Elementary surveying: an introduction to geomatics [Fourteenth edition ; Global edition] 9780133758887, 1292060492, 9781292060491, 9781292060675, 0133758885

Table of contents :
Cover......Page 1
Table of Contents......Page 4
Preface......Page 20
What's New......Page 21
Acknowledgments......Page 22
1.1 Definition of Surveying......Page 24
1.2 Geomatics......Page 26
1.3 History of Surveying......Page 27
1.4 Geodetic and Plane Surveys......Page 31
1.5 Importance of Surveying......Page 32
1.6 Specialized Types of Surveys......Page 33
1.7 Surveying Safety......Page 35
1.8 Land and Geographic Information Systems......Page 36
1.9 Federal Surveying and Mapping Agencies......Page 37
1.10 The Surveying Profession......Page 38
1.11 Professional Surveying Organizations......Page 39
1.13 Future Challenges in Surveying......Page 40
Bibliography......Page 42
2.2 Units of Measurement......Page 44
2.3 International System of Units (SI)......Page 46
2.4 Significant Figures......Page 48
2.5 Rounding Off Numbers......Page 50
2.6 Field Notes......Page 51
2.7 General Requirements of Handwritten Field Notes......Page 52
2.8 Types of Field Books......Page 53
2.10 Arrangements of Notes......Page 54
2.11 Suggestions for Recording Notes......Page 55
2.12 Introduction to Survey Controllers......Page 57
2.14 Digital Data File Management......Page 61
2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of Survey Controllers......Page 63
Problems......Page 64
Bibliography......Page 65
3.2 Direct and Indirect Observations......Page 66
3.4 Mistakes......Page 67
3.6 Types of Errors......Page 68
3.7 Precision and Accuracy......Page 69
3.9 Probability......Page 70
3.10 Most Probable Value......Page 71
3.12 Occurrence of Random Errors......Page 72
3.13 General Laws of Probability......Page 76
3.14 Measures of Precision......Page 77
3.16 The 50, 90, and 95 Percent Errors......Page 79
3.17.1 Error of a Sum......Page 81
3.17.2 Error of a Series......Page 82
3.17.3 Error of a Products......Page 84
3.17.4 Error of the Mean......Page 85
3.19 Conditional Adjustment of Observations......Page 86
3.20 Weights of Observations......Page 87
3.21 Least-Squares Adjustment......Page 88
Problems......Page 89
Bibliography......Page 91
4.2 Definitions......Page 92
4.3 North American Vertical Datum......Page 94
4.4 Curvature and Refraction......Page 95
4.5.2 Differential Leveling......Page 97
4.5.3 Barometric Leveling......Page 99
4.5.4 Trigonometric Leveling......Page 100
4.6 Categories of Levels......Page 104
4.7 Telescopes......Page 105
4.8 Level Vials......Page 106
4.9 Tilting Levels......Page 108
4.10 Automatic Levels......Page 109
4.11 Digital Levels......Page 111
4.13 Hand Level......Page 112
4.14 Level Rods......Page 113
4.15 Testing and Adjusting Levels......Page 115
4.15.3 Testing and Adjusting Level Vials......Page 116
4.15.5 Testing and Adjusting the Line of Sight......Page 117
Problems......Page 120
Bibliography......Page 121
5.2 Carrying and Setting Up a Level......Page 122
5.3 Duties of a Rodperson......Page 124
5.4 Differential Leveling......Page 125
5.5 Precision......Page 131
5.6 Adjustments of Simple Level Circuits......Page 133
5.7 Reciprocal Leveling......Page 134
5.8 Three-Wire Leveling......Page 135
5.9.1 Staking and Stationing the Reference Line......Page 136
5.9.2 Field Procedures for Profile Leveling......Page 137
5.9.3 Drawing and Using the Profile......Page 139
5.12.1 Instrumental Errors......Page 141
5.12.2 Natural Errors......Page 142
5.12.3 Personal Errors......Page 143
5.13 Mistakes......Page 144
5.15 Using Software......Page 145
Problems......Page 146
