Electronic Procurement of Transportation Services: An Evaluation Concept for Electronic Transportation Marketplaces 3658404027, 9783658404024

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Schriftenreihe der HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management

Philipp Sylla

Electronic Procurement of Transportation Services An Evaluation Concept for Electronic Transportation Marketplaces

Schriftenreihe der HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management

Reihe herausgegeben von Stephan Stubner, Handelshochschule Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany

In dieser Schriftenreihe werden aktuelle Forschungsergebnisse aus dem Bereich Unternehmensführung präsentiert. Die einzelnen Beiträge spiegeln die wissenschaftliche Ausrichtung der HHL in Forschung und Lehre wider. Sie zeichnen sich vor allem durch eine ganzheitliche, integrative Perspektive aus und sind durch den Anspruch geprägt, Theorie und Praxis zu verbinden sowie in besonderem Maße internationale Aspekte einzubeziehen.

Philipp Sylla

Electronic Procurement of Transportation Services An Evaluation Concept for Electronic Transportation Marketplaces

Philipp Sylla Mannheim, Germany Leipzig, HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management, Dissertation, 2022

ISSN 2628-1007 ISSN 2628-1015 (electronic) Schriftenreihe der HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management ISBN 978-3-658-40402-4 ISBN 978-3-658-40403-1 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-40403-1 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer Gabler imprint is published by the registered company Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature. The registered company address is: Abraham-Lincoln-Str. 46, 65189 Wiesbaden, Germany

Foreword

In a globalized business world characterized by a high degree of division of labor, the need for transportation of materials, parts, and modules up to finished products is state of the art. Most of the companies outsource distribution logistics, i.e. transportation services to competent external partners. Therefore, transportation costs manifest as an important factor in the context of price calculation and also influence the bottom line. The usage of electronic means for the procurement of products is already well known and significantly better studied in comparison to the e-procurement of transportation services via so called electronic transportation marketplaces (ETMs). For companies in the manufacturing, wholesale and retail business the reduction of e.g. transportation costs could be realized through such platforms. Yet the potentials are currently neither explored to an appropriate extent nor are related service evaluation approaches available to show the impact on the business value for instance. Those challenges make the topic considered by Mr. Sylla highly relevant both from a theoretical as well as a practical perspective. The objective of this dissertation aims at closing the identified gaps by creating a corresponding innovative evaluation concept. The author provides in the present doctoral thesis with the step-by-step, theoretically- and empirically-based development of the evaluation concept, its elements and procedures an outstanding analytical as well as conceptual personal contribution. From a content-related point of view, the framework is to be honored as a pioneering achievement and the dissertation contains a lot of new findings

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that represent a starting point for further work, predominantly in the research and practice field of ETM evaluation, selection and usage that can be transferred to further use cases respectively domains. This book, which is based on a dissertation at the HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management, is aimed equally at readers from science and practice. Leipzig November 2022

Prof. Dr. Iris Hausladen

Preface

It is an intriguing thought that electronic transportation marketplaces might optimize transportation activities with the invisible hand of the market. During my work as an IT specialist and project manager, however, I realized that practitioners still face considerable uncertainties for the assessment of the use of such marketplaces and the evaluation of their business value impacts. Therefore, this work intends to support decision-makers to make the right choices for such marketplaces. The successful completion of this thesis would not have been possible without the support of various people. First and foremost, I would like to thank my advisor Prof. Dr. Iris Hausladen for the always inspiring exchange of ideas and her valuable advice and suggestions. I would also like to provide deep appreciation to Prof. Dr. Erik Maier who reviewed this thesis as a second referee. Many important insights have been gained in the empirical study of this work. This would not have been possible without the support for the preliminary and main study which I received from many individuals and companies. I would like to thank you all for your valuable contributions. Finally, I am deeply grateful for the continuous support of my family, friends, and my beloved Laura, especially for having the patience and understanding of the commitment made to this thesis. Therefore, I dedicate this book to you. Mannheim November 2022

Philipp Sylla

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Contents

1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.1 Problem Statement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Previous Research and Research Gaps . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3 Purpose, Research Questions, and Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1 1 4 7

2 Fundamentals for the Procurement of Transportation Services . . . . 2.1 Transportation and Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.1 Basic Definitions and Positioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2 Transportation within Business Logistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2.1 Links to Business Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1.2.2 Interdependencies with Logistics Planning . . . . . 2.2 Basics of Road Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Justification for the Focus on Road Transportation . . . . . . 2.2.2 Vehicles and Logistics Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3 Procurement of Transportation Services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Involved Parties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3 Procurement Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3.1 Spot Market Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.3.2 Contract Market Procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11 11 11 13 13 14 16 16 17 20 21 21 22 24 25 26

3 Electronic Transportation Marketplaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Basic Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 E-procurement and Related Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Electronic Marketplaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3 Electronic Transportation Marketplaces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

29 29 29 30 33

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3.2 Historical Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.1 Participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Nature of Exchanged Transportation Services . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.3 Ownership and Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Definition of the Term for This Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Definition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Demarcations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Functionalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1 Main Functionalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1.1 Spot Market Functionalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1.1.1 Bulletin Board . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1.1.2 Instant Quoting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1.1.3 Reverse Auction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1.2 Contract Market Functionalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1.2.1 E-tendering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.1.2.2 Electronic Transport Order . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2 Additional Functionalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2.1 Time-slot Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2.2 Tracking and Tracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2.3 Document Management . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2.4 Support of Invoice Settlement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2.5 System Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4 Conceptual Research Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1 Background . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.1.2 Contingency Approach as the Theoretical Foundation . . . 4.1.3 Structure and Further Procedure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2 Design Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.1 Identification of Design Variable Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2 Dimension 1: System Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2.1 Adoption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2.2 Extent of Use . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2.3 Functionality Choice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.2.4 Relational Orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3 Dimension 2: Relationship to ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.3.1 Selection of an ETM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4.2.3.2 Commitment to an ETM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.2.4 Summary: Overview of Design Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3 Contextual Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Identification of Contextual Variable Dimensions . . . . . . . 4.3.2 Dimension 1: Purchasing Situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.1 Theoretical Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.1.1 Transaction Cost Theory . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.1.2 Resource Dependency Theory . . . . . . 4.3.2.1.3 Literature on E-procurement and EMs . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.1.4 Literature on Buyer-Supplier Relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.2 Identified Contextual Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.2.1 Asset Specificity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.2.2 Complexity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.2.3 Importance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.2.4 Availability of Alternatives . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.2.5 Demand Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.2.2.6 Specifiability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Dimension 2: ETM Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.1 Theoretical Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.1.1 Models on IS Acceptance . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.1.2 Models on IS Business Value . . . . . . 4.3.3.1.3 Literature on EM Selection Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.2 Identified Contextual Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.2.1 System Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.2.2 Information Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.2.3 Service Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.2.4 Market Liquidity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.2.5 Security Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.3.2.6 Fee Levels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 Summary: Conceptual Insights for RQ2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Success Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.1 Identification of Success Variable Dimensions . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.2 Dimension 1: Organizational Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3 Dimension 2: Business Process Performance . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3.1 Identification of Sub-dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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4.4.3.2 Sub-dimension 1: Logistics Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3.2.1 Process Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3.2.2 Freight Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3.3 Sub-dimension 2: Logistics Performance . . . . . . 4.4.3.3.1 Supply Assurance and Flexibility . . . 4.4.3.3.2 Delivery Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.3.3.3 Information Capability . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.4 Links of Success Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.4.1 Links between Dimensions of Success Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.4.2 Links between Design and Success Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.4.5 Summary: Conceptual Insights for RQ3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.5 Summary of the Conceptual Research Framework . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 Empirical Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Preliminary Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.1 Objectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.2 Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3 Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3.1 New Insights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3.1.1 Process Cost Reductions in Other Areas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3.1.2 Impact of Restrictions on the Supplier Base . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3.1.3 Expected Developments for ETMs in the Future . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1.3.2 Preparation of the Survey Instrument . . . . . . . . . 5.2 Main Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Research Models and Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1.1 Research Model 1: Adopters of ETMs . . . . . . . . 5.2.1.1.1 Hypotheses for RQ2 (H1–H5) . . . . . . 5.2.1.1.2 Hypotheses for RQ3 (H6–H14) . . . . . 5.2.1.1.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1.2 Research Model 2: Non-adopters of ETMs . . . . 5.2.1.2.1 Hypotheses for RQ2 (H15–H19) . . . 5.2.1.2.2 Hypotheses for RQ3 (H20–H26) . . . 5.2.1.2.3 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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5.2.2

5.2.3

5.2.4

5.2.5

5.2.6

5.2.1.3 Adopters vs. Non-adopters of ETMs (H27a–H28) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Survey Instrument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2.1 Measures for Research Model 1: Adopters of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2.2 Measures for Research Model 2: Non-Adopters of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Collection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3.1 Population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3.2 Retrieval of Company Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3.3 Sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3.4 Pretest . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3.5 Execution of the Survey . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Description and Preparation of the Data Basis . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4.1 Data Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4.1.1 Nonresponse Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4.1.2 Common Method Bias . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4.2 Descriptive Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4.2.1 Overview of Usable Responses . . . . . 5.2.4.2.2 Adopters of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.4.2.3 Non-adopters of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . Methodological Foundation for the Data Analysis . . . . . . 5.2.5.1 Structural Equation Modeling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.5.1.1 Measurement Model Evaluation . . . . 5.2.5.1.2 Structural Model Evaluation . . . . . . . 5.2.5.2 Mann-Whitney U Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data Analysis and Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.6.1 Research Model 1: Adopters of ETMs . . . . . . . . 5.2.6.1.1 Measurement Model Evaluation . . . . 5.2.6.1.2 Structural Model Evaluation (Relationship Hypotheses) . . . . . . . . . 5.2.6.1.3 Evaluation of the Differential Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.6.1.4 Summary of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.6.2 Research Model 2: Non-adopters of ETMs . . . . 5.2.6.2.1 Measurement Model Evaluation . . . . 5.2.6.2.2 Structural Model Evaluation (Relationship Hypotheses) . . . . . . . . .

157 158 160 166 171 171 172 174 176 177 179 181 181 183 183 183 187 188 190 191 193 194 196 198 198 199 201 205 207 208 208 211

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5.2.6.2.3 Evaluation of the Differential Hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.6.2.4 Summary of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.6.3 Differences between Adopters and Non-adopters of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 An Evaluation Concept for ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1 Needs Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.1 Definition of Objectives for the ETM Implementation . . . 6.1.2 Evaluation of the Use of ETM Functionalities . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2.1 Main Functionalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2.1.1 Step 1: Evaluation of the Potential for Market Sourcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2.1.2 Step 2: Evaluation of Transportation Service Demand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2.1.3 Step 3: Match Services with ETM Functionalities . . . . . . . . . . 6.1.2.2 Additional Functionalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Selection of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Preselection of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Detailed Evaluation of Alternative ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2.1 Step 1: Definition of Evaluation Criteria and Their Weights . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2.2 Step 2: Scoring of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2.3 Step 3: ETM Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Evaluation of the Business Case . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 ETM Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Business Process Performance Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2.1 Logistics Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2.1.1 Process Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2.1.2 Freight Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2.2 Logistics Performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2.2.1 Supply Assurance and Flexibility . . . 6.3.2.2.2 Delivery Quality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2.2.3 Information Capability . . . . . . . . . . . .

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7 Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Summary of Results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Managerial Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Scientific Contributions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Limitations and Future Research Directions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

257 257 262 262 263 265

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

267

Abbreviations

ADI AVE B2B B2C C2B C2C CB-SEM CEP CIP Cp. CPT CV CVA DAP DAT Destatis DDP E-business E-commerce EDI e.g. EM(s) E-procurement ERP etc. ETM(s)

Average Demand Interval Average Variance Extracted Business-to-Business Business-to-Consumer Consumer-to-Business Consumer-to-Consumer Covariance-Based Structural Equation Modeling Courier, Express, and Parcels Carriage and Insurance Paid To Compare Carriage Paid To Coefficient of Variation Cash-Value-Added Delivered At Place Delivered At Terminal Federal Statistical Office of Germany Delivered Duty Paid Electronic Business Electronic Commerce Electronic Data Interchange For example (Latin: exempli gratia) Electronic Marketplace(s) Electronic Procurement Enterprise Resource Planning Et cetera Electronic Transportation Marketplace(s)

xvii

xviii

EU EVA EXW FCA FTL GPS H HTMT i.e. IOS IS IT JIT KPI(s) LTL NACE NOA NOPAT p. PLS-SEM pp. PTL RFP RFQ ROE ROI RQ(s) SERVQUAL SEM SNA TAM TOE TRA USA UTAUT VIF Vs. WZ 2008

Abbreviations

European Union Economic Value Added Ex-Works Free Carrier Full Truckload Global Positioning System Hypothesis Heterotrait-monotrait ratio That is (Latin: id est) Inter-Organizational Information System Information System Information Technology Just in Time Key Performance Indicator(s) Less Than Truckload Nomenclature statistique des activités économiques dans la Communauté européenne Net Operating Assets Net Operating Profit After Taxes Page Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling Pages Part Truckload Request for Proposal Request for Quotation Return on Equity Return in Investment Research Question(s) Service Quality Structural Equation Modeling System of National Accounts Technology Acceptance Model Technology, Organization, Environment Theory of Reasoned Action United States of America Universal Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology Variance Inflation Factor Versus The Classification of Economic Activities, issue 2008

List of Figures

Figure Figure Figure Figure

1.1 1.2 1.3 2.1

Figure 2.2 Figure 2.3 Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

2.4 2.5 3.1 3.2 3.3 4.1 4.2

Figure 4.3 Figure 4.4 Figure 4.5 Figure 4.6 Figure 4.7 Figure 4.8 Figure 4.9

Overview of related empirical studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of all chapters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transportation-related decisions within logistics planning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Logistics units relevant for road transportation . . . . . . . . . . Parties involved in the procurement of transportation services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process for spot market procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Process for contract market procurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typologies of market exchanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Types of ETMs according to participants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Classification of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structure of the conceptual research framework . . . . . . . . . Assessment of the relational orientation of ETM functionalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Choice of governance structures based on transaction costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Portfolio model developed by Andersson and Norrman (2002) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Portfolio model developed by Halldórsson and Skjøtt-Larsen (2004) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Portfolio model developed by Bask (2001) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Technology acceptance model (TAM) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Updated DeLone & McLean IS success model . . . . . . . . . .

5 8 9 15 19 23 26 28 31 36 41 54 64 68 74 77 79 80 95 96

xix

xx

List of Figures

Figure 4.10 Figure 4.11 Figure 4.12 Figure 4.13 Figure 4.14 Figure 5.1 Figure 5.2 Figure 5.3 Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9 5.10 5.11 5.12

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

5.13 5.14 5.15 5.16 5.17 6.1 6.2

Figure 6.3 Figure 6.4 Figure 6.5 Figure 6.6 Figure 6.7 Figure 6.8

Contextual and design variables (Conceptual insights for RQ2) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Reduction of deadheads via ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . General logistics levers for improving EVA . . . . . . . . . . . . . Design and success variables (Conceptual insights for RQ3) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Summary of the conceptual research framework . . . . . . . . . Difference between use of a restricted and unrestricted supplier base on an ETM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of relationship hypotheses of research model 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of relationship hypotheses of research model 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of the survey (Adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of the survey (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . Development of the survey response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Survey response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Comparison of respondents and nonrespondents . . . . . . . . . Results for relational orientation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ETMs used by adopters of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Impact of ETMs on freight rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Transmission of transport orders by non-adopters of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Importance of criteria for the selection of ETMs . . . . . . . . Plans for the use of an ETM by non-adopters . . . . . . . . . . . A path model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Structural model results (Adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . Structural model results (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . Process for the evaluation of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Value tree for the impact of an ETM on organizational performance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Possibilities for the segmentation of road transportation services . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evaluation of the potential for market sourcing . . . . . . . . . . Evaluation of the transportation service demand . . . . . . . . . Procedure to match transportation services with ETM functionalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Phases for the selection of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Value tree for the detailed evaluation of ETMs . . . . . . . . . .

107 114 120 124 125 131 149 156 161 167 179 180 182 186 187 188 189 189 190 191 204 214 224 227 230 232 234 236 239 242

List of Figures

Figure Figure Figure Figure Figure

6.9 6.10 6.11 6.12 6.13

xxi

Comparison of costs and scores of ETMs in a matrix . . . . Contents of the business case of an ETM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of ETM costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Levers of ETMs for process cost reductions . . . . . . . . . . . . Quantification of process cost reductions via cost drivers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

247 248 249 251 253

List of Tables

Table 3.1 Table 3.2 Table Table Table Table Table

4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 4.5

Table 5.1 Table 5.2 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table

5.3 5.4 5.5 5.6 5.7 5.8 5.9

Table Table Table Table Table Table

5.10 5.11 5.12 5.13 5.14 5.15

Definitions for the term electronic marketplace . . . . . . . . . . . Advertising texts for electronic transport order functionalities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Functionality dimensions and relational orientation . . . . . . . Closed reverse auction vs. open ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Portfolio models from the e-procurement literature . . . . . . . Portfolio for buyer-supplier relationships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Criteria for the selection of EMs identified in the literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Profiles of the interviewed experts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Occurrence of contextual variables of the purchasing situation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Occurrence of contextual variables of ETM properties . . . . . Definitions of the variables of the research models . . . . . . . . Groups for the differential hypotheses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measures for contextual variables—Adopters of ETMs . . . . Measures for design variables—Adopters of ETMs . . . . . . . Measures for success variables—Adopters of ETMs . . . . . . Measures of contextual variables—Non-adopters of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Measures for design variables—Non-adopters of ETMs . . . . Measures for success variables—Non-adopters of ETMs . . . Specification of the population . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Determination of company data for the population . . . . . . . . Demographic data of population and sample . . . . . . . . . . . . . Company data of the usable responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

30 46 61 63 76 78 98 130 135 137 140 141 163 164 165 168 169 170 171 174 175 184

xxiii

xxiv

Table Table Table Table

List of Tables

5.16 5.17 5.18 5.19

Table 5.20 Table 5.21 Table 5.22 Table 5.23 Table 5.24 Table Table Table Table

5.25 5.26 5.27 5.28

Table 5.29 Table 5.30 Table 5.31 Table 5.32 Table 5.33 Table 5.34 Table 5.35 Table 5.36 Table 5.37 Table 5.38 Table 5.39 Table 5.40

Demographic data of respondents . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Evaluation criteria for reflective measurement models . . . . . Evaluation criteria for the structural model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quality criteria of the measurement model (Adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HTMT values (Adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inner VIF values (Adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quality criteria of the structural model (Adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mann-Whitney U test—Relational orientation (Adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mann-Whitney U test—Asset specificity (Adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mann-Whitney U test—Importance (Adopters of ETMs) . . . Results of hypotheses for RQ2 (Adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . Results of hypotheses for RQ3 (Adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . Quality criteria of the measurement model (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . HTMT values (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Inner VIF values (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Quality criteria of the structural model (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mann-Whitney U test—Relational orientation (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mann-Whitney U—Demand uncertainty (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mann-Whitney U test—Complexity (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mann-Whitney U test—Supply assurance and flexibility (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results of hypotheses for RQ2 (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . Results of hypotheses for RQ3 (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . Mann-Whitney U—Transportation volume in tons (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mann-Whitney U—Number of transport orders (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mann-Whitney U test—Number of employees (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

185 194 196 199 200 202 203 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 215 216 217 217 218 219 220 221 221

List of Tables

Table 5.41 Table 5.42 Table 6.1 Table 6.2 Table Table Table Table Table

6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 6.7

xxv

Mann-Whitney U test—Risks to delivery quality (Non-adopters of ETMs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Results of hypothesis tests for differences between adopters and non-adopters of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . . . Overview of business value impacts of ETM use . . . . . . . . . Assessment of the availability of transportation service providers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Assessment of the ease of service description . . . . . . . . . . . . Assessment of the importance of transportation services . . . Overview of additional functionalities of ETMs . . . . . . . . . . Categories and criteria for the evaluation of ETMs . . . . . . . . An example of the calculation of ETM scores per team member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

222 222 228 231 233 234 238 244 246

1

Introduction

1.1

Problem Statement

Since people started trading, transportation has played a crucial role in economic activities. The reason for the importance of transportation is simple: goods are seldomly produced at the same place where the demand for them arises and transportation is needed to match supply with demand. Therefore, almost every company that sells goods will require transportation at least for some part of its business. Especially manufacturing, retail and wholesale companies often need to move large volumes of goods. However, only a few of these companies will carry out transportation activities with their own fleet. Transportation is often contracted out and purchased from external transportation service providers.1 This creates a market for transportation services which itself represents an area of significant economic exchange value. In Germany alone, the annual market volume for the exchange of transportation services for road transportation exceeds 50 billion e.2

1

Cp. McKinnon (2003), p. 213; Sucky and Asdecker (2019), pp. 198–199. According to an estimation, the national logistics costs in Germany in the year 2019 amounted to 285.7 billion e. The commercial exchange of transportation services for road transportation represents about 18% of these logistics costs (cp. Schwemmer et al. (2020), p. 58). Thus, transportation services with a commercial volume of approximately 51.43 billion e are exchanged for road transportation.

2

Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-40403-1_1.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 P. Sylla, Electronic Procurement of Transportation Services, Schriftenreihe der HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-40403-1_1

1

2

1

Introduction

Transportation costs also account for a significant share of the total logistics costs of companies.3 It is therefore easy to understand that manufacturing, retail, and wholesale companies are constantly looking for opportunities to improve the procurement of transportation services. In addition, the increasing importance of environmental issues and digitization force companies to reconsider current practices. As most of us will know from our own experience, the internet offers many opportunities to improve purchasing activities. Especially electronic marketplaces (EMs) have already shown that they have a disruptive potential for whole industries. Companies like Amazon and Alibaba have quickly grown and soon became one of the largest companies in terms of market capitalization in the world.4 Many experts also believe that electronic transportation marketplaces (ETMs) will play a large role in logistics.5 ETMs facilitate transactions between buyers and sellers of transportation services. In particular, ETMs can be used by shippers of manufacturing, retail and wholesale companies to purchase services from transportation service providers. Electronic marketplaces are especially useful in highly fragmented markets because in such cases it is difficult to get a transparent overview of offers.6 Since the European and German road transportation market is highly fragmented,7 ETMs can be important for improving the match of supply and demand for transportation services. Besides offering a more efficient and effective procurement of transportation services, ETMs may also be important from an ecological perspective. Many trucks on the roads in the European Union (EU) are empty and moved without any goods.8 This is problematic because transportation (and in particular road transportation) encompasses many negative effects on the environment.9 Especially the lack of knowledge about potential loading opportunities could be responsible for underutilized vehicles.10 Since ETMs may support transportation 3

Cp. Wittenbrink (2014), pp. 43–46. Cp. PWC (2018), p. 17. 5 76% of the respondents of a study from 2019 replied that providers of platforms will be significant players within logistics in the next ten years (cp. Bitkom (2017), p. 7). In addition, 56% of the participants of a study from 2020 think that brogerage platforms that can be use to offer capacities of trucks are highly important (cp. Schiffer et al. (2020), p. 26). 6 Cp. Kollmann (2019), pp. 628–629. 7 Cp. Klaas-Wissing (2010), p. 144; Ortwein and Kuchinke (2021), p. 164. 8 In 2018, most of the EU member states reported a percentage of empty vehicle-kilometers between 15% and 30% (cp. Eurostat (2020), p. 60). 9 Cp. Wutke (2016), pp. 52–53. 10 Cp. McKinnon (2014), pp. 284–288. 4

1.1 Problem Statement

3

service providers to find return loads, they may help to reduce the amount of unnecessary empty running.11 These aspects illustrate why manufacturing, retail, and wholesale companies should consider the use of ETMs. However, companies face two practical problems for this consideration. First, the assessment of ETM use is challenging. There is certainly no “one best way” when it comes to the use of an ETM. The transportation requirements will often differ from one company to another. For example, different products must be moved or the needs of customers are diverse. Therefore, the use of an ETM might be beneficial for some companies but not for others. Even within a single company, some transportation services might be more or less suitable for the use of an ETM. The connections between some locations, for example, can exhibit differences in terms of frequency or stability. Given this variety, the basic idea for an optimal procurement of transportation services is simple: “[…] not every lane in a shipper’s network is equal, so why treat them as such when bidding them out?”12 But this simple idea is not easily put into practice. Transportation services can differ in many ways and it is not obvious which factors should be considered for decisions on the use of an ETM. The assessment of ETM use is further complicated by the fact that companies must not only decide whether to use a marketplace. ETMs can offer a whole range of functionalities and decision-makers must select those functionalities which are best for their company. Therefore, it is challenging to determine the specific factors of a company and its transportation services that should be considered when assessing the use of an ETM and its functionalities. Second, the evaluation of the business value impact of an ETM is difficult. Like any other information system (IS) which is used in a corporate context, the use of an ETM must be justified by the benefits it provides for a company.13 Typically, the use of an ETM involves investments (e.g., efforts for evaluation, training, or establishing interfaces) and causes ongoing costs (e.g., fees which must be paid). The use of an ETM by a company should compensate for these costs with its impact on business value.14 Several studies show that the business value impact 11

Cp. McKinnon et al. (2015), pp. 325–326. Caplice et al. (2020). 13 Efficiency motives are the most cited reason for the use of EMs. Besides efficiency, exploration, positioning, and legitimacy motives can drive the use of EMs (cp. Rask and Kragh (2004), p. 272). 14 Business value denotes “[…] the organizational performance impacts of information technology at both the intermediate process level and the organization-wide level […]” (Melville et al. (2004), p. 287). 12

4

1

Introduction

(e.g., via cost reductions) is an important motive for using EMs and ETMs.15 However, many companies face difficulties when evaluating such business value impacts. For example, a previous study in the ETM context concludes that “[…] shippers are willing to use electronic commerce but are still uncertain of the benefits that have been promised with its development”16 . This uncertainty is not surprising given the difficulties involved in the evaluation of IS business value in general.17 Despite the relevance of ETMs and the aforementioned practical problems, the previous literature does not provide sufficient knowledge to support decisionmakers in their assessment of ETM use and the evaluation of the business value impact of ETMs. The corresponding research gaps will be identified and discussed in the following.

1.2

Previous Research and Research Gaps

Two streams of literature are closely related to the research of this thesis. The first relevant stream of literature is the research on electronic procurement (e-procurement). The emergence of this field of research was driven by the development of modern information and communication technologies. While connections between companies via electronic data interchange (EDI) already existed since the 1970s, e-procurement is linked in particular to the internet and the associated technologies.18 The second relevant stream of literature is the research on electronic marketplaces. With the term introduced in 1987, research on electronic marketplaces soon gained traction.19 In the meantime, an interdisciplinary field of research from the fields of economics, business administration, and information systems has emerged.20

15

Cp. Rask and Kragh (2004), p. 276; Lin et al. (2002), p. 7; Kunzendorf and Wollenweber (2018), p. 12. 16 Lin et al. (2002), p. 9. 17 In particular, the evaluation of IS business value is difficult because impacts are often not quantifiable in terms of monetary values and standardized methods for the evaluation are missing (cp. Okujava (2006), pp. 17–20). 18 Cp. Kleineicken (2004), p. 93. 19 The work of Malone et al. (1987) is considered to be the foundation of the research on electronic marketplaces. 20 Cp. Schütt (2006), p. 8.

1.2 Previous Research and Research Gaps

5

Both streams of literature comprise many empirical studies with a plethora of insights. When looking at the 193 empirical studies which have been identified in course of this thesis,21 it is apparent that most of them focus on supply in terms of products or the supply context is unspecific.22 Only a few studies provide insights that are relevant in the specific context of transportation or other services (cp. Figure 1.1).

Figure 1.1 Overview of related empirical studies23

Given this limited number of studies, it is not surprising that there are still major research gaps. The three research gaps which motivated the research of the present thesis will be discussed in the following. First, little is known about the status quo of ETM use. A few studies show that ETMs are not widely used by transportation service providers.24 Only two 21

Cp. Appendix 1 in the Electronic Supplementary Material. Empirical studies with an unspecific supply context do not have a focus on products or services. Sometimes, the context is unspecific because insights for a broad range of companies and supply contexts are provided (e.g. the study of Deng et al. (2019b) has been conducted in a wide range of industries including manufacturing, services, and information). 23 Source: own representation. 24 Cp. Davies et al. (2007), p. 21; Evangelista et al. (2013), p. 981; Evangelista and Sweeney (2014); Marchet et al. (2009), p. 798. 22

6

1

Introduction

empirical studies deal with the use of ETMs by shippers as buyers of transportation services. In the year 2002, a survey study on the awareness and extent of use of ETMs has been conducted. The empirical results show that phone, fax, and e-mail are the most frequently named methods for the procurement of transportation services.25 In addition, 9.9% of the participants indicated that they use an ETM for load matching and 13.9% stated that they use online auctions. A more recent survey has been conducted on the use of electronic contract tenders. Amongst other things, the study found that most of the respondents make use of personal negotiations (89%) and phone negotiations (61%). About one-third of the survey participants replied that they use electronic bidding or reverse auctions (29%).26 Nonetheless, there are only scarce recent findings on how buyers of transportation services are using ETMs for the procurement of transportation services. Given the importance of ETMs, further research which provides insights into the current use of ETMs is needed. Second, we know little about the determinants of ETM use. As previously explained, there will be no “one best way” for using an ETM. The assessment of ETM use should therefore consider the specific situation of the company and its transportation services. However, only a few studies provide rather broad insights into the motives and barriers involved in the adoption of ETMs. The study by Kunzendorf and Wollenweber (2018) shows that cost reductions and benchmarking are the most important motives for using electronic contract tenders for transportation services.27 Furthermore, Sänger (2004) conducted qualitative interviews to identify potential barriers to ETM adoption. The results indicate that barriers stem from problems with liquidity, costs, quality, service, and acceptance.28 While these studies provide insights on the general motives for using or not using an ETM, little is known about the specific determinants which help decision-makers to justify the usefulness of ETMs. Also, in the broader e-procurement and EM literature, such determinants are often neglected. For example, many studies are interested in the use of e-procurement or EMs from the perspective of the diffusion of innovations.29 While such studies can certainly identify variables that can explain use behavior, these variables do often not represent factors that help decision-makers to justify their decisions based on

25

Cp. Lin et al. (2002), p. 3. Cp. Kunzendorf and Wollenweber (2018), p. 18. 27 Cp. ibid., p. 12. 28 Cp. Sänger (2004), pp. 110–124. 29 Cp. Section 4.3.1. 26

1.3 Purpose, Research Questions, and Structure

7

the specific situation they are facing with their company.30 In addition, empirical studies have often been conducted for products while services have been largely neglected. Whether products or services are purchased, however, also affects procurement activities.31 Therefore, the procurement of logistics services should not blindly follow rules which have been developed for physical products.32 Third, there are only limited insights into the link between the use of an ETM and improvements in business value for companies. Lin et al. (2002) found that the reduction of transportation costs and the timeliness of shipments and deliveries are considered most important for the procurement of transportation services on the internet.33 Based on the data of his empirical analysis, Scott (2018) estimates that the elimination of intermediaries via spot auctions can reduce the prices of transportation services by 14.9%.34 Furthermore, Janssen and Verbraeck (2008) found that the participants of their study were concerned about price competition and dealing with unreliable trading partners on an ETM.35 Besides the fact that these findings are limited, it is also unclear in which different ways an ETM can affect business value. So far, no structuring for the different ETM effects on business value has been proposed. Furthermore, empirical studies measure the effects of e-procurement and EMs often globally without a distinction of different dimensions.36 It is therefore difficult for decision-makers to evaluate in detail how the use of an ETM can affect the business value of their company.

1.3

Purpose, Research Questions, and Structure

The purpose of the present thesis is to close the aforementioned research gaps and to support practitioners in their assessment of ETM use and the evaluation 30

For example, it has been repeatedly found that top management support has an effect on EM adoption decisions (cp. Deng et al. (2019b); Najmul Islam et al. (2020); Saprikis and Vlachopoulou (2012)). However, it will be difficult for decision-makers to explain the adoption decisions only based on the presence or lack of top management support. Indeed, decision-makers should rather focus on ensuring the needed top management support. 31 Purchasing managers perceive significant differences between the procurement of services and products (cp. Smeltzer and Ogden (2002), p. 67). 32 Cp. Bellantuono et al. (2008), p. 12. 33 Cp. Lin et al. (2002), p. 7. 34 Cp. Scott (2018), p. 12. 35 Cp. Janssen and Verbraeck (2008), p. 480. 36 Cp. Chang and Wong (2010), pp. 269–270; Johnson et al. (2007), p. 1273; Ranganathan et al. (2011), p. 539; Shi and Liao (2015), p. 946; Tai et al. (2010), p. 5407.

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Introduction

of the business value impact of ETMs. Figure 1.2 depicts the research questions (RQs) which have been derived from the previously identified practical problems and the existing research gaps.

Figure 1.2 Research questions37

To answer the above-mentioned research questions, several steps will be followed which are also reflected in the structure of the chapters of this work (cp. Figure 1.3). Within this chapter, the practical problems and research gaps have been identified. The two following chapters will provide fundamental knowledge for the rest of this thesis. Within Chapter 2, transportation and the activities for the procurement of transportation services will be positioned within the field of logistics, whereby a focus will be set on road transportation. The phenomenon of ETMs will be the subject of Chapter 3. Besides a positioning in the basic terminology and a review of the historical background, a definition of the term ETM will be provided based on a self-developed classification of ETMs. Furthermore, the functionalities of ETMs will be discussed. 37

Source: own representation.

1.3 Purpose, Research Questions, and Structure

Figure 1.3 Overview of all chapters38

38

Source: own representation.

9

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Introduction

Chapter 4 comprises the conceptual research framework of this work. Based on the contingency approach as the theoretical foundation, the relevant subdimensions and variables of ETM use (design variables), the determinants for this use (contextual variables), and the impact on business value (success variables) will be identified. The conceptual research framework will be used in Chapter 5 as input for empirical analysis. First, the results of expert interviews which have been conducted in course of a preliminary study will be presented. Based on this preparation, specific research models and hypotheses for companies that use an ETM (adopters of ETMs) and those which don’t (non-adopters of ETMs) have been developed for the main study. The results of the preliminary and the main study will be used to gather and analyze empirical evidence to receive answers for the first three research questions (RQ1–RQ3). An evaluation concept for the assessment of ETM use and the evaluation of the business value impacts will be developed in Chapter 6. Taking the results of the conceptual research framework and the empirical studies of the present thesis into account, the evaluation concept will answer the last research question (RQ4). Finally, the main results of this work will be summarized in Chapter 7. Furthermore, the contributions, limitations, and potential avenues for future research will be discussed.

2

Fundamentals for the Procurement of Transportation Services

This chapter aims to provide the fundamental knowledge for the procurement of transportation services which is needed for the following chapters. First, transportation will be defined and its links to processes within business logistics and the interdependencies to logistics planning will be presented (cp. Section 2.1). Afterward, the focus on road transportation within this thesis will be justified and the relevant aspects in terms of vehicles, logistics units, and processes will be discussed (cp. Section 2.2). Finally, this chapter will deal with the objectives, the involved parties, and the processes which are relevant for the procurement of transportation services (cp. Section 2.3).

2.1

Transportation and Logistics

2.1.1

Basic Definitions and Positioning

Transportation refers to the activity of moving goods across time and space.1 From the point of view of a location, transportation can be internal or external. Internal transportation is performed within the limits of a location (e.g, a plant or a warehouse). External transportation is performed for the movement of goods

1

Cp. Lambert et al. (1998), p. 217. In a broader definition, transportation also includes the activity of carrying people from one place to another (cp. Gleißner and Femerling (2008), p. 40).

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 P. Sylla, Electronic Procurement of Transportation Services, Schriftenreihe der HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-40403-1_2

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Fundamentals for the Procurement of Transportation Services

from suppliers to internal locations of a company, from internal locations to customers, or between internal locations (e.g., between plants and warehouses).2 The focus of this work will be on external transportation because ETMs are not relevant for internal transportation. Transportation plays a key role in logistics which deals with “[…] the planning, execution, and control of the movement and placement of people and/or goods and of the supporting activities related to such movement and placement, within a system organized to achieve specific objectives”3 . Since the field of logistics is broad, the focus of the present thesis will be explained in more detail in the following. First, logistics can deal with three distinct types of logistical objects: goods, people, and information.4 The focus of this work will be on goods as logistical objects and the related information encompassing the flow of goods.5 Second, logistics can be studied at different levels from an institutional perspective: macro-logistics, meta-logistics, and micro-logistics.6 The results of the present thesis shall support manufacturing, retail, and wholesale companies. Thus,

2

Cp. Gleißner and Femerling (2013), p. 51; Pfohl (2018), p. 169. Internal locations are all physical locations where a company stores or processes goods which are owned by the company. 3 European Logistics Association (2005), p. 54. 4 Cp. Fleischmann (2008), p. 3. Some authors also include monetary and financial flows (cp. Göpfert (2016), p. 59; Muchna et al. (2018), pp. 10–11). 5 Goods are all means which are directly or indirectly used to satisfy the needs of humans (cp. Blum et al. (2003), p. 5). The focus within this work will be on tangible goods which have a physical substance. Such goods can be consumer goods (i.e., goods used by end consumers) or producer goods (i.e., goods which are used as input for the production of other goods) (cp. Bardmann (2014), pp. 226–227). Throughout this thesis, the terms products and goods will be used interchangeably. 6 Cp. Fleischmann (2008), p. 8; Gleißner and Femerling (2008), p. 12; Pfohl (2018), pp. 14– 16.

2.1 Transportation and Logistics

13

the focus will be on micro-logistics.7 In particular, business logistics8 in terms of manufacturing logistics9 and retail and wholesale logistics10 will be in focus. In addition, the procurement of transportation services may involve cooperation between shippers and logistics companies. Therefore, this work will also deal with aspects of meta-logistics.11

2.1.2

Transportation within Business Logistics

Within business logistics, transportation is linked to business processes and has interdependencies with logistics planning. This will be discussed in the following.

2.1.2.1 Links to Business Processes Transportation is needed along all phases related to the flow of goods from suppliers to customers. These range from procurement logistics, over production logistics to distribution logistics and reverse logistics. Within procurement logistics, transportation is required to connect a supplier’s distribution logistics with the production logistics of a company.12 The flow of goods from the storage of inputs until the storage of the outputs of production is called production logistics. External transportation within production logistics is required, for example, when a company has multiple production sites and there are flows of goods between these.13 Furthermore, transportation is often needed to deliver goods to customers

7

Micro-logistics focuses on the logistics activities of single economic entities (cp. Pfohl (2018), p. 15). 8 Business logistics deals with the flow of goods and information to achieve the business objectives of companies (cp. ten Hompel and Heidenblut (2011), p. 321). Company logistics is sometimes used as an alternative term for business logistics (cp. Gudehus and Kotzab (2012), p. 21; Scott-Sabic (2005), p. 191). 9 Manufacturing logistics deals with the flow of goods needed as input for production within companies and the result thereof (cp. Hausotter (1994), p. 14). 10 In contrast to manufacturing companies, retail and wholesale companies pursue only the exchange of goods without significantly processing them (cp. Kotzab (2012), pp. 217–218). While retail companies sell goods to end consumers, wholesale companies sell goods to customers who are not end consumers, i.e. manufacturing companies or other retail and wholesale companies (cp. Magnus (2007), pp. 11–12; Samadi (2009), p. 8). 11 Meta-logistics covers the cooperation between independent organizations of micrologistics systems (cp. Gleißner and Femerling (2008), p. 12). 12 Cp. Pfohl (2018), p. 189. 13 Cp. Muchna et al. (2018), p. 29.

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Fundamentals for the Procurement of Transportation Services

within distribution logistics.14 Finally, transportation may also be needed for the corresponding reverse flows of goods across the previously mentioned phases (reverse logistics).15 Across the flow of goods from suppliers to customers, transportation can be needed for the movements of stocks within a single company which shall be called internal goods movement. For example, goods can be moved from a plant to a warehouse without a change in the ownership of the goods. Besides that, the transported goods may change ownership within procurement or sales transactions. Since such movements of goods are based on inter-organizational transactions with other companies, they shall be called inter-organizational goods movements.

2.1.2.2 Interdependencies with Logistics Planning There are long-term, mid-term, and short-term decisions within logistics planning which affect transportation (cp. Figure 2.1). Long-term planning involves decisions that have long-term effects over several years. Such decisions are also called strategic decisions. For example, strategic network design is a task within long-term planning. It includes the determination of the number of facilities such as plants and distribution centers, their locations and capacity as well as the links between the nodes in the logistics network.16 Obviously, the strategic network design affects the transportation network of a company. A transportation network consists of nodes and directed links connecting these nodes.17 A typical transportation network structure of a manufacturer spans from suppliers via multiple plants and different levels of stocking points (e.g., plant warehouses and field warehouses) to customers.18 The directed links connecting locations within the transportation network are called transportation relations (or transportation lanes).19 Mid-term planning comprises decisions with a planning horizon of approximately between 6 and 24 months. In the mid-term planning horizon, master planning deals with the optimal flows among the different locations within a transportation network. It supports decisions to efficiently utilize production, transport, and supply capacities, seasonal stock, and an efficient balancing of 14

Cp. Fleischmann (2008), p. 5. Cp. Fleischmann (2001), p. 6. 16 Cp. Günther (2006), p. 14. 17 Cp. Sheffi (1985), pp. 10–11. 18 Cp. Geoffrion and Powers (1995), p. 107. 19 Cp. Mazbic-Kulma (1984), p. 460. 15

2.1 Transportation and Logistics

15

Figure 2.1 Transportation-related decisions within logistics planning20

supply and demand.21 With an increasing number of products, locations, capacity restrictions, and cost elements to consider, decision problems in master planning can soon become quite complex. For such problems, mathematical models can be used to support decision-makers.22 Finally, the most detailed information for immediate execution and control is provided within short-term planning. Restricted by the decisions from the upper levels, the planning horizon for short-term decisions (sometimes also referred to as operational) ranges between a few days and three months.23 Within this time horizon, the most detailed information about the needed movement of goods is

20

Source: own representation adapted from Reuter and Rohde (2015), p. 243. Cp. Albrecht et al. (2015), p. 155. 22 Mathematical models to optimize master planning have been developed since the early sixties (cp. Stadtler (2012), p. 111). Today, the literature provides various models whereby mixed linear programming models are often used (cp. Mula et al. (2010), pp. 379–380). 23 Cp. Fleischmann et al. (2012), pp. 71–72. 21

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Fundamentals for the Procurement of Transportation Services

summarized in shipments, whereby a shipment is a collection of goods that is being sent from one place of departure at one time to one place of arrival.24

2.2

Basics of Road Transportation

Transportation can be performed via five basic transportation modes which have different advantages and disadvantages: road, rail, air, water, and pipeline.25 Within this thesis, the focus will be on road transportation. The reasons for this focus as well as the basics of road transportation in terms of the vehicles, logistics units, and processes will be discussed in the following.

2.2.1

Justification for the Focus on Road Transportation

A focus on only one transportation mode has been set because the transportation modes entail quite different transportation environments. For example, the distinct shape of airplanes requires that special loading aids are used for air transport that are usually not relevant for other transportation modes.26 Such differences create complexity which shall be reduced by focusing on only one transportation mode. For two reasons, road transportation has been chosen. First, road transportation is the most important transportation mode for the transportation of goods within Germany and the European Union.27 Although there are plans to decrease the share of road transportation due to negative effects on the environment, it can be expected that road transportation will remain an important transportation mode for the foreseeable future.28 Second of all, ETMs are particularly relevant for 24

Cp. Cavinato (1990), pp. 197–198. The place of departure denotes the location where the transport of goods begins and the place of arrival is the location where the transport of goods ends (cp. Kamphausen (1994), p. 14). 25 Cp. Ballou (2004), pp. 171–176; Bowersox et al. (2002), pp. 339–347; Stock and Lambert (2001), pp. 322–328. 26 Cp. Gleißner and Femerling (2013), pp. 85–86. 27 Cp. Bundesamt für Güterverkehr (2015), p. 8; Eurostat (2018). 28 Experts believe that there are limits for influencing the choice of transportation mode and that road transportation will remain the dominant mode (cp. Hofmann and Gebert (2010), p. 66). A recent study has analyzed the impact of three different scenarios on the use of rail transportation in Germany. While some scenarios are expected to lead to a significant increase of rail transportation, road transportation still plays a leading role in all scenarios (cp. Lobig et al. (2016), p. 14).

