Emerging Research in Intelligent Systems: Proceedings of the CIT 2021 Volume 2 (Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems) 3030960455, 9783030960452

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Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems 406

Miguel Botto-Tobar Henry Cruz Angela Díaz Cadena Benjamin Durakovic   Editors

Emerging Research in Intelligent Systems Proceedings of the CIT 2021 Volume 2

Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems Volume 406

Series Editor Janusz Kacprzyk, Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Advisory Editors Fernando Gomide, Department of Computer Engineering and Automation—DCA, School of Electrical and Computer Engineering—FEEC, University of Campinas— UNICAMP, São Paulo, Brazil Okyay Kaynak, Department of Electrical and Electronic Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey Derong Liu, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, USA Institute of Automation, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China Witold Pedrycz, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, University of Alberta, Alberta, Canada Systems Research Institute, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland Marios M. Polycarpou, Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, KIOS Research Center for Intelligent Systems and Networks, University of Cyprus, Nicosia, Cyprus Imre J. Rudas, Óbuda University, Budapest, Hungary Jun Wang, Department of Computer Science, City University of Hong Kong, Kowloon, Hong Kong

The series “Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems” publishes the latest developments in Networks and Systems—quickly, informally and with high quality. Original research reported in proceedings and post-proceedings represents the core of LNNS. Volumes published in LNNS embrace all aspects and subfields of, as well as new challenges in, Networks and Systems. The series contains proceedings and edited volumes in systems and networks, spanning the areas of Cyber-Physical Systems, Autonomous Systems, Sensor Networks, Control Systems, Energy Systems, Automotive Systems, Biological Systems, Vehicular Networking and Connected Vehicles, Aerospace Systems, Automation, Manufacturing, Smart Grids, Nonlinear Systems, Power Systems, Robotics, Social Systems, Economic Systems and other. Of particular value to both the contributors and the readership are the short publication timeframe and the world-wide distribution and exposure which enable both a wide and rapid dissemination of research output. The series covers the theory, applications, and perspectives on the state of the art and future developments relevant to systems and networks, decision making, control, complex processes and related areas, as embedded in the fields of interdisciplinary and applied sciences, engineering, computer science, physics, economics, social, and life sciences, as well as the paradigms and methodologies behind them. Indexed by SCOPUS, INSPEC, WTI Frankfurt eG, zbMATH, SCImago. All books published in the series are submitted for consideration in Web of Science. For proposals from Asia please contact Aninda Bose ([email protected]).

More information about this series at https://link.springer.com/bookseries/15179

Miguel Botto-Tobar Henry Cruz Angela Díaz Cadena Benjamin Durakovic •

•

•

Editors

Emerging Research in Intelligent Systems Proceedings of the CIT 2021 Volume 2

123

Editors Miguel Botto-Tobar Eindhoven University of Technology Eindhoven, Noord-Brabant, The Netherlands

Henry Cruz Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Sangolquí, Ecuador

Angela Díaz Cadena University of Valencia Guayaquil, Ecuador

Benjamin Durakovic International University of Sarajevo Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina

ISSN 2367-3370 ISSN 2367-3389 (electronic) Lecture Notes in Networks and Systems ISBN 978-3-030-96045-2 ISBN 978-3-030-96046-9 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Contents

Innovation, Technology, and Society Public Policies in Work Insertion and Entrepreneurship in Women from Rumiñahui, Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Angie Fernández Lorenzo, Karen Vanessa Escobar Ortiz, Alfredo Geovanny Salazar Baño, Oscar Lenin Chicaiza Sánchez, and Raúl Ricardo Fernández Concepción Comparative Multivariate Analysis of Traditional and Active Learning Methodologies in a Public University . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Pedro Ramos De Santis Decision Tree Algorithm in the Mental Representations of Gender: A Socio-cognitive Construction in the Latency Stage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Carolina E. San Lucas, Cristina Páez-Quinde, Danilo Velasteguí, and Elena D. Rosero-Morales Factors that Contribute to Teachers’ Burnout During the COVID 19 Pandemic in Ecuador . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evelyn Almeida, Andres Baldassari, Jorge Bernal, Andrea Rosero, and Alexandra Zapata Public Policies for Strengthening the Cocoa Value Chain in Ecuador – from Design to Implementation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Jessica Priscilla Garcia Noboa, Alfonso Rafael Casanova Montero, and Carmen Elizabeth Lucero Novillo An Exploratory Study of University Students’ Perceptions of Learning Action Research Online . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mónica R. Tamayo and Diego Cajas

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Prospective Analysis in the Educational System Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE in the Face of COVID-19 Crisis: An Approach from the Game of Actors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lorenzo Adalid Armijos-Robles, Lizbeth Ariana Campos Carrillo, David Alejandro Armijos Muñoz, Camila Katherine Guamán Ordoñez, and Albarracín Karen

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Virtual Environments Web 2.0 as a Tool for the Development of the Reading Comprehension in the Basic Education Area . . . . . . . . . 104 Cristina Páez-Quinde, Sonia Armas-Arias, Daniel Morocho-Lara, and Mayra I. Barrera G. Community Tourism in Yunguilla, Ecuador: Analysis from the Approach of Sustainable Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117 Lorenzo Adalid Armijos-Robles, Cristopher Isaac Collaguazo-Narváez, and Theofilos Toulkeridis Prototype of an Intelligent Multimedia System for Physiotherapeutic Rehabilitation in a Geriatric Center . . . . . . . . . . 131 Christian Guanopatin, Kelding Jacho, Henry Jami, and Milton Escobar An Analysis of the Socioeconomic Resilience of Ecuadorian University Students Against SARS-CoV2: The Development and Validation of a Measurement Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145 Gustavo Hermosa-Vega, Giovanni Herrera-Enríquez, and Hugo Jácome Estrella Building a Digital Competences Scale: An Evaluation Experience in Elementary Education . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161 Ivan Iraola-Real, Roxana Zuñiga-Quispe, and Yesbany Cacha-Nuñez Virtual Activities to Strengthen Basic Math Skills in Children . . . . . . . . 173 Yesenia Quinga, Nancy Pilataxi, Verónica Carvajal, and Mauro Ocaña Digital Tourism 2.0 in the Diffusion of Guayaquil Culinary Anthropology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 Francisco Torres-Oñate, Cristina Páez-Quinde, Sonia López-Pérez, and Sonia Armas-Arias LECTO: A Smart Assistant for People with Visual Impairment for Reading Texts in Spanish . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198 Alex Ortega, Johanna Tobar Quevedo, Danni De la Cruz Guevara, and Andrea López López Logistic Regression Model and Decision Trees to Analyze Changes in Tourist Behavior: Tungurahua Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210 Angélica González-Sánchez, Johanna Monge-Martínez, Leonardo Ballesteros-López, and Sonia Armas-Arias

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Use of Social Networks in Operational and Strategic Management: The Case of the Ecuadorian Land Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222 Víctor Cuenca, Myriam Urbina, Arcenio Córdova, and Erick Cuenca Educational Experiences in Distance Social Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234 Alexander Pereira-García Scratchjr Visual Programming Language for Early Math Skills Development in 4–7 years Old Children . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245 Brigette Vega, Mishel Velasco, Mauro Ocaña, and Mejía Rebeca How Did Children Learn in an Online Course During Lockdown?: A Piagetian Approximation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259 Mauro Ocaña, Evelyn Almeida, and Shelagh Albán Equation of Knowledge and Aerospace Capacity of the Ecuadorian Air Force . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 273 Juanita García Aguilar, Víctor Enríquez Champutiz, Darwin Becerra Quimi, and Carlos Estrella Paredes Design of Virtual Educational Activities to Strengthen Laterality in Early Childhood . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 Chango Katherin, Pillajo Ana, Mejía Rebeca, Larrea Carolina, and Santos Filipe Analysis of the Social Factors (PESTEL) of Popular and Solidarity Economy Enterprises Post Covid . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299 Tania Morales Molina, S. Llamuca Pérez, and G. Bucheli Vasquez Managing Technology and Sustained Innovation, and Business Development Design of the Strategic Planning Model, Based on the Prospective Analysis for the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE . . . . . . . . . 321 Lorenzo Adalid Armijos-Robles and Angie Fernández Lorenzo Mental Health Conditions Under the Home Office Modality Due to Covid-19 in Employees of a Bottling Company in Ecuador . . . . . . . . 338 Denisse Izquierdo-Yanez, Cristian Crespo-Verdugo, Luis Duque-Cordova, Kenny Escobar-Segovia, and Anna Carrozzini-Villagrán Decision Trees for the Analysis of Digital Marketing in the Tourism Industry: Tungurahua Case Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351 Sonia Armas-Arias, Cristina Páez-Quinde, Leonardo Ballesteros-López, and Sonia López-Pérez

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Influence of the Discrepancy Between the Real and Ideal Leader and the Quality of the LMX Relationship: Case of the Ecuadorian Savings and Credit Banks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362 Sandra Patricia Galarza Torres, Álvaro Patricio Carrillo Punina, Betty Elizabeth Cueva Ochoa, and Frank Patricio Landázuri Recalde Succession Factors in Family Business . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373 Betzabé Maldonado-Mera and Doreleym Manzano-Molina Business Succession Index: Pichincha Family . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386 Betzabé Maldonado-Mera and Doreleym Manzano-Molina Strategic Thinking Index of Vice-Chancellors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397 Betzabé Maldonado-Mera and Doreleym Manzano-Molina Seventeen Classes Teaching How to Interpret and Produce Texts: A Competency Education Experience for Undergraduate Accounting Students . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411 Ivan Iraola-Real, Beatriz Baylon-Gonzales, Juan Palomino-Paredes, and Alonso Iraola-Arroyo Predominant Cultural Dimensions in the University of the Armed Forces ESPE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 Álvaro Patricio Carrillo Punina, Sandra Patricia Galarza Torres, Mónica Franco Pombo, and Rubén Aroca Jácome Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437

Innovation, Technology, and Society

Public Policies in Work Insertion and Entrepreneurship in Women from Rumiñahui, Ecuador Angie Fernández Lorenzo1(B) , Karen Vanessa Escobar Ortiz1 , Alfredo Geovanny Salazar Baño1 , Oscar Lenin Chicaiza Sánchez1 , and Raúl Ricardo Fernández Concepción2 1 Department of Economic, Administrative and Commercial Sciences, Universidad de Las

Fuerzas Armadas-ESPE, Quito, Ecuador [email protected] 2 Universidad de Pinar del Río, Pinar del Río, Cuba

Abstract. At present, the differences related to work insertion and entrepreneurship of women still persist at international, national and local levels. This investigation aims to evaluate the current public policies and their relationship with the work insertion and entrepreneurship of the women of the canton, to redesign them in order to mitigate the current socio-economic problems. Theoretical and empirical methods of investigation were applied. In the design of the public policy proposal, the MULTIPOL method was specifically used with the participation of 10 experts. Three public policies are proposed, which content is related to the online training of women who have ongoing projects to improve their income and increase their lifespan, the design and application of specific training programs for different occupational groups to which the women of the canton belong, mainly focused on services and sales, and encourage voluntary affiliation to social security in working women. It was evidenced that the public policies established by the COPRODER in the Local Agenda of Equality in 2016, referring to entrepreneurship and economic income, have not been developed from an integral point of view, as it was done in the present study in order to perfect public policy by integrating the aspects found in the research. Keywords: Work insertion · Entrepreneurship · Public policy · Rumiñahui

1 Introduction Differences in work insertion and development of women’s enterprises at present still persist, even more when they come from low income class and have low educational level [1], therefore this research has the purpose of evaluating the current public policies and their relation to the work insertion and entrepreneurship of the women of Rumiñahui canton, to design a proposal of public policy that improves and diminishes the socioeconomic problems the canton presents; since it is possible that inadequate public policies on employment and entrepreneurship are the cause of the insufficient work insertion and © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Botto-Tobar et al. (Eds.): CIT 2021, LNNS 406, pp. 3–16, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9_1

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entrepreneurship of women. The existing public policies have not been developed from an integral point of view, they are quite general, they do not specify the main groups of women to which they are directed, they focus on the same aspects, without taking into account other characteristics and phenomena that currently concern women of the canton. This is where the importance of this research lies.

2 Literature Review 2.1 Public Politics Public policy has been defined by a large number of authors over the years, for example, for Contento [2] public policies are actions the state develops in favor of the population, in order to solve the various problems that the same population or state entities recognize. He also states that through these public policies is possible to manifest certain preferences, interests and political inclinations. According to Cedeño [3], public policies originate because of a citizens’ need or a disadvantage and is the responsibility of the state. In addition, according to the historical definitions that are presented in his investigation, he affirms that he considers them as a set of successive phases, a response to a problem. In order to analyze a public policy, its components must be recognized, which can be “principles, values, programs, norms, results and consequences, over a certain period” [4]. Regarding the process of designing a public policy, several phases are described: Identification and definition of the problem; inclusion of the public problem in the agenda, at which time the tone and orientation to the action of the authority is given; presentation of alternatives or options that integrate the execution program to achieve the objective and counteract the public problem; decision to select the relevant and necessary alternative; definition of the policy program to be implemented; implementation of the policy program; evaluation of the effects produced and the achievement of the objectives set [5]. However, in Ecuador, a Guide for the formulation of sectoral public policies was published, where only three phases are proposed: “formulation, implementation (or execution), monitoring and evaluation” [6]. Public policies related to employment and entrepreneurship should not generate jobs that last a short time, without social security, with minimum wages and that do not provide stability; but instead they must be linked to social policies economic, labor and employment that allow the creation of quality jobs for groups of priority attention, in order not only to get work, but to conserve it and to ascend in it, besides the possibility of undertaking and self-employment, all this in appropriate circumstances [1]. For Ramió [7] prior to analyzing Public Administration Theories, he considers essential to address them from its conceptualization, for this reason it is worth mentioning that public administrations are organizations with the objective of satisfying the interests of society, in addition all entities that are part of such organization are considered as such for analytical purposes. The organizations have been transformed in time and from this transformation are born the new styles of action for them [8]. We speak of trends or approaches that have allowed this evolution over the years, these approaches can be classified as classical, humanistic, structuralism, neoclassical, contemporary, each with specific characteristics [7, 8].

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However, for Ramió [7], public administration is composed of a broad social, political and organizational context, and states that the need and benefit of the relationship between administrative theories and public administration is undeniable. He highlights that there are characteristics that differentiate public organizations from private organizations, mainly that public organizations do not decide the scope of their action, since it is determined by the state; they are more vulnerable to the country’s politics; they are subject to greater control and pressure for transparency; there is greater centralization and bureaucratization; the management of human resources is limited; the management of financial resources is more complicated due to budgetary formalities and the existence of legal controls of spending, among others. Thus, administrative theories as a tool of knowledge can be very useful in the public sector, but unfortunately “there is no administrative theory or it is insufficiently developed” to be “applied specifically to public administration, with concepts, values and techniques of its own” [7]. 2.2 Public Policy on Employment and Entrepreneurship in Ecuador. The Case of Women The National Development Plan 2017–2021: A Whole Life, or also called the National Plan for Good Living 2017–2021, describe several national objectives, each of them with defined policies, which seek to be applied at the national level; so that the Development and Territorial Plan of Rumiñahui canton, update 2014–2019, specifies the public policies that the GADMUR has designed in order to link it with the national priorities, with the objectives of the National Plan of Good Living and the competences from the municipal GAD; are the following [9]: • Encourage the use of salaries through technical studies and management practices. • Develop training and education programs articulated with the requirements of labor demand and self-employment. • Implementation of technology in productive processes which are friendly to the environment. • Strengthen the integral systems of direct and alternative marketing, whether markets, producers’ fairs, local solidarity baskets, peasant stores, public purchases, or fair trade, identified in the baseline of the General Coordination of Commercial Networks of MAGAP. • Promote access to credit and investment for the development of the productive sectors in coordination with the competent entities. Women are considered as a vulnerable group or the so-called priority attention group (PAG) because of the different situations to which, over the years they have had to face. Nevertheless, the role of women in society “has evolved over time going over social exclusion, dependence on man, activity in secondary jobs; to finally become protagonists and achieve equal rights in society” [10]. The public policies for women in the Ecuadorian state mostly focus on gender equality, so the Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador in Article 70 states that “the State will formulate and implement policies to achieve equality between women and men, (…)

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and will incorporate the gender approach into plans and programs and provide technical assistance for its mandatory application in the public sector” [11]. 2.3 Women in the Economic Sphere in Ecuador In Ecuador, according to the INEC [12], 50.44% of the total inhabitants are women: according to the classification of the labor market, 37.3% are considered as full employed and 60.4% are underemployed women. Of the total of employed women by branch of activity, the highest percentage is 26.5% corresponding to trade, repair of vehicles and personal effects, however a value that is worth noting is that domestic service is scarcely 5.8%, but when evaluating the branch of domestic service, it is occupied by 94.1% of women in relation to the total population dedicated to that branch. According to the occupational category of the total of women, 33.9% work for their own, which could be translated as working in their own enterprise, followed by 28.1% who are private employees and as mentioned above the percentage of domestic employees it coincides with only 5.8% [13]. Regarding to Rumiñahui, according to the INEC [12] of the population of the canton, 43,935 are women, which represents 51.18% of the population; of which, 59.7% are housewives and have informal employment according to the Baseline Study of the priority attention groups in Rumiñahui canton [10]. In addition, the main problems of the economic system of this group are the shortage of work, the difficulty to access credits, racial discrimination in private and public companies, physical condition, age, pregnancy, and marital status; little training, and the limited knowledge of women in the canton to start new projects and economic activities [14]. 2.4 Public Policies for Women in Rumiñahui The municipality of Rumiñahui has an institution called Rumiñahui Social Mission, which was founded in 2005 with the objective of protecting the rights of the PAG of the Rumiñahui canton, through contributions in the field of health, productive training plans and cultural advertising. Because of the joint work of the competent personnel involved, Rumiñahui Social Mission became the leading organization to promote entrepreneurship, art, health, and culture in the canton [15]. Rumiñahui canton has the Cantonal Council for the Protection of Rights of Rumiñahui (COPRODER), which “is a body for defining public policies, composed by representatives of the public sector and civil society parity, responsible of coordinating the Comprehensive Protection System of Rumiñahui canton” [16]. The COPRODER has identified several problems of women of the canton, which have been determined thanks to different areas studied; This is how the organization drew up the Local Equality Agenda of Rumiñahui canton, which describes policies based on the aforementioned problems. In the axis of entrepreneurship and economic income, the policies were: • Strengthen and make effective the role of women in the economic-productive development of the canton, and • Strengthen and consolidate the integral transformation of the educational system and the production of knowledge to promote the professionalization of women [17].

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3 Materials and Methods For the present investigation, the mixed approach was used, through which quantitative and qualitative data were collected, analyzed and linked in the same investigation. The type of research that was used for this project is explanatory research. The modality used in the first instance is documentary bibliographic research, since the information obtained for the reference background was obtained from various bibliographical sources, emphasizing the current public policies for women described in the Local Agenda of Equality of Rumiñahui canton [17]. The programs and projects that include the various public policies of several countries were also analyzed. Meanwhile, the modality for the collection of information is the field research, because data were directly obtained from women belonging Rumiñahui canton; and finally, for the redefinition of public policies, the MULTIPOL method was used. To determine a sample, the formula of the simple estimation method for the Random Unrestricted Sampling was applied [18]. The defined parameters will be current population of women provided directly by the municipality (N = 54648); level of significance (α = 0.05); absolute error (d = 0.05); probability value (P = 0.5). The sample size calculated is 382 women. For the determination of the number of women per parish, the formula for calculating the sample was applied by strata with proportional allocation [18]; establishing the following: for Sangolquí 261, Cotogchoa 17, San Rafael 30, Rumipamba 3, Fajardo 25 and San Pedro 46 women, respectively. This survey was applied to the aforementioned sample size, as a reference, takink into account that it’s not possible to randomize. However, a pilot test was previously carried out at 10% of the sample and the corresponding adjustments were made. This survey was carried out in the different parishes of the canton as part of the project “Promotion of the generation of sectoral policies through technical advice for the updating and monitoring of the baseline of the priority attention groups of Rumiñahui canton”. The value of Cronbrach’s alpha of the survey is 0.545, which means that the internal consistency of the scale used, is average. The analysis of the data was carried out applying descriptive and inferential statistics using the statistical package Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version 22 for Windows. Regarding the methods of analysis applied, referring to descriptive statistics, frequency analysis was carried out to determine the majority percentages in the investigation. Regarding the inferential statistics studies were performed on the Spearman coefficient, Chi squared, Kruskal Wallis. For the design of public policy, the MULTIPOL method was used, which allows “comparing different actions or solutions to a problem based on criteria and multiple policies” [19]. It was carried out with the participation of 10 pertinent experts selected. The MULTIPOL (Multicriteria and Policy) method is considered as a very simple and useful method, because it evaluates the actions and policies considering a weighted average, that is, that each action or possible solution is valued according to each criterion through a simple scale of notation, this assessment is achieved through surveys or meetings with experts, emphasizing that it is necessary to reach an agreement; and in relation to policies, these also involve the allocation of weights according to the criteria set forth [19].

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Based on the scores obtained and previously entered into the LIPSOR-MULTIPOL software, it is possible to graphically obtain the best results for decision-making, specifically at the level of proximity between policies and scenarios, and at the level of proximity between actions and policies.

4 Results 4.1 Analysis of the Current Employment and Entrepreneurship Public Policy The public policies described in the Local Equality Agenda are quite general and do not specify the main groups of women to whom they are addressed, the specification is a little more detailed in the respective guidelines and actions of each one, however they are focused on the same aspects, for example in the first policy of entrepreneurship and economic income, the three guidelines and the four priority actions focused on the role of women in the economic sphere, mainly for those in poverty and extreme poverty, from the point of view of social insurance, job offers, undertakings and training, without taking into account the other subgroups of women in the canton, which have been specified thanks to this research, such as women without a university degree, Afro-descendants and indigenous people, victims of violence, etc. With regard to the second policy, it basically focuses on promoting the professionalization of women in a very general way, without taking into account aspects such as the main occupations of women in the canton or the means of access for such professionalization, which was also evidenced thanks to this investigation. Therefore, it can be concluded that the municipality has policies established for six different axes, however, regarding entrepreneurship and economic income it is not evident that previously public policies have been developed from an integral point of view, in which they take into account other characteristics and phenomena that currently affect the women of the canton; so that what was done in the present investigation was to take into consideration other socioeconomic indicators, in order to perfect public policy by integrating the aspects found during the investigation. 4.2 Survey Application to Women of Rumiñahui Survey application shows the following main results: 77.3% of women surveyed over 24 years of age have not obtained a university degree, and of the total number of respondents, most have studied only up to the Unified General Baccalaureate with 39.3%, which represents a great loss and that being the majority of advanced ages, they do not consider starting a university or technological career. In relation to women who have been victims of any type of violence, the majority of those surveyed affirm that they have not been attacked in any way, which does not exactly coincide with the current data of the country and the constant news of aggressions and femicides in the last months, as more and more women are victims of violence. With regard to the use of the internet and mobile telephony, most of the respondents said they used a lot of these services with 39.3% and 48.4% respectively. Another fact that is relevant is that of the women surveyed, 64.4% currently work and of those, 40.7% of them are service workers and sellers.

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On the other hand, the vast majority of respondents mention that they are not under any figure of affiliation to social security with 58.6%, this being an unfavorable result since these women would not be taking into account the benefits of being part of social security. Women who claim to have undertaken an enterprise are 42.9% of respondents, of which 38.4% of them mention that these projects are or were for the production of fresh and individualized food, with a life time of over 3 years in its majority, that is to say 47.6%. With respect to the Chi-square tests, the indicators that were found to be statistically significant with respect to the Work indicator are the university degree, the educational level, the access to accelerated basic general education, the place of use of the ICT, both at home as at work; the figure of affiliation to the social security, the condition of underemployment, whether it is employment for not full time, paid below the minimum or no condition of underemployment; and the situation of not getting a job or having lost it. Similarly, in relation to the Chi-square test, the indicators that turned out to be statistically significant with respect to the Training indicator to improve income or get work are the ethnic self-identification, the use of the Internet, the occupational group to which it belongs, the undertakings carried out and the training to develop projects. With the Chi-square test, regarding entrepreneurship, the indicators that turned out to be statistically significant are the ethnic self-identification, the type of aggressor that has been victimized her, the use of the internet, the training to improve their income or to get work and the condition of underemployment where their capacity as workers is not used. With the Chi square test with respect to the time of life of enterprises, the indicators that turned out to be statistically significant are the age and the type of patrimonial violence. With the Chi square test, regarding the Training to develop enterprises, the indicators that turned out to be statistically significant are the type of physical and psychological violence, the type of aggressor, the training to improve their income or get work and the institutions where they have received this training. With respect to the Spearman correlation coefficients, the indicators that were found to be statistically significant according to the previous test mostly have a positive correlation and, in the same way, most correlations are very low. With regard to the Kruskal Wallis test, with the Work indicator, the significance is 0.417, which, being greater than 0.05, means that there are no significant differences and that there is a similar behavior in the different parishes, and the highest rank is that of the parish of San Rafael (214.93) which means that it is the one that has better behavior. Regarding the training to improve income or get work, the significance is 0.188, since being greater than 0.05 means that there are no significant differences and that there is a similar behavior among parishes, in addition the highest rank is that of the parish of Rumipamba (263.83) that is to say that it is the one that has better behavior.

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In relation to whether the undertakings have been carried out, the significance is 0.179, since being greater than 0.05 means that there are no significant differences and that there is a similar behavior among the parishes, in addition, the highest rank is that of the parish of San Pedro de Taboada (213.30) that is to say that it is the one that has better behavior. With reference to the time of life of the undertakings, the significance is 0.029 which, being less than 0.05, means that there are significant differences and that there are different behaviors, in addition the highest rank is that of the parish of Rumipamba (125.50) that is to say that it is the one that has better behavior. Regarding whether it has received training to develop the projects, the significance is 0.888 that being greater than 0.05 means that there are no significant differences and that there is a similar behavior among the parishes, also the highest rank is that of the parish of Cotogchoa (105.67) that is to say that it is the one that has better behavior. In an integral way, the significance is 0.014, which, being less than 0.05, means that there are significant differences and that there are different behaviors, in addition, the highest rank is that of the parish of San Pedro de Taboada (1018.49, which has better performance in the indicators evaluated. 4.3 Application of the MULTIPOL Method The application of this method began at the end of the corresponding statistical analysis of the survey carried out on women in Rumiñahui canton, in addition to the respective analysis derived from an evaluation from the critical point of view to the current public employment and entrepreneurship policy for women, exposed in the Local Equality Agenda [17]. Based on these analyzes, we proceeded to define the criteria, policies, actions and scenario that were part of the survey of experts with which the MULTIPOL method was developed, it should be mentioned that the survey previously consisted of a self-assessment of them focusing on the knowledge they possess with respect to the definition of public policies, along with the survey specifically necessary for the implementation of the MULTIPOL method. The criteria, policies, actions and scenario prepared as a result of the aforementioned analyzes are the following: Criteria C.1. Promote work equity between women who hold a university degree and those who do not. C.2. Increase training with an economic approach for afrodescendant and indigenous women. C.3. Promote the development of new ventures for afrodescendant and indigenous women. C.4. Strengthen existing ventures through comprehensive training. C.5. Support women victims of violence with training focused on the development of enterprises. C.6. Reduce underemployment by creating ventures.

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C.7. Develop specialized training courses based on occupations performed by women in the canton. C.8. Promote the increase of affiliation to social security in working women.

Policies P.1. Promote employment in women who have not obtained their university degree. P.2. Manage training programs to improve income, get employment and develop ventures for afrodescendant and indigenous women. P.3. Stimulate and facilitate opportunities for Afro-descendant and indigenous women to start their businesses. P.4. Train online women who have ongoing ventures in order to improve their income and increase their lifespan. P.5. Prioritize training focused on the development of enterprises for women who are or have been victims of any type of violence. P.6. Promote the creation of ventures for women who are in some underemployment condition. P.7. Design and apply specific training programs for the different occupational groups to which the women of the canton belong, mainly focused on services and sales. P.8. Promote voluntary affiliation to social security for women workers.

Actions A.1. Promote recruitment campaigns for women without a university degree by publishing job offers that reiterate and invite women whose educational level does not exceed the Baccalaureate. A.2. Maintain the courses developed by Rumiñahui Social Mission and encourage the inclusion of Afro-descendant and indigenous women in such training. A.3. Provide the necessary opportunities for Afro-descendant and indigenous women to start their business maintaining tax, credit and financial incentives; plus, the commercial and technological advice specified in the Rumiñahui Local Equality Agenda [17]. A.4. Develop training to improve the income of women who have ongoing ventures through the Internet since most of the women surveyed have access to it, and in this way it would avoid inconveniences in relation to the lack of time to attend training courses, mainly to women older than 24 years of age so that these enterprises have a longer life time. A.5. Focus training on psychological support and the desire to excel so that women who have been victims of violence feel supported and can set goals to create ventures in order to become aware that they can generate their own income. A.6. Maintain the incentives and advice specified in ALI (2016) in addition to providing facilities for women in a situation of underemployment who wish to increase their income or focus on a stable job to undertake projects.

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A.7. Continue the courses developed by Rumiñahui Social Mission, in addition to including training focused on existing occupational groups, enhancing their skills, mainly in services and sales, since the highest percentage of women in the canton are dedicated to these activities. A.8. Conduct dissemination campaigns about the benefits that people affiliated with social security have, in order to raise awareness and invite more women to join.

Scenarios For the establishment of the scenarios, only an optimistic scenario was taken into account, one in which, based on the incorporation of criteria such as those mentioned above, the indicators of employment and entrepreneurship of the women of the canton are positively boosted; because what is sought with public policy is a considerable improvement, but not a worsening or a continuation of the trend. Hence, pessimistic and trend scenarios have not been chosen. Participation of Experts With respect to the selected experts, 10 experts linked to the definition of public policies were chosen, one of them is part of the staff of Rumiñahui Municipal Government specifically of the COPRODER, two are research professors of the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas - ESPE, and seven are international experts from Spain, Mexico and Cuba. The conformation of the group of experts and the results of the calculations of the coefficient of experts (K) extracted from the self-assessment survey. The coefficient of experts (K) was calculated applying the formula K = ½ (Kc + Ka) described by Barroso & Cabero [20]. It should be noted that according to the authors mentioned above, the coefficients with values lower than 0.8 are not considered in the study [20]. The two most relevant characteristics of the group of experts are that the 10 experts in their self-assessment obtained an Expert Coefficient K > 0.8, for this reason all the experts surveyed have been included in the study, and also the average number of years of professional experience of the experts is 26 years old. 4.3.1 Results of the MULTIPOL Method When gathering in a consolidated matrix all the data from the matrices made by each of the experts, the method was executed by entering the data in the LIPSOR-MULTIPOL software, through which the following results were obtained, as observed in Fig. 1, to achieve the desired scenario, the policies to be prioritized are number 4, 7 and 8. Figure 2 shows the actions closest to the three policies to be prioritized for the achievement of the desired scenario, for the policy 4 the resulting actions are 4 and 7; for policy 7 the actions are 3 and 7; and for policy 8 action 8.

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Fig. 1. Plane of proximity between scenarios and policies. Source: MULTIPOL software

On Table 1 it is represented the combination of scenario with policies and prioritized actions. Table 1. Policies and prioritized actions Scenario Optimistic, the one in which, based on the incorporation of criteria such as those mentioned above, the indicators of employment and entrepreneurship of the women of the canton can be positively boosted Policies

P.4. Train online women who have ongoing ventures in order to improve their income and increase their lifespan

P.7. Design and implement P.8. Promote voluntary specific training programs for affiliation to social security the different occupational for women workers groups to which the women of the canton belong

(continued)

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A. Fernández Lorenzo et al. Table 1. (continued)

Actions

A.4. Develop training to improve the income of women who have ongoing ventures through the Internet since most of the women surveyed have access to it, and in this way it would avoid inconveniences in relation to the lack of time to attend training courses, mainly to women older than 24 years so that these enterprises have a longer life time

A.3. Provide the necessary opportunities for Afro-descendant and indigenous women to start their business maintaining tax, credit and financial incentives; plus the commercial and technological advice specified in the Rumiñahui Local Equality Agenda [17]

A.8. Conduct dissemination campaigns about the benefits that people affiliated with social security have, in order to raise awareness and invite more women to join

A.7. Continue the courses developed by Rumiñahui Social Mission, in addition to including training focused on existing occupational groups, enhancing their skills, mainly in services and sales, since the highest percentage of women in the canton are dedicated to these activities

Source: Own elaboration

Fig. 2. Plane of proximity between actions and policies. Source: MULTIPOL software

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15

5 Conclusions Once the theory on public policies is revised, it can be shown that it is a concept for which different authors have different perspectives to consider it as such. However, they agree that there must be the intervention of a governmental authority so that it can be accredited as such. Regarding public policies related to employment and entrepreneurship, it is important to mention that they must not generate jobs that last a short time, without social security, with minimum wages and that do not provide stability. On the contrary, they must be linked to social, economic and work policies that allow the creation of quality jobs for these priority attention groups, in order not only to obtain work, but also to conserve and promote it, in addition to the possibility of undertaking and selfemployment, all this in appropriate circumstances. So far no administrative theory has been developed specifically applied to public administration, with its own concepts and techniques. However, it is possible to use the traditionally known administrative theories, as an instrument of application to the public field. The municipality of Rumiñahui has established public policies for six different axes through the COPRODER in the Local Agenda for Equality [17], however in regard to the axis of entrepreneurship and economic income, it is not evident that public policies have been previously developed from an integral point of view, in which other characteristics and phenomena that currently affect women in the canton are taken into consideration, as the way it was done in this study in order to refine public policy by integrating the aspects found on the research. Thanks to the development of the MULTIPOL method, it can be concluded that in order to achieve an optimistic scenario, the policies to be prioritized are number 4, 7 and 8, which are: training women who have ongoing ventures to improve their income online and increase their lifespan; design and implement specific training programs for the different occupational groups to which the women of the canton belong, mainly focused on services and sales; and encourage voluntary affiliation to social security in women workers.

References 1. Zúñiga, G.: Employment Policies for Vulnerable Groups. Ildis, Caracas (2011) 2. Contento, D.: The Public Policy of Inclusion of Young People in the Labor Market: Study of the Program My First Job in Loja Province. Instituto de Altos Estudios Nacionales, Quito (2017) 3. Cedeño, E.: Public Infrastructure Policies for Basic Services of the 2014–2019 Administration of the Municipal Autonomous Decentralized Government of the Chone Canton. Analysis of Policies Directed to the Urban-Marginal Neighborhoods of the City. Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito (2018) 4. Lanas, E.: Public Policies on Solidarity Economy in Ecuador. Universidad Andina Simón Bolívar, Quito (2014) 5. Vásquez, S.: Theoretical review of public policies to determine the initial components of a model for the planning of procurement in the department of Antioquia. Law Studies 73(162), 77–105 (2016). https://doi.org/10.17533/udea.esde.v73n162a04

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6. SENPLADES: Guide for the Formulation of Sectoral Public Policies. SENPLADES, Quitos (2011) 7. Ramió, C.: Theory of the Organization and Public Administration. Tecnos, Barcelona (2016) 8. López, M., Arias, L., Rave, S.: The organizations and the administrative evolution. Scientia et Technica. 2(31), 147–152 (2006). https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/849/84911639026.pdf 9. GADMUR: Development Plan and Territorial Planning of Rumiñahui Canton 2012–2025. Update 2014–2019. GADMUR, Sangolquí (2014) 10. ESPE: Baseline Study of the Priority Care Groups in Rumiñahui Canton. ESPE, Sangolquí (2013) 11. Ecuador: Constitution of the Republic of Ecuador. Constituent Assembly, Quito (2008) 12. INEC: Population and Demographics. INEC, Quito (2010) 13. INEC: Women and Men of Ecuador in Figures III. INEC, Quito (2013) 14. GADMUR: Development Plan and Territorial Planning 2012–2025. GADMUR, Sangolquí (2012) 15. Rumiñahui Social Mission: Rumiñahui Social Mission: Working for the Community. Rumiñahui Social Mission, Sangolqui (2018) 16. COPRODER: COPRODER: We (2018). http://coproder.com/nosotros/ 17. COPRODER: Local Agenda of Equality–ALE of Rumiñahui Canton. Cantonal Council for the Protection of Rights of Rumiñahui, Sangolquí (2016) 18. Calero, A.: Statistics III. Félix Valera Editorial, Havana (2003) 19. Godet, M.: The Toolbox of Strategic Foresight. LIPSOR, Paris (2000) 20. Barroso, J., Cabero, J.: The use of expert judgment for the evaluation of ICT: the coefficient of expert competence. Pedagogy Magazine. 65(2), 25–38 (2013). https://recyt.fecyt.es/index. php/BORDON/article/view/22403

Comparative Multivariate Analysis of Traditional and Active Learning Methodologies in a Public University Pedro Ramos De Santis1,2(B) 1 Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral, Guayaquil, Ecuador

[email protected] 2 Universidad Nacional de Tumbes, UNTUMBES, Escuela de Post-Grado, Tumbes, Perú

Abstract. To rethink the traditional methodology of access to the university and due to the low admission rate and academic performance of the applicants, the Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral (ESPOL) implemented in 2018 the pilot program of the methodology active learning, a learning modality centered on the student and supported by technological resources. The objective of this study is to demonstrate the effectiveness of this innovative modality in academic performance at the end of the first year of the university career for those who approved the entrance, comparing it with the traditional modality. Descriptive and inferential for univariate analysis and multinomial logistic regression techniques for multivariate analysis are applied, being academic performance the dependent variable. Applying an innovative methodology allows a higher academic performance both in admission and during the development of the student’s first year of university. Keywords: Academic performance · Learning process · Multinomial logistic analysis

1 Introduction The low rate of admission and academic performance in the admissions system and the low rate of approval in transversal and fundamental subjects of exact sciences in the first years of the university career led the Escuela Superior Politécnica del Litoral to reconsider whether continue using a traditional teaching-learning modality or replace it with innovative modalities that focus their process on the student and that consist of group and individual activities that, with the appropriate technological support, make the student responsible for their own evolution in an integral way; the objective is that acquire competences, skills and attitudes that go beyond memorization, and thus achieve an adequate development of their university career and professional life. Students who finish secondary school and attend the admission course at ESPOL and in general at any institution of higher education in Ecuador, lack solid knowledge of the contents of the exact science subjects and study habits; if the foregoing is added to the recognized academic rigor of ESPOL, the result is a reduced admission rate, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Botto-Tobar et al. (Eds.): CIT 2021, LNNS 406, pp. 17–30, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9_2

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even when the institution collaborates with activities in addition to the course such as academic tutorials and reinforcement classes, and in many cases even those who manage to enter the institution have problems in their academic performance causing delays in the completion of the career, high repetition rate of subjects and in some cases desertion. These antecedents motivated the institution to establish the Active Learning modality since 2018, as an alternative to the always used traditional methodology, considering a series of group and individual activities based on technology, where the teacher is the guide of the process and the student manages to express and justify answers in writing and orally manner, with an evaluation system and online assistance that includes the use of videos, reading controls, conceptual and procedural questions, application exercises about the subject matter to Treat in the face-to-face class, which are the starting point to improve academic performance achieving meaningful learning instead of the wellknown memorization. The conceptual base on which the elements of the innovative process are sustained, and its rigor led students to the opportunity and need to develop skills, handle syntax and semantics in the use of definitions in exact sciences and the use and understanding of scientist models to solving problems. The objective of this research, considering academic performance as a discriminant variable, was to compare and forecast by means of descriptive and inferential statistical tools and multinomial logistic regression technique, the group of students who approved the admission and attended the course with active learning with those who did it in a traditional way, at the end of the first year of the university career.

