roof of hard nari crust— was dictated by the local geological conditions. Shared features include a varying number of hewn steps descending to the chamber’s floor from an entrance in the middle or upper part of the wall. The entrance was usually from a southerly direction. Sometimes, sloping

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corridors or vestibules led to the cave opening (e.g., Caves 555, 561, 562 Entrance 5), while in others, a shared corridor may have served several caves opening directly from it (L563). Other caves may have had corridors that have not survived. The entrances to the burial chambers were initially sealed with a large, flat stone. Each cave was of a different size and shape. Cave 548 had been obviously well-planned in advance, with the large heart-shaped chamber divided in two by a protruding central pillar of unhewn bedrock and the entrance symmetrically placed facing the pillar. This cave’s plan resembles another cave in the same cemetery excavated by Dothan (1970: Plan 1), of similar size but without the central pillar. At Azor, in the southern coastal plain, Ben-Tor excavated two heart-shaped caves with a central pillar opposite the opening and the steps (1975: Figs. 1, 3). The similarity in the caves’ plans at sites relatively distant from each other attests to a standardized burial-cave plan applied during EB IB over a vast region and an inter-regional exchange of concepts, as also seen in the pottery assemblages. Cave 561 is a relatively small cave with a wide, sloping corridor leading to a narrow entrance and stairs descending to a roughly rectangular chamber (Room A). A bench was hewn to the left of the entrance, and a second, roughly square-shaped room (Room B) was accessed through a narrow doorway to the right of the entrance. Room B was apparently hewn in a different, more careful manner and was, perhaps, added later (still within EB IB). The nearby Tomb 80, excavated by Gorzalczany and Sharvit (2010: Plan 1), apparently had a similar plan (i.e., a corridor leading to the burial chamber). The little that remains of Cave 555 shows a variation of this plan, with a corridor comprising a staircase that then opens through a narrowed entrance into the burial chamber. Cave 567 is the best preserved, with much of the finds still more-or-less in situ. It resembles Cave 548 in size and is also relatively symmetrically shaped, rounded with an opening in the southern wall leading to hewn steps descending to the cave floor. A doorway in the eastern wall apparently opened onto another burial chamber (unexcavated), and spatial distribution of the pottery suggests it was used or added in EB II (see Chapter 3). Cave 567 is unique in its use of niches hewn in the walls, apparently for single burials (see Chapter 11). Two such niches, containing a few vessels, were also discerned in Cave 562, but no burial evidence was found in them. Cave 562 is the most unusual in plan, as it is clearly composed of several initially separate burial chambers joined sometime during the EB IB, resulting in a space of c. 60 sq m. This unification may have been planned, but it more likely happened when other burial caves were breached while attempting to enlarge the original chamber in several directions, as suggested by the separate entrances to Rooms A, C and D, and the lower floor level in Room D. Adding rooms onto the original caves attests to their continued use over generations and perhaps a desire to be buried in the same (family? tribal?) tomb. The burial chambers varied in height between 1.5 and 1.8 m, and the roofs of the caves, found partially collapsed, or removed during excavation (see Chapter 2), appear to have been vaulted, as seen in a burial cave of the same period at Ḥorbat Zelef in the Jezreel Valley (Covello-Paran 2011:4). Using wooden pillars to support the clearly proneto-collapse roofs is attested by the flat stone slabs set into hewn hollows in the floors at

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strategic spots (see especially Caves 562 and 567). The roofs had already partly collapsed in antiquity, as evidenced by the burials found underneath the fallen boulders, with no soil accumulation, and on top of some collapsed roof fragments. Layers of white matrix, seen in the sections, apparently indicate the periods when the ceilings crumbled. Internal Burial Configurations Various burial structures dating to the Early Bronze Age were evident within the caves, mostly built of fieldstones brought explicitly into the caves for this purpose. Cave 548 had been disturbed at some point, and little remained of the structures/enclosures apart from jumbled stones and a few apparent walls and platforms. At some point, the back part of Room B was blocked off by a wall. In Room A, at least one platform or perhaps a sequence of two, apparently separated burial levels, the uppermost dated to EB II. In Room A of Cave 561, a disturbed rectilinear structure built of lightly worked stones, had been erected in one corner, while a bench, perhaps for laying out the dead, stretched across the opposite wall. In Room B, a well-constructed oval structure built of two courses of stones took up most of the space; underneath was another burial enclosure, this one of rectilinear shape. Scattered in this room were the remains of at least five individuals (see Chapter 11), accompanied by fine-quality offerings, suggesting an interment of individuals of relatively higher status and a subsequent tomb robbery prior to the sealing of the entrance during the Roman-Byzantine period. Little evidence of fieldstone structures was discerned in Cave 562, except in Room D. However, several stone stelae originated in this cave, and their shape––pointed at one end––suggests they may have stood upright with the pointed end inserted into the ground. To date, this is the first documented instance of such a phenomenon in an EB IB burial context. In Cave 567, a few stone configurations retained their shape; however, another phenomenon, not seen in the other caves, comprised niches hewn into the walls (e.g., L171) and pits in the bedrock (e.g., L270) for individual burial, and the use of half a pithos, lying on the floor, as a burial receptacle (L240). Fieldstone walls and platforms, their original configurations often disturbed, have been discerned in numerous burial caves of the same period, for example, the fieldstone structures discerned in another EB I cave in the cemetery (Yannai 1996:1*), and the walls and platforms in nearby Tomb 80 with burials upon them (Gorzalczany and Sharvit 2010). In the burial cave at Ḥorbat Zelef, a wall and a platform, with burials upon it, were observed (Covello-Paran 2011: Plan 2). At Azor, Cave 1 contained a platform and an area enclosed by a wall, and in Cave 4, half of the cave was sealed off by a wall (Ben-Tor 1975:6–7, Figs. 1, 3). Similar configurations were noted in Tomb A13 at Jericho (Kenyon 1960:48–49). It is noteworthy that all these various burial configurations from surrounding regions are present side by side in the ‘En Esur cemetery. It is not always clear if these walls and platforms denote chronological sequences of burials, or simply different family groups, or perhaps even the differentiation of higherstatus individuals. In some cases, burials had been clearly placed both below and above, and in Cave 548, the uppermost burials on the platform, below the collapsed ceiling boulders, dated to EB II. In Room B of Cave 561, as described above, a sequence of burial structures is