Bibliography......Page 149
6.2 Summary of Methods for Making Linear Measurements......Page 150
6.4 Odometer Readings......Page 151
6.8 Introduction to Taping......Page 152
6.9 Taping Equipment and Accessories......Page 153
6.10 Care of Taping Equipment......Page 154
6.11.4 Marking Tape Lengths......Page 155
6.11.5 Reading the Tape......Page 156
6.12 Horizontal Measurements on Sloping Ground......Page 157
6.13 Slope Measurements......Page 158
6.14.1 Incorrect Length of Tape......Page 160
6.14.3 Inconsistent Pull......Page 161
6.14.4 Sag......Page 162
6.14.7 Faulty Marking......Page 163
6.15 Introduction......Page 164
6.16 Propagation of Electromagnetic Energy......Page 165
6.17 Principles of Electronic Distance Measurement......Page 168
6.18 Electro-Optical Instruments......Page 170
6.19 Total Station Instruments......Page 172
6.20 EDM Instruments Without Reflectors......Page 173
6.21.1 Reduction of Short Lines by Elevation Differences......Page 174
6.21.2 Reduction of Short Lines by Vertical Angles......Page 175
6.22.1 Personal Errors......Page 176
6.22.2 Instrumental Errors......Page 178
6.22.3 Natural Errors......Page 180
6.23 Using Software......Page 181
Problems......Page 182
Bibliography......Page 183
7.2 Units of Angle Measurement......Page 184
7.3 Kinds of Horizontal Angles......Page 185
7.5 Azimuths......Page 187
7.6 Bearings......Page 188
7.7 Comparison of Azimuths and Bearings......Page 189
7.8 Computing Azimuths......Page 191
7.9 Computing Bearings......Page 193
7.10 The Compass and the Earth's Magnetic Field......Page 194
7.11 Magnetic Declination......Page 196
7.13 Software for Determining Magnetic Declination......Page 198
7.15 Typical Magnetic Declination Problems......Page 200
7.16 Mistakes......Page 202
Problems......Page 203
Bibliography......Page 205
8.2 Characteristics of Total Station Instruments......Page 206
8.3 Functions Performed by Total Station Instruments......Page 209
8.4 Parts of a Total Station Instrument......Page 210
8.5 Handling and Setting up a Total Station Instrument......Page 213
8.6 Servo-Driven and Remotely Operated Total Station Instruments......Page 216
8.7 Relationship of Angles and Distances......Page 218
8.8 Observing Horizontal Angles with Total Station Instruments......Page 219
8.9 Observing Multiple Horizontal Angles by the Direction Method......Page 221
8.10 Closing the Horizon......Page 223
8.11 Observing Deflection Angles......Page 224
8.12 Observing Azimuths......Page 225
8.13 Observing Vertical Angles......Page 226
8.14 Sights and Marks......Page 228
8.15 Prolonging a Straight Line......Page 229
8.16 Balancing-In......Page 230
8.17 Random Traverse......Page 231
8.18 Total Stations for Determining Elevation Differences......Page 232
8.19 Adjustment of Total Station Instruments and Their Accessories......Page 233
8.19.1 Adjustment of Plate-Level Vials......Page 235
8.19.4 Adjustment of Plummets......Page 236
8.20.1 Instrumental Errors......Page 237
8.20.2 Natural Errors......Page 241
8.20.3 Personal Errors......Page 242
8.21 Propagation of Random Errors in Angle Observations......Page 243
Problems......Page 244
Bibliography......Page 246
9.1 Introduction......Page 247
9.2.2 Traversing by Angles to the Right......Page 249
9.3 Observation of Traverse Lengths......Page 250
9.4 Selection of Traverse Stations......Page 251
9.5 Referencing Traverse Stations......Page 252
9.7 Angle Misclosure......Page 253
9.8 Traversing with Total Station Instruments......Page 255
9.9 Radial Traversing......Page 256
Problems......Page 258
10.1 Introduction......Page 260