2 Active Learning Methodology After a selection process that involves variables of an academic, social, and demographic nature, parallels of 50 students (10 groups of 5 students) are formed, guided by three teachers. For each of the exact science subjects taught in the admission course, 7 activities are developed within each chapter of course content. Figure 1 shows the Active Learning methodology cycle and the activities that compose it. The first activity is autonomous, in which the student, through videos and an instructional reading guide that details the topic to be discussed, the objectives, examples and pages to review in the guidebook, prepares the content of the class. At the beginning of the class the student develops a reading control in two rounds: individual and group through an online platform. Then, through feedback, the results are projected and doubts about each question are answered. Next, the workshop activity is developed, which consists of solving 2 or 3 exercises in a group, being able to make consultations that are not digital; once the workshop is finished, the respective feedback is given. With the reading control and the workshop, the class ends. These activities are carried out continuously until the content of a chapter is finished and then the class is developed via streaming as the next activity, where teachers and students outside of class time connect through a virtual session and dispel doubts about the exercises of the task that structure the bank to be used in the homework exposition activity.

Multivariate Analysis of Traditional and Active Learning Methodologies

19

Reading/Videos (autonomous)

Reading control

Exit test

Workshop

Tutorial

Homework exposition

Streaming class

Fig. 1. Cycle of activities - active learning methodology

In the next class the homework exposition is developed, in which an exercise is assigned to each group, the same that must be solved on the blackboard assigned to the group, in an orderly and justified manner, also having to answer the questions asked by teachers, while a group exposes the teachers, the rest of the students must remain attentive to the activity. The next activity is the tutorial, where students in a group and with a time limit must solve critical problems with access to consultation support of any kind; once the exercise is solved, must upload the photo of its development to the platform online for the respective review and rating. Finally, the activity with the greatest weighting is developed, called the exit test, which is carried out individually and in groups and covers all the content of the respective unit.

3 Academic Performance Indicators Traditionally, academic performance has been characterized in a simplistic way in being related to the average marks of students when a certain content is evaluated, especially in higher education institutions, academic performance is difficult to identify and define, due to its characteristics. Rodríguez et al., [11] recommend differentiating between immediate performance associated with grades and mediate performance associated with professional and personal achievements. Investigating the ways to improve academic performance, the factors that determine it, the influencing variables, the most appropriate learning methodologies, comes from many behind since its analysis is relevant to improve academic quality. Thus, there is a significant amount of theoretical and empirical studies in the pre-university and university environment (González, [7]; Díaz, [6]; Roselli, [12]; McArdle et al., [8]; Cardona et al., [4]; Padua, [9]). Regarding the factors associated with academic performance, those of a pedagogical, institutional, sociodemographic and psychosocial type are considered the most influential, all complex in itself (Tournon, [14]).

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P. Ramos De Santis

When the academic performance is predicted, estimating the dependent variable is conditioned based on predictor variables in such a way that the success or failure of the student can be evidenced in a specific setting. Holding that the best predictor of future academic performance is previous performance has been the result of research by several authors (De Miguel and Arias, [5]; Rodríguez Ayán, [10]; Tomás et al., [13]).

4 Population and Study Variables There were 588 applicants registered in the 2020 intensive admission course in science and engineering area, 258 of them included in the active learning modality and 300 applicants in the traditional modality; 309 of them approved the admission, 131 of the traditional modality and 178 of active learning. However, only 287 of them were registered in the first academic period of 2020. Therefore, the study population includes the 287 students registered in the first semester 2020 in the careers of the science and engineering area, 162 of them attended admissions with active learning and 125 with the traditional modality. Regarding the study variables, it is considered as a dependent variable the academic performance with 3 categories: high, medium and low based on a scale established with the average of grades of the subjects approved by the student (see Table 1) and there are 9 independent variables, 7 of them quantitative and 2 qualitative. In general, the data set consists of 287 observations and 10 variables, whose structure in statistical software R is the following: “mod” (modality), “age” (age), “sex” (sex), “subj_rep” (number of subjects repeated), “cred_ap” (number of credits approved), “not_cov” (average of subject Calculus of one variable, “not_phy” (average of the subject Physics), “avg_adm” (average grade of admission approval), “avg_u” (average for approved subjects), “p_acad” (academic performance). Table 1. Scale for academic performance levels Academic performance level

General average

Student’s number by learning modality Active learning

Traditional

high

[80,100]

41 (25.3%)

14 (11.2%)

medium

[65, 80]

106 (65.4%)

88 (70.4%)

low

[0, 65]

15 (9.3%)

23 (18.4%)

The modality and sex explanatory variables were dichotomized (see Table 2), taking into account the previous bibliographic review and the recommendations by Carballo and Guelmes [3].

Multivariate Analysis of Traditional and Active Learning Methodologies

21

Table 2. Explanatory study variables Factors

Variable name

Variable type

Coding

Demographic

sex

qualitative

0 = male

age

discrete quantitative

[18, 24]

mod

qualitative

0 = active learning

not_cov

quantitative

0–100

not_phy

quantitative

0–100

cred_ap

discrete quantitative

[2, 38]

subj_rep

discrete quantitative

[0, 8]

avg_adm

quantitative

0–100

avg_u

quantitative

0–100

1 = female Academic

1 = traditional

5 Methodology According with Anderson et al. [1], when the dependent variable has more than two categories in a logistic regression model, its multinomial version is applied. For a dependent variable with k categories, regression requires k-1 logistic equations, one for each category, in relation to another category taken as a reference. The relationship is represented by the following functions:   P(Y = 1/X )   = β10 + β11 x1 + β12 x2 + · · · + β1q xq = X B1 (1) f1 (x) = ln P(Y = k/X )   P(Y = 2/X )   = β20 + β21 x1 + β22 x2 + · · · + β2q xq = X B2 (2) f2 (x) = ln P(Y = k/X )   P(Y = k − 1/X )   = β(k−1)0 + · · · + β(k−1)q xq = X B(k−1) (3) fk−1 (x) = ln P(Y = k/X ) where: f1 (x) is the logit function of category i against the reference category; X is the vector of independent variables X = (x0 , x1 , . . . , xq ) with x0 = 1 and βij is the vector of coefficients, estimated for category i and variable j. If we consider a polytomous response variable Y with more than two categories of responses that we will denote by Y1 , Y2 , . . . , Yk , the main idea is to explain the probability of each response category as a function of a set of observed covariates (x0 , x1 , . . . , xq ), that is fit a model of the form θj = P(Y = Yj /X = x), ∀j = 1, 2, . . . , k for each vector x of values observed of the explanatory variables X . When the response variable is polytomous, the Bernoulli distribution becomes a multinomial distribution of parameters equal to the probabilities of each of the response categories, that is to say,  (Y |X = x) → L(n; θ1 , . . . , θ k ), being kj=1 θj = 1.

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  k So, to obtain a linear model, we will obtain logit transformations to compare 2 each pair of categories of the response variable, which would be of this type: ⎤ ⎡ θi   θi θi +θ j ⎦ ⎣ ; ∀i, j = 1, 2, . . . , k(i = j) (4) = ln ln θj θj θi +θj

Equation (4) represents the logarithm of the response advantage Yi versus Yj conditional on the observations of the independent variables that fall in one of both levels. But to build the multinomial response logit model it would be enough to consider (k − 1) basic logit transformations, defined with respect toa reference category. Taking the last category as the reference category logit j (x) = ln θθji ; ∀i, j = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1, being logit j (x) the logarithm of the response advantage Yj given that the observations of the independent variables fall into the Yj or Yk category. The linear model for each of the generalized logit transformations, for q explanatory variables, is as follows:

q  logit j (x) = βij Xi = x βj ; ∀i, j = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1 (5) i=0

For the response probabilities, we can write the model as follows: q

e i=0 βij Xi θj = ; ; ∀i, j = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1 q  i=0 βij Xi 1 + k−1 j=1 e is

(6)

To find the response probability for the category taken as reference θk , the property k j=1 θj = 1 is used. Therefore:

θk = 1 −

k j=1

θj =

1+

k−1

j=1 e

(

q

1+

i=0 βij Xi )

k−1 j=1

−

e(

k−1

q

j=1 e

(

q

i=0 βij Xi )

i=0 βij Xi )

=

1 k−1 (q βij Xi ) 1 + j=1 e i=0 (7)

Once the generalized multinomial model was found (it includes all the variables) and taking academic performance category “high” as a reference, the 2-tailed Z-test was applied and it was found that the variables not_cov, avg_adm and sex are not statistically significant since its p-values is greater than the significance value. Then the adjusted model was obtained without considering these three variables and the 2-tailed Z-test was applied again, verifying that no p-value is greater than the significance value and therefore all the variables considered are statistically significant and should stay in the model. Then we proceeded to calculate confidence intervals with the Wald test, which is because the parameters βr asymptotically follow a normal distribution N βr , σ 2 (β r ) : 

⎤ ˆ r − βr β p⎣−Zα ≤   ≤ Zα ⎦ = 1 /2 /2 σˆ βˆ r



⎡

(8)

Multivariate Analysis of Traditional and Active Learning Methodologies

23

Therefore,  approximate interval for the parameter β r at a level (1− ∝) is  the βˆ r ± Zα σˆ βˆ r if the confidence interval of the exponentials associated with some /2 explanatory variable includes the number 1 the null hypothesis that βr = 0 at the chosen significance level cannot be rejected. (Cañadas [2]). After calculating the values estimated by the model, we proceeded to evaluate the global adequacy of the model to the data set and detect the presence of influential and anomalous values, performing the residual analysis is of vital importance, in this study those of the deviance. For the R2 type measures, those of McFadden, Cox & Snell and Nagelkerke were calculated, the predictive power of the model was also predicted through the rate of correct classifications. In order to validate the adjusted model, the cross-validation process was carried out starting with the partition of the data in training and test sets with a 60/40 ratio, the process was repeated for the adjusted model in such a way that the generalized training model and then the statistically non-significant variables are removed to obtain the adjusted training model and its respective confusion matrix and misclassification error to conclude with the calculation of the rate of correct classifications; then the confusion matrix of the test data, the rate of correct classifications and the prediction and model assessment were obtained.

6 Discussion and Results 6.1 Univariate Statistical Analysis Table 3 shows the most important descriptive data of the 7 quantitative variables. Table 3. Descriptive summary – quantitative variables Variable

min

median

mean

max

mode

Sd

Asymm

Kurtosis

age

18.0

19.0

19.6

32.0

19

1.23

4.999

42.12

avg_adm

60.0

71.0

71.6

87.0

69

5.86

0.212

–0.568

avg_u

60.5

76.5

76.2

90.0

73.8

4.22

–0.151

0.509

cred_ap

2.0

24.0

23.5

38.0

23

7.63

–0.399

–0.272

not_cov

11.0

69.9

68.1

94.8

73.3

14.19

–1.225

2.689

not_phy

14.1

66.5

66.3

100.0

71.2

11.91

–0.886

3.486

subj_rep

0.0

0.0

1.43

1.898

4.136

0.99

8.0

0

It is relevant to highlight the following results: • Significant dispersion of the average grades of subjects Calculus of one variable and Physics with respect to their respective means. • The low average grades in these fundamental subjects show their academic rigor and the need to continue promoting new teaching-learning strategies.

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P. Ramos De Santis

• age, avg_adm and subj_rep variables have a positive asymmetry, that is, the tail of the distribution points to the right. Besides, age, not_cov and not_phy variables has an obvious deviation from normality. • avg_u, cred_ap, not_cov and not_phy variables have a negative asymmetry, that is, the tail of the distribution points to the left. • age, avg_u, not_cov, not_phy and subj_rep variables have a leptocurtic distribution, that is, there is a greater concentration of the data around the mean. • avg_adm, cred_ap variables have a platicurtic distribution, that is, there is a lower concentration of the data around the mean. • age variable shows a negative correlation with all the variables except for the subj_rep variable. That is, the older the age, the greater the number of failed subjects. • avg_u variable shows a negative correlation with age and subj_rep variables. That is, the greater the university average, the lower the age and failed subjects. Figures 2 and 3 shows the percentage of category for performance academic in each modality, is relevant the predominance of active learning specially in “high” category (more student) and “low” category (less students).

Fig. 2. p_acad in active learning modality

Fig. 3. p_acad in traditional modality

The data of all the quantitative variables do not come from a normal distribution since the p-value obtained through the Jaque Bera test is less than the significance value and the null hypothesis that the data comes from a normal distribution is rejected. However, for age, not_cov and not_phy variables this deviation is evident. For instance, Fig. 2 shows the histogram with the theoretical normal curve for not_cov variable (Fig. 4).

Multivariate Analysis of Traditional and Active Learning Methodologies

25

Fig. 4. Histogram with theoretical normal curve for not_cov

The T-test for homogeneity of variance shows sufficient evidence to consider that there is a difference between the average grades of not_cov, not_phy and the mean of cred_ap, subj_rep, avg_u, avg_adm, and age variables. Therefore, the active learning modality generates a significant advantage over the traditional one, as an example of it can be observe in Fig. 3 for cred_ap variable (Fig. 5).

Fig. 5. Comparison of population means for cred_ap by modality

6.2 Multinomial Logistic Regression Choosing as reference level “high” academic performance category and using the “multinomial” function in R the generalized model was obtained (includes all variables) and after making the summary and applying the 2-tailed Z-test the following results were found: • Residual deviance: 207.88, AIC: 247.88, BIC: 321.07, -2 log likelihood: 207.88. • Pseudo R2 : McFadden (0.57), Cox&Snell (0.62), Nagelkerke (0.76).

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P. Ramos De Santis

• Overall percentage classification: 85.7% (high: 65.5%, medium (92.8%) and low: 78.9%). • cred_ap, not_cov, avg_adm and sex variables are statistically non-significant because their p-value is less than the significance value in medium or low academic performance or in both. Then, the adjusted model was obtained without considering the aforementioned variables, achieving the following results: • Residual deviance: 214.77, AIC: 243.77, BIC: 287.67, -2 log likelihood: 219.77. • Pseudo R2 : McFadden (0.55), Cox&Snell (0.61), Nagelkerke (0.74). • Overall percentage classification: 85,8% (high: 70.9%, medium: 93.3% and low: 68.4%). • The confusion matrix is: p high medium low

high 39 16 0

medium low 10 0 181 12 3 26

• For “medium” and “low” academic performance factors, all the variables have p-values lower than the significance value, that is, they are statistically significant. In addition, it is important to note the improvement of the adjusted model with respect to the Akaike and Bayesian information criterion index, high Pseudo R2 values and the appreciable 86,8% overall percentage classification. Regarding the coefficients of the model (see Table 4), mod variable is predominant; the probabilities of belonging to academic performance category “medium” are 4.21 times higher with respect to the “high” category if the student attended the admission course with the traditional modality compared to if he did so with active learning. Likewise, the probabilities of belonging to academic performance “low” category are 5.21 times greater with respect to “high” category. The same situation occurs with subj_rep variable since the probabilities of failing subjects at academic performance “medium” category are 9.48 times higher with respect to high “category” if the student attended the admission course with the traditional modality in comparison to if he did it with active learning. Likewise, the probabilities of failing subjects at academic performance “low” category are 76.92 times greater than at “high” category. The predicted and observed categories obtained for the first 5 observations are shown below:

1 2 3 Observed: medium low low Predicted: medium medium low

4 5 high high medium high

Multivariate Analysis of Traditional and Active Learning Methodologies

27

After finding Pearson and deviance residuals, it was possible to verify that there are no significant residuals, this means, there are no residuals that in absolute value are greater than 2. Table 4. Parameter estimates – fitted model Category *

Variable

B

Std. error

Exp(B)

95% Conf. Interval for exp(B)

medium

intercept

49.51

4.358

age

–0.736

0.206

0.479

0.187

0.735

avg_u

Lower

–0.341

0.058

0.711

0.610

0.830

mod (0)

1.438

0.532

4.212

0.081

0.697

not_phy

–0.117

0.032

0.890

0.835

0.948

0.635

9.478

2.525

subj_rep low

Upper

2.250

35.58

intercept

67.35

2.997

age

–0.993

0.238

0.371

0.187

0.735

avg_u

–0.565

0.084

0.568

0.447

0.723

mod (0)

1.651

0.827

5.214

0.036

1.010

not_phy

0.148

0.041

0.863

0.795

0.936

subj_rep

4.343

0.746

76.92

16.34

362.2

* The reference category is “high”

Based on these results, the following equations can be established:   P(medium) = 49.5 − 0.74age − 0.34avgu + 1.44mod − 0.12notphy + 2.3subj_rep y1 = ln P(high)

(9)   P(low) y2 = ln = 67.4 − age − 0.57avgu + 1.65mod + 0.15notphy + 4.3subj_rep P(high) (10)     P(medium) P(low) 1 − P(high) = e y1 ; = e y2 → = e y1 + e y2 (11) P(high) P(high) P(high) Therefore, the probabilities of belonging to each of the academic performance categories are: P(high) =

1 1 + e y1 + e y2

; P(medium) =

e y1 e y2 ; P(medium) = 1 + e y1 + e y2 1 + e y1 + e y2 (12)

28

P. Ramos De Santis

where: P(high) + P(medium) + P(low) = 1

(13)

In cross validation, when checking if the model fits well to a different set of data, the data was partitioned in training and testing data with a 60/40 relationship, 178 observations for training data and 109 for testing data. The generalized model was built for the training data obtaining the following information: • Residual deviance: 108.61, AIC: 148.61 • Pseudo R2 : McFadden (0.62), Nagelkerke (0.79) • Overall percentage classification: 87.1% (high: 73.3%, medium (92.1%) and low: 68.2%). • cred_ap, not_cov and sex variables are statistically non-significant. Then, the adjusted model for training data was obtained without considering the aforementioned variables, achieving the following results: • Residual deviance: 115.57, AIC: 143.57 • Pseudo R2 : McFadden (0.60), Nagelkerke (0.77) • Overall percentage classification: 84.8% (high: 70.9%, medium: 93.3% and low: 68.4%). • The confusion matrix is: p high medium low

high 20 10 0

medium low 7 0 116 7 3 15

• For “medium” and “low” academic performance categories, all the variables have p-values lower than the significance value, that is, they are statistically significant. Finally, testing data produced 79.8% overall percentage classification and the following confussion matrix:

p high medium high 15 5 medium 10 58 low 0 5

low 0 2 14

Multivariate Analysis of Traditional and Active Learning Methodologies

29

7 Conclusions Regarding the descriptive and inferential analysis of the data set, this study shows that all the assumptions for the application of the multinomial logistic regression model are met: the data are specific to the case study, the dependent variable cannot be perfectly predicted from the independent variables for any case, it is not necessary that the independent variables be independent of each other, and that the collinearity is relatively low or null. It is interesting to know that the categories of high and medium academic performance have more students who attended the admission course with active learning and that the category of low academic performance has a predominance of students who attended it with the traditional modality. Knowing that the minimum grade to pass a subject is 60 points, it is evident that the average grades of the fundamental subjects in exact sciences such as Calculus of one variable and Physics and the high dispersion of grades with respect to their media confirm the academic rigor of the institution and the lack of basic knowledge of the applicants when they arrive at the university. All quantitative dependent variables have a leptocurtic distribution, that is, there is a greater concentration of the data around the mean; age, not_cov and not_phy variables have an evident deviation from normality, while for the other variables this deviation is low, besides, cred_ap, not_cov, avg_adm and sex variables are statistically non-significant and were not included in the adjusted model, regardless of the variable selection process used. In the fitted model, the variables mod and subj_rep are predominant, such that, probabilities of belonging to medium category of p_acad are 4.2 times higher with respect to high category if the student attended the admission course with traditional modality compared to if he did so with active learning and probabilities of belonging to the low category of academic performance are 5.2 times greater with respect to the high level. Probabilities of failing subjects at the medium category are 9.48 times higher with respect to the high category if the student attended the admission course with traditional modality in comparison to if he did it with active learning. Likewise, the probabilities of failing subjects at the low category of academic performance are 76.92 time greater than at the high category. The adjusted multinomial logistic regression model has better fit indices than the null and generalized models, it is significant and fits the data globally, it has an appreciable classification rate of 85.8%. There are no significant Pearson or deviance residuals and the dependent variables considered explain 74% of the variance. Based on the rate of correct classifications, calculated through the cross-validation process including the handling of the process with training and testing data and the absence of influencing values and significant residuals, it can be concluded that the adjusted model is not lacking adjustment or over-adjustment problems. By virtue of research’s results, two important implications of interest for higher public education in Ecuador can be inferred: the possibility of increasing academic performance and the entry rate of applicants to ESPOL and the predominant role of the active learning modality in the admission system and first year of career. Thus, this research can serve as a basis for rethinking admission policies in other public universities in the country.

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References 1. Anderson, C., Verkuilen, J., Peyton, B.: Modeling polytomous item responses using simultaneously estimated multinomial logistic regression models. Educ. Behav. Stat. 35(4), 422–452 (2010). https://doi.org/10.3102/1076998609353117 2. Cañadas, J.: Regresión logística. Tratamiento computacional con R [Universidad de Granada] (2013). https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.1342.6083 3. Carballo, M., Guelmes, E.: Algunas consideraciones acerca de las variables en las investigaciones que se desarrollan en educación. Revista Universidad y Sociedad 8(1), 140–150 (2016) 4. Cardona, S., Vélez, J., Tobón, S.: Contribución de la evaluación socioformativa al rendimiento académico en pregrado. Educar 52(2), 423–447 (2016) 5. De Miguel, M., Arias, J.: La evaluación del rendimiento inmediato en la enseñanza universitaria. Revista de Educación 320, 356 (1999) 6. Diaz, F.: La predicción del rendimiento académico en la Universidad: un ejemplo de aplicación de la regresión múltiple. Enseñanza 13, 43–61 (1995) 7. Gonzalez, P.: Análisis estadístico del rendimiento estudiantil en la universidad de los Andes (1982) 8. McArdle, J., Paskus, T., Boker, S.: A multilevel multivariate analysis of academic performances in college based on NCAA student-athletes. Multivar. Behav. Res. 48(1), 57–95 (2013) 9. Padua, L.: Factores individuales y familiares asociados al bajo rendimiento académico en estudiantes. Rev. Mex. Investig. Educ. 24(80), 173–195 (2019) 10. Rodríguez Ayán, M.N.: Análisis multivariado del desempeño académico de estudiantes universitarios de Química. Universidad Autónoma de Madrid (2007) 11. Rodríguez, S., Fita, E., Torrado, M.: El rendimiento académico en la transición secundaria universidad. Revista de Educación 334, 391–414 (2004) 12. Roselli, N.: La disyuntiva individual-grupal. Comparación entre dos modelos alternativos de enseñanza en la universidad. Ciencia, Docencia y Tecnología 36(19), 87–118 (2008) 13. Tomás, J., Expósito, M., Sempere, S.: Determinantes del rendimiento académico en los estudiantes de grado. Un estudio en administración y dirección de empresas. Revista de Investigacion Educativa 32, 379–392 (2014) 14. Tournon, J.: Factores del rendimeinto académico en la universidad. Ediciones Universidad de Navarra (1984)

Decision Tree Algorithm in the Mental Representations of Gender: A Socio-cognitive Construction in the Latency Stage Carolina E. San Lucas1(B) , Cristina Páez-Quinde1 , Danilo Velasteguí2 and Elena D. Rosero-Morales1

,

1 Facultad de Ciencias Humanas y de la Educación, Universidad Técnica de Ambato,

180104 Ambato, Ecuador {carolinaesanlucass,mc.paez,elenadroserom}@uta.edu.ec 2 Pontificia Universidad Católica del Ecuador Sede Ambato, 180104 Ambato, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. This research is based on several gender studies that show the relevance of its conception in the psychosocial development of the human being, reflected in the daily behavior of coexistence within the family with other social contexts. When we talk about gender equality means having the same conditions and opportunities for all human beings who respond to universal rights in their full development, in terms of mental representations we have to identify the symbolics of the forms in which reality is produced without it and thus give meaning to everything around us by organizing structures and starting from the social context. The main objective is to theoretically relate how mental representations of gender are influenced by cognitive socio-building by justifying the latency stage as the ideal age to break the mental stereotypes that make up the critical awareness of the individual and allow us to imagine new social scenarios without the obligation to project those culturally inherited. The methodology of this research is experimental and uses two research instruments submitted to the Statistician Alfa de Cronbach with a reliability level of 0.799 for boys and girls and 0.718 for teachers and parents from second to the fourth level through an integrated methodology that seeks to modify gender mental models within the child’s environment in school. Thus the study is based on a predictive model, i.e. the application of the decision tree for the construction of a model applicable to the context of gender stereotypes, to prevent gender-based violence in school settings. Keywords: Mental representations · Socio-cognitive constructions · Gender · Decision tree algorithm · Predictive models

1 Introduction This research allows the exploration from a gender perspective through mental representations in reference to gender equality at school environments through a test that permits the identification and analysis of behaviors since phrases, feelings, emotions, © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Botto-Tobar et al. (Eds.): CIT 2021, LNNS 406, pp. 31–41, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9_3

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and activities that are developed on a daily basis in the school environment. Additionally, several aspects can be defined that are rooted directly with the mental representations such as culture, setting and time to which they belong and which contradict the intention of social justice. The school has an important role in the stage that the child goes through and it is studied in the present article. The challenge for the educational institutions is big because it implies that this one under the guideline of a macro curriculum elaborates a gradual and deep breakdown of the stereotypes, social and cultural representations clearly patriarchal. A breakdown that can be developed through the discussion and a serious, conscious and critical approach to these topics, so that the new equality concepts become familiar and introduced in the mental representations of boys and girls, and are shown in the daily community culture of the school and can gradually transform the reality that lives towards more just societies (Winfield et al. 2017). The school methodology attempts to facilitate the creation of cognitive “conflicts” that allows the students face their ideas, in an honest and respectful dialogue, regarding their daily experiences and available information in the bibliography and, in an especial manner, within the painful society issues and reflect about the alternative forms in society, the gender equality is very connected to the social justice and dialogue (Kourtis et al. 2019). Another way to internalize traditional gender stereotypes is the school situations and cyberbullying, violence or bullying, which reduce every day the effective base of the boy or girl, who has entered into the relationship with his peers through the school space. The family as protector figure cannot anymore reach these environments and leaves this to the school, which in occasions lacks knowledge of what should be done, so the infants are left alone with the concerns and difficulties of the stage that they have to pass: the latency stage (Zabarain et al. 2015). This investigation was developed to children at school environments, with the aim to recognize the perceptions that they have, also, to locate the stablished differences between female and male within the intersubjective logic both in social groups and in the development of their environment, the transmission of a model that allows identifying values that determine and maintain the hegemonic and asymmetric order in power which is generalized through the history (Liu et al. 2017). In addition, it is relevant to consider the study importance regarding the mental representations of gender in which values, beliefs, and pre-established ideological assumptions can be made visible; based on the differentiated ascription of characteristics and, therefore, the social roles that place men and women in different positions since childhood and even more in school environments (Nagalla et al. 2017). By having a large amount of data information regarding gender stereotypes, the development of decision trees (Waseem-Ahmad et al. 2018) and the prediction of information based on what is obtained are taken into account, that is, for this investigation techniques were taken into account and methods for learning models, taking into account that a decision tree is a set of conditions that are organized by a hierarchical structure (Raina and Simons 2021), so that the decision made can be determined following the conditions that are being met from (Subasi et al. 2018) at the root of the tree to some

Decision Tree Algorithm in the Mental Representations of Gender

33

of its leaves, decision trees are most commonly used in medical, commercial, legal, mathematical, logical, educational and psychological procedures, seeking the possible options from a certain condition and determining the most appropriate action to take into account in the investigation (Nowak 2017).

2 State of Art A mental representation of gender in childhood is all the accumulation of knowledge that a person possesses and is represented in his mind in a specific form of knowledge allowing him to express himself before others in a particular behavior and communication, therefore is the knowledge by which the people can interpret the reality in which they develop by using, as referents, their ethical and moral values, social roles, needs, and other socio-cultural aspects (Winfield et al. 2017). (Kourtis et al. 2019) quoted Senge (2004) says: “Mental models are images, assumptions, and stories we carry in our minds about ourselves, others, institutions and all aspects of the world” (Kourtis et al. 2019), in other words, such cognitive representations determine what and how reality looks and models the acts of the observing subject; these can be changed through successive transformations towards new mental models that allow reinterpreting the world. The same happens when talking about gender equality, from mental representations, with the difference that it also affects behavior (Winfield et al. 2017). The concept of gender is found in the symbolic imaginary of every human being and society in general since it marks male-female relationships as a connection not only logical and natural but also unquestionable of the daily task that reflects and represents it without much difficulty (Cares and Herraiz 2017). Biological-bodily differences are symbolized and constitute a foundation for establishing social relationships, above all, for build power. The starting point is what it means to be a man and woman, and then attributing spaces, resources and destiny to them, is to ask about the meanings of being a man and a woman, as well as the (dis) advantages of being one in the private-public spheres. The construction process of mental representations is the symbolization of a human being characteristic, there daily and so common symbols that it is not difficult to interpret them since throughout history they have been created and given their interpretation that is almost universal in character, furthermore, in this symbolic reality we all represent something in relation to others. The difficulty is within the ability that people have to interpret the symbols or make them explain through them (Cares and Herraiz 2017), these mental representations are expressed in three forms to be coded: auditory, visual, tactile. (Greca and Moreira 2016), paraphrasing to Johnson-Laird (1990) note that the key to understanding mental representations lies in the existence of a “working model” in the mind of the interpreter. The ability to be explained an idea or situation creates a “manual”, a guide that may not serve another, everything depends on the ability, knowledge, and skills to understand. The construction of mental representations goes through four steps that people face before responding to any situation:

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C. E. San Lucas et al.

a. codification of social signals: collecting the information provided by reality where it can be centralized in a relevant fact or data, b. interpretation and representation of such information: it gives a meaning and anchors them in the memory, c. they serve as an answer: generation of possible solutions to the situation and d. decision making about what is believed to be the response: selection of an answer based on the evaluation of the consequences and possible solutions (Roncero et al. 2016). Within the stage of latency, it becomes real in a concrete context of the person’s life, specifically in the stage of bio-psycho-social development that approximately goes between six and eleven years old: it is the latency stage. In this period the manifestations of infantile sexuality decline (Freud 1967), there is a decrease in activities related to eroticism and the feelings of shame, disgust, moral and aesthetic aspirations appear. Gender in school can appear and trace multiple paths; it encompasses research, teaching or intervention. Gender does presence in the manner of a kind of “epistemological wild card” (Fernández 2020) that strengthens male dominance, such as deconstructing values patriarchal. Gender is the norm, in turn, it is a perspective for reconfigure that rule. The complex thing about the relationship between gender and school is that it feels its bases in the implicit, in what is not conscious and that is part of the existing systemic violence in schools (Kerr et al. 2021). It is what causes damage without direct responsibility. Where knowledge incorporates the values of the dominant society and causes failure to be assumed by the weakest. Great importance is given to integration with peers and belonging to a group of friends. The learning of skills is strengthened, the awareness of responsibilities, reflection, desire to learn, recreation, sports, etc. grow (García-Piña 2016). This stage is essential for the psycho-affective development of human beings because it establishes important aspects of the psychic formation of the Super-Ego (moral conscience); the symbolic government of reality is underlined and the path is prepared for independence and adaptation to later reality within adolescence and adulthood (Zabarain et al. 2015). The parent’s dependence starts to decline and they are replaced by a sense of self-value derived from the achievements, social and objective approval (Zaidi and Fordham 2021). The father figures, at first they are projected in non-real characters, with magical and omnipotent powers. They are the superheroes (Spiderman, Power Ranger, etc.) and then it will be changed by real figures, although still idealized, like sports idols, models or artists (Sneiderman et al. 2017). The social development during the latency stage is very important, even becoming determinant, the experiences lived, in a future for the consolidation or not of the self and the formation of the identity (Zabarain et al. 2015). Social learning will be acquired in several ways: • Direct experience. The child builds his own knowledge, acquires it, changes it, improves skills, behaviors, and values from his own experience or thanks to what

Decision Tree Algorithm in the Mental Representations of Gender

• • • •

35

others, of influence to him, tell him to perform. The experience will depend on the consequences of the behavior he performs, that is, to be accepted or rejected. Learning by observation or imitation. The exposure that the child is subjected to other agents of society from whom he will copy their attitudes, ideas or behaviors. Verbal or instructional learning. Through the question-answer mechanism or explanations of reality. Learning with personal feedback. The explanation is given by the child about his behavior to others (Herbst-Debby et al. 2021).

3 Methodology As a starting point, the samples taken for developing the comprehensive methodology of gender in school environments have the following characteristics: • 236 among boys and girls from schools in rural areas of Tungurahua province. • Private school environments. The research is developed under an essentially by parts investigation approach where the review, analysis and theoretical interpretation of the variables under study are: mental representations of gender and socio-cognitive construction located in a context of time such as the latency stage is (Barreiro-Gen et al. 2021). The research-based on the hermeneutic method and an emerging open coding design has allowed: 1. Accurate review of bibliographic information on the subject, 2. Qualitative categorization of variables, 3. Understanding and answer to the research question of how mental representations of gender are influenced by socio-cognitive constructions in the latency stage, 4. Approach to future research that contributes to gender studies in childhood. The type of research is entirely experimental, the application of a validated test was developed in the educational units through a pretest and a posttest, which allowed developing an experiment “application of the comprehensive methodology”, the experimentation process consisted basically of adapting the boys and girls to stereotypes that commonly consider the opposite gender, both in emotions, activities, processes, promoting with this the development of new proposals for acceptance, equity, and common work. From the results obtained, it is concluded that gender differences are manifested at an early age through sociodramatic play, thus rehearsing children and future behaviors. Within the quantitative approach of this research, a decision tree was developed, through which you can predict the correct form of decisions that were made for the application of the Comprehensive Methodology of prevention to gender violence in these educational environments, resulting in from the decision tree the following results; as shown in Fig. 1.

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C. E. San Lucas et al.

Fig. 1. Decision tree

According to institutional support, it can be identified that the students with the largest population are in Secular Private educational units with 59.3% representing 229 children, for the measurement of gender violence, question 22 is taken. Who participates most in class? Taking a decision that girls perform this activity with 87.1% representing 108 girls and at the same time another question of gender violence is considered in this case number 17. Who throws things out of bad temper or anger? For this decision it is considered that children do more, obtaining a tendency in men. The best decision that can be taken for an intervention of the Comprehensive Methodology of prevention of gender violence in educational environments of the Province of Tungurahua, in this case, is to educational units of Secular Particular support, in the field of violence of gender according to the participation in class to girls and for the actions to be carried out to those who throw things out of bad temper to boys. In Fig. 2 it can be identified that according to age, the children who were surveyed were 6 years old, representing 34.7%, taking the root of the tree, the following leaves are obtained. In the field of gender violence, question 22 who participates most in class? Most relevant items in the decision with a chi-square of 65,875, the 9-year-old girls are the ones who participate most in class and at the same time taking question 17 who solve the problems faster? It can be evidenced that the 6-year-old girls who represent 36.2% solve the problems faster and on the part of the 8-year-old boys with 36.4% they claim that they solve the problems faster.

Decision Tree Algorithm in the Mental Representations of Gender

37

Fig. 2. Age and gender violence

Concluding with this that if there is a difference in age in issues of gender violence, that is, from 7–9 years of age, it is the ideal age to cause reflection on gender issues, which coincides with the psychological theories that Children are defining their gender role by what they observe or live in ages older than 6 years.

4 Results In order to establish the relationship that exists between the mental representations of gender and the school environments before and after the intervention, qualitative data

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was analyzed, which at the same time allowed us to identify the correct hypothesis of our research, as shown in Table 1: Table 1. Summary case processing Cases Those who are stronger

Valid

Lost

Total

Gender

N

Percentage

N

Percentage

N

Percentage

Male

57

100,0%

0

0,0%

57

100,0%

Female

52

100,0%

0

0,0%

52

100,0%

It can be identified by the Mann-Whitney U test for independent samples that the null hypothesis is rejected, which mentions that the comprehensive methodology application does not contribute to the mental representations of gender in school environments, finally by identifying the value of significance, the same that is less than 0.05; the alternative hypothesis is accepted Table 2: Table 2. Hypothesis test summary

2

Null hypothesis

Test

Sig

Decision

The distribution of a brave person who takes a risk is the same among the gender categories

Mann-Whitney U test of independent samples

,000

Reject the null hypothesis

The incorporation of gender in the educational programs of the Schools has not been simple, nor conflict-free. In Ecuador it has origins in community projects, attached to popular and liberating education. It is the result of showing it as an element of the school culture, in particular, to understand how the school works in the construction of gender identities. The other force that pushes to insert it comes from the pressure of organized civil society, at the same time, in which new laws emerge, for example, that seek to promote gender equality, programs with public resources arise within the national educational system. The existence of study content or a cross-sectional approach on gender in schools in Ecuador is a substantial advance. Its origins are undoubtedly in the struggles led by feminist and sexual diversity movements. However the androcentrism in schools is so strong that it manages to dispel the conceptual richness and limit them to a basic level. This is demonstrated by the reports, above all, prepared from the Universities when seeking to answer how to evaluate the perspective gender in those instances. In the case of basic education, the little information regarding the different programs that operate in these schools by the Ministry of Public Education stands out.

Decision Tree Algorithm in the Mental Representations of Gender

39

What exists, in the best of cases, concerns the numerical and the stage of training; how many attended, what was delivered, and so on. With regard to Normal education, the panorama is similar, there is little about the results of incorporating gender and there is a debt in this regard on the part of that level. Asymptotic significances are shown. The level of significance is 0.5. For the data distribution the question: who is stronger? Has been considered, and in this way identify the data distribution through the normality curve at the moment of choosing the response options, as shown in Fig. 3:

Fig. 3. Distribution

As can be seen in Fig. 3, boys have a more symmetric normality curve, that is, the data have a normal distribution; in contrast to the girls who in the normality curve could be identified asymmetry to the left, considering that there is a more dispersed distribution in the choice of response options.

5 Conclusions Gender education is a sensitive issue due to its conception and social performance, however, it is during the latency stage where social signals are coded regarding the observed, lived and acted from the impact of experiences, education and social coexistence, adapting and expressing cognitive and behavioral responses for the necessary moment, with reactions to the gender exposed and itself and cultural continuity or schematic breakdown of conducts around gender will depend on it. Boys and girls in permanent interaction access to a society’s reading that allows them to collect information where, most of the time, a summary of cultural experiences related to gender is transmitted consciously and unconsciously, these readings are the product of stereotypes marked by culture and inherited from generation to generation

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with diversity of forms, but with the same content, thus influencing the construction of mental representations. Cognitive construction coupled with a social reading of mental representations and conceptions around gender leads to two options: a) social transformation according to the approach in which a society is developed, based on state policies that comprehensively address a stereotyped conceptual rupture, or; b) the continuity of an ideology by custom and cultural heritage, this second option would require a process of gender stereotypes rupture, where all social actors from their different action levels become aware of and decide on structural changes in society regarding gender issues. The constructed mental representations of gender give meaning and responses to expression needs within a specific context, generating codifications that understand the same and that others can see and understand; the information is transmitted orally, written and gesturally. Acknowledgment. We would like to begin by expressing our gratitude to the Technical University of Ambato; to the Directorate of Research and Development (DIDE), for our research project entitled Integral Methodology of gender forecasting in school environments of the Province of Tungurahua, code FCHE-14.