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evident, although these enclosures also seem to relate to the status of the deceased (worked stones, a separate room, rich grave goods). The phenomenon of stone-built pavements and burial enclosures within burial caves is also present in the Intermediate and Middle Bronze Ages (e.g., Gonen 2001: Plans 16, 20), denoting a continuation of long-standing traditions. Chronology and Ceramic Continuity and Change in the EB IB–EB II Transition Stratigraphically and chronologically, each cave occupies a different position in the sequence beginning in late EB IB and ceasing sometime before the classic EB II, and based on the ceramic typological analysis and the quantitative frequencies of vessel types (see Chapter 3: Tables 3.1, 3.2), the four caves can be arranged in an overlapping chronological sequence. There appear to have been several layers of burials during the EB IB horizon in all four caves, best attested by the superimposition of enclosures and platforms with burials below and above. Cave 561 seems to be the earliest, presenting an almost completely homogenous ceramic profile most resembling the Stratum II EB IB horizon at the nearby settlement site (Yannai 2006). The ceramic assemblage in Cave 567 is, for the most part, of the same horizon as Cave 561, and some imported Egyptian vessels further support the position of this assemblage at the end of EB IB. In the uppermost layers were some later shapes that can be attributed to the EB IB–II transition period, and sporadic occurrences of EB II material associated with the eastern (unexcavated) entrance. In Cave 562, the bulk of the Early Bronze Age material can be attributed to the latest phase of the EB IB as seen in the settlement, continuing into the EB IB–II transition period but not into the EB II. Finally, the ceramic assemblage of Cave 548 represents the latest phase, falling within the EB IB–II transition and continuing into early EB II. The bulk of the ceramic material from the four caves exemplifies the well-known northern EB IB ceramic assemblage, characterized by GBW bowls, gutter-rim bowls, knobbed bowls, high-loop-handled juglets in a variety of shapes and sizes, squat ‘gourd’shaped amphoriskoi and elegant, ridged-neck teapots. These specific assemblages are clearly of the late EB IB horizon (c. 3200–3000 BCE), seen in other caves in the ‘En Esur cemetery and in the adjacent settlement, and also known from the nearby settlements of Tel Qashish and Qiryat Ata. The EB IB–II transition, as evidenced in Caves 562, 567 and mainly in 548, is characterized by the growing popularity of imported carinated ‘Aphek’ bowls, deep incurved bowls, platter-bowls, vertically burnished, cylindrical-necked, ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs and metallic-like ware. These new types coexisted alongside the typical EB IB funerary components that continued in use. This transition period is also evident in the nearby ‘En Esur Tombs T3 and T40 and has also been detected in occupation strata at sites to the northeast and south (e.g., Bet Yeraḥ, Bet She’an, Abu al-Kharaz, Rishpon 4, Abu Ḥamid; see Chapter 3). The transition phase is absent at the ‘En Esur settlement, which was abandoned at the end of the EB IB phase (while the EB II settlement may have moved to an unexcavated part of the site, almost no ceramic evidence of this period has been retrieved in surveys of the area; Ram Gophna, pers. comm. 2010; Yehuda Dagan, survey 2003, see Chapter 1). This phase is also absent at Tel Qashish (apart from isolated fills, see Zuckerman 2003:60), where the EB II

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inhabitants built their fortifications immediately upon the abandoned buildings of the EB IB settlement, bringing with them a full-fledged EB II ceramic assemblage with some 50% of the vessels made of metallic ware. Even at Qiryat Ata, where there is no apparent gap in the archaeological strata, there is still a relatively sharp break between the two ceramic assemblages, suggesting perhaps a generation or so of abandonment. Trends with chronological significance recognized in the ceramic assemblages of the four caves (see Chapter 3: Tables 3.1, 3.2; Figs. 3.110–117) include a steady decline in the presence of GBW bowls accompanied by an increase in GBW imitations, all decreasing abruptly in Cave 548. The decline in GBW bowls is paralleled by a growth in popularity of platter-bowls and non-metallic platters, and then metallic-like platters. Cylindricalnecked ‘proto-Abydos’ jugs also increased. In addition, the ‘hybrid’ types and experimental ‘metallic-like’ wares, mainly in Cave 548, herald the transition to EB II. The metalliclike vessels were often made in the vicinity of the site, as evidenced by the results of the petrographic study (see Chapter 6), perhaps representing an experimental initiative by local potters prior to the predominance of the EB II Northern Canaan Metallic Ware (NCMW). The first occurrences of the EB II NCMW vessels are discerned especially in Cave 548, represented by platters and ‘Abydos’ jugs. Other burial caves excavated in this cemetery display similar stratigraphy and diachronic trends, and various combinations of EB I, EB II, Intermediate Bronze Age and MB IIA layers (Yannai 2016: Table 1.1). Petrographically, the bulk of the pottery from the EB IB through the transition period was either locally made of two distinct wares or imported from the nearby Jezreel Valley. The import of numerous vessel types from eastern Samaria, as determined by petrography here and at other sites, and the growing presence of metallic-like wares heralds the predominance of NCMW in EB II. A find of note is a small juglet from Cave 562 (L152; Fig. 3.11; Table 6.1:30), of a typical EB IB shape but made of unusual dark ware (petrographic analysis suggests a provenance along the northern Syrian coast), with a cylindrical seal impression on its body. The seal is of a style seen mainly on EB II NCMW jars. This juglet is among the earliest examples of imported vessels stamped with a northern-Syrian animal-procession cylinder seal. Other Votive Offerings and Special Finds While ceramic vessels comprise by far the bulk of the finds from the caves, other votive offerings include two maceheads, a relatively common grave offering in this period; two apparently unused tabular-flint scrapers, valuable tools perhaps with some cultic significance; and, in contrast, flint knives and a sickle blade that showed signs of use and probably represented prized belongings. Metal items include four copper or bronze daggers, also most certainly valuable possessions, and numerous metal pins, rings and earrings, a few of gold. The tabular flint scrapers and two of the metal daggers originated in Room B of Cave 561, where a well-built stone burial circle was erected, indicating the higher social status of the deceased buried in that room. The large bead assemblage from the four caves comprises over 2000 items, many of these common in burials and settlements of the Early Bronze Age; this assemblage is