10.2 Balancing Angles......Page 261
10.3 Computation of Preliminary Azimuths or Bearings......Page 263
10.4 Departures and Latitudes......Page 264
10.6 Traverse Linear Misclosure and Relative Precision......Page 266
10.7 Traverse Adjustment......Page 267
10.7.1 Compass (Bowditch) Rule......Page 268
10.8 Rectangular Coordinates......Page 270
10.9.1 Balancing Angles by Adjusting Azimuths or Bearings......Page 271
10.9.2 Balancing Departures and Latitudes by Adjusting Coordinates......Page 273
10.10 Inversing......Page 275
10.11 Computing Final Adjusted Traverse Lengths and Directions......Page 276
10.12 Coordinate Computations in Boundary Surveys......Page 278
10.13 Use of Open Traverses......Page 280
10.14 State Plane Coordinate Systems......Page 283
10.16 Locating Blunders in Traverse Observations......Page 284
Problems......Page 287
Bibliography......Page 290
11.1 Introduction......Page 291
11.2 Coordinate Forms of Equations for Lines and Circles......Page 292
11.3 Perpendicular Distance from a Point to a Line......Page 294
11.4 Intersection of Two Lines, Both Having Known Directions......Page 296
11.5 Intersection of a Line with a Circle......Page 298
11.6 Intersection of Two Circles......Page 301
11.7 Three-Point Resection......Page 303
11.8 Two-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation......Page 306
11.9 Inaccessible Point Problem......Page 311
11.10 Three-Dimensional Two-Point Resection......Page 313
11.11 Software......Page 316
Problems......Page 317
Bibliography......Page 321
12.2 Methods of Measuring Area......Page 322
12.3 Area by Division into Simple Figures......Page 323
12.4.1 Regularly Spaced Offsets......Page 324
12.4.2 Irregularly Spaced Offsets......Page 325
12.5 Area by Coordinates......Page 326
12.6 Area by Double-Meridian Distance Method......Page 330
12.7 Area of Parcels with Circular Boundaries......Page 333
12.8.1 Trial and Error Method......Page 334
12.8.2 Use of Simple Geometric Figures......Page 336
12.8.3 Coordinate Method......Page 337
12.9.1 Area by Counting Coordinate Squares......Page 338
12.9.4 Area by Planimeter......Page 339
12.10 Software......Page 340
Problems......Page 341
Bibliography......Page 343
13.1 Introduction......Page 344
13.2 Overview of GPS......Page 345
13.3 The GPS Signal......Page 347
13.4.1 The Satellite Reference Coordinate System......Page 350
13.4.2 The Geocentric Coordinate System......Page 351
13.4.3 The Geodetic Coordinate System......Page 352
13.4.4 Evolution of WGS84 Reference Frame......Page 358
13.5.1 Code Ranging......Page 360
13.5.2 Carrier Phase-Shift Measurements......Page 361
13.6.1 Clock Bias......Page 362
13.6.2 Refraction......Page 363
13.6.3 Other Error Sources......Page 365
13.6.4 Geometry of Observed Satellites......Page 368
13.7 Differential Positioning......Page 370
13.8 Kinematic Methods......Page 372
13.9 Relative Positioning......Page 373
13.9.1 Single Differencing......Page 374
13.9.3 Triple Differencing......Page 375
13.10.1 The GLONASS Constellation......Page 376
13.10.4 Summary......Page 378
13.11 The Future......Page 379
Problems......Page 380
Bibliography......Page 381
14.1 Introduction......Page 382
14.2.1 Static Relative Positioning......Page 384
14.2.2 Rapid Static Relative Positioning......Page 385
14.3 Planning Satellite Surveys......Page 386
14.3.1 Preliminary Considerations......Page 387
14.3.2 Selecting the Appropriate Survey Method......Page 390
14.3.3 Field Reconnaissance......Page 391
14.3.4 Developing an Observation Scheme......Page 392
14.3.5 Availability of Reference Stations......Page 395
14.4 Performing Static Surveys......Page 398