References Barreiro-Gen, M., Lozano, R., Temel, M., Carpenter, A.: Gender equality for sustainability in ports: developing a framework. Mar. Policy 131, 104593 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.mar pol.2021.104593 Cares, C., Herraiz, F.: Arte, género y discurso: Representaciones sociales en el Chile reciente. Retrieved from Dipòsit Digital de la Universitat de Barcelona (2017). http://hdl.handle.net/ 2445/109605 Fernández, A.B.: Gender dysphoria/gender incongruity: transition and discontinuation, persistence and desistance. Endocrinología, Diabetes y Nutrición (English ed.) 67(9), 559–561 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.endien.2020.03.006 Freud, S.: Una teoría sexual. En Obras Completas, vol. I. Biblioteca Nueva, Madrid, España (1967) García-Piña, C.: Sexualidad infantil: información para orientar la práctica clínica. Acta Pediátrica de México 37(1), 43–53 (2016, Enero - febrero). http://www.scielo.org.mx/scielo.php?pid= S0186-23912016000100047&script=sci_abstract&tlng=en Greca, I., Moreira, M.: Un estudio piloto sobre representaciones mentales, imágenes, proposiciones y modelos mentales respecto al concepto de campo electromagnético en alumnos de física general, estudiantes de postgrado y físicos profesionales. Revista Investigações em Ensino de Ciências (IENCI) VI(1), 95–108 (2016). https://www.if.ufrgs.br/cref/ojs/index.php/ienci/ article/view/648/439 Herbst-Debby, A., Endeweld, M., Kaplan, A.: Differentiated routes to vulnerability: marital status, children, gender and poverty. Adv. Life Course Res. 15, 100418 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/ j.alcr.2021.100418 Kerr, P., Torre, M.B., Giguère, C.-É., Lupien, S.J., Juster, R.-P.: Occupational gender roles in relation to workplace stress, allostatic load, and mental health of psychiatric hospital workers. J. Psychosom. Res. 142, 110352 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpsychores.2020.110352 Kourtis, D., Wozniak, M., Sebanz, N., Knoblich, G.: Evidence for we-representations during joint action planning. Neuropsychologia, 18(1), 73–83 (2019). http://www.revistaadbia.com.ar/ojs/ index.php/adbia/article/view/366

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Liu, X., Li, B., Shen, D., Cao, J., Mao, B.: Analysis of grain storage loss based on decision tree algorithm. Procedia Comput. Sci. 122, 130–137 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2017. 11.351 Nagalla, R., Pothuganti, P., Pawar, D.: Analyzing gap acceptance behavior at unsignalized intersections using support vector machines, decision tree and random forests. Procedia Comput. Sci. 109, 474–481 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs.2017.05.312 Nowak, M.: Defining project approach using decision tree and quasi-hierarchical multiple criteria method. Procedia Eng. 172, 791–799 (2017) Voss, R.V., Simons, L.: Supporting the health of transgender and gender-diverse youth in primary care settings. Primary Care Clin. Off. Pract. 48(2), 259–270 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. pop.2021.02.003 Roncero, D., Andreu, J., Peña, M.: Procesos cognitivos distorcionados en la conducta agresiva y antisocial en adolescentes. Anuario de Psicología Jurídica 26(1), 88–101 (2016). https://www. sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S1133074016300058?via%3Dihub Senge, P.: La quinta disciplina. Granica, Barcelona (2004) Sneiderman, S., et al.: Exploración de la subjetividad y mecanismos de defensa en niños latentes mediante la interpretación del Cuestionario Desiderativo. Subjetividad y Procesos Cognitivos 21(1), 146–168 (2017). http://www.scielo.org.ar/scielo.php?pid=S1852-731020170001 00007&script=sci_arttext&tlng=en Subasi, A., Ahmed, A., Alickovic, E.: Effect of flash stimulation for migraine detection using decision tree classifiers. Procedia Comput. Sci. 140, 223–229 (2018) Waseem-Ahmad, M., Reyolds, J., Rezgui, Y.: Predictive modelling for solar thermal energy systems: a comparison of support vector regression, random forest, extra trees and regression trees. J. Cleaner Prod. 203, 810–821 (2018) Winfield, A., Jiménez, Y., Topete, C.: Representaciones mentales y sociales en la equidad de Género. Revista de Estudios de Género. La ventana 7(45), 186−210 (2017). http://www.red alyc.org/jatsRepo/884/88450033008/index.html Zabarain, S., Quintero, L., Russo De Vivo, A.: Logros del yo durante el desarrollo psicoafectivo en la etapa de latencia. Revista Psicoespacios 9(14), 129–160 (2015, junio). http://revistas.iue. edu.co/index.php/Psicoespacios Zaidi, R.Z., Fordham, M.: The missing half of the Sendai framework: gender and women in the implementation of global disaster risk reduction policy. Prog. Disaster Sci. 10, 100170 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pdisas.2021.100170

Factors that Contribute to Teachers’ Burnout During the COVID 19 Pandemic in Ecuador Evelyn Almeida1,2(B)

, Andres Baldassari1 , Jorge Bernal3 and Alexandra Zapata2

, Andrea Rosero1

,

1 Universidad Central del Ecuador, Quito, Ecuador

[email protected]

2 Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador 3 Universidad Técnica Estatal de Quevedo, Quevedo, Ecuador

Abstract. The main purpose of this study is to identify the factors that contribute to teachers’ burnout during the COVID 19 pandemic in Ecuador. Additionally, the research aims to analyze teachers’ working conditions, determine the teachers’ health problems associated with the new working conditions, and establish the complementary activities that affect male and female teachers. This is stratified descriptive research based on a survey applied to 843 individuals who belong to different educational levels (preschool, elementary, secondary, technological institute, and university). As a result of the analysis, some significant findings are that teachers are working more hours with undefined schedules. Additionally, a percentage of teachers claimed to have some ailments. For instance, 38,2% have had neck pain and 32% have one or more ailments similar to those of carpal tunnel syndrome. Interestingly, women are more affected than men in relation to workload, housework, and childcare. Keywords: Teachers’ burnout · COVID 19 · Ecuador · Online teaching

1 Introduction Social confinement due to COVID-19- pandemic has had a unique impact on education around the world. It took only a day, March 13th, 2020, to shift the standards in most of the educative system in different countries; “[a]lthough much of the attention is focused on the health sector, other sectors such as education have also experienced profound transformations and impacts” ([1], p. 1). Therefore, there is an interest in analyzing the factors contributing to Ecuadorian teachers’ burnout during the COVID 19 pandemic. The current pandemic has severely affected the educational system since all the activities have to be developed online. This situation has demanded long hours of work in front of computers, which has produced mental distress in most professionals [2]. These new conditions have affected teachers’ well-being. In fact, Mosquera et al. [3] mention in their study that the illnesses derived from stress due to the person’s lacking facing certain labor conditions. Furthermore, the different variables that have appeared under the pandemic scenario emphasize the importance of analyzing teaching risks. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Botto-Tobar et al. (Eds.): CIT 2021, LNNS 406, pp. 42–54, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9_4

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However, there is not enough research that explores risk factors, working conditions, and health problems of teachers during the pandemic in the Ecuadorian context. This descriptive study focuses on identifying factors that contribute to teachers’ burnout during the COVID 19 pandemic. Additionally, the research aims to analyze teachers’ working conditions, determine the teachers’ health problems associated with the new working conditions, and establish the complementary activities that affect male and female teachers.

2 Literature Review According to the Ministry of Labor, on January 4, 2021, there are 444,742 teleworkers in the public and private sector [4], including teachers from daycare centers, schools, institutes, and universities. Last May, the Government adopted economic measures to face the crisis due to the COVID-19 pandemic. One of the measures was to reduce the working hours and salaries of the public sector workers with Decree No 1053. In the case of teachers, the decrease was one hour of work, which implied a reduction of 8.33% per month in their salary. Depending on the teaching category, they were discounted from $ 70 to $ 120 per month, from June to last November [5]. This situation affected the professionals not only economically but also emotionally. The reduction of teachers’ monthly salary implies less amount of money for education, health care, transportation, and food for their families, triggering health and emotional problems such as stress, anxiety, and preoccupation. In fact, Rugel and Romero ([6], p. 62), one of their interviews reported that the decrease in the salary was a strong blow, “because suddenly I find myself in a situation where I have to comply and work more and receive less income.” Additionally, the Ministry of Labor in Ecuador issued on September 14, 2020, the Ministerial Agreement No. MDT-2020–181 as established by the Organic Law of Humanitarian Support to Combat the Health Crisis derived from COVID-19. This agreement mentioned that the employer must provide the equipment, guidelines, and supplies necessary for developing the work at home or as it is called remote working [7, 8]. However, this does not happen in most cases. For instance, teachers must work with their own resources such as computers, the internet, books, worksheets, and other materials needed to fulfill the remote teaching necessities. The agreement explains that remote working does not affect or alter the employment relationship’s normal conditions, established in the Labor Code. Therefore, both parties’ rights may not be violated within the limits of the working hours, rest days or the payment of overtime and supplementary hours [7]. However, the perception of workers is different. For instance, Santillana [9] mentions that working activities intensify for multiple reasons children at home, sick people that need to be taken care of, emotional charge because of the state of exception, and a curfew. Agreement No. MDT-2020–181 also includes the right to disconnect or rest, which must be for at least 12 continuous hours in a 24-h period. During this time, the employer is supposed to communicate with the worker or formulate orders or other requirements [7]. Unfortunately, this situation has not happened; workers have had to change their life patterns and schedules to fulfill their job requirements [6]. Another important finding

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was that teleworkers perceived their employers invaded their lives since the days were extended up to 12 h due to increased assigned loads that were not paid [6]. That is why workers believe that this modality is unfair since more work is required for lower remuneration. Remote workers also mention that there has been an increase in workloads, an extension of hours because once the schedule is over, they proceed to send reports and complete their regular activities with online ones. Teachers, in particular, have to work more than the required working hours. These activities include not only the asynchronous classes with the students but also the planning for online courses, grading exams, tutorial ships at any hour, and work meetings at any time required from the authorities of the institutions. Additionally, there are training programs for teachers claiming that they have more time for working online. In fact, some teachers believe that they are supposed to work 6 h as teachers in a public institution. Still, they continue to answer calls to students until midnight or to parents at any time, apart from meetings with the districts, it is practically all day that they have to be connected ([6], p. 58). A study done by Tenorio [10], a teacher in Cuenca, Ecuador, revealed that even though teachers save an hour on average in transportation time, their workload reaches an average of 11 h per day. Finally, less than half of the 310 teachers surveyed are comfortable with this type of work. There are also other problems that remote workers must deal with the pandemic such as household choirs, internet connection, working space, coordination difficulties with the work team, clients, and suppliers, poor clarity of objectives, and difficulty working with digital platforms, ineffective communication, procrastination, loneliness, and burnout [11, 12]. See Graph 1. In this same venue, Deloitte [13] mentions some challenges facing remote working such as the home distractions like children and pets, lack of commitment in meetings, workshops, technical issues, screen fatigue. Additionally, “team members cannot engage directly with their colleagues and leaders and may feel disconnected, less creative or less productive” ([13], p. 1). Unfortunately, this health crisis and the new way of working have hit women the most, especially for the extra activities they have to carry out such as childcare, household chores, and work [6, 10, 11, 14]. Brinca and Estay Consulting and Krino in 2020 [11] published a study of remote working and emotions during the pandemic in Ecuador. One of the biggest problems that remote workers have is housework. In fact, 52% of the 974 respondents nationwide responded that the main problem is household chores. Additionally, there is a difference between female and male workers. According to the study, housework as a problem appears more strongly in women than in men. 54% of women say that home responsibilities limit their remote work, while 46% of men say the same. During the Covid-19 health emergency, the workload and household chores have increased in the country, which is why some women have even been forced to leave their jobs. “Normally women spend three times more time than men doing housework; But during the health emergency, that gap has increased” Bibiana Aido, representative of UN Women in Ecuador [11]. Additionally, Deloitte mentions that “working remotely/from home often results in a fusion of work and private life and some employees may have difficulties to disengage at the end of the workday” ([13], p. 1). In fact, some female teachers manifest that they additionally to their work have to cook, take care of their

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children, go up and down, clean, they had breaks but for female teachers have to continue working, so it is exhausting for them [6]. A different study done in the United States shows that 16% of mid-career teachers report that they have struggled to balance their work with other duties, with higher percentages for female teachers (17%) than male teachers (12%). However, 41% of teachers indicate that caretaking responsibilities for children or dependent adults have made it difficult to do their job, with slightly lower rates for female teachers (40%) compared to male teachers (43%) [15]. Some suggestions from different organizations and experts have come to light to counteract the problems presented in the new way of working during the pandemic. For instance, the International Labour Organization [14] developed a practical guide for teleworking during the COVID 19 pandemic. The guide provides practical recommendations for effective teleworking policies and practices including case examples, lessons learned, and a list of available tools and resources. 2.1 Workspace and Health Effects Related to Home Office The new conditions of home office have provoked emotional stress due to the restrictions and workload that this involves. In fact, working at home means being forced to share the workspace with the rest of the family, children, and spouses. This deed might become worse in the case of women because they might feel overwhelmed with the new work conditions [2]. According to the World Health Organization [16] work- stress can be defined as “the reaction people may have when presented with demands and pressures that are not matched to their knowledge and abilities and which challenge their ability to cope” ([16], p. 6). The pressure produced by the demanding activities that the present technological and competent environment require are not factors that lead to work stress because companies deal with them as part of the organization. [16] However, some factors that are part of the inefficient way that companies manage may highly contribute to work stress such as: poor work organization, poor work design, poor management, unsatisfactory working conditions as well as excess of work and poor support from coworkers and supervisors [16]. Work –stress on teachers involves some negative emotions, among the most common are hunger, frustration, anxiety, depression and nervousness [17]. Also some researchers point out that the level of stress that teachers cope with is high and most of them are not able to control or overcome it [17] “University teachers who had low motivation for distance teaching, are more likely to have more odds of suffering from moderate to severe distress than the reference category” ([18], p. 9) In fact, a good number of pandemic-related concerns were identified in University teachers as the main cause of distress. Among the most important concern is infection by SARS-CoV-2 then social isolation and at the same level the economic impact of the pandemic and curfew which involves reduction of salaries, part-time teaching jobs, a possible loss of research funds in some non-related academic departments. Therefore, all these aspects might contribute to burden on the psychological status of the academic staff of higher institutions of Education [18]. Additionally, Covid-19 pandemic provoked higher levels of distress on individuals with lack of experience for working from home which might be worse in the case of

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females due to gender role at home and some cultural settings [19]. As Oxfam international [20] points out that the Pandemic Covid-19 with the social restrictions have provoked an increase in the quantity of unpaid work related to care, especially in women who have kept mainly doing that. Additionally, this organization states that women in social disadvantages such as: poverty, ethnical groups, single mothers and housework are facing even more difficulties. These aspects have real consequences for the health, the economic security and the wellbeing of women and their families because the interviews show that women claimed to have higher levels of anxiety, depression, work overload or medical affections because the bigger volume of care work that they have to lead with no salary. José Gabriel Leon Higuera, doctor in sports and boss of the sport medical service of the Society of surgery of Bogota Hospital San José reveals that ailments of muscles have increased, especially in the lower back and upper back. The lack of physical activity is the main cause for these ailments and are related to the inappropriate ergonomic posture to work, an uncomfortable chair that is not adequate or with a deficient distance with the computer [21]. In the United Kingdom through a rheumatological research it was determined that the muscular pain and joints got worse due to the lack of physical activity as well as inappropriate postures to work. Affecting people with skeletal muscle chronic ailments during the lockdown. The 53% of the participants replied that their pain has increased. In fact, Giusseppe Alajmo orthopedist from the Country Clinic of Colombia claims that the high level of pain is the result of the poor quality of workspace conditions to work since at home people do not have the required ergonomic posture as they have in their office [21]. Another aspect is detailed by the psychiatric Ana Millan who explains that at the moment home office started “the use of anxiolytics and hypnotics shoots up” ([21], p. 3) because people had to change the office for their homes, with these conditions home is a place to stay working most of the time, there is not a limit of home space and home office. Leading to accumulate the work problems and familiar problems due to the lack of time for commuting from home to work and vice versa [21]. Moreover, there is not a distinction between the personal life and work schedule, so people do not have options to relax doing spare activities. According to Catalina Gallo [21] the condition of living and working in the same place with no established schedule is actually affecting people’s lives, significantly. For instance, many people are facing health problems, especially stress and anxiety with physical problems such as: insomnia, lack of appetite, vomit, as well as abruptly mood changes.

3 Discussion This is a quantitative study with a stratified descriptive approach based on a structured survey applied to 843 teachers who belong to different educational levels: preschool, primary, secondary, technological or technical, and university. The questionnaire included 65 questions divided into six sections: a) feelings-perceptions in relation to the new work modality; b) teachers and students’ relationship; c) working environment; d) working conditions; e) health effects; and f) complementary activities. The survey was sent

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through different means such as social networks, e-mails, and formal letters to various institutions. Finally, the analysis was done using the statistical software SPSS. The following section will describe the main findings obtained after the data analysis. Based on the study population, there is a significant predominance of female teachers (74.0%). Regarding ethnicity, 9 out of 10 teachers consider themselves mestizo (91.1%). Concerning marital status, 47% of teachers are married and 32.6% single. In relation to the province where teachers live, 52.6% are from Pichincha, 8.2% belong to Cotopaxi, and 6.9% live in Guayas. Examining the survey respondents’ job characteristics, approximately 7 out of 10 teachers work in public establishments and 2 out of 10 in private. Regarding the highest academic degree acquired, around 6 out of 10 teachers have a third-level degree and 4 out of 10 a fourth-level degree. On the other hand, 83.9% of teachers work in institutions located in urban areas. Concerning the working hours, 9 out of 10 teachers have a fulltime job position. Finally, in the type of employment relationship, 58.6% of teachers have a permanent job, that is, they are tenured teachers, and 26.6% have a work contract. Approximately 4 out of 10 teachers surveyed have a fourth-level university degree such as a master’s or doctorate. Of these 38% teach in higher education institutions such as universities and polytechnic schools, and more than 58% teach at pre-school, primary, and secondary levels. On the other hand, around 6 out of 10 teachers have a third-level academic degree – undergraduate (e.g., bachelor, engineering); and among this group, about 51% work in primary-level educational institutions and 37% at the secondary level. According to the survey results, 9 out of 10 teachers in the Ecuadorian educational system have a full-time job position. On the contrary, 1 out of 10 has part-time and/or part-time job positions. Additionally, 58% of teachers have a permanent (tenure) job position, and 92% have a full-time dedication. Likewise, it is highlighted that around 27% of teachers work under a hired-staff job position 12% have a probationary status. According to the participants, 4 out of 10 teachers in Ecuador work in primary education, and of them, around 55% have tenure (permanent) job positions and 27% work under hired-staff positions. Besides, 3 out of 10 teachers teach in secondary, and of this rate, 62% have full professorships, and 23% have hired-staff positions. Finally, it is highlighted that around 2 out of 10 teachers work in universities and polytechnic schools. From this rate, 65% have tenure positions, and 27% have work contract. 3.1 Work Environment When analyzing the teachers’ working environment, 5 of 10 teachers totally agree that the schedule is non-defined because they have permanent requirements; similar findings are mentioned in [2]. In the same way, 3 of 10 teachers agree that they do not have enough time to do all the work activities (Table. 1). Besides, 3 out of 10 are neutral (neither agree, neither disagree), considering that they are under extreme pressure by the supervisors. However, almost the same quantity (3 out of 10) agreed about being under high pressure by the supervisors. Additionally, 4 of each 10 teachers responded that online work is more extensive and complex. Finally, 4 out of 10 consider that the activities they develop in the online system demand more concentration and time than

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face to face classes. In fact, Rugel and Romero [6] also mention a change in the working hours and conditions during the pandemic. Table 1. Work environment Schedule indefinite

Insufficient time

Pressure by superiors

Extensive information

Demand concentration

Agree

31,8% 268

34,6% 292

26,5% 223

42,6% 359

41,9% 353

Disagree

3,0% 25

16,3% 137

18,5% 156

9,5% 80

5,5% 46

Neutral

10,7% 90

24,0% 202

30,6% 258

17,8% 150

13,4% 113

Strongly agree

49,8% 429

15,7% 132

16,7% 141

26,8% 226

36,7% 309

Strongly disagree

4,7% 40

9,5% 80

7,7% 65

3,3% 28

2,6% 22

Total

100,0% 843

100,0% 843

100,0% 843

100,0% 843

100,0% 843

Related to the hours per day teachers teach synchronous classes, they work an average of 5.31 h with a standard deviation of 3,21 h higher than the asynchronous classes (5,41 h). The asynchronous classes have a higher percentage, with a significant standard deviation (3,40 h). This means that, on average, the teachers work more than 10 h every day, considering planning, developing classes, tutorials, evaluations, checking homework, among other academic activities. This analysis is supported by Tenorio’s study [10], which identifies an average of 11 working hours. 3.2 Workspace Related to workspace conditions, where teachers develop their activities, around 88 out of 100 teachers claim that the electrical service is efficient. In lower proportion, 74 out of 100 teachers express that they have an exclusive place to work. Likewise, around 85 out of 100 teachers claim that the light they have in their workspace is good. Also, 71 out of 100 teachers point out that the temperature of the workplace is adequate. Regarding workplace ventilation, 83 out of 100 teachers consider that it is sufficient. Finally, 97 out of 100 teachers have internet service in their workplace, but 42, 3% consider this service acceptable and 30,6% think it is not so good.

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Additionally, 5 out of 10 teachers use laptops and cellphones; nevertheless, 2 out of 10 work only with laptops. Approximately 1 out of 10 teachers work with a laptop, a desktop, and a cellphone to teach synchronous and asynchronous classes. 3.3 Health Effects Concerning the health effects the pandemic has provoked on teachers, 4 out of 10 consider they often stay in a static posture, and 2 of 10 always adopt it. Moreover, 2 out of 10 teachers have reported some ailments. A more significant proportion of 5 out of 10 teachers take breaks during their working hours, but 2 out of 10 never take them. According to the results teachers have felt or feel one or more ailments during and after their online working hours. In this sense, considering the multiple responses of those surveyed, it has been determined that at least 38.2% of teachers have suffered from neck pain. In addition, about 32% of teachers have one or more ailments similar to those of carpal tunnel syndrome: numbness, tingling, weakness, or muscle damage in hand and fingers. Likewise, about 17% have suffered from some gastrointestinal disorders. To a lesser extent, approximately 8% of teachers have suffered from all possible ailments generated by the online work modality, such as ailments similar to carpal tunnel syndrome, neck pain, back pain, technology stress, eyestrain, headache, gastrointestinal disease. These ailments are observed in [21] with a 53% incidence in this study. 3.4 Complementary Activities Regarding the complementary activities teachers carry out during their working hours, 60 out of 100 teachers also have to control their children’s activities. Coba [11] shows similar data with a slight difference of 6 points to corroborate these findings. In this context, women play a more leading role since around 5 out of 10 women carry out these activities than only 1 in 10 men (Table 2). This can also be observed in [6, 10, 11, 14]. Table 2. Children’s homework Gender Children’s homework control

No Yes

Total

Total

Female

Male

Other

26,7%

13,0%

0,2%

40,0%

225

110

2

337

47,3%

12,7%

0,0%

60,0%

399

107

0

506

74,0%

25,7%

0,2%

100,0%

624

217

2

843

Likewise, approximately 97 out of 100 teachers have to carry out daily household chores, from which 7 out of 10 are women. This shows that women are responsible for

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traditionally linked tasks such as cleaning, taking care of clothes, or preparing meals. In contrast men’s role in these tasks is secondary, at least in the time taken to perform them (Table. 3). This result is supported on [11], which mentions that women are three times more likely to be mainly responsible for those activities. Table 3. Household Chores Gender House Chores home

No Yes

Total

Total

Female

Male

Oher

1,5%

1,8%

0,1%

3,4%

13

15

1

29

72,5%

24,0%

0,1%

96,6%

611

202

1

814

74,0%

25,7%

0,2%

100,0%

624

217

2

843

Regarding additional work, about 3 out of 10 teachers cover their monthly income with another activity. From this rate, around 67% are women, and 33% are men. Concerning extra activities assigned to teachers, 59 out of 100 teachers state that they have developed additional activities assigned by their superiors. In women’s case, 4 out of 10 women have to carry out different activities, and around 2 out of 10 men, which shows the inequality between men and women in relation to the workload (Table 4). Table 4. Extra activities Gender Extra activities

No Yes

Total

Total

Female

Male

Oher

31,3%

9,5%

0,1%

40,9%

264

80

1

345

42,7%

16,3%

0,1%

59,1%

360

137

1

498

74,0%

25,7%

0,2%

100,0%

624

217

2

843

Factors that Contribute to Teachers’ Burnout During the COVID 19

51

Finally, data shows that about 69 out of 100 teachers would like to return to face-toface classes only if bio-sanitary conditions allow it. In this context 5 out of 10 women and 2 out of 10 men would like to return on-site. As it can be inferred, women are the most interested in returning on-site classes compared to men, which can be explained by the fact that women are the ones who carry out more additional activities, such as that of their children, home, and work (Table 5). This situation is pointed out by Dos Santos, E. et al. [2] that working at home means being forced to share the workspace with the rest of the family, children, and spouses. This deed becomes worse in the case of women because they feel overwhelmed with the new work conditions. Table 5. Back to face to face classes Gender Come back face to face classes

No Yes

Total

Total

Female

Male

Other

24,3%

6,4%

0,1%

30,8%

205

54

1

260

49,7%

19,3%

0,1%

69,2%

419

163

1

583

74,0%

25,7%

0,2%

100,0%

624

217

2

843

Among the most important reasons teachers want to return to face-to-face classes is that this modality represents less stress and workload. Moreover, they consider that face-to-face interaction and feedback with students are essential because it embodies a much more effective teaching-learning process. They believe that the quality of education and both students’ and teachers’ mental health would improve. Finally, going back to schools does not require computers or smartphones, and permanent Internet connection for teachers and students.

4 Conclusion The main objective of this research project was to identify factors contributing to teachers’ burnout during the COVID 19 pandemic. Additionally, the research aimed to analyze teachers’ working conditions, determine the teachers’ health problems associated with the new working conditions, and establish the complementary activities that affect male and female teachers. In this sense, it led to conclude that teachers working condition changed during the pandemic. Their current schedules became undefined because they had permanent requirements and extra work that took more time than usual. Addition-

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ally, some teachers believed that they were under extreme pressure situations and that their online work was more extensive and complex and demanded more concentration. Finally, on average, the teachers worked more than 10 h every day, considering planning, developing classes, tutorials, evaluations, checking homework, among other academic activities. It is notorious that the workspace conditions were a positive aspect of the online system. It is essential to highlight that a high percentage of teachers had an exclusive place to work with good ventilation and appropriate light. Even though the devices and Internet service teachers possessed, were useful; 38.2% of the teachers suffered from neck pain, and around 32% of teachers had one or more ailments similar to those of carpal tunnel syndrome: numbness, tingling, weakness, or muscle damage in hand and fingers. Finally, the data revealed that women’s situation worsened during the pandemic because they developed extra work activities and household tasks, such as cleaning, preparing meals, controlling, and guiding their children’s activities. Therefore, there was an inequality distribution of workload between men and women. These factors directly contributed to work stress. Despite the advantages that the online work represents, most of the teachers wanted to return to on-site classes, and this desire was stronger in women than men. Clearly this research has identified the main factors affecting to teachers’ burnout during the COVID 19 pandemic in the Ecuadorian context and has given insights for future studies related to women teachers’ new working conditions.

References 1. Prado-Gasco, V., Gomez, M., Soto, A., Rodriguez, L., Navarro, D.: Frontiers in Psychology. [Online]. Available: https://www.frontiersin.org/journals/psychology (30 septiembre 2020) Accessed 27 Mar 2021 2. Dos Santos, M., Ribeiro, S., Scorsolini-Comin, F., De Cassia, R., de Marchi Barcellos, D.: Ser docente en el contexto de la pandemia COVID-19: reflexiones sobre la salud mental. Scielo. 29(3), 1 (2020) 3. Mosquera, R., Castrillón, O., Parra, L.: Scielo. [Online]. Available: https://scielo.conicyt.cl/sci elo.php?script=sci_abstract&pid=S0718-07642018000600153&lng=pt&nrm=iso (Diciembre 2018). Accessed 1 Marzo 2021 4. Silva, V.: En el Ecuador, el Gobierno dispuso la jornada laboral con teletrabajo, para evitar la propagación de casos de covid-19. El Comercio, [Online]. Available: https://www.elc omercio.com/actualidad/empleados-publicos-privados-teletrabajo-pandemia.html (4 January 2021). Accessed 1 Mar 2021 5. Torres, M.: Los docentes fiscales vuelven a trabajar ocho horas y recibirán sueldo completo. Expreso. [Online]. Available: https://www.expreso.ec/guayaquil/docentes-planteles-fiscalesvuelven-ocho-horas-recibiran-sueldo-completo-94745.html (4 December 2020). Accessed 27 Feb 2021

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6. Rugel, L. Romero, R.: Las percepciones de los trabajadores frente al teletrabajo, Trabajo de titulación. Universidad Catótica de Santiago de Guayaquil. [Online]. Available: http://reposi torio.ucsg.edu.ec/bitstream/3317/15593/1/T-UCSG-PRE-JUR-MD-TSO-65.pdf (September 2020). Accessed 24 Feb 2021 7. Acuerdo Ministerial Nro. MDT-2020–181: Ministerio de trabajo. [Online]. Available: https:// www.trabajo.gob.ec/wp-content/uploads/2020/09/AM-MDT-2020-181-TELETRABAJO14.09.2020-signed.pdf (14 Septiembre 2020). Accessed 24 Feb 2021 8. Garantizando tus derechos, Ministerio del Trabajo emite Acuerdo Ministerial para la regulación del Teletrabajo. Ministerio de Trabajo. [Online]. Available: https://www.trabajo.gob. ec/garantizando-tus-derechos-ministerio-del-trabajo-emite-acuerdo-ministerial-para-la-reg ulacion-del-teletrabajo/ (14 Septiembre 2020). Accessed 27 Feb 2021 9. Santillana, A.: Connessioni Precarie. [Online]. Available: https://www.connessioniprecarie. org/2020/05/23/saqueo-de-lo-publico-trabajo-de-cuidado-y-crisis-pandemia-en-ecuador/ (25 May 2020). Accessed 24 Feb 2021 10. Tenorio, M.d.C.: Análisis comparativo de la fatiga laboral antes y durante la pandemia covid-19 en docentes de las unidades educativas fiscales de la ciudad de Cuenca. Tresis de Maestría. Universidad del Azuay. [Online]. Available: http://dspace.uazuay.edu.ec/bitstr eam/datos/10419/1/16025.pdf (2020). Accessed 23 Feb 2021 11. Coba, G.: Líos de conexión y tareas del hogar limitan el teletrabajo en Ecuador. Primisas. [Online]. Available: https://www.primicias.ec/noticias/economia/hogar-problemas-internetteletrabajo-ecuador/ (17 October 2020). Accessed 25 Feb 2021 12. Wang, B., Liu, Y., Qian, J., Parker, S.: Achieving effective remote working during the COVID19 pandemic: a work design perspective. Appl. Psychol. 0(0), 1–44 (2020) 13. Deloitte: Remote Collaboration Facing the challenges of COVID-19. [Online]. Available: https://www2.deloitte.com/content/dam/Deloitte/de/Documents/human-capital/Remote-Col laboration-COVID-19.pdf (March 2020). Accessed 20 Feb 2021 14. International Labour Organization: Teleworking During the COVID-19 Pandemic and Beyond: A Practical Guide. International Labour Organization, Genova (2020) 15. Kraft, M., Simon, N.: Teachers’ Experiences Working from Home During the COVID-19 Pandemic. Teach Upbeat. [Online]. Available: https://f.hubspotusercontent20.net/hubfs/291 4128/Upbeat%20Memo_Teaching_From_Home_Survey_June_24_2020.pdf (7 July 2020). Accessed 3 Mar 2021 16. Organization, W.H.: World Health Organization. [Online]. Available: https://www.who. int/emergencies/diseases/novel-coronavirus-2019?gclid=CjwKCAiAp4KCBhB6EiwAx RxbpHdC5byVsZpriqqd_iztRDw88k45AlTGxrNGLPzzTNFjd_iFOkMXXxoCMgMQA vD_BwE (2020). Accessed 2021 17. Fadia, A.: Teacher stress and coping: the role of personal and job characteristics. Procedia 185(13), 374–380 (2015) 18. Akour, A., et al.: The impact of the COVID-19 pandemic and emergency distance teaching on the psychological status of university teachers: a cross–sectional study in jordan. Am. J. Trop. Med. Hyg. 103(6), 2391–2399 (2020) 19. Hayes, S., Prestley, J., Iishmakhametov, N., Ray, H.: I’m notworking from home, I’m living at work”: perceived stress and work-related burnout before and during COVID-19. Analytics and Data Science Institute. 28, (25 October 2020)

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20. https://www.oxfam.org/es/informes/los-cuidados-en-tiempos-del-coronav. Oxfam International. [Online]. Available: https://www.oxfam.org/en (2021). Accessed 15 Feb 2021 21. Gallo, C.: France 24. [Online]. Available: https://www.france24.com/es/20200723-estres-ans iedad-impacto-teletrabajo-salud-mental-pandemia (23 July 2020)

Public Policies for Strengthening the Cocoa Value Chain in Ecuador – from Design to Implementation Jessica Priscilla Garcia Noboa(B) , Alfonso Rafael Casanova Montero(B) and Carmen Elizabeth Lucero Novillo(B)

,

Universidad de Guayaquil, Guayaquil EC090114, Ecuador {jessica.garcian,alfonso.casanovam,carmen.luceron}@ug.edu.ec

Abstract. The resurgence of industrial policies in Latin America in recent years and its impact on the economic development of nations motivates Ecuador to leave the primary-export scheme, prioritizing fourteen productive sectors and five industries. The objective of this work is to determine if public policies designed in both the previous and current administration were or were not implemented and if the impact generated was positive or not in relation to the goals/indicators set. For this, a literature review of the most relevant international research published in scientific journals during the last 25 years, as well as a implementation books in Latin America and official reports from Ecuador is carried out. The research shows the transversal and sectoral policies designed for the development of the productive matrix, as well as the strategic axes for the implementation of a competitive improvement plan for cocoa and its derivatives. It concludes that the impact of the macroeconomic variables GDP, Trade Balance, employment and foreign direct Investment in 2019 was positive and proposes an alternative plan of action to guarantee the achievement of the goals set for 2025. Keywords: Public policies · Productive matrix · Value chains · Cocoa

1 Introduction The development of the productive matrix and the insertion of various strategic sectors generated a broad debate about a Plan the Ecuadorian government deployed during the decade 2007–2017, but this issue of development of industrial policies had already been an extensively evolved approach in other countries of Latin America: “The resurgence of industrial policies in Latin America in recent years has taken place against a backdrop of a growing consensus on their importance for long-term and inclusive economic development. The international financial crisis of 20082009 put the role of an active state back on the map, as it became clear that market forces alone do not lead to sustainable economic growth, with social development and equality” [1]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Botto-Tobar et al. (Eds.): CIT 2021, LNNS 406, pp. 55–70, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9_5

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Although the sectors where the government prioritised on goods were eight [2], this article focuses on the agro-industry, specifically on one of the emblematic products, not only for its ancestral transcendence but also for its economic importance: cocoa. The aim of this research is to determine if public policies designed by the former and the current governments were or were not able to be implemented and if the generated impact was positive or negative in relation to the indicators set. Accordingly, all the information is taken from available indexed scientific journals, electronic databases, or digital platforms as well as from first source government information, such as technical reports from the vice-presidency of Ecuador, Senplades now named Planifica Ecuador, Coordinating Ministry of Production, Employment, and Competitiveness (MCPEC), Ministry of Industries and Productivity, Ministry of Production, Foreign Trade, Investment and Fishing (MPCEP); Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAG), Ministry of Tourism in order to identify the most important determinants of the industrial policies applied to the cocoa sector during the last five years (2016–2020). The review is intended to contribute to, integrate and synthesise the knowledge generated, to establish areas of greater consensus and controversy, to explore gaps and potential lines of research according to the object of study. This article is structured in five sections. In the first section, the methodology used for this research is described. The second one includes conceptual definitions of the theories which precede the subject of study. The third one presents the findings of the review. The contributions of these articles are summarized in the fourth section; the most relevant obstacles for the development of the cocoa industry are identified and new lines of research with great potential in the subject area are proposed in the fifth section.

2 Methodology of the Review This article aims to analyse what kind of public policies were applied in Ecuador to promote the strengthening of the cocoa agro-industrial chain and what has been the impact of their implementation. To this end, a biographical review of the most relevant research published in high-impact scientific journals on public policies in the national and international context in the last 25 years (1995–2020) is carried out, except some classic research which represents pioneering sources on the subject, in order to integrate and synthesise the knowledge generated, analyse areas of greater consensus and controversy, and explore gaps, as well as potential lines of research. The search was carried out in electronic databases such as Science Direct, Journal STORage (JSTOR), Google Scholar, and EBSCO. From the large amount of available bibliography, priority was given to Anglo-Saxon literature published in high-impact scientific journals according to the Journal Citation Report (JCR) and the Social Science Edition, published annually by the Institute for Scientific Information, paying special attention to journals specialising in the area of public policy and economic development such as Public Administration Review, The Economic History Review, Policy Analysis Journal, International Forum Journal, Journal of European Public Policy, Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development Journal. The literature review was conducted in two stages. The first one, by identifying constructs associated with antecedents, predictors, determinants associated with public policy, in which 4 criteria were placed (background + public policy, theories + public policy,

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economy + public policy, development + public policy). However, in order to expand the search, concepts such as industrial innovation, effective implementations and global climate policy were also used. During the analysis procedure, 24 articles were selected in this first stage, which allowed firstly to structure the background and secondly to identify various variables for analysis. In the second stage, the search focused on the chronological contributions that developed countries made in terms of public policies to generate economic development. As a result of the combination of these two stages, in addition to the eight scientific articles and books which summarise the evolution of public policy (PP) at the international level, literary contributions on Latin America and the Caribbean were identified, as well as specific reports related to the transformation of the productive model and industrial policy in Ecuador (Table 1). Table 1. Classification of scientific articles, books, and reports that make up the theoretical framework at the international level, Latin America, the Caribbean and Ecuador.