2.2 Basics of Road Transportation

17

road transportation where many ETMs already exist.29 It is, therefore, justifiable to make a restriction to the field of application where ETMs are most relevant, namely in the field of road transportation.

2.2.2

Vehicles and Logistics Units

A large variety of motor vehicles can be used for transporting goods on the road.30 For example, the driver’s cab and the load-carrying body can be combined in a single rigid vehicle, or the motor vehicle and a trailer for carrying the goods could be separated (articulated vehicle).31 In addition, vehicles can vary in their body systems and differ in attributes such as the maximum weight, the engine, or the equipment.32 Vehicles can carry different logistics units. Logistics units are created by bundling goods into closed units which can be subject to logistical activities.33 The creation of logistics units is called unitization and once created, logistics units might also be dissolved again.34 Building logistics units often involves multiple levels. In the following, four different levels will be discussed: (1) goods, (2) packaged goods, (3) load units, and (4) transport units.35 The consistency of goods is either liquid, solid, or gaseous.36 For solid goods, it can be further distinguished whether the goods can be handled as single pieces (e.g., bottles, packages, boxes, bags, machines, cars, etc.) or whether they are

29

ETMs have a long tradition in road transportation (cp. Schieck (2008), p. 395). Already several years ago, numerous ETMs could be used to support transactions for road transportation (cp. Hoffmann (2001), p. 275). 30 A motor vehicle is intended for use on roads and drives with mechanical propulsion which includes sources such as petrol, diesel, gas turbine, or electric battery but not human or animal power (cp. Rushton et al. (2014), p. 434). 31 Cp. Lowe (2002), p. 207; Rushton et al. (2014), p. 434. Trailers (including drawbar and semi-trailers) drive on the road but must be drawn by a motor vehicle (cp. Rushton et al. (2014), p. 434). 32 Cp. Hoepke and Brähler (2008), pp. 21–27; Brähler (2008), pp. 119–125. 33 Cp. Large (2012), pp. 43–44. 34 Cp. Rushton et al. (2014), p. 432. 35 These levels are based on the logistics literature (cp. Gudehus and Kotzab (2012), p. 330; Large (2012), pp. 45–51). 36 Cp. Diederich (1977), p. 214; Isermann (1998), p. 24; Koch (2012), p. 41; Martin (2016), p. 59.

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Fundamentals for the Procurement of Transportation Services

bulk goods (e.g., ores, coal, sand, cement, etc.).37 The consistency of the goods has implications for the choice of vehicles. For example, some bulk goods can be transported in open tippers, while liquid or gaseous goods are often transported in closed, cylindric tank trailers.38 In addition, the nature of the goods can imply further relevant requirements for transportation. For example, hazardous goods or reefer cargo impose special requirements on transportation and related activities.39 Instead of loading goods directly onto vehicles, they can be subject to packaging before transportation. Packaging denotes the activity of wrapping goods into packaging material.40 The outcome of packaging is a packaged good, whereby packaged goods can be the input for further packaged goods.41 Goods can be further combined to load units.42 Such units are used to load goods into and unload goods out of vehicles in one combined unit. For example, goods can be combined in different types of pallets.43 Finally, goods can be further grouped via transport units to move them from one location to another.44 The advantage of transport units is that the motor vehicle or even the transportation mode can be changed without the need for loading or unloading the goods or units inside a transport unit. Transport units

37

Cp. Koch (2012), p. 41; Martin (2016), pp. 62–69. Cp. Bahrami (2003), p. 21; Brähler (2008), p. 119. 39 Hazardous goods (or dangerous goods) pose significant risks for health, safety, or the environment. Therefore, they typically require special attention including packaging and labeling when they are stored or transported (cp. Khan and Yu (2019), p. 330). Reefer cargo comprises a variety of temperature-sensitive goods within a range of temperatures between -35°C and approximately + 20°C. Legal requirements may be relevant for reefer cargo, e.g. the proof and control of compliance with the required temperature intervals (cp. Hasselmann (2008), p. 571). 40 Cp. Deuter et al. (2015), p. 1106. For example, cans, pouches, bags, crates, or drums can be used for packaging (cp. Large (2012), p. 46). 41 Cp. Gudehus and Kotzab (2012), p. 330. 42 A load unit is a collection of goods combined in a load carrier larger than the area module 600 mm × 400 mm (cp. Large (2012), pp. 47–48). A load carrier is a medium for carrying the goods (cp. ten Hompel and Heidenblut (2011), p. 166). 43 For a good overview of different pallet types, cp. Martin (2016), pp. 65–68. 44 There can be transport units with and without drive (cp. Gudehus and Kotzab (2012), p. 336). Within this work, transport units will be the largest logistics units without drive which can be used for road transportation. 38

2.2 Basics of Road Transportation

19

include trailers, containers, and swap bodies.45 Figure 2.2 depicts the possibilities for the transport of goods in the aforementioned logistics units.

Figure 2.2 Logistics units relevant for road transportation46

For example, goods could be loaded directly into a vehicle (e.g., sand onto a tipper) or they could be packaged (e.g., water in bottles and crates), combined in a load unit (e.g., pieces of wood in a box pallet) or transport unit (e.g., in a swap body) before they are moved by a rigid or articulated vehicle. Thereby, larger logistical units can contain smaller logistical units—just like a Russian matryoshka doll contains a set of wooden dolls placed one inside another.

45

Containers and swap bodies need trailers and motor vehicles to be moved on the road. A container is a stackable box that is designed to carry goods and allows horizontal and vertical transfers, e.g. 20 or 40 foot ISO containers (cp. Eurostat (2010), p. 52). In contrast to a container, a swap body has supporting legs that can be folded away when not required (cp. Rushton et al. (2014), p. 420). 46 Source: own representation.

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2.2.3

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Fundamentals for the Procurement of Transportation Services

Processes

The following activities are relevant for moving goods on the road:47 ◯ Transport preparation: Preparation activities include the packaging of the goods or refueling the vehicle. ◯ Loading: Loading denotes bringing the goods onto the vehicle and stowing them there. ◯ Transport execution: Besides moving goods over a transport distance, special requirements can induce further activities (e.g., dealing with customs formalities or providing refrigeration for goods). ◯ Unloading: During unloading, goods are moved from the vehicle. ◯ Transport follow-up: Follow-up activities include, for example, processing of transport-related documents and the cleaning of the vehicle. Besides these general process steps, a vehicle can move goods in a direct run from one departure point to one receiving point or it can visit multiple locations in a tour.48 Furthermore, different transport chains can be relevant for the transport of goods.49 In particular, there can be single-stage and multi-stage transport chains that differ in their use of transshipment.50 While goods are directly moved from one place to another in a single-stage transport chain, multi-stage transport chains involve intermediate transshipment.51

47

Cp. Schuh et al. (2013), pp. 148–149; Weber and Kummer (1998), p. 33. Cp. Meyer (2011), p. 27. There can be different tours, e.g. collection tours, delivery tours, and collection and delivery tours (cp. Gudehus and Kotzab (2012), p. 736). 49 A transport chain is a system of technical and organizational processes which is tied together to move persons or goods from a source to an end (cp. Schramm (2012), p. 35). 50 Transshipment denotes an activity whereby goods are loaded from one logistics system onto another. It is usually applied when there are good reasons for a change of transportation mode or vehicle type and often takes place at special locations, e.g. container terminals, railway terminals, or warehouses (cp. Alt and Cathomen (1995), p. 88; Higginson and Bookbinder (2005), p. 75; ten Hompel and Heidenblut (2011), p. 319). 51 Cp. Alt (1997), p. 149; Bahrami (2003), p. 32; Thoma (1995), pp. 20–21. 48

2.3 Procurement of Transportation Services

2.3

21

Procurement of Transportation Services

The procurement of transportation services combines two words that must be defined. First, procurement (or purchasing52 ) comprises all processes for the supply of a company with (direct and indirect) materials, services, rights, and machines from external sources.53 Second, transportation services are a special type of service54 whereby activities for moving goods from one location to another are performed by a supplier of such services under the instruction of a customer.55 Since the customers of the services in the context of this work are companies, transportation services represent a type of business service.56 Typically, decision-makers from the functional areas of procurement and logistics are involved in the procurement of transportation services.57 In the following, the relevant objectives, involved parties, and procurement processes will be discussed.

2.3.1

Objectives

Since the procurement of transportation services is relevant from a procurement and logistics point of view, it should be the aim to achieve the corresponding objectives. These will be briefly discussed in the following.

52

Some researchers believe that purchasing and procurement are different (cp. Baier (2008), pp. 13–14; Kaufmann (2002), p. 9; Mohr (2010), p. 26; Münch (2015), p. 43). In contrast, other researchers do not see a need to distinguish between the meaning of procurement and purchasing (cp. Kaufmann (2002), p. 9; Monczka et al. (2009), p. 8; Stolle (2008), p. 16). The last view will be followed within this thesis and the terms procurement and purchasing will be used interchangeably. 53 Cp. Kaufmann (2001), pp. 39–40. Procurement can denote “[…] a functional group (i.e., a formal entity on the organizational chart) as well as a functional activity (i.e. buying goods and services)” (Monczka et al. (2009), p. 8). The chosen definition for this work shows that procurement is understood in terms of the functional activity. 54 A service is “[…] a change in the condition of a person, or of a good belonging to some economic unit, which is brought about as the result of the activity of some other economic unit, with the prior agreement of the former person or economic unit” (Hill (1977), p. 318). 55 Cp. Gudehus (2012), p. 1013. 56 Services can be consumer services or business services: Consumer services are delivered to individuals or groups of individuals, whereas customers of business services are companies or organizations (cp. Homburg and Garbe (1999), pp. 42–43). 57 Cp. Large (2017), pp. 9–10.

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Within procurement, four general objectives can be distinguished: (1) supply assurance, (2) costs, (3) quality, and (4) flexibility.58 Supply assurance is an essential goal of any procurement activity, since securing the required inputs is the foundation for any planned transformation process within companies.59 In addition, the costs for the acquisition of the needed inputs and the corresponding administrative processes should be optimized.60 To consider quality during procurement activities means aligning the requirements of internal and external customers with the quality of services provided by suppliers.61 Finally, flexibility denotes the ability to adapt to unexpected events in the environment.62 Within logistics, the improvement of logistics efficiency is an important objective. Logistics efficiency refers to the relation between logistics costs and logistics performance.63 Logistics costs are caused by logistical activities (e.g., transportation or storage costs). Logistics performance refers to the results of the provision of logistics services and is closely related to the ability of a company to supply flawless products to its customers in a fast, reliable, and flexible way.64 It can be measured differently and the literature provides various measures related to time, quality, or flexibility dimensions.65 The goal of logistics in terms of logistics efficiency is to minimize logistics costs for a given level of logistics performance as well as to maximize logistics performance for given logistics costs.66

2.3.2

Involved Parties

Different parties are involved in the procurement of transportation services (cp. Figure 2.3). A shipper is a manufacturing, retail or wholesale company originating the demand for transportation services.67 While a company always acts as the shipper for its internal goods movements, this is not always the case when it comes to transportation required for inter-organizational goods movements. For 58

Cp. Irlinger (2012), pp. 13–15; Janker (2008), pp. 17–18; Koppelmann (1995), p. 87. Cp. Arnold (1997), pp. 10–13. 60 Cp. Janker (2008), p. 17. 61 Cp. ibid, p. 17; Koppelmann (1995), pp. 96–97. 62 Cp. Irlinger (2012), p. 15. 63 Cp. Muchna et al. (2018), p. 49. 64 Cp. Dehler (2001), p. 207; Schönherr (2015), p. 45. 65 Cp. Hofmann and Nothardt (2009), p. 95; Muchna et al. (2018), p. 45. 66 Cp. Hausladen (2020), p. 7; Fleischmann (2008), p. 7. 67 Cp. Buer (2012), p. 1; Gleißner and Femerling (2008), p. 28. 59

2.3 Procurement of Transportation Services

23

the latter, the agreed terms and conditions with suppliers and customers determine whether the focal company is responsible for transportation or not. The clauses regarding responsibility for transportation are often based on incoterms, which are the standardized and internationally common terms to specify the responsibility for transportation costs, risks, customs, and duties.68

Figure 2.3 Parties involved in the procurement of transportation services69

Some of the incoterms specify that the buyer is responsible for transportation. Such incoterms are, for example, ex-works (EXW) or free carrier (FCA). Other incoterms determine the seller as being responsible for transportation: carriage paid to (CPT), carriage and insurance paid to (CIP), delivered at terminal (DAT), delivered at place (DAP), and delivered duty paid (DDP).70 Therefore, whether a company acts as a shipper for goods movements within procurement or sales transactions depends on the agreed incoterms. Shippers can purchase transportation services from companies supplying such services. Since suppliers of services are usually referred to as service providers,71 a company that supplies transportation services to other companies will be called 68

Cp. Bendul (2014), pp. 137–138; Seiler (2012), p. 16. Source: own representation. 70 Cp. Leitner (2015), p. 25; Wieske (2008), pp. 29–30. 71 Cp. Hornby and Turnbull (2010), p. 1415. 69

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a transportation service provider. Two types of transportation service providers will be discussed in the following: carriers and transportation intermediaries. A carrier is a company engaged in the business of transporting goods and that performs transportation activities for customers.72 In addition to sourcing transportation services from carriers, shippers can also buy services from a transportation intermediary. An intermediary is a company that coordinates and arbitrates transactions between suppliers and customers.73 More specifically, a transportation intermediary sources transportation services from a carrier or another transportation intermediary to sell this service to a shipper. In contrast to a carrier, a transportation intermediary, therefore, does not perform the transportation activities but instructs another company to do it.74

2.3.3

Procurement Processes

As for the procurement of any other needed supply, the procurement of transportation services involves different activities. These include:75 1. Forecast and plan requirement: A forecast of procurement needs should be developed together with the internal customers of other functional areas (e.g., operations). 2. Need clarification (requisition): Eventually internal customers must identify their need for a product or service and communicate it to the procurement function. 3. Supplier identification/selection: After the clarification of the need, a supplier who can fulfill it has to be identified and selected. This can be either a new supplier or a known supplier which has a contractual relationship with the buying company. 4. Contract/purchase order generation: Once a supplier has been selected and there is an agreement on the terms and conditions for the supply of services or materials, this agreement should be specified in a contract or purchase order. 72

Cp. Bowersox et al. (2002), p. 331; Cavinato (1990), p. 42; Ghiani et al. (2005), p. 199; Seiler (2012), p. 16. According to German law, a carrier is the party of a carriage contract that is obliged to move the freight to the place of arrival and to deliver it there to the recipient (cp. Cardeneo (2008), p. 734; Walther (2009), p. 220). 73 Cp. Wu (2004), p. 67. 74 For example, brokers and freight forwarders act as transportation intermediaries (cp. Bowersox et al. (2002), p. 331). 75 Cp. Monczka et al. (2009), pp. 43–68.

2.3 Procurement of Transportation Services

25

5. Receipt of material or service and documents: It must be monitored and documented whether goods and services have been supplied as desired. 6. Settlement, payment, and measurement of performance: When the goods or services are provided, the payment to the supplier will be issued. In addition, the continuous measurement of supplier performance is necessary to identify improvement opportunities or supplier non-performance. A special characteristic of transportation services is that they can be bought either on the spot market or the contract market.76 Since the processes involved in both types of procurement differ, these will be discussed separately in more detail.

2.3.3.1 Spot Market Procurement The process for the procurement of transportation services on the spot market begins with the requisition of transportation needs by internal customers (cp. Figure 2.4). Such requisitions are represented by shipments that can stem from the functional areas of procurement, production, or sales and distribution. Once it is known which shipments should be moved separately or in a combined way, a transportation service provider which can perform the movement of the goods must be identified and selected. The price for transportation services on the spot market is instantaneously given by the market at the time of the transaction.77 This means that offers from potential transportation service providers must be requested to find a suitable service provider and that the terms and conditions must be negotiated with them. This can be done by phone, e-mail, or by using an ETM. When a transportation service provider has been determined, the service must be requested from him. The transport order transferred to the transportation service provider documents the request for the services to be purchased.78 Afterward, the subsequent transport of the goods can be performed. Finally, the activities for the settlement, payment, and measurement of performance follow. Before the payment toward a supplier can be issued, it must be ensured that the requested inputs have been supplied. For the procurement of transportation services, it must be verified whether the goods have been moved as requested.79 If 76

Cp. Bundesamt für Güterverkehr (2006), pp. 1–4; Bühler (2006), pp. 136–137; Caplice (2007), pp. 423–424; Garrido (2007), p. 1068; Liedtke (2006), pp. 81–82; Meier (2016), p. 188; Mes et al. (2009), p. 208; Otto (2004), p. 63; Schubert (2013), pp. 33–34. 77 Cp. Bühler (2006), pp. 136–137; Garrido (2007), p. 1068. 78 The transport order fulfills a similar purpose as the purchase order for buying goods. 79 For example, a proof of delivery may document that the shipped goods have reached the entitled destination (cp. Hasan and Salah (2018), p. 46781).

26

2

Fundamentals for the Procurement of Transportation Services

Figure 2.4 Process for spot market procurement80

this is the case, the accounts payable department can issue the payment. Therefore, there is an interface between the functions responsible for the procurement of transportation services and the accounting function.

2.3.3.2 Contract Market Procurement When the contract market is used for the procurement of transportation services, transport contracts are agreed upon between shippers and transportation service providers. Transport contracts cover multiple transportation requirements over a longer validity period which is often between six months and one year. However, also longer validity periods are possible.81 A distinction can be made between behavior-oriented and outcome-oriented contracts.82 In behaviororiented contracts, the shipper is responsible for planning and scheduling the

80

Source: own representation. Cp. Liedtke (2006), p. 80; Schubert (2013), p. 34. 82 Cp. Lundin and Hedberg (2012), p. 240. 81

2.3 Procurement of Transportation Services

27

trucking operations. The pricing is often specified as open-book and the compensation is typically based on the use of the resources of the transportation service provider (i.e., driver, vehicle, fuel, etc.), for example, with a compensation defined per distance and time.83 In contrast, outcome-oriented contracts are based on some indicators related to the performed transportation services. For example, the compensation in these contracts could be based on the number of FTL transports performed between a place of departure and a place of arrival.84 The procurement of transportation services via the contract market consists of decisions covering a mid-term horizon which set the frame for short-term procurement activities (cp. Figure 2.5). The mid-term decisions should begin with activities for forecasting and planning the needed transportation services based on planned transportation flows (e.g., from master planning). Once it is known for which flows the corresponding transportation services must be purchased on the contract market, the suppliers can be identified and selected. If the terms and conditions have been agreed upon by the involved parties, a transport contract can be generated and signed by the involved parties. The agreed terms and conditions in the contract provide the framework for the short-term procurement activities. These processes are quite similar to the procurement processes on the spot market: based on shipments, transport orders are generated and transferred to transportation service providers, the transport of goods is being performed and the whole process ends with the settlement, payment, and performance measurement. However, there is no need to agree on the terms and conditions for each transport order because this has already been done before in a contract that covers a longer time horizon.

83

This has also been called a dedicated relationship, cp. Caplice (2021), p. 11. Cp. Buer (2012), pp. 8–9. Sometimes, shippers and transportation service providers also work together over a longer period without an explicit and legally binding transportation contract (cp. Schubert (2013), pp. 33–34). These cases shall also be subsumed under the contract market procurement of transportation services. For further types of transport contracts, cp. Caplice (2021), pp. 13–14.

84

28

2

Fundamentals for the Procurement of Transportation Services

Figure 2.5 Process for contract market procurement85

85

Source: own representation.

3

Electronic Transportation Marketplaces

Besides fundamentals for the procurement of transportation services, the remaining chapters of this thesis require a solid knowledge of ETMs which will be provided within this chapter. First, the basic terminology will be introduced (cp. Section 3.1) and the historical development of ETMs will be reviewed (cp. Section 3.2). Based on different options for the classification of ETMs (cp. Section 3.3), the term ETM will be clearly defined for this work (cp. Section 3.4). Finally, the functionalities of ETMs will be presented (cp. Section 3.5).

3.1

Basic Terminology

3.1.1

E-procurement and Related Terms

The present thesis deals with e-procurement which denotes the full or partial support of procurement activities through internet-based systems.1 There are different ways in which the internet can be used to support procurement processes. For example, the use of EDI and electronic communication via e-mail represent two possibilities for implementing e-procurement.2 E-procurement is one part of electronic business (or e-business)3 that refers to “[…] initiating, arranging and carrying out electronic business processes; in other words, exchanging services

1

Cp. Bichler et al. (2010), p. 68; Hartmann (2002b), p. 102; Held (2003), p. 99; Kleineicken (2004), p. 90. 2 Cp. Held (2003), pp. 105–114. 3 E-business consists of e-procurement and e-commerce (cp. Deinlein (2003), p. 48; Wang and Archer (2007b), p. 91). © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 P. Sylla, Electronic Procurement of Transportation Services, Schriftenreihe der HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-40403-1_3

29

30

3

Electronic Transportation Marketplaces

with the help of public or private communication networks, including the internet, in order to achieve added value”4 . Electronic marketplaces can be used for e-procurement and will be presented in the following.

3.1.2

Electronic Marketplaces

Many alternative terms for EMs are used in the literature (e.g., e-hubs or exchanges).5 Furthermore, EMs have been defined in different ways (cp. Table 3.1). Table 3.1 Definitions for the term electronic marketplace6 Source Choudhury et al. (1998), p. 471

Definition of electronic marketplace “An electronic market is an interorganizational information system through which multiple buyers and sellers interact to accomplish one or more of the following market-making activities: (1) identifying potential trading partners, (2) selecting a specific partner, and (3) executing the transaction.”

Dai and Kauffman (2002), p. 42

“[...] B2B electronic markets are markets whose central role is to facilitate product and information exchange, and to support the all-in processes of business transactions from initial contacts and negotiation to settlement.”

Grieger (2003), p. 282

“The unique feature of an EM is that it brings multiple buyers and sellers together (in a ‘virtual’ sense) in one central market space.”

Holzmüller and Schlüchter (2002), p. 4

“Electronic B2B marketplaces are Internet based business systems that support all activities related to transactions and interactions (planning the transformation of goods) between various companies.”

Soh et al. (2006), p. 706

“Electronic marketplaces (EMPs) are independently owned, ITenabled intermediaries that connect many buying organizations with many selling organizations.”

While all the definitions contain some important aspects, none of them contains all elements which are considered important within this work. Therefore, an 4

Meier and Stormer (2009), p. 2. Cp. Deinlein (2003), p. 48; Wang and Archer (2007b), p. 91. 6 Source: own representation. 5

3.1 Basic Terminology

31

own definition will be proposed which is based on three main characteristics of EMs. First, the main purpose of EMs is to offer functionalities for supporting market transactions between participants.7 EMs can support market transactions across three phases: the information, the negotiation, and the settlement phase.8 An EM as understood within this thesis supports one or many of the aforementioned phases.9 Second, an EM should be defined in terms of the number of buyers and sellers that interact with it. Four types of market exchanges can be distinguished depending on the number of participants on the buying and selling side (cp. Figure 3.1). Figure 3.1 Typologies of market exchanges10

7

Cp. Choudhury et al. (1998), pp. 473–475. Cp. Gebauer (1996), 15–18; Grieger et al. (2003), p. 289; Scharl (2000), pp. 49–51; Schmid (2002), pp. 216–217. 9 Other authors have more specific requirements, e.g. that an EM must support at least the negotiation phase (cp. Müller (2004), p. 29) or even all phases of market transactions (cp. Baldi and Borgman (2001), p. 543). 10 Source: own representation adapted from Müller (2004), p. 46 and Deinlein (2003), p. 65. 8

32

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Electronic Transportation Marketplaces

In contrast to bilateral connections between one buyer and one seller or private buy-side and private sell-side markets, marketplaces connect many buyers with many sellers.11 Finally, an EM definition must emphasize that the buyers and sellers are virtually connected by utilizing information technology (IT).12 Many authors define an EM as an inter-organizational information system.13 An information system (IS) is “[…] the entire infrastructure, organization, personnel, and components for the collection, processing, storage, transmission, display, dissemination, and disposition of information”14 . An inter-organizational information system (IOS) is an IS which facilitates the creation, storage, transformation, and transmission of information across organizational boundaries by means of IT.15 A definition of EMs as IOS, however, is problematic because EMs may also be used to support transactions within organizational boundaries.16 But it is useful to define an EM based on its virtuality.17 If an object is characterized as virtual, this implies that it does not have a physical substance. On conventional marketplaces, which are still visible in many city centers, transactions are completely executed offline, and buyers and sellers meet each other in a physical place where they can trade face to face. In contrast, EMs do not provide a physical place for buyers and sellers, but they offer a virtual place to connect them.18 Thus, it is an important characteristic of EMs that they provide a virtual place to connect buyers and sellers by means of IT.

11

Cp. Choudhury et al. (1998), p. 475; Georg (2006), p. 176; Grewal et al. (2001), p. 18; Müller (2004), p. 31; Skjøtt-Larsen et al. (2003), p. 200; Stockdale and Standing (2004), p. 302. This restriction is useful because different types of IOS entail different relationships between buyers and sellers as well as different benefits (cp. Choudhury (1997), pp. 2–4). 12 IT comprises information processing technologies (e.g. hardware, software, telecommunications, database management) used in computer-based information systems (cp. Marakas and O’Brien (2013), p. 691). 13 Cp. Bakos (1991), p. 296; Choudhury et al. (1998), p. 471; Grewal et al. (2001), p. 18; Stockdale and Standing (2004), p. 302; Baldi and Borgman (2001), p. 543. 14 Cp. ATIS (2021). 15 Cp. Johnston and Vitale (1988), p. 154. 16 For example, Gomber et al. (1997) investigate how a market-based coordination mechanism could be used within the company of a transportation service provider with different subsidiaries which are organized as profit centers. 17 If something is characterized as virtual, this implies that it does not have a physical substance (cp. Boysen (2001), pp. 16–17). 18 Cp. Held (2003), pp. 116–117; Schneider and Schnetkamp (2000), p. 98; Georg (2006), p. 174.

3.1 Basic Terminology

33

Up to now, the definitions of EMs in the literature have been critically reviewed and three important characteristics of EMs have been identified. These shall now be combined to create a definition for the term electronic marketplace: An electronic marketplace provides a virtual place to connect multiple buyers and sellers by means of IT. It offers functionalities to support one or many phases of market transactions.

3.1.3

Electronic Transportation Marketplaces

After the term EM has been defined in the previous section, it shall now be discussed how an electronic transportation marketplace (ETM) can be defined. EMs could be used to support the exchange of different logistics services.19 An important characteristic of ETMs is that they connect buyers and sellers of transportation services.20 In general, EMs can be categorized as horizontal or vertical. Horizontal EMs facilitate the exchange of goods and services which are used across multiple industries, while vertical EMs serve a specific industry (e.g., the automotive industry).21 Transportation services are relevant for many industries. Therefore, ETMs represent horizontal EMs.22 Considering the abovediscussed properties of ETMs, the following preliminary definition for the term ETM can be proposed: An electronic transportation marketplace (ETM) is a specific type of horizontal electronic marketplace. It is a virtual place that connects multiple buyers and sellers of transportation services by means of information technology and provides functionalities to support one or many phases of market transactions for the exchange of transportation services. After providing a short overview of the historical development of ETMs and the possibilities for their classification, a more detailed definition will be developed for this work.23

19

Besides the exchange of transportation services, EMs could be used to support the exchange of further logistics services like warehousing services (cp. Fit4Platform (2022)). 20 Cp. Bierwirth et al. (2002), pp. 335–336; Goldsby and Eckert (2003), p. 187; Kale et al. (2007), p. 22; Sänger (2004), pp. 72–74; Schwind et al. (2011), p. 1. 21 Cp. Deinlein (2003), p. 64; Georg (2006), p. 186; Grieger (2003), pp. 287–288; Lin et al. (2002), p. 1; Skjøtt-Larsen et al. (2003), p. 201; Straube (2004), pp. 190–191. 22 Indeed, some authors use ETMs as a prime example for horizontal EMs (cp. Deinlein (2003), p. 64; Georg (2006), p. 186; Lin et al. (2002), p. 1). 23 Cp. Section 3.4.

34

3.2

3

Electronic Transportation Marketplaces

Historical Development

The historical development of ETMs is strongly related to broad changes within IT. In the 1960s, IOS began to be used by companies, for example, flight reservation systems for large American airline companies. The initial connection of travel agencies with one specific airline soon developed into a market-type structure that involved the integration of multiple airlines into one reservation system. This can be seen as the beginning of the development of EMs.24 In the financial industry, EMs that support stock market transactions followed in the 1970s. At the same time, the first ETMs were introduced in Europe, initially mainly using the technological infrastructure of telephone and fax. The introduction of the videotex technology at the beginning of the 1980s had a further influence on the development of EMs. For example, it allowed private households to conduct transactions electronically or at least initiate them. Videotex was also used for ETMs, where the new systems were now able to process larger amounts of data.25 The increased diffusion of personal computers and the internet during the 1990s further accelerated the use of EMs.26 In fact, the introduction of the internet can be seen as a turning point in the history of EMs, because it provides an unprecedented infrastructure for connecting people and businesses. This turning point was also obvious for ETMs, where a distinction between two generations of ETMs can be made. The first generation of ETMs between 1970 and 1995 was based on telephone, fax, or videotex and only offered limited support for market transactions (mainly for the information phase). The second generation of ETMs introduced after 1995 was based on the internet and additionally provided functionalities that support the negotiation and settlement phases of market transactions.27 Since the turn of the millennium, the use of the internet for electronic trade has shown significant growth. While the total revenues in business-to-business (B2B) e-commerce in Germany has been estimated to amount to 396 billion Euros in 2007, estimations for the revenues in 2019 amount to 1,300 billion Euros.28 These figures do not explicitly provide information for EMs or ETMs,

24

Cp. Stockmann (1998), pp. 81–83. Cp. Alt (1997), pp. 196–197; Sänger (2004), pp. 83–88; Stockmann (1998), pp. 81–82. 26 Cp. Stockmann (1998), pp. 81–83. 27 Cp. Sänger (2004), pp. 83–88. 28 Cp. Handelsblatt (2013); IfH Köln (2019). 25

3.3 Classification

35

but it can be assumed that the trade volumes on these marketplaces have been subject to significant growth as well.

3.3

Classification

In the following, a classification of ETMs will be developed which will help to better understand how ETMs can differ. Furthermore, the term ETM has only been defined in a rather broad way and the classification will also help to propose a more specific definition of ETMs for this thesis. The developed classification distinguishes ETMs along three main dimensions: (1) the participants, (2) the nature of exchanged transportation services, and (3) the ownership and bias. These and further sub-dimensions will be discussed in the following.

3.3.1

Participants

Companies and consumers can be participants of ETMs. Therefore, four different combinations of businesses and consumers as buyers and sellers on ETMs can be distinguished (cp. Figure 3.2).29 B2B ETMs connect corporate suppliers and customers of transportation services. Since the supply of transportation services in the B2B context may involve shippers, transportation intermediaries, and carriers, ETMs have different options to position themselves:30 • Shipper—transportation service provider:31 In this combination, an ETM positions itself between the shipper and the parties which can offer the transportation service (i.e., transportation intermediaries and carriers).

29

In general, also governments could participate in electronic trade activities (cp. Chaffey (2007), p. 26). However, it is expected that governments only play a minor role in the exchange of transportation services. Therefore, the focus is set on businesses and consumers as participants of ETMs. 30 Cp. Sänger (2004), p. 79. 31 Sänger calls this combination “Shipper—Forwarding Agent” (cp. Sänger (2004), p. 79). However, he notes that also the carrier could be a transaction partner. Since carrier and transportation intermediaries are subsumed under the term transportation service provider in this thesis (cp. Section 2.3.2), this participant combination has been renamed accordingly.

36

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Electronic Transportation Marketplaces

Figure 3.2 Types of ETMs according to participants32

• Transportation intermediary—carrier:33 Another possibility for positioning an ETM is the option to improve the transactions between carriers and transportation intermediaries while at the same time excluding shippers. • Shipper—carrier: It is also possible that an ETM excludes any transportation intermediaries to allow direct transactions between shippers and carriers. While in general many more different combinations of participants are possible,34 this distinction is useful to categorize ETMs. Trans.eu35 , for example, offers its services to shippers, carriers, and transportation intermediaries and therefore represents an ETM from the category “shipper—transportation service provider”. An example for an ETM focusing on the participant category “transportation intermediary—carrier” was Loadfox.36 32

Source: own representation. Sänger calls this combination of participants “Forwarding agent—Carrier” (cp. Sänger (2004), p. 79). However, his definition of a forwarding agent corresponds to the definition of a transportation intermediary within this work (cp. Section 2.3.2 and Sänger (2004), p. 63). 34 Cp. Bierwirth et al. (2002), p. 339. 35 Cp. http://www.trans.eu. 36 The service of Loadfox (cp. http://www.loadfox.eu) included an algorithm for the consolidation of small shipments to profitable tours in order to improve the transactions between 33

3.3 Classification

37

ETMs which are active in the business-to-consumer (B2C) segment support consumers in the procurement of transportation services from corporate transportation service providers. Two examples of such ETMs are uShip and Pamyra.37 Besides the B2C segment, these ETMs are also often active in the B2B segment. Some ETMs position themselves in the consumer-to-business (C2B) and the consumer-to-consumer (C2C) segment. Within C2B, individuals offer transportation services for (often last mile) deliveries on behalf of companies. An example of an ETM operating in the C2B segment was UberRUSH.38 The Swedish company Urb-it39 follows a similar concept. In contrast to UberRUSH, Urb-it focuses on the transportation of goods by walking, biking, or using public transport.40 The concept underlying UberRUSH and Urb-it is also known as crowdsourced logistics which can be defined as a business model whereby “[…] a shipper procures transportation services via a mobile or computer application directly from members of the crowd who provide those services as an independent contractor using a personally owned vehicle asset”41 . Within the C2C segment, ETMs connect consumers with other individuals who can perform the transport of goods on their behalf. For example, the services of Roadie42 in the USA can be used to connect people who need to transport goods with drivers already heading a certain way. A similar service is offered by Nimber43 mainly in Scandinavia and the United Kingdom.44

carriers and transportation intermediaries (cp. DVZ (2016a)). In the meantime, however, Loadfox has stopped its service (cp. DVZ (2020)). 37 Pamyra (cp. http://www.pamyra.de) is a German ETM with a focus on private and business shippers with sporadic demand for transportation services (cp. DVZ (2016b)). The US-based ETM uShip (cp. http://www.uship.com) connects shippers and transportation service companies and also supports the use of mobile devices for booking (cp. uShip.com (2017)). 38 Some companies regularly require courier transports of goods to consumers, for example, restaurants offering food deliveries or online shops offering same-day deliveries. These companies could use the platform of UberRUSH to connect via a mobile application to individuals who might carry out the transport of the goods (cp. Zimmermann (2017), p. 18). In the meantime, however, the service of UberRUSH has been shut down (cp. Bensinger (2018)). 39 Cp. http://urb-it.com. 40 Cp. Zimmermann (2017), p. 18. 41 Castillo et al. (2018), p. 7. 42 Cp. http://www.roadie.com. 43 Cp. http://www.nimber.com. 44 Cp. Zimmermann (2017), p. 27.

38

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Electronic Transportation Marketplaces

Besides the aforementioned combinations of participants, ETMs can also differ in their market access to participants. For example, a distinction between open and closed EMs is very common in the literature. Open and closed EMs differ in their restrictions on market access for participants: an open EM is characterized by public access for all participants following its rules, and a closed EM is only accessible to certain customers and/or suppliers.45 The same distinction can also be made for ETMs. An ETM without access restrictions for shippers and transportation service providers is an open ETM (e.g., Trans.eu). Closed ETMs impose access restrictions either on both transportation service providers and shippers or on only one side of the market participants.46

3.3.2

Nature of Exchanged Transportation Services

ETMs can be used to exchange transportation services of various transportation modes, including road, rail, water, and air transportation.47 While many ETMs support road transportation, some ETMs also focus on other transportation modes. For example, cargo.one48 allows companies to get spot rates for air transportation from multiple airlines. An example of an ETM for water transportation is INTTRA49 . Furthermore, ETMs can differ in the supported type of sourcing. In particular, ETMs can offer functionalities to support spot and/or contract market transactions for transportation services.50 For example, Transporeon51 offers distinct products 45

Cp. Deinlein (2003), p. 68; Georg (2006), p. 187; Grieger (2003); Richter and Nohr (2002), pp. 73–74; Skjøtt-Larsen et al. (2003), p. 201. 46 Cp. Richter and Nohr (2002), pp. 73–74. An example of an ETM that is closed only for transportation service providers is Flexport. Flexport is open to all shippers as customers. On the side of transportation service providers, however, the ETM is closed and only works with trusted partners (cp. Flexport (2019)). A closed ETM with restrictions on market access for both shippers and transportation service providers is presented by Wang et al. (2011): three manufacturers have created a closed ETM with 15 carriers to better control the delivery process, especially for monitoring the real-time status of shipments. 47 Cp. Rushton et al. (2014), pp. 78–79. 48 Cp. http://www.cargo.one. 49 Founded in April 2000 by a consortium of five major ocean carriers, INTTRA facilitates the booking as well as the tracking and tracing of cargo for shippers across multiple carriers (cp. van Ham and Kuipers (2004), pp. 63–64). 50 This is comparable to a general distinction between systematic sourcing and spot sourcing on EMs (cp. Kaplan and Sawhney (2000), p. 98). 51 Cp. http://www.transpoeon.com.

3.3 Classification

39

supporting spot and contract market transactions. The solution “Best Carrier” allows shippers to use reverse auctions to determine the responsible carriers for spot transport orders.52 In addition, the product “Ticontract Tendering” supports long-term contracts, e.g., by providing an easy way to create matrices for freight tenders.53 In addition, marketplaces can have different geographic scopes.54 For ETMs the geographic scope matters because transportation services can cover distances ranging from local and regional to continental and global.55 Finally, ETMs can be used to exchange transportation services for different shipment sizes. These can range from small shipments for courier, express, and parcel (CEP) services over less than truckload (LTL) and part truckload (PTL) to full truckload (FTL) shipments.56

3.3.3

Ownership and Bias

Typically, three parties are active on EMs: buyers, sellers, and operators that own and run the marketplace.57 Depending on the operator of the EM, three different types of EMs can be distinguished. Private EMs are operated by buyers or sellers as participants of the EM. In a consortia-based EM, multiple buyers or sellers which are usually competitors establish the marketplace. An independent EM is owned by a neutral third party.58 Many ETMs are owned and operated by neutral third parties. However, some ETMs are also owned by companies that are active in the transportation business. Saloodo59 , for example, has been founded by the transportation service provider DHL.

52

Cp. Transporeon (2017a). Cp. Transporeon (2017b). 54 Cp. Täuscher and Laudien (2018), p. 6. 55 Cp. Seiler (2012), p. 11. 56 Shipments of CEP services have a weight below 31 kg and LTL shipments have a weight between 31 kg and 2,500 kg (cp. Schwemmer (2016), pp. 84–85). PTL shipments do not fill the total capacity of a vehicle, whereas FTL shipments fully utilize it (cp. Gleißner and Femerling (2008), p. 81). 57 Cp. Maier and Wieringa (2021), p. 312. 58 Cp. Baldi and Borgman (2001), p. 544; Wang and Archer (2007b), pp. 98–99. A similar distinction has also been proposed for ETMs (cp. Sänger (2004), p. 80). 59 Cp. http://www.saloodo.de. 53

40

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Electronic Transportation Marketplaces

Somehow related to the ownership of EMs, a distinction for the bias is often made between buy-side, sell-side, and neutral marketplaces.60 EMs are biased when they serve the interests of a certain group of participants more than those of others.61 While buy-side marketplaces focus on the reduction of procurement costs for the participating buyers (e.g., through the aggregation of demand), sellside marketplaces focus on the benefits for sellers and offer them a forum to present their products and services. Neutral marketplaces are seen as equally attractive to sellers and buyers.62 The same distinction also applies to ETMs.

3.4

Definition of the Term for This Work

3.4.1

Definition

In the previous chapter, multiple possibilities for the classification of ETMs have been presented. These can be used to specify in more detail which ETMs are the focus of the present thesis (cp. Figure 3.3). Following the previous focus on road transportation,63 only ETMs for this transportation mode will be in scope. In addition, the focus will be on ETMs which support B2B transactions between shippers (manufacturing, retail, and wholesale companies) and transportation service providers.64 Since the purpose of this work is to support shippers in their procurement of transportation services, ETMs that only support transactions between transportation service providers are not in scope.65 Based on this reasoning, the following definition of an ETM applies within this thesis: An electronic transportation marketplace is a specific type of electronic marketplace that connects multiple shippers (manufacturing, retail, and wholesale companies) with multiple transportation service providers (carriers and/or transportation intermediaries). It offers functionalities that support market transactions to sell and buy transportation services for road transportation. 60

Cp. Grieger et al. (2003), p. 287; Skjøtt-Larsen et al. (2003), p. 201; Straube (2004), p. 189. Cp. Wang and Archer (2007b), p. 101. 62 Cp. Skjøtt-Larsen et al. (2003), p. 201. 63 Cp. Section 2.2.1. 64 Some ETMs support B2B and B2C transactions at the same time. Since they support B2B transactions, such ETMs are in the scope of the present thesis. 65 For example, Wtransnet (cp. http://www.wtransnet.com) does not allow shippers on the ETM and only supports transactions between carriers and transportation intermediaries. 61

3.4 Definition of the Term for This Work

41

Figure 3.3 Classification of ETMs66

3.4.2

Demarcations

An ETM connects many shippers with many transportation service providers. Therefore, one-to-many or many-to-one markets where either only one transportation service provider offers transportation services (private sell-side market) or only one shipper buys all the transportation services (private buy-side market) are not considered to be an ETM. For example, the logistics company Kühne+Nagel has introduced a customer portal called myKN where shippers can get quotes for

66

Source: own representation.

42

3

Electronic Transportation Marketplaces

shipments, book transports, and track them.67 This is an example of a private sell-side market that does not represent an ETM. A distinction between ETMs and so-called digital freight forwarders, however, is not always clear.68 Because both ETMs and digital freight forwarders connect demand and supply for transportation services, the business models are quite similar. Thus, there are certainly some overlaps between the concepts. For example, Saloodo has been mentioned as a digital freight forwarder.69 Since Saloodo allows shippers to compare offers from multiple transportation service providers, it can also be considered to be an ETM. But not all digital freight forwarders are also ETMs. Instafreight, has been mentioned as an example of a digital freight forwarder.70 However, Instafreight does not offer shippers a choice between different carriers and therefore rather represents a private sell-side market like that of Kühne+Nagel which is not an ETM. Therefore, whether a digital freight forwarder represents an ETM cannot be generally answered but depends on the specific design of the platform.

3.5

Functionalities

ETMs provide different functionalities for supporting market transactions and interactions between participants.71 In the following, main and additional functionalities will be discussed separately.

67

Cp. Air Cargo News (2018). A holistic definition of digital freight forwarders is difficult to provide because the market is diverse and developing (cp. Elbert and Gleser (2019), p. 21). A common denominator seems to be that the same functional spectrum of a classical freight forwarder is offered on an online platform, especially that a digital freight forwarder is a contractual party for both shippers and transportation service providers (cp. Göpfert and Seeßle (2019), p. 267; Elbert and Gleser (2019), pp. 20–21; Ortwein and Kuchinke (2021), p. 166; Seeßle (2019), p. 378; Sucky and Asdecker (2019), p. 207). 69 Cp. Sucky and Asdecker (2019), p. 207. 70 Cp. Seeßle (2019), p. 378. 71 In general, the term functionality denotes the range of functions that a software can perform (cp. Deuter et al. (2015), p. 636). EM functionalities are solutions that facilitate transactions and interactions between clients of an EM (cp. Wang and Archer (2004), p. 2). 68

3.5 Functionalities

3.5.1

43

Main Functionalities

The main functionalities of ETMs are those functionalities that support the procurement processes in terms of supplier identification, supplier selection, generation of contracts, or transfer of transport orders.72 These functionalities include spot market functionalities (i.e., bulletin board, instant quoting, and reverse auction) to purchase transportation services on the spot market. Furthermore, an ETM can offer contract market functionalities to support transactions based on mid- to long-term agreements (i.e., e-tendering and electronic transport order). These main functionalities will be discussed in the following.