14.5 Data Processing and Analysis......Page 399
14.5.1 Specifications for Static Surveys......Page 401
14.5.2 Analysis of Fixed Baseline Measurements......Page 403
14.5.4 Analysis of Loop Closures......Page 404
14.5.6 The Survey Report......Page 406
14.6 Things to Consider......Page 407
14.7 Sources of Errors in Satellite Surveys......Page 409
14.7.2 Natural Errors......Page 410
14.8 Mistakes in Satellite Surveys......Page 411
Problems......Page 412
Bibliography......Page 414
15.1 Introduction......Page 415
15.2 Planning of Kinematic Surveys......Page 416
15.3 Initialization......Page 418
15.4 Equipment Used in Kinematic Surveys......Page 419
15.5 Methods Used in Kinematic Surveys......Page 421
15.6 Performing Post-Processed Kinematic Surveys......Page 424
15.7 Communication in Real-Time Kinematic Surveys......Page 427
15.8 Real-Time Networks......Page 428
15.9 Performing Real-Time Kinematic Surveys......Page 429
15.10 Machine Guidance and Control......Page 431
Problems......Page 434
Bibliography......Page 435
16.1 Introduction......Page 436
16.2 Fundamental Condition of Least Squares......Page 438
16.3 Least-Squares Adjustment by the Observation Equation Method......Page 439
16.4 Matrix Methods in Least-Squares Adjustment......Page 443
16.5 Matrix Equations for Precisions of Adjusted Quantities......Page 445
16.6 Least-Squares Adjustment of Leveling Circuits......Page 447
16.7 Propagation of Errors......Page 451
16.8 Least-Squares Adjustment of GNSS Baseline Vectors......Page 452
16.9.1 Linearizing Nonlinear Equations......Page 458
16.9.2 The Distance Observation Equation......Page 460
16.9.3 The Azimuth Observation Equation......Page 462
16.9.4 The Angle Observation Equation......Page 463
16.9.5 A Traverse Example Using WOLFPACK......Page 465
16.10 The Error Ellipse......Page 467
16.11 Adjustment Procedures......Page 472
16.12 Other Measures of Precision for Horizontal Stations......Page 473
16.14 Conclusions......Page 475
Problems......Page 476
Bibliography......Page 482
17.1 Introduction......Page 483
17.2 Basic Methods for Performing Mapping Surveys......Page 484
17.3 Map Scale......Page 485
17.4 Control for Mapping Surveys......Page 487
17.5 Contours......Page 488
17.6 Characteristics of Contours......Page 490
17.7 Method of Locating Contours......Page 491
17.8 Digital Elevation Models and Automated Contouring Systems......Page 493
17.9 Basic Field Methods for Locating Topographic Details......Page 494
17.9.1 Radiation by Total Station......Page 495
17.9.2 Coordinate Squares or "Grid" Method......Page 497
17.9.3 Offsets from a Reference Line......Page 498
17.9.4 Topographic Detailing with GNSS......Page 500
17.9.5 Laser Scanning......Page 501
17.10 Planning a Laser-Scanning Survey......Page 504
17.11 Three-Dimensional Conformal Coordinate Transformation......Page 506
17.13 Working with Survey Controllers and Field-to-Finish Software......Page 508
17.14.1 Equipment for Making Soundings......Page 511
17.14.2 Locating Soundings......Page 512
17.16 Mistakes in Mapping Surveys......Page 515
Problems......Page 516
Bibliography......Page 517
18.1 Introduction......Page 519
18.2 Availability of Maps and Related Information......Page 520
18.4 Accuracy Standards for Mapping......Page 521
18.5 Manual and Computer-Aided Drafting Procedures......Page 523
18.6 Map Design......Page 524
18.7 Map Layout......Page 526
18.8.2 Plotting Using CADD......Page 528
18.10 Plotting Contours......Page 530
18.11 Lettering......Page 531
18.12 Cartographic Map Elements......Page 532
18.14 Automated Mapping and Computer-Aided Drafting Systems......Page 535