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similar to those from other burial caves in the same cemetery and elsewhere. However, unique to the present assemblage is the collection of some 1500 ‘mud-paste’ beads recovered in Caves 548 and 562 (apparently of siltstone as indicated by SEM analysis, see Chapter 10); no similar beads are known elsewhere in the Levant to date. In addition, a collection of copper beads was retrieved in Cave 562. Only a single bead, made of apatite, was found in Cave 561, almost certainly attributable to the minimal sieving undertaken during excavation of this cave (see Chapter 2). It is noteworthy that the bulk of the beads (c. 85%) were made of imported raw materials originating from as far as southeastern Turkey (a serpentine pendant, obsidian beads) and Egypt; even the simple ‘mud’ beads apparently originated in Sinai. The rich collection of special finds recovered from these and other burial caves in this cemetery sheds light on the wide variety of objects and products that arrived at this site during the Early Bronze Age from other regions and far distant lands due to the site’s proximity to the international trade route that passed along Naḥal ‘Iron. This subject has been widely discussed in the past following earlier excavations at this cemetery (e.g., Yannai and Grosinger 2000; Yannai and Braun 2001). The present excavations provide further evidence of the extensive interregional and international trade networks active in this period. Early Bronze Age IB–II Burial Practices and Funerary Kits The Early Bronze Age burials from the four caves documented in this volume testify, for the most part, to grave offerings comprising small groups of specific vessels apparently representing an essential ‘funerary kit’ in accordance with burial customs and belief in the afterlife: a lamp-bowl, a small bowl and several small juglets and amphoriskoi. To this modest kit could be added more elaborate bowls, such as GBW, gutter-rim, and knobbed bowls (in Cave 567) or platter-bowls (in Cave 562), perhaps a teapot or a small jar. In many cases, strands of beads and metal jewelry were also present, as well as several examples of repaired vessels (platter-bowls and platters) probably representing the belongings of the deceased. Only in rare cases were more elaborate offerings evident, for example, metal blades, flint tools and gold jewelry. The offerings during the EB IB–II transition remained much the same, with the addition of ‘Aphek’ bowls and cylindrical-neck jugs, while the EB II funerary kit was more limited and conventional, due to the mass-production of the NCMW industry, and apparently consisted mainly of lamp-bowls, platters, juglets and Abydos jugs. While we presume a single interment was associated with such kits, this cannot be ascertained due to the poor preservation of the skeletons. The ratio of vessels/deceased is of no help in this instance (Table 12.1), as it varies so greatly, probably due to the difficulties in estimating the minimum number of deceased (see Chapter 11). The ratio of sq m/deceased also varies considerably, from 0.4 to 2.5, although this ratio in Tomb 80 is much lower, 0.1 (14 sq m, 94 deceased), perhaps due to the poorer population that apparently used that cave (see Chapter 11). The data in Table 12.1, while revealing no apparent trends in these four caves, may be helpful in future studies.

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Table 12.1. Summary of Data of the Four Caves Cave

548

561

Period

EB IB–EB II

EB IB

EB IB

562 MB IIA

567 EB IB–EB II

Pottery vessels (MNI)

659

23

623

169

985

Deceased (MNI)

16*

16

137*

15

45

Size of cave (sq m)

40.5

21

60

60

32

Ratio vessels/deceased

41**

1.4***

4.5**

11

22

Ratio sq m/deceased

2.5**

1.3

0.4**

0.7

* probably at least 20% more (see Chapter 11) ** probably lower due to the 20% uncounted bones *** probably higher due to stolen vessels (see Chapter 2)

A large part of the ceramic repertoire from the burial caves comprised specially produced votive objects absent in domestic assemblages, as reflected in shapes such as small closed juglets, amphoriskoi, teapots and small, bottle-like jars that are rare at settlement sites, miniature vessels of all types, as well as a group of specific funerary vessels of poorquality, poorly fired ware, such as the ‘pseudo’ GBW bowls. Thus, it can be assumed that the votive vessels were produced in workshops in the vicinity of the cemetery, perhaps an industry in its own right. In addition, there are numerous examples of closed vessels with drilled holes (to render them unusable) and even examples that may have been deliberately fired with olive pits inserted in the base for a similar purpose. Artifacts suggestive of burial rituals or ceremonies include the two stone maceheads and the unused flint scrapers. It is noteworthy that no animal bones were identified in the four Early Bronze Age tombs discussed here; it can thus be assumed that the offering or consumption of animals inside the caves was apparently not part of the mortuary rituals. This absence stands in contrast to the finds, for example, from the Intermediate Bronze Age cemetery at Bet Dagan (Yannai and Nagar 2014:206–210), where individual primary burials were each accompanied by a mug, a storage jar, and animal bones, thus clearly representing a different cultural milieu. Fieldstone constructions of various shapes were erected throughout the caves––such as round and square enclosures, walls, platforms––perhaps to separate familial groups, while other burial containers included pits, niches, and even half a pithos. In Cave 561, several individuals, including a child and an elderly adult, were interred in a burial enclosure, either together or in stages, accompanied by high-quality vessels, gold jewelry and bronze blades, suggesting members of one family separated from the other burials for some reason, whether wealth or rank. In a few cases, as in Caves 561 and 567, some partially articulated skeletons were identified (see Chapter 11), suggesting primary burial. However, the vast majority were secondary burials––skulls and long bones arranged in a pile together with the essential funerary kit. No evidence of cremation was observed in the four caves, contrasting with other sites (e.g., Jericho Tomb A94, see Kenyon 1960:16–40). However, remains of soot and evidence of burning are evident inside certain bowl types and on numerous other vessels, which may attest to some form of cultic practices involving fire. In many cases, small