3.5.1.1 Spot Market Functionalities 3.5.1.1.1 Bulletin Board A bulletin board is a simple functionality that allows sellers and buyers to specify sales and purchase transactions and can be used to initiate contact between market participants.73 Buyers of transportation services can specify the needed transportation service on a bulletin board or sellers of transportation services can offer their transportation capacities. If an appropriate offer is found, the parties use traditional means of communication (e.g., phone, fax, or e-mail) and bilateral negotiations follow to find an agreement on the terms of the exchange. Thus, a bulletin board does only support the information phase of market transactions and the subsequent negotiation and settlement phase must be conducted outside of the ETM.74 Due to this very limited support of transactions by digital means, this spot market functionality can be considered outdated and will most likely be replaced by other spot market functionalities.

72

For an overview of the procurement processes, cp. Section 2.3.3. Various main functionalities of EMs have been discussed in the literature with terms like pricing mechanism (cp. Grieger et al. (2003), p. 288; Schwind et al. (2011), p. 3) or transaction mechanism (cp. Held (2003), pp. 124–125; Kersten (2001), pp. 25–26; Kleineicken (2004), p. 102). 73 Bulletin boards are sometimes also called „electronic pinboards“, “blackboards” or “post and browse” (cp. Held (2003), p. 126; Ihde (2004), p. 32; Voigt et al. (2003), p. 43. 74 Cp. Held (2003), pp. 126–127; Ihde (2004), p. 32; Sänger (2004), p. 80; Voigt et al. (2003), pp. 43–45.

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3.5.1.1.2 Instant Quoting Instant quoting on ETMs allows shippers to immediately receive fixed price offers for transport orders.75 Typically, shippers must first provide some shipment information (e.g., type and quantity of goods, place of departure and arrival, and relevant dates). This information is then used by the ETM to instantaneously calculate price offers for the transportation service. Normally, these instant price offers are calculated based on pricing algorithms that make use of different data inputs (e.g., real-time and historic data for distance, weight, seasonality, and available capacity).76 Pamyra77 , for example, is an ETM that offers instant quoting. 3.5.1.1.3 Reverse Auction An auction is “[…] a market institution with an explicit set of rules determining resource allocation and prices on the basis of bids from the market participants”78 . Typically, four types of auctions are distinguished: English auction, Dutch auction, first-price sealed-bid auction, and Vickrey-auction.79 While a forward auction is used to sell goods or services to multiple customers, a reverse auction is used for procurement transactions involving multiple suppliers.80 In the context of ETMs, a reverse auction shall be defined as a mechanism whereby transportation service providers make price bids for single transport orders. A buyer of transportation services can then select the best offer. Shiply81 , for example, offers B2B and B2C reverse auctions for transportation services.

75

Instant quoting is similar to the fixed prices of products offered in catalogs on EMs (cp. Held (2003), pp. 127–129; Sänger (2004), p. 45; Voigt et al. (2003), pp. 45–48). 76 Cp. Elbert and Gleser (2019), p. 25; Ortwein and Kuchinke (2021), pp. 166–167. 77 Cp. http://www.pamyra.de. 78 McAfee and McMillian (1987), p. 701. 79 Cp. McAfee and McMillian (1987), p. 702; Klemperer (1999), p. 229; Simon and Fassnacht (2016), p. 148. 80 Cp. Jap (2007), p. 146; Kalagnanam and Parkes (2004), p. 144; Ruhnau (2012), p. 23; Stoll (2007), p. 30. 81 Cp. http://www.shiply.com.

3.5 Functionalities

45

3.5.1.2 Contract Market Functionalities 3.5.1.2.1 E-tendering For the procurement of transportation services, the term e-tendering refers to the announcement of demand for multiple transportation needs and the invitation to potential transportation service providers for submitting offers.82 In the context of e-tendering, different types of requests can be made. Especially requests for proposals or requests for quotations are relevant. A request for proposal (RFP) is used to ask a supplier for a specific offer, which can include a precise description of the intended realization, possible dates, and non-binding price offers. With a request for quotation (RFQ), a customer specifies the demand in detail and requests price offers from suppliers in a standardized way.83

3.5.1.2.2 Electronic Transport Order The functionality electronic transport order has not been mentioned in the literature so far. Therefore, it will be initially explained and examples for implementations in ETMs will be provided. Afterward, it will be discussed how it relates to functionalities that are discussed in the EM literature. The functionality electronic transport order allows shippers to send transport order information electronically to transportation service providers. Since the functionality does not involve any pricing mechanism, the freight rate must be agreed upon with the transportation service provider beforehand.84 Table 3.2 provides some examples of ETMs which offer the electronic transport order functionality. The electronic transport order functionality is comparable to some functionalities which have been discussed within the EM literature. The collaborative EM Elemica, for example, focuses on cost and error reductions for placing orders with known business partners instead of spot trading.85 Electronic transport orders are also similar to private e-catalogs which allow buyers to place orders with preselected business partners based on contracts.86 A similar functionality that allows 82

This definition is based on a general definition of e-tendering (cp. Kortus-Schultes and Ferfer (2005), p. 131). In German, the terms “Transportausschreibung“ or “Frachtausschreibung“ are often used to refer to the procurement of multiple transportation needs (cp. Buer (2012), pp. 5–6; Kunzendorf and Wollenweber (2018), p. 2). 83 Cp. Aichele and Schönberger (2016), p. 28. 84 For example, such an agreement could be based on an informal exchange of information (e.g., using excel sheets), a negotiation, or it could be a result of an e-tendering process on an ETM. 85 Cp. Christiaanse and Markus (2003). 86 Cp. Dai and Kauffman (2001), p. 5.

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Table 3.2 Advertising texts for electronic transport order functionalities87

a

Source

Description of functionality

Soloplan (2019)

“Direct Order allows you to directly transfer transport orders, entire tours, and any relevant transport documents to your logistics partners. You receive real-time feedback on planned and actual data about your transport orders and know their status at any time. You can work exclusively on the platform, use interfaces to your current system or benefit from complete integration into our logistics software CarLo®. Automate your workflows and save precious time during daily business.”

Timocom (2019)

“We have the digital solution for your transport orders! As a transport buyer, you create a transport order including all necessary information and send it digitally to your service provider. As a service provider, you receive a transport order from your potential business partner centrally via the Timocom platform and can accept or decline it with one simple click. By accepting the transport order, you establish a mutually binding legal contract.”

Transporeon (2019)

“Through the functionality "No-Touch Order", transport orders are assigned and sent directly to a designated transportation service provider. The transportation service provider can either be taken over directly from the in-house system, or it can be automatically determined based on pre-specified criteria. The freight forwarder has the option of accepting or rejecting his assigned shipments (if permitted).a”

This text was translated from German into English by the author.

business partners to “[…] manage and automate their business processes, while avoiding open market negotiation”88 has been called pre-negotiated purchasing contract execution.

3.5.2

Additional Functionalities

Besides the main functionalities, ETMs can offer various additional functionalities. These do not directly support supplier identification, supplier selection, generation of contracts, or transfer of transport orders. Instead, they more generally support the information exchange between shippers and transportation service providers.

87 88

Source: own representation. Wang and Archer (2007a), p. 120.

3.5 Functionalities

47

3.5.2.1 Time-slot Management Time-slot management is a functionality that helps to improve loading and unloading activities in plants and warehouses. The problem of long waiting times at ramps in such facilities has been the subject of intense discussions within the transportation and logistics community.89 One of the main reasons for problems at the ramp is the imperfect management of arrivals of vehicles, particularly at peak times. Time-slot management software can be a means to tackle such problems.90 Without a time-slot management system in place, the arrival of vehicles is not coordinated which may lead to the inability to deal with them at peak times. If time-slot management is used, transportation service providers have to book a time-slot for their loading or unloading activities. In this way, the arrival of vehicles can be distributed more evenly so that the resources for dealing with the arriving trucks are better utilized. This can lead to reductions in personnel costs of up to 30% besides reducing the waiting times of trucks.91 A recent empirical study shows that time-slot management is considered by most shippers and transportation service providers to have a high potential for reducing waiting times at ramps.92 An example of an ETM offering time-slot management functionalities is Cargoclix which offers a functionality called SLOT.93

3.5.2.2 Tracking and Tracing A system for tracking and tracing is “[…] a logistics IT system that allows companies to track delivery trucks during the route in real time and manage the operation in order to solve problems as they happen during the course of the delivery operation”94 . Tracking refers to locating logistical objects for determining the current status of these objects. For example, tracking could be used to find out whether goods are still in a truck or if they have already reached their destination. Together with date and time information, such a status can be used to predict whether follow-on processes can be executed as planned. Such information is particularly useful if problems arise during the transportation process which might require countermeasures, for example, the initiation of replacement

89

Cp. Hagenlocher et al. (2013), pp. 16–18; Helmke (2019), p. 189. Cp. Bundesamt für Güterverkehr (2011), pp. 5–6. 91 Cp. Bretzke (2014), p. 311. 92 Cp. BVL (2019). 93 Cp. Cargoclix.com (2020). 94 Mendes (2011), p. 93. 90

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deliveries or the proactive information of customers about delayed shipments.95 Tracing is often needed for reasons of compliance and refers to the retrospective identification of how logistical objects have been moved.96 ETMs can provide functionalities that support the exchange of tracking and tracing information between shippers and transportation service providers. For example, Timocom provides a functionality for sharing GPS data with business partners.97

3.5.2.3 Document Management Many different documents may be relevant when goods are being transported.98 These documents are often only available as paper-based printouts which have some disadvantages. To reduce administrative efforts, document management systems may be used which allow to electronically administrate, forward and archive documents.99 For example, Saloodo allows transportation service providers to upload documents for proof of delivery.

3.5.2.4 Support of Invoice Settlement Once the transportation service providers have fulfilled the movement of goods, they will also expect the payment for the performed transportation services. For a shipper that purchases many transportation services, the settling of invoices with transportation service providers can soon result in a significant administrative workload. ETMs can provide functionalities that help to reduce such efforts. For example, Transporeon offers a set of functionalities that support the settlement of invoices: a defined workflow for clarifying deviations in invoices, the automation of invoice verification and approval, or structured processes for the settling of

95

Tracking can be implemented with different technologies. For example, trucks can be tracked with the use of the Global Positioning System (GPS). In addition, the begin of the transport of the goods or the receipt at the destination could be documented with the use of smartphones or tablet devices. 96 Cp. Hausladen (2020), pp. 200–201. 97 Cp. Timocom (2020). 98 Delivery notes, road waybills and customs documents are just a few examples of the documents which are involved in transportation of goods (cp. Bräkling et al. (2014), pp. 192–195; Leitner (2015), p. 5). 99 Physical documents can easily get lost, or they can be filed incorrectly. When there are multiple recipients, it might be necessary to create copies of documents and forward these to the right recipients. In addition, a high percentage of the working time can be required for searching documents. All in all, this can lead to a high manual workload required for the maintenance, administration, and archiving of paper documents (cp. Groß and Pfennig (2019), p. 191).

3.5 Functionalities

49

freight surcharges (e.g., for waiting times).100 Besides improving the efficiency of settlement processes, such functionalities can also be important for ensuring the compliance of processes, for example by defining dedicated approval processes.

3.5.2.5 System Integration System integration refers to the “[…] integration between interorganizational systems and internal systems and can extend value chain activities for transactions, information exchange and cooperation with other companies”101 . ETMs can provide interfaces for connecting the marketplace to other internal IS of the participants (e.g., enterprise resource planning (ERP) systems or logistics systems). For example, Transporeon offers interfaces to ERP systems provided by SAP, Oracle, and Microsoft.102 System integration provides multiple advantages, including the reduction of redundant data entries, reduced efforts for data entry, and improved transparency of processes across several IS. This can further enhance the efficiency of processes.103

100

Cp. Transporeon (2021a). Cp. Kwon et al. (2009), pp. 110–111. 102 Cp. Transporeon (2021b). 103 Cp. Fischer (2008), p. 166; Stoll (2008), p. 220. 101

4

Conceptual Research Framework

To build a solid theoretical foundation for the following empirical analysis, a conceptual research framework will be developed within this chapter.1 First of all, the objectives and theoretical foundation of the research framework will be presented in section 4.1. In addition, the structure of the framework and its representation in this chapter will be explained.2

4.1

Background

4.1.1

Objectives

Since there is no existing conceptual model which helps to answer the research questions of this work, an own conceptual research framework will be developed. The framework follows three objectives. First, the respective research area should be ordered and systematized. This will be achieved by identifying the relevant areas of root causes, actions, and results.3 Second of all, the aim is to achieve terminological clarity by defining the terms which are of relevance.4 Finally, the relevant relationships between the components of the framework shall be identified. This, however, will be done in a rather broad way. In contrast to a more 1

A conceptual research framework represents a first step toward the formation of theoretical insights (cp. Kirsch et al. (2007), pp. 22–23). Its main purpose is a precise delineation of the research problem which should prevent empirical data collection without a solid conceptual basis (cp. Kaufmann (2001), p. 147). 2 Cp. section 4.1.3. 3 Cp. Wolf (2011), p. 37. 4 Cp. Wiesener (2014), p. 109. © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 P. Sylla, Electronic Procurement of Transportation Services, Schriftenreihe der HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-40403-1_4

51

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Conceptual Research Framework

detailed research model, a conceptual research framework often only contains broad statements about the relations of the components of the framework.5

4.1.2

Contingency Approach as the Theoretical Foundation

The contingency approach—also known as contingency theory or situational approach6 —has a large impact on the design of the conceptual research framework. It will be used as the underlying paradigm and the basic assumptions, as well as the structure of the conceptual research framework, are largely derived from this approach. The contingency approach emerged at the beginning of the 1960s in the field of organizational theory and still represents one of the most important research paradigms of organizational research today.7 Besides its roots in organizational research, the contingency approach has also been applied in other fields of research. In fact, it is one of the fundamental paradigms for all research fields of business administration.8 The approach builds the foundation for studies from a diverse set of research areas, including logistics research9 and information systems research10 . The basic idea of the contingency approach is that there is no “one best way” to manage or organize a firm. Instead, decisions should be made contingent upon the internal and external situation or context of a firm. Thus, the premise of the “one best way” is replaced by the premise of “one best way for each given situation”.11 Following this idea, it is assumed that there is not “one best way” when it comes to the use of an ETM but ETM use should be aligned with the situation of a company and its transportation services. Besides the provision of this basic assumption, the contingency approach has an influence on the structure of the conceptual research framework. Typically, a distinction between three components is made in research frameworks that are 5

Commonly, the statements are limited to assuming functional relationships without specifying these in more detail (cp. Kirsch (1973), p. 14). 6 Cp. Beckmann (2009), p. 81; Dietrich (2001), p. 22. 7 Cp. Vollhardt (2007), p. 68. 8 Cp. Wolf (2011), p. 202. 9 Cp. Pfohl and Zöllner (1997), pp. 307–312. 10 Cp. Reinking (2012), pp. 251–258. 11 Cp. Beckmann (2009), pp. 81–82; Eder (2016), pp. 38–40; Reinking (2012), pp. 248–249; Vollhardt (2007), p. 68.

4.1 Background

53

based on the contingency approach: design variables, contextual variables, and success variables. Design variables refer to the firm decisions which are within the scope of the theoretical work. They represent the possibilities and options which decision-makers in firms can follow. In contrast, contextual variables are taken as given, with no or only limited influence of decision-makers. The contextual variables should include those variables which can be justifiably assumed to influence the relevant design variables, or which should at least be considered by decision-makers. Finally, the success variables include process- and performancerelated variables for which it can be assumed that their manifestation depends considerably on the design and contextual variables as well as their interaction.12 The contingency approach has been subject to numerous critical objections.13 Since the approach has been selected as the underlying paradigm for the conceptual research framework, the most important critical objections will be discussed. An important and often mentioned criticism of the contingency approach is its lack of theory.14 This criticism is without a doubt valid because the contingency approach does not provide any ideas about which contextual variables should be considered and how the interactions with other variables should be. However, it is not intended to use the contingency approach as a theory for the identification of relevant variables or their interactions. Instead, the contingency approach will be used as an “[…] orienting strategy or metatheory, suggesting ways in which a phenomenon ought to be conceptualized or an approach to the phenomenon ought to be explained”15 . It is in its function as such a broad overarching frame of reference, that the contingency approach has received broad acceptance.16 A further criticism states that followers of the contingency approach have a narrow and unrealistic view of the possible actions of decision-makers within firms. Critics argue that the contingency approach implies that the context dictates and decision-makers have to follow (determinism). In addition, contextual variables would be assumed as given in the contingency approach while decisionmakers have many options for changing the environment.17 This criticism is problematic because it generally assumes that followers of the contingency approach have a deterministic view which must not be the case. For example, the 12

Cp. Petersen (2012), p. 51; Miroschedji (2002), p. 122; Wolf (2011), pp. 38–39. Cp. Wolf (2011), pp. 218–230. 14 Cp. Beckmann (2009), p. 83; Jensen (2004), p. 15; Vollhardt (2007), p. 71; Wolf (2011), p. 218. 15 Schoonhoven (1981), p. 350. 16 Cp. Jensen (2004), pp. 15–16; Beckmann (2009), p. 84. 17 Cp. Beckmann (2009), p. 84; Wolf (2011), p. 223. 13

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Conceptual Research Framework

contextual variables within this thesis are not perceived as forces that must be considered by decision-makers. Instead, decision-makers are assumed to be free in their choice to which degree contextual variables will be taken into account. In addition, contextual variables are not perceived as unchangeable in absolute terms. They can also be perceived as the output of a different design variable that is not in the scope of the specific research project but is considered only as a contextual variable to reduce complexity. Therefore, contextual and design variables should be interpreted as being so relative to the specific research context and not in an absolute sense.

4.1.3

Structure and Further Procedure

Within the introduction of this work, the research questions are centered around the determinants of ETM use, the use of ETMs, and the impact on business value.18 These correspond to contextual, design, and success variables of the contingency approach that represent the structure of the conceptual research framework (cp. Figure 4.1).

Figure 4.1 Structure of the conceptual research framework19

In the following, the design, contextual, and success variables will be identified and specified. The procedure for this will be as follows. First, relevant dimensions within the three types of variables will be determined. If needed, these dimensions can again contain further sub-dimensions.20 At the most detailed 18

Cp. section 1.3. Source: own representation. 20 In scientific research, the identification of dimensions is fundamental for conceptualization, i.e. the process for making fuzzy and imprecise notions more specific and precise (cp. Babbie (2016), pp. 123–132). 19

4.2 Design Variables

55

level, however, the dimensions should contain variables that can be subject to an empirical investigation. The start will be made with the design variables (cp. section 4.2) because these represent central reference points for both the contextual and success variables. Based on the identified design variables, the contextual variables which should be considered for decisions on the design variables will be determined (cp. section 4.3). Links between the design and contextual variables will be discussed which will provide the conceptual basis for answering RQ2. Afterward, the success variables will be presented (section 4.4). These and the identified links between the design and success variables provide conceptual insights for RQ3. Finally, the different parts of the framework will be summarized (section 4.5).

4.2

Design Variables

4.2.1

Identification of Design Variable Dimensions

The design variables refer to constructs, variables, or measures, which can be influenced by the firm and have an impact on the success variables.21 Two dimensions of design variables have been identified for this thesis: (1) system use and (2) the relationship to ETMs. In the following, definitions for these dimensions of design variables will be provided and the reasons for their selection will be explained. System use refers to the degree and manner in which ETMs are used by shippers.22 System use is important to explain the success of an ETM because it is generally relevant to the success of an IS.23 Furthermore, it can be assumed that decision-makers need support for decisions on system use. It is quite clear that without being used, an IS cannot create any business value. However, system use is rather a necessary, but not sufficient condition for the generation of beneficial

21

Cp. Wolf (2011), pp. 38–39. This definition is based on a general definition of system use as “[…] the degree and manner in which staff and customers utilize the capabilities of an information system” (Petter et al. (2008), p. 239). 23 This is evident by the central role of system use in conceptual models of IS success (cp. DeLone and McLean (1992), p. 87; Gable et al. (2008), p. 382; Soh and Markus (1995), p. 37). In addition, many empirical studies indicate that system use is relevant for IS success (cp. Petter et al. (2008), pp. 251–252). 22

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Conceptual Research Framework

outcomes: “[…] with system use, even extensive use, which is inappropriate or ill-informed, there may also be no benefits”24 . The second dimension of design variables that has been identified within this work is the relationship to ETMs. This dimension deals with design variables that are relevant for the establishment and continuation of a business relationship between shippers and ETM operators.25 Certainly, decisions on the relationship to ETM operators can have an impact on the success variables. The available EMs and their functionalities are constantly increasing. However, only the relationship to a marketplace that optimally suits the requirements of the company can deliver the best results.26 Therefore, the ability to find the right marketplace has significant strategic, operational, and financial implications for a company.27 In addition, decisions on the relationship with ETM operators are not easily made. For example, many companies face difficulties to decide which EM they should use.28 Besides the need for considering multiple criteria during the selection of marketplaces, multiple decision-makers with divergent interests may also be involved in the decision process. This makes the selection of EMs a complex task.29 Although the two identified dimensions cover a wide range of choices, these do not represent the complete set of decisions that are relevant when it comes to ETMs in reality. For example, decisions on the project team competence and the way the project is planned and steered must be made once it has been decided that a project for implementing an ETM should be started. These decisions have been found to affect the success of EM project implementations.30 However, it is not possible to include all potentially relevant variables and dimensions in the conceptual research framework. Since the literature already provides insights that are valuable for managing IS projects effectively,31 it has been decided to focus on the dimensions of system use and the relationship to ETMs.

24

DeLone and McLean (2003), p. 16. A business relationship is a sequence of market transactions between a buyer and seller that is not incidental (cp. Kleinaltenkamp et al. (2011), p. 22). 26 Cp. Kleineicken (2004), p. 105. 27 Cp. Richter and Nohr (2002), p. 110. 28 Cp. Bächle and Lehmann (2010), p. 70. 29 Cp. Büyüközkan (2004), p. 140. 30 Cp. Hartmann (2002b), pp. 167–171. 31 Cp. Jetu and Riedl (2012), pp. 462–463. 25

4.2 Design Variables

4.2.2

57

Dimension 1: System Use

As previously mentioned, system use denotes the degree and manner in which shippers use an ETM. Since this definition still leaves room for interpretation, system use will be specified in more detail. The focus of the present thesis will be on system use at the organizational level (i.e., on firm-level decisions on the use of an ETM).32 Since decision-makers responsible for the procurement of transportation services can be considered to be more or less free in their decisions on using ETMs, system use will be understood to be voluntary.33 Furthermore, the use of an ETM includes both the intention and the actual use behavior.34 Four design variables of system use (adoption, extent of use, functionality choice, and relational orientation) have been identified which will be discussed in the following. While adoption and extent of use are present in many empirical studies, the functionality choice and the relational orientation are less studied.

4.2.2.1 Adoption The first, very broad variable of system use is adoption. In this work, adoption refers to the decision of shippers to use or not use an ETM. In general, the adoption of IT can be understood to occur in three stages. In the first stage, organizations decide to adopt a technology. After the adoption by the organization, the individual users within the company make decisions about their acceptance of the technology for carrying out work tasks. Finally, when users have gained experience, they can engage in post-adoptive use behavior which refers to the individual use of the system, especially in terms of the features and functionalities which are employed.35 Based on this three-stage understanding, the adoption of an ETM is a managerial decision about the use of an ETM by the organization which precedes subsequent individual adoption decisions of users within the firm. Within the e-procurement and EM literature, adoption is most often measured in a binary way. This means that the actual use behavior is studied by making 32

Besides the organizational level, system use can also be studied at the individual or group level. Research at more aggregate levels (e.g. the level of an industry or nation) is less common (cp. Burton-Jones and Gallivan (2007), p. 659). 33 While users in a voluntary use setting can choose whether an IS is used or not, users do not have such a choice and must use a prescribed system in a mandatory setting (cp. Bhattacherjee et al. (2018), pp. 395–396). 34 In general, system use can be either studied in terms of an “intention to use” which is an attitude or as a behavior (cp. DeLone and McLean (2003), p. 23). 35 Cp. Jasperson et al. (2005), pp. 531–535.

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Conceptual Research Framework

a distinction between organizations that use a technology (adopters) and those which don’t (non-adopters).36 In addition to the use or non-use, the adoption intent can be empirically investigated. This refers to the behavioral intention of non-adopters to use an EM in the future. It can be measured, for example, by asking non-adopters for the likelihood of or time until adoption.37

4.2.2.2 Extent of Use Within this thesis, the extent of use refers to the degree to which an ETM is used within the organization of a shipper which can be measured and understood in different ways. First, a global measurement with a self-assessment of the study participants is possible.38 Besides that, studies have also used measures related to the depth and breadth of system use. Within the context of e-business and eprocurement, the depth of use refers to the degree of reliance on an IS.39 It is often measured by asking for the percentage of business volume which is conducted via e-procurement or EMs respectively.40 In addition, it is also possible to measure the depth of use, for example, via the number or the dollar volume of purchases supported by an IS.41 The breadth of use denotes the range of functionalities used or the breadth of value chain activities that are supported by an IS.42 Potential measures for the breadth of use include the number of used e-procurement tools43 or the breadth to which e-procurement is used to support purchasing processes.44 36

Cp. Deeter-Schmelz et al. (2001), p. 10; Joo and Kim (2004), p. 95; Schoenherr and Mabert (2011), p. 831; Upadhyaya et al. (2017), p. 69. 37 Cp. Alsaad et al. (2018), p. 29; Gottschalk and Foss Abrahamsen (2002), p. 330; Kim and Ahn (2007), p. 131; Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 92; Quaddus and Hofmeyer (2007), p. 209. 38 For example, participants may have to indicate their extent of use ranging from “not at all” to “a great extent” (cp. Le et al. (2004), p. 301) or by using other similar scales (cp. Hadaya (2008), p. 267; Rao et al. (2007), p. 1040; Truong and Jitpaiboon (2008), p. 206). Another option is to ask participants to indicate the stage of their current use, for example ranging from the “exploration stage” to the “commitment stage” (cp. Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 92) or by using other stages (cp. Grewal et al. (2001), p. 24; Kang et al. (2007), pp. 108–109). 39 Cp. Hassan et al. (2017), p. 305; Zhu and Kraemer (2005), p. 67. 40 Cp. Barua et al. (2004), p. 604; Batenburg (2007), p. 186; Hassan et al. (2017), p. 322; Le et al. (2004), p. 301. 41 Cp. Benslimane et al. (2005), p. 224. 42 Cp. Hassan et al. (2017), p. 305; Zhu and Kraemer (2005), p. 67. 43 Cp. Garrido et al. (2008), p. 626; Hassan et al. (2017), p. 311; Quesada et al. (2010), p. 533; Rai et al. (2009), p. 275. 44 Cp. Giunipero et al. (2012), p. 292; Kassim and Hussin (2013), pp. 8–11; Mishra et al. (2007), p. 118; Mishra et al. (2013), p. 388; Pearcy et al. (2008), p. 26; Ranganathan et al. (2011), p. 539; Wu et al. (2007), p. 583; Yu et al. (2015), p. 1061.

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4.2.2.3 Functionality Choice Companies, however, do not only have to decide whether or to which extent an ETM will be used, but they also must determine how they want to use an ETM in terms of its specific functionalities. In particular, it must be decided which main functionalities (e.g., spot market functionalities or e-tendering) and additional functionalities (e.g., time-slot management) should be used. The functionality choice refers to such decisions to employ specific functionalities of an ETM. While the breadth of use only focuses on the collective number of used functionalities, the functionality choice deals with the question under which circumstances single functionalities of an ETM should be used or not. There are only two empirical studies that investigate the use of specific EM functionalities.45 A few more studies on single functionalities exist in the broader e-procurement literature. Several studies deal with the use of electronic reverse auctions.46 Furthermore, some empirical studies deal with the use of IS within eprocurement to support the collaboration between buyers and sellers.47 However, no study deals with the use or choice of ETM functionalities. Since the relational orientation toward transportation service providers may be an important factor affecting functionality choice, it will be discussed in the following.

4.2.2.4 Relational Orientation Exchanges between buyers and sellers can be more or less relational (i.e., the relationship between business partners who are involved in the transactions can differ). These differences can be understood to be on a continuum, with discrete exchanges (short-term agreements with a mainly economic focus) and relational exchanges (open-ended, long-term agreements which combine economic and socio-emotional exchanges) on the polar ends of the continuum.48 45

One study investigates which factors affect the use of an EM for information search or transaction settlement in the context of purchasing hospital products (cp. Oppel (2003)). Another study focuses on the factors of buyer-supplier relationships which affect the choice of different EM functionalities (cp. Wang and Archer (2004)). 46 Cp. Jap and Haruvy (2008); Hawkins et al. (2009); Hawkins et al. (2010); Mithas et al. (2008); Schoenherr and Mabert (2008), (2011); Smeltzer and Carr (2003); Stoll (2008); Wagner and Schwab (2004). 47 Some studies deal with the collaborative use of electronic SCM (cp. Pu et al. (2018)), electronic information transfer (cp. Kim et al. (2006)), IOS integration (cp. Grover and Saeed (2007)) or information sharing (cp. Hadaya and Pellerin (2010)). 48 This distinction between discrete and relational exchanges stems from relational exchange theory (cp. Goles and Chin (2002), p. 228; Leimeister (2010), p. 26; Yaqub and Vetschera (2011), p. 215). Some authors have proposed similar polar distinctions with different terms: e.g. “adversarial” vs. “collaborative” (cp. McIvor et al. (1998), p. 96) or “transactional” vs.

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The role of relational exchanges in the context of EMs has been the subject of controversial discussions within the literature. In particular, the discussions surrounding the move to the market hypothesis and the move to the middle hypothesis deal with the question of whether the introduction of EMs has led to more discrete exchanges or not.49 Besides this discussion, it is important to note that EMs can be used to support discrete exchanges and/or relational exchanges. Some authors associate the ownership of the marketplace with the kind of buyer-supplier relationship underlying transactions on EMs.50 Furthermore, some authors share the view that the use of certain EM functionalities corresponds to different types of relationships between buyers and sellers.51 Following the latter view, relational orientation within this work denotes how ETM functionalities are used to support more or less relational exchanges between shippers and transportation service providers. In particular, it is assumed that certain functionalities are appropriate for discrete exchanges and others for relational exchanges. So far, however, the literature does not explain when functionalities are associated with discrete or relational exchanges. Therefore, an own explanation will be developed based on the theoretical foundation of relational exchange theory.52 “collaborative” relationships (cp. Bunduchi (2005), p. 322). Besides a distinction of two polar ends of relationships, some authors also provide a more nuanced categorization for business relationships. For example, Spekman et al. (1998) distinguish between „open market negotiations“, „cooperation“, “coordination” and “collaboration” (cp. Spekman et al. (1998), p. 634). 49 The move to the market hypothesis states that the overall effect of the developments in IT “[…] will be to increase the economic activity coordinated by markets” (Malone et al. (1987), p. 489). This hypothesis has been challenged by the so-called move to the middle hypothesis. Their proponents believe that instead of an increase of market coordination “[…] the firm will rely on fewer suppliers than before, with whom the firm will have close and long-term relationships and with whom the firm will cooperate and coordinate closely (a move away from the market to intermediate governance structures when outsourcing)” (Clemons et al. (1993), p. 13). 50 Private EMs which are owned by a participant and often closed when it comes to the entry of other participants are associated with relational exchanges. In contrast, independent EMs are often associated with discrete exchanges. Consortia EMs are sometimes perceived as hybrid forms between private and independent EMs (cp. Bahinipati and Deshmukh (2012), p. 24; Chelariu and Sangtani (2009), p. 112; El Sawy (2003), p. 122; Grieger et al. (2003), p. 285). 51 Cp. Ivang and Sørensen (2005), p. 398; Wang and Archer (2004). 52 Relational exchange theory grew out of the fields of marketing and law and deals with hybrid governance forms between market and hierarchy as set outlined in transaction cost theory, e.g. strategic alliances, networks, or partnerships (cp. Goles and Chin (2002), p. 228; Yaqub and Vetschera (2011), p. 216).

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According to this theory, differences between relational and discrete exchanges are caused by different relational norms which govern these interactions.53 In the following, three functionality dimensions that are associated with differences in relational norms will be discussed: (1) a distinction between spot and contract market functionalities which is linked to the norm of long-term orientation, (2) different market phases of transactions which are associated with the norm of relational focus and (3) the extent to which restrictions on the supplier base exist based on the relational norm of solidarity (cp. Table 4.1). Table 4.1 Functionality dimensions and relational orientation54 Functionality dimension

Discrete exchanges

Relational exchanges

Spot vs. contract market

Support of spot market transactions

Support of contract market transactions

Support of the information and negotiation phase No restrictions: all suppliers on ETM are potential exchange partners

Use to support the settlement phase

Market phases Supplier base

Restrictions: only transactions with preselected suppliers

First, an ETM can support spot and contract market functionalities. Obviously, spot and contract market transactions imply differences in the relational norm of long-term orientation.55 For discrete exchanges, the business partners expect that the transactions “[…] start sharply, are short-lived, and end sharply, either by clear performance or clear breach”56 . In contrast, more relational exchanges “[…] occur over longer periods of time, have less definitive termination dates, and are generally neither sharp in or sharp out”57 . Since contracts usually cover a medium to long-term period and spot transactions only cover the supply and demand for single transport orders, spot transactions are often considered to be more transactional or discrete than those on the contract market.58 53

In a broad definition, relational norms can be defined as “[…] a principal of right action binding upon the members of a group and serving to guide, control, or regulate proper and acceptable behavior” (cp. Macneil (1980), p. 38). 54 Source: own representation. 55 Long-term orientation denotes the degree to which the business partners expect to pursue the continuation of the business relationship (cp. Buriánek (2009), p. 105). 56 Macneil (1981), p. 1027. 57 Noordewier et al. (1990), p. 84. 58 Cp. Grieger (2003), p. 289; Kaplan and Sawhney (2000), p. 98.

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Second, ETM functionalities can support different market phases (i.e., the information, negotiation, and settlement phase). The support of these phases is associated with more or less relational focus. A high relational focus that is present in relational exchanges is given if “[…] the exchange relationship is perceived as relatively more important to the parties than the individual transactions”59 . Some functionalities support the information and/or negotiation phases (i.e., instant quoting, bulletin board, reverse auction, and e-tendering). Since buyers search for suppliers and their offerings (information phase) and agree on the conditions of the exchange (negotiation phase), the focus in both phases is on achieving the best results for the transactions (e.g., in terms of the right suppliers, best offers or prices). In contrast, the functionality electronic transport order only supports the settlement phase. Since such a functionality cannot be used to improve the outcomes of individual transactions (e.g., in terms of freight rate reductions), its use can be an indication of a high relational focus and a stronger relational orientation. Finally, ETMs may be used to openly transact with all transportation service providers without any restrictions on the supplier base or there may be more or less closed areas so that exchanges only take place between known business partners.60 For example, Transporeon offers the possibility to conduct closed reverse auctions with a restricted number of preselected transportation service providers which differs from the use of an open ETM without any restrictions on the supplier base (cp. Table 4.2). Conducting transactions with a restricted or unrestricted supplier base corresponds to the relational norm solidarity which denotes “[…] the process by which an exchange relationship (as distinct from a series of discrete transactions) is created and sustained”61 . In discrete exchanges, the focus is on the completion of the individual transaction supported by the law of contract and eventually legal enforcement.62 In relational exchanges, however, the parties rely on trust and other internal processes.63 Since trust and related social mechanisms can only

59

Kaufmann and Dant (1992), p. 173. In general, EMs can be open or closed (cp. section 3.3.1). However, there can also be mixed forms whereby both open and/or closed areas are provided on an EM (cp. Schönsleben (2016), p. 85). For example, reverse auctions could be conducted openly with all potential suppliers or they could be restricted to only preselected participants (cp. Stoll (2008), p. 193; Wagner (2004), p. 220). 61 Kaufmann and Dant (1992), p. 173. 62 Cp. Kaufmann and Stern (1988), p. 536. 63 Cp. Kaufmann and Dant (1992), p. 173. 60

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Table 4.2 Closed reverse auction vs. open ETMs64 Closed reverse auction (Restricted supplier base)

Open ETM (Unrestricted supplier base)

Limited number of transportation service providers

Larger number of transportation service providers

Lower control effort

Higher control effort

Use of proven transportation service providers

Transportation service providers often unknown

Price transparency within the pool of used transportation service providers

Price transparency for the whole market

be established with familiar business partners,65 conducting transactions with a restricted set of well-known transportation services is associated with higher solidarity which is present in relational exchanges. Based on the three functionality dimensions which have been identified, the relational orientation of the ETM functionalities can now be assessed. Figure 4.2 depicts how the overall relational orientation of the functionalities can be evaluated. According to the dimension spot vs. contract market, spot market functionalities (i.e., instant quoting, bulletin board, and reverse auction) are more short-term oriented than contract market functionalities (i.e., e-tendering and electronic transport order) and are therefore associated with less relational orientation. Within the dimension market phases, just the functionality electronic transport order focuses only on the settlement phase which corresponds to a higher relational orientation compared to the other functionalities that support the information and/or negotiation phase. Finally, the functionalities differ in their relational orientation because of the involved supplier base. Because of their objectives and the underlying process logic, the functionalities of instant quoting and bulletin board typically do not impose restrictions on the supplier base, and all transportation service providers on the ETM are potentially involved.66 In 64

Source: Transporeon (2016), p. 7. Cp. Asmussen (2009), p. 137; Auer (2004), p. 97; Georgi (2000), p. 46; Hadwich (2003), p. 25. 66 Instant quoting provides a comparison of fixed price offers from multiple transportation service providers (cp. section 3.5.1.1.2). Bulletin boards mainly support the establishment of the first contact between shippers and transportation service providers (cp. section 3.5.1.1.1). Therefore, both functionalities are most suitable and used with no restrictions on the supplier base (i.e., all transportation service providers on the ETM are potentially involved). 65

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Figure 4.2 Assessment of the relational orientation of ETM functionalities67

contrast, the electronic transport order functionality can only be used with known, preselected transportation service providers.68 . Reverse auctions and e-tendering are in between these two extremes.69 All in all, the evaluation of the relational orientation of ETM functionalities shows that they provide a spectrum ranging from functionalities that rather support discrete exchanges (instant quoting and bulletin board) to those which mainly support relational exchanges (electronic transport order).70

67

Source: own representation. Only known transportation service providers are possible for electronic transport orders because the conditions of the exchange must be agreed between the shipper and the transportation service provider beforehand. 69 Reverse auctions and e-tendering can be either conducted openly with all transportation service providers or in a restricted way with preselected business partners. 70 The reverse auction and e-tendering functionalities are positioned between these extreme points. 68

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4.2.3

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Dimension 2: Relationship to ETMs

Besides system use, shippers must also make decisions on the relationship with ETM operators. While many variables are relevant in the context of business relationships, this thesis will focus on two design variables. First, shippers must choose with which of the available ETMs they want to establish a business relationship. This will be discussed in terms of the design variable selection of an ETM. Second, the design variable commitment to an ETM will deal with the attitudes toward continuing the relationship with an ETM. These two design variables have been selected because they represent important phases within the development of business relationships.71 Besides the selected design variables, however, there are further variables that are potentially relevant for business relationships. For example, trust and satisfaction are central constructs within relationship marketing.72 Not all potential design variables, however, can be included in the conceptual research framework. Since trust and satisfaction are much less directed toward starting, continuing, or ending a relationship than the selection of and the commitment to an ETM, these variables are not in the focus of the present framework.73

4.2.3.1 Selection of an ETM As already mentioned, the selection of an ETM refers to the choice of a specific ETM among multiple, alternative ETMs which are available. In the following, this design variable will be explained in more detail. In a processual view, the selection of an ETM refers to a specific step in the process of establishing a contract with an ETM operator for receiving its services. The process for acquiring the services offered by third-party ETMs should involve similar steps which are relevant for the general acquisition of software: an organizational needs assessment, the identification of alternatives 71

The phases in the development of a business relationship start with awareness and exploration and continue with expansion and commitment until the final dissolution (cp. Dwyer et al. (1987), pp. 15–19). 72 Cp. Saab (2007), p. 31. Trust refers to the confident belief of one party that another party can be relied upon to behave in such a manner that the own long-term interest will be served (cp. Crosby et al. (1990), p. 70). Satisfaction is a „[…] party’s affective state of feeling adequately or inadequately rewarded for the sacrifice undergone in facilitating an exchange relationship” ( Frazier et al. (1988), p. 66). 73 However, this does not mean that trust and satisfaction are neglected as variables for the relationship to ETMs. In particular, empirical studies which provide results for the impact of contextual variables on the trust to and satisfaction with EMs and ETMs will be considered (cp. section 4.3.3.2).

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that potentially meet those needs, the assessment of the fit between the needs and the attributes of alternatives and the final acquisition decision.74 The selection of an ETM refers to the assessment of the fit between the needs and the attributes of the alternatives on which a final decision to use a specific ETM is based.75 Typically, the choice among alternative software packages is guided by the evaluation of certain criteria.76 Many authors have also proposed criteria for the evaluation of EMs.77 Therefore, the selection of an ETM will be understood as the criteria-based decision to use a specific ETM among multiple alternative ETMs which are available to a company.

4.2.3.2 Commitment to an ETM Commitment has been studied in many different contexts.78 Overall, a plethora of theories, research areas, constructs, and indicators within commitment research show that a rich knowledge base exists.79 However, the complexity of this research field also implies that it is not possible to provide exhaustive coverage of the literature. Therefore, the following discussion of commitment will focus on the literature that deals with the commitment in buyer-supplier relationships,80 which is particularly relevant for the relationship between shippers and ETM operators. Commitment has been defined as the “[…] implicit or explicit pledge of relational continuity between exchange partners”81 . Based on this definition, the commitment to an ETM refers to the implicit or explicit pledge of a shipper to continue a business relationship with an ETM operator. 74

Cp. Keil and Tiwana (2006), pp. 239–241. In general, companies can use multiple EMs concurrently (this is called multi-homing) or only one single EM (single-homing). Whether the buyers and sellers participating in an EM are prone to multi-homing or single-homing behavior has a considerable impact on the competition and strategies of the providers of such marketplaces (cp. Rochet and Tirole (2003), pp. 1007–1013; Koh and Fichman (2014), p. 978). 76 Cp. Abts and Mülder (2017), p. 530; Benlian and Hess (2011); Keil and Tiwana (2006); Schumacher and Meyer (2004), pp. 290–291; Schütte and Vering (2011), p. 81. 77 For a review of EM selection criteria in the literature, cp. section 4.3.3.1.3. 78 Research areas where commitment is of relevance include interpersonal relationships (e.g. friendships and marriage) or the organizational commitment between employees and their employing organization (cp. Saab (2007), pp. 26–34). 79 Cp. Saab (2007), pp. 24–34. 80 Cp. Anderson and Weitz (1992); Chen et al. (2011); Gundlach et al. (1995); Huo et al. (2015); Lancastre and Lages (2006); Moore (1998); Morgan and Hunt (1994); Moorman et al. (1992); Sharma et al. (2015); Standaert et al. (2015); Zhao et al. (2011). 81 Dwyer et al. (1987), p. 19. 75

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Attitudes play an important role in the development of commitment. An attitude is “[…] a general, relatively enduring evaluation of an object.”82 It is believed that attitudes affect human behavior, be it actual behavior or behavioral intentions.83 In general, two components of attitudes can be distinguished: (1) a cognitive and (2) an affective component.84 The cognitive component refers to the knowledge base and thoughts about the object which is the subject of the attitude. Therefore, the cognitive reflection of the object and the information about it play an important role.85 A person with a positive attitude toward an evaluated object because of the cognitive component believes that the object is related to positive outcomes or the prevention of negative ones.86 The affective component refers to the feelings and emotions toward an object.87 Many factors can have an impact on the affective component of attitudes. Amongst other things, it has been found that we evaluate objects more positively the more we are exposed to them (mere-exposure effect).88

4.2.4

Summary: Overview of Design Variables

In this chapter, system use and the relationship to ETMs have been identified as dimensions of design variables and more concrete variables within these dimensions have been determined. Figure 4.3 provides an overview of these dimensions and design variables.