18.15 Migrating Maps between Software Packages......Page 541
18.18 Mistakes in Mapping......Page 542
Problems......Page 543
Bibliography......Page 545
19.1 Introduction......Page 546
19.2 The Ellipsoid and Geoid......Page 547
19.3 The Conventional Terrestrial Pole......Page 549
19.4 Geodetic Position and Ellipsoidal Radii of Curvature......Page 551
19.5 Geoid Undulation and Deflection of the Vertical......Page 553
19.6.1 North American Horizontal Datum of 1927 (NAD27)......Page 555
19.6.3 Later Versions of NAD83......Page 556
19.6.4 National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929 (NGVD29)......Page 558
19.6.5 North American Vertical Datum of 1988 (NAVD88)......Page 559
19.7.1 Helmert Transformation and Its Variant......Page 560
19.7.2 The Two plus One Approach......Page 561
19.8 Accuracy Standards and Specifications for Control Surveys......Page 565
19.10 Hierarchy of the National Horizontal-Control Network......Page 568
19.12 Control Point Descriptions......Page 569
19.13 Field Procedures for Conventional Horizontal-Control Surveys......Page 572
19.13.1 Triangulation......Page 573
19.13.2 Precise Traverse......Page 574
19.13.3 Trilateration......Page 576
19.14 Field Procedures for Vertical-Control Surveys......Page 577
19.15.1 Reduction of Distance Observations Using Elevations......Page 582
19.15.2 Reduction of Distance Observations Using Vertical Angles......Page 585
19.15.3 Reduction of Directions and Angles......Page 588
19.15.4 Leveling and Orthometric Heights......Page 591
19.16.1 Direct Geodetic Problem......Page 595
19.16.2 Inverse Geodetic Problem......Page 596
19.17 The Local Geodetic Coordinate System......Page 598
19.18 Three-Dimensional Coordinate Computations......Page 599
Problems......Page 602
Bibliography......Page 605
20.1 Introduction......Page 606
20.2 Projections Used In State Plane Coordinate Systems......Page 607
20.3 Lambert Conformal Conic Projection......Page 610
20.4 Transverse Mercator Projection......Page 611
20.5 State Plane Coordinates in NAD27 and NAD83......Page 612
20.6.1 Zone Constants......Page 613
20.6.2 The Direct Problem......Page 614
20.6.3 The Inverse Problem......Page 616
20.7 Computing SPCS83 Coordinates in the Transverse Mercator System......Page 618
20.7.2 The Direct Problem......Page 619
20.7.3 The Inverse Problem......Page 622
20.8 Reduction of Distances and Angles to State Plane Coordinate Grids......Page 625
20.8.1 Grid Reduction of Distances......Page 626
20.8.2 Grid Reduction of Azimuths and Angles......Page 629
20.9 Computing State Plane Coordinates of Traverse Stations......Page 634
20.10 Surveys Extending from One Zone to Another......Page 637
20.12 Other Map Projections......Page 639
20.12.1 Oblique Stereographic Map Projection......Page 640
20.13 Map Projection Software......Page 643
Problems......Page 645
Bibliography......Page 648
21.1 Introduction......Page 649
21.2 Categories of Land Surveys......Page 650
21.3 Historical Perspectives......Page 651
21.4 Property Description by Metes and Bounds......Page 652
21.5 Property Description by Block-and-Lot System......Page 655
21.7 Retracement Surveys......Page 657
21.8 Subdivision Surveys......Page 660
21.9 Partitioning Land......Page 662
21.10 Registration of Title......Page 663
21.12 Condominium Surveys......Page 664
21.15 Mistakes......Page 671
Problems......Page 672
Bibliography......Page 674
22.1 Introduction......Page 675
22.2 Instructions for Surveys of the Public Lands......Page 676
22.3 Initial Point......Page 679
22.4 Principal Meridian......Page 680
22.5 Baseline......Page 681