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human bones were found inside vessels, raising the question whether these were purposely inserted, as suggested by Dothan (1970) regarding a similar phenomenon in another cave in the same cemetery, or washed into the vessels during alluvium accumulation. In general, analysis of the anthropological remains from the four caves, limited as it is, indicates a normative population, similar to most other caves in the same cemetery, but more established than in Tomb 80 (see Chapter 11). While the EB IB village was abandoned at the end of the period, it is evident that the actual people did not disappear; they remained in the area while maintaining a different subsistence strategy that has not as yet been detected in the archaeological record, with their presence evidenced only by their burials. From the present study of these four burial caves, it is clear that the large cemetery at ‘En Esur manifests a deeply rooted tradition in the culture of the region, the former inhabitants of the village and their descendants continuing to bury their dead in the cave tombs during the transition between the village life of the EB IB horizon and the more urbanized way of life characteristic of the EB II centers. Later Periods in the Caves and Vicinity There may have been some ephemeral activity in Caves 548, 562 and 567 during the Intermediate Bronze Age, attested by isolated vessels inserted through breaches or near an entrance (see Chapter 4). Many Intermediate Bronze Age tombs are known throughout this cemetery (see Chapter 2; Yannai 2016:127–187). In Cave 562, after a gap in time following the Early Bronze Age burial horizon––the gap represented by layers of accumulated alluvium and crumbled ceiling debris––an MB IIA burial level of some 15 individuals contained largely intact vessels, mainly bowls, jugs and juglets, and two bronze spearheads. These MB IIA burials, which can probably be associated with the MB IIA habitation at Tel Esur, are clearly distributed near the various entrances, spreading toward the cave center. During the Late Roman–Byzantine periods (fourth–fifth centuries CE), the nari crust in the area of the Menashe Hills in general, and around Tel Esur in particular, was extensively exploited for building stones, probably associated with the small settlement located to the north at Ḥorbat Gilan. The quarrying activity uncovered many of the longforgotten burial-cave entrances and probably caused the collapse or partial collapse of many cave roofs. These later stonecutters apparently treated the tombs with respect, whether out of superstition or caution, carefully skirting the entrances, filling up the corridors, and blocking the entrances with piles of fieldstones, thus preserving them for posterity.

Y. Dagan and S. Sadeh, 2021, En Esur ( Ein Asawir) III (IAA Reports 68)

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Yannai E. 2002b. The Northern Sharon in the Chalcolithic Period and the Beginning of the Early Bronze Age in Light of the Excavations at ‘Ein Assawir. In E.C.M. van den Brink and E. Yannai eds. In Quest of Ancient Settlements and Landscape: Archaeological Studies in Honour of Ram Gophna. Tel Aviv. Pp. 65–85. Yannai E. 2006. ‘En Esur (‘Ein Asawir) I: Excavations at a Protohistoric Site in the Coastal Plain of Israel (IAA Reports 31). Jerusalem. Yannai E. 2010. Archaeological Surveys and Excavations along the Cross-Israel Highway: An Introduction. ‘Atiqot 64:3–4. Yannai E. 2016. ‘En Esur (‘Ein Asawir) II: Excavations at the Cemeteries. Jerusalem. Yannai E. and Braun E. 2001. Anatolian and Egyptian Imports from Late EBI at Ain Assawir, Israel. BASOR 321:41–56. Yannai E. and Grosinger Z. 2000. Preliminary Summary of Early Bronze Strata and Burials at ‘Ein Assawir, Israel. In G. Philip and D. Baird eds. Ceramics and Change in the Early Bronze Age of the Southern Levant (Levantine Archaeology 2). Sheffield. Pp. 153–164. Yannai E. and Horowitz Z. 1996. ‘Ain Asawir. HA 106:70–71. Yannai E. and Horowitz Z. 1998. ‘En Esur. ESI 18:48–49. Yannai E. and Nagar Y. 2014. Bet Dagan: Intermediate Bronze Age and Mamluk-Period Cemeteries: 2004–2005 Excavations (IAA Reports 55). Jerusalem. Zertal M. 2003. Excavations at Tel Asawir: Preliminary Report of the First Two Seasons of Excavation 2001–2002. Haifa (Hebrew). Ziv-Esudri A. 2012. The Early Bronze Age III Pottery from Areas M and R. In A. Mazar ed. Excavations at Beth-Shean 1989–1996. IV: The 4th and 3rd Millennia BCE (The Beth-Shean Valley Archaeological Project 4). Jerusalem. Pp. 236–311. Zuckerman S. 2003. The Early Bronze Age I Pottery. In A. Ben-Tor, R. Bonfil and S. Zuckerman. Tel Qashish: A Village in the Jezreel Valley; Final Report of the Archeological Excavations (1978–1987) (Qedem Reports 5). Jerusalem. Pp. 35–60.

Y. Dagan and S. Sadeh, 2021, En Esur ( Ein Asawir) III (IAA Reports 68)

Appendix 1

Locus Lists for Caves 548, 561, 562, 567

CAVE 548 Locus

Description

Upper Elevation (m)

Lower Elevation (m)

102

Cleaning entrance

65.60

65.60

103

Inside entrance, many sherds

65.60

65.60

105.1

On west side of entrance

65.40

65.00

106

Around entrance and into cave

65.00

63.90

108

On east side of entrance

64.80

64.00

114

Advancing northwest into cave

64.18

64.00

117

Excavation northward until rounded wall

64.15

64.03

127.3

Northeastern corner of balks

63.35

-

132.1

Layer of roof collapse, sealed pottery

64.90

64.20

139

East of entrance to Room A, layer of pottery

64.50

63.82

140

Entrance to Room B, much pottery and metal beads, dentalium shells and a pendant on floor

64.30

63.65

141

West of L139, vessels on floor

64.20

63.60

142

Entrance to Room A, below L139, layer of vessels

63.90

63.68

143.2

Northern part of Room A

63.95

63.72

153

Removal of balk in northwestern corner of Room B

67.70

67.30

158

In Room A, vessels on a pavement(?)east of W163, between wall and balk

64.20

63.65

159.1

Layer of vessels in northern part of Room B

63.85

63.67

163

Dismantling W163 in Room A

63.95

63.33

165

Fill on cave floor in entrance to Room A, west of W163

64.75

63.62

168

Soil mixed with stones on northern side of entrance to Room A

64.85

63.85

175

Fill on floor below stones of W163, similar to L165

64.85

63.15

190

Layer of stones and vessels along northern side of Room B

64.99

63.69

196

Sterile alluvium along eastern wall of Room A, reaches the ceiling

65.80

63.11

197

Brownish-white fill along northwestern wall of Room B

64.25

63.84

198

Accumulated fill above roof collapse on northern side of Room B

64.96

64.33

203

Soil layer in entrance to Room B, below stones (enclosure?) in L190, near western wall