82

Visser and Clark (2004), p. 45. Attitudes facilitate the repetitive evaluation of objects and provide behavioral orientation in a complex environment (cp. Eggert (1999), p. 63; Visser and Clark (2004), pp. 46–47). Amongst other things, the evaluated objects can be people, tangible objects, other attitudes, institutions, behavior, or behavioral intentions (cp. Mayerl (2009), p. 23). 83 Behavioral intentions precede the planned behavior of people, i.e. a person forms a behavioral intention before performing a certain behavior (cp. Fishbein and Ajzen (2010), p. 39). 84 Cp. Kroeber-Riel and Gröppel-Klein (2013), p. 218. 85 Cp. Mayerl (2009), p. 24. 86 For example, people will have a more positive attitude toward golfing if they believe that golfing is highly associated with attributes subjectively perceived as being positive (e.g. being a beneficial form of physical activity) and less associated with negatives ones (e.g. leading to frustration) (cp. Haddock and Maio (2014), pp. 200–201). 87 Cp. Mayerl (2009), p. 25. For example, people often report that spiders cause feelings of anxiety. Such kinds of negative affective reactions will most likely lead to negative attitudes toward spiders (cp. Haddock and Maio (2014), pp. 201–203). 88 Cp. Monahan et al. (2000), p. 462.

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In the next chapter, the contextual variables which are relevant when making decisions for these design variables will be identified. Figure 4.3 Design variables89

4.3

Contextual Variables

4.3.1

Identification of Contextual Variable Dimensions

The contextual variables include those variables for which it can be assumed that they influence the design variables or that they at least must be taken into account by decision-makers.90 Two dimensions of contextual variables have been identified based on the assumption that decisions on whether and how to use an ETM (system use) should be made based on different considerations than those which are relevant for the decisions on the relationship to ETMs. Therefore, for each of the two 89 90

Source: own representation. Cp. Wolf (2011), p. 38.

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dimensions of the design variables, one dimension of contextual variables with an influence on that specific dimension has been identified: (1) the purchasing situation which is proposed to affect the system use dimension, and (2) the ETM properties which affect the relationship with the ETM operators. In the following, these two dimensions and the reasons for their choice will be explained in more detail. First, the purchasing situation denotes all factors which are related to the procurement of transportation services and have an impact on the way how shippers and transportation service providers interact.91 The purchasing situation has been selected because it is relevant for many important decisions within procurement. For example, it has been proposed that the implementation of e-procurement must be aligned with the purchasing situation.92 In addition, the purchasing situation is relevant for decisions within supplier management93 or the successful use of EMs94 . Of course, there may be further variables that can explain system use besides the purchasing situation. For example, many empirical studies in the EM context have been conducted from the perspective of the diffusion of innovations,which focuses on factors of the dimensions of the technology95 , organization96 , and the environment97 to explain the adoption of innovations.98 91

This definition of the purchasing situation is based on a more general definition of the purchasing situation as “[…] all relevant forces and influences related to the acquisition of required materials, services and equipment, which have a potential impact on the way buyers and sellers work together” (Hartmann (2002a), p. 11). 92 Cp. Warschun (2002), p. 99. 93 Cp. Janker (2008), p. 25. 94 Cp. Hartmann (2002a), pp. 10–27. 95 For example, the perceived compatibility of the EM technology has a positive effect on the intention to adopt or the extent of use of EMs (cp. Li et al. (2013); White et al. (2007), pp. 90–91). 96 Empirical studies provide some indications that top management support (cp. Deng et al. (2019b), p. 347; Najmul Islam et al. (2020), pp. 14–16; Saprikis and Vlachopoulou (2012), pp. 630–633) and the use of related IT (cp. Chang and Wong (2010), pp. 266–268; Hadaya (2006), pp. 179–182; Truong and Jitpaiboon (2008), pp. 207–212) have a positive effect on the adoption and extent of use of EMs. 97 There is some empirical evidence that external pressure (e.g. pressure from business partners) has a positive effect on the adoption or extent of use of EMs(cp. Deng et al. (2019b), p. 347; Hadaya (2006), pp. 179–182; Li et al. (2013)). However, two studies could not find a statistically significant effect of external pressures (cp. Grewal et al. (2001), pp. 27–29; Quaddus and Hofmeyer (2007), pp. 208–211). 98 These are the dimensions of the so-called technology-organization-environment framework (cp. Coleman (2019), p. 123).

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While such factors may predict the use of EMs or ETMs, the purchasing situation is a much better basis to justify why and how they should be used.99 The second dimension ETM properties contains criteria and attributes which can differ from one ETM to another and are important for the successful use of an ETM. Typically, the selection of software or EMs is based on criteria.100 Therefore, such criteria which are relevant for the selection and ongoing use of an ETM will be summarized within this dimension.101 In the following, contextual variables within each of these two dimensions will be identified.

4.3.2

Dimension 1: Purchasing Situation

4.3.2.1 Theoretical Foundation Many theories exist which can potentially explain system use.102 Out of these, two theories have been selected as the foundation for explaining the link between contextual variables of the purchasing situation and design variables of system use: transaction cost theory and resource dependency theory. There are several reasons for the selection of transaction cost theory. Many studies show that the theory has a high empirical content and viability.103 In addition, transaction cost theory can explain the use of EMs104 and ETMs105 . 99

For example, the use of related IT such as e-commerce might be a factor that can predict the use of an EM from the perspective of the diffusion of innovations, but this cannot be used as justification for a managerial decision. 100 For an overview of different criteria which are relevant for the general selection of software, cp. Krcmar (2015), pp. 216–220. An overview of the literature on EM selection criteria will be provided in section 4.3.3.1.3. 101 Besides ETM properties, other variables may affect the relationship to ETMs, e.g. trust (cp. Liu and Tang (2018), p. 679; McKnight et al. (2017), p. 132; Pavlou (2002), p. 231; Pavlou and Gefen (2004), p. 50; Verhagen et al. (2006), pp. 547–549) or satisfaction (cp. Gruen (1995), p. 457; Stenglin (2008), p. 57; Wang (2008), pp. 542–546). Therefore, insights from empirical studies which find an effect of ETM properties on trust or satisfaction will be used (cp. sections 4.3.3.2.1 to 4.3.3.2.6). 102 Cp. Hassan (2013), pp. 307–308; Gangwar et al. (2014), pp. 489–490. 103 Cp. Luthardt (2003), p. 79. 104 A transaction cost reasoning has been used to explain why improvements in IT will lead to an increased use of EMs (cp. Malone et al. (1987), pp. 485–487). 105 Transaction cost theory has been applied as the theoretical foundation for the identification of conditions that are relevant for using an ETM for the procurement of transportation services (cp. Goldsby and Eckert (2003), pp. 188–195).

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Furthermore, the theory can be used to explain differences in the design of buyer-supplier relationships,106 which is particularly important for explaining the relational orientation within the system use dimension. Besides transaction cost theory, resource dependency theory can be used to explain differences in the relational orientation within buyer-supplier relationships.107 Since it is assumed that the relational orientation also affects the use of ETM functionalities, both transaction cost and resource dependency theory can be used to explain the functionality choice and relational orientation as design variables. This is particularly valuable because there is so far only limited research that may guide decision-makers for these two design variables.108 In addition, the insights of two streams of literature have been incorporated: (1) the literature on e-procurement and EMs and (2) the literature on buyerssupplier relationships.109 Research conducted in these streams of literature has been conducted in two ways: empirical and conceptual.110 An overview of the conceptual insights will be provided in the corresponding chapters for these streams of literature.111 The empirical insights, however, will be discussed in the chapters for the identified contextual variables.112 Furthermore, some additional theories can be used to explain the effect of single contextual variables. These

106

Cp. Lillehagen and Krogstie (2008), p. 313. Cp. Janz (2004), p. 106; Sydow (1992), p. 196. 108 However, both theories focus on different root causes which are relevant for the design of buyer-supplier relationships. While transaction cost theory emphasizes that the costs involved in transactions are important for designing efficient exchanges, resource dependency theory focuses on the need of firms to ensure the supply of needed resources and proposes that relationships with other firms can be used to control situations of dependency. 109 Several studies deal with the design of buyer-supplier relationships on the spectrum between discrete and relational exchanges. Insights from these studies can be useful to explain the relational orientation within the system use dimension of the design variables. 110 Empirical research is based on data. It usually involves making conjectures about certain matters related to a specific research question. Afterward, it is examined whether the empirical data support this conjecture. Conceptual research does not involve the collection and analysis of new data for advancing knowledge. Instead, conceptual contributions include developing a set of propositions, proposing a new theory or theoretical model, or providing a comprehensive review of the literature (cp. Monippally and Pawar (2010), pp. 15–439). 111 Conceptual insights from the literature on e-procurement and EMs will be presented in section 4.3.2.1.3 and insights from the literature on buyer-supplier relationships in section 4.3.2.1.4. 112 Cp. sections 4.3.2.2.1 to 4.3.2.2.6. 107

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will also be discussed in the chapters that deal with the identified contextual variables.113

4.3.2.1.1 Transaction Cost Theory Transaction cost theory can be subsumed under new institutional economics. Its roots go back to the economist and Nobel Laureate Ronald Coase who asked why firms exist. He realized that not all exchange processes can be efficiently coordinated via markets and therefore firms are established.114 Based on Coase’s work, transaction cost theory has been mainly developed by the works of Williamson.115 The theory evaluates different forms of governance structures according to their efficiency.116 On the one side of the spectrum, the market is a governance structure that coordinates transactions via prices. On the other side, the hierarchy within firms coordinates activities via directions. In between market and hierarchy, there are various hybrid forms of coordination. These include, for example, joint ventures, strategic alliances, cooperation, or long-term contracts.117 Just like Coase, Williamson believes that the exchange of goods and services causes frictions, which he calls transaction costs and are central to the theory. Transaction cost theory postulates that the choice of governance structures depends on the comparative transaction costs of a certain governance structure for a given exchange situation. The basic unit of investigation in transaction cost theory is the transaction, which denotes a transfer of property rights.118 Various activities are involved in a successful transfer of property rights and the efforts for these activities represent transaction costs.119 According to Williamson, three dimensions of transactions 113

Media richness theory can be used to explain the effect of complexity (cp. section 4.3.2.2.2) and incomplete contracts theory can be used to explain the impact of specifiability (cp. section 4.3.2.2.6). 114 Cp. Coase (1937), pp. 386–405. 115 Cp. Williamson (1981), (1985), (1996). 116 Governance structures refer to the institutional framework within which the initiation, negotiation, monitoring, adaptation, and termination of contracts takes place (cp. Roemer (2004), p. 25). 117 Cp. Picot et al. (2001), p. 53. 118 Cp. Picot and Dietl (1990), p. 178. 119 Often, different types of costs for transactions are distinguished. For example, costs for initiation (e.g. research, travel expenses), agreement (e.g. negotiations), settlement (e.g. process monitoring), control (e.g. control of quality and deadlines), and adjustment (e.g. extra costs for later changes of quality, price or dates) (cp. Picot et al. (2001), p. 50; Schütt (2006), p. 80).

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affect transaction costs: (1) asset specificity, (2) uncertainty, and (3) frequency of transactions.120 Asset specificity is “[…] the degree to which an asset can be redeployed to alternative uses and by alternative users without sacrifice of productive value”121 . A transaction involving highly specific assets is given, for example, if a business partner must invest in production facilities that are bound to a specific physical location.122 In such situations, the party making such investments for an exchange partner faces the problem of being locked in to or being dependent on this party. This can be problematic because Williamson assumes that parties involved in an exchange may act opportunistically.123 Therefore, the party intending to make such investments will intensify efforts that can prevent being exploited and which increase transaction costs.124 A further relevant dimension of transactions is uncertainty. Transactions exhibit uncertainty when the circumstances surrounding the exchange cannot be specified beforehand (environmental uncertainty) and when performance cannot be easily measured after the exchange (behavioral uncertainty).125 Uncertainty is connected to another assumption of transaction cost theory, namely bounded rationality. This assumption refers to the fact that human beings only possess limited cognitive capabilities for processing information. Due to these limited abilities, decision-makers cannot implement safeguards for all risks and when uncertainty increases, activities for information, negotiation, or adaptation surrounding the transaction become more complicated. Therefore, uncertainty leads to higher transaction costs.126 According to transaction cost theory, the transaction costs of different governance structures vary depending on asset specificity and uncertainty and the most efficient governance structure will be selected. Markets are preferred when asset specificity and uncertainty are low. When transactions encompass high asset

120

Cp. Williamson (1985), pp. 52–61. Williamson (1991), p. 281. 122 This is an example of so-called “site specificity“ as one of several types or dimensions of asset specificity. 123 Opportunism denotes maximizing the own self-interest at the expense of others (cp. Picot et al. (2001), p. 52). Investments involving highly specific assets represent situations that can be opportunistically exploited by exchange parties (cp. Kiedaisch (1997), p. 48; Picot et al. (2001), p. 52; Spengel (2005), pp. 91–92). 124 Cp. section 4.3.2.2.1 for a more detailed discussion of the effects of asset specificity. 125 Cp. Rindfleisch and Heide (1997), p. 31. 126 Cp. Kiedaisch (1997), pp. 48–49; Picot et al. (2001), p. 52. 121

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specificity and uncertainty, hierarchies are the more efficient option. Hybrid forms are most efficient in between these extremes (cp. Figure 4.4).

Figure 4.4 Choice of governance structures based on transaction costs127

Besides asset specificity and uncertainty, the frequency of transactions affects transaction costs. Some governance structures (e.g., the negotiation and use of long-term contracts) are associated with higher costs. However, due to scale and learning effects, these costs can be reduced when there is a high frequency of transactions for which the governance structures are implemented. When the costs for implementing certain governance structures can be distributed over many transactions, the average costs per transaction decrease.128 Thus, the use of governance structures that are associated with higher costs becomes more favorable when the frequency of transactions increases.

127 128

Source: own representation adapted from Williamson (1996), p. 108. Cp. Picot et al. (2001), p. 53; Williamson (1996), pp. 60–61.

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4.3.2.1.2 Resource Dependency Theory Resource dependency theory focuses on a firm’s dependency on resources to explain differences in organizational structure and behavior.129 The basic assumption of the theory is that organizations require resources from the environment to sustain their activities: “Survival of the organization is partially explained by the ability to cope with environmental contingencies; negotiations to ensure the continuation of needed resources is the focus of much organizational action”130 . According to the theory, dependency is central to the success of organizations and the management of inter-organizational relationships.131 An organization is dependent on another business party if it needs to maintain its exchange relationship with that party to achieve its desired objectives.132 Dependency is closely related to power, which is “[…] the capability of a firm to exert influence on another firm to act in a prescribed manner”133 .134 Critical determinants of dependency are (1) the importance of a resource, (2) the extent to which external parties have discretion over the allocation and use of a resource, and (3) the extent to which there are few alternatives.135 Two basic strategies are recommended to deal with dependency. First, firms can acquire or vertically integrate other firms which possess resources on which they depend. With this strategy, an attempt is made to gain the greatest possible control over the resource owner. Second, firms can follow a cooperation strategy. This could be implemented, for example, by negotiating contracts or through financial or personal commitment.136

129

Cp. Janz (2004), p. 104; Werner (1997), p. 22. Resources can be defined as all means which a company needs for self-preservation (cp. Knack (2006), p. 30). 130 Pfeffer and Salancik (2003), p. 258. 131 Cp. Sydow (1992), p. 197. 132 Cp. Frazier (1983), p. 159. 133 Ratnasingam (2000), p. 56. 134 It is often proclaimed that dependency and power are inversely related (cp. Homburg (1998), p. 49; Janz (2004), p. 161). However, there are two parties involved in economic exchanges and each party can depend on the other. Therefore, situations of dominance or power are especially given if dependency is asymmetric, i.e. one party is more dependent on the other party (cp. Cox (2001), p. 13.). 135 Cp. Pfeffer and Salancik (2003), pp. 45–51. For a comprehensive review of potential determinants of dependency, cp. Freiling (1995), pp. 48–68. 136 Cp. Janz (2004), p. 105; Pfeffer and Salancik (2003), pp. 113–143; Sydow (1992), p. 198; Werner (1997), p. 24.

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4.3.2.1.3 Literature on E-procurement and EMs Many portfolio models have been developed which propose strategies for the use of e-procurement and EMs based on the purchasing situation (cp. Table 4.3). Table 4.3 Portfolio models from the e-procurement literature137 Source

Model explains

Dimensions of model

Andersson and Norrman (2002), p. 6

Purchasing of logistics services

(1) Length of relationship (2) Complexity of service

Arnold and Schnabel (2007), p. 87

Use of e-procurement

(1) Supply risk (2) Value

Beall et al. (2003), p. 15

Use of electronic auctions

(1) Rivalry among suppliers (2) Specifiability

Bogaschewsky (2002), p. 27

Use of e-procurement

(1) Monetary product value (2) Supply risk

Ihde (2004), p. 34

Use of e-procurement

(1) Complexity of traded good (2) Traded volume

Kollmann (2019), p. 189

Use of e-procurement

(1) Risk (2) Costs/value

Kortus-Schultes and Ferfer (2005), p. 103

Use of e-procurement

(1) Potential for material cost reductions (2) Potential for process cost reductions

Luczak et al. (2002), p. 161

Use of EMs

Mahadevan (2003), p. 96

Use of EMs

(1) Supply risk (2) Value (1) Fragmentation of market participants (2) Asset specificity

Malone et al. (1987), p. 487

Use of EMs

(1) Complexity of product description (2) Asset specificity

Möhrstädt et al. (2001), p. 125

Use of e-procurement

(1) Complexity (2) Importance

Skjøtt-Larsen et al. (2003), p. 206

Use of EMs

(1) Difficulty of managing (2) Strategic importance

Stoll (2008), p. 61

Use of e-procurement

Tassabehji (2010), p. 434

Use of electronic auctions

(1) Forecast accuracy (2) Value (1) Supply risk (2) Profit impact

Weiber et al. (2004), p. 566

Use of e-procurement

(1) Degree of individualization (2) Long-term orientation of relationship

Besides the previously discussed theories, these models can be used to identify contextual variables which may be relevant for ETM use. An in-depth discussion

137

Source: own representation.

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of all these models is beyond the scope of this chapter, but some important insights will be discussed in the following.138 One portfolio model is particularly relevant for the present thesis because it deals with the purchasing of logistics services and the use of freight exchanges (cp. Figure 4.5).139 Figure 4.5 Portfolio model developed by Andersson and Norrman (2002)140

The authors propose that freight exchanges are used for basic logistics services with a low degree of complexity. For this kind of service, short-term transactional relationships supported by internet tools such as ETMs are preferred. In contrast, advanced outsourcing of complex logistics services is assumed to be supported by the use of long-term relationships and strategic alliances.141 In addition, several conceptual works have been influenced by Kraljic’s matrix.142 Kraljic’s matrix has been developed almost four decades ago and is a tool that is still widely used among purchasing professionals today.143 138

The insights of these portfolio models for the identified contextual variables will also be discussed in their corresponding chapters (cp. sections 4.3.2.2.1 to 4.3.2.2.6). 139 Freight exchange is a synonym for ETM. 140 Source: Andersson and Norrman (2002), p. 6. 141 Cp. Andersson and Norrman (2002), p. 6. 142 Cp. Kraljic (1983), pp. 111–112. 143 Cp. Caniëls and Gelderman (2007), p. 220.

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Based on the dimensions of supply risk and profit impact, the portfolio model makes a distinction between four different types of items for which different purchasing strategies should be followed. Some of the portfolio models use similar dimensions as used within Kraljic’s matrix to make recommendations.144 For example, it is proposed to use EMs for purchasing leverage items and collaboration-oriented systems for strategic items.145

4.3.2.1.4 Literature on Buyer-Supplier Relationships The design of buyer-supplier relationships has gained the interest of researchers from the fields of procurement and marketing.146 A couple of portfolio models deal with the design of buyer-supplier relationships based on contextual variables of the purchasing situation and are therefore relevant for this thesis (cp. Table 4.4). Table 4.4 Portfolio for buyer-supplier relationships147 Author(s)

Model explains

Dimensions of model

Arnolds et al. (2016), p. 30

Relationship strategies

(1) Power of supplier (2) Power of buyer

Bask (2001), p. 476

Logistics relationships

(1) Complexity of service (2) Customer relationship

Cox (2001), p. 14

Attributes of buyersupplier relationships

(1) Buyer power relative to supplier (2) Supplier power relative to buyer

Dyer et al. (1998), p. 72

Arm's-length vs. strategic partnerships

(1) Product characteristics (2) Supplier management practices

Halldórsson and SkjøttLarsen (2004), p. 195

Logistics relationships

Homburg (1995), p. 829

Number of suppliers

Olsen and Ellram (1997), p. 105

Relationship strategies

144

(1) Asset specificity / Competence (2) Degree of integration (1) Complexity of purchasing situation (2) Economic importance of product (1) Difficulty of purchase situation (2) Strategic importance of purchase

Cp. Arnold and Schnabel (2007), p. 87; Bogaschewsky (2002), p. 27; Kollmann (2019), p. 189; Luczak et al. (2002), p. 161; Tassabehji (2010), p. 434. 145 Cp. Bogaschewsky (2002), pp. 27–28. 146 Designing buyers-supplier relationships is one of the tasks of strategic procurement management (cp. Large (2009), p. 150). Within marketing, the so-called relationship marketing emphasizes the importance of long-term relationships for improving sales (cp. Grönroos (1991), p. 8). 147 Source: own representation.

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Out of these, two portfolio models that deal with logistics relationships are particularly important for this work and will therefore be discussed. The first model explains the design of relationships based on the importance of the logistics services for the core competencies of the firm as well as the involved asset specificity (cp. Figure 4.6).

Figure 4.6 Portfolio model developed by Halldórsson and Skjøtt-Larsen (2004)148

On one end of the spectrum, the spot market is used for logistics services that involve standard skills and low levels of asset specificity. On the other end, logistics services are provided via in-house logistics for services that are central to the core skills of a firm and usually involve highly specific assets.149 The second portfolio model emphasizes the effect of the complexity of services on the design of the relationships between shippers and logistics service providers (cp. Figure 4.7). For simple routine logistics services, the relationships with logistics service providers should be loose. In contrast, close relationships are most effective for complex, customized logistics services (e.g., those including the final assembly of

148 149

Source: Halldórsson and Skjøtt-Larsen (2004), p. 195. Cp. Halldórsson and Skjøtt-Larsen (2004), pp. 194–196.

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Figure 4.7 Portfolio model developed by Bask (2001)150

a product, repair services, after-sales, or consulting services). Between these polar ends, moderate relationships are best suited for standard logistics services.151 The insights of the other portfolio models152 which have not been discussed here will be summarized in the respective chapters of the identified contextual variables.153

4.3.2.2 Identified Contextual Variables Based on the above-mentioned theoretical foundation, six contextual variables of the purchasing situation have been identified: (1) asset specificity, (2) complexity, (3) importance, (4) availability of alternatives, (5) demand uncertainty, and (6) specifiability. These will be discussed in the following.

150

Source: Bask (2001), p. 476. Cp. Bask (2001), pp. 474–478. 152 Cp. Arnolds et al. (2016), p. 33; Cox (2001), p. 13; Dyer et al. (1998), p. 72 Homburg (1995), p. 829; Olsen and Ellram (1997), p. 105. 153 Cp. sections 4.3.2.2.1 to 4.3.2.2.6. 151

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4.3.2.2.1 Asset Specificity Asset specificity in the context of buyer-supplier relationships denotes investments that are specific to a relationship with a business partner and lose value when they must be redeployed to support other relationships. Such investments can be made by buyers and/or sellers.154 Furthermore, asset specificity can manifest itself in different ways.155 In the context of the procurement of transportation services, asset specificity includes physical (e.g., special vehicles or equipment), human (e.g., need for special training), or procedural (e.g., specific norms or standards) asset specificity. Within transaction cost theory, asset specificity is often considered to be the most important variable.156 The party making specific investments faces a risk, because exchange partners may take advantage of the fact that this investment loses value when switching to another exchange partner. For example, an opportunistic exchange partner could try to renegotiate prices. To protect against this risk, an intensive search to identify equivalent transaction partners, lengthy negotiations, special agreements, and intensive controls must be made.157 Therefore, transaction costs increase and transactions involving higher levels of asset specificity tend to be supported by more relational exchanges. In addition, conceptual works within the literature on e-procurement and buyer-supplier relationships suggest two effects of asset specificity. First, a high level of asset specificity involved in transactions provides a tendency toward more hierarchical instead of market governance structures.158 In terms of the business relationship between buyers and suppliers, this provides a tendency toward more relational exchanges instead of discrete market exchanges.159 For the procurement of logistics services, it is therefore proposed that market exchanges are used for logistics services involving low asset specificity. In-house logistics solutions or the joint development of logistics services with logistics service providers 154

Cp. Heide and John (1990), p. 27. There are different types of asset specificity: physical asset specificity (e.g., specific machines which are needed for production), human asset specificity (e.g., when special knowledge is required), or site specificity (e.g., when a resource is only available in a specific location). In addition, specificity can arise in the form of temporal specificity (e.g. when inputs lose their value when not delivered on time), dedicated assets (e.g. capacities which are reserved for certain business partners), or brand capital (cp. Eistert (1996), p. 43; Söllner (2008), p. 45; Williamson (1991), p. 281). 156 Williamson (1985), p. 52. 157 Cp. Kiedaisch (1997), p. 48. 158 Cp. Malone et al. (1987), pp. 486–487. 159 Cp. Dyer et al. (1998), p. 72. 155

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are preferred when services involve medium to high levels of asset specificity.160 Second of all, different solutions within e-procurement are suggested to be more or less suitable depending on the level of asset specificity. When asset specificity is high, the use of EDI or private EMs is suggested. In contrast, reverse auctions and the use of (neutral) EMs are proposed when asset specificity is low.161 Looking a the results of empirical studies, there is only a limited set of empirical studies that indicate a negative effect of asset specificity on the adoption and extent of use of EMs.162 Some more empirical studies provide indications for the potential effect of asset specificity on the functionality choice. A few studies show that asset specificity has negative consequences for the use of electronic reverse auctions.163 Furthermore, there are limited indications that asset specificity is positively associated with the use of more collaborative functionalities in e-procurement.164 Moreover, studies with a focus on the buyer-supplier relationship largely provide indications for a positive effect of asset specificity on relational orientation in exchanges.165 There are only three studies that find mixed support for this effect.166

4.3.2.2.2 Complexity Complexity, as understood within this thesis, is given when a system is “[…] made up of a large number of parts that interact in a nonsimple way”167 . Often, a distinction between two general aspects of complexity is made: structural 160

Cp. Halldórsson and Skjøtt-Larsen (2004), p. 195. Cp. Mahadevan (2003), pp. 94–96; Weiber et al. (2004), pp. 565–566. 162 A negative effect of asset specificity has been found in a Delphi study (cp. Junge et al. (2019), p. 37). In a survey study, no significant effect of asset specificity on the intention to adopt EMs but a negative effect on the extent of use has been found (cp. Son and Benbasat (2007), pp. 80–82). 163 It has been found that buyers bid less aggressively when they are willing to make specific investments (cp. Jap and Haruvy (2008), p. 556) and that electronic auctions are not suitable for supply involving specific requirements (cp. Stoll (2008), p. 239). Only one study did not find a significant effect of asset specificity on the use of electronic reverse auctions (cp. Mithas et al. (2008), p. 716). 164 Asset specificity has a positive effect on the use of supply chain management systems for exchanging information via the internet (cp. Pu et al. (2018), pp. 1701–1702) or cooperation and EDI use (cp. Son et al. (2005), pp. 338–341). 165 Cp. Anderson and Weitz (1992), pp. 25–26; Aral et al. (2018), p. 606; Garbe (1998), pp. 164–170; Hallén et al. (1987), pp. 28–35; Hallén et al. (1993), pp. 76–80. 166 Cp. Claro et al. (2003), pp. 710–713; Heide and Miner (1992), pp. 277–282; Subramani and Venkatraman (2003), pp. 54–57. 167 Simon (1962), p. 468. 161

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and dynamic complexity.168 Furthermore, complexity is frequently understood in terms of product complexity or product description complexity in the literature on e-procurement and buyer-supplier relationships.169 Transportation services may also exhibit varying degrees of complexity. For example, the complexity of services is higher when multiple services are bundled together.170 Furthermore, direct runs and single-stage transport chains are less complex than tours that encompass multiple places or when multi-stage transport chains are involved.171 Williamson considers complexity together with uncertainty within transaction cost theory. In his view, without both complexity and uncertainty “[…] the appropriate set of contingent actions can be fully specified at the outset”172 and the choice between markets and hierarchies becomes less relevant. Given the bounded rationality of decision-makers and the high complexity of the decision problem, however, contracts cannot be fully specified. The result of complexity is therefore the same as that of uncertainty: complete contracts cannot be created and the choice between markets and hierarchies becomes relevant. Williamson considers differences between complexity and uncertainty irrelevant.173 Just like uncertainty, it can therefore be argued that complexity increases transaction costs.174 Therefore, transactions involving high levels of complexity should tend to be supported via relational exchanges.

168

Structural complexity refers to the number and heterogeneity of elements that make up a system. The dynamic complexity refers to the interactions between the elements of a system (cp. Bode and Wagner (2015), p. 216; Werner (1997), p. 64; Voigt et al. (2003), p. 91). 169 Product complexity refers to the number of parts and/or technologies that are used within a product, their heterogeneity as well as the interdependencies between these parts and/or technologies (cp. Werner (1997), p. 71). The product description complexity denotes „[…] the amount of information needed to specify the attributes of a product in enough detail to allow potential buyers (whether producers acquiring production inputs or consumers acquiring goods) to make a selection“ (Malone et al. (1987), p. 486). 170 Cp. Andersson and Norrman (2002), p. 4. Typically, packages or bundles of different logistics services are exchanged within contract logistics (cp. Kersten et al. (2007), pp. 37– 38). 171 Cp. section 2.2.3. 172 Williamson (1975), p. 22. 173 Williamson states that “[…] the distinction between deterministic complexity and uncertainty is inessential” ( Williamson (1975), p. 23). 174 Higher transaction costs in presence of complexity can be a result of the need for extensive information search, complicated contracts, and more possibilities for opportunistic behavior (cp. Hohberger (2001), p. 31).

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In addition, media richness theory can be used to explain how complexity affects the strategies for e-procurement.175 The theory postulates that effective communication is the result of selecting communication media in accordance with the complexity of the communication task. In contrast to face-to-face communication, the electronic exchange of information on EMs is not as rich because it provides fewer channels of communication and less direct feedback. Therefore, it can be argued that EMs are less suitable for transactions that require complex communication between buyers and sellers. Most conceptual works in the e-procurement literature suggest that complex products or those with a complex description are not well-suited for EMs.176 In addition, complexity is associated with more relational exchanges in the buyer-supplier relationship literature, e.g. when it comes to reducing the set of suppliers.177 This has also been recognized in the context of logistics, where a higher complexity of logistics services is assumed to be associated with a closer relationship with logistics service providers.178 In particular, it has been proposed that complex logistics services are sourced via long-term relationships or face-to-face negotiations, whereas ETMs are used for services that are not complex.179 Following the predictions from transaction cost and media richness theory as well as the conceptual works, the results of qualitative studies indicate that complexity reduces the tendency for adoption or extensive use of e-procurement.180 In addition, three qualitative studies suggest that EMs are less suited for products with complex descriptions.181 However, the results of quantitative studies on the effect of complexity on EM use are so far not conclusive. One study does not

175

Cp. Reuter (2013), p. 125. According to media richness theory, communication media vary in their capacity to process rich information (cp. Daft and Lengel (1984), pp. 191– 233). For example, personal face-to-face communication provides rich communication via multiple channels like language, gestures, or facial expressions as well as direct feedback. 176 It has been proposed that face-to-face negotiations are preferred for complex goods while EMs are best used for goods that involve a low complexity (cp. Ihde (2004), p. 34) or that e-procurement is best used for standard goods involving a low degree of complexity (cp. Möhrstädt et al. (2001), pp. 124–125). 177 Cp. Homburg (1995), p. 826. 178 Cp. Bask (2001), p. 476. 179 Cp. Andersson and Norrman (2002); Ihde (2004), p. 34. 180 Cp. Stoll (2008), p. 236; Reuter (2013), pp. 203–204. 181 Cp. Choudhury et al. (1998), p. 495; Holzmüller and Schlüchter (2002), p. 9; Junge et al. (2019), p. 37.

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find a statistically significant effect of complexity on the adoption of EMs,182 but another study finds a negative effect.183 Similarly, one study does not find any indications for an effect of complexity on the extent of use of EMs,184 while another study finds a negative effect.185 The indications for the effect of complexity on the choice of functionalities186 and relational orientation187 are also not clear.

4.3.2.2.3 Importance Importance within procurement “[…] assesses the significance that a particular purchase possesses for the buying organization”188 . Often, a distinction between monetary and non-monetary dimensions of importance is made.189 The monetary importance of a supply depends on its value or purchasing price,190 but also the transaction volume or profit margin.191 Non-monetary importance is a result of the impact on final goods or services sold to customers,192 the closeness to the core competencies of a firm,193 or the risks associated with the unavailability of a resource.194 182

Cp. Son and Benbasat (2007), pp. 80–85. Cp. Upadhyaya et al. (2017), pp. 61–63. 184 Cp. Saprikis and Vlachopoulou (2012), pp. 630–633. 185 Cp. Son and Benbasat (2007), pp. 80–85. 186 Higher levels of complexity have been found to foster IOS integration (cp. Grover and Saeed (2007), pp. 203–209) and reduce the intention to use reverse auctions (cp. Mithas et al. (2008), pp. 712–717) or the performance and success of their use (cp. Schoenherr and Mabert (2008), pp. 89–90; Wagner and Schwab (2004), pp. 19–21). However, two studies do not find indications for an effect of complexity (cp. Pu et al. (2018), pp. 1700–1702; Wang and Archer (2004)). 187 Two studies find a positive effect of complexity on relational orientation (cp. Cannon and Perreault Jr (1999), pp. 449–454; Kaufmann and Carter (2006), pp. 664–667), while two other studies cannot find statistically significant effects of complexity (cp. Bello et al. (2003), pp. 9–10; Janz (2004), p. 300). In another study, the complexity of the procurement object has been found to affect social bonds in a survey with participants from the USA but not from Germany (cp. Kaufmann (2001), p. 358). 188 Schoenherr and Mabert (2011), p. 831. 189 Cp. Werner (1997), p. 70. 190 Cp. Stoll (2008), pp. 60–61; Kollmann (2019), pp. 188–189. 191 Cp. Janz (2004), p. 175. 192 Cp. Kaufmann (2001), p. 330. 193 Cp. Hartmann (2002b), p. 23. 194 Cp. Ellis et al. (2010), p. 38; Pfeffer and Salancik (2003), p. 46. 183

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For the procurement of transportation services, especially non-monetary aspects of importance may be relevant. For example, the unavailability or unreliable performance of transportation services may have negative consequences for own internal processes (e.g., production) or the processes of the customer.195 The importance of resources is discussed as one of the critical determinants of dependency within resource dependency theory.196 In particular, dependency “[…] arises directly proportional to the importance of the item of exchange”197 . Firms can deal with important supplies in different ways. First, firms could ensure the availability of important supplies by using many alternative suppliers.198 In contrast to this strategy, firms could also employ a more relational approach. Especially proponents of the just-in-time concept argue that close cooperation is needed for ensuring the availability of important supplies.199 Many conceptual works propose that importance should be considered when conducting transactions with suppliers. Based on Kraljic’s matrix, some authors have proposed that leverage and non-critical items should be treated differently within e-procurement.200 Moreover, ABC analysis can be used for classifying products according to their financial importance.201 Some authors believe that for products with a low financial impact (C products), e-procurement activities should focus on process cost reductions whereas the aim should be to reduce purchasing prices for A products.202 Only two empirical studies investigate the effect of importance on the use of EMs and e-procurement. One study finds that EMs that are used for the exchange of unimportant goods will have better prospects for success than when 195

Products may vary in their importance because they can affect subsequent processes to different degrees (cp. Kaufmann (2001), pp. 330–332; Werner (1997), pp. 135–136). The same is true for transportation services. 196 Cp. Pfeffer and Salancik (2003), p. 45. 197 Sriram et al. (1992), p. 306. 198 Cp. Homburg (1995), p. 825. 199 Cp. Werner (1997), p. 163. 200 Products with a low profit impact and supply risk (non-critical items) should be purchased with a focus on low process costs, for example by using desktop purchasing systems. In contrast, for products with a high profit impact but low supply risk (leverage items) the aim should be to optimize purchasing prices. Market-oriented systems are therefore more suitable (cp. Arnold and Schnabel (2007), p. 87; Bogaschewsky (2002), p. 27; Kollmann (2019), p. 189; Luczak et al. (2002), p. 159; Tassabehji (2010), p. 434). 201 Within ABC analysis, products are classified according to some measure of financial importance (e.g. annual purchasing volume) into products with high (A products), medium (B products), or low importance (C products) (cp. Ivanov et al. (2019), p. 365). 202 Cp. Stoll (2008), pp. 60–61; Kortus-Schultes and Ferfer (2005), pp. 101–103.

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important products are exchanged.203 In another study, no indications for an effect of the perceived risks related to product supply on the extent of use of eprocurement could be found.204 Furthermore, there are a few studies that indicate that the importance of a supply is associated with the choice of functionalities that typically involve a higher relational orientation.205 Also in the more general context of buyer-supplier relationships, several studies find a tendency toward more relational exchanges in presence of higher importance.206 But other studies find indications for an effect of importance on relational orientation in the opposite direction, i.e. increases in importance are associated with more discrete exchanges. In particular, positive effects of importance on the search for alternative suppliers or the number of suppliers used within procurement have been found.207 In addition, some studies find no statistically significant effect of importance on the relational orientation within buyer-supplier relationships or only mixed results.208

4.3.2.2.4 Availability of Alternatives The avaiability of alternatives denotes “[…] the degree to which a buying firm has alternative sources of supply to meet a need”209 . This availability of alternatives is relevant for the use of ETMs because the number of alternative transportation service providers should be sufficiently high to make use of certain ETM functionalities. For example, to use spot market functionalities or e-tendering on an ETM, at least 4–5 transportation service providers should be available which can offer the needed transportation services.210

203

Cp. Holzmüller and Schlüchter (2002), p. 9. Cp. Garrido et al. (2011), pp. 60–64. 205 Importance is associated with the use of EMs for integration with suppliers (cp. Oppel (2003), pp. 239–240) or the use of private EMs (cp. Truong (2016), pp. 59–63). Moreover, importance has been found to have a negative effect on the use of electronic reverse auctions (cp. Schoenherr and Mabert (2011), pp. 838–839). 206 Cp. Cannon and Perreault Jr (1999), 494–454; Janz (2004), p. 299; Metcalf and Frear (1993), pp. 72–79; Werner (1997), p. 161. 207 Cp. Ellis et al. (2010), pp. 41–43; Homburg (1995), pp. 826–828. 208 Cp. Metcalf et al. (1992), pp. 37–38; Spekman and Strauss (1986), pp. 36–39; Kaufmann (2001), pp. 339–355. 209 Cannon and Perreault Jr (1999), p. 444. 210 In the literature, at least 4–5 suppliers are often recommended for conducting electronic auctions (cp. Carter et al. (2004), p. 245; Held (2003), p. 143; Hausladen (2020), p. 113). This 204

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Whether many or only a few alternatives of supply exist has fundamental importance for dependency and is therefore relevant from the perspective of resource dependency theory. The availability of alternative sources of supply is one of three factors that have been identified as determinants of dependency:211 “The dependence of one organization on another also derives from the concentration of resource control, or the extent to which input or output transactions are made by a relatively few, or only one, significant organizations”212 . The availability of alternatives is also relevant in transaction cost theory. In particular, asset specificity and the availability of alternatives are related. When the asset specificity involved in the transaction is high, few or no alternatives exist.213 This situation poses a risk for opportunistic exploitation and contractual hazards arise.214 The results are higher transaction costs and therefore a tendency toward higher levels of relational orientation. Despite their similarities, however, asset specificity and the availability of alternatives are conceptually not the same: “The transaction cost argument concerns how asset specificity creates a thin market, but a market may be poorly supplied for other reasons as well”215 . The availability of alternatives is an aspect of supply risk that is considered within Kraljic’s matrix: „Supply risk is assessed in terms of availability, number of suppliers, competitive demand, make-or-buy opportunities, and storage risks and substitution possibilities.”216 The recommendation for leverage items with a low supply risk is to make use of market oriented-systems, leverage market potentials, and exploit purchasing power. In contrast, the use of long-term contracts, improving the cooperation between partners, or establishing strategic partnerships is recommended for strategic items with a high supply risk.217 Only one study deals with the effect of the availability of alternatives on the use of e-procurement. The case study research indicates that e-procurement is less used when services are only offered by a few service providers or when they

is also a good recommendation for the procurement of transportation services via e-tendering or spot market functionalities on an ETM. 211 Cp. section 4.3.2.1.2. 212 Pfeffer and Salancik (2003), p. 50. 213 Cp. Papenhoff (2009), p. 93; Picot and Dietl (1990), p. 179. 214 Cp. Bensaou and Anderson (1999), p. 462; Ganesan (1994), p. 6. 215 Bensaou and Anderson (1999), p. 468. 216 Kraljic (1983), p. 112. 217 Cp. Arnold and Schnabel (2007), pp. 86–87; Bogaschewsky (2002), pp. 26–28; Kollmann (2019), pp. 185–189; Luczak et al. (2002), pp. 160–161; Tassabehji (2010), p. 434.

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are difficult to obtain from the market.218 Furthermore, several studies indicate that increases in the availability of alternatives foster the use of functionalities that are associated with discrete exchanges.219 Similarly, a few studies show that relational exchanges are preferred when the availability of alternatives is low.220

4.3.2.2.5 Demand Uncertainty Demand uncertainty reflects the predictability of the demand for products and services. The higher the demand uncertainty, the less predictable is the demand.221 Two specific types of demand uncertainty can be distinguished for the procurement of transportation services: (1) the predictability of the frequency of purchases (frequency uncertainty) and (2) the predictability of the volumes to be purchased (volume uncertainty).222 The volume uncertainty refers to fluctuations in demand and to the degree of confidence that is placed in its estimates.223 If it is difficult to accurately predict the demand or when the demand fluctuates a lot over time, the volume uncertainty of demand is high. In contrast, if demand can be accurately predicted and is quite stable over time, the volume uncertainty is low.224 The frequency uncertainty of demand reflects the degree to which the demand is infrequent, unpredictable, and low volume.225 Situations, where the frequency uncertainty of demand is high, are especially present if demand is sporadic, which denotes that there is a significant number of time series without 218

Cp. Reuter (2013), p. 207. Electronic reverse auctions are preferred when there are many suppliers which can compete (cp. Schoenherr and Mabert (2011), pp. 838–839; Smeltzer and Carr (2003), pp. 485– 486). In addition, more relational forms of IOS use like integration or information sharing have been found to prevail when there are only a few suppliers available (cp. Grover and Saeed (2007), pp. 203–205; Hadaya and Pellerin (2010), pp. 376–378). 220 The lower the availability of alternatives, the higher the rationalism in buyer-supplier relationships (cp. Bello et al. (2003), pp. 9–10; Cannon and Perreault Jr (1999), pp. 449– 454; Werner (1997), p. 161), the higher the commitment to the relationship (cp. Kim (2001), pp. 94–95; Norris and McNeilly (1995), pp. 76–77), and the stronger the collaboration (cp. Sriram et al. (1992), pp. 313–314). 221 Cp. Premkumar et al. (2005), p. 265. 222 These types are derived from demand uncertainty as a relevant variable in the EM context. (cp. Choudhury (1997), p. 13; Son and Benbasat (2007), pp. 61–62. 223 Cp. Walker and Weber (1984), p. 376. 224 Cp. Son and Benbasat (2007), pp. 61–62. 225 Cp. Choudhury (1997), p. 13. The authors refer to frequency uncertainty with the term “technological uncertainty of demand”. Since it captures the meaning in a better way, the term “frequency uncertainty” is used within this thesis (as also done by Son and Benbasat (2007), pp. 61–62). 219

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any demand.226 In such situations, it will be difficult to predict when the next purchase must be done.227 The effect of demand uncertainty can be explained based on transaction cost theory. First, both volume and frequency uncertainty reflect environmental uncertainty because they represent circumstances surrounding the exchange which cannot be specified beforehand. Environmental uncertainty, however, increases transaction costs and provides a tendency toward more relational orientation in exchanges.228 Second of all, the frequency uncertainty of demand is related to the frequency of transactions as discussed within the transaction cost theory. When frequency uncertainty is low, there will be frequent procurement transactions. However, the higher the frequency of transactions, the more beneficial long-term contracts, and the less efficient short-term market exchanges become.229 Demand uncertainty has only been considered in one conceptual portfolio model. It proposes that e-collaboration is appropriate for goods that are purchased regularly, while electronic reverse auctions are proposed for products with a demand that is difficult to predict.230 The effect of demand uncertainty on the adoption and extent of use of EMs has so far only been investigated by a few studies and the results are so far not

226

Cp. Küsters and Speckenbach (2012), p. 75. Spare parts for cars or airplanes are good examples of products with a high frequency uncertainty, because there are many different parts and it is difficult to predict when a certain part will be needed for a repair job. In contrast, a low frequency of demand is given if a certain supply is needed on a regular, ongoing basis. For example, producers of cars or airplanes face much less frequency uncertainty in the production process because they know which parts are needed for producing a planned number of finished products (cp. Choudhury (1997), p. 13). 228 Environmental uncertainty makes it more difficult to establish contractual protections against risks. In addition, frequent adaptations of deadlines or quantities complicate the fulfillment of contractual terms and cause adaptation efforts (cp. Kiedaisch (1997), pp. 48–49; Picot et al. (2001), p. 53). 229 Transaction cost theory suggests that the frequency of transactions reduces the average transaction costs because the costs for establishing certain governance structures (e.g., long-term contracts) can be distributed over many transactions. In presence of frequent transactions (low frequency uncertainty), short-term market exchanges imply high transaction costs due to frequent search and negotiation costs which could be reduced by establishing long-term contracts (cp. Wang and Archer (2004)). 230 Cp. Stoll (2008), p. 61. 227

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conclusive.231 The results of empirical studies on the impact of demand uncertainty on functionality choice232 and buyer-supplier relationships233 do also not point in one direction.