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3 Theoretical Framework 3.1 International Conceptual Background Lowi [3] in his work Four Systems of Policy, Politics and Choice in 1972 creates a reference point for what would be defined as the four functional categories in 1996. In this work, he describes how Regulatory Policies, Redistributive, Distributive and Constitutive Policies affect the behaviour of citizens and the government, according to the benefit/cost ratio. For example, according to Joan Subirats’ point of view [4], fiscal policies (Redistributive Policies), in which it is assumed that those who have more, pay more tax, is a policy that affects everyone in general but serves to boost the General State Budget, from the point of view of equality according to income. On the other hand, when the decision is taken to build a multi-sports facility, which is a distributive policy, the cost is borne by the government and everyone through the taxes collected, but those who benefit are the inhabitants of the area (it is said that in the end, this type of policy buys clients and its political conflict is low). In the case of regulatory policies, such as an environmental tax, for example, the costs are borne by the owners of the industries and the benefit accrues to the inhabitants of a given sector through better air quality (high political conflict). Constitutive politics refers to changes in party law or the political system where the citizenry is neither part of nor benefits from it. Current interpretations of Lowi clearly differentiate how the type of policy defines the type of political conflict. Subsequent to the type and design of policies proposed by Lowi, it is important to highlight the contribution of Cohen [5] in his 1929 work. This author, in his work, highlights valuable information on the relationship between politics and economics under Italian fascism through a revaluation of the lira, in which Mussolini gained prestige for his regime and demonstrated absolute authority in political matters, while showing that fascist economic policies were not designed to destroy private enterprise in Italy, eliminating the conflict of interest between fascism and Italian capitalism. Half a century later, Sabatier and Mazmanian [6] argue that policy decisions should be based on objectives, the strategies which legislators and/or policy-makers propose should be aimed primarily at overcoming deficiencies. They identify five conditions conducive to effective policy implementation: 1. that there are programmes based on sound theories with clear objectives 2. that the structure of the policy implementation process is defined 3. that implementation leaders possess enough political skill and are committed to the objectives 4. that support groups or institutions are clearly identified 5. that the variables of time, socio-economic conditions and political support are important. Morgan’s 1986 analysis in his book “Reindustrialisation in peripheral Britain: state policy, spatial economics and industrial innovation” [7], indicates how, between 1945 and 1973, rural areas of Britain (central-west Scotland, south Wales, and north-east England) considered as development areas an experienced industrial decline as a result of redistribution from sending to receiving regions. They explain how the South East and West Midlands emerged as dynamic labour markets. Following the literary timeline, Méndez 1993, in his work “Public policy as a dependent variable: Towards a more comprehensive analysis of public policies” [8], describes the growing importance of public policy in the social sciences in Mexico and Latin America, whereas in the United States it has already been extensively developed fifty

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years ago. Méndez’s study includes processes by objectives and the development of organisations with targeted programmes. From the point of view of Parsons 1997 [9], “the genesis of a public policy implies the recognition of a problem” and this process has the sequence: issue-problem-public policy, if for example, the issue is people sleeping on the streets, most probably the problem is homelessness and the public policy more housing. However, all people might agree with the issue but not with the definition of the problem and even less with the public policy (PP) to be implemented. This author quotes Kingdon from 1984 and highlights the importance of indicators as a mechanism for performance/goal achievement. In 2000 Parsons innovates his research work and explains the direct relationship between discontinuity theory and policy change by considering three factors: time, space, and cognitive learning processes [10]. In the 21st century, one of the most prominent works on public policy and climate change was definitely Toth 2002. In his work “Exploring options for Global Climate Policy: a new Analytical Framework”, the author argues that the only reasonable way to protect the environment is to implement a series of long-term policies [11]. The valuable literature collected by Fontaine [12] in 2015 in his book The analysis of public policies: concepts, theories, and methods, makes clear the various points of view on the impact that public policies have generated in Latin America and the Caribbean, taking the subject of study as the dependent variable, highlighting important factors when formulating, implementing and evaluating policy, dealing with the relationship between government-governability-governance; endogenous and exogenous factors that affect the decision, as well as the role of institutions in policy analysis and design. Finally, it argues how the old theories (rational choice theory, neo-institutionalist theory, cognitivist theory, and critical theory with their limitations for policy analysis) apply to the new world. 3.2 Evolution of Public Policy in Latin America and the Caribbean In this section, reference is made to the two books issued by ECLAC. The 2006 book entitled “Politics and public policies in the reform processes of Latin America”; and the 2014 book entitled “Strengthening value chains as an instrument of industrial policy: methodology and experience of ECLAC in Central America”. From the 2006 book, Franco [13] in chapter five describes some models of social policy applied in Latin America in the last quarter of the century, describes the changes in the orientation of policy in Latin America (from the position of the monopoly to the state of social policy), analyses the anti-poverty programmes and programmes inspired by the emerging paradigm in which the term gender equity is introduced, cultural diversity, especially of indigenous peoples, and the importance of education. Padilla Perez and Alvarado [1], in chapter one, address the resurgence of industrial policy, identify six areas in which public policies are grouped and propose four approaches i) passive horizontal policies ii) active horizontal policies that aim to correct market failures iii) policies for structural change that build on existing comparative advantages iv) policies for structural change that create new comparative advantages.

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The authors relate each approach to schools of economic thought (neoclassical, evolutionary, structuralist, and neo-Schumpeterian) and examine the context in which value chain strengthening is embedded in public policy. In chapter two developed by Oddone et al. [14], the German Agency for International Cooperation closely follows the manual that Kaplinsky and Morris [15] prepared for the Canadian government’s International Development Research Centre (IDRC). Oddone customises a similar methodology, develops a set of 85 questions for value chain analysis, and proposes a methodology for strengthening value chains. In addition, it identifies seven thematic axes for improving value chains: 1. Innovation 5. Services in the environment 6. International insertion 7. Human resources. The following section will analyse which of these axes Ecuador proposes to promote the development of the production matrix and incorporate the strengthening of its cocoa value chain into public policy. 3.3 Transformation of the Production Matrix and Its Insertion in Ecuador’s Industrial Policy The evolution of public policies at the international level, as well as in Latin America and the Caribbean, led Ecuador to incorporate the so-called productive revolution based on knowledge and human talent into its National Plan 2013–2017 [16]. Strategic objective # 10 of this government plan includes promoting the transformation of fourteen productive sectors and five industries (including cocoa) through public policies aimed at innovation, business linkages, agricultural development, the creation of an information society, attracting foreign direct investment, improving infrastructure, obtaining financing and capacity building. In 2015, the Vice-Presidency of the Republic (VP) together with the Coordinating Minister of Production, Employment and Competitiveness (MCPEC), the Minister and Vice-Minister of Industries and Productivity, designed the Industrial Policy of Ecuador 2016–2025 [17], in which they established cross-cutting and sectoral policies. Transversal as inventive business climate, factors related to foreign trade, human talent, and sources of financing. Sectoral in terms of eleven instruments, placing cocoa at number 9. The impacts that this industrial policy aims to achieve on macroeconomic variables are: i) an increase of 2.8% in GDP ii) a positive contribution of 3.1 billion dollars in the Balance of Trade iii) 144,500 new jobs iv) attraction of investment of 3.9 billion dollars. During the new period of government, the development of the productive matrix is contemplated within axis # 2, objective # 5 of the National Plan named Plan for a lifetime 2017–2021. And it is precisely in 2019 when, through Executive Decree 791, the agro-industrial chain of cocoa and its derivatives is prioritised, thus complying with the Sustainable Development Goals (ODS) associated with the 2030 agenda. One month after the decree was signed, in July, an inter-ministerial agreement approved the implementation of a plan to improve the competitiveness of cocoa and its derivatives (PMC cacao), the creation of an inter-institutional committee for this chain and a publicprivate technical council. The objective now is to implement the public policy already designed by the previous government but redefining its axes. To this end, as part of the Project for the reactivation of production after the 2016 earthquake, contract number

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LA/2017/391–895 in document 3 of the PMC cocoa 2020 [18], established the vision of making Ecuador the world leader in cocoa and cocoa derivatives by 2030, differentiating its production based on criteria of quality, traceability, and prices recognised on the international market. The implementation of this plan focuses on seven strategic axes with a budget of 605 million dollars distributed among four sources of financing over seven years, from 2019 to 2025 (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Strategic axes for PMC cacao implementation. Information extracted from document 3 PMC. Prepared by the author

4 Findings Resulting from the Review 4.1 How Close Are We to Achieve the 2030 Vision for the Cocoa Value Chain (CV) of Cocoa? According to the guidelines set out in the Competitive Improvement Plan (PMC) for the cocoa and cocoa derivatives chain, Ecuador plans to be a world benchmark for cocoa and its derivatives by 2030, standing out not only for quality and excellence but also based on criteria of sustainability, traceability, and fair international prices. According to the statistical information cross-checked between the Ministry of Agriculture (MAG) and the Ministry of Production, Foreign Trade, Investment and Fisheries (MPCEI), during the period 2016–2019, progress has been favourable from the point of view of production growth and Foreign Direct Investment (FDI), as can be seen below. 4.2 Analysing the Seven Strategic Axes The government of Ecuador, together with the European Commission, proposed to articulate this plan on the basis of seven strategic axes: 1. Improving quality 2. Strengthen associativity 3. Increasing productivity 4. Attract investment to add value 5. Strengthen public-private institutions 6. Position Ecuadorian cocoa and chocolate in the international market 7. Provide credit for the cocoa value chain. This section aims to analyse the impact that some variables managed to generate between the goals initially set and the results obtained. Variables such as political instability are considered in this study, to

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visualize whether, after three changes of vice-presidents [19] (within the current presidential term 2017–2021), the inter-ministerial agreements established were affected or not, with each change of representative in office. What Strategy Was Applied for Continuous Quality Improvement? One of the main reasons which has a negative impact on the price-setting of the international stock exchange of cocoa is quality. According to the different actors representing each link, in the last two decades, exporters of Ecuadorian cocoa have received the stock exchange price minus a penalty premium, a situation which places fine premium cocoa in the ordinary or commodity cocoa segment, generating large losses compared to the volumes exported. Because of this limitation, in 2015, the Government of Ecuador delegated the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAG) and the Ecuadorian Agency for Agricultural Quality Assurance (AGROCALIDAD) to contract international certifiers [20] to operate in the country and guarantee access for its products to the international market according to their standards. According to the study carried out by García [21], the five international certifiers contracted, BSC Oko Garantie, Ceres, Control Unión, Ecocert, and Icea, have managed to certify 32 actors in the cocoa chain by the end of 2019. What Structure Enabled to Strengthen Associativity in the Cocoa Agro-Industry and Its Derivatives? The strategic objective number 2 of the cocoa PMC (Competitive Improvement Plan), under the same logic, aims to integrate functional associativity, trade union representativeness and incidence in relation to public policy, with the objective of strengthening the primary link in the chain and fostering co-responsible participation in it to guarantee the fulfillment of the strategies. The goals proposed in this objective were: 1. To generate a capacity development plan for functional associations; 2. To design a service platform model; 3. To strengthen a national cocoa producers’ union. In fact, considering associativity in each of the links, by the end of the 2020 period, the following clusters were successfully interlinked The Association of Aroma and Fine Cocoa Producers (APROCAFA) has approximately 35 associated farms and estates [22], Association of Cocoa and Chocolate Agricultural Production (ASOECACAO), created in 2017 and to date has 27 members who own farms [23]; National Food and Beverage Manufacturers’ Association (ANFAB), which in turn, within the category “cocoa products and derivatives” groups five large industries such as Cordialsa, Ferrero del Ecuador S.A., Mondelez Ecuador S.A., Nestlé del Ecuador S.A. and industrial Danec S.A. [24], Association of Ecuadorian Chocolatiers [25] is made up of seven companies: Kallari, Hoja Verde, Pacari, BKL corporation - Caoni, Chocoart, Ecuartesanal, Fine & Flavour (Valdivian Chocolate), five of which have received national and international recognition for their chocolate bars [26], and National Association of Cocoa Exporters – Ecuador (ANECACAO), which groups 29 exporters of cocoa and its derivatives [27]. What Was the Impact on Productivity? This strategic objective aims to boost productivity from a sustainable approach and also involves economic aspects. It envisages a dynamic between reducing unit production

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0.4

313,284

0.6 0.2 0

Production

2019

2017

2018

2016

2015

2014

2013

2012

2011

0

Performance (t/ha)

0.8

289,102

180,192

0.62 0.63 0.52 0.39

177,551

156,216

178,264

0.34

133,323

100,000

215,811

200,000

0.44 0.42 0.42

0.37

126,087

300,000

0.57

309,066

400,000

2010

Production (t)

costs and generating greater profitability for the producer as the primary link in the cocoa value chain. The renewal of plantations, their rehabilitation, and maintenance articulate what, from the point of view of Loet Leydesdorff and Henry Etzkowitz [28] is defined as the triple helix, which in innovation policy creates a trilogy between industry, university, and government. Each of them, from their different roles, contributes to the achievement of objectives. In the government helix, technical support is provided by Agrocalidad, the National Institute of Agricultural Research (INIAP), the Consultative Council and the provincial cocoa boards; in the economic sector, the National Corporation of Popular and Solidarity Finance (CONAFIPS) and BanEcuador, which is a public development bank. From the academy, the university that provides technical support to improve product quality and reduce the loss of fine aroma cocoa beans in the province of Guayas and El Oro is Litoral Polytechnic Higher School (ESPOL), through its centre or biotechnological research in Ecuador (CIBE). In 2016 it participated in several projects financed by a French chocolate producer called KAOKA[29]; and at the end of 2018, in agreement with INIAP, it hosted the multi-agency cocoa platform for Latin America and the Caribbean [30]. In the private sector, Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs), associations, agricultural technicians, agricultural entrepreneurs, and private banks are involved (Fig. 2).

Performance

Fig. 2. Production and yield of Theobroma cacao L 2010–2019. Information extracted from the Report of the Ministry of Agriculture of Ecuador.

The results obtained in this dynamic, as can be seen in the graph above, have been favourable. The National Institute of Statistics and Census (INEC), the official information source of the agricultural sector (ESPAC) and the MAG affirm that the yield ton per hectare (t/ha) in the cultivation of Theobroma Cacao L (the scientific name for the cocoa tree, which in Greek means “food of the gods”), during the period 2016–2019, has improved from 0.39 to 0.63 [31]. What Investments Have Been Attracted to Generate Added Value? Currently, the international market is showing a preference for innovative products. In the cocoa agro-industry and its derivatives, the trend is towards functional, value-added, environmentally friendly products which promote good health, sustainable and socially

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responsible brands, with innovative/ecological packaging, promoting decent work and fair pay for their employees. Those factors have allowed, day by day, deep and conscious changes in their production processes through the chain. Foreign direct investment (FDI) - now PPP (Public-Private Partnership), based on the Organic Law for Productive Development, Investment Attraction, Employment Generation and Fiscal Stability and Balance, has become one of the fundamental pillars for adding value and distinction in the chain, creating a competitive advantage from Porter’s perspective [32]; a strategy that will enable Ecuador to position cocoa and its derivatives as a world benchmark differentiated for its quality and excellence. The information gathered in MPCEI according to the graph below indicates that foreign investment Ecuador managed to capture during the period 2018 was growing, which generated a valuable contribution to the development of the country’s productive matrix of 10% FDI 2018 to the agricultural sector and fruitful trade relations with investor countries. Canada, for example, according to Gestion magazine, has the highest concentration of total FDI, followed by Spain and the Netherlands [33], investments which have been the fundamental pillars for achieving the high yields and high levels of quality achieved by Theobroma cacao L (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Foreign direct investment (FDI) or Public-Private Partnership 2014–2018. Information extracted from the Ministry of Production, Foreign Trade, Investment, and Fisheries.

Another direct foreign investor was Switzerland. The Barry CalleBaut group, one of the world’s leading chocolate manufacturers, announced last October 2020 the creation of an export matrix to be built in Durán, Guayas province. According to the Ministry of Production, this investment is expected to generate new jobs and strategic alliances with suppliers, producers and exporters. Minister Ivan Ontaneda also pointed out that the cocoa industry (CCN51 and fine flavour cocoa) moves around 800 million dollars a year and provides more than 150,000 jobs. How Was It Possible to Strengthen Public and Private Institutions? This strategic objective aims to guarantee the implementation and monitoring of the PMC, through a body that channels and manages the needs of the different actors who develop activities in the chain. In fact, in 2019, according to the Ministry of Agriculture and Livestock (MAG), after having elevated the CMP to public policy through Executive Decree number 791, the first Technical Cooperation Roundtable for the

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Competitive Improvement Plan was held, establishing three goals: 1. To structure the Cocoa Consultative Council 2. To set up a monitoring team 3. To reactivate provincial roundtables. According to information from the Ministry of Production, Foreign Trade, Investment and Fisheries (MPCEI), INIAP, and MAG, the representative of the European Union - Christian Marlin, who provided support with the methodology of the Plan, indicated that Ecuador has two great opportunities in the international environment; the first, the decreasing production g in leading countries from Africa and Asia, and the second, the strong growth in demand for Premium chocolate (+6%/year in the EU, USA, and Japan) and a world market of 850,000 MT for differentiated cocoa [34]. According to the authorities of this portfolio, this would generate a third cocoa boom and make Ecuador a world power in the production and processing of the “Golden Grain” products (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Institutional model for the implementation of the PMC cocoa. Information extracted from the presentation report of the first meeting of the committee by Ph.D. Christian Marlin representative of the European Union [35].

What Are the Mechanisms Applied to Position Ecuadorian Cocoa and Chocolate in the International Market? According to the study carried out by the Vice-Presidency of the Republic of Ecuador together with the European Union delegate, international demand for cocoa and its derivatives in the medium term 2025 will be based on three criteria: traceability, quality, and differentiation. Therefore, it is extremely important that cocoa beans and cocoa products are 100% sustainable and traceable. Ecuador, as a net exporter of cocoa, must adapt to the constant changes in tastes and preferences of the market and, above all, respond to the needs of niche markets; only in this way, rewards instead of punishments in price will be obtained.

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In this strategic objective 6 proposed in the Cocoa PMC (competitive improvement plan), public-private action through the Ministry of Agriculture, Ministry of Tourism, MPCEI, General Secretariat of Communication of the Presidency SECOM, associations, exporters, and industries (described in Fig. 8), will allow the deployment of various mechanisms such as a national promotion plan, a national chocolate campaign, an international campaign to promote the new policy of quality and excellence in the chain, and participation in approximately 40 international fairs. According to the information gathered throughout the 2016–2019 study period, if we are talking about a National Plan for the promotion and dissemination of success stories in the cocoa chain, in 2017, the English magazine, The Economist, highlighted the benefits of the Ecuadorian cocoa route, from Durán to the La Danesa plantation; to which the President of the Republic responded “This is the immense capacity for innovation that we have in Ecuador. Congratulations to Pacari, Republica del Cacao, and especially to Hoja Verde!” [36]. In addition, from mid-2014 to the end of 2018, with financing from the Development Bank of Latin America (CAF), the project “More value and more flavour with the Cocoa Route in Ecuador” was developed in the non-profit foundation, Maquita Cusunchic, providing support to six community tourism centre in the province of Napo, converting 214 service providers into tourism specialities, thus generating sales of more than 930,000 dollars [37]. In the numerous international fairs that Ecuadorian brands of chocolate bars have participated, they have won international awards for quality, taste and aroma stand out, according to the Anecacao database, in 2019 our country actively participated in national fairs such as Expo Food & Beverages Ecuador, World Cocoa Summit, Ecuador Chocolate Show, Expo Sweet; as well as international fairs such as World Choc Expo Shanghai, Sweets & Snacks Expo Chicago, Salón Chocolate y Cacao 2019, Sweets Ukraine Kiev - Fair for sweets goods, Deli International Fine Food Festival Bad Kissingen, Salon du Chocolat Paris, Salon du Chocolat Lyon, Salon du Chocolat Beirut, Salon des Vins et de la Gastronomie Angers [38]. What Were the Sources of Financing to Provide Credit to the Cocoa VC? The budget required for the implementation of the policy to help revitalise the cocoa value chain by 2030 is 605 million dollars. The plan considers disbursements distributed over seven years (2019–2025) by activity: 1. quality and traceability 31 million 2. strengthening of associativity 10 million 3. productivity 422 million 4. Value- added 136 million 5. institutionalisation 2 million 6. international positioning 4 million. According to document 3 of the cocoa PMC, four sources of financing will be used: public and private banks, which are intended to generate the largest share (56%), followed by resources from national and international private investment (30%), cooperation agencies (10%) and the government’s own resources (4%). While it is true that the idea of the Plan was generated as an incentive for economic reactivation after the 2016 earthquake in Ecuador, it is necessary to consider that, in mid-2019, Presidential Decree 791 was signed, which includes the PMC plan within the industrial public policy. At the time of writing, there is no specific information on the disbursements earmarked for each activity. There are several reasons for this, firstly because of the political instability generated by four vice-presidential changes,

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and secondly because, according to the schedule, disbursements would be made at the end of 2019 and at the beginning of 2020 the whole world experienced the pandemic caused by the Covid-19 coronavirus. However, by cross-referencing the database of the economic and commercial report of the Secretary of State [39] and BanEcuador [40], during 2019, there is evidence of foreign direct investment for the entire agricultural sector of 99 million dollars, as well as loans from the public bank BanEcuador for 25 million dollars.

5 Discussion and Implications for Future Research The study carried out on the evolution of public policies in the international framework and in Latin America, generates a reference point to identify the areas that Ecuador’s industrial policy determined as priorities for the development of the cocoa agro-industry and its derivatives. The cross-cutting and sectoral policies described in item 3.3. proposed by MIPRO during the 2016–2025 period are focused on generating a positive impact on the macroeconomic variables GDP, trade balance, employment, and foreign direct investment. Also, the work shows that, although it is true that the period of analysis 2016–2020 includes two different periods of government, the first one defined the issue, identified the problem and structured a policy for the development of the productive matrix, while the second one focused its attention on the process of policy implementation. The signing of Executive Decree 791 was the key that articulated the operational gear of the plan. The seven strategic axes described in the Competitive Improvement Plan PMC cocoa, according to the information gathered, show, in general, an effective implementation of public policy, which projects favourable results to 2025 and would allow to achieve the 2030 vision for the strengthening of the cocoa VC value chain in Ecuador. However, it is possible that variables such as product traceability and international certifications of organic cocoa (immersed in the quality axis) will take a little longer than expected, which means that the penalty premium in international prices will gradually decrease until 2025. At the close of this research, Ecuador is close to electing its new sovereign, the challenge under the new government 2021–2025 will be to maintain the goals/indicators set and provide the economic, human, and infrastructure resources necessary to achieve this industrial transformation of the gold nugget. It is important to highlight that the PMC cacao faces other critical success factors such as the global crisis caused by the Covid-19 virus, political instability, commitment of the actors in the chain, foreign disinvestment or natural phenomena such as the 2016 earthquake that activated the Technical Assistance Project for the reactivation of production through Contract No. LA/2017/391–895. It is for the above reasons that future lines of research have to focus on how to reduce the impact of these externalities and develop an alternative plan of action to ensure the success of each of the goals set.

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References 1. Padilla Perez, R., Alvarado Vargas, J.: The resurgence of industrial policy. In: Strengthening Value Chains as an Instrument of Industrial Policy: Methodology and Experience of ECLAC in Central America, pp. 34–76. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean ECLAC (2014) 2. Mora, L., Duran, M.: The bases of the change in the productive matrix in Ecuador 2006–2016. University and Society Magazine. 11(4) (2019). http://scielo.sld.cu/scielo.php?script=sci_art text&pid=S2218-36202019000400377 3. Lowi, T.J.: Four Systems of Policy, Politics, and Choice. Public Adm. Rev. 32(4), 298–310 (1972). http://www.jstor.org/stable/974990 4. Subirats, J.: Six Types of Public Policies. Autonomous University of Barcelona (2016). https:// es.coursera.org/lecture/democracia/1-6-tipos-de-politicas-publicas-ZpN36 5. Cohen, J.S. The 1927 Revaluation of the Lira: a Study in Political Economy. Eco. His. Rev. 25(4), 642–654 (1972). http://www.jstor.org/stable/2593953 6. Sabatier, P., Mazmanian, D.: The conditions of effective implementation: a guide to accomplishing policy objectives. Policy Analysis. 5(4), 481–504 (1979). http://www.jstor.org/sta ble/42783358 7. Morgan, K.: Re-industrialisation in peripheral britain: state policy, the space economy and industrial innovation. In: The Geography of De-industrialisation, Critical Human Geography, Palgrave (1986). https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-349-18501-6_10 8. Méndez, M., J.L.: Public policy as a dependent variable: Towards a more comprehensive analysis of public policies. International Forum. 33, 111–144 (1993) 9. Parsons, W.: Meso-analysis, analysis of the definition of the problem, establishment of the agenda and formulation of public policies. In: Public Policy: An Introduction to the Theory and Practice of Public Policy Analysis, pp. 117–271 (1997) 10. Dudley, G., Parsons, W., Radaelli, C., Sabatier, P.: Symposium: theories of the policy process. J. Eur. Publ. Policy 7(1), 122–140 (2000). https://doi.org/10.1080/135017600343304 11. Toth, F.L., Bruckner, T., Füssel, H.-M., Leimbach, M., Petschel-Held, G., Schellnhuber, H.J.: Exploring options for global climate policy. a new analytical framework. Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development 44(5), 22–34 (2002). https://doi.org/10.1080/ 00139150209605787 12. Fontaine, G.: The analysis of public policies: concepts, theories and methods (Anthropos). 21st Century Publishing Group. (2015) https://www.torrossa.com/en/resources/an/4658788 13. Franco, R.: Models of social policy in Latin America in the last quarter of a century. In: Politics and public policies: in the reform processes of Latin America, pp. 147–168. United Nations (2006) 14. Oddone, N., Padilla Perez, R., Antunes, B.: Methodology of the CEPAL-GIZ Project for the design of strengthening strategies of value chains. In: Strengthening value chains as an instrument of industrial policy: methodology and experience of ECLAC in Latin America, pp. 78.114. Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean ECLAC (2014) 15. Kaplinsky, R., Morris, M.: A Handbook for Value Chain Research. International Development Research Centre (2000) 16. National Secretary of Planning and Development: Transformation of the Productive Matrix: Productive Revolution Through Knowledge and Human Talent (2012) 17. Ministry of Industries and Productivity: Ecuador’s Industrial Policy 2016–2025: More Industries, Greater Development (2016) 18. AGRER–TYPSA Consortium: Document 3: Competitive Improvement Plan for the AgroIndustrial Development of the Cocoa-Chocolate Chain (2019b)

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19. The Universe Newspaper: Ecuador will have a fourth vice president in the fourth year of the Government of Lenín Moreno. Politics, 1 (2020). https://www.eluniverso.com/noticias/2020/ 07/07/nota/7898139/cuatro-vicepresidentes-ecuador-cuatro-anos/ 20. The Universe Newspaper: Ecuador has 786 Products Already with Organic Certification. 7 (2018). https://www.eluniverso.com/noticias/2018/11/26/nota/7069377/ecuadortiene-786-productos-ya-certificacion-organica/ 21. Garcia Noboa, J.: Certifications sustainability as a mechanism of governance in the global cocoa value chain Ecuador. Working Documents of Investigation of the School of Economics. 2, 2–25 (2021). https://revistas.unc.edu.ar/index.php/DTI/article/view/31974 22. Association of producers of fine and aroma cocoa APROCAFA. Partners (1994). https://www. aprocafa.net/socios 23. Association of agricultural production of cocoa and chocolate ASOECACAO. Partners (2012). https://asoecacao.com/wp-content/themes/Asoecacao/pdfs/constitucion.pdf 24. National Association of Food and Beverage Manufacturers ANFAB. Partners (2001). https:// anfab.com/miembros/ 25. Telegrafo Newspaper: Chocolatiers want to Create their Country Brand (2014). https://www. eltelegrafo.com.ec/noticias/masqmenos-2/1/chocolateros-quieren-crear-su-marca-pais 26. García, J., Onofre, M.: Development of companies, markets, products and brands in the cocoa market of Ecuador. In: Marketing of the 21st Century: Challenges and Perspectives for the Positioning of the Ecuadorian Product in the Global Market, pp. 172–183. Live Working (2016). https://liveworkingeditorial.com/producto/cim2016/ 27. National Association of ecuadorian cocoa exporters. Partners (2021). http://www.anecacao. com/index.php/es/socios.html 28. Leydesdorff, L., Etzkowitz, H.: The triple helix university-industry-government relations: a laboratory for knowledge based economic development. EASST Review 14, 14–19 (1995) 29. Let’s Dialogue the Academy in the Community: Espol applies research in cocoa-producing areas of Guayas and El Oro to improve production (2017). https://dialoguemos.ec/2017/06/ la-espol-aplica-investigacion-en-zonas-cacaoteras-de-guayas-y-el-oro-para-mejorar-la-pro duccion/ 30. ESPOL: Espol hosted the multi-agency cocoa platform for Latin America and the Caribbean (2018). http://noticias.espol.edu.ec/article/espol-fue-sede-de-la-plataforma-multiagencia-decacao-para-am-rica-latina-y-el-caribe-cacao 31. Ministry of Agriculture of Ecuador: Cocoa cultivation file (2019a). http://sipa.agricultura. gob.ec/index.php/cacao 32. Porter, M.E.: The contributions of industrial organization to strategic management. Acad. Manage. Rev. 6(4), 609–620 (1981) 33. Lucero, K.: While the trade balance with the US strengthens, the agreement does not convince. Manage. Magazine. 23 (2020). https://www.revistagestion.ec/economia-y-finanzas-analisis/ mientras-la-balanza-comercial-con-eeuu-se-fortalece-el-acuerdo-no 34. AGRER – TYPSA Consortium: Document 2 Cacao PMC Diagnosis (2019a) 35. Marlin, C.: First Meeting of the Institutional Committee for PMC Cacao (2019) 36. Telegrafo Newspaper: The Economist Highlights the Cacao Route in Ecuador. 3 (2017). https://www.eltelegrafo.com.ec/noticias/economia/4/the-economist-destaca-rutadel-cacao-en-ecuador 37. Development Bank of Latin America: The Cocoa Route (Ecuador) (2019). https://www.you tube.com/watch?v=Thwx695qqTU

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An Exploratory Study of University Students’ Perceptions of Learning Action Research Online Mónica R. Tamayo1(B)

and Diego Cajas2

1 Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador

[email protected]

2 Universidad Nacional de Educación UNAE, Azogues, Ecuador

[email protected]

Abstract. Action research plays a fundamental role in the professional formation of pre-service students since it provides knowledge and competencies to reflect and improve teaching practice. This study analyzes the students’ learning perceptions of an online compulsory action research course taught in an online Bachelor of Education degree program in a public university in Quito - Ecuador. Using a survey design, one hundred sixty-two pre-service students responded to a questionnaire that contained 14 Likert scales and two open-ended questions. The results revealed that students acknowledge the importance of action research as part of their academic formation and are generally satisfied with the course organization and instructional materials. However, they feel that they do not have the opportunity to engage in experiential research activities. They also perceive a lack of connection between the instructional materials used in classes and the learning outcomes. Some of the students‘ suggestions include a stronger relationship between theory and practice during instruction to enhance authentic learning experiences, effective group work activities, and improvement in teacher rapport. This research aims to contribute to the academic discussion of planning online action research courses. Keywords: Action research · Online learning · Pre-service teacher · Undergraduate education programs

1 Introduction Online education has changed the landscape of academic formation by making it more available to people who otherwise would not have the opportunity to access formal education due to different factors such as family obligations, time, employment, or place of residence [1–3]. Many students are increasingly moving to online education due to the benefits that this form of instruction brings. One of the aspects that attract students’ attention is the cost-efficient option. Online courses are far more affordable than on-campus learning [4], and they are also more flexible. For example, assignment deadlines are scheduled at different times throughout the course, permitting students to learn and complete it at their own pace [5]. This flexibility can enable students, especially those with financial needs, to study and work simultaneously. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Botto-Tobar et al. (Eds.): CIT 2021, LNNS 406, pp. 71–85, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9_6

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The flexibility and accessibility that online education offers to students do not affect the quality of instruction students receive. Through online education, students can acquire knowledge and develop their skills without neglecting their jobs or family responsibilities [6]. This is possible because, in an online mode, courses are designed to be delivered through electronic means, with synchronous or asynchronous interactions between students and tutors, and learners, educational materials, and activities [7]. One of the criticisms of online education is that students cannot learn in the same way as face-to-face students do. This assumption cannot be valid because, in online education, students acquire additional skills. For example, students can foster self-regulated learning, and self-regulated learners are likely to use several “cognitive and metacognitive strategies to accomplish their learning goal” [8]. In other words, students learn skills that allow them to learn autonomously without much physical contact with their teachers. Online education cannot be confined only to virtual environments. The knowledge acquired in this mode can also be extended to real-life situations, as it is, in face-to-face instruction via project-based activities or other strategies that online teachers design for their students. Establishing a connection between knowledge and its application in real-life situations boosts students‘ reflective thinking and facilitates their understanding of concepts [9]. In pre-service teacher education, online instruction can also strengthen students’ knowledge and understanding of different forms of new technologies that can be used in their future teaching practice [10]. Hence, the role that teachers have in online education is crucial to enable this process. Despite the popularity of online learning and its remarkable reach, there are also challenges inherent to its form of instruction. Some students’ difficulties are related to understanding the instructional materials, tutor’s support, collaborative work, technical issues, and accessibility [11]. Considering that in online education, the direct contact between teachers and students is limited, students’ understanding of what is presented on the platform becomes more problematic because they cannot receive instant feedback or additional explanations from their teachers in real time. In the same sense, due to the asynchronous nature of online education, the interaction in real-time between teachers and students can be challenging. Furthermore, technical issues related to the type of hardware, software, devices, or access to the internet that students have can impede a proper online connection and communication. These problems can also hinder group work activities [12]. Another challenge is related to students‘ real-life learning experiences, which are considered of the utmost importance to determine the quality and effectiveness of online programs [13]. 1.1 Quality and Students’ Perceptions of Online Education Online education is a different mode of instruction, and its quality depends on its organization, support materials, teachers, curriculum, and institutional policies rather than its mode of delivery per-se. The “Five Pillars of Quality Online Education” set up by the Online Learning Consortium acknowledges that student satisfaction is the essential key to continue learning [14]. This satisfaction can also help evaluate the quality of online programs in higher education institutions since students can express their opinions about

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the type of education they are being offered [15]. It is crucial, then, that senior institutional authorities provide the mechanisms for students to actively participate in their education regardless of the mode of instruction. As technology continues to thrive, higher education institutions have widened their online academic offer and included different ways to provide timely interactions between students and their teachers and students with their peers. Institutions also strive to offer their students comprehensive learning, tutoring, and cooperative and collaborative activities [16] through different online platforms. Furthermore, the interaction provided through web-based activities contributes to creating realistic environments, encouraging students to engage with the material and clarify their doubts as they assimilate new knowledge [17]. Regarding the students‘ interactions in their academic subjects, [18] states that online learning prompts interactions through various activities that meet students’ personal development needs. An example of these activities is videoconferencing. Through video conferencing, students and their teachers establish a synchronous learning environment to interact in real-time. Also, students can receive instant feedback from their tutors. It is essential to highlight that due to online learning, there has been a change from individualistic student instruction to more inclusive teaching promoting students’ active role and collaboration with their peers [19]. Students’ perception is an individual interpretation of a situation from a personal perspective and experience [13], in this case, online education. When the students’ perception is positive, they feel satisfied with their learning, whereas a negative perception can negatively influence student online experiences and satisfaction [20]. It may also affect their academic performance since they may feel that their online programs do not meet their expectations. In the same line, [21] states that the students‘ satisfaction with the quality of online learning experience is related to deciding to take one or more other courses and their capacity to apply their knowledge and accomplish the learning outcomes. It is, therefore, necessary to encourage students’ active participation in their online learning, especially now when this mode of education is increasing significantly in higher education. Otherwise, students’ advantages and benefits in online education may not be convenient if their voices cannot be heard. Promoting students’ participation in decision-making regarding curriculum organization, for example, can increase a positive perception of the online mode of education among the entire student population. The sustained increase of students’ enrollment in online education has prompted students to take these active roles; in this sense, more research that addresses students’ perceptions and satisfaction with online education is needed to improve the teaching and learning processes [22]. 1.2 The Importance of Teaching Action Research Courses in Pre-service Education Action research is deemed an essential element in professional development for inservice and pre-service teachers. It equips them with the required skills to identify and systematically propose solutions to educational problems identified in their schools or classrooms. It allows them to self-evaluate their teaching practices [23] and reflect

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on the different aspects that can be modified based on an ongoing review of student progress towards meeting the goals. Besides, action research offers various professional growth opportunities for those in-service teachers [24]. Therefore, exposure to meaningful research experiences will enhance student professional practice and contribute to positive changes within their learning community [25] once they are working in different schools. Completing an action research course in pre-service education is vital for undergraduate students. They will eventually have to conduct their research and make informed decisions regarding their pedagogical practices as in-service teachers and as part of their professional development [26]. Once these professionals are teaching in their schools, they will face educational problems that require solutions. Solutions must be proposed regardless of the mode of instruction that teachers attended during their pre-service education. [27] mentions that the inclusion of action research courses in the pre-service teacher education curriculum can shape students’ competence in research and stimulate their reflective attitude towards their teaching practice. It can also contribute to in-service teachers’ knowledge by providing evidence of what is and is not working in their classrooms for a better teaching practice [28]. What is more, it is an excellent opportunity to stimulate future teachers’ lifelong learning and urge continuous professional training [29]. In the same vein, [30] suggests that students should be exposed to research and practice in meaningful ways in pre-service teacher education. Connecting theory with teaching practice and reflecting on how these practices can benefit students are critical aspects of action research because they assist teachers in identifying the classroom and students‘ concerns and empower them to solve problems on their own [31]. Teachers’ reflections should not be based on their perceptions but accurate research results. These results, however, are expected to emerge from proper training on data collection and analysis. The benefits of including an action research course in the pre-service education curriculum can be later translated into the acquisition of different professional competencies among in-service teachers. For instance, teachers taking part in action research studies become accountable for their classroom practices and share their insights with other colleagues to help their students [32]. Accountability and cooperation are underlying characteristics that most, if not all, teachers should have. Through accountability, teachers become responsible for their teaching practices and acknowledge that their actions can impact their students’ academic experiences. Collaboration with all stakeholders inside the schools, on the other hand, promotes teaching and communication for the benefit of their students [33]. Despite the positive aspects of the inclusion of action research in the pre-service education curriculum, teaching this subject online is challenging due to the complexity of its contents and its practical approach. At the same time, students’ motivation and interest in this subject are, in most cases, low. Thus, it is necessary to find the mechanisms to increase students’ motivation since online education requires a lot of commitment and responsibility from the students to study the course material and complete the tasks [34].

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There has been a great interest in fostering research training in undergraduate studies; however, little consideration has been given to examining students’ learning experiences in online action research courses in pre-service. This research aims to identify the students’ learning perceptions towards an online compulsory action research course. 1.3 Contextualization of the Research The university where this research was carried out offers an online four-year Bachelor of Education degree program. As part of its curriculum, action research is taught for a semester (sixteen weeks) in the second year. The course design includes synchronous online meetings where the teachers teach content during a one-hour contact period each week through Google Meet. Students have access to the course material through the Educativa Platform managed by the university. Teachers also maintain contact with their students through webmail, chats, and Q&A forums. The course comprises two modules (8 weeks each). In the first module, students identify an educational issue or problem and propose a possible solution to this problem via an educational innovation. While students work on these components, they learn the core contents of educational research, such as designs, methodologies, methods to collect data, and data analysis. In the second module, the students implement their proposed action research project with the supervision and assistance of an in-service teacher from the school where they have identified the problem. Students’ projects revolve around data collection, data analysis, and conclusions. Finally, students write their action research reports and reflections on their projects. During this process, the course teacher continues teaching the class content, provides feedback on students’ projects, guides students in constructing their data collection instruments, and teaches data analysis methods. Module two also comprises mandatory course readings related to critical issues in action research and collaborative work. Collaborative work is performed in groups of five students, and they communicate with each other via mail, WhatsApp, or videoconference. Group members usually update one another on research progress and work on drafts of documents and field notes used in the action research process. 1.4 Limitations of the Study This study was carried out during the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020. As a result of the pandemic, most of the schools and universities in Ecuador ceased all their face-to-face contact and moved entirely to a virtual work. Although the action research course has been taught 100% online, it included a practical component: designing and applying a research project in a school. However, university students could not carry out their planned activities related to research since all schools in Ecuador have been closed since March 2020. School teachers have been teaching in a virtual mode since then. Students’ inability to fully implement their action research proposals in schools may have caused them stress and anxiety. As a result, they may have also had a negative perception of the course. This, because of the global health situation rather than the course itself.