64.20

63.74

204

Layer of chalk and roof collapse in southeastern part of Room A

64.30

63.69

205

Layer of vessels mixed with stones on northern side of entrance to Room A

64.24

63.65

206

On northern side of entrance to Room A, much pottery on floor

64.30

63.15

207

In northwestern corner of Room B, stones forming a wall

-

-

218

In northeastern part of Room B, roof collapse below L198

-

-

219

In northern half of Room B, layer of vessels below roof collapse of L218

63.90

63.80

290

APPENDIX 1: LOCUS LISTS FOR CAVES 548, 561, 562, 567

CAVE 548 (cont.) Locus

Description

Upper Elevation (m)

Lower Elevation (m)

220

In northern half of Room B, layer below layer of soil and stones below L219

64.12

63.80

221

Continuation of stone wall in L207 in Room B, near western cave wall

-

-

235

Eastern part of Room A

63.35

63.05

236

Layer of vessels below L220 in Room B

63.99

63.70

237

Pottery within an enclosure(?) in Room B

63.84

63.76

238

On cave floor in Room B, below L220

63.83

63.48

241

Layer of vessels in Room A, east of W163 and below L204

63.80

63.00

245.1

On cave floor in southern part of Room A

63.80

63.70

246

Soil layer next to and below the alluvium layer on northern side of Room A

64.64

64.05

256

Whitish fill on floor of cave in northwestern corner of Room B

64.03

63.70

257

Soil layer above stones (wall/platform?) in L258, below L246, Room A

64.07

63.91

258

Layer of stones (wall/platform?) and the soil between them, Room A

63.91

63.60

259

Fill below stones in L258, on cave floor, Room A

63.88

63.69

CAVE 561 Locus

Description

Upper Elevation (m)

Lower Elevation (m)

109

Cleaning corridor leading to cave opening; fragments of Byzantine glass

64.95

64.80

112

In front of steps, in between Rooms A and B, walls on either side, complete pottery vessels and flint scraper

69.70

69.00

172

Uncovering southern part of Room A until bench

69.05

68.93

173

Uncovering western wall part of Room B, including the section after drawing

69.05

68.93

174

Room B, beginning work in cave, after interruption, in vestibule to east of balk

69.05

68.93

177

Cleaning along southern wall in Room A down to bedrock, stones perhaps connected with bench

-

-

178

Excavation in northern part of Room B, above a stone wall

-

-

179

Excavation inside circle of stones in Room B, sterile alluvium

69.01

68.84

180

Excavation of balk in Room B between the stone circle and the eastern wall, flint objects (fan scraper)

68.72

68.60

182

Cleaning of entrance vestibule to bottom of steps, after removal of roof

68.84

68.74

183

Excavation in western part of burial circle in Room B down to finding of daggers, north of L182

68.84

68.73

184

Below L179, cleaning the burial circle and burial enclosure in Room B, bones examined by Y. Nagar, metal dagger

68.84

68.57

185

Room A, soil layer in and around fieldstone enclosure, flint chips, primary burial

68.84

68.61

186

Cleaning the stone burial enclosure in Room A prior to photography, uncovering the floor inside the enclosure, human burials, beads on the floor

68.84

68.74

291

APPENDIX 1: LOCUS LISTS FOR CAVES 548, 561, 562, 567

CAVE 561 (cont.) Locus

Description

Upper Elevation (m)

Lower Elevation (m)

187

Cleaning the burial circle in Room B down to bedrock, below L183

68.73

68.57

188

Cleaning the southern floor of Room A, flint chips

68.83

68.59

189

Room B, intact vessels, sieving of soil, sherds and pieces of metal

68.69

68.57

195

Room A, cleaning floor

68.87

68.57

CAVE 562 Locus

Description

Upper Elevation (m)

Lower Elevation (m)

100

Excavation of steps in Entrance 1 to cave

68.24

67.90

105.2

Western part of steps

67.23

-

107

Lowest step

67.62

67.20

113

To west of entrance

68.44

68.32

122

Further into cave, in Room A

68.40

67.80

123

Along southwestern wall of Room A

68.40

67.80

124

Along southwestern wall of Room A

68.40

67.80

125

Further into Room A

68.40

67.80

126

To south of entrance

69.05

-

130.1

Foot of steps, mixed MB–EB sherds

67.85

67.42

136

Continuation northward into Room B, many sherds

67.80

67.42

137

Continuation northward into Room B

68.32

67.80

143.1

Continuation northward into Room B

68.32

67.80

144

Continuation northeastward into Room B

68.32

67.80

145

Northeastern corner of Room B

68.32

67.80

146

Room B

68.32

67.80

147

Northern part of Room A

67.40

67.24

152

Room B, mixed MB–EB sherds; lower down is an EB burial circle

67.15

67.00

156.2

Niche in southern wall

67.80

67.38

162

Upper level in center of Room B, burials and MB sherds, bronze spearheads

68.30

67.80

181

Along southwestern wall between two entrances (1 and 3)

67.80

67.34

192

Upper layer of alluvium below steps of Entrance 3

68.18

67.80

193

Continuation eastward, MB layer

68.50

68.00

202

Eastern end of Room B

67.56

67.05

208

Between Rooms B and C, along eastern wall, layer of MB vessels

68.18

68.00

209

Layer of MB vessels alongside L208

68.09

67.50

215

Eastern end of Room B, EB layer below MB layer in L208 and L209

67.80

67.50

224

Along northwestern wall, in entrance to Room D

67.80

66.45

225

MB layer west of L208 and L209

67.80

66.45

230

Near entrance to Room D

68.30

68.00

231

Near Entrance 4 in northeastern wall of Room C, MB sherds above alluvium layer

68.80

67.60

245.2

Near Entrance 4 in Room C, MB sherds above alluvium layer

67.60

67.44

247

Near Entrance 4 in Room C, MB sherds below L230 and L231

68.07

67.25

292

APPENDIX 1: LOCUS LISTS FOR CAVES 548, 561, 562, 567

CAVE 562 (cont.) Locus

Description

Upper Elevation (m)

Lower Elevation (m)