4.3.2.2.6 Specifiability Specifiability is the “[…] ability to precisely characterize in electronic format the nature of the product/service contracted for, including delivery requirements and any other contractual/fulfillment requirements that may pertain to a specific transaction, in a manner understandable to relevant parties”234 . When specifiability is high, the specification of the required products and services is easily possible. In contrast, specifiability is low if it is difficult or even impossible to specify the needed supply. Transportation services may be difficult to specify, for example, when they involve a need for responsiveness or the exchange of information.235 Specifiability is relevant in incomplete contracts theory. This theory suggests that not all variables which are observable by the parties involved in an exchange

231

In one study, the demand uncertainty has been found to have a negative effect on the intention to adopt and the extent of use of EMs (cp. Son and Benbasat (2007), pp. 80–82). Other studies, however, could not find significant effects of demand uncertainty on the adoption or the extent of use of EMs (cp. Najmul Islam et al. (2020), pp. 13–16; Saprikis and Vlachopoulou (2012), pp. 630–633; Upadhyaya et al. (2017), pp. 61–63). 232 One study finds that demand uncertainty is positively associated with the use of spot markets (cp. Choudhury et al. (1998), pp. 484–493) and another study indicates that the contract market is feasible for services involving low demand uncertainty (cp. Janssen and Verbraeck (2008), p. 480). In contrast, another study finds that collaboration-oriented EM functionalities are preferred over market-oriented functionalities when companies face high transaction uncertainty (cp. Wang and Archer (2004)). Furthermore, two studies cannot find a significant effect of demand uncertainty on the extent of use of IOS for integration or the use of electronic information transfer (cp. Grover and Saeed (2007), pp. 203–205; Kim et al. (2006), pp. 308–311). 233 A case study research finds that demand uncertainty is positively associated with a need for close supply chain relationships (cp. Leeuw and Fransoo (2009), pp. 727–731). But another study finds an effect of demand uncertainty in the opposite direction: demand uncertainty (in terms of a low frequency of procurement) has a negative effect on the relational orientation within procurement relationships (cp. Werner (1997), p. 161). Another study could not find an effect of the demand uncertainty in terms of transaction frequency on the relational orientation within procurement (cp. Janz (2004), pp. 299–300). 234 Levi et al. (2003), p. 77. 235 The need for responsiveness and the exchange of information represent two of six dimensions of non-contractibility which are associated with low degrees of specifiability (cp. Mithas et al. (2008), p. 709).

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relationship are also verifiable by a third party (e.g., a court). A good example is a supplier’s effort to innovate where “[…] both the firm and the supplier may be able to observe whether adequate innovation has been realized compared with industry norms and technological developments, but it may be impossible to demonstrate this to the satisfaction of a court”236 . The provision of efforts by suppliers which are difficult or impossible to verify can be thought of as investments into the relationship. Since these cannot be specified in contracts, buyers needing such investments must provide incentives for suppliers to make them. Such incentives can be in the form of employing a reduced number of suppliers or establishing long-term relationships with them. Based on this reasoning, a tendency toward relational orientation within exchanges that involve low levels of specifiability can be expected. This tendency is also reflected in a portfolio model which wants to explain the applicability of electronic reverse auctions based on the rivalry among suppliers and the specifiability of goods or services. When the rivalry among suppliers and specifiability is low, the applicability of electronic reverse auctions is proposed to be low. In contrast, when specifiability and rivalry are high, electronic reverse auctions are proposed to be highly applicable.237 No empirical studies could be found that deal with the effect of specifiability on the adoption or extent of use of EMs or e-procurement. However, there are clear indications that specifiability is positively associated with the choice of functionalities that support discrete exchanges.238 Similarly, two empirical studies indicate that specifiability has a negative effect on the relational orientation toward suppliers.239

236

Bakos and Brynjolfsson (1993), p. 44. Cp. Beall et al. (2003), p. 15. 238 Several studies find that electronic reverse auctions are used when specifiability is high (cp. Hawkins et al. (2009), p. 63; Hawkins et al. (2010), pp. 24–27; Kaufmann and Carter (2004), pp. 17–24). Another study also finds that companies that value non-contractible factors (i.e. low specifiability) favor the use of collaboration-oriented functionalities (cp. Wang and Archer (2004)). 239 One study provides qualitative evidence that recurrent transactions between suppliers and buyers are motivated by investments into non-contractible attributes with a low specifiability (cp. Radkevitch (2008), p. 93). The other study finds that negotiated contracts are preferred over market-governance when transactions are less codifiable (cp. Levi et al. (2003), pp. 7– 9). 237

4.3 Contextual Variables

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Dimension 2: ETM Properties

4.3.3.1 Theoretical Foundation The core product which ETM operators offer to shippers and transportation service providers is an IS which improves transactions between the ETM participants. Therefore, the ETM properties should be important for the selection and ongoing commitment to ETMs. But which ETM properties should be relevant for the participants? Fortunately, a lot of knowledge has been accumulated within IS research on how to design and implement successful systems which can be used to identify relevant properties. Because previous research covers a broad area of topics, two specific streams of literature within IS research have been selected as the theoretical foundation for the identification of relevant contextual variables within the ETM properties. First, models on IS acceptance will be considered. These models try to explain why users adopt or reject IS.240 There are many reasons why the acceptance of an ETM by users is important. Obviously, an IS cannot improve business process performance if it is not used. While employees may be obligated to use an ETM, forcing the use against their will may have negative consequences.241 Therefore, knowing which ETM properties will likely lead to more or less acceptance by its users is important. Second, models on IS business value will be reviewed. Within this stream of literature, researchers have conducted many studies to find out which factors determine that some IS create larger benefits than others. Knowing which properties are associated with achieving more or less success in subsequent use helps decision-makers to select the right ETMs. In addition, the commitment toward ETMs should be driven at least in part by considerations of the economic value that these marketplaces provide. Therefore, the determinants for achieving business value via IS are relevant for the explanation of both the selection of and commitment to ETMs as design variables within the dimension of the relationship to ETMs. 240

The acceptance of an IS is a state which manifests itself in the adoption or rejection of an IS by a user and which may change over time (cp. Leimeister (2015), p. 224; Wilhelm (2012), p. 17). 241 For example, users may work against the implementation (cp. Brown et al. (2002), p. 284). Furthermore, employees can voluntarily engage in learning new functions and expand their use over time. Such an extended use of an IS may improve outcomes for firms (cp. Hsieh et al. (2011), pp. 2027–2031). However, such a voluntary use expansion is unlikely to happen if users do not accept an IS. Moreover, being forced to use an unaccepted IS can lead to a lack of job satisfaction and further problems like absenteeism and higher employee turnover (cp. Sørebø and Eikebrokk (2008), p. 2358).

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Finally, there is a stream of literature that deals specifically with EM selection criteria which will be considered for the identification of relevant ETM properties.242

4.3.3.1.1 Models on IS Acceptance The acceptance of IS by users is one of the main research areas within the IS research domain. In course of the last forty decades, a plethora of theoretical models has been developed with roots in fields such as psychology or sociology.243 Given the high number of theoretical models, it is obvious that not all these models can be discussed here. Therefore, the following discussion will be limited to the technology acceptance model (TAM) which is the “[…] most influential and commonly employed theory for describing an individual’s acceptance of information systems”244 . Furthermore, many empirical studies show that the model is viable for predicting IS acceptance.245 The theoretical basis of TAM is the theory of reasoned action (TRA). While TRA is a general theory for explaining the behavior of a person,246 TAM wants to explain the specific use behavior related to IS with two central constructs. The first is perceived usefulness which is defined as “[…] the prospective user’s subjective probability that using a specific application system will increase his or her job performance within an organizational context”247 . The second central construct is the perceived ease of use which is defined as “[…] the degree to which the prospective user expects the target system to be free of effort”248 . Software is easy to use, for example, if a person can easily learn and understand how to use it. 242

Obviously, the identified criteria within the EM selection criteria can be interpreted as contextual variables which may guide the selection of an ETM. But criteria that are relevant for beginning a relationship with an ETM may also affect the commitment toward an ETM. For example, fee levels may be a selection criterion of ETMs. These, however, may change over time and an ETM with competitive fee levels at the time of selection may over time increase the fees so that ultimately the commitment to an ETM declines. 243 Cp. Leimeister (2015), p. 224. 244 Lee et al. (2003), p. 752. 245 Cp. King and He (2006), p. 751; Schepers and Wetzels (2007), p. 99. 246 According to TRA, the central determinant of a person’s behavior is his or her behavioral intention to perform this behavior. The behavioral intention itself is determined by the person’s attitude and subjective norm, whereby the latter refers to beliefs about the expectations of others related to the behavior (cp. Ajzen et al. (1980), pp. 53–59). 247 Davis et al. (1989), p. 985. 248 Ibid., p. 985.

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The central claim of TAM is that the actual system use behavior is determined by the behavioral intention to use. This intention is determined by perceived usefulness and the attitude toward using a system. The central constructs of perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use affect actual system use by their impact on the intermediate variables of attitude and behavioral intention to use. Both central constructs are assumed to be determined by external variables, for example, the characteristics of the IS (cp. Figure 4.8).

Figure 4.8 Technology acceptance model (TAM)249

Researchers have used TAM as a basis for several extensions and modifications of the model. The most prominent models building upon TAM include TAM 2250 , TAM 3251 , the universal theory of acceptance and use of technology (UTAUT)252 , and UTAUT 2253 .254

4.3.3.1.2 Models on IS Business Value Undoubtedly, the relation between IS and the resulting positive effects for firms in terms of business value is one of the core topics of IS research. As in the previous chapter, not all insights from the literature can be discussed. Instead, the discussion will be limited to the IS success model developed by DeLone and 249

Source: Davis et al. (1989), p. 985. Cp. Venkatesh and Davis (2000). 251 Cp. Venkatesh and Bala (2008). 252 Cp. Venkatesh et al. (2003). 253 Cp. Venkatesh et al. (2012). 254 For a more detailed review of models related to TAM, cp. Ginner (2018), pp. 173–176. 250

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McLean which has been confirmed in multiple empirical studies and is of high relevance within IS research.255 The first version of the model proposed six dimensions: system quality, information quality, use, user satisfaction, individual impact, and organizational impact.256 Other studies soon made use of the model and the many follow-up works inspired DeLone and McLean to provide a ten-year update of the initial version of the DeLone and McLean IS success model (cp. Figure 4.9).257

Figure 4.9 Updated DeLone & McLean IS success model258

255

A meta-analysis shows that the predicted relationships by the model are generally confirmed (cp. Petter et al. (2008), p. 258). Furthermore, its first presentation in the year 1992 is the single most cited article within IS research (cp. Lowry et al. (2007), p. 171). 256 Cp. DeLone and McLean (1992), p. 87. 257 Cp. DeLone and McLean (2003), p. 10. In comparison to the first version, the updated version includes “service quality” as an additional quality dimension. Another change is the inclusion of “intention to use” in addition to the dimension “use”. Furthermore, the dimensions “individual impact” and “organizational impact” are combined in the new dimension of “net benefits” in the updated version. 258 Source: DeLone and McLean (2003), p. 24.

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The basic idea underlying the DeLone and McLean IS success model is that the process for creating a successful IS consists of three components in a processual sense. First, a system is created, then it is used and finally, there are consequences of this system use. These three components are also visible in the updated version of the DeLone and McLean IS success model. Beginning from the left, the created IS can be characterized along three different quality dimensions (system, information, and service quality).259 These quality dimensions affect subsequent use, intention to use, or user satisfaction. Net benefits, which encompass the impacts of IS on many different levels (e.g., individuals, workgroups, or society), are a result of use or user satisfaction. But there is also a feedback loop from the net benefits to use or user satisfaction: it is assumed that positive net benefits reinforce subsequent use and user satisfaction, while the lack of positive benefits is likely to result in decreased use and possible discontinuance of an IS.

4.3.3.1.3 Literature on EM Selection Criteria A small, but still a considerable set of works deals with the criteria which should be applied during the selection of EMs. In total, fourteen conceptual works have been identified which provide insights into EM selection criteria. The detailed analysis of these works resulted in the identification of eleven selection criteria that are frequently mentioned in the literature (cp. Table 4.5). The identified criteria will be discussed in terms of two different types of criteria. With the choice of an EM, firms jointly select the information system to be used (i.e., the software, hardware, etc. which are employed for providing the functionalities of the EM) as well as the service provider of this IS. Therefore (1) service provider criteria and (2) information system criteria can be distinguished.260 These will be discussed in the following. The criteria which are most often mentioned related to the service provider are market liquidity and fees. The market liquidity refers to the amount of business that is being conducted on the EM. A high level of market liquidity increases the chances for buyers and sellers to make satisfactory transactions and is therefore important to attract new participants.261 The fees are important for the evaluation of EMs because they represent costs to the participants and may vary from EM 259

For detailed definitions and explanations of the quality dimensions, cp. sections 4.3.3.2.1–4.3.3.2.3. 260 This is similar to the distinction between product-/software-related and vendor-related criteria which is relevant in the context of software selection (cp. Abts and Mülder (2017), p. 530; Schütte and Vering (2011), p. 81). 261 Cp. Bächle and Lehmann (2010), p. 70; Brenner and Breuer (2001), pp. 152–153; Büyüközkan (2004), p. 141; Darkow (2003), p. 209; Deng and Molla (2008); Deng et al.

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X

X X

X X X

X X X

X

X

X

X X

X X

X

X X X X

X

X X X

X X

X X X X X X

Wirtz (2002)

X

X X X

Thitimajshimea et al. (2015)

X X

Stockdale and Standing (2003)

X X

Stockdale and Standing (2002)

Deng et al. (2019a)

X X

Richter and Nohr (2002)

Deng and Molla (2008)

X X

Kleineicken (2004)

Darkow (2003)

X X

Held (2003)

Büyüközkan (2004)

X X X

Brenner and Breuer (2001)

Market liquidity Fees Security Service Know-how X provider Trustworthiness Ownership Likelihood of survival Functionalities X Information Interfaces X Availability / reliability system Standards

Bächle and Lehmann (2010)

Allweyer (2002)

Table 4.5 Criteria for the selection of EMs identified in the literature262

X X

X X X

X X X X

X X

X

X X

to EM.263 Besides these two criteria, security, know-how, and trustworthiness are also often identified as relevant criteria. Security is an important aspect because conducting transactions via an EM involves, for example, the exchange of sensitive data.264 Therefore, EMs must ensure a safe transfer of information and the authentication of participants. It has also often been recognized that the providers of EMs should possess relevant know-how.265 Finally, some authors point out (2019a), p. 5; Held (2003), p. 222; Richter and Nohr (2002), p. 110; Stockdale and Standing (2002), pp. 229–230, (2003), p. 351; Thitimajshima et al. (2015); Wirtz (2002), p. 200. 262 Source: own representation. 263 Cp. Bächle and Lehmann (2010), p. 70; Brenner and Breuer (2001), p. 153; Büyüközkan (2004), p. 141; Darkow (2003), p. 209; Deng and Molla (2008); Deng et al. (2019a), p. 3; Held (2003), p. 224; Kleineicken (2004), p. 105; Stockdale and Standing (2002), p. 230, (2003), p. 361. 264 Cp. Bächle and Lehmann (2010), p. 70; Held (2003), pp. 222–225; Richter and Nohr (2002), p. 114; Stockdale and Standing (2002), p. 230, (2003), p. 361; Thitimajshima et al. (2015). 265 To provide a valuable offering, EMs must possess knowledge of the traded products and services, industry knowledge or market expertise, sufficient know-how for providing consulting to the participants as well as technological competencies (cp. Allweyer (2002), p. 348;

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that the perceived trustworthiness of the EM is important for the selection decision.266 The ownership and likelihood of survival have been less often mentioned as service provider criteria.267 The ownership may affect the decision to use an EM “[…] particularly if the ownership is perceived to affect the independence of the marketplace”268 . The likelihood of survival is relevant because the investments which companies make for using an EM will be lost if an EM ceases to exist in the future.269 Within the information system criteria, it is most often mentioned that the functionalities should be part of the evaluation.270 In particular, it should be checked which functionalities are being offered and whether these match the firm’s requirements. In addition, the possibilities for connecting own information systems to the EM via interfaces should be assessed.271 Furthermore, the technical infrastructure of the EM should ensure high availability and reliability (e.g., the system must be scalable and able to deal with many user requests).272 Finally, some authors also mention that the use of e-business or data exchange standards should be evaluated during the selection of EMs.273 Besides the conceptual studies reviewed above, the selection of EMs has received only limited attention in empirical studies.274 Büyüközkan (2004), p. 142; Deng and Molla (2008); Deng et al. (2019a), p. 4; Wirtz (2002), p. 200). 266 Cp. Deng et al. (2019a), p. 4; Richter and Nohr (2002), pp. 111–112; Stockdale and Standing (2002), p. 230, (2003), p. 361; Thitimajshima et al. (2015). 267 The ownership deals with the question of which party owns an EM (cp. Brenner and Breuer (2001), pp. 152–153; Kleineicken (2004), p. 105; Stockdale and Standing (2002), p. 227, (2003), p. 361). 268 Stockdale and Standing (2002), p. 227. 269 Cp. Bächle and Lehmann (2010), p. 70; Darkow (2003), p. 209. 270 Cp. Allweyer (2002), p. 348; Bächle and Lehmann (2010), p. 70; Brenner and Breuer (2001), p. 153; Deng and Molla (2008); Held (2003), p. 223. 271 Cp. Allweyer (2002), p. 348; Bächle and Lehmann (2010), p. 70; Brenner and Breuer (2001), p. 152; Darkow (2003), p. 209; Held (2003), p. 224; Richter and Nohr (2002), p. 115. 272 Cp. Bächle and Lehmann (2010), p. 70; Darkow (2003), p. 209; Richter and Nohr (2002), p. 114; Wirtz (2002), p. 200. 273 Cp. Bächle and Lehmann (2010), p. 70; Brenner and Breuer (2001), p. 152; Richter and Nohr (2002), pp. 115–116. 274 One study reports that an evaluation procedure involving the assessment of EMs with the use of 135 criteria has helped the case company Triaton (the IT-services company of the ThyssenKrupp AG) to develop a widely accepted and suitable support for their EM strategy (cp. Klueber et al. (2001), pp. 695–703). In another study, a content analysis of over 100 practitioner articles has been conducted to identify factors of the macro-environment, internal

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4.3.3.2 Identified Contextual Variables The review of the literature led to the identification of six contextual variables which should be considered when making decisions on the relationship to ETM operators: (1) system quality, (2) information quality, (3) service quality, (4) market liquidity, (5) security measures and (6) fee levels. The first three contextual variables (system, information, and service quality) are derived from the DeLone and McLean IS success model. Moreover, insights from TAM are included because system quality is understood to comprise its central construct perceived ease of use.275 In addition, three further criteria which stem from the literature on EM selection criteria have been included (i.e. market liquidity, security measures, and fee levels). These have been selected because they are the most often mentioned in the literature.276 Furthermore, it is possible to objectively evaluate these criteria which is not possible for some other criteria.277 In the following, the identified contextual variables will be defined and discussed. For each variable, the insights gained from previous conceptual works and empirical studies will be summarized. Besides dependent variables which are relevant for the relationship to ETMs278 , insights from empirical

factors of the participating companies, and factors of the EMs which should be considered during the selection of EMs (cp. Stockdale and Standing (2002), pp. 221–234). 275 Cp. section 4.3.3.2.1. 276 Cp. Table 4.5. The fact that the criteria are frequently mentioned by researchers shows that the criteria are not subjectively considered to be important by only a few individuals. 277 It should be possible to objectively evaluate the selected criteria. For example, the number of participants is often advertised by ETMs, fee levels must be made transparent before any contract with an ETM operator will be signed and it should also be possible to gather information on the security measures. In contrast, it is much more difficult to objectively evaluate criteria such as the know-how of the ETM operator or the likelihood of ETM survival. 278 Different dependent variables are relevant for the relationship to ETMs. These include trust (cp. Chiu et al. (2009), p. 773; Kim and Ahn (2007), pp. 125–126; Koufaris and Hampton-Sosa (2004), pp. 386–388; McKnight et al. (2017), p. 132; Pavlou (2002), pp. 229– 232; Pavlou and Gefen (2004), p. 50; Zhou et al. (2009), p. 331), loyalty (cp. Agag (2019), pp. 399–404; Thitimajshima et al. (2018), pp. 137–138), success factors for ongoing use (cp. Cullen and Taylor (2009), pp. 1172–1178) or the use of specific EMs (cp. Driedonks et al. (2005), pp. 57–64; Quaddus and Hofmeyer (2007), pp. 206–211; Tao et al. (2007), pp. 1060–1065).

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studies which are relevant for the acceptance279 and success280 of ETMs will be discussed.

4.3.3.2.1 System Quality System quality refers to the desired characteristics of the IS itself.281 It measures the extent to which an IS is technically sound.282 Many different aspects can be relevant for achieving system quality, for example, ease of use, system accuracy, system flexibility, system reliability, and response times.283 System quality is one of the dimensions of the DeLone and McLean IS success model. The model proposes that the use of an IS, user satisfaction, and the resulting net benefits are influenced by system quality: “[…] higher system quality is expected to lead to higher user satisfaction and use, leading to positive impacts on individual productivity, resulting in organizational productivity improvements”284 . In addition, there is an overlap in the research based on the DeLone and McLean IS success model and research based on TAM. Ease of use is an important construct for explaining the intention to use or actual use behavior within the TAM. However, ease of use can also be considered within the system quality dimension of the DeLone and McLean IS success model.285 Some works within the literature on EM selection criteria have also identified aspects of system quality to be relevant for the selection of EMs. In particular,

279

Acceptance encompasses all indications on dependent variables which are relevant for the use of IS by individuals. Results of studies that investigate determinants of the use of e-procurement in an organizational context (e.g. Brandon-Jones and Kauppi (2018)) or a consumer context (e.g. Jones and Kim (2010)) will be reviewed. In addition, the results from previous studies on the satisfaction with EMs or websites for procurement will be considered due to their relevance for the acceptance (cp. Devaraj et al. (2002); Jones and Kim (2010); Lee and Lin (2005); Lin (2007); Zhou et al. (2009)). 280 Some empirical studies provide insights that are relevant for the success of ETMs. For example, one study provides insights on the performance impacts from the use of eprocurement (cp. Boyer and Olson (2002), pp. 490–493) and another study provides insights on the impacts resulting from the use of an EM (cp. Chien et al. (2012), pp. 465–466). 281 Cp. DeLone and McLean (1992), p. 62. 282 Cp. Gorla et al. (2010), p. 212. 283 Cp. Petter et al. (2008), p. 238. 284 Cp. DeLone and McLean (2003), p. 11. 285 In contrast to TAM, however, the DeLone and Mclean IS success model includes more aspects within system quality than just ease of use. For example, a measurement instrument including 40 items to measure system quality has been developed (cp. Rivard et al. (1997), pp. 44–58).

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the availability and reliability of the EM have been mentioned as criteria that should be evaluated during the selection of an EM.286 Empirical studies show that system quality has a positive effect on the acceptance of e-procurement systems.287 Furthermore, studies indicate that system quality has a positive effect on the success of e-procurement288 and EMs289 . Finally, several studies show that system quality may have a positive influence on the trust in and the ongoing use of IS used for procurement.290

4.3.3.2.2 Information Quality While system quality deals with the quality of the IS itself, information quality refers to the quality of the information results which are being produced by the system. One aspect of information quality, for example, is accuracy. But information quality can encompass more aspects or dimensions (e.g., relevance, understandability, or completeness).291 According to the DeLone and McLean IS success model, information quality is another important factor for the success of IS: “Information quality has proven to be strongly associated with system use and net benefits in recent empirical studies and especially in the context of e-commerce systems”292 .

286

Cp. Bächle and Lehmann (2010), p. 70; Darkow (2003), p. 208; Richter and Nohr (2002), pp. 113–114; Wirtz (2002), p. 200. 287 System quality has a positive effect on the intention to use e-procurement via its effect on perceived usefulness (cp. Brandon-Jones and Kauppi (2018), p. 34). Furthermore, system quality has a positive effect on the use of electronic reverse auctions (cp. Adomavicius et al. (2013), p. 497), the evaluation of the effectiveness of a website used for purchasing (cp. Chakraborty et al. (2002), pp. 64–68), the customer satisfaction in online shopping (cp. Lee and Lin (2005), pp. 169–171; Lin (2007), pp. 371–373), and the satisfaction with EMs (cp. Kang (2014), pp. 457–460; Kollmann (2001a); Zahedi et al. (2010), pp. 310–312). 288 Cp. Boyer and Olson (2002), pp. 490–493. 289 Cp. Chien et al. (2012), pp. 465–466. 290 System quality is associated with higher levels of trust in EMs (cp. Kim and Ahn (2007), pp. 125–126; McKnight et al. (2017), p. 132) or websites used for purchasing (cp. Chiu et al. (2009), p. 773; Koufaris and Hampton-Sosa (2004), pp. 386–388). In addition, empirical studies show that system quality may also lead to the ongoing use of EMs (cp. Thitimajshima et al. (2018), pp. 137–138) or e-commerce systems (cp. Cullen and Taylor (2009), pp. 1172–1178). 291 Cp. Gorla et al. (2010), p. 213; Petter et al. (2008), p. 239. 292 DeLone and McLean (2003), p. 21.

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A few studies find that information quality has positive effects on the acceptance of e-procurement systems.293 In addition, only one empirical study indicates that information quality may have a potentially positive effect on the relationship to ETMs.294

4.3.3.2.3 Service Quality Service quality denotes “[…] a customer’s global, subjective assessment of the quality of an interaction with a vendor, including the degree to which specific service needs have been met”295 . Service quality can be understood to consist of multiple dimensions. For example, the famous SERVQUAL instrument measures service quality in the dimensions of tangibles, reliability, responsiveness, assurance, and empathy.296 Service quality was not included in the first version of the DeLone and McLean IS success model. However, the increasing importance of the provision of services compared to the provision of information products lead the authors to include service quality as a separate dimension in their ten-year update: “Although a claim could be made that service quality is merely a subset of the model’s system quality, the changes in the role of IS over the last decade argue for a separate variable—the service quality dimension”297 . No empirical studies have been found which investigate the effect of service quality in the EM context. However, a few studies indicate that service quality has a positive effect on the acceptance of e-procurement.298 In addition, two 293

It has been found that the higher the information quality of websites used for purchasing, the higher their perceived effectiveness or usefulness (cp. Chakraborty et al. (2002), pp. 64– 68; Ramkumar et al. (2019), p. 340). In addition, information quality is positively associated with the intention to use a website for online apparel shopping (cp. Jones and Kim (2010), pp. 632–633) or the use of an e-procurement system within public organizations (cp. Kassim and Hussin (2013), pp. 10–13). 294 Information quality is perceived to be among the most important factors for the ongoing use of an e-commerce system in the pharmaceutical supply chain (cp. Cullen and Taylor (2009), pp. 1172–1178). However, another study did not find a significant effect of information quality on the loyalty of EM participants (cp. Thitimajshima et al. (2018), pp. 137–139). 295 Xu et al. (2013), p. 780. 296 Cp. Parasuraman et al. (1988), p. 25. 297 DeLone and McLean (2003), p. 18. 298 Service quality has a positive effect on the extent to which individuals use an eprocurement system (cp. Brandon-Jones and Carey (2011), pp. 283–286). In addition, several studies show that consumers are more satisfied with websites that they use for purchasing activities when the service quality is evaluated to be higher (cp. Lee and Lin (2005), pp. 169– 171; Lin (2007), pp. 371–373; Zhou et al. (2009), p. 331. Mixed results are provided by

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studies show that service quality has a positive effect on trust in the e-procurement context.299

4.3.3.2.4 Market Liquidity Market liquidity denotes the volume of business conducted in a marketplace which can be measured, for example, via the trade volume of an EM300 or the number of active participants301 . Within the literature on EM selection criteria, market liquidity is the most often mentioned criterion. The importance of market liquidity is also evident in the idea that EMs must reach a critical mass to be successful and survive.302 From an economic perspective, the importance of market liquidity and critical mass can be explained based on the relevance of network effects for EMs. Network effects exist when the value of membership to one user is positively affected by another user joining and enlarging the network.303 EMs support transactions between buyers and sellers. It is therefore not surprising that network effects also play a role for them. The more participants an EM has, the more likely it is that successful exchange transactions between buyers and sellers can take place.304 This makes EMs with a larger base of participants more attractive in comparison to other EMs which only have a lower number of participants.305 Several empirical studies show that market liquidity is important for the acceptance of EMs.306 only one study, whereby only a single dimension (assurance) of the SERVQUAL dimensions has been found to have a significant positive effect on satisfaction (cp. Devaraj et al. (2002), pp. 324–327). 299 Service quality has a positive effect on the trust of consumers in websites which they are using for purchasing activities (cp. Chiu et al. (2009), pp. 771–773; Zhou et al. (2009), p. 331). 300 Cp. Büyüközkan (2004), p. 141; Deng and Molla (2008); Deng et al. (2019a), p. 4. 301 Cp. Wirtz (2002), p. 200. 302 The term critical mass denotes the number of participants of an EM that must be reached to ensure that the EM can operate effectively (cp. Stockdale and Standing (2003), p. 351). 303 There are several cases where network effects can arise. A classic example is the ownership of telephones: the more people own and use telephones, the more valuable telephones become to each owner (cp. Garcia and Resende (2011), p. 323; Katz and Shapiro (1994), p. 94). 304 Cp. Neumann et al. (2002), p. 70. 305 Cp. Büyüközkan (2004), p. 143; Wirtz and Mathieu (2002), p. 224. 306 Two studies find that larger numbers of sellers on EMs are associated with higher numbers of buyers which represents a so-called cross-side network (cp. Chu and Manchanda (2016), pp. 883–888; Hinz et al. (2020), pp. 28–32). In addition, there are some indications

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4.3.3.2.5 Security Measures Security measures refer to mechanisms implemented by ETMs to protect participants from various risks.307 Many potential mechanisms can be used to improve the security of ETM participants. For example, ETMs can implement a qualification system so that only applicants fulfilling certain requirements are admitted to the ETM. In addition, appropriate authentication or data security systems can be used. Further security measures include privacy policies, non-repudiation systems, or backup strategies.308 Security measures are often mentioned in the literature on EM selection criteria. However, only a small set of empirical studies provides indications for the relevant effects of security measures. One study finds that security measures have a positive effect on the acceptance of websites for e-procurement.309 In addition, multiple studies provide indications for a positive effect of security measures on trust in the e-procurement context, the intention to use EMs, or the loyalty toward them.310 4.3.3.2.6 Fee Levels To generate revenues, ETMs must decide how to charge the participants for the value they provide. Typically, EMs generate revenues through various types of fees.311 Furthermore, the implementation and ongoing use of an ETM may cause that market liquidity has a positive effect on the organizational adoption of EMs. Two qualitative studies notice that reaching a critical mass of users is important for successful adoption of EMs (cp. Driedonks et al. (2005), pp. 63–65) or ETMs (cp. Sänger (2004), p. 111). Furthermore, a survey study provides indications that the number of users has a positive effect on the intention to adopt EMs (cp. Quaddus and Hofmeyer (2007), pp. 208–211). 307 ETMs are used for the transmission of sensitive transaction information between buyers and sellers of transportation services. In addition, transactions may be conducted with potentially unknown trading partners. In such an environment, participants face various risks which can be reduced by proper security measures which are implemented by ETM operators. 308 Cp. Saeed and Leitch (2003), p. 168. 309 A survey study of buyers using a website for purchasing supplies in the construction industry shows that higher levels of perceived security are associated with a better overall evaluation of the goodness or badness of a website (cp. Chakraborty et al. (2002), pp. 64–68). 310 Security measures have a positive effect on trust in EM service providers (cp. Kim and Ahn (2007), pp. 125–126; Koufaris and Hampton-Sosa (2004), pp. 386–389) or on trust in the sellers which are active on an EM (cp. Pavlou (2002), pp. 229–232; Pavlou and Gefen (2004), p. 50). Furthermore, security measures have a positive effect on the intention to use an EM (cp. Shih et al. (2013), pp. 400–402) or the corresponding repurchase intention and loyalty (cp. Agag (2019), pp. 399–404). 311 Cp. Büyüközkan (2004), p. 143.

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internal or external personnel costs (e.g., for the initial system setup or support).312 However, these costs are usually not as significant as the ETM fees or they are already included in them. Therefore, the focus of the conceptual research framework will be on the fee levels of ETMs. Since the fees represent costs for the participants, the economic viability of using an ETM is influenced by the height of the fees which must be paid to ETM operators. It is therefore not surprising that the fees are a commonly mentioned criterion for the selection of EMs in the literature. Indeed, it is the criterion that is most often mentioned after market liquidity.313 Nonetheless, only a few empirical studies indicate that fee levels are relevant for the adoption of EMs.314

4.3.4

Summary: Conceptual Insights for RQ2

One objective of the present thesis is to identify determinants that are relevant for the use of an ETM (RQ2). In course of the previous chapters, two dimensions of design variables for the use of ETMs have been identified. First, system use comprises design variables that reflect the degree and manner of ETM use. In addition to often studied design variables like adoption or the extent of use, the design variables of the present thesis encompass the functionality choice and relational orientation which are less studied but are highly relevant from a practical point of view. Second, the relationship to ETMs encompasses design variables that are relevant for the establishment of a relationship between shippers and ETM operators (selection of an ETM) and the continuation of this business relationship (commitment to ETM). For each of these design variable dimensions, one dimension of contextual variables has been identified which encompasses determinants for one specific dimension of design variables. First, system use is influenced by the purchasing

312

Cp. section 6.3.1. Cp. section 4.3.3.1.3. 314 Two qualitative studies show that fees can act as barriers to the adoption of EMs when they are too high (cp. Johnson (2010), pp. 163–167; Johnson (2013), pp. 346–352). Similarly, another study finds that the fees of an EM determine the perceived relative advantage, which in turn drives the use of an EM (cp. Koch (2004), p. 2449). Only one study in the steel industry in China shows that paying fees is among the factors which are considered less important for the adoption of EMs (cp. Tao et al. (2007), p. 1064). 313

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situation which encompasses factors that are related to the procurement of transportation services and have an impact on the way how shippers and transportation service providers interact (e.g., the complexity of transportation services). Second, the relationship to ETMs should be affected by ETM properties which represent criteria and attributes that can differ from one ETM to another and are important for the successful use of an ETM (e.g., system quality). Figure 4.10 depicts the above-mentioned conceptual results for the determinants of ETM use (RQ2).

Figure 4.10 Contextual and design variables (Conceptual insights for RQ2)315

In the next chapter, the success variables will be identified which is necessary to explain how the use of an ETM is related to business value impacts for shippers (RQ3).

315

Source: own representation.

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4.4

Success Variables

4.4.1

Identification of Success Variable Dimensions

Ultimately, the decisions on ETM use should be driven by the impact on business value. This impact can manifest itself at two levels which represent dimensions within the success variables of the present thesis: (1) organizational performance and (2) business process performance.316 Organizational performance is a “[…] complex construct which reflects the factors used by decision-makers to assess the functioning of an organization”317 . For example, previous studies have used market measures (e.g., Tobin’s q) or accounting measures (e.g., return on assets) to measure the impact of IT on organizational performance.318 In contrast, business process performance represents “[…] a range of measures associated with operational efficiency enhancement within specific business processes […]”319 . Measures for business process performance include “[…] gross margin, inventory turnover, customer service, quality, efficiency, and other cost, profit margin and turnover ratios.”320 These two dimensions of success variables have been identified because of the following reasons. First, IT cannot have a direct impact on organizational performance, but it must improve business processes to do so.321 Therefore, the distinction helps to explain how the use of an ETM may affect organizational performance.322 Second of all, the distinction between business process performance and organizational performance is widely accepted in the literature.323

316

Sometimes the term firm performance is used as a synonym for organizational performance (cp. Schryen (2013), pp. 140–142). 317 Van De Ven, Andrew H. (1976), p. 73. 318 Cp. Dehning and Richardson (2002), p. 9. 319 Melville et al. (2004), p. 296. 320 Dehning and Richardson (2002), p. 9. 321 Cp. Barua et al. (1995), pp. 6–7; Krcmar (2015), p. 477; Laudon and Laudon (2014), p. 55. 322 Studies that do not investigate the effect of IT on intermediate business processes follow a “black box” approach (cp. Barua et al. (1995), p. 6; Pfeifer (2003), p. 57; Weitzendorf (2000), p. 17). 323 Cp. Bakos (1987), p. 5; Chan (2000), pp. 228–229; Dehning and Richardson (2002), pp. 9–10; Dedrick et al. (2003), pp. 3–4; Kohli and Grover (2008), p. 27; Krcmar (2015), p. 477; Laudon and Laudon (2014), p. 55; Masli et al. (2011), pp. 83–85; Melville et al. (2004), pp. 287–293; Schryen (2013), p. 142.

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4.4.2

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Dimension 1: Organizational Performance

Organizational performance is a term that can be interpreted in different ways. To provide a clear definition of the term, a performance metric will be selected in the following.324 The chosen performance metric shall provide a clear understanding of how organizational performance is understood within this work. In addition, the selection of a performance metric has further advantages. First, the use of performance metrics has a high relevance from a practical and managerial point of view.325 Second, performance metrics can be used to explain the links between business process performance and organizational performance. Metrics are especially useful for justifying these connections because they can be arranged in a so-called value tree, which can depict the links between multiple metrics.326 Many different metrics are available for performance management. For example, traditional performance metrics like return on investment (ROI) or return on equity (ROE) could be used. However, the application of these traditional performance metrics has some disadvantages. For example, they can be influenced by alternative valuation possibilities in accounting.327 Since the metrics of value-based management do not exhibit these disadvantages, the concept and its metrics became popular in the 1990s. The mission or strategic goal of a firm from the point of view of value-based management is the maximization of shareholder value and many medium-sized or large companies make use of metrics from value-based management.328 Because of these reasons, organizational performance will be understood in terms of Economic Value Added (EVA)—a performance metric of value-based management.329 324

In the business context, metrics can be defined as a set of statistics used for measuring something, in particular how well a company is doing (cp. Deuter et al. (2015), p. 977). 325 One of the benefits of using metrics is that they quantify effects and compress selective information. In this way, they provide crucial support for managers (cp. Gladen (2014), p. 11). The use of performance metrics has been found to have a positive effect on firm success, e.g. when it comes to improvements of the quality of leadership or the agility of firms (cp. Sandt (2004), p. 201). In addition, metrics were ranked the second most important controlling tool in a study including 28 controlling tools (cp. Niedermayr (1994), p. 233). 326 Cp. Werner (2017), pp. 408–409. 327 Cp. Schönherr (2015), p. 58; Stephan (2006), pp. 33–35. 328 Cp. Pellens et al. (2000), p. 22. 329 There are also other metrics available for value-based management. Cash-Value-Added (CVA), for example, is another famous metric (cp. Gundel (2012), p. 2). EVA has been chosen because it is well-known and accepted. In addition, EVA is well-suited for measuring and managing the value of logistics and supply chain management (cp. Lambert and Burduroglu (2000); Schönherr (2015), p. 99; Wessely (2011), p. 25).

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The EVA has been developed by the management and consulting firm Stern Stewart & Co. It is one of the most used and best-known performance metrics of value-based management.330 The EVA is defined as the difference between net operating profit after taxes (NOPAT) and capital charges, whereby the latter are calculated by multiplying the net operating assets (NOA) with the weighted average cost of capital (WACC). The basis for the calculation of the WACC is the market cost of debt and equity.331 The calculation of NOPAT and NOA is based on earning and capital values which are potentially subject to accounting distortions. Therefore, several adjustments have been proposed to counter these distortions.332 When the EVA is positive, value for shareholders is created. Intuitively, the described calculation of EVA shows that its value is only positive when the NOPAT is sufficiently high to cover the cost of debt and equity.333

4.4.3

Dimension 2: Business Process Performance

4.4.3.1 Identification of Sub-dimensions As previously mentioned, business process performance denotes the enhancement of business processes that can be measured or understood in different ways. In this thesis, the ETM impact on business process performance will be understood in terms of logistics efficiency. There are several reasons for the choice of logistics efficiency as the conceptual foundation for business process performance. First, logistics efficiency can holistically capture the effects of ETMs, because logistics efficiency considers both the largely quantifiable inputs (logistics costs) and the more intangible outputs (logistics performance) of a logistics system which also correspond to important objectives within procurement.334

330

Cp. Franz and Winkler (2006), p. 418; Gundel (2012), p. 3; Müller and Hirsch (2005), p. 83. 331 Cp. Holler (2009), p. 56; Schönherr (2015), pp. 78–79. 332 Cp. Stephan (2006), p. 81. 333 Cp. Gundel (2012), pp. 16–17. 334 The objectives in procurement also contain intangible performance aspects (i.e., supply assurance, quality, and flexibility) and costs (cp. section 2.3.1).

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Second of all, logistics efficiency is a widely accepted measure of success within logistics.335 In the following, variables for the sub-dimensions of logistics costs and logistics performance will be identified.

4.4.3.2 Sub-dimension 1: Logistics Costs Within this work, logistics costs shall be broadly understood as all costs which occur for the planning, execution, and control of the movements of goods to fulfill corporate objectives.336 More specifically, ETMs can affect logistics costs due to the reduction of process costs and freight rates which occur for the procurement of transportation services.337 These will be discussed in the following.