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2 Materials and Methods 2.1 Participants of the Research This study was carried out at a nationally accredited Ecuadorian public university located in the city of Quito, founded 100 years ago, that offers on-campus and online programs in diverse areas. The participants who responded to the questionnaire consisted of 162 (154 women and eight men) students enrolled in the online Bachelor of Education degree program in five different action research classes taught by three other instructors. The total number of students taking this course was 180. 2.2 Data Collection Instrument Guided by the purpose of the research, the researchers prepared a questionnaire since this type of data collection instrument is commonly used to report attitudes, opinions, and facts about a phenomenon from participants who are informed of a particular issue [35]. The questionnaire included 14 Likert scale questions and two open-ended questions to capture the students’ learning perceptions about the online action research course. To construct the questionnaire, the researchers based the questions on the stages of planning a questionnaire, including initial considerations, questions content and structure, pilot and revision, and final questionnaire [36]. An expert validated the questionnaire to ensure content validity. 2.3 Data Collection Process When the researchers had the final version of the questionnaire, they uploaded it using Google forms. The link containing the questionnaire was emailed to the students. Once the students received the questionnaire link, they had two weeks to answer it. To ensure a high number of responses, constant reminders were sent to the students by their teachers via emails and WhatsApp texts. The data collection took place at the end of the academic period. The questionnaire was administered online to the total population, which consisted of 180 students who answered anonymously. After two weeks, there was a return of 162 questionnaires. Additionally, consent to participate in this research was previously obtained from students.

3 Results and Discussion The questionnaire focused on three main aspects: a) students’ interest in research, b) students’ perceptions towards the online course organization, and c) Improving teaching action research online. The researchers developed seven questions to measure the aspects “a” and “b”. These questions were measured with a Likert scale which contained five different levels. Each level was given a numeric value to facilitate data presentation and analysis. For example, neither agree not disagree was assigned a value of 0, totally disagree = 1, disagree = 2, agree = 3, totally agree = 4. Hence, the results will be presented below in numerical values, and the maximum value will be 4 (totally agree) and the minimum 1 (totally disagree).

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Tables 1 and 2 contain the computed mean of all respondents in each question. The last aspect, “Improving teaching action research online,” included an open-ended section. In this section, students were asked to provide suggestions to improve the teaching of this subject. Table 3 shows the representative excerpts from the students’ suggestions regarding the teaching of action research online. 3.1 Students’ Interest in Research The adoption of online learning by higher education institutions has broadened the access to higher education for many high school graduates. Otherwise, people would not be able to study university due to their obligations, responsibilities, or economic limitations [1–4]. However, the accessibility that online education provides should not be equated to easy education because students usually juggle between the demands of their current obligations and their new academic responsibilities. Studying a university degree online –despite being convenient for most people- demands effort, discipline, motivation, and interest. Thus, when students opt for a specific online undergraduate program, it is vital that they make informed decisions regarding the mode of instruction delivery rather than the academic organization or demands and understand that all subjects in the curriculum add to the overall academic and professional formation. Generally, universities in Ecuador offer the same undergraduate programs in oncampus and online modalities, and the curriculum of both forms of instruction is almost the same. The main reason for not making major curriculum modifications is that the graduates should achieve the same professional competencies despite the mode of education. Pre-service research, particularly action research, plays a significant role in the professional formation of future teachers. In schools, in-service teachers often face different problems that need to be adequately addressed, for instance, students’ low performance in a specific subject. Therefore, pre-service students must be aware of the impact that action research can have on their professional practice [26]. Students’ interest in research can be influenced by different aspects, namely, the difficulty of doing actual research, as presented in Table 1. Table 1. Aspects that influence students’ interest in research Aspect

Value

Importance of research in pre-service education

3.73

Engaging in educational research requires discipline

3.70

Engaging in educational research is a laborious activity

3.25

Doing research is interesting

3.20

How research is taught increases students’ interest in the class

3.18

Willingness to engage in actual research projects

2.90

Having acquired enough knowledge to engage in actual research projects

2.84

*Max value = 4.

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Table 1 shows that, on average, students believe that research is vital in their preservice formation and agree that it is an exciting activity. Therefore, it can be assumed that they are aware of the significance and role of research in education. However, results also show that there is not much interest among the respondents in engaging in actual research projects. This is a clear manifestation that students have not been able to move from theory to practice. The objective of an action research course is to design and implement an action research project in an actual classroom. It is the responsibility of the course teachers to use strategies that allow students to apply their knowledge acquired from the course in real-life situations. This needs to be planned progressively, which means that teachers do not have to focus only on the final research project but also to provide opportunities for their students to experiment with all course contents through real-life activities. The activities that are part of the training should be relevant and consistent to strengthen students’ research knowledge and skills [37] and eventually prepare students for the ultimate application of their actual action research project. The role of the research teachers is of paramount importance since they are teaching online a subject whose orientation is practical. According to a significant number of respondents, how research is taught increases their interest in this subject, so it is essential to find appropriate teaching approaches to experience actual research activities through online input. Students’ first-hand experiences in research will lead to positive changes among themselves and their learning community [25]. The results also indicate that most students did not feel attracted to carrying out research projects because they think it is a strenuous activity requiring discipline. But, above all, students perceived that their knowledge acquired in their research classes is not enough. These results highlight the importance of teachers’ role in developing the interest and understanding of research through their methodology, teaching activities, and instructional materials [38]. Likewise, senior authorities must revise the action research course curriculum and propose content changes based on a proper needs analysis. Particular attention should be given to the quality of the course contents, keeping in mind how these can add to the achievement of the course’s learning outcomes. 3.2 Students’ Perceptions Towards Online Course Organization To understand the questionnaire results is crucial to know how online undergraduate programs are organized in this university. To deliver the online courses, the institution uses the E-ducativa platform. As it was explained before, courses last for 16 weeks and comprise two modules (terms). Students engage in six specific academic activities in each module. For instance, 1) four learning activities, this refers to assignments sent by the teachers. These assignments stem from the instructional materials uploaded on the E-ducativa platform, such as academic articles, books, or educational videos. Depending on the teachers, students can do these assignments individually or in groups. 2) A forum, based on a relevant theme of the course, teachers open a forum on the E-ducativa platform, and their students have to post comments on this theme. The forum’s objective is to check the students’ understanding of the subject through their written participation in this online activity. 3) An online evaluation, using the platform, teachers create a midterm evaluation. 4) Weekly lectures through video conferences, teachers meet their students

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synchronously one hour per week via Google Meet. 5) Feedback, this can be individual or group. Students usually contact their teachers directly and agree on a specific time and day for this activity. 6) A summative evaluation, students must take a test that includes all contents studied during the course. Additional to these requirements, and only for the action research subject, students plan and implement an action research project. The aspects presented in Table 2 were measured by a Likert scale. The Likert scale results were, in turn, transformed to numerical values where 1 represents totally disagree, and 4 illustrates totally agree. The aim of this section of the questionnaire is to make visible the perceptions that students have towards their course organization. Table 2. Students’ perceptions towards the online course organization Aspect

Value

Instructional materials presentation

3.38

The use of ICT tools

3.36

Activities that promote individual work

3.32

Activities that promote cooperative work

3.23

Synchronous lectures through video conferences

3.22

The way of how academic feedback is provided

3.17

Connection between the overall organization and delivery of the course with the learning outcomes of the subject

2.81

*Max value = 4.

Table 2 shows that a significant number of students are satisfied with how their teachers present and organize the instructional materials in the section of the E-ducativa platform that corresponds to their research course. The type of materials that teachers commonly upload on the E-ducativa platform are academic articles, presentations that include the subject’s content using different software such as PowerPoint or Genially, and videos that can be created by the teachers or existing online videos. However, the survey results also show that most students are not totally convinced that they have achieved the course outcomes with the type of instruction they are receiving. These different comments between instruction, instructional materials, and the accomplishment of the students’ learning outcomes suggest that there may be a disconnection between the teaching and resources used in the action research class. Given the limited face-toface interaction between teachers and students in this mode of instruction, instructional materials need to be specific and show the connection with the course content and, ultimately, the learning outcomes. One of the most prominent online education results is that students assume a more active role in their learning; consequently, institutions need to address their students’ concerns and suggestions to enrich their academic instruction [22]. As it was explained above, based on the instructional materials that teachers upload on the platform, students develop and submit four learning activities or assignments. Thus, teachers must plan their lessons carefully so that students can relate the presented academic information with the

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expected outcomes. Instructional materials per-se do not fulfill any educational function if the connection with the learning outcomes is not explicitly shown. Considering that students primarily work autonomously in online education, the instructional materials must be self-explanatory and promote students’ reflection and analysis. Regardless of how the materials are presented in the E-ducativa platform, results show that students are more critical and understand that their academic formation goes beyond the material they are presented to. They have turned their attention to the methodology and the course contents. This is a clear manifestation of students’ strong commitment and responsibility [34] with their learning. Therefore, this is an opportunity for teachers to take advantage of these characteristics and plan classes and assignments that encourage autonomous learning. In the case of research, assignments may include practical research activities where students can practice the learned concepts. In this regard, ICT tools are valuable support, and results indicate that students are satisfied with ICT use that the teachers have in this action research course. Students also manifested that they were happy with the type of individual and group work assigned to them. According to the university organization, lectures are conducted synchronously via video conference. In this regard, data show that students are not that satisfied with the way of how these lectures are being conducted. These aspects need to be further explored; for educational research classes, synchronous contact should be based on experiential activities rather than plain lectures since exposure to research experiences will shape the students’ professional practice [25]. The overall aim of including research in preservice education is to prepare students to assess, evaluate and strengthen their teaching pedagogies and practices, which in turn can lead to their students’ success [39]. To fulfill this goal, the effectiveness of how the online courses are delivered and how the methodology is used play a fundamental role. Data also suggest that most students are not much satisfied with the type of feedback they have received in this action research class. Students’ feedback has become the cornerstone of online education because it creates two-way communication [11], and this cannot be left to the students’ will. Instead, teachers should incorporate interactive elements and opportunities for providing feedback. Appropriate feedback has an intrinsic value that further increases student satisfaction [6]. 3.3 Improving Teaching Action Research Online Suggestions to improve teaching action research online were measured by open-ended questions. In this section, students were asked to provide their recommendations related to teaching in their action research course. The aspects that students mentioned with some of their expressions are presented in Table 3. Regarding the suggestions provided by the students to improve teaching action research online, 25,4% of students manifested that teaching action research needs to be connected to practical activities. A student highlighted that “action research aims to propose solutions to educational problems”, which was complemented by another student saying that “research is a practical subject”. Therefore, its teaching has to be done through practical and hands-on activities. Besides, 14.3% of respondents suggested that the actions that teachers plan for this course should be connected to real-life situations

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Table 3. Students’ comments concerning the aspects to improve online teaching Aspects

Students’ comments

Practical activities to enhance the understanding of action research

• I enjoyed the application of the contents of the subject, for example, observation. Although we did it through online videos, it helped me understand the theory • Action research aims to propose solutions to educational problems. Therefore, we need to have practical activities • To understand research, we need to apply the concepts in practical activities, for instance, interview in-service teachers

Application of knowledge in real-life situations

• I observed the behavior of my child and understood him using the content taught in classes • I learned how to conduct interviews when we interviewed a teacher • When I observe a teacher, I was able to learn about problems that we will encounter in our professional lives

Facilitating group work activities

• When our teacher assigned activities to work in groups, I had to contact my classmates. That is why working in groups has helped me socialize with my classmates • The idea of working in groups is good because I can share my knowledge and learn from my other classmates when we work in groups • When we work in groups, we all collaborate, and we always add something to the discussion

Synchronous contact with the teacher

• I enjoyed it when my teacher had some interactive activities to check understanding during our video conferences • Some research works and their methodology were explained during our classes in google meet • I had some doubts, but our teacher explained them during our virtual classes

Teacher rapport

• The teacher helps us understand the concepts and constantly motivates us to continue studying • The teacher always motivates us to be good and respectful with our classmates • The teacher’s feedback is excellent, and she constantly expands the content learned in classes during her feedback

Nature of the research project

• We learn more when we design and carry out our research projects • I can learn more about education through the research projects (continued)

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Aspects

Students’ comments

Use of ICT tools

• The teacher used some websites that helped us understand the class better • The way of how the content was presented by the teacher using the technology

that students may experience in their professional lives. Based on these recommendations, teachers must reflect on the type of assignments and strategies used to teach research and analyze to what extent they prepare students to deal with problems in their schools once they finish their pre-service formation. One of the strategies that may enable the practical application of the theory learned in class can be group work. However, only 16,1% of students mentioned that working in groups was one of the most valuable activities that teachers have planned in this class. A student referred to this in the following terms: “working in this manner has helped her socialize with her classmates”, and another student added that “they can share their knowledge and learn from each other when they work in groups”. People who enroll in online programs commonly develop their “cognitive and metacognitive strategies to accomplish their learning goal” [8]. Though it can be seen as a positive aspect, the drawback of this is that students gain skills to work individually and do not socialize with their peers. A clear manifestation of their penchant to prefer individual assignments can be related to 83,9% of the respondents who did not mention group work as one of their recommendations. Regarding the synchronous contact, students have with their research professors through Google Meet, 9.9% considered this activity very useful. The low percentage of students recommending synchronous classes may be related to the nature of online learning. As mentioned in the introduction of this article, online education is characterized by its flexibility, allowing students to learn and complete their work at their own pace [5]. This aspect needs to be considered when faculty and university authorities look for different ways of effective instruction that should not necessarily include mandatory synchronous sessions. In low percentages, students made recommendations that revolved around the importance of teacher rapport (7.4%), the research project students need to carry out (3.1%), use of ICT tools during synchronous classes (1.9%), online evaluation, and forums (1.2%), and teachers motivating students (1.9%).

4 Conclusion Pre-service and in-service teachers must engage in action research projects, especially at the classroom level. The results of these types of projects can provide teachers with the necessary knowledge to apply in their teaching practice and -at the same time- propose strategies that can aid to achieve students’ learning outcomes. This study aimed to capture students’ learning perceptions of the online action research course in an undergraduate education program. The findings show that while students acknowledge the

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importance of action research for their training as future professionals in the educational field, they are not interested in taking part in actual research. Most students perceive that the acquired knowledge is not enough to carry out research since it is a complex activity. Considering the positive role that research plays in reflecting on professional teaching practice, students’ perceptions need to be changed. Then, the responsibility of the institutional authorities and teachers is to ensure that pre-service students are aware of the benefits and opportunities of engaging in real action research projects. At the same time, the online instruction should be revised and consider a more practical course orientation with proper mechanisms to integrate theory with practice. In an online mode of education, it is crucial that students have a voice in how their courses are organized and delivered. For example, the students in this study manifest dissatisfaction with their research skills gained and assert that they are not convinced that they have accomplished the learning outcomes with the type of instruction they are receiving. Though, they show contentment with the course organization, instructional materials, presentations, and videos. According to these students, what is missing is the opportunities to engage in real-life activities that promote experiential knowledge in an online mode of education. This study provides an input for institutions to redefine and redesign their curriculum organization and teaching. Action research teachers need to reflect on their academic practice continuously. Some of the students‘ concerns about online delivery modes can be overcome through appropriate pedagogical methods. Since students primarily work autonomously in online education, instructional materials also have to become selfexplanatory. and encourage students’ reflection and analysis. Future research needs to focus on making an in-depth analysis of suitable delivery methods, course design, and technological tools used for teaching online action research courses and investigating how effective these practices are for students to meet their learning goals.

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Prospective Analysis in the Educational System Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE in the Face of COVID-19 Crisis: An Approach from the Game of Actors Lorenzo Adalid Armijos-Robles1(B) , Lizbeth Ariana Campos Carrillo1 , David Alejandro Armijos Muñoz2 , Camila Katherine Guamán Ordoñez1 , and Albarracín Karen1 1 Department of Economic, Administrative and Commercial Sciences,

Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas-ESPE, Quito, Ecuador [email protected] 2 Faculty of Political Sciences and International Relations, University of the Hemispheres, Quito, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. The objective of this research is to analyze the roles of the actors involved and their interrelation with others, in the face of the effects caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, in the studied system; in addition, the overlapping of these is identified, with the challenges and established objectives. The methodology was developed from a qualitative-quantitative and descriptive approach, based on the study of key variables and the play of actors with the MIC MAC and MACTOR programs. The analysis of the main actors and their strategies makes it possible to assess the power relations between the actors and study their common points of view (convergences), and their divergences around a certain number of associated objectives and positions. Among the results obtained, it stands out that the actors present limitations in achieving their objectives. This pandemic has forced the actors to take technological alternatives in order to continue education. In conclusion, the actors can imitate strategies that are being effective in international universities in order to adapt and implement them in the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armandas ESPE. Keywords: Actors game · MACTOR · COVID-19 · Educational system

1 Introduction Higher education is one of the environments with the greatest impact, as a consequence of the COVID-19 pandemic. According to the Education in the time of COVID-19 and beyond report, approximately “1.6 billion students in more than 190 countries were affected by the closure of educational institutions. Higher education could experience the highest dropout rates” [1]. Education in Ecuador was already facing a crisis before © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Botto-Tobar et al. (Eds.): CIT 2021, LNNS 406, pp. 86–103, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9_7

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the pandemic, such a situation was aggravated by the health crisis that occurred in the last year. In this research, a prospective analysis of the educational system of the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE in the presence of the pandemic is carried out, reflecting and analyzing from the perspective of actors (strategic prospective), how the institution has adapted, generating methodologies and processes, to continue with its mission of “training academics and professionals of excellence” [2]. In Ecuador, digital education strategies have not been designed in which a distance education model is promoted that promotes the use of ICT [3]. Additionally, the national educational system has not contemplated in its plans, contingency scenarios and measures to manage them in cases of acute vulnerability, such as the present one. On the other hand, limitations (budgetary, pedagogical and infrastructure) do not allow the effective development of teaching-learning processes. The temporary closure of the face-to-face education modality had a great impact especially on those students who are attending university and those who wish to access higher education; Such a situation has led to several problems: it becomes worrying for those who do not have the resources or the necessary conditions to face the virtual education modality [3]. Initially, a synthesis of the theories underlying the study is presented; Already in the development, prospective analysis is carried out, using the tool of strategic prospective in its structural analysis approaches, and actors’ play. Next, the results generated by running the MIC MAC – MACTOR software are presented, with their respective analysis. At the end the main conclusions are highlighted.

2 Literature Review Prospective analysis has been defined by countless authors, such is the example of Beger [4], who mentions the prospective as the science that studies the future to understand it and be able to influence it, where the main test depends on the actions of the human being. According to Rodriguez [5], foresight is a research process that requires looking to the future through science, technology, economy and society, in order to identify strategic research areas and emerging generic technologies that will generate the greatest economic and social benefits. On the other hand, Godet and Durance [6], mentions that there are beneficial strategies that encourage imagination, since creativity depends on the person at the moment to propose future scenarios. That is why the prospective does not contemplate the future in a past event, because the future is open to different points of view. The prospective analysis is based on two points of view, the first is an exploratory scenario, within which it is based on past and present events, while the second is based on anticipated conditions, that is, alternative images of the future, which may be accepted or rejected according to the actor’s game [7]. The advantages of the prospective approach have been evidenced in a multiplicity of real cases, and its technique has been successfully validated at a global level. In Institutions of higher education, numerous experiences can be highlighted; all agree that its main advantages are: anticipation, together with preactivity and proactivity [6];

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Prospectivists, who take actions to design the long-term future, analyze trends, and especially undesirable ones. The future depends on the relationship that exists between the factors of the system, that is, actors and objective, since on several occasions they emphasize the evolution of trends. The system factors will be considered when making any modification as soon as possible; on the contrary, if these are desirable, the current course of action will be maintained, possibly with limited adjustments. “The main characteristics of the prospective are the systemic vision, the anticipation, the integration between the different actors (stakeholders) and the analysis of key variables” [8]. There are several tools to carry out the prospective study, among them is the scenario technique, where the roles of the interest groups and their relationship with the key variables are analyzed, to project possible futures. One of the most robust aspects of the analysis of the actors’ game is that it is the object of a double consensus in the perspectival media: on the one hand, each one agrees to recognize that it is a crucial stage for the construction of the base of reflection that will allow the elaboration of the scenarios [9]. The game of actors is very essential to predict the future of Higher Education Institutions, linking alliances and confrontations around the hypotheses of evolution, whether in economic, social, cultural, environmental factors, among others. Considering that prospective can be deduced as a discipline that analyzes social change over time, exploring the uncertainty generated in the environment by participants in society, in this sense, prospective analysis needs social actors, who carry out, analyze and practice the economic situations to which they are subjected [10]. Mojica and Ibarra [11] determines certain future alternatives for higher education by analyzing strategic variables such as: conjectural, focusing on situations that do not exist; possible, which emphasize situations with strength that can become an actor and finally, alternate variables that warn of possible excluding concepts. It must be taken into account that education carries a past saturated with lags, because many have coupled information communication technologies (ICT) in each of their learning processes. Where the actors will be those involved in facing future challenges in terms of change in the face of society, using technologies in learning, training of unknown professions, beginning of new educational models, solving a complex and globalized world [12]. The variables “are elements of object, people, events or situations, of attributes with the capacity to assume various values, which can vary and which assume quantitative and qualitative values, in magnitude or quantity that can be measured” [13]. These are subject to any type of change, for that reason they are unstable and inconsistent. For Pérez [14] the variable allows to recognize an undetermined element within a universal set or group and each part represents a value of the variable. Among the most used methods for such tasks is the MIC MAC computer tool, which allows “to study the diffusion of impacts along the paths and reaction loops and, consequently, to prioritize the variables” [9]. However, for Godet [15] the purpose of the software is to identify variables of influence and dependence, that is why it finds the essential variables with the help of actors, experts and advisers so that the analysis is the most accurate. The participants to whom the structural matrix is applied are experts,

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actors who, based on their knowledge, analyze the impact that the different variables generate on each other. On the other hand, the stakeholder game approach and its MACTOR tool (Matrix of Alliances and Conflicts: Tactics, Objectives and Recommendations), “seeks to assess the power relations between the actors and study their convergences and divergences with respect to a certain number of positions and associated objectives” [6]. Initially, a retrospective study is carried out, where past discontinuities and the situations in which they arose are analyzed in order to achieve adequate prospective thinking. The key variables and issues identified above should be considered and it is recommended to use all possible sources of statistical information to identify the most relevant evolutionary trends [16].

3 Materials and Methods The methodology is qualitative-quantitative; with a documentary review, and its treatment, using the MIC-MAC structural analysis software [17], with its later complement the actor’s game, with its equivalent: MACTOR [18]. The documentary review used as inputs the strategic planning of the University under study, and the progress and status of the management of the current pandemic. Through semi-structured interviews with the actors, the key variables for the development of the research are determined. The interview was conducted with teachers and students of the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE. Initially, a list of the variables resulting from COVID-19 is made. We then proceed to identify the relationships between the variables by rating their influence and dependence in a range from 0 to 3. Then, with the MIC MAC tool, the search for key variables is carried out to determine the objectives of the actors involved in the study. Next, the interest groups that influence the educational system of the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE are identified to later complete the technical sheet of actors, where their goals, problems and resources are determined. Then, the objectives for the actors are detailed in detail; specifying for each pair of actors, the number of objectives on which they can ally or enter into conflict. Finally, with the MACTOR software, the analysis of the game of actors is carried out, where possible conflicts and limitations in the actors are identified, as well as in the strategic objectives. Taking into account that this is a generalizable case study, it is recommended to extrapolate its results to the entire universe of higher education institutions in Ecuador, at the level of public legislation. For this purpose, the MIC-MAC and MACTOR tools can be used, applied to the new object of research (other higher education institutions in Ecuador, governed by the same regulations). The MIC-MAC methodology, summarized, contemplates: 1. Identification of the key variables (internal and external, retrospective and trends), and their relationships (of influence and dependence), to identify the input variables, output variables, linking variables, autonomous variables, and other outputs that the computer program produces, and that are useful for decision making.

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On the other hand, the method of the actors game (MACTOR), tries to determine: the power of the actors, the power groups (of a system) and the ambivalence of the actors (convergences, ambivalences), in short, it seeks to know the strategic objectives (position of the actors, position of the actors, ambivalences), in short, it seeks to know the strategic objectives (position of the actors, levels of strength, alliances and conflicts). All of the above is presented in the following paragraphs.

4 Results To carry out the structural analysis, it is necessary to start with the identification of the key variables; It is advisable to support the list of variables through interviews with actors that will be important within the studied system (Table 1). a) List and description of variables: The internal and external variables related to the study system (Universidad de las Fuerzas Armdas ESPE) were identified, and through a matrix of direct relationships the influence and dependence were established with a rating parameter from 0 to 3, 0 being null, 1 little, 2 medium and 3 more influential. A total of 25 variables are identified and listed.

Table 1. List of variables N°

Long name

Short name

Description

Topic

1

Education quality outcome

Resul.Cal

Evaluation of the present virtual educational system

Organization and strategy

2

Teacher salaries

WagesDo

Instability in the remuneration of teaching staff

Economic

3

Communication system

Sist.Com

The communication system is not suitable for the virtual system

Communication

4

ICT management

TIC

Teachers’ ICT management is deficient

Technological

5

Costs

Costs

The cost of internet service is prominent

Economic

6

Internet service

Serv. Inte

Internet service is inefficient

Technological

7

Internet accessibility

Acc.Inter

Access to a home internet network is limited

Technological And Social (continued)

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Table 1. (continued) N°

Long name

Short name

Description

Topic

8

Telecommuting

Ttrabaj

Mandatory confinement encourages working from home

Social

9

Infrastructure

Structure

No technological infrastructure to support the virtual modality

Organization and strategy

10

Educational model

Mo.Edu

The educational model does not meet the required standards

Education

11

Training

Capacit

Teacher training is superficial

Organization and strategy

12

Social change

Cam.Social

Society presents a change due to the pandemic

Social

13

Home Economy

Eco.Hog

Alteration in the Economy and Social economy of the homes of students and teachers

14

Households affected

Households

Affection of relatives of Social teachers and students

15

Financial situation

Sit.Fin

There is instability in the financial situation of the institution

16

Financial crisis

C.Fin

As a consequence of Political and the pandemic, Economic resources for universities are variable

17

Planning

Plan

Lack of strategic plans in the institution

Administrative

18

Priorization

Prioriz

Lack of importance in academic activities

Administrative

19

Self education

Autoedu

Teachers and students turn to self-training

Education

20

COVID19 pandemic

COVID19

The COVID-19 pandemic alters main aspects of society

Social

21

Attitude of students

Act.Alum

Know the reaction of the students before the use of new ICT

Social

Financing

(continued)

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N°

Long name

Short name

Description

Topic

22

Teacher training

Form.Doc

There are teaching staff Social who are unaware of skills for the virtual modality

23

Adaptation of virtual education

Adap.Edu

The adaptation to the new virtual model by members of the institution is not as expected

24

Training for coexistence at home

Form.Hogar

Bonding of families to Social improve the relationship in students

25

Learning inefficiency

I.Apren

The level of learning is Education not the same as the face-to-face model

Organization and strategy

Source: Prepared by the authors.

b) Identification of the key variables, MIC MAC: For the present study, the plane of influences and direct dependencies between variables was analyzed, where the upper right quadrant presents the key variables or challenge variables.

Fig. 1. Plane of influences and direct dependencies between variables. Source: MIC MAC software

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As can be seen in Fig. 1, a diagonal line was drawn in the plane, which allows the key variables to be selected. It was determined that the main variables are (Table 2): Table 2. Key variables N°

Variable

Short name

Description

Topic

7

Internet accessibility

Acc.Inter

Access to a home internet network is limited

Technological and social

11

Training

Capacit

Teacher training is superficial

Organization and strategy

15

Financial situation

Sit.Fin

There is instability in the financial situation of the institution

Financing

17

Planning

Plan

Lack of strategic plans in the institution

Administrative

23

Adaptation of virtual education

Adap.Edu

The adaptation to the new virtual model by members of the institution is not as expected

Organization and strategy

Source: Prepared by the authors.

Table 3 shows the five key variables for the continuation of the analysis with the actor’s game, using the MACTOR computer tool. c) Definition of actors and description: The first step to carry out the MACTOR is to identify the number of actors that influence and that should be considered in the problem already raised above. Five actors were determined, in Table 4 each of them are detailed (Table 5).

Table 3. List of actors Long title

Short title

Description

National Secretary of Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation

SENESCYT

Representative of the Government in higher education, guarantees free education, serves as an intermediary between the executive body and different areas of the higher education sector (continued)

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Long title

Short title

Description

University Council

C.U

Duly collegiate authority responsible for establishing all the provisions and general rules aimed at a better organization and technical, administrative and teaching operation of the University

Rector

Rec

Authority in charge of the management activities of the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE

Teachers

Prof

Personnel in charge of guiding and instructing the student during his academic life

Students

Estu

Person who studies third level, future of the country, future professional

Source: Prepared by the authors.

d) Once the actors have been identified, a strategy table (technical sheet) is made, where the goals, problems and resources of each actor are completed in the diagonal boxes, and in the remaining boxes an analysis of influence between actors is carried out.

Table 4. Actors by actors matrix

SENESCYT

SENESCYT

C.U

Rec

Prof

Estu

Goal: Development of higher education,

Does not influence

Impose new regulations and

Does not influence

Require compliance with established

science, technology and innovation Problems: Bad Administration

policies for higher education due to the pandemic

biosafety standards

Means: Financing C.U

Does not influence

Goal: Ensure that the new policies applied do

Work together to improve the new

Demand that teaching be of quality even though it

Make them comply with the security policies and

not harm the university community. Problems: Disagreement with council members Media:

modality of virtual education

is virtually

protocols implemented by the university

communication

(continued)

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Table 4. (continued)

Rec.

SENESCYT

C.U

Rec

Prof

Estu

Does not influence

Work together to

Goal: Implementation

Demand that teaching be

Make them comply with

improve the new virtual modality of education

of security protocols and adaptation of university facilities Problems: Financing

of quality even though it is virtually

the security policies and protocols implemented by the university

Demand that training

Goal: Trainings to carry

Help students adapt to

be given as to how this new study modality is going to

out the classes with technological tools that are required Problems:

this virtual modality

be handled virtually

Their work is not valued, poor remuneration; Means: Communication

Demand that training be given as to how this new study modality is going to

Does not influence

Means: financing, university policies Prof.

Estu.

Does not influence

Does not influence

Does not influence

Does not influence

be handled virtually

Goal: Adapt to the new study modality; Problems: Lack of technological resources; Media: communication, learning

Source: Prepares by the authors

Table 5. List of objectives Long Title

Short title

Description

Adapt the rules and policies of Obj. 1 education according to the virtual modality, taking as a reference internet accessibility and the household economy

Verify that the new norms and policies to be implemented comply with quality standards and that they ensure the safety of teaching staff and students due to the pandemic

Encourage actions so that the syllabus Obj. 2 design of each race is developed in the best way in this virtual modality

Promote strategies so that the continuity of education does not affect any career and that they are in accordance with the virtual modality

Implementation of biosafety protocols and improvement of the university facilities for the virtual modality according to its financial situation

Obj. 3

Implement the changes and adaptations of the facilities as long as they are within the budget that the university has

Look for technological means, be trained in the use of technological tools to develop classes

Obj. 4

Develop innovative teaching techniques that adapt to the new reality of studies

Find the technological means necessary to face virtual education

Obj. 5

Adapt to the virtual modality that was implanted due to the pandemic

Source: Prepared by the authors.

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e) With the key variables in Table 3, a relationship was made with the objectives of each of the actors, in Table 6 the following are described:

f) Once the list of actors and objectives has been prepared, the MAO matrix (Matrix of actors by objectives) is carried out, in which the positioning of each actor on the different objectives is determined. In this matrix it is important to identify and evaluate the possible strategies, alliances and conflicts that the actors can choose. To carry out the evaluation of the actors and objectives, a rating between 4 and −4 must be assigned, where:

Table 6. Influence parameters Influence parameters 4

Totally in favor

3

In favor

2

Moderately in favor

1

Weakly in favor

0

Neither for nor against

−1

Weakly against

−2

Moderately against

−3

Against

−4

Totally against

Source: Prepared by the authors.

With the influence parameters located in the MAO matrix, it was obtained (Table 7): Table 7. MAO (matrix of actors by objectives) Obj. 1

Obj. 2

Obj. 3

Obj. 4

Obj. 5

SENESCYT

4

0

4

2

2

C.U

3

4

3

1

1

Rec

4

1

4

3

3

Prof

4

4

4

4

0

Estu

4

4

4

0

4

Source: Prepared by the authors.

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g) Finally, the MAA matrix (Matrix of actors by actors) must be carried out, this matrix consists of evaluating the degree of influence that actors have over others. In order to evaluate this matrix, the following parameters are applied (Tables 8 and 9):

Table 8. Influence parameters Influence parameters 0

Zero influence

1

Weak influence

2

Moderate influence

3

Strong influence

4

Very strong influence

Source: Prepared by the authors. Table 9. MAA (matrix of actors by actors SENESCYT

C.U

Rec

Prof

Estu

SENESCYT

0

0

3

3

2

C.U

0

0

2

1

1

Rec

1

3

0

1

1

Prof

0

1

0

0

4

Estu

0

0

0

1

0

Source: Prepared by the authors.

With the application of the actor analysis method, the positioning of the actors involved in the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE was determined. Figure 2 shows the location of the actors according to the level of influence and dependence. The determined actors are classified as: • High-powered actors: SENESCYT and rector • Low-power actors: Teachers and students • Liaison actor: The University Council The strongest actors are SENESCYT and the Rector at the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE; They have greater influence and their dependence is low, since they have superior control over the other actors, as they are representatives of institutions and must have control of the situation that education is going through in times of the pandemic. While the University Council is a liaison actor that has high influence on high-power actors and a high dependence on high-power actors. On the contrary to the strongest actors, it was obtained that the students are in the highest degree of dependence and low influence before the other actors.

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Fig. 2. Plane of influences and dependency between actors. Source: MACTOR software

Figure 3 of the MIDI force relations histogram shows the actors with the greatest and those with the least strength; it is clear that the actor SENESCYT is the only actor with high power. Due to COVID-19, SENESCYT supports the efforts made by universities to guarantee the continuity of education and manage the virtual model in order to protect the health of the people who attend and work in the institutions.

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Fig. 3. Histogram of forcé relationships MIDI. Source: MACTOR software

Next, Fig. 4 shows the results of the analysis of the actors with respect to the objectives. For the first and third objective the actors are in favor of its fulfillment, but in the case of the fourth and last objective they are not totally in favor, the Teachers and Students actors present several difficulties and limitations to develop their own objectives.

Fig. 4. Histogram of stakeholder involvement on 2MAO objetives. Source: MACTOR software output data

This is due to the fact that no actor was prepared to face the COVID-19 pandemic, among the main limitations they present are: the socioeconomic level, several students do not have the necessary resources to face this virtual modality and “delays in salaries –a July 2020–” [19], which makes it difficult for them to pay the costs of the platforms

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to teach virtual classes. Another major problem is internet accessibility, lack of service coverage and quality, which are not adequate according to the criteria of experts and actors in the present study. Figure 5 shows that: between the Rector and SENESCYT there will be a greater willingness to work together and seek to achieve their strategic objectives. The role of SENESCYT is the most important because, being the highest representative of higher education, it would fulfill the function of relating the other actors to achieve the goals, likewise, the actor to carry out this convergence will be the University Council because they have links with the university and SENESCYT, for which its support role will allow the fulfillment of the objectives between the Rector and SENESCYT.

Fig. 5. Graph of convergences between actors of order 3 . Source: MACTOR software

Figure 6 shows the objectives that have the highest degree of force of convergence of the opinions of the actors on the objectives. The result indicates that the actors who have an opinion on the first and third objectives are the most important in the search for its realization. This is explained, because the actors seek their greatest benefit and use in the fulfillment of their tasks and obligations. The change of environment has caused from the student, the institution, to organizations such as SENESCYT adopt measures to continue their activities without jeopardizing their integrity and security.

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Fig. 6. Net distances between targets. Source: MACTOR software

4.1 Discussion According to the prospective theory, the methodological phases were followed (structural analysis, list of variables, use of the MIC-MAC) [11], to determine the key variables, and move on to the identification of actors, objectives and strategies (in the actors game system), and their implementation by means of the MACTOR program [16]. The most important aspects (actors and objectives) have been detailed in the results section; likewise, starting from an a priori criterion, such treatment can be generalized to other public universities in the country, governed by the same regulations; it would be interesting for future research to extrapolate the results. The propsective model, and its application to the present object of research, in its actors’ game phase, allowed the identification of strong actors, common objectives and strategies; likewise, the strategic alliances among them stand out [18]. Taking into account that this is a generalizable case study, it is recommended to extrapolate its results to the entire universe of higher education institutions in Ecuador, at the level of public legislation. It is evident that -as advocated by the game theory of actors- there are points of convergence and divergence between them and their objectives (individual or group), tending to the search and achievement of their intrinsic objectives [6]; however, the convergences are strong, in the common objective of adapting to new rules and policies of virtual education with the implementation of biosafety protocols, tending to ensure that the health situation does not affect the continuity of education [12]. The economicfinancial component of the Institutions (budgets, sponsors), and the salary component (at public and private level) merit research on the current and post-pandemic impact of

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the sanitary situation on the preferences and refinement of the objectives and goals of the actors [19], according to the modeling of the actors’ game. The modeling by means of the actors’ game, and its computer processing by means of the MACTOR software, reveal hitherto unknown strengths of ICTs, and their empowerment by the actors of the system under study (with whose statement it agrees Moreno, and Gutierrez,) [12]. At the same time, they suggest that for the post-confinement, the university, the object of study, must reformulate (refine) its educational system (with a mix of virtual and face-to-face methodology), adequate for the social development and digital culture of the student. One of the pillars on which the prospective theory is based is empowerment and action [6]; according to the results of the stakeholder analysis, it is necessary to promote partnerships with telecommunication companies to promote scholarships, bonuses or resources for students with low home connectivity, without internet accessibility or materials for the normal monitoring of their classes, and to seek long-term partnerships with libraries or other public and private spaces that have interfaces for student learning such as laboratories and observatories.

5 Conclusions The educational system of the University of the Armed Forces ESPE, affected during the COVID-19 pandemic, has been analyzed under the prospective approach, in relation to the phase of “game of actors” whose analysis and results can serve as inputs for decision makers. For the operational and analytical treatment, the software that simulates the stakeholder game, MACTOR, was used. It was identified that the actor with the main and dominant role is the National Secretary of Higher Education, Science, Technology and Innovation of Ecuador (SENESCYT), followed by the Rector of the university, as the main representative of this institution of higher education; while students and teachers are the dominated actors. On the other hand, the University Council has the role of liaison between the dominant and dominated actors. The main alliances identified between SENESCYT and the Rector of the Institution stand out; therefore, it is expected that this synergy allows the implementation of effective solutions to overcome the limitations in the development of virtual education, teleworking and other modalities in the University of the Armed Forces ESPE, in the context of the current pandemic. Regarding the relationship of the actors against the objectives it is concluded that: the actors are in favor of the fulfillment of the main objectives for the adaptation to new standards and policies of virtual education with the implementation of biosecurity protocols. And finally, the actors as teachers and students present economic difficulties (salaries, income), which limit the virtual academic development. There is a lack of conformity of some of the actors to the fulfillment of the objectives. The actors have the same position in their opinions for the development and adaptation to the norms and policies of virtual education, taking as a reference the accessibility to the Internet and the economy of the households. The University must seek and implement strategies that allow it to fulfill its objectives and democratize access to its services for the student body.