22.7 Guide Meridians......Page 682
22.8 Township Exteriors, Meridional (Range) Lines, and Latitudinal (Township) Lines......Page 683
22.10 Subdivision of a Quadrangle into Townships......Page 684
22.11 Subdivision of a Township into Sections......Page 686
22.12 Subdivision of Sections......Page 687
22.15 Outline of Subdivision Steps......Page 688
22.17 Witness Corners......Page 690
22.19 Lost and Obliterated Corners......Page 691
22.21 Descriptions by Township, Section, and Smaller Subdivision......Page 694
22.22 BLM Land Information System......Page 695
22.24 Mistakes......Page 696
Problems......Page 697
Bibliography......Page 699
23.1 Introduction......Page 700
23.2.1 Visible Laser-Beam Instruments......Page 701
23.2.3 Laser Scanners......Page 703
23.3 Horizontal and Vertical Control......Page 705
23.4 Staking out a Pipeline......Page 706
23.5 Staking Pipeline Grades......Page 707
23.6 Staking out a Building......Page 709
23.7 Staking out Highways......Page 713
23.8 Other Construction Surveys......Page 718
23.9 Construction Surveys Using Total Station Instruments......Page 719
23.10 Construction Surveys Using GNSS Equipment......Page 722
23.11 Machine Guidance and Control......Page 724
23.13 Sources of Error in Construction Surveys......Page 726
Problems......Page 727
Bibliography......Page 728
24.1 Introduction......Page 730
24.2 Degree of Circular Curve......Page 731
24.3 Definitions and Derivation of Circular Curve Formulas......Page 733
24.4 Circular Curve Stationing......Page 735
24.5 General Procedure of Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles......Page 736
24.6 Computing Deflection Angles and Chords......Page 738
24.7 Notes for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords......Page 740
24.8 Detailed Procedures for Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords......Page 741
24.9 Setups on Curve......Page 742
24.10 Metric Circular Curves by Deflection Angles and Incremental Chords......Page 743
24.11 Circular Curve Layout by Deflection Angles and Total Chords......Page 745
24.12 Computation of Coordinates on a Circular Curve......Page 746
24.13 Circular Curve Layout by Coordinates......Page 747
24.14 Curve Stakeout Using GNSS Receivers and Robotic Total Stations......Page 753
24.15 Circular Curve Layout by Offsets......Page 754
24.16.1 Passing a Circular Curve Through a Fixed Point......Page 757
24.18 Sight Distance on Horizontal Curves......Page 758
24.19.1 Spiral Geometry......Page 759
24.19.2 Spiral Calculation and Layout......Page 761
24.20 Computation of "As-Built" Circular Alignments......Page 764
24.22 Mistakes......Page 767
Problems......Page 768
Bibliography......Page 770
25.1 Introduction......Page 771
25.2 General Equation of a Vertical Parabolic Curve......Page 772
25.3 Equation of an Equal Tangent Vertical Parabolic Curve......Page 773
25.5 Vertical Curve Computations Using the Tangent-Offset Equation......Page 775
25.5.1 Example Computations Using the English System of Units......Page 776
25.5.2 Example Computations Using the Metric System......Page 777
25.6 Equal Tangent Property of a Parabola......Page 779
25.8 Staking a Vertical Parabolic Curve......Page 780
25.9 Machine Control in Grading Operations......Page 781
25.10 Computations for an Unequal Tangent Vertical Curve......Page 782
25.11 Designing a Curve to Pass Through a Fixed Point......Page 784
25.12 Sight Distance......Page 785
25.14 Mistakes......Page 787
Problems......Page 788
Bibliography......Page 789
26.2 Methods of Volume Measurement......Page 790
26.3 The Cross-Section Method......Page 791