248

Near Entrance 4 in Room C, MB sherds above alluvium layer

68.38

67.91

250

Layer of EB vessels

67.91

67.25

251

Alluvium layer in eastern part of cave, bones but no sherds

-

-

261

South of Entrance 3, MB layer above EB layer

67.85

67.00

264

Soil layer below L261

67.10

66.70

268

Soil layer below L261, many EB sherds

67.60

66.80

269.2

Layer of EB vessels in southwestern part of Room D, east of L268

67.34

66.82

271

Layer of EB vessels in northern part of Room D, at level of L269.2

67.55

66.82

272

Room D, removal of balk

-

-

274

Alluvium fill in depression, between Rooms B and D, MB sherds

67.82

66.65

276

Alluvium fill in depression, between Rooms B and D, MB sherds

67.92

67.75

279

Western side of Room D

68.30

67.30

280

Near eastern wall of Room D

67.76

67.45

281

Cleaning floor in Room D

67.45

67.10

282

Cleaning stones (wall?) in eastern part of Room D

67.53

67.10

283

North of stones in Room D

66.40

66.35

284

Central Room D, cleaning after roof removal

67.91

66.80

285

Layer of alluvium along southeastern wall of Room D, isolated MB burial

67.85

67.72

286

Along northeastern wall of Room D

67.85

67.20

287

Northwest Room D, layer of EB sherds on floor

67.06

66.72

288

Room D, beside and below L282

67.41

67.33

289

Room D, soil between stones in L282

67.46

67.21

290

Room D, soil with chalk crumbs

67.43

67.18

293

Room D, upper level east of steps of Entrance 5

67.31

67.19

294

Room D, east of L293, along line of stones (wall?)

67.23

67.01

295.1

Room D, southern entrance corridor

67.16

66.99

295.2

Room D, southern entrance corridor

67.09

-

296

Room D, lower level near eastern wall (see L282)

67.16

67.00

297

Room D, lower level near eastern wall (see L282)

67.18

67.00

300

Room D, cleaning bedrock floor in northern part of room

67.08

66.47

301

Room D, cleaning of niche in eastern wall

67.02

66.71

300

Room D, cleaning bedrock floor in northern part of room

67.08

66.47

301

Room D, cleaning of niche in eastern wall

67.02

66.71

293

APPENDIX 1: LOCUS LISTS FOR CAVES 548, 561, 562, 567

CAVE 567 Locus

Description

Upper Elevation (m)

Lower Elevation (m)

107.2

Steps and entrance to cave, many vessels and bones

67.60

64.00

110

Many vessels on either side of entrance; also includes sherds from sieving

64.14

64.00

111

West of entrance, floor level with many vessels

64.40

63.80

115

On the western side of the cave, many vessels and bones

64.44

63.72

116

Continuation of L115 to east, many vessels and bones

64.44

63.95

118

West of L116

64.50

63.80

119

Northeast of L118

64.50

63.55

120

Balk removal

67.10

63.55

121

Layer of vessels on west near northern balk

67.09

66.35

126

Layer of vessels along northern balk

63.95

63.55

127.1

Layer of vessels along northern balk, west of L126

-

-

130.2

Layer of vessels in northern part of cave, on either side of central balk

64.10

63.45

131.1

Layer of vessels in northern part of cave, on either side of central balk

64.04

63.33

134

Soil with white chalk crumbs below L130.2 on west

64.05

63.74

135

Soil with white chalk crumbs below L131.1 on east

64.10

63.86

138

Soil on bedrock in southwestern part of cave, around pillar base(?)

63.88

63.45

148

Soil below L135 on eastern side of central balk

63.85

63.72

149

Soil below L134 on western side of central balk, many vessels

63.81

63.74

150

Soil in southeastern part of the cave

63.89

63.71

151

Pit hewn in floor, below L149

63.74

63.67

154

On western side of cave

64.42

64.16

155

Fill with bones around a stone slab, below L148

63.76

63.46

156

Fill with bones, south of line of stones, below L154

64.16

64.12

157

Fill with bones, to the north of line of stones, below L154

64.16

63.45

160

Fill of ceiling debris and soil east of L130.2

64.23

64.10

161

Ceiling collapse below L131.1

64.34

64.10

164

Below L160, crushed burial layer

64.10

64.00

166

Below ceiling collapse in L161, burial layer

64.20

64.00

169

Burial layer mixed with ceiling collapse, many vessels

64.12

63.91

170

Fill below L164, near eastern entrance

64.04

63.87

171

Fill inside southeastern niche, single burial and several vessels

64.38

64.25

200

Cleaning of eastern part of cave after removal of roof

65.80

64.48

210

Alluvium in northeastern part of cave

65.42

65.08

211

Alluvium in northwestern part of cave

65.40

65.08

212

Ceiling collapse, below L210

65.08

64.43

213

Ceiling collapse, below L211

65.08

64.84

214

Fill of silty soil in entrance to eastern room (unexcavated)

65.08

64.29

216

Fill of silty soil below L212, no sherds

64.43

-

217

Fill of silty soil below L213, no sherds

64.84

63.95

222

Silty soil in eastern part of cave

-

-

223

Silty soil in western part of cave

63.95

63.55

294

APPENDIX 1: LOCUS LISTS FOR CAVES 548, 561, 562, 567

CAVE 567 (cont.) Locus

Description

Upper Elevation (m)

Lower Elevation (m)

226

Burial layer against western wall

64.38

64.19

227

Burial layer in northeastern part of cave

64.29

64.20

228

Northeastern part of cave, next to L227

64.25

64.06

232

In northeast, beside and below L228, below a layer of stones

64.20

63.93

233

Soil with white chalk crumbs, east of L228, and niche in wall containing human burial, vessels and Canaanean blade