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References 1. Guterres, A.: “El Secretario General de las Naciones Unidas advierte de que se avecina una catástrofe en la educación y cita la previsión de la UNESCO de que 24 millones de alumnos podrían abandonar los estudios” UNESCO 06 Agosto 2020 [Online]. Available: https://es.unesco.org/news/secretario-general-naciones-unidas-advierteque-se-avecina-catastrofe-educacion-y-cita 2. ESPE, “Misión y Visión,” 2020 [Online]. Available: https://ugp.espe.edu.ec/mision-y-vision/ 3. Alvarez, H., et al.: Education in times of the coronavirus. BID, Washington, DC (2020) 4. Berger, G.: Prospective Study of Technology in Higher Education in Colombia at 2050. Universidad del Rosario (1964) [Online]. Available: https://doi.org/10.12804/revistas.urosario. edu.co/empresa/a.7583 5. Rodriguez, C.M.: Prospective Thinking: Systemic Vision of the Construction of the Future. Universidad Santo Tomás, Redalyc, 30 Enero 2014 [Online]. Available: https://www.redalyc. org/pdf/5155/515551535005.pdf 6. Godet, M., Durance, P.: Strategic Foresight: Problems and Methods. Prospektiker, Paris (2000) 7. Arango, X., Cuevas, V.: Structural Analysis Method: Multiplication Cross Impact Matrix. Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, s,f. [Online]. Available: http://eprints.uanl.mx/ 6167/1/24.%20capitulo%20Metodologia%20-%20MICMAC%20%28Direcci%C3%B3n% 20del%20libro%20a%20la%20venta%20ttpwww.tirant.commexlibro9788416062324% 23%29.pdf 8. Gonzales, M.: “¿What is strategic foresight?,” avanzaproyectos.com, 29 Marzo 2012 [Online]. Available: https://www.avanzaproyectos.com/2012/03/29/que-es-la-prospectiva-estrategica/ 9. Godet, M.: From anticipation to action. In: Strategy and Competitive Management, p. 116. MARCOMBO S.A., Barcelona (1993) 10. Castañeda, C.: Prospective Analysis of Telework in Colombia by 2020. Universidad Militar Nueva Granada (2017) [Online]. Available: https://repository.unimilitar.edu.co/bitstream/han dle/10654/16631/Casta%C3%B1edaDeAvilaCarolinaRosa2017.pdf?sequence=1 11. Mojica, F.J., Ibarra, M.: Prospective Analysis of the National University of Colombia Medellín Headquarters on the Horizon of the Year 2032. Universidad Nacional de Colombia, 29 Septiembre 2011 [Online]. Available: https://planeacion.medellin.unal.edu.co/images/doc umentos/Estudio_Prospectivo_2032_UN_Medell%C3%ADn.pdf 12. Moreno, G., Gutierrez, R.: Prospective Study of Technology in Higher Education in Colombia to 2050. Scielo, 03 Mayo 2019 [Online]. Available: http://www.scielo.org.co/pdf/unem/v22 n38/2145-4558-unem-22-38-160.pdf 13. Bruzual, B.: From Variables to the Research Project. Dombruz, Monagas (2012) 14. Pérez, J.: “Variable,” definicion.de, 22 Julio 2008 [Online]. Available: https://definicion.de/ variable/ 15. Godet, M.: Analysis of stakeholder strategies. In: The MACTOR Method Paris, Futures (1996) 16. Mesa, A.: MACTOR in the Prospective. Stakeholder Analysis. 30 Mayo 2016 [Online]. Available: https://www.monografias.com/docs112/mactor-prospectiva-analisis-actores/mac tor-prospectiva-analisis-actores.shtml 17. Godet, M.: Think and act differently. MIC MAC 1971 [Online]. Available: http://es.lapros pective.fr/Metodos-de-prospectiva/Los-programas/67-Micmac.html 18. Bourse, F., Godet, M.: Prospective methods. MACTOR 1990 [Online]. Available: http:// es.laprospective.fr/Metodos-de-prospectiva/Los-programas/68-Mactor.html#:~:text=El% 20m%C3%A9todo%20de%20an%C3%A1lisis%20de,posturas%20y%20de%20objetivos% 20asociados 19. Trujillo, Y.: “Tax professors and university teachers have not received their salary for the month of July until this August 18, 2020” 18 Agosto 2020 [Online]. Available: https://www. elcomercio.com/actualidad/profesores-fiscales-maestros-universitarios-sueldos.html

Virtual Environments Web 2.0 as a Tool for the Development of the Reading Comprehension in the Basic Education Area Cristina Páez-Quinde(B)

, Sonia Armas-Arias , Daniel Morocho-Lara , and Mayra I. Barrera G.

Facultad de Ciencias Humanas y de La Educación, Grupo de Investigación Research in Language and Education, Universidad Técnica de Ambato, Ambato, Ecuador {mc.paez,sp.armas,hd.morocho,mayraibarrerag}@uta.edu.ec

Abstract. This research was carried out in order to analyze the use of virtual environments in the development of comprehensive reading in students of the basic education career. It occurs because there is a limited information on the impact of these tools in different areas of the educational process. For which an experimental methodology with a mixed approach was used. The investigation was carried out in primary sources to know the level of reading comprehension in the study population. In order to collect information, a reading comprehension test was applied with 5 guiding questions. Also to a general survey of 14 questions on a Likert scale. It was validated by Cronbach’s Alpha statistic to highlight the reliability of the questions used in the research. Finally, a guide was developed for the development of author activities on the Educaplay platform. These activities were developing through the ADDIE methodology, which focuses on the correct use of technology focused on education. The main results were that students had a “poor” reading comprehension level, at the same time they did not have virtual environments that focus on comprehensive reading. This is because teachers only use known tools for the development of theoretical material, but not with interactive activities for the development of reading skill. In addition, the hypothesis was tested, which concludes that virtual environments contribute to the development of comprehensive reading in students. Keywords: Education · ICT · Virtual environments · Comprehensive reading · Educational process

1 Introduction According to [1] education is the main means for every person, child and adult to develop their capacities, abilities and actively participate in society and this is necessary for human development. Therefore, it is essential for humanity, also it is necessary to face all kind of challenges with strategies, research and innovation. At the UN general assembly held in 1948, in its resolution 217 A (III) recognized education as a human right [2]. As in the UN resolution, the Constitution of Ecuador affirms that everyone © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Botto-Tobar et al. (Eds.): CIT 2021, LNNS 406, pp. 104–116, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9_8

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has the right to education, regardless of culture, religion or ethnicity. In addition, its gratuitousness must be guaranteed by the state, which must ensure that this right must not be restricted, with equal opportunities to access public establishments. Within education we can also mention that the strategies or methodologies that are implemented for learning, research and the acquisition of knowledge, are currently carried out in a virtual way. Virtual education is gaining ground due to all the changes that are taking place in society as well as the generation of new technologies, as well as a faster internet or in turn the globalization of the knowledge that is acquired through a small search in a computer [3]. This shows that education will always generate changes throughout life, which is why it is important to continue studying and keep updating, since technology will change day by day. In conclusion, it can be said that the technology training that all people must have is essential to continue developing and learning new techniques that contribute to the knowledge of technologies. Especially those people who must implement and adapt to virtual teaching methods. [4] Mentions that in recent decades the growth of virtual education is presented not as an alternative, but as a need or requirement. This happens due to the great social, economic, technological and cultural changes that occur every day. In this way, it is currently agreed that it is a new way of learning for most students, since few people today were dedicated to studying only virtually, most students only participate in faceto-face classes. Doubtless, it is agreed that virtual platforms are a new way of learning for most students today, because the education today requires the use of technology. Nowadays most of the students are taking virtual classes than face to face classes. For this reason, it is necessary to check some technological resources to catch the student’s attention [5]. According to [6], the role of ICT is constantly increasing as an essential tool for the development of the knowledge society, affecting all educational areas, with technological development being the main point for the improvement of educational quality in the world. Consequently, it can be said that the use of a computer and the internet facilitates the understanding of different topics which can be found easily, thus helping the teachinglearning process [7].

2 State of the Art UNESCO 2011 maintains that virtual higher education is a very recent phenomenon, which began after 1995 and in many cases after 1999. As a result, virtual education or by computer and telematics means is a recent phenomenon on a global scale. Consequently, it is mentioned that this modality is part of the fourth and fifth generation or stage of distance education, due to the use of ICT and mainly the internet to expand the era of knowledge and implement educational models in accordance with the demands of the actual society [8]. In the common and current learning processes, examples are always asked, and that these refer to the lived and known reality. In those examples you can compare, discover differences and similarities, and you can understand new concepts. At the same time that new knowledge is acquired, the reality of meaningful contexts can also be better understood. It can be said that source knowledge has been constituted [9].

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At the end of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century •Stage 1: Teaching by Correspondence 1960 •Stage 2: Multimedia teaching 1970 •Stage 3: Telematics teaching 1990 •Stage 4: collaborative internet-based teaching Present •Stage 5: flexible and smart learning Fig. 1. Evolution of education and technology

This system has the purpose of pedagogical intervention, supported by the technological platform. The same one that is not focused on the construction of animated scenarios with technology for music, video, colors, movements, but rather, gives way to mediation based on the instructional and didactic design of learning content [10].

Fig. 2. Equation for virtual learning environments VLE

Technological development allows society to have easy access to Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), which are closely related to Web 2.0. The set of applications on this website allows users a two-way interaction, that is, these applications are generated for people by people. Pedagogy is a concept that encompasses a broad definition. Based on different meanings and points of view. Because religion, culture, philosophy, anthropology, sociology, ideology, ethnicity, among others intervene in these approaches [11]. Therefore, it is necessary to carry out a theoretical review of the conceptual advances on pedagogy, reaching a consensus that allows a clear definition of what pedagogy consists of [12]. On the other hand, pedagogy can be considered a science, which is responsible for studying, developing and establishing different methodologies. Teaching methods and activities in order to make the teaching-learning process an effective and efficient process that guarantees that students or anyone who wishes to acquire knowledge, manages to understand and appropriate the information necessary for good cognitive learning [13].

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Technology consists of electronic innovations that have come about over time, since the creation of the incandescent light bulb with the use of electrical energy, technological advances have been developing more and more quickly and efficiently. The main idea of this learning is to achieve interchangeable, cumulative and collaborative knowledge, which can be shared, transferred and turned into a public good [14]. There are four different types of learning 2.0:

Learning by doing: tools are used that allow the student and / or teacher to write and read on the web, under the principle of "trial and error"

Learning by interacting: it is based on the exchange of knowledge through online tools such as chats, forums and emails.

Learn by searching: This consists of searching for sources that offer information on a certain topic. This process of research, selection and adaptation ends up broadening the knowledge

Learning by sharing: the process of exchanging knowledge and experiences allows students to actively participate in collaborative learning.

Fig. 3. Types of learning in web 2.0

Comprehensive reading is key in the education of children. Likewise, the importance of understanding what is read should be taken into account since they learn to put some words together in simple sentences. Therefore, it is necessary to help them to develop comprehensive reading from an early age, thus avoiding problems that could arise later [15]. Comprehensive reading is not only about understanding and decoding the signs that are presented in the files or texts, but also all the knowledge that they are imparting in the readings must be assimilated. In this way, a successful and correct learning of the various topics that we are studying can be generated. In addition, comprehensive reading consists of internalizing a series of instructions and steps that can be applied. In the end, the aim is for learners to understand and retain complex and even incomprehensible texts [16]. • Concentration and isolation For a good comprehensive reading, it is necessary to forget about practicing it while riding the bus or while people around are playing Fornite at full volume. It is necessary to be seated correctly, have good lighting and silence. These are recommendations to avoid losing concentration.

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• Point by point The first thing that someone must not do is read all the text in a rush. Having a general idea of what the reading is about is good, but that can be quickly inferred from the title or abstract. It is recommended to divide the text or the book into affordable points and go little by little, because if the reader reads everything at that moment, when the reader reads the last page he/she will have forgotten half (or more) [17]. • Understand what is read Once the text or book is divided, the reader can start reading. It is important to understand what is read and stop at each concept that is confusing, it is necessary to read with the four senses, not to read in automatic mode. The reader should use the dictionary if it is necessary. Learning new words will expand the reader’s vocabulary, enrich thinking and reading comprehension. • Ask questions When the reader reads a sentence, whether he/she has understood it or not, he/she should stop to ask several questions related to the text. It is about interacting with the text in front of the reader in order to understand and learn it [18].

3 Methodology The research was experimental because it experiences with a new strategy using the technological devices for the development of reading comprehension in a group of 58 students of the Basic Education career from the Technical University of Ambato. In the first phase, a reading comprehension test was applied, which was developed based on the entrance exam test of the University of Cauca (2014), the text was extract from the book “Del Sentimiento trágico de la vida”, by Miguel by Unamuno. The application of the test was based on a short text of 3 paragraphs and 5 reading comprehension questions. Each one with 4 answer alternatives. After the application of the test to third-level students of the Basic Education Career, of the Faculty of Human Sciences and Education; the following results were obtained (Table 1): Table 1. Reading comprehension results Questions

Correct answers

1

53%

2

36%

3

19%

4

52%

5

26%

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The results showed that only in two questions the percentage of correct answers reaches 50%. Meanwhile, the rest of the questions have low levels of correct answers. Therefore, this showed a percentage of 37% of correct answers in the questions of the reading comprehension test applied to third-level students. Therefore, the students’ reading comprehension level can be measured based on a Likert scale (Table 2). Table 2. Reading comprehension rating scale Percent

Level

0–20%

Very unsatisfied

21–40%

Unsatisfied

41–60%

Neutral

61–80%

Satisfy

81–100%

Very satisfied

Taking into account the percentages and the level of reading comprehension. It shows that the average of the third-level students’ reading comprehension have an “Unsatisfied” level. The methodology used for the development of the research was ADDIE [19], suggested in the technological-educational field. Allowing this proposed strategy by the researchers shows the expected result for the research. The field of reading comprehension was taken into consideration, as determined in Fig. 1. • Reading stories, short stories, narrations. • Acquisition of knowledge about the physical and social world

• Concentration: With attention, knowledge is better assimilated, more rooted in associative memory, and associations are produced with other knowledge already learned.

• Analyze, identify and rank the ideas in a text. Separate main ideas, secondary ideas, and tertiary ideas.

Factor 1

Factor 2

Factor 4

Factor 3 • Motivation: vocabulary development is a fundamental component in reading comprehension for the knowledge of the meaning of unknown words

Fig. 4. ADDIE methodology

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4 Results The reading comprehension test and survey results were the following (Figs. 2–7): Table 3. Virtual environments helped you to develop reading comprehension Qualifications

Frequency

Strongly agree

30

Agree

42

Neutral

34

Disagree

10

Strongly disagree

0

Total

116

45 Agree, 42

40 35

Neutral, 34 Strongly agreee, 30

30 25 20 15 10

Disagree, 10

5 0 0

1

2

3

4

5

Strongly disagree, 0

6

Fig. 5. Virtual environment and develop reading comprehension

After the test application to students from the third level, it was found that the 42 students corresponding to 36.2% percent of the population mentioned that they were agree, in that virtual education has helped them developing reading comprehension, since the 34 students corresponding to 29.3% of the population mentioned that they were neutral, 30 students corresponding to 25.9% of the population mentioned that they were strongly agree and finally 10 students corresponding to 8.6% to the population mentioned strongly disagree (Table 3).

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From the collected information from the applied surveys, it is evident that most of the students were agree that the virtual environment has helped them to developing reading comprehension. This is due to the fact that, students have not an interactive relation with the teachers to solve the general doubts, so students find necessary to read more information than they really need (Table 4). Table 4. Use of technology or device when reading Option

Frequency

Not at all

0

A little

34

Somewhat

34

Considerably

24

A lot

24

Total

116

40 35

Somewhat, 34

30

A little, 34

Considerably, 24

25 20

A lot, 24

15 10 5 0

Not at all, 0

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

When applying the survey, the results showed that a 29.3% corresponding to 34 students state that when they read through an electronic device they understand a little of what they read, while a 29.3% corresponding to 34 students affirm that they understand a little, a 20.7% corresponding to 24 students comment that they understand considerably, and that the other 20.7% mention that the understand a lot of the message transmitted by the text when they read through an electronic device. Based on the information obtained from the applied surveys, it is evident that most of the students understand a little of what they read from electronic devices, this is because these devices mostly consist of cell phones which contains some applications that intervene in their concentration (Table 5).

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Frequency

Always

6

Almost always

38

Seldom

18

Almost never

54

Never

0

Total

116

60 Almost never, 54

50 40

Almost always, 38

30 20

Seldom, 18

10 Always, 6

0

Never, 0

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Fig. 6. Do you reread the same paragraph several times when using technological device

First of all, 116 students were surveyed who represent the 100% of the population. The results showed that a 46.6% corresponding to 54 students mentioned that they seldom reread the paragraph several times, a 32.8% mentioned that almost always, a 15.5% mention that almost always they need to reread the paragraph, and finally a 5.2% corresponding to 10 surveyed students should always reread the paragraphs to understand the reading. Based on the information obtained from the survey, it is evident that the majority of the students surveyed seldom need to reread the paragraphs several times. It means that most of the students have developed a high reading comprehension (Table 6). As a result, 78 students corresponding to 67.2% of population mentioned that they were strongly agree when mention that for virtual education reading comprehension people must be developed, 32 students corresponding to 27.6% mention that they were agree, 4 students corresponding to 3.4% mention that they were neutral and finally, 2 student corresponding to 1.7% of population mentioned that they were strongly disagree.

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Table 6. Do you think that for virtual education reading comprehension should be developed? Option

Frequency

Strongly agree

78

Agree

32

Neutral

4

Disagree

2

Strongly disagree

0

Total

116

90 80

Strongly agree, 78

70 60 50 40 Agree, 32

30 20 10

Disagree, 2

Neutral, 4

Strongly disagree, 0

0 0

1

2

3

4

5

6

Fig. 7. Opinion for virtual education reading comprehension

Based on the information from the survey, most of the students mentioned that they were strongly agree that for virtual education first it is necessary to developed the reading comprehension skill, this is because, as already mentioned, reading comprehension is the starting point for the acquisition of knowledge. Once the message is understood, it is easier to acquire the knowledge. The following two hypotheses were raised in the investigation; they were verified using non-parametric statistics that were adjusted to the verification of the null hypothesis or the alternative. This research has an intentional non-probabilistic sample, which 58 third semester’s students from A and B group from the Basic Education Career of the Faculty of Human Sciences and Education were part. Table 7 shows the calculation of the contrast statistic based on a Friedman chi-square, which results with 11.549 and with 4 degrees of freedom. In brief with this that having a significant P value (value) of 0.021 which is less than 0.05 the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternate is accepted (Table 8).

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116

Chi-cuadrado

11,549

gl

4

Sig. asintót

,021

a Friedman test

Table 8. Summary of hypothesis testing

1

Null hypothesis

Test

Sig

Decision

The categories of the reason of the collectivity, lies in producing with equal probabilities

Chi-square test from a sample

.000

Reject the null hypothesis

To confirm the hypothesis, the Collectivity category was select, which is the most representative in testing the hypothesis. The appropriate test for this type of research is Friedman’s chi-square where it is stated that the null hypothesis is rejected and the alternate is accepted. H1 = Virtual education influences the development of reading comprehension skills in the third level students, from the Basic Education Career, of the Faculty of Human Sciences and Education, of the Technical University of Ambato, during the academic period October 2020 – January 2021.

Fig. 8. Normal distribution

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According to Fig. 8, it can be seen that the data obtained in the research are distributed asymmetrically to the left, therefore, there was an acceptance of the tools applied in the third-level students of the Basic Education Career.

5 Conclusions To draw the conclusion, one can say that Virtual education, through its evolution and adaptation, has become a great advantage for those students who for some reasons find it difficult to physically access academic institutions. Virtual education is more common at the university level, so as to those who have the possibility of accessing these educational programs also have the possibility of accessing an internet connection and possess the necessary computer equipment for developing it in this way. To sum up, the third-level students from the basic education career present an unsatisfactory level of reading comprehension. It is necessary to take into account that, based on the applied test, in general they obtained a level of reading comprehension “Non satisfactory level”. Due to a lack of Reading regime that allows them to have an efficient reading comprehension. Virtual classes have shown that this educational process has been difficult to adapt, even more so when there is an underuse of technology, as well as tools that adapt to this model. On the whole, the development of educational materials based on the web 2.0 tools for this research have strengthened the reading comprehension skill. Whit it improving students’ comprehension and critical analysis skills. Due to the need to understand messages and appropriation of knowledge, the “Educaplay” platform is a really useful software, since it allows to the author to generate activities to strengthen the reading comprehension. Acknowledgment. Thanks to the Technical University of Ambato, to the Directorate of Research and Development (DIDE acronym in Spanish) for supporting our research project Development of Web 3.0 Tools in education as support in collaborative learning and being part of the research group: Research in Language and Education.

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5. Elazhary, H.: Internet of Things (IoT), mobile cloud, cloudlet, mobile IoT, IoT cloud, fog, mobile edge, and edge emerging computing paradigms: disambiguation and research directions. J. Netw. Comput. Appl. 128(15), 105–140 (2019) 6. Kelly, N., Antonio, A.: Teacher peer support in social network sites. Teach. Teach. Educ. 56, 138–149 (2016). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2016.02.007 7. Abdulrahaman, M.D., et al.: Multimedia tools in the teaching and learning processes: a systematic review. Heliyon 6(11), e05312 (2020) 8. Blevins, B.: Teaching digital literacy composing concepts: focusing on the layers of augmented reality in an era of changing technology. Comput. Compos. 50, 21–38 (2018) 9. Jamshidifarsani, H., et al.: Technology-based reading intervention programs for elementary grades: an analytical review. Comput. Educ. 128, 427–451 (2019) 10. Matias-Guiu, J.A., et al.: Reading prosody in the non-fluent and logopenic variants of primary progressive aphasia. Cortex 132, 63–78 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cortex.2020.08.013 11. Yammouni, R., Evans, B.J.W.: Is reading rate in digital eyestrain influenced by binocular and accommodative anomalies? J. Optom. 14(3), 229–239 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j. optom.2020.08.006 12. Whitley, J.A., Kieran, K.: Accuracy and comprehensiveness of publicly-available online data about bedwetting: an actionable opportunity to improve parent and caregiver self-education. J. Pediatr. Urol. 16(5), 661.e1-661.e8 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jpurol.2020.07.013 13. Zhu, H., Li, L., Li, H.: How school leadership influences Chinese students’ reading literacy: a test of the rational, emotions, and organizational paths in rural schools. Child. Youth Serv. Rev. 119, 105534 (2020) 14. Kanniainen, L.: Assessing reading and online research comprehension: do difficulties in attention and executive function matter? Learn. Individ. Differ. 87, 101985 (2021) 15. Komala, A.S., Rifai, I.: The impacts of the cherry orchard video game on players’ reading comprehension. Procedia Comput. Sci. 179, 368–374 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.procs. 2021.01.018 16. Lim, J., Whitehead, G.E.K., Choi, Y.: Interactive e-book reading vs. paper-based reading: comparing the effects of different mediums on middle school students’ reading comprehension. System 97, 102434 (2021) 17. Gruhn, S., Segers, E., Keuning, J., Verhoeven, L.: Profiling children’s reading comprehension: a dynamic approach. Learn. Individ. Differ. 82, 101923 (2020) 18. Yamaguchi, S., et al.: Analysis of learning activities and effects on blended lectures. Procedia Comput. Sci. 159, 1568–1575 (2019) 19. Sholihin, M., Sari, R.C., Yuniarti, N., Ilyana, S.: A new way of teaching business ethics: the evaluation of virtual reality-based learning media. Int. J. Manage. Educ. 18(3), 100428 (2020)

Community Tourism in Yunguilla, Ecuador: Analysis from the Approach of Sustainable Development Lorenzo Adalid Armijos-Robles , Cristopher Isaac Collaguazo-Narváez , and Theofilos Toulkeridis(B) Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador [email protected]

Abstract. In Yunguilla, in the northern part of Ecuador, a study of sustainable development has been conducted based on economic thinking and focused on the three conceptual dimensions, being economic, social and environmental. With this base, its scope was delimited and its drawbacks identified. We considered factors such as the availability of resources, the socioeconomic context, intergenerational equity, the recovery of forest areas, among others, presented by the community studied, through the organization, management and implementation of community tourism as an economic model of local development in rural areas of the country. Based on the performed analysis, the challenges and difficulties of the sustainability of community tourism in this community were determined, such as the lack of initial commitment of the inhabitants, insufficient state financing, lack of experience in community projects, difficulties in measuring the economic as well as social and environmental impact. Keywords: Sustainable development · Economic thought · Community tourism · Yunguilla · Ecuador

1 Introduction Sustainable development lacks to have a single interpretation, as each author contributes and adds new approaches depending on the current of thought they represent, based on what can be considered that the conceptualization of such term is dynamic. The best known definition is the one elaborated by the World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), in its Brundtland Report “Our Common Future” [1], which defines it as “Sustainable development is development that meets the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.” A relationship is then established between the satisfaction of needs, which implies the use and consumption of scarce and limited resources, over time in a given population, that is, the way in which current generations effectively use natural resources, ensures the availability of the same for future generations. In neoclassical economic theory, based mainly on the thoughts of [2] exposes “that it regulates to guarantee the consumption of goods not declining over time in an economy © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Botto-Tobar et al. (Eds.): CIT 2021, LNNS 406, pp. 117–130, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9_9

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that uses a not renewable natural resource”. Economic development, however, focuses on ensuring the consumption of (non-renewable) resources through the substitution of mimes for alternative resources in the production process and the development of technology for the use of fewer resources per produced unit, termed as weak sustainability. On the other hand, the ecological economy proposes that the behavior of man conditions the availability of resources, which is why sustainable development will depend on the ability of the human being to reverse its impacts on the environment and the possibility that the latter can resume in its natural form. In other words, the ecological system intends that the use of resources be optimal and with the capacity to preserve it, also called strong sustainability [3]. Sustainable development, therefore, is the form of economic organization of a society in order to satisfy current needs, through an equitable distribution of resources, which in turn provide the necessary opportunities for the common welfare to be prolonged over time. But the aforementioned approaches contemplate only one of the three dimensions that sustainability implies. Hereby, [4] mentions “Despite its complexity, sustainable development is an objective that can be outlined in three dimensions: economic, social and environmental”. In such a way that the social dimension is subordinated to the background, since weak sustainability emphasizes the economic dimension and strong sustainability deals mainly with the environmental and economic dimension, outlining a social dimension, where the individual is seen as environmental footprint generator. Within this last dimension, sustainable development tries to ensure the conditions of integral development for a society, which also implies the conservation and correct administration of heritage and cultural resources. So the social sphere for sustainable development refers mainly to the management and organization of individuals to achieve this goal, behavioral policies that condition economic productivity, both in what, how and why produce in order achieve increasing returns, while deciding the way of distribution and consumption of natural resources that do not harm the quality of life of future generations. Within this theoretical and practical context, the concept of sustainable tourism has been widely accepted, as it is an alternative activity that tends to minimize environmental and socio-cultural impacts [5], which according to [6], should be addressed in three ways: social equity, environmental conservation and economic efficiency. Tourism as an economic activity is of utmost importance for the development of a society for its contribution to the diversification of the economy [7] and needs to consider the current and future repercussions in the economic, social and environmental spheres of according to [8], attached as observed to the sustainability criteria. Particularly community tourism “is a new way of making the culture of the communities known, offering a different way of exploiting the customs of people, sharing not only natural resources but their homes, their knowledge, and being able to share the most frequent activities that they can have in the community and their way of living in the destination” [9]. These authors document that economic tourism in Ecuador began in the eighties of the last century, and according to [10] it has had a different development in the different regions of the country with a favorable balance, although also with certain negative impacts especially from an environmental point of view. All that remains in accordance with the provisions of the Tourism Law of the Republic of Ecuador, Art. 2 tourism is

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“the exercise of all activities associated with the movement of people to different places to that of his habitual residence; without wishing to settle permanently in them” [11]. The Yunguilla community framed in a Natural Reserve area dedicated to community tourism since 2010, constitutes an organized society according to this development model. However, the need to perform an analysis of the characteristics, challenges and difficulties that this community has presented in recent years in which community tourism has been practiced as an economic activity of sustainable development was recognized. For this, emphasis was placed on the analysis of the relevant aspects of the Yunguilla community such as the socioeconomic context, the main economic activities, resources, and intergenerational equity, in accordance with the theory of sustainable development as an alternative to local economic organization.

2 Methodology The current study is documentary and descriptive. The data was provided by the Yunguilla Corporation, a community organization that manages the community economy. Observation, description and interview techniques were used for the Yunguilla community leaders. The historical-logical method was used, with the compilation of information on the economic development of Yunguilla during the last decade, in order to determine the behavior and evolution of tourist activity as the axis of sustainable economy.

3 Results 3.1 Study Area Yunguilla, a mestizo community, is located in the parish of Calacalí, Quito canton, northwest of the province of Pichincha, 2,650 m above sea level between the mountainous ramifications of the Western Cordillera. Bounded on the east by the Pululahua Geobotanical Reserve and on the west by the Maquipucuna Foundation Private Reserve (Fig. 1), being part of an Andean cloud forest ecosystem [12]. Geologically, Yunguilla is situated along the Western Cordillera, within a relatively low vulnerability of earthquakes, volcanic activity and unstable areas of massive mass movements [13–22]. This community has 50 families, with about 300 inhabitants, being self-determined as a mestizo peasant population. The community has an area of 3,000 ha, which is divided into lots of approximately 40 ha, as a result of the agrarian reform given in the 70s that through the Ecuadorian Institute of Agrarian Reform and Colonization IERAC, the peasants were able to legalize their properties. The practice of activities is related to agriculture, cattle ranching and forest clearing for wood extraction and charcoal production as a local extractive system has prevailed. In 2000, the community leaders legally constitute the community business, “Corporación Yunguilla”, aimed at satisfying the needs of the inhabitants aligned to community development through Community Tourism, which complements and encompasses traditional economic activities, except for the extraction of wood. Also implanting new ones, such as the production of jams and cheeses in a semi-industrial way, organic agriculture, the provision of tourist packages (lodging, tours, food, etc.) and a community store, all of these managed, administered and organized by the “Yunguillenses”.

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Fig. 1. Map of Yunguilla. Collaguazo (2012) [23].

3.2 Evolution of Availability of Resources and Community Tourism 3.2.1 Use and Management of Resources Yunguilla presents as its main natural resources, the cloud forest and the use of the land, an ecosystem that houses a wide variety of plants, from the smallest (mosses and lichens) to the largest such as cedars, cinnamon, alders, among others (Fig. 2). It has also several shrubs as well as a great variety of orchids, bromeliads and ferns [23]. Due to the characteristics of a cloud forest, balanced coexistence between these plant species, both timber and ornamental, is achieved. Formerly in Yunguilla, the exploitation of wood and the artisanal production of coal, constituted the main economic activity and source of income for the families of the community until the end of the 1990s, particularly rudimentary sawn wood, where the chainsaw is the main tool and the yield of the raw

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material resulting from the motor-sawing is around 35% in the case of boards, staves and strips [24]. Complementary to this are, on the one hand, agriculture that has focused on the cultivation of cereals (barley, corn and wheat), legumes (cabbage, radish, lettuce, spinach, squash, zambo, among others), tubers (potato, carrots, sweet potatoes and geese) and fruits (naranjilla, blackberry, strawberry, cucumber and tree tomato), while livestock that represents the highest economic income for the inhabitants of the area, is basically dedicated to raising beef cattle for the sale of meat (70%) and milk production (30%) [23].

Fig. 2. (Above left) Yunguilla community from the main access road; (above right) Community Accommodation, one of the homes where visitors live together; (below left) Organic produce gardens of the Yunguilla community; (below right) Environmental Education, Community children sharing food.

Up to the present day, there are no formal studies on the consumption of natural resources in the area, according to an interview with representatives of 50 families in the community, who affirm that logging was concentrated in approximately one hectare of forest per family, that is to say 50 ha of forest consumed annually. This is a rate that corresponds to about 1.6667% of the total extension of the community, threatening the conservation of the cloud forest. Because the logging and charcoal production activities were conducted under an informal system, there is also no exact data on the volume of income they represented for the Yunguilla family economy. In a general scope, the importance of the logging activity in the country is recognized, especially for the export of forest products [24, 25]. However, it is also recognized that the economic income of families engaged in this

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activity depended fundamentally on the prices set by sawmills in the area, without state regulation in the years prior to the study. Based on the aforementioned, in 1995, at the initiative of the community itself, a nursery for tree cultivation was started and, in this way, tried to compensate for the consumption of the cloud forest. This has been a project that thanks to the help of international organizations was performed successfully until 2002, which by than some 80 ha of forest were able to be reforested. Continuing with the process and through reforestation projects by the Yunguilla Corporation, between 2010 and 2011, it was possible to plant nearly 10,000 species of native trees, processes that have had the leading role, management and development of the community itself. In 2012, according to ordinance No. 409, Yunguilla was declared a Conservation and Sustainable Use Area (ACUS) by the Municipality of the Metropolitan District of Quito in its 2,981.57 ha, composed of areas of natural vegetation 56%, vegetation in natural regeneration 21% and cultivated and artificial areas 23% of cloud forest [26]. 3.2.2 Community Tourism Starting in 1995, the Yunguilla community underwent a structural change in its political, economic and social organization, thanks to the intervention of NGOs focused on local sustainable development, of which the Maquipucuna Foundation stands out. This was accompanied by the empowerment of the inhabitants of Yunguilla, this being the factor that allowed the consolidation of change over time, in correspondence with other international experiences [27]. In this way, the first Forest Committee of the Yunguilla Community was formed. The project undertaken then was intended to involve the inhabitants with the correct use and employment of non-renewable resources, and thus improve their quality of life, including activities such as soil conservation, plant production, reforestation, farm management plans, use of non-timber forest resources, among others [24]. The essence of the concept of sustainable development was incorporated into this project, through the knowledge, management, consumption and equitable distribution of natural resources to satisfy current needs without compromising future ones. In practice, most of the families considered this project as a waste of money and time, rooted in their traditional thinking, branded the young people who formed the committee as crazy, only 18 of the 50 families actively participated in such draft. In 1996, the group of women “Mama Pallo” was formed, a leading woman in Quichua, made up of 18 women and 2 men from the community, who undertook alternative activities of local production as part of the Agroforestry Project, where despite criticism from the Macho society that lived in the community, managed to develop an organic garden, an artisan plant for the production of jams, crafts with recycled paper and the creation of a community grocery store, in order to facilitate the purchase and sale of products of first necessity within the same community. In 1998, after having achieved significant changes within the community, the idea of community tourism in Yunguilla was raised, as well as the creation of the Yunguilla Community Forestry Committee. Together with Mr. Andy Drum, an English expert in local management and development, they went to the United Nations Development Program (UNDP) in order to finance such a project through the Small Grants Program (PPD), a

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project that provided training, infrastructure and promotion. In 1997, such financing was consolidated that reached approximately $ 25,000. After a training process in tourism administration, tourism infrastructure, health and hygiene and promotion, in 1998 formal community tourism activities began, to date 38 families in the community were actively working in this activity. By 1999 the financing project had finished, a decisive point in the future of the Yunguilla community. The inhabitants linked to the issue decided to organize themselves and continue promoting community tourism. On June 5, 2000, the “Micro-business Corporation of Producers, Marketers and Service Providers Yunguilla” is legally established, which would assume the responsibility of continuing with the tourist activity in the area and maintaining the sustainable development that was foreseen with it, at the time turning point, in which the financing and promotion of Yunguilla fell directly on its inhabitants (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3. Organizational chart of the Yunguilla Corporation [23].

Until the end of 2000, visits were relatively constant. For the years 2001, 2002 and 2003, the registered tourists in Yunguilla fell considerably due to the international crisis, in addition to the dollarization, which caused discouragement in the community. In spite of everything, the work continued, which meant that in 2002 the community was invited to participate in the Ecuador International Ecotourism Seminar [23]. The success factor of the Yunguilla community has been its active participation and management, which has influenced the creation of important alliances and the establishment of strategic agreements in order to continue with its sustainable development process, as observed in Table 1. The efforts of the Yunguilla Corporation have been reflected in the numbers of tourists and volunteers (visitors who, more than paying for their visit with money, reward the community with work in it), as with national institutions and foundations, which are fundamental for the financing of new projects for the best of the conditions of the place, both physical and in knowledge, through training and continuous updates, as reflected in Table 2 and Fig. 4. The influx of tourists in the last decade denotes an increasing trend. Every year more visitors are registered than the previous one, likewise, the first registry of tourists

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Table 1. List of organizations with established alliances or agreements. Collaguazo (2012) Type of organization

Origin

Interests/purposes

Colegio Menor Universidad San Francisco de Quito

Domestic, Quito

Influx of visitors

Global Works Travel Agency

Canada

Influx of tourists

Fundation CIMAS de Ecuador Domestic, Quito

Influx of Volunteers

GAP Challenge

England

Influx of volunteers

Instituto Superior de Español

Domestic, Quito

Tourist influx

Nepenthes Agency

Denmark

Influx of volunteers

Universidad de Especialidades Domestic, Quito Turísticas UCT

Influx of tourists

Universidad Politécnica del Chimborazo ESPOCH

Domestic, Riobamba

Influx of tourists

ATC Travel Agency

Domestic, Quito

Influx of tourists

Ecuadorian Association of Ecotourism ASEC

Domestic

Ecotourism Management

Plurinational Federation of Community Tourism FETCE

Domestic

Policies for the management of Community Tourism

Private Forest Network of Ecuador

Domestic

Forest management

Cooperative Santa Lucía

Domestic, Nanegal

Joint tour packages

NGO Conservación Internacional, Ecuador

Domestic

Financial and technical support for project management

Fundation Ecofondo

Domestic

Financial support for projects

Fundation Maquipucuna

Domestic

Joint Tourism Operation

per year in 1998 is 390, and for 2008 it rises considerably to 1,518. In other words, in 10 years visits have increased by 389.23% (by dividing the number of tourists registered in 2008 by those registered in 1998) approximately. In 2019, it reached 7,202 visitors, of which according to data provided by the Yunguilla Corporation (2020) in general, 50% correspond to national tourists, 44% North Americans and 6% of other nationalities, mainly Europeans. In addition to the benefits in the social and ecological order, community tourism in Yunguilla has had a considerable economic impact, promoting a sustainable development system in which community activities such as agriculture and livestock are combined with semi-industrial productive activities such as the production of jams, cheeses and milk delicacies, the creation of a community store, and the provision of eco-tourist services, among others. As observed in Table 3, the sources of income of the families have diversified into at least 12 activities.

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Table 2. Visitor flow in Yunguilla from 1998 to 2019. Corporación Yunguilla (2020) Years

Registered turists

1998

390

2008

1,518

2009

1,747

2010

1,987

2011

2,087

2012

2,165

2013

2,437

2014

2,757

2015

3,026

2016

3,821

2017

3,710

2018

6,154

2019

7,202

Table 3. Productive environment of the community. Yunguilla Management Plan 2011. Corporación Yunguilla (2020) Economic activity

Annual increase in $

Families

Farming

600

20

Cattle raising

600

30

1440

10

Tourism – guides

528

3

Kitchen

384

2

Permanent employees in external companies

Jams

384

4

Cheeses

884

1

Store

1440

1

CMY employees

1200

5

Sale of meals within sports activities

480

6

Attention to visitors

600

20

Transport

480

3

9020

60

TOTAL

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The annual income of the families of Yunguilla for 2011 adds up to a total amount of 9,020$, of which the main income is made up of those who work in external companies of some 1,440$, but it is comparable to the amount contributed by the community store (1,440$) and wages that the Yunguilla corporation provides to its members for community tourism. Taking into account the previous table, according to the accounting records of the Yunguilla Corporation, the development of economic activity in the community can be evaluated, which is shown in Table 4 and Fig. 4. It can be appreciated that the sustainable development model in Yunguilla has generated sustained profits, which oscillate on average at US $ 17,500 in the last ten years, which is even higher, when 2017 is taken out of the sum. In the community, there is a theory that in times of low tourism, semi-industrial activities manage to generate income for families. However, no data were available to demonstrate such ideas in the period 2001–2003. Table 4. Yunguilla Corporation’s results for the year. Yunguilla Corporation (2020). *In 2017, a payment of $ 6,479.70 was made for the loan, increasing spending atypically. Years

Total income

Total expenses

2010

58.380,51

40.539,97

17.840,54

2011

54.340,28

39.939,22

14.401,06

2012

77.559,29

66.509,11

11.050,18

2013

84.721,94

72.716,62

12.005,32

2014

120.231,60

99.444,13

20.787,47

2015

150.199,88

123.896,20

26.303,68

2016

165.496,28

141.095,21

24.401,07

90.426,27*

Gain

2017

90.516,29

2018

133.678,74

114.515,59

90,03 19.163,16

2019

113.787,92

84.070,11

29.717,81

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Fig. 4. Yunguilla Corporation economic indicators from 2010 to 2019. Corporación Yunguilla (2020)

4 Discussion The main difficulties that Yunguilla has gone through in the process of formation and consolidation of a sustainable development system were, in the first instance, the lack of commitment of the inhabitants, who were reserved and pessimistic about making their scarce resources available to the communal program and against changing their traditional economic activities, for community tourism and the preservation of their cloud forest. The lack of commitment of the members of a community or social enterprise constitutes one of the fundamental problems that impede the success of such initiatives [28]. Another problem is the lack of financing projects by the Ecuadorian State, which constitutes one of the main problems in underdeveloped countries, where insufficient state financing endangers the sustainability and growth of projects such as those in Yunguilla. The aforementioned is documented by [29] in the Argentine case, as well as in the Ecuadorian case by [30] in relation to the models of sustainable development of cities. This cannot even be supplemented by the development models of non-governmental organizations (NGOs) that show positive examples throughout the world [31], but which are nevertheless limited by the scope and volume of the help. The lack of experience in this type of project also weighs upon the practice, since as in this case, if it had not been for the training, financing and initial promotion, the empowerment of tourism “Yunguillenses” in their community It would not have been possible, and they would have continued to operate a rudimentary and extractive system. The experience in community projects stands as a premise for the success and growth of initiatives that are based on natural resource management and sustainable development [32]. Thus, in Junguilla, the training and learning process has allowed the inhabitants to manage, organize and diversify their economy with the aim of common integral development, which constitutes an aspiration of modern societies, especially at the local level, especially by putting inclusive policies in practice [33].