26.4 Types of Cross-Sections......Page 792
26.5 Average-End-Area Formula......Page 793
26.6 Determining End Areas......Page 794
26.6.1 Calculating End Areas with Simple Figures......Page 795
26.6.2 Calculating End Areas with Coordinates......Page 796
26.7 Computing Slope Intercepts......Page 797
26.8 Prismoidal Formula......Page 799
26.9 Volume Computations......Page 801
26.10 Unit-Area, or Borrow-Pit, Method......Page 803
26.11 Contour-Area Method......Page 804
26.12 Measuring Volumes of Water Discharge......Page 805
26.13 Software......Page 807
Problems......Page 808
Bibliography......Page 811
27.1 Introduction......Page 812
27.2 Uses of Photogrammetry......Page 813
27.3 Aerial Cameras......Page 814
27.5 Vertical Aerial Photographs......Page 816
27.6 Scale of a Vertical Photograph......Page 818
27.7 Ground Coordinates from a Single Vertical Photograph......Page 822
27.8 Relief Displacement on a Vertical Photograph......Page 824
27.9 Flying Height of a Vertical Photograph......Page 826
27.10 Stereoscopic Parallax......Page 827
27.11 Stereoscopic Viewing......Page 830
27.12 Stereoscopic Measurement of Parallax......Page 831
27.13 Analytical Photogrammetry......Page 833
27.14.1 Basic Concepts in Stereoplotters......Page 834
27.14.2 Analytical Stereoplotters......Page 836
27.14.3 Softcopy Stereoplotters......Page 837
27.15 Orthophotos......Page 839
27.16 Ground Control for Photogrammetry......Page 840
27.17 Flight Planning......Page 841
27.18 Airborne Laser-Mapping Systems......Page 843
27.19 Remote Sensing......Page 844
27.20 Software......Page 849
27.22 Mistakes......Page 851
Problems......Page 852
Bibliography......Page 854
28.1 Introduction......Page 856
28.4 Spatial Data......Page 859
28.4.1 Simple Spatial Objects......Page 860
28.4.2 Vector and Raster Formats......Page 861
28.4.3 Topology......Page 864
28.6 Data Format Conversions......Page 865
28.6.1 Vector-to-Raster Conversion......Page 866
28.7 Creating GIS Databases......Page 868
28.7.1 Generating Digital Data from Field Surveys......Page 869
28.7.2 Digitizing from Aerial Photos with Stereoplotters......Page 870
28.7.3 Digitizing Existing Graphic Materials......Page 871
28.7.5 Existing Digital Data Sets......Page 872
28.7.6 Scanning......Page 873
28.8 Metadata......Page 874
28.9.1 Proximity Analysis......Page 875
28.9.2 Boundary Operations......Page 876
28.9.3 Spatial Joins......Page 877
28.9.4 Logical Operations......Page 878
28.10 GIS Applications......Page 879
28.11 Data Sources......Page 880
Problems......Page 882
Bibliography......Page 884
A.1 Correcting Systematic Errors in Taping......Page 886
Appendix B: Example Noteforms......Page 889
C.1 Introduction......Page 896
C.2 Overview of Usual Procedures for Astronomical Azimuth Determination......Page 897
C.3 Ephemerides......Page 899
C.4 Definitions......Page 902
C.5 Time......Page 905
C.6 Timing Observations......Page 907
C.7 Computations for Azimuth from Polaris Observations by the Hour Angle Method......Page 908
C.8 Azimuth from Solar Observations......Page 910
C.9 Importance of Precise Leveling......Page 911
D.2 Using the Files......Page 912
D.3 Worksheets as an Aid in Learning......Page 916
E.2 Definition of a Matrix......Page 918
E.3 The Dimensions of a Marix......Page 919
E.6 Matrix Multiplication......Page 920
E.7 Matrix Inverse......Page 922
F.2 Defining Parameters for States Using the Lambert Conformal Conic Map Projection......Page 924
F.3 Defining Parameters for States Using the Transverse Mercator Map Projection......Page 926
Appendix G: Answers to Selected Problems......Page 929
Index......Page 934