64.20

63.95

234

Soil with chalk crumbs below L226, below ceiling collapse

64.10

64.03

239

Bones in the burial pithos

64.14

64.10

240.1

Burial pithos and around it

64.30

64.08

242

On western side of cave, beside and below L234, many vessels

64.20

63.80

243

Vessels around burial pithos

64.15

63.95

244

East of burial pithos

64.18

63.99

252

Burial layer below L232, many bones

63.98

63.90

253

Burial layer beside L243

63.99

63.94

254

Burial layer east of central balk

63.91

63.80

255

West of burial pithos

64.36

63.80

260

Burial layer alongside low stone wall, below L253, many vessels

64.05

63.81

262

Fill below L254

63.88

63.50

263

Fill beside and below L260

63.98

63.75

265

Burial layer below burial pithos

64.20

63.00

266

Fill south and below L263

63.95

63.50

267

Burial layer alongside L262

63.84

63.65

270

Fill in pits/depressions in center of cave

63.74

63.50

272

Cleaning bedrock below southern part of central balk

63.65

63.44

273

Alongside L272

64.83

63.74

275

Around stone slab in pit hewn in floor in center-west of cave

63.65

63.63

IAA R eports

No. 1 G. Avni and Z. Greenhut, The Akeldama Tombs Three Burial Caves in the Kidron Valley, Jerusalem, 1996, 129 pp. No. 2 E. Braun, Yiftaḥ’el Salvage and Rescue Excavations at a Prehistoric Village in Lower Galilee, Israel, 1997, 249 pp. No. 3 G. Edelstein, I. Milevski and S. Aurant, Villages, Terraces and Stone Mounds Excavations at Manaḥat, Jerusalem, 1987–1989, 1998, 149 pp. No. 4 C. Epstein, The Chalcolithic Culture of the Golan, 1998, 352 pp. + plans. Hardcover. No. 5 T. Schick, The Cave of the Warrior A Fourth Millennium Burial in the Judean Desert, 1998, 137 pp. No. 6 R. Cohen, Ancient Settlement of the Central Negev I: The Chalcolithic Period, the Early Bronze Age and the Middle Bronze Age I (Hebrew, English Summary), 1999, 396 pp. No. 7 R. Hachlili and A. Killebrew, Jericho The Jewish Cemetery of the Second Temple Period, 1999, 202 pp. No. 8 Z. Gal and Y. Alexandre, Ḥorbat Rosh Zayit An Iron Age Storage Fort and Village, 2000, 247 pp. No. 9 U. Dahari, Monastic Settlements in South Sinai in the Byzantine Period The Archaeological Remains, 2000, 250 pp. No. 10 Z. Yeivin, The Synagogue at Korazim The 1962–1964, 1980–1987 Excavations (Hebrew, English Summary), 2000, 216 pp. No. 11 M. Hartal, The al-Ṣubayba (Nimrod) Fortress Towers 11 and 9, 2001, 129 pp. No. 12 R. Gonen, Excavations at Efrata A Burial Ground from the Intermediate and Middle Bronze Ages, 2001, 153 pp. No. 13 E. Eisenberg, A. Gopher and R. Greenberg, Tel Te’o A Neolithic, Chalcolithic and Early Bronze Age Site in the Ḥula Valley, 2001, 227 pp. No. 14 R. Frankel, N. Getzov, M. Aviam and A. Degani, Settlement Dynamics and Regional Diversity in Ancient Upper Galilee Archaeological Survey of Upper Galilee, 2001, 175 pp. No. 15 M. Dayagi-Mendels, The Akhziv Cemeteries The Ben-Dor Excavations, 1941–1944, 2002, 176 pp. No. 16 Y. Goren and P. Fabian, Kissufim Road A Chalcolithic Mortuary Site, 2002, 97 pp. No. 17 A. Kloner, Maresha Excavations Final Report I: Subterranean Complexes 21, 44, 70, 2003, 183 pp. No. 18 A. Golani, Salvage Excavations at the Early Bronze Age Site of Qiryat Ata, 2003, 261 pp. No. 19 H. Khalaily and O. Marder, The Neolithic Site of Abu Ghosh The 1995 Excavations, 2003, 146 pp. No. 20 R. Cohen and R. Cohen-Amin, Ancient Settlement of the Negev Highlands II: The Iron Age and Persian Period (Hebrew, English Summary), 2004, 258 pp. No. 21 D. Stacey, Exavations at Tiberias, 1973–1974: The Early Islamic Periods, 2004, 259 pp. No. 22 Y. Hirschfeld, Excavations at Tiberias, 1989–1994, 2004, 234 pp.

No. 23 S. Ben-Arieh, Bronze and Iron Age Tombs at Tell Beit Mirsim, 2004, 212 pp. No. 24 M. Dothan and D. Ben-Shlomo, Ashdod VI: The Excavations of Areas H and K (1968–1969), 2005, 320 pp. No. 25 M. Avissar, Tel Yoqne am Excavations on the Acropolis, 2005, 142 pp. No. 26 M. Avissar and E.J. Stern, Pottery of the Crusader, Ayyubid, and Mamluk Periods in Israel, 2005, 187 pp. No. 27 E.C.M. van den Brink and Ram Gophna, Shoham (North), Late Chalcolithic Burial Caves in the Lod Valley, Israel, 2005, 214 pp. No. 28 N. Getzov, The Tel Bet Yeraḥ Excavations, 1994–1995, 2006, 204 pp. No. 29 A.M. Berlin, Gamla I: The Pottery of the Second Temple Period, the Shmarya Gutmann Excavations, 1976–1989, 2006, 181 pp. No. 30 R. Greenberg, E. Eisenberg, S. Paz and Y. Paz, Bet Yeraḥ: The Early Bronze Age Mound I: Excavation Reports, 1933–1986, 2006, 500 pp. No. 31 E. Yannai, En Esur ( Ein Asawir) I: Excavations at a Protohistoric Site in the Coastal Plain of Israel, 2006, 308 pp. No. 32 T.J. Barako, Tel Mor The Moshe Dothan Excavations, 1959–1960, 2007, 276 pp. No. 33 G. Mazor and A. Najjar, Bet She’an I: Nysa-Scythopolis The Caesareum and the Odeum, 2007, 316 pp. No. 34 R. Cohen and H. Bernick-Greenberg, Kadesh Barnea (Tell el-Qudeirat) 1976–1982, 2007. In 2 parts. Part 1: Text, 410 pp.; Part 2: Plates, Plans and Sections, 332 pp. No. 35 A. Erlich and A. Kloner, Maresha Excavations Final Report II: Hellenistic Terracotta Figurines from the 1989–1996 Seasons, 2008, 208 pp. No. 36 G. Avni, U. Dahari and A. Kloner, The Necropolis of Bet Guvrin—Eleutheropolis, 2008, 238 pp. No. 37 V. Tzaferis and S. Israeli, Paneas I: The Roman to Early Islamic Periods Excavations in Areas A, B, E, F, G and H, 2008, 196 pp. No. 38 V. Tzaferis and S. Israeli, Paneas II: Small Finds and Other Studies, 2008, 256 pp. No. 39 Z. Greenhut and A. De Groot, Salvage Excavations at Tel Moẓa The Bronze and Iron Age Settlements and Later Occupations, 2009, 363 pp. No. 40 M. Hartal, Paneas IV: The Aqueduct and the Northern Suburbs, 2009, 212 pp. No. 41 N. Getzov, R. Lieberman-Wander, H. Smithline and D. Syon, Ḥorbat Uẓa, the 1991 Excavations I: The Early Periods, 2009, 168 pp. No. 42 N. Getzov, D. Avshalom-Gorni, Y. Gorin-Rosen, E.J. Stern, D. Syon and A. Tatcher, Ḥorbat Uẓa, the 1991 Excavations II: The Late Periods, 2009, 232 pp. No. 43 J. Seligman, Naḥal Ḥaggit A Roman and Mamluk Farmstead in the Southern Carmel, 2010, 277 pp. No. 44 D. Syon and Z. Yavor, Gamla II: The Architecture, the Shmarya Gutmann Excavations, 1976–1989, 2010, 216 pp. No. 45 A. Kloner, E. Eshel, H.B. Korzakova and G. Finkielsztejn, Maresha Excavations Final Report III: Epigraphic Finds from the 1989–2000 Seasons, 2010, 247 pp. No. 46 Y. Dagan, The Ramat Bet Shemesh Regional Project The Gazetteer, 2010, 360 pp. No. 47 Y. Dagan, The Ramat Bet Shemesh Regional Project Landscape of Settlement From the Paleolithic to the Ottoman Periods, 2011, 356 pp. No. 48 R. Bar-Nathan and W. Atrash, Bet She’an II: Baysān The Theater Pottery Workshop, 2011, 411 pp. No. 49 Y. Alexandre, Mary’s Well, Nazareth The Late Hellenistic to the Ottoman Periods, 2012, 180 pp.