4.4.3.2.1 Process Costs In a general definition, the process costs of procurement comprise all costs that are caused by in-house processes for the procurement.338 ETMs can reduce such costs for the procurement of transportation services for all phases of market transactions (i.e. the information, negotiation, and settlement phase).339 During the information phase, sellers and buyers gather and exchange relevant information (e.g. product specifications, prices, conditions, legal aspects, etc.).ETMs can reduce efforts in this phase, for example, by improving the search for transportation service providers.340 Furthermore, ETM functionalities can also be used to 335

Many researchers understand the success of logistics in terms of logistics efficiency (cp. Clausen and Rotmann (2014), p. 112; Dehler (2001), p. 207; Engelbrecht (2004), p. 218; Hausladen (2020), p. 7; Hofmann and Nothardt (2009), p. 95; Muchna et al. (2018), p. 42; Pfohl (2018), pp. 42–43; Schönherr (2015), pp. 44–45; Wannenwetsch (2014), p. 10; Wiendahl (2008), p. 248). Furthermore, the supply chain performance measures developed by SCOR also reflect the dimensions of logistics efficiency: these include customer-facing elements (i.e. reliability, flexibility, and responsiveness) which cover aspects of logistics performance and internal-facing aspects (i.e. costs and assets) which cover aspects of logistics costs (cp. Ayers (2006), p. 261; Lai et al. (2002), p. 442). 336 Cp. Engelbrecht (2004), pp. 218–219; Kestel (1995), p. 30. 337 Besides the above-mentioned two positive impacts on process costs and freight rates, the use of an ETM has also a negative impact on costs because usually fees must be paid. In the conceptual research framework, fees will be considered as a contextual variable (cp. section 4.3.3.2.6). 338 Cp. Kortus-Schultes and Ferfer (2005), p. 101. 339 For a more detailed explanation of the phases of market transactions, cp. Grieger (2003), pp. 289–290. 340 It has frequently been mentioned that search costs can be reduced by EMs (cp. Bakos (1991), p. 295; Dai and Kauffman (2002), p. 459 Galbreth et al. (2005), p. 297) or ETMs (cp. Gudmundsson and Walczuck (1999), p. 102; Lin et al. (2002), p. 1).

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support the negotiation phase, for example, if transportation service providers are asked to provide offers in reverse auctions. Finally, services and the respective compensations are exchanged during the settlement phase. Here, ETMs can improve repetitive tasks via process automation, for example tracking shipments or placing orders.341 Thereby, the use of an ETM can reduce the time that employees need for purchasing transportation services and the corresponding process costs can be reduced.342 While there are no empirical studies in the ETM context that deal with process costs, there are a few studies that show that reductions in process costs are important for participants of EMs in general.343 Furthermore, the majority of the participating companies in one study report that the use of an EM has reduced process costs by more than 20%.344 In addition, two survey studies indicate that more extensive use of an EM has a positive effect on the reduction of process costs.345

4.4.3.2.2 Freight Rates A freight rate is a price in monetary units for moving goods between two locations that a transportation service provider charges for such a service.346 The use of ETMs may lead to the reduction of freight rates for shippers because of two main reasons: (1) the reduction of search costs and (2) the potential to realize increased capacity utilization for transportation service providers. The first reason is based on the economic idea of search costs which can be reduced on EMs. Such costs are incurred whenever buyers must invest time and effort in acquiring information about prices, potential suppliers, and their offers. Economic models suggest that as the search costs for buyers decrease, it becomes more difficult for sellers to sustain high prices and market prices will fall. Buyers are assumed to make a trade-off between the marginal search costs and the marginal benefits due to finding better offers when continuing their 341

Cp. Le (2002), p. 115; Ordanini (2005), p. 101. For a procedure that can be applied to calculate process cost reductions, cp. section 6.3.2.1.1. 343 As a result of semi-structured interviews with experts from multiple firms using an EM in the mining industry, one study concludes that the greatest benefit of using an EM stems from the improvement of e-procurement processes (cp. Ash and Burn (2006), p. 14). In addition, a Delphi study found that experts assign higher importance to the improvement of business processes than to the reduction of prices (cp. Holzmüller and Schlüchter (2002), p. 9). 344 Cp. Alarcón et al. (2009), pp. 217–218. 345 Cp. Benslimane et al. (2005), p. 220; Kang et al. (2007), p. 114. 346 Cp. Ballou (2004), p. 190; Bowersox et al. (2002), p. 360. 342

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search. Their search for alternatives will continue if the marginal benefits are larger than the marginal search costs. Thus, when search costs decrease, buyers will increase their search efforts which drive market prices down.347 The second reason for the potential of ETMs to reduce freight rates is more specific to the procurement of transportation services. While transportation service providers will usually try to move their vehicles fully loaded, this cannot be always ensured. Sometimes, a vehicle must even be moved empty which is called deadhead.348 It is often proposed that the use of ETMs may reduce deadheads,349 whereby this reduction can be achieved in different ways (cp. Figure 4.11). In a baseline scenario without the use of an ETM, a truck drives fully loaded from Bremen to Hamburg but has to be moved empty from Hamburg to Leipzig.350 First, the ETM can help the transportation service provider to fill the truck for the deadhead from Hamburg to Leipzig by providing a matching transport order for the direct run (scenario A).351 Second, an ETM could also be used to reduce the distance which is traveled empty by offering a transport order which can be integrated into a tour from Hamburg to Leipzig (scenario B).352 In both cases, transportation service providers will already be better off when the shipper pays a freight rate that is above the marginal costs for transporting the goods.353 Therefore, shippers can benefit from lower freight rates and transportation service providers from an increased capacity utilization of vehicles on an ETM.354 347

Cp. Bakos (1991), pp. 298–299; Lichtenau (2005), p. 54; Voigt et al. (2003), pp. 136–137. Cp. Cavinato (1990), p. 65. Further terms for empty movements of vehicles exist, e.g. empty trip (cp. Scott-Sabic (2005), p. 118). 349 Cp. Bretzke (2014), p. 368; Crainic et al. (2009), p. 550; Davies et al. (2007), p. 17; Gudmundsson and Walczuck (1999), p. 103; Hoffmann (2001), pp. 231–232; McKinnon et al. (2015), p. 325; Nissen (2001a), p. 50; Nissen (2001b), p. 601; Polzin and Lindemann (1999), p. 529; Seeßle (2019), 372. 350 For example, the movement of the truck from Hamburg to Leipzig can be needed because goods must be picked up in Leipzig or because the truck must be returned to a depot. 351 Besides avoiding deadheads, an ETM could also be used to fill a truck that is not yet fully loaded on a certain direct run with additional LTL or PTL shipments. 352 For example, the ETM offers a transport order for moving goods from Hannover to Leipzig. In this case, the truck only has to be moved empty from Hamburg to Hannover and the capacity will be fully used to move the goods from Hannover to Leipzig. 353 The marginal costs include the increased fuel costs for moving the goods, times for loading and unloading of goods, or any costs for detours that must be taken. 354 The mentioned scenarios are relevant for the procurement of transportation services on the spot market. However, similar benefits may also be relevant for the contract market. For example, a shipper might have the demand to move goods regularly from Germany to Italy. 348

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Figure 4.11 Reduction of deadheads via ETMs355

Empirical results for the effect of ETMs on freight rates are scarce. Based on data of past reverse auctions of a large US-based shipper, it has been estimated that when shippers circumvent transportation intermediaries via ETMs, freight rates directly negotiated with carriers could be reduced by nearly 15%.356 Besides that, there are a few studies that deal with the effect of EMs on the prices of other goods or services. EMs have been found to reduce the price of insurance services357 or cars358 . However, some studies cannot find an effect of EM use on

An ETM can help to match this shipper with a transportation service provider that needs to move goods from Italy to Germany. In this way, the transportation service provider does not need to move trucks empty on the return from Germany to Italy and a shipper may benefit from lower freight rates. 355 Source: own representation. This figure has been designed using resources from flaticon.com (cp. https://www.flaticon.com). 356 Cp. Scott (2018), p. 12. 357 Cp. Brown and Goolsbee (2002), p. 481. 358 Cp. Morton et al. (2001), p. 501.

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prices.359 There are even two studies in the context of markets for cars that find that the prices on EMs are higher than in offline markets.360

4.4.3.3 Sub-dimension 2: Logistics Performance There is no common understanding of what logistics performance is and how it should be measured.361 It is, therefore, necessary to more precisely define the term logistics performance. Within the present thesis, logistics performance will be understood as the impact of the performed transportation services on the customers of such services.362 In particular, logistics performance reflects the degree to which the demand for goods by internal and external customers is satisfied in the “right” way (i.e., whether the logistical requirements have been met in full).363 Three variables of logistics performance have been identified based on three direct impacts of ETMs which can affect logistics performance. First, ETMs may provide access to a larger pool of transportation service providers. Therefore, ETMs can have a positive effect on supply assurance and flexibility. Second, the procurement of products or services via marketplaces on the internet involves the risk to deal with unreliable sellers. Therefore, the use of ETMs may encompass negative consequences for logistics quality. Third, ETMs can provide extensive information about shipments (e.g., via tracking and tracing functionalities) which can improve the information capability. In the following, the impacts of an ETM on logistics performance in terms of these variables will be discussed in more detail.

359

Cp. Alarcón et al. (2009), p. 218; Kang et al. (2007), pp. 114–115. Cp. Garicano and Kaplan (2005), p. 108; Lee (1998), pp. 75–77. One of the reasons for higher prices which is mentioned in both studies is that the quality of cars sold via EMs might be higher compared to that of cars sold via traditional offline markets. 361 Indeed, the logistics literature exhibits a variety of different views on the relevant components of logistics performance, the meaning or definition of single components as well as the relation between them (cp. Dietel (1997), p. 137). 362 Besides external customers receiving transportation services within distribution logistics, shippers can also purchase transportation services for internal customers. Internal customers are departments that require internal goods movements (e.g., the procurement department which requires transportation services to move goods from suppliers to manufacturing plants). 363 Cp. Weber (2012), pp. 146–147. 360

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4.4.3.3.1 Supply Assurance and Flexibility ETMs can provide shippers access to a larger pool of transportation service providers.364 This can have a positive effect on both the supply assurance and flexibility of transportation service supply. Supply assurance denotes the degree to which all needed transportation services can be sourced from external transportation service providers. Ensuring the availability of goods and logistical resources (i.e., taking care that the required goods are at the right time at the right place) is a basic requirement for logistics. Indeed, it is often understood as the basic level of logistics performance upon which further levels of performance can build.365 In addition, supply assurance is one of the main objectives of purchasing.366 As previously mentioned, ETMs can facilitate access to a larger set of transportation service providers. This access to more suppliers can reduce the risk of an interruption of service supply. The reason for this is simple: when more suppliers are available, these can be used to cover any needs which might arise unexpectedly (e.g., due to shortages on the supply side).367 Therefore, supply assurance can be improved when ETMs offer access to a larger pool of transportation service providers. Access to more suppliers by using an ETM can also have a positive influence on the flexibility of transportation service supply.368 In general, flexibility denotes the ability to react to current and future changes in the environment.369 The flexibility of transportation service supply refers to the ability to react to changes that are relevant in the context of the procurement of transportation services. For example, flexibility is required when the requested date for the transport of goods is changed by customers. ETMs make it easier to react to such changes

364

Cp. Davies et al. (2007), p. 17; Georg (2006), p. 179; Le (2002), p. 114; Nissen (2001a), p. 50; Ordanini (2005), p. 101; Ordanini and Pol (2001), p. 280; Rask and Kragh (2004), p. 272; Standing and Standing (2015), p. 725. 365 Cp. Bowersox et al. (2002), p. 35; Engelbrecht (2004), p. 222; Hofmann and Nothardt (2009), p. 95; Zillig (2001), p. 122. 366 Cp. section 2.3.1. 367 Cp. Schupp (2004), p. 124. 368 The flexibility of transportation service supply is closely related to delivery flexibility, which is relevant within the context of logistics. Delivery flexibility denotes the ability to fulfill special and often changing requirements of customers for the delivery of goods. These requirements can cover a wide range from order modalities to the required type of packaging (cp. Blum (2006), p. 72; Disselkamp and Schüller (2004), p. 138; Engelbrecht (2004), p. 222; Pfohl (2018), p. 40; Schönherr (2015), p. 47). 369 Cp. Doch (2009), p. 73.

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when they provide the possibility to contact an increased number of alternative transportation service providers which can perform the services.370

4.4.3.3.2 Delivery Quality The use of ETMs may also affect delivery quality.371 Although different understandings of the term quality prevail in the literature, a central and often recurring point of reference is compliance with the specifications requested by the customer.372 Therefore, delivery quality shall be understood as the extent to which the shipments meet the customer’s expectations and are carried out to their satisfaction.373 In more detail, delivery quality shall be understood in terms of three aspects: 1) timeliness, 2) accuracy, and 3) condition.374 Timeliness is concerned with the arrival of goods at the needed location at the promised time. A shipment is timely if it arrives within the boundaries of delivery time tolerances.375 Accuracy refers to the degree of match between shipments and customer orders upon arrival, which includes that the right products must arrive in the correct quantity.376 Finally, the products should arrive in the right condition. This means that products should arrive without damage because customers may not be able to use damaged goods and must engage in correction procedures.377 The use of ETMs may affect delivery quality because the capabilities and reliability of the transportation services providers in the marketplace determine how well the transportation services will be performed. Many authors have emphasized the quality risks involved in conducting business transactions on EMs. In comparison to traditional ways of conducting market transactions, the online environment leads to a stronger separation of buyers and sellers by time and space.378 This makes the assessment of the quality of transportation service providers more 370

Cp. Irlinger (2012), p. 15; Janker (2008), p. 18; Kollmann (2019), p. 171. Sometimes authors use the term “delivery reliability” to refer to a similar concept defined as “delivery quality” within this work (cp. Dietel (1997), p. 151; Schneider and Hennig (2008), p. 216; ten Hompel and Heidenblut (2011), p. 183). 372 Cp. Doch (2009), p. 73; Slack and Lewis (2017), p. 56. 373 Cp. Disselkamp and Schüller (2004), p. 136; Doch (2009), p. 73. 374 Cp. Dietel (1997), p. 151; Muchna et al. (2018), p. 46. 375 Cp. Blum (2006), p. 72; Lödding (2016), p. 27; Pfohl (2018), p. 38; Muchna et al. (2018), p. 48. 376 Cp. Muchna et al. (2018), p. 46; Pfohl (2018), p. 40. 377 Cp. Mentzer et al. (2001), p. 85. 378 Cp. Dewan and Hsu (2004), p. 497. 371

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difficult.379 Besides less information for the assessment of the quality of sellers, EMs may also provide an environment that fosters the opportunistic behavior of suppliers.380 A few empirical studies indicate that shippers are worried about the potential unreliability of transportation service providers on ETMs. According to the interviewed experts of one study, many unreliable transportation service providers are active on ETMs.381 Another qualitative study on internet matching mechanisms for transportation services notes that “[…] it appeared that the shippers and the carriers were worried about having to deal with unreliable trading partners […]382 .

4.4.3.3.3 Information Capability Besides ensuring the right flow of goods, being able to supplement this flow with the right information is becoming increasingly important.383 Information capability refers to the ability of shippers to provide all required information for orders to their customers.384 In the context of transportation, information capability refers to the ability to provide information about the current status of the goods on the way to the customer. ETMs can improve the information capability by providing data about the status of shipments and the location of goods through tracking and tracing systems.385 Such information can be useful, for example, to proactively manage delayed shipments.

379

For example, shippers can use social cues (e.g., body language) during a personal meeting to assess the honesty of transportation service providers. If, however, the contact between buyers and sellers is only virtual, the information which can be used to assess seller quality is more limited (cp. Ghose (2009), p. 264). 380 The use of EMs may involve shorter business relationships between buyers and sellers which can cause transportation service providers to reduce their care (cp. Polzin and Lindemann (1999), p. 529). 381 Cp. Sänger (2004), p. 118. 382 Janssen and Verbraeck (2008), p. 480. 383 Cp. Hausladen (2020), pp. 3–4. 384 Cp. Böttcher (1993), p. 229; Seeck (2010), p. 10. 385 Cp. section 3.5.2.2.

4.4 Success Variables

4.4.4

119

Links of Success Variables

4.4.4.1 Links between Dimensions of Success Variables Until now, the success variables in terms of organizational and business process performance have been discussed. However, it is still not clear how these two success dimensions are interlinked. This will be discussed in the following. Since organizational performance within this work is understood in terms of EVA and business process performance has been conceptualized in terms of logistics efficiency, explaining the link between organizational and business process performance raises the question of how logistics can affect EVA. Fortunately, this has already received some interest from researchers, and ideas from the literature can be used to build up the reasoning. Especially the notion that logistics activities can affect EVA through different levers is valuable for explaining the links between the two different dimensions of success variables. Logistics activities can affect EVA via four different levers: (1) increase in revenues, (2) reduction of expenses, (3) reduction of working capital, and (4) reduction of fixed assets (cp. Figure 4.12).386 Obviously, both the reductions in process costs and freight rates (logistics costs) caused by ETM use can affect expenses that can be quantified in monetary terms. In addition, the impact of ETMs on logistics performance may affect revenues. An important reason for the impact of logistics performance on revenues is its positive relationship with customer satisfaction.387 Customer satisfaction has a positive effect on customer loyalty,388 whereby customer loyalty is associated with higher revenues.389 The second aspect which is relevant for explaining the effect of customer satisfaction on revenues is its effect on price sensitivity. When customers are satisfied, price increases can be established more easily and customers do not react so fast to lower prices from competitors.390 Furthermore, the effect of an ETM on logistics performance can have an impact on working capital. Especially if transportation services are purchased for internal goods movements (e.g., between plants and warehouses), stocks may be used to ensure that problems with logistics performance do not have negative 386

Cp. Lambert and Burduroglu (2000), p. 13; Schönherr (2015), pp. 99–100. Cp. Dehler (2001), p. 241; Engelbrecht (2004), p. 254; Gil Saura et al. (2008), p. 660; Innis and La Londe (1994), p. 19; Stank et al. (2003), p. 43; Vaidyanathan and Devaraj (2008), p. 418. 388 Cp. Cahill (2007), pp. 12–18. 389 Cp. Kalwani and Narayandas (1995), p. 9. 390 Cp. Matzler et al. (2009), p. 12. For a more extensive discussion of the impact of customer satisfaction on organizational performance, cp. Schönherr (2015), pp. 132–135. 387

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Figure 4.12 General logistics levers for improving EVA391

effects on customers.392 Therefore, any improvement in logistics performance caused by an ETM should be associated with lower stock levels, while higher stock levels can be used to counter a deterioration of logistics performance.393 To sum up, the impact of ETMs on business process performance affects organizational performance via three levers: (1) expenses because of logistics costs as well as (2) working capital or (3) revenues which can be influenced by logistics performance.

391

Source: adapted from Lambert and Burduroglu (2000), p. 13. This holds because stocks can be used to cover up various problems and uncertainties in business processes and thereby ensure, for example, a smooth production or timely delivery (cp. Wildemann (2010), p. 23). 393 A decline in logistics performance represented by a higher standard deviation results in higher stock levels and thereby increases working capital (cp. Song et al. (2010), p. 72; Talluri et al. (2004), p. 68). 392

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4.4.4.2 Links between Design and Success Variables After the identification of relevant success variables and their dimensions, it shall now be discussed how they are linked to the previously identified design variables. Following renowned IS models,394 this work proposes that decisions on the use of an IS (design variables) affect the generated benefits (success variables) and vice versa (i.e., design variables and success variables affect each other). First, the design variables may affect business process performance. Within the system use dimension, the adoption of an ETM is needed before an impact on business process performance can materialize. Clearly, “[…] without system use, there can be no consequences or benefits”395 . Some researchers also believe that the higher the use of an IS, the more benefits are created. For example, many studies provide evidence for a positive relationship between the extent of use of e-procurement and the resulting benefits.396 A few studies in the EM context provide similar indications for such a positive effect of the extent of use.397 Furthermore, there are a few indications of the impact of functionality choice398 and relational orientation399 on business process performance. Besides system use, the decisions on the relationship to an ETM can affect performance. For example, the selection of an ETM defines the quality or the ease of use of the ETM which is applied by a shipper. Since both aspects may affect business process performance,400 the selection of an ETM represents an important decision with an effect on the success variables. 394

Cp. Benbasat and Zmud (2003), p. 187; DeLone and McLean (2003), p. 24; Gable et al. (2008), p. 382. 395 DeLone and McLean (2003), p. 16. 396 Cp. Garrido et al. (2008), p. 624; Giunipero et al. (2012), p. 287; Karthik and Kumar (2013), p. 223; Kassim and Hussin (2013), p. 13; Mishra et al. (2013), p. 385; Quesada et al. (2010), pp. 525–526; Rai et al. (2009), p. 284; Ranganathan et al. (2011), p. 541; Shi and Liao (2015), p. 948; Yu et al. (2015), pp. 1065–1066. 397 Cp. Benslimane et al. (2005), p. 220; Kang et al. (2007), pp. 114–115. 398 For example, one study investigates the impact of coordination application use (e.g. sharing of inventory information) and transactional application use (e.g. search for suppliers) on efficiency gains due to e-procurement (cp. Wu et al. (2007), p. 583). Another study focuses on the use of an EM for the support of five different market phases and its impact on EM benefits (cp. Najmul Islam et al. (2020), p. 8). 399 For example, one study finds that relationship quality has a positive effect on purchasing process improvements and a negative effect on purchasing costs (cp. Sriram and Stump (2004), p. 49). 400 A study in the context of the purchasing of office supplies via the internet found that the quality of the website used for purchasing (e.g. in terms of ease of use or accuracy) has a positive effect on the improvements in terms of costs for customers (cp. Boyer and Olson (2002), pp. 490–493). In addition, a study of public EMs in Taiwan found that participants perceive

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Second, the success variables can have an impact on the design variables. One explanation for this is provided by diffusion of innovations theory. According to this theory, perceptions of the beneficial outcomes of using an innovation provide the impetus to use it.401 Not surprisingly, several empirical studies find a positive effect between improvements in terms of business process performance and the use of e-procurement,402 the adoption of EMs,403 or the extent of use of EMs.404 However, besides positive effects, there may also be risks involved in the use of EMs.405 In particular, buyers may fear that the purchased products or services are not as expected or they may not have complete confidence in the transaction process (e.g. because they perceive uncertainties regarding the settlement of disputes or transacting with unknown suppliers).406 A few empirical findings indicate that the perception of risks has a negative effect on the actual or intended use of EMs.407 In addition to its effect on system use, business process performance can also affect the relationship to the ETM. In particular, the gained experience with the outcomes of EM use provides feedback for subsequent use and commitment. There are a few empirical findings that indicate that positive

that EMs enhance the competitiveness and efficiency for their organization to a higher extent when the ease of use of the EM is higher (cp. Chien et al. (2012), p. 466). 401 Diffusion of innovations theory postulates that the relative advantage, which is “[…] the degree to which an innovation is perceived as being better than the idea it supersedes […]” (Rogers (1983), p. 213), has a positive effect on the rate of adoption of an innovation. 402 Cp. Hassan et al. (2017), p. 315; Yao et al. (2007), pp. 889–892). 403 Cp. Grewal et al. (2001), 27–29; Molla and Deng (2009), pp. 25–26; Wang et al. (2006), pp. 342–346. 404 Cp. Alrubaiee et al. (2012), pp. 32–33; Le et al. (2004), pp. 302–304; Li et al. (2013); Mishra and Agarwal (2010), pp. 261–262; Najmul Islam et al. (2020), pp. 13–16; Rao et al. (2007), pp. 1041–1042. 405 Information asymmetries, diverging objectives among buyers and sellers, and the difficulties in enforcing agreements online are some of the reasons why (potential) participants of EMs perceive risks associated with the use of an EM (cp. Clemons et al. (1993), p. 15; Mishra and Agarwal (2010), p. 255). 406 Cp. Le et al. (2004), p. 299. 407 In two qualitative studies, risk perception has been identified as a relevant barrier to EM adoption (cp. Johnson (2010), p. 168, (2012), p. 523). Furthermore, a few quantitative studies provide indications for a negative effect of the perceived risks on system use in the context of EMs (cp. Hong (2015), pp. 330–332; Le et al. (2004), pp. 302–304; Mishra and Agarwal (2010), pp. 261–262; Rao et al. (2007), pp. 1041–1042).

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impacts with EMs increase commitment.408 Furthermore, negative experiences on an EM have been found to decrease commitment.409

4.4.5

Summary: Conceptual Insights for RQ3

A further objective of this thesis is to explain how the use of an ETM is related to business value impacts for shippers (RQ3). As a first step toward achieving this objective, two dimensions within the success variables have been identified to explain how business value impacts can manifest themselves. A basic distinction has been made between organizational and business process performance, whereby the latter consists of the sub-dimensions of logistics costs and logistics performance. The use of an ETM has a direct effect on business process performance, which in turn affects organizational performance. Furthermore, it has been explained why the design and success variables are interdependent (i.e., the design variables affect the success variables and vice versa). Figure 4.13 depicts the identified design and success variables and how they are related to each other which is relevant for RQ3.

408

One study finds a statistically significant positive relationship between the perceived value of the relationship to an EM and the willingness to continue the relationship to it (cp. Zahedi et al. (2010), p. 311). Another study cannot provide evidence for an effect of postacquisition benefits on commitment, but it found indications for a relationship between the product prices on the EM and commitment (cp. Lancastre and Lages (2006), pp. 782–783). 409 It has been found that the perception of problems with sellers (psychological contract violations) in the past have a negative effect on the willingness to use an EM for purchasing activities (cp. Pavlou and Gefen (2005), pp. 389–391).

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Figure 4.13 Design and success variables (Conceptual insights for RQ3)410

4.5

Summary of the Conceptual Research Framework

In the course of the previous chapters, two central design variable dimensions for ETM use have been identified: (1) system use and (2) the relationship to ETMs. Subsequently, two dimensions of contextual variables have been identified which summarize relevant determinants of ETM use and are thereby relevant for providing conceptual insights for RQ2: (1) the purchasing situation which is relevant for system use, and (2) ETM properties which should be considered for the relationship to ETMs. Furthermore, there are several conceptual insights on how the use of an ETM is related to business value impacts for shippers (RQ3). The business value impacts of ETMs consist of two dimensions of success variables: (1) business process performance and (2) organizational performance. The use of an ETM can have a direct effect on business process performance, which consists of impacts in terms of logistics costs and logistics performance. These sub-dimensions of business process performance have ultimately an impact on organizational performance which can be measured in terms of the performance metric EVA. The design and success variables are interdependent (i.e., the use of an ETM affects business value and vice versa). Figure 4.14 depicts a summary of the conceptual research framework. 410

Source: own representation.

411

Source: own representation.

Figure 4.14 Summary of the conceptual research framework411

4.5 Summary of the Conceptual Research Framework 125

5

Empirical Analysis

Within the conceptual research framework which has been developed in the previous chapter, relevant variables of ETM use, its determinants as well as the business value impacts have been identified. However, the variables and their relationships have only been derived from the literature. Thus, this work does so far not provide additional empirical evidence for the status quo of ETM use (RQ1), the relevant determinants of ETM use (RQ2), and the relation between ETM use and the business value impacts for shippers (RQ3). To gain new insights for answering the research questions, data has been collected in a two-step procedure which is also reflected in the structure of the following chapters. First, qualitative expert interviews have been conducted in course of a preliminary study (cp. Section 5.1). Second, data from manufacturing, retail and wholesale companies in Germany have been collected in the main study to test hypotheses derived from the conceptual research framework (cp. Section 5.2). Since the conceptual research framework comprises many dimensions, variables, and their potential interactions, a focus has been set on certain aspects within the framework throughout the empirical analysis. First, IT systems like ETMs have a much more direct impact on business process performance than on organizational performance.1 Therefore, the focus has been set on the success 1

A wide range of other strategic and competitive factors affect organizational performance. Therefore, researchers recommend the evaluation of the impact of IT by examining specific benefits (cp. Barua et al. (1995), p. 6; Dedrick et al. (2003), p. 21).

Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-40403-1_5.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 P. Sylla, Electronic Procurement of Transportation Services, Schriftenreihe der HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-40403-1_5

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variables of business process performance. Second, there are only a few empirical studies that deal with the functionality choice or the relational orientation which might be associated with it.2 Thus, special attention was paid to gaining new insights into these design variables. A further focus or exclusion of variables will be discussed in course of the main study.3

5.1

Preliminary Study

A preliminary study is an empirical study that is limited in scope, and which intends to provide the needed knowledge for the main study.4 The preliminary study of this thesis has been started directly after the development of the conceptual research framework and had the following objectives.

5.1.1

Objectives

Two main objectives have been set for the preliminary study. First, the aim was to get new insights that might go beyond those of the conceptual research framework. Therefore, special attention was paid to any new concepts or ideas which have not been covered in the scientific literature so far. Furthermore, insights on potential future developments in the ETM context should be gained. This should not only reveal what the experts believe to be relevant for ETMs in the future, but also what they believe the ETMs are currently lacking. Second, it was the intention to support the preparation of the survey instrument. In particular, the interviews should provide opportunities for exploring the general terminology and language used by the target group. In addition, the preliminary study was used to identify relevant determinants of design variables. Since the conceptual research framework provides a plethora of potential variables and their relationships, the aim was to identify those which have a large relevance from the point of view of practitioners. The focus was set especially on contextual variables which are relevant for the functionality choice or the selection of an ETM.5 2

Cp. Sections 4.2.2.3 and 4.2.2.4. Cp. Section 5.2.1. 4 Cp. Gläser and Laudel (2010), pp. 107–108. 5 Within the system use dimension, the focus on functionality choice has been set because there are not many empirical studies for this design variable. The selection of ETMs is in focus because the criteria for the selection of ETMs are assumed to be easier recollectible by experts than ETM properties which affect the rather abstract concept of commitment. 3

5.1 Preliminary Study

5.1.2

129

Data Collection

The data of the preliminary study has been collected through semi-structured expert interviews. Expert interviews represent a special type of interview whereby interviewees are selected because they possess specific knowledge.6 A semistructured interview approach has been selected because it offers both flexibility and structure which is important for achieving the objectives of the preliminary study.7 The expert interviews were carried out with the support of an interview guideline which consists of open questions and some general instructions for conducting the interview.8 For some questions, further sub-questions have been included which should support the retrieval of relevant information during the interviews. Managers with leadership responsibility for logistics departments have been defined as the experts for the preliminary study.9 In total, experts from four different shipper organizations could be recruited for the interviews (cp. Table 5.1). All experts are responsible for leading teams or departments and have multiple years of experience in the field of logistics. The interviews were conducted in German between September 2019 and November 2020.10 The duration of the interviews ranged between 38 and 90 minutes. All interviews were recorded electronically with the agreement of the experts. One-half of the interviews were held in person and the other half were conducted via phone. All interviews were subsequently transcribed using the software easytranscript11 . For a total duration of 226 minutes of recorded interviews, 74 pages were transcribed. 6

Cp. Gläser and Laudel (2010), p. 11. The objectives include obtaining new insights, e.g. for extending the conceptual research framework. To achieve this, semi-structured interviews provide an open and flexible approach for understanding the interviewee’s perceptions and experiences (cp. Mason (2004), p. 1020). Besides leaving room for the thoughts of interviewees, however, the interviews should be centered around the concepts and ideas of the conceptual research framework. Therefore, an interview guideline has been developed and was followed. 8 Cp. Appendix 2 in the Electronic Supplementary Material. 9 An expert is a person who possesses in-depth knowledge of a certain field (cp. Gläser and Laudel (2010), p. 9). In addition, experts should also be able to apply this knowledge to identify causes of problems and principles for solving them (cp. Pfadenhauer (2009), p. 452). 10 The translations of the German quotes into English that will be provided in the following have been provided by the author. 11 Cp. http://www.e-werkzeug.eu. 7

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Table 5.1 Profiles of the interviewed experts12

Com pany

Expert

Characteristic

Shipper 1

Shipper 2

Shipper 3

Shipper 4

Job title

Head of logistics

Head of transportation planning

Senior specialist logistics

Head of network management

Work experience

26 years

25 years

9 years

6 years

ETM adoption

ETM adopted

ETM adopted

ETM adopted

No ETM adopted

Industry classification (NACE Rev. 2)

Manufacture of food products

Manufacture of chemicals and chemical products

Retail trade, except motor vehicles and motorcycles

(Division 20)

(Division 47)

5.1.3

(Division 10)

Other manufacturing (Division 32)

Results

The transcribed interviews have been repeatedly reviewed and potential insights have been marked and commented on. In the following, the results will be presented according to the objectives which have been set for the preliminary study.

5.1.3.1 New Insights The interviews with the experts provided multiple new insights. These will be discussed in the following.

5.1.3.1.1 Process Cost Reductions in Other Areas In the conceptual research framework, the process cost reductions have largely been seen in the context of purchasing activities for the procurement of transportation services.13 But in the expert interviews, it also became evident that ETMs do not only affect the efficiency of the information, negotiation, and settlement phases for those employees involved in the procurement of transportation services. In fact, the processes on the ETM cannot be separated from other processes related to shipments, especially operational processes in plants and 12 13

Source: own representation. Cp. Section 4.4.3.2.1.

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warehouses. Shipper 1 described that the time-slot management system of the ETM also reduces costs for the employees in the plant: “If a time-slot is booked you can see that transportation service provider XY arrives who wants these and those goods. I can already start to pre-pick the goods and place them on the ramp so that when he arrives it starts right away, and I have enough space for the next delivery. So, of course, these are also process costs that I save.”

But the quality of the transportation service providers can also affect the processes for quality checks of trucks in the plants as shipper 2 explains: “[…] to keep the processes in the plants as lean as possible, it is also simply important that the vehicles that come along meet the requirements.”

5.1.3.1.2 Impact of Restrictions on the Supplier Base As previously explained, the main functionalities of an ETM can be used to purchase transportation services from an unrestricted or restricted supplier base.14 The interviews with the experts showed that the procurement of transportation services has different implications when a restricted or unrestricted supplier base is used on an ETM (cp. Figure 5.1).

Figure 5.1 Difference between use of a restricted and unrestricted supplier base on an ETM15

First, the restrictions on the supplier base can affect the potential to increase the capacity utilization of vehicles and may thereby also affect the reduction of 14 15

Cp. Section 4.2.2.4. Source: own representation.

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freight rates.16 Shipper 3 explains the advantage of using an unrestricted supplier base as follows: “[…] for example, a transportation service provider will drive from Berlin to Hamburg tomorrow with 20 pallets, but the truck can carry 13 more pallets … and they just offer the empty space and that’s why you often have the chance to get really good prices.”

But similar improvements are also possible when transportation services are purchased from a restricted supplier base on the spot market. For example, shipper 1 perceives that the use of the spot market with a restricted supplier base reduces the need for own planning activities for finding the best combinations of shipments: “Since we have different production sites and the customers are spread over Germany, there is, of course, a wonderful opportunity for us to combine loads without us having to plan these combination possibilities ourselves, but the transportation service provider himself offers – on a corresponding relation – a price where he says I offer this price if I get the load XY as quasi-return load or at least a connecting load.”17

Nonetheless, it can be expected that the use of a restricted supplier base provides fewer opportunities to increase the capacity utilization for transportation service providers than the use of an unrestricted supplier base.18 Therefore, the potential to increase capacity utilization of vehicles is considered to be high for an unrestricted supplier base and medium for the use of a restricted supplier base. Second, the interviews showed that interacting with a restricted supplier base is advantageous because it provides the possibility to define exchange conditions in detail. Shipper 1 explained that when a restricted supplier base is used it is “[…] clear who you are working with so that you have already agreed in advance what the cooperation is in terms of commercial and general conditions”. But when the ETM is used to buy from an unrestricted supplier base, “[…] the only thing that is defined at the end is the amount X Euro for the transport” and many requirements (e.g., details of the service, contact persons, insurance, vehicles) are not specified. Similarly, shipper 2 explained that the use of a restricted supplier base provides advantages because the transportation service providers can be preselected: 16

Cp. Section 4.4.3.2.2. With the term “relation”, shipper 1 refers to transportation relations (cp. Section 2.1.2.2). 18 Usually, offering a transport order to an unrestricted supplier base also implies that it is offered to a larger number of transportation service providers compared to using a restricted supplier base. The larger number of transportation service providers should also be associated with more possibilities to increase the capacity utilization of vehicles. 17

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“That I know my partners there ... that I can practically release them on the platform if I have inquired about them beforehand ... with whom I might have done some tests before ... and then decide ... ok, I’ll let them bid on our platform if we put something up for tender.”

Clearly, interacting with a restricted supplier base provides much more possibilities to define the exchange conditions in detail (e.g., with face-to-face meetings, trial shipments, etc.) than when transport orders are offered to an unrestricted and therefore anonymous supplier base. Third, it was obvious that the use of a restricted supplier base was often associated with a reduction of perceived risks to delivery quality. Shipper 2 explained the advantages of a restricted supplier base for delivery quality as follows: “[…] they know our business, they know our customers inside out, and that is also a great advantage for us in terms of delivery quality, because we can really rely on them […]”

In contrast, the procurement of transportation services from an unrestricted supplier base is often associated with higher risks to delivery quality which shipper 1 explains in this way: “You read a lot … that one or the other shipper suddenly got a good freight rate but then lost his goods.”

5.1.3.1.3 Expected Developments for ETMs in the Future The experts were also asked to assess which developments will become important for the use of ETMs in the future. This is a broad question and not all shippers interviewed were able to respond to it. The received answers will be summarized in the following. First, it was mentioned that the establishment of contacts between shippers and transportation service providers on ETMs should be improved. Shipper 1 noted that it should be made easier to find transportation service providers which fulfill certain requirements of shippers. The aim should be to facilitate the initiation of contacts and transactions in such a way that not only the negotiation of freight rates is supported but that also expectations for the exchange can be more easily clarified. For example, transportation service providers are interested in the payment terms and the ability of shippers to pay for the transportation services. On the other side, shippers might be interested in the ownership structure of transportation service providers or the number of vehicles they possess. An ETM

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should provide such information and thereby improve that shippers and transportation service providers find each other. Similarly, shipper 4 mentioned that it should be possible to select the transportation service providers based on certain criteria, for example, needed certifications or historic data of performed transactions. It should be possible to offer transport orders only to those transportation service providers fulfilling these filter criteria. An interesting thought that has been mentioned by shipper 1 relates to improving the vehicle utilization between different supply chain members. For example, an industry company uses a vehicle of a transportation service provider to move goods to a customer. An ETM could improve the vehicle utilization if the truck which has brought the goods to the customer is again loaded with goods to bring them to another company. In addition, shipper 1 emphasized the increasing importance of improving the information capability via an ETM (e.g., when information on the status of shipments or the current location of vehicles is provided). This is important to reduce efforts for communication and to be able to quickly react to new information. Finally, it was mentioned by shipper 2 that ETMs could also provide support for short-term transportation planning. This could be relevant, for example, for bundling shipments in tours or assigning transport orders to transportation service providers. Heuristics could be used to increase the automation of planning activities.

5.1.3.2 Preparation of the Survey Instrument Besides new insights, the preliminary study also provided a lot of useful input for the preparation of the survey instrument. First, the definition of the term ETM has been discussed with the experts and led to the adaptation of the definition used in the main study.19 Second, the discussions with the experts provided insights into the language and vocabulary of the practitioners. This was useful for the preparation of the survey instrument. Third, a further objective of the preliminary study was to identify relevant contextual variables which may affect the design variables. In the following, it will be discussed which contextual variables of the purchasing situation or which ETM

19

Both shippers 1 and 2 emphasized that an ETM may not only be used for transactions on the spot market but that it can also be used to support transactions between transportation service providers and shippers that are conducted outside of the spot market (e.g., with the functionality electronic transport order). This has been considered for the definition of the term ETM in the main study.

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properties have been mentioned in the expert interviews. The shippers exhibited a diverse use of ETM functionalities.20 This was a good starting point for exploring which factors of the purchasing situation are relevant for the choice of functionalities. Table 5.2 provides an overview of the contextual variables and their appearance within the expert interviews. Indications for demand uncertainty have been found in all conducted interviews. Table 5.2 Occurrence of contextual variables of the purchasing situation21

Contextual variable

Shipper 1

Shipper 2

Shipper 3

Shipper 4

Asset specificity Complexity Importance Availability of alternatives Demand uncertainty Specifiability

The explanations of the experts show that they share a similar view of the effect of demand uncertainty: transportation services with a high demand uncertainty are best purchased on the spot market whereas contracts are preferred for

20

Shipper 3 and Shipper 4 represent the extreme points on the ETM use spectrum: shipper 3 uses the ETM to 100% for the procurement of transportation services on the spot market with an unrestricted supplier base, while shipper 4 does not use an ETM and only perceives a potential for using spot market functionalities of about 1%. Shipper 1 and shipper 2 use spot market and contract market functionalities on an ETM. The largest part of transportation services on the ETM is sourced via the functionality electronic transport order (shipper 1: 70–80%, shipper 2: 98–99%) and a smaller share is purchased on the spot market (shipper 1: 20–30%, shipper 2: 1–2%). 21 Source: own representation.

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services that involve higher predictability or regularity.22 All interviews also contain indications for the role of asset specificity. Special vehicles for cryogenic gases, silo and tank vehicles, jumbo trucks with a non-standard height, or the need to carry additional equipment (e.g., a forklift) represent aspects of physical asset specificity that have been mentioned. Furthermore, some findings indicate the relevance of human asset specificity. For example, shipper 2 requires that drivers have the language skills to communicate with customers and the drivers of shipper 4 must have special training for handling hazardous goods. Aspects of procedural asset specificity have also been mentioned. For example, shipper 1 indicated that the transported food products cannot be transported jointly in one truck with any other products. Congruent with the predictions of transaction cost theory, the discussions with the experts indicate that market-based sourcing is less viable for transportation services involving highly specific assets.23 Furthermore, the results for two shippers indicate that the availability of alternatives (or lack thereof) is an important factor in the use of the spot market.24 Finally, shipper 2 indicated that complex transportation services are not well-suited for spot market functionalities. It was

22

Shipper 3 reports that besides the use of spot market functionalities, transportation services are purchased based on contracts without the use of an ETM. These transportation services are performed for movements of goods to a warehouse in Austria which are executed with a fixed schedule. Similarly, shipper 1 reports that contracts are used for purchasing transportation services for planned movements to Italy or Spain. In contrast, the spot market is seen to be suitable when demand uncertainty is high. Shipper 2 reports that the spot market is primarily used for sporadic transportation activities into other EU countries. In addition, shipper 4 sees a large potential for using an ETM for purchasing transportation services on the spot market which are difficult to predict (e.g., because of demand peaks or product shortages). 23 Shipper 3 uses an ETM only for procurement on the spot market. At the same time, the transportation services do not involve specific assets because they deal with the movement of non-food products on standardized pallets. All other shippers use the spot market to a much lesser extent, or they do not use it at all. They also reported that the transportation services involve higher levels of asset specificity. For example, shipper 2 requires special vehicles which provide a high volume for voluminous products. In addition, the drivers which perform transports for shipper 4 must have training for dealing with hazardous goods and require knowledge of special loading and unloading procedures. 24 Shipper 2 and shipper 4 both mentioned that there are only a few transportation service providers which can offer most of their needed services. Since shipper 4 did not make any use of the spot market and shipper 2 only uses it to a very limited extent (1–2%), this can be interpreted as an indication for a positive effect of the availability of alternatives on the use of spot market functionalities (i.e., lower availability of alternatives is associated with lower use of spot market functionalities).

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reported that transportation services with multiple stages are less likely to receive bids on the spot market than single-stage transports. The adopters of ETMs have also been asked which ETM properties were crucial for the selection of the ETM which is currently employed by their company.25 Table 5.3 depicts the ETM properties which have been found in the expert interviews. The variable market liquidity was emphasized by all experts.26 Fee levels and system quality have also often been mentioned.27 Finally, shipper 1 reported that the service quality in terms of quick reactions to requests for needed changes in the configuration of the ETM is important. Table 5.3 Occurrence of contextual variables of ETM properties28 Contextual variable

Shipper 1

Shipper 2

Shipper 3

System quality Information quality Service quality Market liquidity Security measures Fee levels

25

Only adopters of ETMs have been asked about the selection of ETMs because they have already made such a decision. Since the company of one of the experts has not adopted an ETM, only responses from three experts could be used. 26 Shipper 1 mentioned that acceptance in the transportation market is important so that sufficient transportation service providers are available. Shipper 2 reports that the ETM has been selected because it was an established marketplace that is used by other large shippers within the same industry. For shipper 3 it is important to get fast offers which will be more likely when there is high market liquidity. 27 Shipper 1 and 2 both emphasized that the fee levels are important when selecting ETMs. They also indicated that they were not satisfied with the fee levels of the currently adopted ETM by their companies which were perceived as being too high. For system quality, shipper 2 mentioned that the ease of use of the ETM was an important aspect during the selection of the ETM. In addition, shipper 3 emphasized that the ETM allows the entry of transport orders in a short time (e.g., by pre-filling data fields). 28 Source: own representation.