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The problem of measuring the impact, both social, environmental and economic, of the actions and programs that are developed, recognized from the international point of view [34], is present in the example of Yunguilla where there has been difficult to quantify sustainable development. This however occurs because through the income and expenses the profitability of the system can be determined. Nonetheless, there are no indicators that allow determining and relating the social contribution, with monetary income, since, as noted in the interviews, the population of Yunguilla is proud of its community. Furthermore, young people no longer grow up with the desperate idea of leaving to the city to improve their lives, but are aware that their work and effort within it will provide them with the capacities and opportunities to satisfy their current and future needs. The measurement of the social activity of companies, cooperatives and communities is still a limited activity, both from a theoretical, methodological and practical point of view [35]. In short, the Yunguilla community presents a development model with strong sustainability and combines its three dimensions by ensuring the satisfaction of future needs, through community organization, productive activities (such as cheese making, jams, organic garden, store community, among others) and especially community tourism. This happens in such a way that their environmental impact by consuming the natural resources available in their habitat are rewarded with their lifestyle, through the classification of waste, forest reforestation campaigns cloudy and environmental education instilled in families. The example of Yunguilla coincides with other international experiences, in relation to the need to consider the role of community tourism to minimize the effects on the nature of traditional tourism, as is the case of Mexico, as well as the role of the sustainable development approach to achieve equitable and sustained growth in the agricultural sector [36].

5 Conclusions The Yunguilla community, Ecuador has managed to establish a development model with sustainability, where the development of various economic activities is combined with respect for nature and promoting the integral development of the inhabitants and their families. The main recognized challenges and difficulties, after analyzing the Yunguilla experience are the lack of initial commitment of the inhabitants, insufficient state funding, the lack of experience in community projects, the difficulties in measuring the economic, social and environmental impact.

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Prototype of an Intelligent Multimedia System for Physiotherapeutic Rehabilitation in a Geriatric Center Christian Guanopatin , Kelding Jacho , Henry Jami , and Milton Escobar(B) Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Av. General Rumiñahui s/n 171-5-231B, Sangolquí, Ecuador {cpguanopatin,kjjacho,hwjami,meesacobar1}@espe.edu.ec

Abstract. Physical activity in older adults is of great importance according to the statements of studies that have been conducted at the School of Computing Science, University of Glasgow, UK demonstrating the existence of muscle ailments and chronic diseases in the short term. Based on this, through the Ministry of Economic and Social Inclusion (MIES) in the geriatric center Sagrada Familia, La Maná, Cotopaxi, rehabilitation services are provided by specialized personnel allowing adequate monitoring and control of the patient. This research is oriented to the creation of a physiotherapeutic prototype through three stages of development: 1) Use of wireless technologies and mobile applications, 2) Embedded Electronic Circuit and 3) Structural Design. In addition, its verification and validation is based on the results obtained by the three disciplines involved: 1) Software, 62% user experience effectiveness (usability–functionality), 2) Electronics, experimental error percentage (ε) less than 1% (high reliability) and 3) Electromechanics, 30% overload (viability of the structural prototype). Keywords: Prototype · Intelligent multimedia system · Geriatric center · Physiotherapy · Arduino · Mobile application · CAD design

1 Introduction Physical activity in older adults is of great importance; this statement is based on studies conducted at the School of Computing Science, University of Glasgow, UK where it shows the existence of complications in their health manifesting these problems in short term periods of time [1]. It should be emphasized that these people, being in the stage of old age, require a regular rate of physical exercise, otherwise they present high levels of depression (120 mmHg) and minimum levels (70 mmHg) [2] and muscular ailments such as osteoporosis, osteoarthritis, sarcopenia, soft tissue rheumatism, fibromyalgia, crystal arthropathies, late-onset systemic lupus erythematosus, polymyalgia rheumatic and rheumatoid arthritis [3]. Those patients who perform this activity avoid the appearance of chronic diseases, the most representative of which are arterial hypertension, diabetes mellitus, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, and cerebrovascular disease. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Botto-Tobar et al. (Eds.): CIT 2021, LNNS 406, pp. 131–144, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9_10

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Otherwise, we obtain as a result the incapacity of their autonomy, minimizing the correct functionality of their organs, bones and muscle mass [4]. Most elderly people are located in residential geriatric centers, institutions that are designed to house people in the elderly stage who cannot be cared for by their families or who lack a space to reside permanently. They also provide a rehabilitation service through specialized personnel such as physicians, physiotherapists, among others, allowing adequate monitoring and control of the patient [5]. The Expert Committee on Medical Rehabilitation of the World Health Organization (WHO) establishes physiotherapy as the science that allows physical treatment through reductive gymnastics, heat, cold, light, massage and electricity. Its main objectives are focused on relieving pain, increasing blood circulation, preventing and correcting those disabilities that affect the strength and mobility of their joints [6]. It is necessary to have equipment with the appropriate technology to help reduce muscular disorders that may appear in elderly people, improving their quality of life and facilitating physiotherapists to carry out an adequate control of the physical therapies performed, as well as to show the improvements obtained in their emotional state [1]. Currently, the integration of technologies through smart devices focused on the health area has caused great impact in the world. Experts are benefited with the use of these innovative tools, thus generating a significant improvement in health care in clinical environments (public–private) [6]. The disciplines that apply technical and scientific knowledge in these advances are the following: 1) Electronic Engineering, 2) Software Engineering and 3) Electromechanical Engineering. Each of them is detailed below: 1) Electronic Engineering – discipline used through the incorporation and use of sensors in the medical field. Collecting, processing and transmitting physiological signals of the human being in a continuous way, improving the control and proper use of them. It directly impacts the patient’s state of health, due to the ease of early monitoring of a diagnosis, preventing future catastrophic diseases [7]. 2) Software Engineering – discipline in charge of the development and maintenance of software systems through formal engineering principles and methodologies based on computer science, applied sciences and fundamental research (scientific knowledge) [8, 9, 10]. Obtaining cost-effective, reliable and high-quality software operating on intelligent devices [11]. 3) Electromechanical Engineering – discipline in charge of the analytical and technical development of manufacturing processes. The excessive high energy consumptions trigger high production costs in machining processes, a part of the branch of this engineering covers: the selection of materials in different manufacturing processes, design of electromechanical elements of high efficiency in order to be applied in projects oriented to industry, generation plants and for the case of the present paper in the field of rehabilitation [12]. Within the medical field, specifically in the rehabilitation area, electromechanical engineering is involved in the design of mobile and static equipment, with the intention of manufacturing efficient, safe, durable, comfortable and adjustable equipment and tools for the different body types of patients.

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The present investigation is based on the analysis of the information that was obtained from the surveys and tabulations compiled in the gerontological center Sagrada Familia Residential Modality of the canton La Maná, Cotopaxi province, Ecuador obtaining those diseases that cause a greater impact and which are the following: Parkinson 20% (1 man 0 women), spastic paraparesis with 20% (1 man 0 women), shoulder tendinitis with 20% (1 man 0 women), chronic hyperkyphosis with 20% (1 man 0 women) and mild spastic tetraparesis with 20% (1 man 0 women) out of a total of 5 men. The Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Sede Latacunga branch in collaboration with the Ministry of Economic and Social Inclusion is executing the third stage of the project of linkage with society called “Physiotherapeutic Rehabilitation with intelligent multimedia systems and assisted technology to reduce by 10% the atrophy, muscle and related aches caused by arthritis, osteoarthritis and tendinitis in older adults, in the province of Cotopaxi, in the year 2021” [13]. Focusing on solutions that allow to solve those problems presented in society by applying scientific knowledge, in a creative and humanistic way, transferring technologies according to what was learned in the academic training [14]. The integration and technical-scientific application of the three disciplines mentioned above (Electronics Engineering, Software Engineering and Electromechanical Engineering) allow the development of a prototype of an intelligent multimedia system for physiotherapeutic rehabilitation in a geriatric center with the objective of assisting in the physical activity of the elderly and supporting the personnel in charge of the corresponding treatment. This prototype has an ergonomic structure made of plastic, with a design of easy access for later maintenance, the purpose of the structure is to protect the electronic implements of external agents that may affect the functionality of the circuit such as water and dust; which has the optoelectronic sensor which is responsible for counting the revolutions of the hands that the elderly exercises, this is controlled through an Arduino nano microcontroller that performs serial communication with a TFT screen for viewing and configuration of the user; an mp3 playback module so that the elderly can listen to inspirational songs while performing the rehabilitation; a Bluetooth module for the connection with a smartphone; a native mobile application made in Android which allows to keep track of each routine that is performed through the reception of information via Bluetooth between the Arduino and the smartphone, sending the respective routines of patients via email to the physiotherapist to determine if the activity is correct and what changes can be made to obtain an adequate physiotherapy rehabilitation. The article has been organized as follows: Sect. 2 presents the material and method, which justifies the research, and the development around the different areas, Sect. 3 presents the complete system, evaluation of results and discussion, in Sect. 4 the conclusions on the results obtained are set out.

2 Material and Method The following section presents a brief overview of the prototype of physiotherapeutic rehabilitation through the use of an intelligent multimedia system for the Sagrada Familia geriatric center, residential modality, canton La Maná, Cotopaxi province. This system maintains the integration and technical-scientific application of the three disciplines: I) Software Engineering, II) Electronics Engineering and III) Electromechanical

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Engineering. The stages that make up the development of this prototype are: 1) Use of wireless technologies and mobile applications, 2) Embedded electronic circuit, and 3) Structural design (see Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Integration of multidisciplinary areas of electromechanics, electronics and software

Each of these stages is detailed below: 2.1 Stage 1 (Use of Wireless Technologies and Mobile Applications) Stage where a native mobile application is developed in Android Studio (A) that is implemented by specialized personnel in Software Engineering. Registering personal information (id, name, surname, date of birth, among others) of patients who belong to the Gerontological Center Sagrada Familia (La Maná – Cotopaxi) in the embedded SQLite database (B). This information is accessed through its unique identifier. This information is sent through a bidirectional communication using bluetooth technologies incorporated in the mobile device (C) that serves as a complementary input for the realization of stage 2 (see Fig. 1). It is important to emphasize that in this phase a mixed life cycle (Cascade – Iterative) was used. It has the following phases: 1) Analysis, 2) Modeling and 3) Development, which are described in general details for each of these phases (see Fig. 2). Analysis Phase (1) – The fundamental basis for the development of the mobile application proposed in this research is the elicitation of requirements (1.1) since it depends on this to satisfy the user’s needs taking into consideration the usability and quality of the final product [15]. Modeling Phase (2) – The design (2.1) of the mobile application is carried out through the use of UML diagrams (Use Cases, Class Diagrams, Entity-Relationship Model) obtaining in a clear way: the scope of the system (functionalities), entities and schema of the embedded database (SQLite) [15]. In addition, the corresponding architecture (Presentation, Business Logic and Data Access) is established [10].

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Fig. 2. Scheme to be used for Interactive Software development

Development and Testing Phase (3) – Activities are oriented to the source code of the mobile application are carried out: coding (3.1), testing (3.2) and deployment (3.3). A formal testing process is established to improve the quality of the developed application, which is reflected in time, reliability, usability, relevance and cost [16]. 2.2 Stage 2 (Embedded Electronic Circuit) Stage where the information from the elderly is received and processed, data obtained through Bluetooth communication (Patient Id) in stage 1 (C). Allowing them to be displayed on a TFT touch screen and recording the number of laps performed in the exercises where their hands are used (D). Using an E18-D50NK optoelectronic sensor whose maximum detection range is 50 cm. Distance that is appropriate for the design presented by the prototype (F). The signal from this device is sent to the Arduino microcontroller (see Fig. 1). The specialist in Electronic Engineering performs all these activities. The phases that make up this stage are the following: 1) Signal input, 2) Signal acquisition and conditioning and 3) Information display, each one of them being described in general terms (see Fig. 3). Input signal (1) – The input signal is the rehabilitation exercise performed by the older adult, specifically the hand pedaling (1.1), this data is sent to the next phase.

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Fig. 3. Scheme to be used for electronic development

Signal acquisition and conditioning (2) – The optoelectronic sensor is responsible for reading the input signal (2.1) so that the Arduino microcontroller (2.2) by means of the appropriate programming can condition the signal and display it. Data visualization (3) – This phase uses bluetooth wireless technology to manage the database and the monitorization of the patients (3.1). On the other hand, it also has serial communications, as well as in the mini mp3 player module where the patient can play music of their taste in order to motivate in the rehabilitation process and also has a TFT touch screen where the results can be displayed locally (3.2). 2.3 Stage 3 (Structural Design) In this stage, the modeling of parts and 3D assemblies of the structural prototype of the present research is performed through computer-aided design (CAD) in Solidworks [17]. Applying a formal hierarchical process from the model analysis to the total assembly of parts for the final manufacture of the physiotherapeutic rehabilitation bicycle. Stage where the older adult performs the physiotherapeutic activity (E), the hand pedal movement data are read through the E18-D50NK optoelectronic sensor that was implemented in stage 2 (F) describing in a general way each of these (see Fig. 4).

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Fig. 4. Scheme to be used for electromechanical development

Preliminary design phase (1) – An initial sketch of the structural prototype is created to establish the referential base where the intelligent multimedia system for physiotherapeutic rehabilitation will be incorporated. This is based on the physiological and anatomical requirements of older adults [18]. Layout design phase (2) – The creation of drawings of parts (views) is performed, characterized by representing those measures that make up the parts involved in the structural prototype. According to the norms established by the Ecuadorian Institute of Normalization (INEN) [19]. 3D modeling of the design phase (3) – The 3D modeling of the parts is elaborated through the drawings obtained in phase 2 (Layout Design). Subsequently, the total assembly of the structural prototype is carried out using the CAD SolidWork tool. Materials selection phase (4) – The material to be used for the construction of the pieces that will form the final structure where the prototype of an intelligent multimedia system for physiotherapeutic rehabilitation will be placed will be selected, considering the following characteristics: 1) ductility, 2) tenacity, 3) application and 4) price. Design tests phase (5) – Static analysis tests are performed considering the external forces (weight and support point) involved in the structure of the prototype proposed in this research. Obtaining those points of rupture and deflection that allow to make corrections on the design of the structural prototype obtained in phase 1 (Preliminary Design). Design construction phase (6) – The final structural prototype is built taking into consideration the parts drawings obtained in phase 2 (Design layout) and the material selected

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in stage 4 (Material selection phase). For safety reasons, the construction must be carried out in a suitable place provided with the equipment and tools that facilitate the fabrication of the structural prototype. Figure 5 shows the tests performed by the physiotherapist (1). Interacting with the mobile application, which allows usability tests, focused on the functionality of the mobile application (Software Engineering) (2). Subsequently, the percentage experimental error test is performed on the optoelectronic sensor and it is verified that the information from the sensor is displayed on the TFT touch screen (Electronic Engineering) (3). Finally, the static force analysis tests to which the structure is subjected are carried out to determine the breaking and deflection points of the material (Electromechanical Engineering) (4) of the intelligent multimedia prototype developed in this research.

Fig. 5. Intelligent multimedia system elaborated

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3 Results and Discussions In the present section, the results obtained during the verification and validation by the physiotherapist as end user and administrator of the prototype developed in this research are detailed. It should be noted that a discussion is made, focused according to each of the areas involved in this project (Software, Electronics and Electromechanics). 3.1 Software Verification and validation of the Android Mobile Application – Verification and validation of the Android Mobile Application – allows to establish an adequate and correct fulfillment of the requirements elicitation through unit tests focused on the usability and functionality of the proposed application as a solution to the existing needs of the physiotherapist. Taking into consideration the Metrics for Usability Standards in Computing (MUSIC) method, which consists of the following parts: 1) Capture, 2) Analysis and 3) Critique [20]. Table 1. Evaluation and implementation of the user experience in the mobile application. Nº Questions

Positive answer Negative answer Percent

1

The mobile application maintains a user-friendly design

8

2

80%

2

The mobile application has a correct distribution of its components

6

4

60%

3

The mobile application allows registering a patient through a form

10

0

100%

4

The mobile application performs the registration operation in the database without complications

6

4

60%

5

The mobile application displays the registration list on the screen

7

3

70%

6

The mobile application allows update and delete operations to be performed without errors on the screen or console

7

3

70%

7

The mobile application displays messages on screen notifying the user of the action that was performed

3

7

30%

8

The mobile application allows entering the e-mail address to which the patient results report will be sent

2

8

20%

9

The mobile application allows to correctly send the email through the SMTP service

6

4

60%

10

The mobile application displays the registration list on the screen

7

3

70%

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The evaluation of the user experience is performed through an analysis of the metrics of the usability principles that allows to determine the quality of the software where the analysis of the indicators used through the MUSIC method is established: 1) Software Product, 2) Context, 3) Objectives, 4) Evaluation, 5) User Test 6) Data Analysis and 7) Usability Report. Determining the efficiency and functionality for the management and control of patients by the physiotherapist. The user quickly received the operation of the system because it does not show complexity due to its ease of use. In addition, there were cases in which the system did not alert the physical therapist of a transaction made or a failure of the Internet or Bluetooth connection, so these factors affected the user experience, as shown in Table 1.

Fig. 6. Indicators of evaluation of responses obtained

In Fig. 6, the results of the analysis of the evaluation indicators of the user experience of the mobile application proposed in this research can be visualized. These results were extracted from the positive and negative answers to the questions asked to the end user (physical therapist) after using the developed software (interaction). The values in the range [70–100] percentage of the correct answers show the adequate implementation of the connection with the embedded database and the design of the user interface. While the values in the range [0–60] percentage of incorrect answers show the wrong distribution of components, failures in the null data records in the database, absence of alert messages around the transactions (actions) performed and default sender’s email set in code. Concluding that the overall average of the percentages obtained in the user experience evaluation is 62%, which means that the usability versus functionality of the mobile application is acceptable. 3.2 Electronics Verification and Validation of the sensor. – Allows determining the experimental percentage error of the implemented sensor E18-D50NK in the embedded system. Which

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performs the reading of the pedaling movement of the elderly. Using as test equipment an inductive sensor PRDL-14DN. It should be noted that the percentage experimental error is defined as the quotient between the absolute error, which is the difference of the real value with the measured one and the true value; noted by ε [21]. This error is represented in the following equation: ε=

Vreal − Vmeasured Vreal

(1)

Table 2. Evaluation of implementation. Senior exercise in RPM

RPM Sensor PRDL-14DN

RPM Sensor E18-D50NK

ε Sensor PRDL-14DN

ε Sensor E18-D50NK

50

50

50

0%

0%

60

60

60

0%

0%

100

100

100

0%

0%

120

120

119

0%

0.83%

According to the analysis in Table 2, the evaluation of the embedded electronic circuit was performed through the Percentage Experimental Error (ε) in the sensor used, resulting in measurement errors of less than 1%, which means that it is acceptable. In other words, the sensor has a low probability of failure (high reliability). 3.3 Electromechanics Verification and validation of the structural prototype – allows to determine if the design of the structural prototype is viable or not for its use. This verification is performed through three types of validation: 1) Design validation, 2) Force analysis and 3) Static analysis. It should be noted that the confirmation of each of the validations leads to the acceptance of the final structural prototype. Otherwise, it is necessary to redesign the prototype. The three types of validation are explained below. 1) Design validation – Allows us to determine the feasibility and ease of construction of the structural prototype by using SolidWorks where we can manipulate the proposed graphic design and observe if there are any complications for manufacturing. 2) Force analysis – Allows the introduction of all the external forces that intervene in the structural prototype, represented directly on the attachment points and the faces of the parts that make it up. 3) Static analysis: It allows us to observe the deformation of the structural prototype against the external forces implemented in validation two (force analysis). Figure 7 shows the mechanical structure developed taking into consideration the static analysis of the graphic scale of stresses, displacements and deformations obtaining the following results: 1) blue (almost no deformation due to the forces), 2) red (places that are close to the rupture and deflection of the material) [22].

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Fig. 7. External forces acting on the bicycle.

In order to understand the results of the static analysis of the structural prototype, a list of the pieces that make up the final structure and the percentage of individual overload that exists in each of them is considered. The average percentage of overload of the structural prototype is only 30% (low percentage), which implies considering the verification and validation of the structure as acceptable for the use of elderly patients who need physiotherapeutic rehabilitation. The overload percentages of each part and the overall percentage are shown in Table 3. Table 3. Evaluation of implementation – structure. Nº

Description of parts

Number of components

Percentage of overload

Percentage of overload total

1

Base

1

30%

30%

2

Chair

1

30%

3

Foot pedals

2

10%

4

Hand pedals

2

10%

5

Support angle

1

90%

6

Hand pedal base

1

10%

4 Conclusions The development of the intelligent multimedia prototype for the physiotherapeutic rehabilitation of older adults in the Geriatric Center La Maná, allows complementing the work

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done by the physiotherapist with older adults. Inciding in a more adequate quality medical service that allows improving the treatment of muscular ailments and the appearance of chronic diseases. In addition to minimizing the levels of depression through physical activity performed in the physiotherapeutic routine. The integration of the technical-scientific knowledge of the three disciplines involved in the current research project: Software, Electronics and Electromechanics, allow emphasizing the existing need for joint work between the Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE Sede Latacunga and the MIES to interpret and solve the problems presented in society, specifically in gerontological centers. The usability tests that are focused on the functionality of the use of wireless technologies and mobile applications through the Metrics for Usability Standards in Computing (MUSIC) method managed to determine that the processes involved in the storage of records in the embedded SQLite database involve a correct configuration to continue with the bluetooth wireless communication. The measurement tests performed to the embedded electronic circuit, allow knowing its percentage experimental error, reflecting a high degree of reliability that the device has in its measurements. The static analysis test performed in the design of the structural prototype allows the identification of the parts with higher and lower breaking points as well as their deflection. Establishing a deformation scheme of the structure through the SolidWorks software allows having the perspective of the behavior of the structure under external forces and when presenting positive results, the construction of the mechanical structure of the intelligent multimedia prototype begins.

References 1. Paul, L., et al.: Increasing physical activity in older adults using STARFISH, an interactive smartphone application (app); a pilot study. J. Rehabil. Assist. Technol. Eng. 4, 6236 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1177/2055668317696236 2. Eulogio Pleguezuelos Cobo. Principios de rehabilitación cardiaca.2010. Sermef, pag 17 3. Fernández-Travieso, J.C.: Enfermedades músculo-esqueléticas en los ancianos: una breve revisión. Revista CENIC. Ciencias Biológicas 46(3), 203–221 (2015) 4. Durán, A., Valderrama, L., Uribe, A.F., González, A., Molina, J.M.: Enfermedad crónica en adultos mayores. Universitas Médica 51(1), 16–28 (2010) 5. Ministerio de inclusión económica y social. Norma Técnica para la Implementación y Prestación de Servicios Gerontológicos de: Centros Gerontológicos Residenciales. p. 10 6. OMS. Comité de expertos de la OMS en rehabilitación médica Segundo Informe. Organización mundial de la salud serie de informes técnicos N 419 (1969) 7. Gao, W., Ota, H., Kiriya, D., Takei, K., Javey, A.: Flexible electronics toward wearable sensing. Acc. Chem. Res. 52(3), 523–533 (2019) 8. Zelkovitz, M.V., Shaw, A.C., Gannon, J.D.: Principles of Software Engineering and Design. Prentice Halls (1979) 9. Boehm, B.W.: Software engineering. IEEE Trans. Comput. C–25(12), 1226–1241 (1976). https://doi.org/10.1109/TC.1976.1674590 10. Humphrey, W.S.: Managing the Software Process. Addison-Wesley Longman Publishing Co., Inc., Reading, MA, USA (1989)

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11. Bauer, F.L.: Software engineering. In: Freiman, C.V., Griffith, J.E., Rosenfeld, J.L. (eds.) Information Processing 71: Proceedings of IFIP Congress 71, Ljubljana, Yugoslavia, August 23–28, 1971, North Holland, Amsterdam, The Netherlands (1972) 12. León, M.G.S.D.d., Hernández, E.A.T.: Funcionalidad del adulto mayor y el cuidado enfermero, Rincón Científico Comunicaciones, p. 1 (2011) 13. Auspiciante, P.E.: Proyecto de vinculación con la sociedad, pp. 1–29 (2021) 14. ESPE: Plan_Estrategico_de_Desarrollo_Institucional_PEDI_2018–2021, Sangolqui, p. 18 (2019) 15. Matharu, G.S., Mishra, A., Singh, H., Upadhyay, P.: Empirical study of agile software development methodologies: a comparative analysis. ACM SIGSOFT Softw. Eng. Notes 40, 1–6 (2015) 16. Escobar, M., Fuertes, W.: Modelo formal de pruebas funcionales de software para alcanzar el Nivel de Madurez Integrado 2. Facultad de Ingeniería 24(39), 31–42 (2015) 17. Zhang, C., Jiang, Z., Lu, D., Ren, T.: Método de diseño 3D MEMS a través de SolidWorks 18. N.A: Ingeniería del diseño, p. 3 (2015) 19. INEN: Instituto Ecuatoriano De Normalización. de Código de dibujo técnico mecánico, QuitoEcuador 20. Enriquez, J.G., Casas, S.I.: Usabilidad en aplicaciones móviles. Informes Científicos Técnicos-UNPA 5(2), 25–47 (2013) 21. Posadas, A.: Determinación de errores y tratamientos de datos. En Comportamiento mecánico de los materiales, pp. 1–15. UA, Almería (2010) 22. Aguilar, W.G., Albán, P., Cruz, H., Tiuma, A., Figueroa, J.: Low cost multitask mobile robot for military application. Artif. Intell. Comput. Softw. Eng. Adv. 1, 467 (2020)

An Analysis of the Socioeconomic Resilience of Ecuadorian University Students Against SARS-CoV2: The Development and Validation of a Measurement Instrument Gustavo Hermosa-Vega1(B) , Giovanni Herrera-Enríquez2 , and Hugo Jácome Estrella3 1 Universidad Central del Ecuador UCE, Quito, Ecuador

[email protected]

2 Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador 3 Facultad Latinoamericana de Ciencias Sociales FLACSO, Quito, Ecuador

Abstract. The SARS-CoV-2 pandemic posed a challenge to the local and global socioeconomic system, in particular, it affected young university students, rethinking their social and economic practices, that was developing normally until the end of 2019, appealing to their resilient capacity to face adversity. Resilience is a dynamic and multidimensional capacity for learning, adaptability, and improvement in the face of an adverse event. This study aims to analyze the cross-cultural validity and reliability of the Adult Resilience Test (RSA) including an economic component, combining Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) models, testing a sample of 2766 university students from Ecuador between 18 and 24 years after the impact of COVID-19 pandemic. The EFA yielded a structure of 7 factors with 31 items with significant results. The CFA validated the structure of the RSA with 7 factors and acceptable fit indices, demonstrating the validity of the construct, the 7 factors of the RSA showed positive correlations with employment, but not with education, women registered better scores in social resources and family cohesion and men in self-perception. Keywords: Resilience · RSA · Factorial analysis · COVID.19 · University students

1 Introduction 1.1 SARS-CoV-2 and Resilience The COVID-19 pandemic altered the normality of a large part of the population, as a result of social isolation and economic uncertainty, a significant increase in mental health problems, anxiety and depression has been generated (Killgore et al. 2020a). The analysis and evaluation of this problem is treated from resilience that can be defined as the ability of an individual to face adverse events (Killgore et al. 2020b). According to Holling (1973), resilience is a measure of persistence and capacity of a system to absorb changes and disturbances, for Luthar (2006) it is the capacity for positive adaptation to © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Botto-Tobar et al. (Eds.): CIT 2021, LNNS 406, pp. 145–160, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9_11

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adversity or trauma. From the psychological perspective, resilience is related to anxiety and depression, being conceived as a result rather than a trait, where protective factors at the individual level are susceptible to being improved (Hjemdal et al. 2011). According to Aburn et al. (2016), the main variables that influence resilience are: age, education and status (Aburn et al. 2016). Killgore et al. (2020b) concluded that the resilience index during the pandemic was lower than expected, but better results were evidenced in individuals who perceived greater social support from friends and family. On the other hand, a lower index of Resilience was associated with greater concern about the effects of SARS-CoV-2 and a decreased ability to cope with the problems associated with the crisis, concluding that strengthening psychological resilience should be paramount during the pandemic, especially fostering social and family relationships. Similar results were found in the research developed by Höltge et al. (2021), who incorporate the economic factor as a variable of analysis, the same one that is also incorporated in current work. 1.2 Measurement of Resilience Resilience is considered a concept still under development, which has led to various theoretical conceptions and multiple approaches for its measurement. Salgado (2005) from a social context, highlights three methods for its measurement: process, positive adaptation and adversity, including its respective instruments. Within each methodology, various instruments have emerged, especially, psychological ones, that allow measuring resilience, deserving special attention The Resilience Scale for Adults (RSA) (2001), Coonor-Davison Resilience Scale (1999) and the Brief Resilience Scale that has adequate psychometric properties. Within the scope of mentioned measurement instruments, the RSA is the most stable scale according to the test-retest that measures the consistency and stability of the scores, and assesses family and social protection factors, going beyond an individual self-assessment and the consideration of internal characteristics of an individual, recognizing the importance of the resources that are perceived from the environment, being one of the most relevant mechanisms for evaluating protection mechanisms within multicultural contexts (Morote et al. 2017). The RSA is a psychometric tool for measuring resilience proposed by Hjemdal et al. (2001), which analyzes the personal competencies that make a person resilient, that are very useful to carry out an evaluation of the interpersonal and intrapersonal protection mechanisms in multicultural contexts, especially where social support networks play a crucial role in adaptation and well-being (Morote et al. 2017). This includes six inter and intrapersonal protective factors in their measurement, with 33 grouped indicators and a semantic differential scale, which consists of the following dimensions: (1) Selfperception, (2) planned future; (3) social competence, (4) structured style, (5) family cohesion, and (6) social resources (Hjemdal et al. 2006). The RSA test generally focuses on psychological and social perspectives. Although mentioned perspectives are important aspects in the study of resilience, this work seeks to incorporate a new perspective, the economic one, which can have an important impact on the global vision of the concept (Phillips et al. 2016). From an economic perspective, the methodologies to measure resilience are more limited and have mostly focused on the regional economy. Liao and Rose (2005) propose the computable general equilibrium

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model, from a macroeconomic approach Briguglio et al. (2009) suggest grouping market efficiency, macroeconomic stability, good governance and social development in an index of economic resilience. However, these methodologies require modeling to explain an adverse economic event, leaving aside the impact that the economic variables have both in the individual and in society. Susilowati (2020) suggests that future research on resilience should focus on analyzing how psychological attributes contribute to economic resilience, leaving aside the idea of a one-dimensional measurement instrument. The objective of the current research is to determine the cross-cultural validity of the RSA by modifying and including economic indicators in a sample of university students from Ecuador in the context of SARS-CoV-2. The results will allow targeting of the strategies to improve the protective factors of resilience in university students. 1.3 University Students, Resilience and SARS-CoV-2 (Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2) The health crisis and confinement caused by SARS-CoV-2 became a threat to physical life, psychological, social, political and economic stability of society, but with a greater impact on vulnerable groups. University students surrounded by a series of personal and socio-emotional changes, economic problems, new friendships and the adaptation to new family roles, changes associated with depressive, anxiety and stress problems (Holguin and Rodríguez 2020), have had to rethink their social and economic practices, considered normal until the end of 2019, taking root at a high social and economic cost, exacerbating differences in the educational system by limiting educational opportunities and increasing school dropouts, mainly due to economic problems that have exerted pressure on search for sources of work, and social problems related to social isolation that has limited their learning and development capacities (UNESCO 2020). According to IESLAC (2020) the most outstanding problems of the pandemic in students are: the loss of social contact and socialization activities affecting the socioemotional balance, especially in those students with pre-existing problems; financial problems; a high unemployment rate that will particularly impact graduates of 2020 AY and 2021 AY. Projections and estimates made by the OEI (Organization of IberoAmerican States) predict significant decreases in the income of new graduate students due to the crisis facing the world (Sanz et al. 2020). Psychosocial factors such as social connection, feelings of belonging, social support and psychological well-being, and financial autonomy allow a better adaptation of university students, (Pidgeon et al. 2014).

2 Methodology 2.1 Design and Sample The target population of the research are university students from Ecuador corresponding to three public universities and one private, whose ages range are between 18 and 24 years old, affected in their academic, social and economic activities by SARS-COV2. The sample included 2766 participants, of which 80% belong to Public and 20% to Private Universities. Due to the confinement measures established in Ecuador since March of 2020, the research applied a convenience sampling (Edgar and Manz 2017). The information gathering was carried out from June to August of 2020, through emails.

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2.2 Procedure The present study used a non-experimental research with a qualitative, cross-sectional approach, aimed at examining the cross-cultural validity of the Resilience Scale for Adults test (RSA), including new economic indicators, according to the most current conceptualizations in a sample of Ecuadorian university students after SARS-COV-2, through an exploratory (Lloret et al. 2014) and confirmatory factor analysis (Kline 2011). The Exploratory Factor Analysis allows identifying the dimensions of the RSA, selecting the most relevant and effective indicators within each resilience factor, excluding, based on a set of statistical techniques, the indicators that do not allow measuring the corresponding factor in accordance with the literature and checking that its exclusion improves the reliability index. 33 indicators (original RSA) and 10 indicators (economic) were considered for the analysis. A previous factorial analysis into each of the theoretically identified factors makes it possible to ensure the unidimensionality of each indicator, improving the level of reliability of the resilience dimensions, through an analysis of principal components by dimensions, 32 of the 43 items of the Modified RSA were selected. In applying the EFA, the KMO Sample Adequacy Measure (>0,5) and the Bartlett sphericity test (3) reflects the existence of extreme asymmetry and in kurtosis one (CR>20) indicate a problem in normality; Byrne (2010) adopted a more consistent kurtosis with various software, establishing a value (>7) as a substantial problem with normality. Regarding multivariate normality, it was evaluated using the multivariate normality coefficient of kurtosis; Multivariate kurtosis values (>5) are considered as a sign of problems with multivariate normality (Byrne 2010). In the current research, CFA allowed to test the validity of the RSA model obtained in the EFA, by means of several indices to identify the level of fit of the model using an estimation of robust maximum likelihood statistics (MLM), one of the most common methods for the estimation of the model by providing consistent, efficient and unbiased estimates, helping to converge the estimates with the parameters even without fulfilling the assumption of normality. The adjustment indices used are the following: rescaled

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Satorra-Bentler chi-square (S-B χ2), a necessary but inconclusive indicator as it is very sensitive to the sample size (García 2011), for which Fernández (2008) recommends using several Global and individual indicators, such as: Comparative Fit Index (CFI), Incremental Fit Index (IFI), Normalized Fit Index (NFI), Goodness of Fit Index (GFI), Turker-Lewis Index (TLI), root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) adjusted goodness of fit index (AGFI), normalized Parsimony Fit index (PNFI), parsimonious goodness of fit index (PGFI). Table 1 shows the acceptable ranges for the proposed fit indices. Table 1. Adjustment indices confirmatory factor analysis Index

Very good

Good

Acceptable

Unacceptable

RMSEA

≤0.05

]0.05, 0.08]

]0.08, 0.10]

>0.10

CFI

≥0,95

[0.9, 0.95[

]0.8, 0.9[

≤0.8

NFI

≥0,95

[0.9, 0.95[

]0.8, 0.9[

≤0.8

SRMR

≤0.05

]0.05, 0.08]

]0.08, 0.10]

>0.10

GFI

≥0.95

[0.9, 0.95[

]0.8, 0.9[

≤0.8

TLI

≥0.95

[0.9, 0.95[

]0.8, 0.9[

≤0.8

AGFI

≥0.95

[0.9, 0.95[

[0.85,0.90[

0,3) that are acceptable values (Marín 2003). The next result to analyze is the sedimentation plot. It can be seen that the number of components that must be retained in the model is seven, from component eight a significant change in slope is appreciated with eigenvalues less than one. The final result of an EFA is the matrix of components rotated using the main components extraction method (see Table 2). Table 2. Rotated component matrix

Range

SR

FC

SC

SP

PF

EC

SS

1a5

1a5

1a5

1a5

1a5

1a5

1a5

Media

3,92

3,89

3,45

3,73

3,9

3,31

3,66

Standard deviation

0,85

0,76

0,8

0,69

0,84

0,71

0,82

Asymmetry

−0,84 −0,44 −0,14 −0,15 −0,48 0,025 −0,19

Variance explained

14,29

8,66

8,51

7,77

7,16

5,21

5,13

Cronbach’s alpha

0,87

0,71

0,77

0,7

0,78

0,58

0,52

Indicator

Factorial loading

54. I have the support of:

0,788

51. Those who are good at encouraging me are:

0,787

56. My closest friends and family members:

0,724

50. I can discuss personal matters with:

0,705

52. The links between my friends are: 0,662 53. When a family member experiences an emergency:

0,606

49. In my family we like:

0,689

46. My family is characterized by being:

0,678

48. Compared to other families, my family is:

0,629

44. What my family considers important in life:

0,556

41. Meeting new people for me is:

0,831 (continued)

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Table 2. (continued) SR 40. New friendships are achieved with:

0,367

43. For me, thinking of good conversation topics is: 42. When I meet others:

FC

SC

SP

0,430

0,566 0,528 0,678

25. My personal problems:

0,631 0,355

0,584

29. Events in my life that I cannot influence:

0,508

28. In my times of difficulty I tend to:

0,495

33. My goals for the future are:

0,712

30. My future plans are:

0,669

32. I feel that my future seems to be:

SS

0,729

24. When something unforeseen happens:

31. My goals for the future:

EC

0,653

39. Being flexible in social environments:

26. In my skills:

PF

0,427

0,613 0,576

60. If you lose the income, your plans for the future are:

0,742

62. A new job you get with:

0,716

59. Your financial problems:

0,413

57. Financial autonomy

0,408

35. When I start a new project:

0,637

36. I am good at:

0,602

34. I am at my best when:

0,377

0,539

SR = social resources, FC = family cohesion, SC = social competence, SP = Self-perception, PF = planned future, EC = economic capacity, SS = structured style. Extraction method: principal component analysis. Rotation method: Varimax with Kaiser normalization.