No. 50 D. Ben-Shlomo, The Azor Cemetery Moshe Dothan’s Excavations, 1958 and 1960, 2012, 238 pp. No. 51/1 E.J. Stern, Akko I: The 1991–1998 Excavations, the Crusader-Period Pottery, Part 1: Text, 2012, 192 pp. No. 51/2 E.J. Stern, Akko I: The 1991–1998 Excavations, the Crusader-Period Pottery, Part 2: Plates, 2012, 172 pp. No. 52 D. Ben-Ami, Jerusalem, Excavations in the Tyropoeon Valley (Giv ati Parking Lot) I, 2013, 396 pp. No. 53 Y. Porath, Caesarea Maritima Volume I: Herod’s Circus and Related Buildings Part I: Architecture and Stratigraphy, 2013, 244 pp. No. 54 R. Greenberg, Bet Yerah, The Early Bronze Age Mound II: Urban Structure and Material Culture, 1933–1986 Excavations, 2014, 316 pp. No. 55 E. Yannai and Y. Nagar, Bet Dagan, Intermediate Bronze Age and Mamluk-Period Cemeteries, 2004–2005 Excavations, 2014, 260 pp. No. 56 D. Syon, Gamla III: The Shmarya Gutmann Excavations 1976–1989, Finds and Studies, Part 1, 2014, 260 pp. No. 57 Y. Porath, Caesarea Maritima I: Herod’s Circus and Related Buildings Part 2: The Finds, 2015, 224 pp. No. 58/1 G. Mazor and W. Atrash, Bet She’an III: Nysa-Scythopolis The Southern and Severan Theaters, Part 1: The Stratigraphy and Finds, 2015, 288 pp. No. 58/2 G. Mazor and W. Atrash, Bet She’an III: Nysa-Scythopolis The Southern and Severan Theaters, Part 2: The Architecture, 2015, 382 pp. No. 59 D. Syon, Gamla III: The Shmarya Gutmann Excavations 1976–1989, Finds and Studies, Part 2, 2016, 380 pp. No. 60 M. Hartal, D. Syon., E. Stern and A. Tatcher, Akko II: The 1991–1998 Excavations, the Early Periods, 2016, 242 pp. No. 61 R. Greenberg, O. Tal and T. Da‘adli, Bet Yeraḥ III: Hellenistic Philoteria and Islamic al-Ṣinnabra, the 1933–1986 and 2007–2013 Excavations, 2017, 230 pp. No. 62 G. Mazor, W. Atrash and G. Finkielsztejn, Bet She’an IV: Hellenistic Nysa-Scythopolis The Amphora Stamps and Sealings from Tel Iẓṭabba, 2018, 196 pp. No. 63 S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn, Jerusalem, Western Wall Plaza Excavations I: The Roman and Byzantine Remains Architecture and Stratigraphy, 2019, pp. 276. No. 64. R. Rosenthal-Heginbottom, Jerusalem, Western Wall Plaza Excavations II: The Pottery from the Eastern Cardo, 2019, 337 pp. No. 65 A. Golani, Ashqelon Barne a, The Early Bronze Age Site I: The Excavations, 2019, 353 pp. No. 66/1 D. Ben-Ami and Y. Tchekhanovets, Jerusalem, Excavations in the Tyropoeon Valley (Giv ati Parking Lot) II, Part 1: Stratum V The Byzantine Period, 2020, 271 pp. No. 66/2 D. Ben-Ami and Y. Tchekhanovets, Jerusalem, Excavations in the Tyropoeon Valley (Giv ati Parking Lot) II, Part 2: Strata IV–I The Early Islamic Period, 2020, 439 pp. No. 66/3 D. Ben-Ami and Y. Tchekhanovets, Jerusalem, Excavations in the Tyropoeon Valley (Giv ati Parking Lot) II, Part 3: Complementary Studies of Various Finds, 2020, 282 pp. No. 67 S. Weksler-Bdolah and A. Onn, Jerusalem, Western Wall Plaza Excavations III: Quarry Remains and Small Finds from the Iron Age, Roman and Byzantine Periods, 2021, 230 pp. No. 68 Y. Dagan and S. Sadeh, En Esur ( Ein Asawir) III: Excavations in the Bronze Age Cemetery, 2021, 300 pp.