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Main Study

Based on the insights from the conceptual research framework and the preliminary study, the research models and hypotheses of the main study have been developed. These and the procedure for the data collection as well as the results of the data analysis will be presented in the following.

5.2.1

Research Models and Hypotheses

Two research models have been developed: the first research model has been developed for adopters which use at least one ETM, and the second research model was designed for companies that are currently non-adopters of ETMs.29 Given the many dimensions and variables of the conceptual research framework, it was also clear that not all of them could be used in the main study. Survey length can be a huge burden for participants with negative consequences for survey participation and results.30 Therefore, some variables were not included in the main study. As already mentioned, the focus of the preliminary and main study was set on business process performance for the success variables. All variables within the sub-dimensions of logistics costs and logistics performance except information capability have been included in the main study.31 In addition, all design variables have been included in the survey. Two of the contextual variables of the purchasing situation have been excluded from the survey, namely the availability of alternatives and specifiability. The results of previous empirical studies for both contextual variables are clear.32 Therefore, the need for further empirical research is lower for these variables. Furthermore, only the security measures and the fee levels (in terms of the fairness of ETM fees) have been included in the research models as contextual variables of the ETM properties. While system, 29

A similar procedure was chosen by Son and Benbasat (2007). Including both adopters and non-adopters of ETMs provides a larger target group for the survey than the focus on only adopters or non-adopters. In addition, some variables within the conceptual research framework are only relevant for either adopters (e.g., commitment to the ETM) or non-adopters (e.g., intention to adopt an ETM). Therefore, including both adopters and non-adopters allows to include a broader range of variables in the main study. 30 Cp. Dillman et al. (2014), pp. 32–33. 31 Information capability was not included as a success variable because it mainly depends on the use of the ETM functionality tracking and tracing. 32 Cp. Section 4.3.2.2.4 and Section 4.3.2.2.6.

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information, and service quality as well as market liquidity are not subject to hypotheses in the research models, they will be descriptively analyzed.33 Table 5.4 depicts the variables of the research models as well as their definitions. Some variables were included in the research models of both adopters and non-adopters. However, most variables have only been used in either of the two research models to allow for a more or less equal survey length for both groups of survey participants. The mentioned variables will be used in two different types of hypotheses: relationship hypotheses and differential hypotheses. Relationship hypotheses have the objective of discovering a significant relationship between two variables.34 For example, one could hypothesize that the age of a person is positively associated with income. Differential hypotheses state that groups of subjects or objects differ regarding a certain variable.35 To follow up on the previous example, the hypothesis that men have a higher income than women is a differential hypothesis. In this work, the differential hypotheses have been developed to analyze differences between certain groups (cp. Table 5.5). First, there will be companies that use an ETM (adopters) and others that do not use an ETM (non-adopters) and the differences between them can be analyzed. Second, the main study was designed in such a way that differences related to functionality choice can be assessed within two groups. For the adopters of ETMs, differences between those companies using mainly spot market functionalities and those mainly using electronic transport orders will be analyzed. Within the group of non-adopters, differences between companies that perceive a higher potential for spot market functionalities than those perceiving a larger potential for e-tendering will be assessed. Hypotheses will be developed for RQ2 and RQ3. A few hypotheses will also be developed for RQ1, especially for differences between adopters and non-adopters of ETMs.36 However, many insights for RQ1 will also be based on descriptive statistics.37 During the formulation and testing, hypotheses will

33

The non-adopters of ETMs were asked to select the three most important selection criteria from the six contextual variables of the ETM properties which have been identified in the conceptual research framework. The rank order provided by the participants can help to find out which of the variables are particularly important from the point of view of shippers. The results are discussed in the descriptive statistics (cp. Section 5.2.4.2). 34 Cp. Cleff (2019), p. 260. 35 Cp. Lux et al. (2008), p. 178. 36 Cp. Section 5.2.1.3. 37 Cp. Section 5.2.4.2.

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Table 5.4 Definitions of the variables of the research models38 Variable Asset specificity Risks to delivery quality Freight rate reductions Relational orientation (intention)

Importance Security measures Fairness of ETM fees Breadth of ETM use Process cost reductions Business process performance Commitment to ETM Complexity Demand uncertainty Depth of ETM use

Supply assurance and flexibility Adoption of ETM (intention)

Definition The degree to which transportation services require specific assets which lose value when they are redeployed to alternative uses.a Perceived risks to the correct transport of shipments that can arise on an ETM. The actual or potential extent to which the use of an ETM reduces freight rates for shippers. The degree to which the functionalities of an ETM are (intended to be) used to support relational exchanges between shippers and transportation service providers. Perceived severity of the consequences when the transportation services are not available or incorrectly executed. The extent to which an ETM has implemented mechanisms to protect participants against various risks. Perceived fairness judgment by a shipper of the fees of an ETM operator. Range of additional functionalities used on an ETM.b The degree to which shippers perceive that the use of an ETM can reduce costs of in-house processes for the procurement of transportation services. The extent of the overall perceived positive impact of using an ETM on the business processes of shippers. A shipper's implicit or explicit pledge to continue the business relationship with an ETM operator.c The amount of information which is needed to describe a transportation service.d The degree to which the demand for transportation services is unpredictable. Degree of a shipper’s reliance on an ETM in terms of the percentage of purchasing volume which is to be conducted via the ETM.e The extent to which an ETM can increase the degree to which all needed transportation services can be purchased and the ability to react to needed changes. The intention of shippers to use an ETM in the future.

a Cp.

Williamson (1991), p. 281. Hassan et al. (2017), p. 305. c Cp. Dwyer et al. (1987), p. 19. d Cp. Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 60. e Cp. Hassan et al. (2017), p. 305. b Cp.

38

Source: own representation.

Research model Adopters & Nonadopters Adopters & Nonadopters Adopters & Nonadopters Adopters & Nonadopters

Adopters

Adopters Adopters Adopters

Adopters

Adopters

Adopters Non-adopters Non-adopters Non-adopters

Non-adopters

Non-adopters

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Table 5.5 Groups for the differential hypotheses39 Design variable Adoption Functionality choice

Groups Adopters Sport market functionalities

Electronic transport order

Non-adopters Spot market functionalities

E-tendering

only be formulated as alternative hypotheses and the corresponding null hypotheses will not be mentioned.40 The differential and relationship hypotheses of the adopters and non-adopters will be presented first. This will be followed by the differential hypotheses for differences between adopters and non-adopters.

5.2.1.1 Research Model 1: Adopters of ETMs In the following, the presentation of the hypotheses for adopters of ETMs will be further structured according to the research questions of this thesis. Hypotheses dealing with the antecedents of design variables (RQ2) and the link between design and success variables (RQ3) will be discussed separately.

5.2.1.1.1 Hypotheses for RQ2 (H1–H5) Within this chapter, research hypotheses for the determinants of design variables will be derived. The hypotheses will deal with the antecedents of functionality choice (H1, H2a, H3a), the relational orientation toward transportation service providers (H2b, H3b), and the commitment to the ETM (H4 and H5). The first hypothesis deals with the connection between the relational orientation toward transportation service providers and the functionality choice. In the conceptual research framework, it has been proposed that ETM functionalities differ in their relational orientation. The largest differences should exist between spot market functionalities and the use of an ETM to transfer electronic transport orders. In particular, the use of electronic transport orders should be

39

Source: own representation. An alternative hypothesis is a hypothesis that is actually being tested. The null hypothesis is a competing hypothesis that states that the statements formulated in the alternative hypothesis are not true. Given an alternative hypothesis, the substantive statement of a null hypothesis does not provide any information (cp. Bortz (1999), p. 109). Therefore, only the alternative hypothesis will be formulated.

40

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associated with a higher long-term orientation and relational focus.41 This leads to the following hypothesis: H1: The relational orientation toward transportation service providers is higher for transportation services that are purchased via electronic transport orders than for those services which are sourced via spot market functionalities on an ETM. As a contextual variable of the purchasing situation, asset specificity can have an impact on the functionality choice and the relational orientation. Previous studies indicate that asset specificity has a negative effect on the use of electronic reverse auctions.42 In contrast, asset specificity has a positive effect on the use of more collaborative IT systems within procurement.43 Since electronic transport orders are assumed to be associated with a higher relational orientation, it is hypothesized that the asset specificity will be higher for transportation services purchased via electronic transport orders than those purchased via spot market functionalities. Furthermore, asset specificity should be associated with a higher relational orientation.44 This positive relation between asset specificity and relational exchanges has also been found in some previous empirical studies.45 Therefore, it is also hypothesized that the asset specificity of transportation services will have a positive effect on the relational orientation toward transportation service providers: 41

Cp. Section 4.2.2.4. In contrast to the use of spot market functionalities on an ETM, the use of electronic transport orders must be based on agreements the are rather long-term than short-term oriented. In addition, the electronic transport order functionality focuses only on the settlement phase. Spot market functionalities, however, support the information and negotiation phase and can improve the freight rates obtained on the market. The fact that his opportunity is forgone when using electronic transport orders can be a sign of higher relational focus. 42 Cp. Jap and Haruvy (2008), p. 557; Stoll (2008), p. 239. 43 Cp. Pu et al. (2018), pp. 1700–1702; Son et al. (2005), pp. 338–346. 44 Asset specificity increases transaction costs which in turn tend to make hierarchies or hybrid governance structures like partnerships more efficient. In addition, specific investments create switching costs which make the party investing in specific assets more dependent (specific investments lose value when they must be redeployed to other uses). Therefore, transportation service providers who must invest, for example, into specific vehicles for a shipper might even make such investments only when shippers offer them a long-term relationship in return (cp. Section 4.3.2.2.1). 45 Cp. Anderson and Weitz (1992), pp. 25–28; Aral et al. (2018), pp. 606–607; Garbe (1998), pp. 164–170; Hallén et al. (1987), pp. 28–35; Hallén et al. (1993), pp. 76–79.

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H2a: The asset specificity is higher for transportation services that are purchased via electronic transport orders than for those services which are sourced via spot market functionalities on an ETM. H2b: The asset specificity of transportation services has a positive effect on the relational orientation toward transportation service providers on an ETM. Besides asset specificity, the importance of transportation services can affect the design variables. In general, the importance of a supply increases the dependency of a firm on its suppliers.46 Companies can deal with this dependency by establishing close relationships or by extending the existing pool of suppliers and searching for alternatives.47 Since experience and trust are especially important for the procurement of logistics services,48 it is hypothesized that importance will have a positive impact on relational orientation toward transportation service providers. Because it is assumed that the use of the functionality electronic transport order is associated with higher relational orientation than the use of spot market functionalities, it is also hypothesized that the importance of services purchased via electronic transport orders will be higher than for those purchased via spot market functionalities: H3a: The importance is higher for transportation services that are purchased via electronic transport orders than for those services which are sourced via spot market functionalities on an ETM. H3b: The importance of transportation services has a positive effect on the relational orientation toward transportation service providers on an ETM. While the purchasing situation can influence system use, the ETM properties can affect the relationship between the shipper and the ETM operator. The fee levels represent one important aspect of these properties.49 Especially the fairness of the ETM fees can be relevant for adopters of ETMs. The fairness of ETM fees is based on the concept of price fairness which is the “[…] perceived fairness 46

Cp. Pfeffer and Salancik (2003), p. 46. Cp. Pfeffer and Salancik (2003), pp. 143–147; Ellis et al. (2010), p. 38. 48 Cp. Pfohl (2018), p. 292; Rümenapp (2002), p. 19. 49 For example, the fee levels are important for EM adoption (cp. Johnson (2010), pp. 163– 167). 47

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judgement by a buyer of a seller’s prices”50 . The perception of unfair prices can cause negative emotions. In turn, these emotions can lead people to sanction the unfair behavior (e.g., by terminating a business relationship).51 A few studies indicate that price fairness has an impact on satisfaction and loyalty in the context of e-procurement52 or EMs53 . Therefore, it is hypothesized that the fairness of ETM fees has a positive effect on the commitment to the ETM: H4: The fairness of ETM fees has a positive effect on the commitment to the ETM. Besides the fairness of ETM fees, the security measures implemented by the ETM can be a further aspect that is relevant in the context of a commitment to ETMs. As already mentioned, conducting business transactions online encompasses risks and trust may be particularly important. The security measures implemented by ETMs can increase the trust in the ETM operators.54 In addition, they can also increase the trust in sellers of a marketplace.55 Generally, trust is an important determinant of commitment in business relationships.56 Previous studies also indicate that trust is important for repeated transactions and satisfaction in the online environment.57 Furthermore, a few studies find that the implemented security measures have a positive effect on repurchase intentions and loyalty in the context of EMs.58 Thus, security measures should have a positive effect on the commitment to the ETM: H5: The perceived security measures have a positive effect on the commitment to the ETM.

50

Haws and Bearden (2006), p. 304. Cp. Maxwell (2002), pp. 192–194; Xia et al. (2004), pp. 6–7. 52 Cp. Martín-Consuegra et al. (2007), p. 463; Herrmann et al. (2007), p. 56. 53 Cp. Doong et al. (2008), pp. 146–147; Jiang and Rosenbloom (2005), p. 164. 54 Cp. Flavián and Guinalíu (2006), p. 611; Kim and Ahn (2007), pp. 125–126; Koufaris and Hampton-Sosa (2004), pp. 386–388; Yoon (2002), pp. 58–60. 55 Cp. Pavlou (2002), p. 231; Pavlou and Gefen (2004), p. 50. 56 Cp. Moorman et al. (1992), pp. 320–322; Morgan and Hunt (1994), pp. 29–31. 57 Cp. Agag (2019), pp. 401–404; Kim and Ahn (2007), pp. 125–126. 58 Cp. Schüler (2021), p. 170; Shih et al. (2013), pp. 400–403. 51

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5.2.1.1.2 Hypotheses for RQ3 (H6–H14) While the previous hypotheses focus on the antecedents of the design variables, the following hypotheses deal with the link between the design and success variables. Three variables of business process performance will be in focus for the adopters of ETMs: risks to delivery quality, the impact on freight rates, and process cost reductions. First, several hypotheses (H6–H10) will deal with the antecedents of business process performance. Afterward, three hypotheses on the effect of the variables of business process performance on the overall business process performance achieved on an ETM will be developed (H11, H12a, and H12b). Finally, two hypotheses examine the interplay between the business process performance and the commitment to the ETM (H13 and H14). The start shall be made with hypotheses on the determinants of risks to delivery quality. As previously mentioned, the implemented security measures of EMs can increase trust in the sellers of the marketplace. This trust can reduce the expectation of opportunistic behavior and the perception of risk.59 Thus, the security measures on an ETM should reduce the risks to delivery quality perceived by shippers: H6: The perceived security measures have a negative effect on risks to delivery quality on an ETM. Furthermore, the relational orientation toward transportation service providers can affect the perceived risks to delivery quality on an ETM. Instead of a focus on individual transactions and potential legal enforcement, relational exchanges rely on trust to create and sustain relationships.60 Trust reduces the fear of being exploited and can mitigate the risks emerging from business and technological uncertainty.61 Therefore, a higher relational orientation toward transportation service providers should be associated with lower perceived risks to delivery quality: H7: The relational orientation toward transportation service providers has a negative effect on risks to delivery quality on an ETM.

59

Cp. Pavlou (2002), p. 231; Pavlou and Gefen (2004), p. 50; Shih et al. (2013), p. 402. Cp. Kaufmann and Dant (1992), p. 173; Kaufmann and Stern (1988), p. 536. 61 Cp. Gulati (1995), p. 93; Leimeister (2010), p. 56. 60

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Besides reliance on trust, a high relational orientation toward transportation service providers should also be associated with relational focus. This means that the continuation of a relationship is considered more important than the payoffs of individual transactions.62 Besides this focus on the relationship, shippers with a high relational orientation toward transportation service providers might also realize that using an ETM to reduce freight rates can harm existing relationships.63 Therefore, relational orientation is hypothesized to have a negative effect on freight rate reductions: H8: The relational orientation toward transportation service providers has a negative effect on freight rate reductions on an ETM. Strong relational ties should improve the communication and understanding between buyers and suppliers which should ultimately reduce administrative costs.64 In addition, the trust which is present in relational exchanges can reduce the transaction costs across the information, negotiation, and settlement phase.65 Therefore, the relational orientation is expected to have a positive effect on process cost reductions: H9: The relational orientation toward transportation services providers has a positive effect on process cost reductions. In addition to the relational orientation, the breadth of ETM use can have a positive effect on process cost reductions. The more functionalities of an ETM are used, the more processes will be potentially improved. Many previous studies show that using a larger range of tools or supporting more processes via e-procurement leads to larger improvements in processes.66 In addition, using a 62

Cp. Fink et al. (2006), p. 144. For example, previous empirical studies have shown that the use of electronic reverse auctions can have detrimental effects on business relationships (cp. Jap (2007), pp. 154–157; Moramarco et al. (2013), pp. 57–70). 64 For example, such advantages due to high relational orientation are attributed to single sourcing (cp. Ramsay and Wilson (1990), p. 22). 65 Cp. Gulati (1995), p. 93; Pieper (2000), pp. 188–195. 66 Cp. Garrido et al. (2008), pp. 622–624; Giunipero et al. (2012), pp. 285–287; Kassim and Hussin (2013), pp. 10–13; Mishra et al. (2013), pp. 385–386; Ranganathan et al. (2011), pp. 539–541; Wu et al. (2007), pp. 582–583. 63

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broader range of ETM functionalities can also improve the work tasks of more employees. Since a broader use of e-procurement by employees in a firm can have a positive effect in terms of performance improvements,67 it is hypothesized that the breadth of use of an ETM has a positive impact on process cost reductions: H10: The breadth of ETM use has a positive effect on process cost reductions on an ETM. An ETM can pose risks to delivery quality which represent negative effects on logistics performance and can have further adverse effects (e.g., on customer satisfaction).68 Therefore, higher perceived risks to delivery quality should be associated with the perception of lower business process performance by shippers: H11: The risks to delivery quality on an ETM have a negative effect on business process performance on an ETM. In contrast to the effect of perceived risks, the relation between the reduction of costs and business process performance via an ETM should be positive. Clearly, the higher the reduction of costs (in terms of freight rates or process costs) via an ETM, the higher the improvements in terms of business process performance should be. This leads to the following hypotheses: H12a: Freight rate reductions have a positive effect on business process performance on an ETM. H12b: Process cost reductions have a positive effect on business process performance on an ETM. The improvement of business process performance should have a positive influence on the commitment to an ETM. When shippers perceive a large impact on business process performance, they will also perceive high usefulness. The TAM postulates that perceived usefulness influences the acceptance of an IS and the attitudes related to it.69 In addition, the perception of benefits in terms of 67

Cp. Yu et al. (2015), p. 1065. Cp. Section 4.4.3.3.2. 69 Cp. Section 4.3.3.1.1. 68

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business process performance should increase satisfaction with the ETM.70 The perception of such benefits is also important to get top management support,71 which is important for the continued use of an ETM. Therefore, business process performance should have a positive effect on the commitment to the ETM: H13: The business process performance has a positive effect on the commitment to the ETM. Finally, there could also be a negative effect of the perceived risks to delivery quality on the commitment. The perception of risks surrounding transactions conducted via the internet leads to negative expectations. In turn, these negative expectations cause an unfavorable attitude which should have a negative influence on the intention to conduct business transactions.72 Previous studies indicate that risk perceptions have a negative effect on EM use.73 Therefore, a negative relation between risks to delivery quality and the commitment to the ETM is hypothesized: H14: The risks to delivery quality have a negative effect on the commitment to the ETM.

5.2.1.1.3 Summary Figure 5.2 provides an overview of the relationship hypotheses of the research model for adopters of ETMs. Besides these, the first research model contains a few differential hypotheses.74

70

Cp. Teo and Wong (1998), pp. 615–619. Cp. Li et al. (2015), pp. 276–279. 72 Cp. Pavlou and Gefen (2004), p. 46. 73 Cp. Le et al. (2004), p. 299; Pavlou (2003), pp. 116–118; Pavlou and Gefen (2004), pp. 50– 51; Rao et al. (2007), pp. 1041–1042. 74 Three hypotheses are differential hypotheses: H1, H2a and H3a. 71

75

Source: own representation.

Figure 5.2 Overview of relationship hypotheses of research model 175

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5.2.1.2 Research Model 2: Non-adopters of ETMs As already done for the research model for the adopters of ETMs, the hypotheses for RQ2 and RQ3 will be discussed separately for the non-adopters of ETMs.

5.2.1.2.1 Hypotheses for RQ2 (H15–H19) In this chapter, hypotheses for the determinants of the relational orientation toward transportation service providers (H15, H16a, H16b, H17a, H17b), the depth of ETM use (H18), and the intention to adopt an ETM (H19) will be derived. The start shall be made with hypotheses for the antecedents of relational orientation. Although maybe not as pronounced as the differences between spot market functionalities and the electronic transport order functionality, it can still be expected that e-tendering involves a higher relational orientation toward transportation service providers than the use of spot market functionalities on an ETM. E-tendering is used to find business partners for long-term contracts and therefore reflects a stronger long-term orientation compared to the rather short-term use of spot market functionalities.76 This leads to the following hypothesis: H15: The relational orientation toward transportation service providers is higher for transportation services to be purchased via e-tendering than for those services to be purchased via spot market functionalities on an ETM. Shippers use the spot market especially for purchasing transportation services that cannot be planned, or which are needed due to short-term increases in quantities that must be moved.77 When transactions are frequently recurring, however, the use of long-term contracts becomes more favorable.78 Therefore, spot market functionalities should be preferred when demand uncertainty is high and e-tendering when it is low. Since it is hypothesized that spot market functionalities are associated with a lower relational orientation, it can also be hypothesized that 76

Cp. Section 4.2.2.4. Cp. Winter (2013), p. 83. 78 Frequently recurring transactions make concluding long-term contracts a more profitable proposition (cp. Picot et al. (2001), p. 53). In particular, the use of contracts reduces efforts for recurring supplier identification and selection for single transport orders because this has only to be done once for the whole contract (cp. Section 2.3.3). Moreover, contracts for services with a low demand uncertainty provide benefits to transportation service providers due to a contractually guaranteed asset utilization (cp. Figiel (2016), p. 143). This should also be reflected in better conditions for shippers. 77

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demand uncertainty has a negative effect on the intended relational orientation toward transportation service providers: H16a: The demand uncertainty of transportation services to be purchased via spot market functionalities is higher than the uncertainty of transportation services to be purchased via e-tendering on an ETM. H16b: Demand uncertainty has a negative effect on the intended relational orientation toward transportation service providers on an ETM. Besides demand uncertainty, the complexity of transportation services can also have an impact on the relational orientation and the use of ETM functionalities. Complexity increases transaction costs.79 In addition, complexity also increases the ambiguity and risks involved in purchasing transactions. Buying firms are likely to seek a relationship that helps to reduce ambiguity and risks for complex supply needs.80 Therefore, complexity should have a positive effect on the relational orientation toward transportation service providers. Because it is assumed that e-tendering is associated with a higher relational orientation, it is also hypothesized that the complexity of transportation services purchased via e-tendering is higher than that of services purchased via spot market functionalities: H17a: The complexity of transportation services is higher for services to be purchased via e-tendering than for services to be purchased via spot market functionalities on an ETM. H17b: The complexity of transportation services has a positive effect on the intended relational orientation toward transportation service providers on an ETM. It has already been hypothesized that asset specificity affects the relational orientation and the use of ETM functionalities for the adopters of ETMs. For similar reasons, asset specificity can also influence the intended depth of ETM use for non-adopters. Asset specificity implies that there are fewer potential suppliers, and it is harder to find a transaction partner.81 Therefore, shippers should have a lower intended depth of ETM use when asset specificity is high: 79

Cp. Hohberger (2001), p. 31; Malone et al. (1987), pp. 486–487. Cp. Cannon and Perreault Jr (1999), p. 444. 81 Cp. Weber (2001), p. 179. 80

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H18: The asset specificity of transportation services has a negative effect on the intended depth of ETM use. In addition to its effect on the use of ETM functionalities, the relational orientation toward transportation service providers can also affect the adoption of an ETM. In general, the use of richer media during negotiations is associated with higher relational outcomes. For example, face-to-face negotiations have a positive effect on the trust and satisfaction of suppliers with buyers.82 Furthermore, functionalities like reverse auctions can damage existing relationships with suppliers.83 Therefore, shippers might refrain from adopting an ETM when they have a high relational orientation toward transportation service providers and there should be a negative effect of relational orientation on the intention to adopt an ETM: H19: The relational orientation toward transportation service providers has a negative effect on the intention to adopt an ETM.

5.2.1.2.2 Hypotheses for RQ3 (H20–H26) The hypotheses which will be derived in the following focus on the link between system use of an ETM and business process performance. Following up on the previous hypothesis, the begin will be made with the potential effects of business process performance dimensions on the intention to adopt an ETM (H20, H21a, H21b). Subsequently, hypotheses will be derived for the determinants of risks to delivery quality (H22), supply assurance and flexibility (H23b), and freight rate reductions (H24–H26). In general, risk perceptions can act as barriers to EM adoption.84 Risks may be perceived as threats because they involve potential losses. Therefore, the perception of risks can reduce the adoption of e-procurement technologies like EDI or EMs.85 Furthermore, the insufficient quality of transportation service providers has already been identified as a barrier to the adoption of ETMs.86 82

Cp. Moramarco et al. (2013), pp. 57–70. Cp. Jap (2007), pp. 154–157; Moramarco et al. (2013), pp. 57–70. 84 Cp. Le et al. (2004), p. 299; Rao et al. (2007), pp. 1041–1042. 85 Cp. Mishra and Agarwal (2010), p. 255. 86 Cp. Sänger (2004), p. 118. 83

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Therefore, higher expected risks to delivery quality should be associated with a lower intention to adopt an ETM: H20: The expected risks to delivery quality have a negative effect on the intention to adopt an ETM. While risks may act as a barrier to ETM adoption, the advantages in terms of freight rate reductions or supply assurance and flexibility can have a positive effect on the intention to adopt an ETM. The perception of potential benefits often provides the impetus and motivation to use innovative technologies. Therefore, the perceived benefits have been found to have a positive effect on the intention to adopt EMs for procurement in the B2B context.87 Thus, non-adopters should have a higher intention to adopt an ETM when they expect higher freight rate reductions or improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility: H21a: The expected improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility have a positive effect on the intention to adopt an ETM. H21b: The expected improvements in terms of freight rate reductions have a positive effect on the intention to adopt an ETM. It has already been hypothesized that the relational orientation of adopters toward transportation service providers on an ETM will have a negative effect on the risks to delivery quality.88 For the same reasons, a negative relation between relational orientation and risks to delivery quality is expected for non-adopters of ETMs: H22: The intended relational orientation toward transportation service providers on an ETM has a negative effect on the expected risks to delivery quality. Besides an effect on the expected risks to delivery quality, the relational orientation toward transportation service providers can also have an impact on the expected supply assurance and flexibility resulting from ETM use. Short-term 87 88

Cp. Mishra and Agarwal (2010), pp. 261–262. Cp. H7 in Section 5.2.1.1.2.

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or spot purchases provide flexibility to buyers.89 This is because discrete market transactions offer autonomy and flexibility by allowing to adjust behaviors to unfolding events.90 Therefore, shippers will expect higher improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility from the use of spot market functionalities than from the use of e-tendering.91 Since the use of spot market functionalities is expected to be associated with a lower relational orientation, the relational orientation should have a negative effect on the expected improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility: H23a: The expected improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility are higher when firms perceive more potential for spot market functionalities than e-tendering on an ETM. H23b: The intended relational orientation toward transportation service providers has a negative effect on the expected improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility by an ETM. Finally, the relational orientation might also affect the expected freight rate reductions. Higher levels of relational orientation toward transportation service providers should be associated with higher relational focus. Furthermore, shippers might refrain from the use of ETM functionalities that are associated with a low relational orientation to avoid harming the relationship.92 Therefore, relational orientation should have a negative effect on freight rate reductions: H24: The intended relational orientation toward transportation service providers has a negative effect on the expected improvements in terms of freight rate reductions by an ETM.

89

Cp. Spinler and Huchzermeier (2005), p. 701. Cp. Bickenbach et al. (2002), p. 189. 91 In the survey, non-adopters of ETMs had to select whether they perceive a higher potential of e-tendering or spot market functionalities on an ETM for their company. 92 Cp. H8 in Section 5.2.1.1.2. 90

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The expected impact of an ETM on supply assurance and flexibility can also influence the expected freight rate reductions. In particular, a flexible short-term assignment of transport orders to transportation service providers can increase vehicle utilization and at the same time reduce the freight rates for shippers.93 Furthermore, the availability of a larger supplier base which is required for supply assurance could improve the level of competition.94 Therefore, non-adopters are hypothesized to expect higher freight rate reductions when they perceive higher benefits of an ETM in terms of supply assurance and flexibility: H25: The expected improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility have a positive effect on the expected freight rate reductions by an ETM. Finally, the depth of ETM use is the share of the total purchasing volume of transportation services for which non-adopters see a potential to use spot market functionalities or e-tendering on an ETM. Only for this share of transportation services, ETMs can improve freight rates. Therefore, the expected freight rate reductions should increase with the intended depth of ETM use: H26: The intended depth of ETM use has a positive effect on the expected improvements in terms of freight rate reductions by an ETM.

5.2.1.2.3 Summary Figure 5.3 provides an overview of the relationship hypotheses for the nonadopters of ETMs. Besides these, the research model also contains some differential hypotheses.95

93

Cp. Section 4.4.3.2.2. Cp. Carter et al. (2004), p. 248. 95 H15, H16a, H17a, and H23a are differential hypotheses. 94

Source: own representation.

5

96

Figure 5.3 Overview of relationship hypotheses of research model 296

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5.2.1.3 Adopters vs. Non-adopters of ETMs (H27a–H28) There can be fundamental differences between adopters and non-adopters of ETMs. In the following, differential hypotheses will be developed to analyze them. Adopters and non-adopters may differ in their size. Since it can be expected that the potential cost reductions provided by the use of an ETM increase with the purchasing volume of a shipper,97 especially firms with a larger purchasing volume are expected to adopt ETMs. Thus, it is hypothesized that adopters of ETMs will have a larger purchasing volume (in tons and transport orders) than non-adopters. Besides the purchasing volume, the firm size of adopters and nonadopters may be different. Firm size is one of the most cited factors influencing IT adoption in general and its effect has also frequently been considered in studies focusing on the adoption of EMs or e-procurement.98 For many reasons, larger companies have advantages over smaller firms when it comes to the adoption of IT: for example, they tend to have more slack resources which facilitate adoption, they can more easily realize economies of scale, and possess more power to convince trading partners to make needed adaptations.99 Therefore, adopters should have a larger firm size (in terms of employees) than non-adopters of ETMs. This leads to the following hypotheses: H27a: Adopters of ETMs have a higher purchasing volume in tons than non-adopters of ETMs. H27b: Adopters of ETMs have a higher purchasing volume in terms of transport orders than non-adopters. H27c: Adopters of ETMs have more employees than non-adopters of ETMs. There can also be differences in the perception of risks to delivery quality between adopters and non-adopters. It has already been hypothesized that the perceived risks to delivery quality can diminish the intention to adopt an ETM.100 Therefore, companies that perceive higher risks to delivery quality might not 97

A reduction of freight rates by a certain percentage will be larger in absolute terms if the underlying purchasing volume is higher. Furthermore, savings in process costs are dependent on cost drivers like transport orders. 98 Cp. Hadaya (2006), p. 177; Johnson (2010), p. 160; Soares-Aguiar and Palma-dos-Reis (2008), p. 129; Sila (2013), p. 205; Zhu et al. (2003), p. 255. 99 Cp. Zhu et al. (2003), p. 255. 100 Cp. H26 in Section 5.2.1.2.2.

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adopt ETMs and the perceived risks will be higher for non-adopters than for adopters of ETMs. In addition, adopters and non-adopters also differ in their experiences. Adopters have made (most likely positive) experiences with ETMs which allow them to assess the risks more favorably. In contrast, higher uncertainty about the risks to delivery quality will prevail for most non-adopters. Therefore, the risks perceived by adopters will be lower than those perceived by non-adopters: H28: Adopters of ETMs perceive fewer risks to delivery quality on an ETM than non-adopters of ETMs.

5.2.2

Survey Instrument

A survey instrument was developed to collect data that can be used to test the previously defined hypotheses. It consists of three parts: an introduction, the main part, and an end part. Following general recommendations, the begin of the introduction was made with a simple question that can be answered with yes by participants of the population.101 The main part covered the longest range of questions on the (potential) use of an ETM. Two separate main parts were developed for adopters and non-adopters of ETMs. Finally, the last part contained some questions on the personal and company details of the participants: firm size (employees), corporate function of the participant (e.g., logistics/supply chain management or purchasing), position within the company (e.g., executive board or division management), number of years with the company, age, and gender. At the beginning of each new part, the participants received an overview of the current position within the survey and a brief explanation of the contents and purpose of the following part. The design of the survey was based on recommendations and guidelines published by renowned institutions and researchers.102 In the following, some of the implemented recommendations will be presented. 101

Cp. Möhring and Schlütz (2019), p. 115. In the first question, participants were asked if their company uses transportation service providers for transporting goods on the road. 102 Cp. Arbeitskreis Deutscher Markt- und Sozialforschungsinstitute e.V. (2001); Bandilla (2016); Dillman et al. (2014); Faulbaum et al. (2009); Häder (2019); Homburg and Klarmann (2004); Lenzner and Menold (2016); Menold and Bogner (2016); Möhring and Schlütz (2019); Porst (2014); Schnell (2019).

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It is well known that questions in a survey may affect each other.103 Therefore, questions on variables that were hypothesized to be related were separated within the survey as far as possible. Furthermore, various actions have been taken to reduce the risks of common method bias.104 First of all, participants were informed of the anonymity and confidentiality of the survey. In addition, it was explained that there were no right or wrong answers. This should reduce the likelihood that respondents provide answers which are socially desirable or consistent with how the researcher wants them to respond.105 Second of all, the scales of the dependent variables largely differed from those of the independent variables. This should help the respondents to make a psychological separation between the constructs.106 Whenever possible and feasible, the investigated variables have been measured with multiple indicators and based on already existing indicators provided in the literature.107 All of the variables have been measured with reflective indicators.108 In addition, most of the variables have been measured with closed questions and rating scales.109 Following the prevalent recommendations in the literature, fiveor seven-point scales have been used.110 Such scales are commonly interpreted as interval scales, which is important for data analysis.111 Furthermore, all rating 103

Cp. Häder (2019), p. 216; Möhring and Schlütz (2019), pp. 117–119; Porst (2014), pp. 114–116. 104 Common method bias exists if the measured variance is not caused by the construct but by the measurement method (cp. Podsakoff et al. (2003), p. 879). 105 Cp. Chang et al. (2010), p. 180. 106 Cp. Weiber and Mühlhaus (2014), p. 359. 107 An indicator (or item) is a directly measured observation (cp. Hair et al. (2017), p. 319). Within the survey, indicators have been used to measure the variables of the research models. Using multiple indicators should improve the psychometric quality of the measurement. The use of existing indicators does not only reduce efforts for creating own items but also improves the ability to compare empirical findings (cp. Homburg and Klarmann (2004), pp. 76–77). 108 Indicators can be formative or reflective. For formative indicators, the direction of causality is from the indicators to the investigated variable. Reflective indicators assume an opposite direction of causality, i.e. from the investigated variable to the indicators (cp. Jarvis et al. (2003), p. 203). 109 Rating scales indicate (by numbers, verbal descriptions, etc.) a continuum which respondents should use to mark their subjective perception of the rated object (cp. Bortz and Döring (2006), p. 177). 110 Cp. Menold and Bogner (2016), p. 2. 111 Strictly speaking, rating scales only provide ordinally scaled data (cp. Berekoven et al. (2009), p. 68). However, it is common to assume that participants perceive the scores on a

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scales have been fully verbalized to facilitate survey participation for a broad audience.112 For the few questions which offered multiple answer options but no rating scale, the answer options have been presented in a randomized way.113 The randomized presentation has been chosen because the order of answer options can affect the selected answers whereby primacy and recency effects can occur.114 The survey instrument was designed in German and the translated measures for the adopters and non-adopters of ETMs will be presented in the following.115 The complete German survey instrument is available in the appendix.116

5.2.2.1 Measures for Research Model 1: Adopters of ETMs After the introduction, the main part for adopters began with some questions on the general use of the ETM.117 This was followed by more detailed questions for certain types of ETM functionalities, whereby different parts for (1) spot market functionalities, (2) the functionality electronic transport order, and (3) e-tendering were distinguished. Finally, the main part ended with questions on the extent to which the use of the ETM improves business process performance (cp. Figure 5.4).

rating scale to be equidistant which allows the interpretation as interval data (cp. Berekoven et al. (2009), p. 68; Döring and Bortz (2016), p. 251; Häder (2019), p. 98). To emphasize that the scales are equidistant, the rating scales used within the survey of this work were fully and equidistantly numbered. 112 When rating scales are used, either all or only the endpoints can be verbally labeled. The use of fully verbalized scales (i.e. all points are verbally labeled) can be especially beneficial for people with low and moderate formal education (cp. Menold and Bogner (2016), p. 3). 113 The answer options have been presented in a randomized way for three questions for non-adopters of ETMs. The first question with randomized answer option presentation asked participants how transport orders are transmitted (answer options: e-mail, phone, fax, EDI, others). The second question asked whether the participants see a larger potential for their company to use spot market functionalities or e-tendering on an ETM. The third question presented the six ETM properties identified in the conceptual research framework and asked the participants to select the three most important criteria for selecting an ETM. The randomized presentation of answer options has been selected for these questions because the answer options were not measured on a rating scale in contrast to most of the other questions of the survey. 114 Cp. Porst (2014), p. 138. 115 The German measures have been translated to English by the author of this thesis. 116 Cp. Appendix 3 in the Electronic Supplementary Material. 117 When a shipper uses multiple ETMs, the ETM which is most frequently used has been selected for the following questions in the main part.

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Figure 5.4 Overview of the survey (Adopters of ETMs)118

Some variables in the research model of adopters were subject to differential hypotheses (i.e., importance, asset specificity, and relational orientation). To be able to analyze the differences, the variables were collected separately in survey parts for spot market functionalities, electronic transport order, and e-tendering. Only one of these three parts had to be filled out by the participants of the survey. Which one of these three parts had to be completed was determined based on previous answers given to questions on the use of the ETM.119 Since the variables relevant for differential hypotheses should be evaluated only for one specific ETM functionality by the participants, some of the indicators of these variables contained text elements that were specific to the respective functionality.120 118

Source: own representation. The part which must be filled out was determined based on the following logic: if only one functionality is used, the corresponding part was determined. If multiple functionalities are used, spot market functionalities and electronic transport order had a higher priority for the determination of the part than e-tendering (because there should be the largest differences in relational orientation between these functionalities). If both spot market functionalities and electronic transport order are used by a shipper, the percentage of the total purchasing volume for these two functionalities had to be provided by the participants and the part for the functionality with the larger percentage was selected. 120 The text elements within the indicators which are specific for functionalities reminded the participants about the functionality which is currently being evaluated by them. This has been 119

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Most of the variables have been measured with a five-point scale ranging from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”.121 In addition, most of the contextual variables are based on indicators that have been adapted based on the literature (cp. Table 5.6). Only the indicators for asset specificity have been largely self-developed because adequate indicators which fit the specific context of transportation services have not been found in the literature.122 Table 5.7 depicts the measures of the design variables. Relational orientation has been measured with indicators reflecting the dimensions of relational focus (FOC1 and FOC2), long-term orientation (LON1 and LON2), and solidarity (SOL1 and SOL2). For measuring the breadth of ETM use, the participants of the survey had to indicate for how many transport orders they use five additional functionalities on the ETM. The breadth of ETM use (BREADTH) is then calculated by adding up the indicator values from BREADTH1 to BREADTH5.123 Table 5.8 depicts the lmeasures of the success variables. The impact of the use of the ETM on process cost reductions and risks to delivery quality was measured with three indicators that have been adapted from previous studies. The indicators for the variable freight rate reductions were self-developed and focused on the potential impact of abolishing the use of the ETM.124 The effect of the ETM on freight rate reductions (FRATE) is calculated by multiplying the estimated

done to avoid that shippers that use multiple functionalities will evaluate the variables with the context of another functionality in mind. In the tables which depict the indicators of the variables, the text elements depending on the ETM functionality (spot market functionalities, electronic transport order, e-tendering) are represented in square brackets with the respective functionality part of the survey in italics. 121 Answer options of the scale: 1 = “strongly disagree”, 2 = “rather disagree”, 3 = “neither agree nor disagree”, 4 = “rather agree”, 5 = “strongly agree”. 122 The self-developed indicators reflect physical asset specificity (ASSET1), human asset specificity (ASSET2), and procedural asset specificity (ASSET3). 123 A similar approach for adding item values has been implemented for measuring procurement process performance (cp. Mishra et al. (2007), p. 112). 124 To elicit the effect of using the ETM on freight rates, it is important to define the reference point for which such an evaluation should be made. A promising reference point is a comparison against a manual process without the use of an IT application (cp. Schulze (2009), p. 108; Schumann (1992), p. 54). Therefore, the participants were asked to evaluate the effect of a transition from the status quo (using an ETM) to not using an ETM on the freight rates paid to transportation service providers.

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Table 5.6 Measures for contextual variables—Adopters of ETMs125 Scale: Indicators: FEES1 FEES2

Scale: Indicators: SECU1

SECU2

SECU3

SECU4

Scale: Indicators:

IMPRT1

IMPRT2

IMPRT3

Scale: Indicators: ASSET1

ASSET2

ASSET3

ASSET4

125

Fairness of ETM fees Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” The fees of the electronic transportation marketplace are exactly what we would expect. Source: Adapted from Maxwell (2002), p. 200 The electronic transportation marketplace deserves to charge these fees. Source: Adapted from Maxwell (2002), p. 200 Security measures Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” The electronic transportation marketplace monitors participants and provides support for potential conflict resolution. Source: Adapted from Pavlou (2002), p. 238 I believe transportation service providers go through a thorough screening process before they are allowed to do business. Source: Adapted from Pavlou (2002), p. 238 The electronic transportation marketplace provides a significant amount of information about the transaction history of transportation service providers. Source: Adapted from Pavlou (2002), p. 238 The electronic transportation marketplace implements measures to ensure that transactions on the transportation marketplace are secure. Source: Self-developed Importance Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” The unavailability or cancellation of individual transports [spot market functionalities: for which we obtain quotations for daily transport prices | electronic transport order: for which transport orders are transmitted electronically at prices based on long-term agreements | e-tendering: for which electronic contract tenders are carried out] would result in high follow-up costs. Source: Adapted from Werner (1997), p. 137 Correct execution of these transports in terms of time is of great importance for the continuity of subsequent processes (e.g., for internal production processes or the customers). Source: Adapted from Kaufmann (2001), p. 331 and Werner (1997), p. 137 Qualitatively correct execution of these transports is of high importance for the progress of subsequent processes (e.g., internal production processes or the customers). Source: Adapted from Kaufmann (2001), p. 331 and Werner (1997), p. 137 Asset specificity Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” A large part of these transportation services requires vehicles or equipment which are needed by very few companies besides us. Source: Self-developed For most of these transportation services, employees of the transportation service providers must be trained specifically for our needs. Source: Self-developed Many of these transportation services require compliance with standards or norms that require extensive adjustments by transportation service providers. Source: Self-developed For most transportation services [sport market functionalities: for which we obtain quotations for daily transport prices | electronic transport order: for which transport orders are transmitted electronically at prices based on longterm agreements | e-tendering: for which electronic contract tenders are carried out] our company has very specific requirements that other companies probably do not have. Source: Adapted from Engelbrecht (2004), p. 150

Source: own representation.