The final instrument was made up of 31 items grouped into following seven dimensions: Social Resources (six items), Family Cohesion (four items), Social Competence (five items), Self-perception (five items), Planned Future (four items), Economic dimension (four items) and Personal Structure (three items), the highest average was demonstrated by the Social Resources Dimension (3,92) and the lowest average was shown by the Economic Dimension (3,31). The asymmetry for the seven dimensions is between − 0,84 and 0,02, the global explained variance is 56,73%, the Social Resources component

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registering the highest contribution with a value of 14,29%. The final Cronbach’s Alpha for 31 indicators have a value of 0,905 and by dimensions it registers values between 0,52 and 0,87. Despite being 0,7 a minimum desirable value, 0,52 is sufficient in the first research phases and for factors with less than 10 items (Nunnally and Bernstein 1994; Loewenthal 1996). Regarding the factor loadings for 31 items, they register values higher than 0,4; the indicators reflect a high degree of predictability of the factors, being the most relevant in the measurement of the resilient characteristics in the university students of Ecuador, demonstrating unidimensionality in the measurement of their respective factor. However, the resulting model cannot be accepted without first analyzing the statistical fit of the model, comparing it with others proposed by the theory by means of a confirmatory factor analysis. 3.2 Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) The normality analysis using the kurtosis CR for 31 items of resilience, yielded values (5) not complying with the assumption. However, it does not affect the ability of the method to make unbiased estimates, and the maximum likelihood method used does not strictly require that the multivariate normality be fulfilled, but univariate normality must be satisfied (Lara 2014). A confirmatory factor analysis of the first order applied to the model produced by the EFA, resulted in the following fit indices (see Table 3). Table 3. Modified RSA adjustment indices Indez

VG

G

A

U

Finding

Result

RMSEA

≤0.05

]0.05, 0.08]

]0.08, 0.10]

>0.10

0,055

Good

CFI

≥0,95

[0.9, 0.95[

]0.8, 0.9[

≤0.8

0,885

Acceptable

NFI

≥0,95

[0.9, 0.95[

]0.8, 0.9[

≤0.8

0,873

Acceptable

SRMR

≤0.05

]0.05, 0.08]

]0.08, 0.10]

>0.10

0,061

Good

GFI

≥0.95

[0.9, 0.95[

]0.8, 0.9[

≤0.8

0,9

Very Good

TLI

≥0.95

[0.9, 0.95[

]0.8, 0.9[

≤0.8

0,868

Acceptable

AGFI

≥0.95

[0.9, 0.95[

[0.85,0.90[

0,9 was obtained. The aforementioned seven dimensions are: social resource, family cohesion, social competence, self-perception, planned future, personal structure and economic dimension; the dimension that registered the lowest score is the economic dimension; social resources have demonstrated the highest score, which is consistent with the empirical evidence in Latin America where the social dimension has a greater weight. The personal and economic structure dimension registered the lowest values of reliability, and personal structure coincides with the low reliability found in the validations of the test in Brazil, Belgium and Peru; analyzes and interpretations of dimensions with a reliability lower than 0,7 should be done with extreme caution. The model obtained in the EFA was subjected to a validation using the CFA, fulfilling the assumption of univariate normality and breaching the multivariate normality, desirable but not essential assumption, as it did not affect the ability of the model to make unbiased estimates. The resulting model of the CFA is over-identified for its validation, models of six, five and two factors proposed by Morote et al. (2017), including the economic dimension, were compared, to evaluate the fit of the model, a consensus has not been reached in the best indices. There is a wide debate regarding the CFI and TLI adjustment values, being rigorous criteria that consider the values greater than 0,95 as values denoting a good fit of the model. On the other hand, Maroco (2010) is more flexible and

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considers values between 0,8 and 0,9 as acceptable. With the aim to solve this diversity of criteria, several statistical tests were used to evaluate the model fit. In the present study, the seven-dimensional model (six RSA + Economic dimension) yielded the best fit indices, acceptable and good values for the absolute and incremental fit indices and with respect to the chi-square fit statistic (xˆ2) a statistically significant p < 0,01, however, it is rarely used as a conclusive test of goodness-of-fit as it is very sensitive to sample size. As a result of the correlation analysis, the dimensions of planned future, social resource and self-perception showed a negative correlation with age; years of study at the university is negatively correlated with planned future, personal structure, family cohesion, economic dimension and self-perception, which contradicts the results of the study developed by Morote et al. (2017), whose work registered a positive correlation with social competence, economic dimension and self-perception, total RSA and dropouts and negative correlation with social resources; the impact of SARS-CoV-2 was positively correlated with drop-outs, stopping studying was negatively correlated with the seven dimensions of the RSA, and quarantine was positively correlated with social resources and planned future. In relation to gender, social resources and family cohesion, it has a correlation with the female gender, while self-perception has a stronger correlation with the male gender, which implies that women have greater access to external support from friends and family and have a better connection with their family, while men have greater self-confidence and more positive and realistic self-vision. In general, social resources is the dimension that registers the highest scores in university students in Ecuador. 4.2 Limitations and Future Research The present study registers a limitation regarding the generalization of the results, being advisable to carry out future investigations that apply a probabilistic sampling to improve the quality of the data, avoiding outliers in the sample and improving the fit indices of the model. Future research should also evaluate the causality between age and years of study in the resilience index of an individual and a comparative analysis between students from public and private universities. 4.3 Conclusions Within the wide variety of instruments that allow measuring resilience, the RSA Test is one of the best psychometric tools, that is highly relevant in cultural contexts in which social connections play an important role. The validation of the RSA test with an economic dimension in the present study is justified by the considerable impact of the economic dimension in the configuration of the resilient characteristics of an individual. Inclusion of economic dimension is a substantial contribution to the literature and research that traditionally outlined the RSA test from social and psychological dimensions.

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In the context of the pandemic, more than 90% of students have suffered its direct impact, which resulted in a high social and economic cost that translates into an exacerbation of differences in the educational system, interrupting the normal learning process of students, depriving them from opportunities for growth and development, leading to a dropout from their studies due to the search for sources of employment in a market oppressed by the growing unemployment rate. This results in a situation where students are constantly burdened by economic and socio-emotional problems that place them as a vulnerable group that requires a primary and immediate attention through public policies that may reduce the impact of the pandemic on the socioeconomic conditions of students and improve their protective factors to overcome the effects of SARS-CoV-2, a challenge for ongoing governments and universities, which makes the study and validation of the RSA for research on public policies and intervention design very recommended. The resilience measurement instrument resulting from the application of the EFA and CFA was made up of six dimensions plus an economic dimension, and 31 indicators, resulting in an instrument that is reliable, has good internal consistency, adequate explained variance and acceptable adjustment indices for comparison with other models proposed in the prior literature. Having a valid instrument such as the modified RSA for university students can facilitate determining the exact factors contributing to the positive adaptation process in university youth in Ecuador, where social support networks and family cohesion play a crucial role in the resilience of university students.

References Aburn, G., Gott, M., Hoare, K.: What is resilience? An integrative review of the empirical literatura. J. Adv. Nurs. 72(5), 980–1000 (2016) Briguglio, L., Cordina, G., Farrugia, N., Vella, S.: Economic vulnerability and resilience: concepts and measurements. Oxf. Dev. Stud. 37(3), 229–247 (2009) Byrne, B.: Structural Equation Modeling with AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming, 2nd edn. Taylor & Francis, New York (2010) Darren, G., Mallery, P.: SPSS for Windows Step by Step: A Simple Guide and Reference, 4a edn. Allyn & Bacon, Michigan, Boston (2003) Edgar, T., Manz, D.: Exploratory Study. Research Methods for Cyber Security, 1st edn. Syngress, Syngress (2017) Etikan, I.: Comparison of convenience sampling and purposive sampling. Am. J. Theor. Appl. Stat. 5(1), 1–4 (2016) Fernández, R.: Metodología en la investigación sobre discapacidad. Introducción al uso de las ecuaciones estructurales “Modelos de medida y Análisis factorial”, pp. 30–42. INICO (2008) Fernández, S.: Análisis Factorial. Facultad Ciencias Económicas y Administrativas UAM, pp. 1–34 (2011) Friborg, O., Barlaug, D., Martinussen, M., Rosenvinge, J., Hjemdal, O.: Resilience in relation to personality and intelligence. Int. J. Methods Psychiatr. Res. 14(1), 29–42 (2005) García, M.: Análisis Causal con Ecuaciones. Tesis Doctoral, Santiago de Compostela (2011) Hair, J.R., Tatham, R., Anderson, R., Black, W.: Análise Multivariada de Dados (Em Portuguese do Brasil), 5th edn. Bookman, Porto Alegre (2005)

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Hjemdal, O., Friborg, O., Martinussen, M., Rosenvinge, J.H.: Preliminary results from the development and validation of a Norwegian scale for measuring adult resilience. J. Nor-Wegian Psychol. Assoc. 38(1), 310–317 (2001) Hjemdal, O., Friborg, O., Braun, S., Kempenaers, C., Linkowski, P., Fossion, P.: The resilience scale for adults: construct validity and measurement in a belgian sample. Int. J. Test. 11(1), 53–70 (2011) Hjemdal, O., Friborg, O., Stiles, T., Rosenvinge, J.: Resilience predicting psychiatric symptomA prospective study of protective factors and their role in adjustment to stressful life events. Clin. Psychol. Psychother. 13(3), 194–201 (2006) Holguin, J., Rodríguez, M.: Proactividad y resiliencia en estudiantes emprendedores de Lima. Propósitos y Representaciones 8(2), 1–15 (2020) Holling, C.: Resilience and stability of ecological systems. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 4(1), 1–23 (1973) Höltge, J., et al.: Cross-country network analysis of adolescent resilience. J. Adolesc. Health 68(3), 580–588 (2021) IESLAC: COVID-19 y educación superior: De los efectos inmediatos al día después, pp. 1–57. IESLAC (2020) Killgore, W.D.S., Cloonan, S.A., Taylor, E.C., Dailey, N.S.: Loneliness: A signature mental health concern in the era of COVID-19. Psychiatry Res. 290, 113117 (2020) Killgore, W.D.S., Taylor, E.C., Cloonan, S.A., Dailey, N.S.: Psychological resilience during the COVID-19 lockdown. Psychiatry Res. 291, 113216 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres. 2020.113216 Kline, R.: Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling, 3rd edn. The Guilford Press, New York (2011) Lara, A.: Introducción a la Ecuaciones Estructurales en AMOS y R. Universidad de Granada (2014) Liao, S.-Y., Rose, A.: Modeling regional economic resilience to disasters: a computable general equilibrium analysis of water service disruptions. J. Reg. Sci. 45(1), 75–112 (2005) Lloret, S., Ferreres, A., Hernández, A., Tomás, I.: Exploratory item factor analysis: a practical guide revised and updated. Ann. Psychol. 30(3), 1151–1169 (2014) Loewenthal, K.: An Introduction to Psychological Tests and Scales, 1st edn. UCL Press Limited, Waghington (1996) Luthar, S.: Resilience in development: a synthesis of research across five decades. Dev. Psychopathol.: Risk Disord. Adapt. 3(1), 739–795 (2006) Marín, J.: Manual de SPSS 11.5 para Windows. Murcia (2003) Maroco, J.: Análise de Equações Estruturais: Fundamentos teóricos, Software & Aplicações.: Report Number, Lda, 1st edn., Pêro Pinheiro (2010) Morote, R., Hjemdal, O., Uribe, P., Corveleyn, J.: Psychometric properties of the Resilience Scale for Adults (RSA) and its relationship with life-stress, anxiety and depression in a Hispanic Latin-American community sample. PLOS One 12(11), e0187954 (2017). https://doi.org/10. 1371/journal.pone.0187954 Nunnally, J., Bernstein, I.: Psychometric Theory, 3rd edn. McGraw-Hill, New York (1994) Phillips, S., Auais, M., Belanger, E., Alvarado, B., Zunzunegui, M.: Life-course social and economic circumstances, gender, and resilience in older adults: The longitudinal International Mobility in Aging Study (IMIAS). SSM – Population Health, pp. 708–717 (2016) Pidgeon, A.M., Rowe, N.F., Stapleton, P., Magyar, H.B., Lo, B.C.Y.: Examining characteristics of resilience among university students: an international study. Open J. Soc. Sci. 02(11), 14–22 (2014)

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Building a Digital Competences Scale: An Evaluation Experience in Elementary Education Ivan Iraola-Real(B)

, Roxana Zuñiga-Quispe , and Yesbany Cacha-Nuñez

Universidad de Ciencias y Humanidades, Lima 15314, Perú [email protected]

Abstract. The objective of this study was to design and validate a scale for evaluating digital skills for primary school students. The scale has five dimensions organized into subscales that add up to 15 items. A sample of 158 Peruvian primary school students participated (70 males (44.3%) and 88 females (55.7%)). Validity was evaluated with the Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and the KaiserMeyer-Olkin test (KMO) achieving a value of .80 and the Bartlett Sphericity Test was significant (χ 2 = 843.610, gl = 105, p < .001). In the reliability analysis, the information and information literacy subscale obtained a Cronbach’s Alpha coefficient of .79, communication and collaboration of .68, digital content creation of .72, security of .62 and resolution of technological problems of .75. Allowing concluding that the scale is valid and reliable. Keywords: Digital skills · Virtual learning · Primary education · Information technology

1 Introduction In the current context, the Covid-19 pandemic generated the urgency of an accelerated transition towards virtual education; in which, teachers have faced new problems that have demanded timely actions and decisions [1]. Among these actions are those related to the development of digital skills, which have led to the obsolescence of classic skills in all social areas such as economic or political; and in particular, educational [2]. In addition, in the educational field, this urgency to develop digital skills has been the same in teachers and students as a way of adapting to virtual education. All this happened because with the Covid-19 pandemic, 166 countries that closed their schools (on March 30, 2020) leaving 87% of the student population (1.520 million students) and teachers (63 million) affected by the pandemic. Which finally forced the implementation of virtual education, revealing social inequalities at the economic level (availability of resources) and digital skills in teachers and students [3]. This new educational context has demanded the need for teachers to adapt their teaching methodologies in relation to their own technological needs and those of the students [1]. Generating work overload by having to teach not only the curricular contents but also be a digital educator of the student group. Those who are considered as “digital © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Botto-Tobar et al. (Eds.): CIT 2021, LNNS 406, pp. 161–172, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9_12

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natives” [4], it is very possible that they do not have a complete command of the use of all digital tools that are for pedagogical purposes. Moreover, mainly in Latin America, taking into account that primary education teachers are considered as professionals with greater work overload and stress; that it is not compensated with the low salary they receive [5]. It is urgent that the teacher can have a diagnosis of the digital skills that students have to facilitate their work or request support. 1.1 Virtual Education and Digital Competences The Covid-19 pandemic demands the need to master digital skills and various technologies [1]. In addition, it is necessary to bear in mind that mastering Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) in educational contexts is necessary; but not enough because mastery of the digital world is necessary for efficient performance in life [6]. Nevertheless, specifically in the educational context, the pandemic represents a current modality of distance education in which teachers and students make use of ICT to guarantee the achievement of learning [7]. Moreover, this is achieved by implementing the invested classroom methodology (Flipp Classroom) in which, by fostering a flexible environment, a culture of autonomous learning is promoted [8]. However, with the massive use of digital platforms to develop learning sessions such as the Moodle [9] or Classroom [10] platform; which are complemented by videoconferences developed with Zoom [11] or Google Meet [12]; students and teachers are required to possess the digital skills necessary for the installation and efficient use of these digital resources. Nevertheless, in this context, a question arises: Do students possess the necessary digital skills to be able to participate adequately in virtual education? For this, it is necessary to reflect on what is understood by digital skills and what students must learn to be competent in the digital world. Digital competences are skills for the proper use of ICT [1]. In addition to involving knowledge, creative, communicative and decisive capacity for the use of software and hardware [13]. In addition, in the educational field, they allow the development of attitudes, knowledge and procedures to use and communicate digital knowledge [14]. What, in the context of virtual education allows the student to insert himself in a different and novel way of learning by accessing information that favors his cognitive development [15]. 1.2 Assess Digital Competences in Education Taking into account that elementary education teachers are the professionals with the greatest workload [5], it is necessary to facilitate their work by carrying out diagnostic evaluations to students on the mastery of ICT for education, and thus identify those who need more support and including deciding learning methodologies that favor the digital learning of students. This would be of great support because in the current context of the Covid-19 health emergency, the Ministry of Education of Peru (in Spanish Ministerio de Educación del Perú) guides the teaching work in order to guarantee compliance with the National Basic Education Curriculum (CNEB) (in Spanish Currículo Nacional de Educación Básica Regular), strengthening the digital skills supported by the media [16]. An example of this is the “I learn at home” program (in Spanish “Aprendo en Casa”); also spread virtually by internet accounts [17].

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However, the question is, what digital skills should learners develop in order to participate efficiently in virtual education? On the other hand, what digital skills must be diagnosed for students to participate and achieve learning in virtual education? To answer this question, it is pertinent to raise digital skills that guarantee the use of ICT, participation in learning sessions and solving technological problems with the safety of students. Among these competences, the following competencies can be mentioned: First, the information management and information literacy competency, which refers to mastering digital language and concepts. Second, the communication and collaboration competence, which will allow the student to carry out collective activities and communicate with the teacher. Third, the digital content creation competition that consists of translating your ideas and proposals into digital products. Fourth, security competence, which allows us to protect personal information and technological equipment. Fifth, the competence of solving technological problems, which involve the ability to solve problems in the face of software and hardware [13]. 1.3 Need to Assess Digital Competences in Peruvian Elementary Education It is important for teachers to bear in mind that in the virtual teaching process in the context of Covid-19 they must make decisions and make adaptations to their teaching methodologies [1]. Nevertheless, at the same time that they take into account their own mastery of technological strategies and skills to be able to provide an adequate educational service; as well as understanding the needs of students [3]. It is in the face of these needs in the context of virtuality in the pandemic that the Ministry of Education of Peru (in Spanish Ministerio de Educación del Perú) implemented guides to guide teachers in the teaching processes and achieve the skills proposed for basic education [16]. However, it is important to mention that the “I learn at home” program (in Spanish “Aprendo en Casa”) [17] does not require all the digital skills previously mentioned [13], these, in their entirety, are necessary for development of virtual classes in schools. Given this, it is necessary to mention that teachers need to carry out digital teaching processes to students, and to mothers and fathers so that they can support students during the educational process, monitor the achievements of their children and to establish communication with the school. This work is urgent to be carried out in primary education. And the reason is because although it is true, children have been classified as “digital natives” [4]; In the Peruvian context, it has been possible to identify that students have skills to handle digital resources associated with fun and social networks; however, knowledge is not appreciated, much less mastery of digital tools for learning. It is in this case that students of basic education and in particular those of primary education show difficulties in the aforementioned digital competences; mainly in the security competition. This competence makes mention of the reservation of the information of their personal life and the handling of their data in the digital environment [13]. However, the need to educate them to take care of their personal life is appreciated, as well as to guide parents to monitor their children in this regard. Thus, it is necessary to add to the National Basic Education Curriculum (CNEB) (in Spanish Currículo Nacional de Educación Básica Regular), strengthening the digital skills supported by the media [16], a set of digital competences that can be evaluated

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at the beginning of each school year, and can be developed in a transversal way with activities in the learning sessions. It is for these reasons that the following is proposed (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1. Proposal to integrate digital skills to the transversal skills of the Ministry of Education of Peru.

The proposal is to integrate digital competences (information management and information literacy, communication and collaboration, competence, digital content creation, security competence, and solving technological problems) [13], to the transversal competences “performed in virtual environments generated by ICT”, and “manage your learning autonomously”, both proposed by the Ministry of Education of Peru [16]. The intention is that digital competences are a specification that can optimize educational management and can help teachers to execute their learning sessions. Activities in which it is necessary to have validated instruments to assess the level of understanding and use of technology in elementary school students. Taking into account these competences and the needs of teachers and students for the adequate participation of virtual education, the objective of this research is to design and validate a scale for evaluating digital skills for primary school students in schools in Lima - Peru.

2 Methodology The present study is oriented under the quantitative research approach [18], specifically assuming the methodology of evaluative research [19].

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2.1 Participants Through a non-probabilistic sampling procedure [20] 158 primary education students (70 males (44.3%) and 88 females (55.7%) were selected. Of them 90 (57%) were in the fifth grade of primary education and 68 were of sixth grade (43%). All participants studied in private schools in Lima Peru. 2.2 Instrument Scale of Digital Competences for Students of Primary Education [21]. It is a multifactorial scale that has 15 items with 5 response options on the likert scale (1 “Never” - 5 “Always”). It has 5 dimensions built considering the competences of information and information literacy, communication and collaboration, digital content creation, security and technological problem solving [13]. According to Streiner’s [22] criteria, each dimension has a minimum of 3 items in order to achieve the basic levels of reliability. In a previous study with a sample of 40 Peruvian students, adequate levels of factor validity were confirmed in the Kaiser Meyer and Olkin (KMO) sample adjustment test with a value of .74 and the Bartlett Sphericity Test significant (χ2 = 414.056, df = 105, p < .001); and with an internal consistency coefficient of Cronbach’s Alpha of .90; proving to be reliable.

3 Results 3.1 Analysis of Validity The validity of the scale was evaluated with the Exploratory Factor Analysis (EFA) and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin sample adjustment test (KMO = .80) and the Bartlett Sphericity Test was significant (χ 2 = 843.610, gl = 105, p < .001) (see Table 1). For the scale to be considered valid, the KMO value must be greater than or equal to .50 and the significance value must be p < .05 [23], it can be determined that the Technological Training Assessment Scale is valid. Table 1. Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin sample adjustment test KMO and Bartlett test Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin sample adjustment test Bartlett Sphericity test

X2

.800 843.610

df

105

Sig

.000

Then, to confirm that the scale is multifactorial, the Eigen eigenvalues were analyzed with the Cattell Sedimentation Graph (Scree Plot) (Fig. 2); which confirms four dimensions or factors with eigenvalues greater than 1.

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Fig. 2. The Scree Plot confirms the presence of five dimensions.

The Cattell Sedimentation Graph (Scree Plot) confirms that the scale is multifactorial. Nevertheless, when analyzing the Eigenvalues, it is possible to identify that the items are grouped into four dimensions with eigenvalues greater than 1. The first five rows of Table 2 show the correspondence of the Eigenvalues with the five components corresponding to the digital competences that group the items. Although there are four factors with Eigenvalues greater than 1 and the scale is 5 dimensions, it is appreciated that the fifth dimension shows a value close to the number 1 (Eigenvalue = .957) which could show the presence of 5 factors. However, regarding this analysis it is important to mention that for future studies the validity can be evaluated with the statistical procedure of exploratory factor analysis (EFA) with the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences software (SPSS) [24] and complemented with confirmatory factor analysis (CFA).

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Table 2. Factors according to the eigenvalues Total variance explained Component Initial eigenvalues

Total

Sums of loads squared from extraction

% de % Total variance accumulated

Sums of loads squared of the rotationa

% de % Total variance accumulated

1

6,539 43,593

43,593

6,539 43,593

43,593

6,087

2

2,090 13,934

57,527

2,090 13,934

57,527

2,928

3

1,266 8,443

65,969

1,266

8,443

65,969

3,002

4

1,180 7,864

73,833

1,180

7,864

73,833

2,197

5

,957

6,383

80,216

6

,743

4,951

85,167

7

,616

4,107

89,274

8

,481

3,209

92,483

9

,330

2,202

94,685

10

,238

1,584

96,269

11

,187

1,247

97,516

12

,148

,989

98,505

13

,090

,601

99,106

14

,071

,471

99,577

15

,063

,423

100,000

Extraction method: principal component analysis.

3.2 Analysis of Reliability The reliability analysis was performed with Cronbach’s alpha coefficient, expecting that the values are greater than .70 (or .60 for social sciences) for the scale to be considered reliable [25]; as well as, the corrected total item correlation is greater than or equal to .30 for each item [23]. Table 3 shows that the “Information and information literacy” subscale has a reliability coefficient of .79 and the total item correlation between .45 to .85.

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Dimension: information Total correlation of and information literacy elements corrected

Cronbach’s alpha if the item has been deleted

Cronbach’s alpha of the subscale

1. I have learned to efficiently select suitable internet pages for my schoolwork.

.45

.89

.79

2. I make efficient use .85 of the drive to be able to store information.

.48

3. I am able to recover deleted files or recover information related to my tasks.

.66

.71

Then, in Table 4 it is observed that the sub-scale of “Communication and collaboration” obtained a reliability coefficient of .68, and the values of the item-total correlations ranged from .34 to .38; thus evidencing optimal levels of reliability. Table 4. Reliability analysis (Cronbach’s alpha – item – total) Dimension: communication and collaboration

Total correlation of elements corrected

Cronbach’s alpha if the item has been deleted

Cronbach’s alpha of the subscale

4. I communicate in an agile way with my teacher through the classroom.

.38

.55

.68

5. I communicate appropriately with my teacher through WhatsApp.

.34

.56

6. I can use digital tools .34 to work in teams with my classmates.

.56

Table 5 shows that the “Digital content creation” subscale has a reliability coefficient of .72, in addition, the values of the item-total correlations range from .48 to .60; evidencing being reliable.

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Table 5. Reliability analysis (Cronbach’s alpha – item – total) Dimension: digital content creation

Total correlation of elements corrected

Cronbach’s alpha if the item has been deleted

Cronbach’s alpha of the subscale

7. I feel able to create concept maps with digital tools.

.54

.63

.72

8. I can type math exercises using digital tools.

.60

.56

9. I have managed to create content through videos or audios when doing my homework.

.48

.70

Then, Table 6 shows that the “Safety” subscale has a reliability coefficient of .62, in addition, and in the item-total correlation, it ranges from .30 to .57; evidencing being reliable. Table 6. Reliability analysis (Cronbach’s alpha – item – total) Dimension: safety

Total correlation of elements corrected

Cronbach’s alpha if the item has been deleted

Cronbach’s alpha of the subscale

10. I have managed to protect files and documents by updating antivirus.

.46

.53

.62

11. When I use the internet I can protect the information of my family and friends.

.57

.47

12. I manage my time on the internet responsibly to do my homework.

.30

.65

In addition, Table 7 shows that the “Problem solving” subscale achieved a reliability coefficient of .75, and in the item-total correlation it achieved values of .42 to .73; evidencing optimal levels of reliability.

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Dimension: problem solving

Total correlation of elements corrected

Cronbach’s alpha if the item has been deleted

Cronbach’s alpha of the subscale

13. I can update software on my home computer.

.73

.47

.75

14. It is easy for me to share files over the internet (drive, etc.).

.62

.63

15. I can solve problems .42 connecting printers, microphones, cameras, speakers or other equipment.

.86

Finally, when confirming the reliability levels of each subscale, the analysis of the full scale showed a reliability coefficient of Cronbach’s Alpha of .90; demonstrating acceptable results for future research.

4 Discussion The purpose of this study was to design and validate a scale for evaluating digital competences for primary school students from schools in Lima – Peru. The construction of the scale is based on the need to be able to respond to the accelerated processes of adaptation of students to virtual education in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic [3]. In this way, contribute to the primary education teaching population that has had a work overload for decades [5], and this scale could be helpful in identifying students with progress or deficiencies in digital skills. The scale was constructed considering the digital competences proposed by Tourón and his collaborators [13] because they consider both a level of knowledge of ICT and practical skills to solve problems (which is considered necessary in primary school students). According to the validity analysis, the Digital Competences Scale for Primary Education Students [21] responded satisfactorily with optimal values [23], thus confirming that the scale is multifactorial according to the five digital competences studied. Although the scale shows optimal levels of validity, it is prudent to consider that it was constructed in a context in which the students had learned the use of ICT; and perhaps that has favored the level of validity. In addition, regarding the internal consistency analysis with the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient and the total item correlation, the scale showed that the five dimensions and the general scale have adequate values to consider it reliable [25]. Even despite having the basic minimum of three items [22], the scale achieved adequate levels of reliability; which allows us to affirm that it can be applied (and of course revalidated) in future studies.

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5 Conclusions and Future Works Finally, it can be concluded that the Scale of Digital Competences for Students of Primary Education proves to be valid and reliable for future research in the educational environment. However, given the presence of few items per dimension, it is intended to test the application with new reagents per dimension in order to reduce reliability risks. It is also important to mention that the validation of the scale could be carried out by applying other statistical software such as Amos and carrying out validation studies by retesting to obtain better results. In addition, given the need to confirm its validity in other contexts as a research team, it is intended to apply it in research with larger samples, at other educational levels and with other study variables. According to the context of the Covid 19 pandemic, it is assumed that the virtual education processes will remain totally or partially in the teaching processes, demanding the need to evaluate students and teachers (and also parents) in terms of mastering digital skills in order to implement digital literacy measures and adaptation of the teaching methodology. An alternative option is to create a scale for the evaluation of digital competences that is aimed at estimating the level of knowledge and use of educational digital tools aimed at mothers and fathers. The purpose is that the items are aimed at evaluating the knowledge and use of well-known platforms in the educational environment, open access databases, virtual libraries, identification of reliable bibliography, maintenance of computer equipment, etc. Thus, from home, parents would provide a better contribution to the educational process.

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Virtual Activities to Strengthen Basic Math Skills in Children Yesenia Quinga1(B)

, Nancy Pilataxi1 , Verónica Carvajal1 and Mauro Ocaña1,2

,

1 Universidad de las Fuerzas Armadas ESPE, Sangolquí, Ecuador

{ybquinga,nypilataxi,vacarvajal1,mhocana}@espe.edu.ec 2 Universidad Técnica de Manabí, Portoviejo, Ecuador

Abstract. This article presents the results obtained from an investigation carried out in Ecuador during the COVID 19 pandemic to determine how the use of virtual activities strengthens basic mathematical skills in children aged four to five years old. A quantitative study was carried out with sixty-one children who were assessed using the Early Mathematical Assessment Test (EMAT), in its Spanish version, to indicate the level of mathematical skills of the participants before and after the course. We used Moodle for the delivery of the virtual activities and synchronous sessions over a 4-week period. Results obtained were positive after participation in the Basic Mathematical Skills (BMS) course. There was an increase in the scores of the posttest compared to the pre-test, in the concepts of comparison, classification, seriation and correspondence in all age groups. Regarding activities in the platform, seriation and classification were the math skill that stood out. In contrast, comparison was the least developed math skill. Additionally, the development of math skills in virtual environments seemed to be influenced by student age. Finally, it can be added that virtual platforms help to generate better performance in the classroom and can be used as a complement to educational programs for a better learning. Keywords: Virtual activities · Mathematical skills · Early education · ICTs · Online learning

1 Introduction One of the greatest challenges within the educational system is the development of basic mathematical skills [1]. It is believed that children from four to seven years old have difficulties in learning them [2], generally as a consequence of a low or poor competence in initial training. Mathematical difficulties can be presented in initial ages and in later stages of development [3, 4]. Thus, it is in the first years of cognitive development that the child acquires skills which are the basis for more complex and significant learning [5–7]. Further, the implementation of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs) could support and encourage students to learn mathematics in a new way [8, 9]. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 M. Botto-Tobar et al. (Eds.): CIT 2021, LNNS 406, pp. 173–185, 2022. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-96046-9_13

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ICTs can offer a wide range of possibilities to aid learning which can go from social networks [10] to technological tools as a means to migrate plausibly to more flexible forms of instruction in times of crisis [11]. Likewise, virtual education platforms have become part of our daily lives, generating new challenges and opportunities compared to traditional education [12, 13]. Virtual educational platforms with interactive content may be an effective means to develop skills in the field of education. According to a study by Sabirova et al., (2019) on educational platforms for children in the teaching of mathematics, it was shown that digital media can mostly fill blank spaces in the knowledge and development of the student’s skills [14]. Similarly, Outhwaite et al., (2019) conducted a study on increasing early mathematics performance with interactive applications. They considered that the applications centered in children offer the opportunity to develop a solid foundation in the learning of mathematics besides providing personalized training, fact supports and basic concepts of mathematical reasoning [15]. Further, it is necessary to point out that the teacher or tutor must have prior knowledge about the virtual educational platforms that they are going to use in the teaching-learning process to contribute significantly to education [16–18]. A study based on interactive learning by Fernández-Abella et al., (2019), found that improvements in math skills and working memory are possibly attributed to the structure and content of the activities designed in a platform. Therefore, the objectives stated in the design of learning activities are important regardless the platform used [19]. Thus, Papadakis, S., and Kalogiannakis, M. (2017) in their study about mobile educational applications for children. Currently, it is expected that the use of ICTs helps to improve the performance of mathematical skills. However, it is unclear the connection of some theoretical concepts with the development of math skills in an online environment. For this reason, concepts derived from Piaget’s theory were used in the present study. Basically, we will refer to the four stages of development (motor sensory, preoperational, concrete operations and formal operations) and specifically to children between four and five years old who are in the preoperational stage [21]. There are certain important principles in these stages such as organization, which integrates simple mental schemes of more complex systems, and the adaptation principle, which is the ability to adjust their mental structures with the demands of the environment [22–24]. These principles allow the child to acquire more complex knowledge such as mathematical skills. Piaget (1968) as cited in [21] affirms that children who are in the preoperational stage should be able to develop the four mathematical skills: 1) classification (consists of grouping objects based on some characteristic). 2) Seriation, (ability to order objects according to a certain common criterion) 3) Correspondence, (ability to establish relations of equality between an object and another). 4) Comparison, (ability to establish relations of similarity or difference, under a specific criterion). Possibly these skills can condition the development of mathematics [4], also allowing for the development of reasoning, the acquisition of language, science, and technology [25]. In Ecuador, within the learning axes, in the natural and cultural discovery, there is the field of mathematical logical relations, where it is intended to develop the cognitive processes in which the child explores, understands his environment and acts on it to

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enhance the aspects of the thought [26]. In the same way, it is important the proper development of basic mathematical skills in everyday situations [27, 28]. An important component in the academic failure of students is that the basic mathematical skills are not developed adequately during early childhood [29]. These are considered as the main foundations in the teaching of children. So, in this period, the experiences that are established with the environment influence not only the way of constructing identity, but also how the brain is structured and functions [30]. Consequently, learning mathematical concepts can be easier using ICTs as mentioned by Oktavianingsih and Fahuzan (2018) in their research. Their results suggested that the illustrative game improved the understanding of the concept of numbers in the study population [31]. Further research [32, 33] found a positive relation between the insertion of ICTs in education and mathematical performance in students. The use of ICTs presents an innovative way to improve the teaching and learning of mathematics since they help students to expand their intellectual capacities [34–36]. They are useful to a great extent in all educational stages. That is why, UNESCO promotes the use of Open education resources OER, these can be created, adapted, used, reused [37, 38] and virtual educational environments produce in the child greater motivation, autonomy, creativity, and innovation [39–41] allowing to give fun and education at the same time [42, 43]. Improvements in various learning processes are often attributed to the inclusion of technologies [44] such that virtual programs can be implemented in early childhood educational centers [19] since it is intended to improve the quality of education in a bidirectional way [45, 46]. In general, when initiating the inclusion of technologies, it often generates resistance [47] but later, in most cases, positive results are found, in this way, the need to integrate ICTs as a basis for educational improvement and innovation is evidenced because there are great educational potentialities [48, 49]. However, research by Bulut & Cutumisu (2017) found that ICTs negatively predicts mathematics and science achievement for Finnish and Turkish students in PISA 2012. They found negative results when implementing technology in education since students performed poorly [50]. For this reason, to determine if the use of virtual activities strengthens basic mathematical skills in children between four and five years old, the following questions were raised: How does the use of virtual activities help in strengthening mathematical skills? What kind of virtual activities are appropriate to work on these skills with children between four and five years old? Can ICTs mediation help strengthen basic math skills in children aged four to five? What are the benefits of using virtual activities?

2 Methodology 2.1 Type of Study This exploratory study used a quantitative approach with descriptive and inferential statistics. Data were collected by following a set of processes through which it was possible to draw general conclusions from the population with a desirable degree of

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reliability from the results obtained [51]. The phases for the development of the project were: pretest, intervention and posttest. To this end, we used a Learning Management System (LMS) containing a virtual classroom segmented by five modules which was created based on a previous planning to support the teaching and learning processes. 2.2 Participants Out of the (n = 71) enrolled participants, 61 were considered for the final analysis as participation in this study was voluntary. Of them, thirty-eight were boys (62.3%) and twenty-three girls (37.7%) in a 4–5 year-old range (Fig. 1). The convenience sampling (a non-probabilistic method) was used, since the course was disseminated through social networks. Only those participants who were available and interested were registered in the course. An informed consent signed by the children’ parents was also provided.

Fig. 1. Sociodemographic data of the participants

2.3 Instruments The instrument used was the Early Mathematical Assessment Test (EMAT) in its Spanish version. It was used at the beginning and at the end of the Basic Mathematical Skills (BMS) course, to know the Mathematical skill levels of the children. Eight concepts of early mathematical knowledge were evaluated: comparison, classification, one-toone correspondence, seriation, counting (verbal, structured, and resultant), and general number knowledge. These concepts, which are evaluated in children between four and seven years old, are aligned with a Piagetian and psychological approach [52]. It is applied individually in approximately thirty minutes. First, we proceeded to validate the instruments in this study with the sample population (n = 61). We obtained a Cronbach’s α value of 0.70 for the pretest and 0.75 for the posttest. These values can be considered as acceptable in the measurement of internal validity of the instruments used. Adaptations were made due to the Covid 19 pandemic through software that allowed for the adjustment of the EMAT. These procedured yielded preliminary data that later allowed obtaining statistics and knowing the math skill level of each child. The platform used for the intervention phase contained a course with five modules (Astronaut Factory, Playing I learn, Locometry, Mind and Compalaxia). The activities

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embedded in each module were directed to strengthen basic mathematical skills. The design of activities was based on the concepts assessed by the EMAT as well as those derived from the Piagetian theory. Special attention was given to the skills of comparison, classification, seriation, and correspondence as shown in Fig. 2. For these skills are the basis for the acquisition of new mathematical learning. Additionally, the Zoom platform was used to reinforce skills through synchronous classes.

Fig. 2. Mathematical skills worked on in the investigation together with the skills evaluated in the EMAT and skills with a Piagetian approach.

2.4 Procedure For the creation of the BMS course, we previously planned activities considering the literature in relation to mathematical skills in children between four and five years old. Initially, a meeting was held with the parents of the enrolled children to let them know the objectives as well as the methods and instruments to be used. Informed consent was previously sent to the parents, a document that explained the objectives, methodology of the course, scope of the research, management of the platform and the rigorousness of the research work. Once the consent of the legal representatives was obtained, the children’s math skills were evaluated by means of a pretest with the EMAT. For the delivery of this instrument, the Word Wall platform was used, due to the ease in obtaining data. The synchronous activities were carried out in ten sessions over a six-week period in morning and afternoon shifts. Each session had a 45 min-length in which mathematical skills were reinforced. Subsequently, the participants completed the activities proposed on the platform since they were designed sequentially. At the end of the BMS course on the platform, the math skill level of the participants was evaluated again, through the EMAT post-test. Later, the Wilcoxon test allowed us to determine if there was a significant change in the pre-test and post-test scores.

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2.5 Statistical Analysis Data analysis was performed using descriptive statistics through Excel. The quantitative results of the pre-test and post-test were compared to verify the progress of the math skill level as well as the results of learning activities obtained from the online platform. On the other hand, the SPSS program was used for the analysis of inferential statistics where quantitative data were used. Using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, the difference between the pretest and the posttest was 0.002, which indicated that the distribution was not normal. For this reason, the non-parametric Wilcoxon test was used, where the level of significance was