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Table 5.7 Measures for design variables—Adopters of ETMs126 Scale: Indicators:

FOC1

FOC2

LON1

LON2

SOL1 SOL2

Scale: Indicators: BREADTH1

BREADTH2

BREADTH3

BREADTH4

BREADTH5

BREADTH

Scale: Indicators: CMMT1

CMMT2 CMMT3 (reverse)

Relational orientation Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” The relationship with transportation service providers [ spot market functionalities: who carry out the transports with own vehicles for which we obtain offers for daily transport prices | electronic transport order: to whom we transmit transport orders with prices based on long-term agreements | e-tendering: with whom we carry out electronic contract tenders] is more important to us than achieving the best possible transport prices. Source: Adapted from Kaufmann and Dant (1992), p. 182 The exchange relationship with these transportation service providers can be better described as “cooperative collaboration” than “arm’s length negotiation”. Source: Adapted from Kaufmann and Stern (1988), p. 550 We expect that the relationship with these transportation service providers will continue for a long time. Source: Adapted from Lusch and Brown (1996), p. 36 It is very important to us to maintain a long-term business relationship with the transportation service providers [ spot market functionalities: who carry out the transports with own vehicles for which we obtain offers for daily transport prices | electronic transport order: to whom we transmit transport orders with prices based on long-term agreements | e-tendering: with whom we carry out electronic contract tenders]. Source: Adapted from Ivens (2009), p. 154 We consider these transport service providers as our partners. Source: Adapted from Lado et al. (2008), p. 423 We have built up a very high level of mutual trust with these transportation service providers. Source: Adapted from Kaufmann and Dant (1992), p. 183 Breadth of ETM use Five-point, from “no use/not available” to “100% of all transport orders” a Time-slot management: By means of time-slot management, defined timeslots are offered to transportation service providers. These time-slots must be booked by transportation service providers before arrival at the plant or warehouse. Source: Self-developed Tracking and tracing: The tracking and tracing functionality serves to track the path of the goods to be transported. For this purpose, status information (e.g., arrival or departure of vehicles) and/or position data (e.g., GPS position of vehicles) are used. Source: Self-developed Document management: The transport of goods requires the exchange of some documents (e.g., delivery note, waybill, proof of delivery, customs documents, etc.). Through document management, these documents can be managed, forwarded, and archived electronically. Source: Self-developed Support of invoice settlement: Electronic transportation marketplaces can offer functionalities to reduce the effort for invoice processing, e.g., through automated invoice verification and approval or defined clarification processes. Source: Self-developed System integration: The electronic transportation marketplace can be connected to internal IT systems (e.g., ERP or logistics systems) via system integration. Data can thus be exchanged between the electronic transportation marketplace and internal IT systems via interfaces. Source: Self-developed Calculated: Sum of indicators from BREADTH1 to BREADTH5 Source: Self-developed Commitment to ETM Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” We expect our relationship with this electronic transportation marketplace to continue for a long time. Source: Adapted from Kumar et al. (1995), p. 355 The continuation of the relationship with this electronic transportation marketplace deserves the maximum efforts of our company. Source: Adapted from Morgan and Hunt (1994), p. 35 It is unlikely that our company will continue to use this electronic transportation marketplace in two years. Source: Adapted from Kumar et al. (1995), p. 355

Answer options of the scale: 1 = “no use/not available”, 2 = “1 to 25 % of all transport orders”, 3 = “26 to 50 % of all transport orders”, 4 = “51 to 75 % of all transport orders”, 5 = “76 to 100 % of all transport orders”. a

126

Source: own representation.

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Table 5.8 Measures for success variables—Adopters of ETMs127 Scale: Indicators: PROC1

PROC2

PROC3

Scale: Indicators: FRATE1

FRATE2

FRATE3

FRATE

Scale: Indicators: RISK1

RISK2

RISK3

Scale: Indicators: PERF

Process cost reductions Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” The use of the electronic transportation marketplace has allowed us to reduce the costs of coordination with our transportation service providers. Source: Adapted from Chang and Wong (2010), p. 269 The electronic transportation marketplace has enabled us to greatly reduce the costs of carrying out transactions with our transportation service providers. Source: Adapted from Giunipero et al. (2012), p. 292 and Grewal et al. (2001), p. 26 The electronic transportation marketplace has reduced our labor costs for ordering from transportation service providers. Source: Adapted from Yao et al. (2007), p. 894 Freight rate reductions Use of multiple scales, see remarks below the respective indicator What would be the impact on freight rates if your company stopped using the electronic transportation marketplace? Would the freight rates of the transportation services your company purchases increase or decrease? Scale: Seven-point, from “strong decrease” to “strong increase” a , Source: Self-developed How large is the volume of transportation services for which your company would pay [higher | lower] freight rates without using the electronic transportation marketplace? Scale: Seven-point, from “very small” to “very large”b , Source: self-developed By what percentage do you estimate the freight rates of transportation services will [decrease | increase] whose freight rates would change without the use of the transportation marketplace? Scale: percentage estimation, Source: Self-developed Calculated: Multiplication of FRATE1 with FRATE2 Source: Self-developed Risks to delivery quality Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” I have concerns about transportation service providers acting fraudulently on the electronic transportation marketplace. Source: Adapted from Verhagen et al. (2006), p. 554 I am concerned that transportation service providers on the electronic transportation marketplace may not be able to perform transports as requested. Source: Adapted from Verhagen et al. (2006), p. 554 Doing business with transportation service providers on this electronic transportation marketplace involves significant risk. Source: Adapted from Pavlou (2002), p. 239 Business process performance Seven-point, from very small to very large How large is the positive effect of using the electronic transportation marketplace on your company’s success? Source: Adapted from Saab (2007), p. 131

Answer options of the scale: -3 = “strong decrease”, -2 = “decrease”, -1 = “rather decrease”, 0 = “unchanged”, + 1 = “rather increase”, + 2 = “increase”, + 3 = “strong increase”. b Answer options of the scale: 1 = “very small”, 2 = “small”, 3 = “rather small”, 4 = “moderate”, 5 = “rather large”, 6 = “large”, 7 = “very large”. a

127

Source: own representation.

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strength of the decrease (FRATE1)128 with the volume of transportation services that are affected (FRATE2).129 Besides the above-mentioned contextual, design, and success variables, the main part for adopters also contained further variables for the descriptive analysis.130

5.2.2.2 Measures for Research Model 2: Non-Adopters of ETMs The main part of non-adopters began with some general questions on how the transportation services are currently purchased by shippers. Afterward, the non-adopters had to decide whether they see a higher potential for the use of spot market functionalities or e-tendering on an ETM. Depending on their choice, the non-adopters had to fill out a different survey part for spot market functionalities or e-tendering.131 The main part for non-adopters ended with questions on the expected improvements in terms of business process performance which can be achieved on an ETM and the properties of an ETM which non-adopters consider important for the ETM selection (cp. Figure 5.5). The contextual variables complexity and demand uncertainty have been measured with indicators that have been adapted based on the literature, whereby the indicators of demand uncertainty reflect both frequency uncertainty (UNCT1 and 128

Besides a decrease in freight rates due to the use of an ETM, the item FRATE1 allowed the participants to indicate that the use of an ETM increases freight rates (which should result in a decrease of freight rates without the use of the ETM). However, no respondent indicated that the use of an ETM increases freight rates. Therefore, all responses can be used to measure freight rate reductions. 129 Thus, FRATE represents an unweighted multiplicative index (cp. Döring and Bortz (2016), p. 281). The indicator FRATE3 was not considered for this index because it was expected that not all participants can or want to provide the information on a percentage estimation of the effect on freight rates. Therefore, the indicator was included purely for the descriptive analysis. 130 In particular, the following additional variables have been collected for adopters: number of ETMs currently used, names of ETMs in use, years of using the ETM, types of transports purchased on the ETM (e.g. CEP, LTL, etc.), knowledge about transportation services and relationship to transportation service providers, percentage of all transport orders for road transportation conducted via the ETM, and percentage of all transport orders conducted via the used functionalities (spot market functionalities, electronic transport order or e-tendering) on the ETM. 131 Like the survey part for adopters of ETMs, the separate survey parts were used to collect data that can be used to test differential hypotheses (e.g., for the differences in demand uncertainty between transportation services to be purchased via spot market functionalities or e-tendering).

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Figure 5.5 Overview of the survey (Non-adopters of ETMs)132

UNCT2) and volume uncertainty (UNCT3 and UNCT4). Similar self-developed indicators for asset specificity as already used for the adopters have been used in the part for non-adopters. However, the non-adopters did not evaluate the asset specificity for single ETM functionalities but their overall company (cp. Table 5.9). Table 5.10 depicts the measures for the three design variables. The relational orientation has been measured in a similar way as for the adopters of ETMs. Only the text elements which are specific to the evaluated ETM functionalities have been adapted.133 In addition, the intention to adopt an ETM has been measured with three indicators that have been adapted from a previous study. Finally, the depth of ETM use was measured by asking the participants for the percentage of all road transports of their company for which they see a potential to use spot market functionalities or e-tendering on an ETM. 132

Source: own representation. The indicators of variables that are collected in the different parts for spot market functionalities and e-tendering contained text elements with different texts for the corresponding parts. These text elements should remind the survey participants of the kind of transportation service and ETM functionality for which they should provide the answers. In the tables summarizing the indicators of variables, these text elements are depicted in square brackets with the respective functionality part of the survey in italics.

133

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Table 5.9 Measures of contextual variables—Non-adopters of ETMs134 Scale: Indicators: CMPL1

CMPL2 CMPL3

Scale: Indicators: UNCT1 (reverse)

UNCT2 (reverse)

UNCT3

UNCT4 (reverse)

Scale: Indicators: ASSET1

ASSET2

ASSET3

ASSET4

134

Complexity Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” A large amount of information is required to describe the transportation services [spot market functionalities: for which spot purchasing on an electronic transportation marketplace is suitable | e-tendering: for which electronic contract tenders on a transportation marketplace are suitable]. Source: Adapted from Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 93 The specifications of these transportation services are longer than other transportation services we buy. Source: Adapted from Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 93 Many attributes are required to describe these transportation services. Source: Adapted from Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 93 Demand uncertainty Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” The transportation services [spot market functionalities: for which spot purchasing on an electronic transportation marketplace is suitable | e-tendering: for which electronic contract tenders on a transportation marketplace are suitable] are needed on a regular frequency (e.g., always on working days or a specific day of the week). Source: Adapted from Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 93 It can be accurately predicted when these transportation services will be needed next time. Source: Adapted from Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 93 For the transportation services [spot market functionalities: for which spot purchasing on an electronic transportation marketplace is suitable | e-tendering: for which electronic contract tenders on a transportation marketplace are suitable] the demand volume fluctuates a lot over time. Source: Adapted from Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 93 The demand volume for these transportation services is very stable over time. Source: Adapted from Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 93 Asset specificity Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” A large part of these transportation services requires vehicles or equipment, which are needed by very few companies besides us. Source: Self-developed For most of these transportation services, employees of the transportation service providers must be trained specifically for our needs. Source: Self-developed Many of these transportation services require compliance with standards or norms that require extensive adjustments by transportation service providers. Source: Self-developed For most transportation services our company has very specific requirements that other companies probably do not have. Source: Adapted from Engelbrecht (2004), p. 150

Source: own representation.

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Table 5.10 Measures for design variables—Non-adopters of ETMs135 Scale: Indicators:

FOC1

FOC2

LON1

LON2

SOL1 SOL2

Scale: Indicators: ADOP1

ADOP2

ADOP3 (reverse)

Scale: Indicators:

DEPTH

Relational orientation (intention) Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” The relationship with transportation service providers [spot market functionalities: from whom we would procure transportation services via spot purchasing | e-tendering: from who we would procure transportation services via electronic contract tenders] is more important to us than achieving the best possible transport prices. Source: Adapted from Kaufmann and Dant (1992), p. 182 The exchange relationship with these transportation service providers can be better described as “cooperative collaboration” than “arm’s length negotiation”. Source: Adapted from Kaufmann and Stern (1988), p. 550 We expect that the relationship with these transport service providers will continue for a long time. Source: Adapted from Lusch and Brown (1996), p. 36 It is very important to us to maintain a long-term business relationship with the transportation service providers [spot market functionalities: from whom we would procure transportation services via spot purchasing | e-tendering: from whom we would procure transportation services via electronic contract tenders]. Source: Adapted from Ivens (2009), p. 154 We consider these transport service providers as our partners. Source: Adapted from Lado et al. (2008), p. 423 We have built up a very high level of mutual trust with these transportation service providers. Source: Adapted from Kaufmann and Dant (1992), p. 183 Adoption of ETM (intention) Use of multiple scales, see remarks below the respective indicator We intend to use an electronic transportation marketplace. Scale: Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”, Source: Adapted from Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 92 It is likely that our company will take steps to use an electronic transportation marketplace in the future. Scale: Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree”, Source: Adapted from Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 92 How long do you think it will take your company to adopt an electronic transportation marketplace? Scale: From “Less than 6 months” to “No plan to participate in an electronic transportation marketplace”a , Source: Adapted from Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 92 Depth of ETM use Percentage estimation You have indicated that in the last year [less than 5,000 | approx. 5,001 to 10,000 | approx. 10,001 to 20,000 | approx. 20,001 to 50,000 | more than 50,000] road transports were purchased by your company. For what percentage of these road transports can you imagine the use of an electronic transportation marketplace for [spot purchasing | e-tendering]? Source: Self-developed

Answer options: 1 = „Less than 6 months”, 2 = “6 to 12 months”, 3 = “12 to 18 months”, 4 = “18 to 24 months”, 5 = “No plan to participate in an electronic transportation marketplace”. a

135

Source: own representation.

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Table 5.11 Measures for success variables—Non-adopters of ETMs136 Scale: Indicators: FLEX1

FLEX2

FLEX 3

Scale: Indicators: FRGT1

FRGT2

FRGT3

Scale: Indicators: RISK1

RISK2

RISK3

Supply assurance and flexibility Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” An electronic transportation marketplace is useful for our company to cope with volume changes in transportation demand. Source: Self-developed An electronic transportation marketplace is useful for our company to react flexibly to changes in transportation service requirements (e.g., delivery dates). Source: Self-developed An electronic transportation marketplace is useful for our company to be able to fully cover the transport demand. Source: Self-developed Freight rate reductions Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” An electronic transportation marketplace is useful for our company to increase price transparency. Source: Adapted from Rao et al. (2007), p. 1043 An electronic transportation marketplace is useful for our company to achieve lower prices for the transportation services to be procured. Source: Adapted from Rao et al. (2007), p. 1043 An electronic transportation marketplace is useful for our company to purchase transportation services at the true market price. Source: Adapted from Rao et al. (2007), p. 1043 Risks to delivery quality Five-point, from “strongly disagree” to “strongly agree” I have concerns about transportation service providers acting fraudulently on an electronic transportation marketplace. Source: Adapted from Verhagen et al. (2006), p. 554 I am concerned that transportation service providers on an electronic transportation marketplace may not be able to perform transports as requested. Source: Adapted from Verhagen et al. (2006), p. 554 Doing business with transportation service providers on an electronic transportation marketplace involves significant risk. Source: Adapted from Pavlou (2002), p. 239

Finally, indicators for the success variables of the non-adopter variant of the survey are shown in Table 5.11. None of the existing measures in the literature could be used for the success variable supply assurance and flexibility. Therefore, the indicators have been self-developed. This was done based on a conceptualization of supply chain flexibility. In particular, the indicators are based on

136

Source: own representation.

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three out of five flexibility dimensions: volume flexibility (FLEX1), responsiveness to target markets (FLEX2), and access flexibility (FLEX3).137 The risks to delivery quality have been measured with similar indicators as for the adopters. Three indicators have been adapted from the literature to measure freight rate reductions. In addition to these variables, the survey variant for non-adopters also asked the participants to provide data for further variables for the descriptive analysis.138

5.2.3

Data Collection

5.2.3.1 Population Empirical studies are used to gather data on specific populations. Since the population in focus can vary from study to study, it must be clearly defined. The population of the main study of this work will be specified in detail along four dimensions (cp. Table 5.12). First, the population only comprises companies in Germany. This eliminates efforts for the translation of the survey into several national languages. Further and following the focus on business logistics,139 the population consists only of manufacturing, retail, and wholesale companies. This implies that service companies are not included in the population. Table 5.12 Specification of the population140 Dimension Country Industry Size Procurement

137

Specification Germany Manufacturing, wholesale, and retail trade Medium-sized and large Only companies that buy road transportation services

Volume flexibility refers to the ability to effectively react to changes in customer demand. The responsiveness to target markets refers to the ability to respond to the needs of a firm’s target markets. Furthermore, access flexibility denotes the ability to provide widespread distribution coverage (cp. Vickery et al. (1999), pp. 17–19). 138 In particular, the following additional variables have been collected for non-adopters: the current method used to transfer transport orders (e.g., EDI, e-mail, etc.) and the types of transports that are purchased (e.g., CEP, LTL, etc.). 139 Cp. Section 2.1.1. 140 Source: own representation.

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In addition, the population shall be limited only to medium-sized and large companies. Thus, small and micro companies are not included in the population.141 These smaller companies have been excluded because it can be expected that ETMs are mainly of interest to firms with a rather large transportation volume.142 Finally, the companies of the population should buy transportation services for road transportation.

5.2.3.2 Retrieval of Company Data The relevant companies for the survey have been identified based on the Orbis database compiled by Bureau van Dijk.143 Orbis offers data of more than 300 million companies worldwide. When the companies for the survey are identified based on this database, the quality of the survey sample obviously depends on how good it can potentially represent the companies of the population. Therefore, the data quality of the company data of the Orbis database has been checked in the first step. To check how well the Orbis data represents the companies within Germany, the data has been compared with official data provided by the Federal Statistical Office of Germany (Destatis).144 In particular, two tables provided in the business register of Destatis have been used.145 141

According to the definition in EU recommendation 2003/361, these smaller companies have less than 50 employees and their turnover or balance sheet total does not exceed a threshold value of 10 million Euros (cp. European Commission (2021)). 142 Although large and medium-sized companies only represent 2.9 % of the total number of companies, they account for 65.7 % of the total value added within Germany (cp. European Commission (2019)). Since a larger total value added should also be associated with larger movements of goods, it can be expected that larger companies also have higher transportation volumes. 143 Cp. https://orbis.bvdinfo.com. 144 The business register system (code 52111) of Destatis provides a set of statics about companies in Germany (the statistics can be accessed on the internet via https://www-genesis.des tatis.de/genesis/online). The official statistics are provided based on the national WZ 2008 classification of economic activities (cp. Statistisches Bundesamt (2008)) which is based on the EU classification NACE Rev. 2. NACE is the statistical classification of economic activities in the European Community which imposes the use of a uniform classification system within all the countries of the EU (cp. Eurostat (2008), p. 5). Both of these classifications make a distinction between 21 sections on the highest level (cp. Eurostat (2008), p. 47; Statistisches Bundesamt (2008), pp. 52–53). Two out of these sections are relevant for this work, namely, section C for manufacturing companies and section G for wholesale and retail companies. 145 Cp. Statistisches Bundesamt (2017a), (2017b). The most recent data at the time of the data retrieval from Destatis stem from the year 2017.

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The data from the Orbis database has been retrieved with the following selection criteria:146 • • • • •

Status = active Company type = Company Country = Germany NACE Rev. 2 divisions = 10–33 and 45–47147 Number of employees = min. 50 / max. 999,999,999

As a result, a dataset comprising 32,030 companies has been extracted from the Orbis database. The data on companies from the Orbis database and Destatis have been compared according to two criteria. First, the number of manufacturing, wholesale, and retail companies for different company sizes (in terms of the number of employees) has been compared. Second, a comparison of the distribution of the companies across the German federal states has been made. Both comparisons showed that the data from the Orbis database closely match the distribution of companies in the statistics provided by Destatis. Therefore, the Orbis database provides a good representation of companies in Germany. Since the initial dataset of 32,030 companies retrieved from Orbis did also include companies that do not fit the previously specified population, some companies had to be removed (cp. Table 5.13).148 First, a total of 23,809 companies had to be removed because they do not fulfill the criteria of large or medium-sized companies.149 Second of all, a closer analysis of the company data showed that 864 companies must be excluded because it was highly unlikely according to their NACE Rev. 2 classification that these 146

These selection criteria do not completely represent the criteria for the identification of the population. For example, the criteria based on turnover and balance sheet total for the exclusion of small and micro companies are not included. This was necessary to be able to compare the Orbis data with the data from Destatis. 147 The NACE Rev. 2 divisions 10–33 represent companies in section C (manufacturing) and the divisions 45–47 comprise companies of section G (retail and wholesale trade) (cp. Eurostat (2008), p. 44). 148 The initial dataset fulfilled the specification of the population in terms of the dimensions “country” and “industry”. However, companies that did not fulfill the requirements of the dimensions “size” and “purchasing” still had to be removed. 149 Companies were excluded if no data on turnover or balance sheet total were available or if either the turnover or the balance sheet total did not fulfill or exceed the threshold value of 10 million Euros.

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Table 5.13 Determination of company data for the population150 Company data from Orbis Companies in NACE Rev. 2 sections C & G Companies not fulfilling criteria of large and medium-sized companies Companies not relevant for purchasing of transportation services Companies in population

Number of Companies 32,030 -23,809 -864 7,357

companies buy transportation services.151 This led to the identification of 7,357 companies for the population.

5.2.3.3 Sample A full survey of the population is usually not possible or highly expensive. Therefore, the data collection is often restricted to a sample to retrieve information that can be generalized to the whole population.152 For practical reasons, this procedure for collecting sample data has also been applied in this thesis. An unrestricted random sample of 1,500 companies was drawn from the previously identified set of 7,357 companies in the population.153 The identification of the sample companies was based on the generation of random numbers.154 Table 5.14 shows that the demographic data of the sample are very similar to those of the population.155 Thus, the sample is a good representation of the population.

150

Source: own representation. The companies have been excluded based on the 4-digit NACE Rev. 2 code in the Orbis database. First, companies with NACE Rev. 2 codes for repair and maintenance services (3300–3320 and 4520) have been excluded. Second, further companies have been excluded because it is unlikely that these buy transportation services: car dealers (4500–4519), single stores for electrical goods (4643, 4743,4750,4754), and single supermarkets (4711). Especially for single stores of market chains for electrical goods or supermarkets, it is more likely that transportation services are purchased and coordinated centrally and not within the single stores. Therefore, companies with the corresponding NACE Rev. 2 codes have been excluded. 152 Cp. Bortz and Döring (2006), p. 32. 153 For an overview of different sampling methods, cp. Löffler and Heyde (2014), pp. 19–24. 154 It is common to use randomly generated numbers for creating a random sample (cp. Bortz and Döring (2006), p. 400). 155 The industry classification of companies is based on the intermediate aggregation A*38 developed by the System of National Accounts (SNA) (cp. Eurostat (2008), pp. 43–44). 151

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Table 5.14 Demographic data of population and sample156 Population and sample

Number of employees 50 to 249 250 to 499 500 to 999 1,000 and more

Companies Population in population in % 3,981 54% 1,748 24% 869 12% 759 10% Total: 7,357 100%

Sample in % 54% 24% 12% 10% 100%

Companies Population in population in %

Sample in %

Geographical distribution Baden-Württemberg Bavaria Berlin Brandenburg Bremen Hamburg Hesse Mecklemburg-Western Pomerania Lower Saxony North Rine-Westphalia Rhineland-Palatinate Saarland Saxony Saxony-Anhalt Schleswig-Holstein Thuringia Undefined Total:

Industry (SNA A*38 Code) Food products, beverages, and tobacco products (CA) Textiles, apparel, leather and related products (CB) Wood and paper products, and printing (CC) Coke, and refined petroleum products (CD) Chemicals and chemical products (CE) Pharmaceuticals, medicinal chemical and botanical products (CF) Rubber and plastics products, and other nonmetallic mineral products (CG) Basic metals and fabricated metal products, except machinery and equipment (CH) Computer, electronic and optical products (CI) Electrical equipment (CJ) Machinery and equipment (CK) Transport equipment (CL) Other manufacturing (CM) Wholesale and retail trade (G) Total:

156

Source: own representation.

1,253 1,326 167 113 59 202 615 65 595 1,754 289 69 281 141 208 178 42 7,357

17% 18% 2% 2% 1% 3% 8% 1% 8% 24% 4% 1% 4% 2% 3% 2% 1% 100%

Companies Population in population in %

17% 18% 2% 1% 1% 3% 9% 1% 8% 24% 4% 1% 4% 3% 2% 2% 0% 100% Sample in %

478

6%

7%

154

2%

2%

291 27 350

4% 0% 5%

4% 0% 5%

141

2%

1%

547

7%

8%

793

11%

11%

459 321 987 281 199 2,329 7,357

6% 4% 13% 4% 3% 32% 100%

6% 4% 14% 3% 2% 32% 100%

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5.2.3.4 Pretest Conducting a pretest is important for ensuring the validity and reliability of the survey instrument.157 Therefore, a pretest of the survey was conducted in February and March 2021. The pretest aimed to ensure that the questions and answers of the survey are easy to understand and unambiguous. In addition, the structure and length of the survey should be evaluated. In total, eleven participants took part in the pretest.158 The pretest resulted in the following changes to the survey: • Single questions and statements have been reformulated to improve their understanding. • A few spelling mistakes were corrected. • It was decided to only ask adopters to evaluate one main functionality (spot market functionalities, e-tendering, or electronic transport order) in more detail.159 • The number of questions per page of the survey has been reduced. This was intended to limit the efforts for scrolling.160

157

Cp. Schnell (2019), pp. 123–144. The participants consisted of two researchers of the HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management who had a background in logistics, six practitioners representing the target group of the survey (working in logistics functions or functions related to logistics within companies), and three persons with university degrees but without experience in logistics. 159 Initially, it was planned to ask participants for responses for multiple functionalities if they are used in combination on the ETM. However, to reduce the burden of participation and survey length, it has been decided to focus only on the functionality with the highest use in terms of the percentage of transport orders. 160 A few participants of the pretest indicated that some pages require a lot of scrolling and reading which was perceived as negative. For some pages, four to six questions were asked on one page. When multiple questions are combined on one page, respondents must scroll through many questions which increases the chances that questions will be missed. In addition, such a design can be difficult when the survey is completed on a mobile phone. However, surveys that are constructed with one question per page often take longer to complete and participants may have difficulty remembering the context established by previous questions (cp. Dillman et al. (2014), pp. 311–315). As a compromise, the survey was therefore designed in a way that a maximum of two to three questions were presented on one page. This number of questions per page does not require extensive scrolling efforts by participants. At the same time, fewer pages are needed in comparison to the option with one question per page. 158

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5.2.3.5 Execution of the Survey The data were collected with a web survey. Web surveys offer multiple advantages, including low costs, wide reach, and the possibility of an individualized sequence of questions.161 The web survey has been conducted with the software LimeSurvey162 which was hosted on servers of HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management. The main study was started on the 14th of April 2021 with a personalized invitation e-mail. The contact persons for the personalized e-mail invitations have been identified based on contact data of decision-makers from the Orbis database163 and own research conducted on LinkedIn. These contact persons or other employees named by them served as key informants for the survey.164 In general, the reliance on single key informants encompasses the risk that objective facts are distorted by the subjective perceptions of the informants.165 However, for several variables of the survey, there are simply no objective data available (e.g., for the commitment to the ETM). Therefore, empirical studies often rely on the responses from key informants.166

161

Cp. Berekoven et al. (2009), p. 107. Multiple studies have also shown that web surveys entail at least the same validity, reliability, and objectivity as traditional paper-based surveys (cp. Grether (2003), pp. 211–215). 162 Cp. http://www.limesurvey.org. 163 The Orbis database contains decision-makers from different fields and one company can have multiple decision-makers. For a single company, the decision-makers have been identified from the different fields in the following order (from highest priority to lowest priority): (1) logistics, (2) IT, (3) general management. 164 To be able to provide the needed information of the survey, subjects within the relevant companies should possess two main characteristics. First, they should have knowledge about the transportation services which are relevant for their company and how these are purchased. Second, they should be able to provide information on the IT systems used for purchasing transportation services and they should be able to evaluate the potential use of such systems. Since it was expected that not all the invited contact persons may possess these capabilities, they were asked to forward the invitation to other employees if they are more capable to answer the survey questions. 165 Cp. Ernst (2001), pp. 87–96. 166 Cp. Bagozzi et al. (1991), pp. 424–426; Ernst (2003), p. 1250.

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The access to the survey was not public, only the invited participants had the access key to start the survey.167 This helps to avoid double participation and prevents the receipt of unqualified responses. Besides implemented measures during the design of the survey instrument, the invitation e-mail and follow-up actions were implemented and designed to increase survey participation.168 The follow-up activities began on the 19th of April 2021 and included phone calls and reminder e-mails. Phone contacts were established with companies that had not yet participated to convince them to participate.169 Furthermore, two reminder e-mails have been sent (the first one on the 19th of April and the second one on the 26th of April 2021). As can be seen, after an initial flattening of the responses, the start of the phone calls on the 19th of April led to a steady increase of completed surveys (cp. Figure 5.6). In addition, steep increases in response numbers can be observed after the two e-mail reminders have been sent. This shows that the follow-up activities had a large influence on the total number of completed surveys.

167

The access key was embedded in a link in the invitation e-mail which allowed the participants to directly start the survey. 168 Several recommendations for the design of the survey instrument have been followed. In particular, attention was paid to asking interesting questions (cp. Dillman et al. (2014), pp. 28–29), keeping the survey as short as possible (cp. Keusch (2015), p. 189) and limiting the length and complexity of questions (cp. Dillman et al. (2014), pp. 32–34). The invitation e-mail was kept as short as possible (cp. Schulte (2018), p. 57). In addition, the potential participants were asked for help or advice to encourage their willingness to help and increase their motivation for participation (cp. Möhring and Schlütz (2019), p. 44). Furthermore, the HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management was mentioned as a legitimate organization which should increase trust (cp. Dillman et al. (2014), p. 29) and it was specified how the survey results will be useful to increase the intrinsic motivation of potential participants (cp. Theobald (2003), p. 406). Finally, a donation of 2 euros for a good cause per completed survey as well as the option to participate in a lottery where the participants can win wine bottles was offered as an incentive for participation. 169 During the phone calls, the employees of the contacted companies were asked for the person or department responsible for the purchasing of transportation services. Besides having the needed knowledge, these employees should also have the largest interest in the survey. As a result of the phone calls, 396 additional e-mail invitations have been sent whereby 53 resulted in completed surveys.

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After the end of the main study on the 5th of May 2021, 178 responses have been collected. 47 companies could not be reached because of invalid email addresses. Based on the size of the adjusted sample, the response rate is 12.25%.170 In general, the willingness of companies to participate in scientific studies is very low. The average response rates in industrial scientific studies in Germany are between 4 and 5%.171 Thus, the response rate achieved is satisfactory.

Figure 5.6 Development of the survey response172

5.2.4

Description and Preparation of the Data Basis

Not all the 178 responses could be used for further analysis (cp. Figure 5.7). 37 companies replied that they do not buy transportation services and their responses could therefore not be used. In addition, six responses had to be excluded,

170

The adjusted sample takes the invalid e-mail addresses into account and consists of 1,500–47 = 1,453 companies. 171 Cp. Völker and Neu (2008), p. 118. 172 Source: own representation.

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whereby half of them were responses from adopters of ETMs173 and the other half from non-adopters174 . This resulted in 135 usable survey responses, whereby 22 stem from adopters of ETMs and 113 from non-adopters.

Figure 5.7 Survey response175

Within the usable responses, the adopters of ETMs needed on average 21.21 minutes to finish the survey. The average processing time of the non-adopters was 14.72 minutes. Before the data could be used for the analysis, some data had to be manipulated. First, reverse coded indicators were recoded to adjust them to

173

One of the responses indicated that neither spot market functionalities, e-tendering nor the functionality electronic transport order is being used on the ETM (answer ID 326). Therefore, this response cannot be used for the analysis of the variables relational orientation, asset specificity, and importance which were gathered in the corresponding parts of the survey. The other two responses could not be used because the respondents named booking portals of single transportation service providers as the names of the used ETMs (answer IDs 135 and 152). Because these booking portals are not ETMs, these responses were excluded. 174 Three responses of non-adopters were excluded based on the time they needed for completing the survey. One response was completed in below 5 minutes (answer ID 95). Since it cannot be expected that the survey is thoroughly processed in such a short time, the response has been excluded. In addition, two responses were completed after more than 45 minutes (answer IDs 94 and 282). For such a long processing time it is assumed that respondents were interrupted while completing the survey and did not finish it in a concentrated manner as the other participants. 175 Source: own representation.

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the other indicators.176 Second of all, the scores for some indicators had to be calculated.177

5.2.4.1 Data Quality The quality of the received data was further analyzed. In particular, the presence of a nonresponse and common method bias was assessed.

5.2.4.1.1 Nonresponse Bias Nonresponse bias is present if the respondents differ substantially from those who do not respond to the survey. Obviously, the presence of nonresponse bias makes it difficult to generalize from the sample to the population.178 A common approach to test if nonresponse bias is present is to compare responses across waves. This, however, is not a particularly strong test. An approach that creates more confidence in the obtained data is to track respondents and compare the demographics of respondents to nonrespondents.179 The latter approach was selected for the present work. Since the sample was received from the Orbis database which provides demographic data, differences between respondents and nonrespondents could be analyzed. This has been done for (1) the distribution of the companies across the German federal states, (2) the share of companies active in manufacturing, retail, and wholesale trade, and (3) the number of employees (cp. Figure 5.8). As can be seen, the geographical distribution of the respondents and nonrespondents within Germany is nearly identical. While the share of industry firms and companies with more employees is higher for the respondents than for nonrespondents, the general tendencies in the distributions are similar for both groups. Therefore, the probability of the presence of nonresponse bias is low.

176

This applies to one indicator for the adopters of ETMs (CMMT3) and four indicators for the non-adopters (ADOP3, UNCT1, UNCT2, and UNCT4). 177 Calculations were only needed for two indicators within the survey part for adopters of ETMs (BREADTH and FRATE). 178 Cp. Armstrong and Overton (1977), p. 396. 179 Cp. Fawcett et al. (2014), p. 11.

182

Figure 5.8 Comparison of respondents and nonrespondents180

180

Source: own representation.

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5.2 Main Study

183

5.2.4.1.2 Common Method Bias Common method bias exists if the measured variance is caused by the measurement method rather than by the constructs which are represented by the measures.181 Some actions have already been implemented during the design of the survey instrument to minimize the risk of common method bias.182 In addition, Harman’s single factor tests have been conducted after the finish of the data collection. This test is the most widely used technique to control for common method bias.183 The results of the tests show that a single factor can only explain 17.35% of the total variance for non-adopters and 29.28% for adopters.184 Since these values are below the common threshold of 50% explained variance, the test results suggest that there is no substantial problem with common method bias in the data.

5.2.4.2 Descriptive Statistics The following descriptive analysis provides information on the usable responses of adopters and non-adopters of ETMs. First, an overview of all usable responses will be provided. This will be followed by more detailed statistics for adopters and non-adopters of ETMs.

5.2.4.2.1 Overview of Usable Responses Table 5.15 depicts the number of employees, the number of road transports per year, the purchasing volume of road transports in tons, and the industry of the companies of the survey participants.185 Table 5.16 provides an overview of the demographic data of respondents. As can be seen, most of the participants have a position that involves at least some leadership responsibility (executive management, division head, department head, or team leader).

181

Cp. Podsakoff et al. (2003), p. 879. Cp. Section 5.2.2. 183 Cp. Podsakoff et al. (2003), p. 889. 184 Cp. Appendix 4 and Appendix 5 in the Electronic Supplementary Material. 185 The industry of companies is reported based on the system of national accounts (SNA) which has developed a so-called “intermediate aggregation” consisting of 38 categories for structuring the economic activities of companies (abbreviated as SNA A*38 code). The SNA A*38 code has not been retrieved directly from the Orbis database. Instead, the NACE Rev. 2 divisions retrieved from Orbis have been matched with the corresponding SNA A*38 codes (cp. Eurostat (2008), pp. 43–44). 182

184

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Table 5.15 Company data of the usable responses186 Company data Number of employees 50 to 249 250 to 499 500 to 999 1,000 and more

Adopters Non-adopters 3 59 6 22 8 13 5 19 Total: 22 113

Total 62 28 21 24 135

Total in % 46% 21% 16% 18% 100%

Road transports per year Less than 5,000 5,001 to 10,000 10,001 to 20,000 20,001 to 50,000 More than 50,000

Adopters Non-adopters 4 58 4 21 2 8 1 9 11 17 Total: 22 113

Total 62 25 10 10 28 135

Total in % 46% 19% 7% 7% 21% 100%

Purchasing volume in tons per year Up to 1,000 1,001 to 10,000 10,001 to 50,000 50,001 to 100,000 100,001 to 500,000 More than 500,000 No answer

Adopters Non-adopters 3 40 1 28 5 25 4 4 6 7 2 4 1 5 Total: 22 113

Total 43 29 30 8 13 6 6 135

Total in % 32% 21% 22% 6% 10% 4% 4% 100%

Industry (SNA A*38 Code) Adopters Non-adopters 0 6 Food products, beverages, and tobacco products (CA) 0 3 Textiles, apparel, leather and related products (CB) 3 6 Wood and paper products, and printing (CC) 0 2 Coke, and refined petroleum products (CD) 1 5 Chemicals and chemical products (CE) Pharmaceuticals, medicinal chemical and botanical 0 3 products (CF) Rubber and plastics products, and other non-metallic 4 9 mineral products (CG) Basic metals and fabricated metal products, except 3 11 machinery and equipment (CH) 1 6 Computer, electronic and optical products (CI) 0 5 Electrical equipment (CJ) 4 26 Machinery and equipment (CK) 0 4 Transport equipment (CL) 0 5 Other manufacturing (CM) 6 22 Wholesale and retail trade (G) Total: 22 113

Total 6 3 9 2 6

Total in % 4% 2% 7% 1% 4%

3

2%

13

10%

14

10%

7 5 30 4 5 28 135

5% 4% 22% 3% 4% 21% 100%

186

Source: own representation.

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Table 5.16 Demographic data of respondents187 Respondent data Age 20 to 29 30 to 39 40 to 49 50 to 59 60 to 67 No answer

Adopters Non-adopters 1 12 5 25 5 27 8 35 3 12 0 2 Total: 22 113

Total 13 30 32 43 15 2 135

Total in % 10% 22% 24% 32% 11% 1% 100%

1 to 9 10 to 19 20 to 29 30 to 39 40 to 49

Adopters Non-adopters 7 59 5 25 6 17 4 10 0 2 Total: 22 113

Total 66 30 23 14 2 135

Total in % 49% 22% 17% 10% 1% 100%

Executive management Division head Department head Team leader Technical expert Other

Adopters Non-adopters 3 24 5 24 9 34 0 7 4 18 1 6 Total: 22 113

Total 27 29 43 7 22 7 135

Total in % 20% 21% 32% 5% 16% 5% 100%

Logistics / SCM Procurement Production Distribution Other

Adopters Non-adopters 17 72 4 14 0 6 0 10 1 11 Total: 22 113

Total 89 18 6 10 12 135

Total in % 66% 13% 4% 7% 9% 100%

Female Male

Adopters Non-adopters 2 14 20 99 Total: 22 113

Total 16 119 135

Total in % 12% 88% 100%

Job tenure in years

Position

Functional area

Gender

187

Source: own representation.

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This is a sign that the participants are qualified and knowledgeable.188 As expected, most of the respondents are working in the functional areas of logistics / SCM (66%) or procurement (13%). The responses of adopters and non-adopters also show that there is a high relational orientation toward transportation service providers. Figure 5.9 highlights that most of the respondents provide answers which indicate a tendency

Figure 5.9 Results for relational orientation189

188

This is also reflected in the self-assessment of the knowledge of adopters: most adopters indicate that their knowledge of the transportation services of their company is rather good to very good (18 of 22 adopters) and that they have rather good to very good knowledge of the business relationships with transportation service providers (16 of 22 adopters). 189 Source: own representation.

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toward higher relational orientation, especially for the dimensions of solidarity (SOL1 and SOL2) and long-term orientation (LON1 and LON2).190 After the general overview of all received responses, a more detailed analysis for adopters of ETMs and non-adopters will follow now.

5.2.4.2.2 Adopters of ETMs Figure 5.10 shows which and how many ETMs are used by the adopters. At most, the adopters use three ETMs in parallel. However, the majority only use one ETM. Most respondents state that they use Transporeon or Timocom.

Figure 5.10 ETMs used by adopters of ETMs191

In addition, Figure 5.11 depicts how the adopters of ETMs perceive the impact of ETM use on freight rates. Most of the respondents indicate that ETMs reduce 190

15 non-adopters of ETMs replied that they see no potential at all to use an ETM. Since these respondents have not been asked to assess the relational orientation toward transportation service providers on an ETM, the remaining 120 responses for the variable relational orientation were evaluated (22 responses of adopters and 98 responses of non-adopters). 191 Source: own representation.

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Figure 5.11 Impact of ETMs on freight rates192

freight rates (13 out of 22), but also a non-negligible share does not perceive any change in freight rates (9 out of 22). When respondents indicate a decrease in freight rates because of the use of an ETM, it is most often in the range of 1% to 5%.

5.2.4.2.3 Non-adopters of ETMs The non-adopters have been asked how they most often transmit transport orders to transportation service providers (cp. Figure 5.12). The responses show that email is used by more than half of the shippers (60%). EDI is also often used by the respondents (24%). Furthermore, the non-adopters had to select three out of six criteria that they perceive as most important for the selection of ETMs (cp. Figure 5.13). The results show that the criteria of the DeLone and McLean IS success model (service, information, and system quality) are most often selected to be among these important criteria. Market liquidity appears to be the least important criterion for non-adopters. Not many non-adopters plan an ETM implementation for the foreseeable future (cp. Figure 5.14). Most non-adopters indicate that their company has no 192

Source: own representation.

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Figure 5.12 Transmission of transport orders by non-adopters of ETMs193

Figure 5.13 Importance of criteria for the selection of ETMs194

193 194

Source: own representation. Source: own representation.

189

190

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plan to use an ETM (71%). Furthermore, only 10% of all non-adopters replied that an ETM will be implemented within the next 12 months.

Figure 5.14 Plans for the use of an ETM by non-adopters195

5.2.5

Methodological Foundation for the Data Analysis

Before the data analysis can begin, the methodology for this analysis will be discussed. The relationship and differential hypotheses that have been developed require different statistical techniques for their analysis. In this work, structural equation modeling (SEM) will be used to test the relationship hypotheses and Mann-Whitney U tests will be applied to test the differential hypotheses. Their choice and fundamentals will be discussed in the following.

195

Source: own representation.

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191

5.2.5.1 Structural Equation Modeling Within the multivariate statistical techniques, a few dependence techniques can be used to analyze relationship hypotheses.196 Out of these, SEM has been selected for the present thesis because it allows to model and to analyze the relationship among multiple dependent and independent variables in a single and comprehensive analysis.197 Furthermore, SEM is well suited for the analysis of latent variables which cannot be observed.198 This is important because this work intends to analyze latent variables like the intention to adopt an ETM or the commitment to an ETM. In SEM, so-called path models depict the hypotheses and variable relationships that are examined when SEM is applied. Such a path model consists of different components (cp. Figure 5.15).

Figure 5.15 A path model199 196

Dependence techniques are used to predict or explain one or many dependent variables by independent variables (cp. Hair et al. (2019), p. 21). 197 In contrast, so-called first-generation dependence techniques (e.g. multiple regression) can only analyze one layer of linkages between independent and dependent variables at a time (cp. Gefen et al. (2000); Hair et al. (2019), pp. 21–24). 198 Cp. Backhaus et al. (2016), p. 19; Hair et al. (2011), p. 139; Hair et al. (2019), p. 608. 199 Source: adapted from Hair et al. (2017), p. 12.

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Circles or ovals are used to display constructs. These represent abstract and complex concepts that cannot be directly observed.200 Constructs can be exogenous or endogenous. Exogenous constructs explain other constructs in the model, while endogenous constructs are constructs that are being explained. Indicators (represented as rectangles) are used to measure constructs. Arrows are used to depict the relationships between constructs or constructs and their indicators.201 The path model also contains error terms.202 In general, path models contain two types of models. First, the structural model (also called the inner model) shows the directed relationships (paths) between the constructs. Second, the measurement models (also called outer models) display the relationship between indicators and constructs.203 To obtain results for the relationships in the path model, the individual parameters of the structural and measurement model must be estimated. Two different types of statistical analysis can be used for the calculation of model parameters in SEM: covariance-based SEM (CB-SEM) and partial least squares SEM (PLSSEM). None of these types is generally superior. Instead, the selection of the applied SEM type should depend on the requirements of the specific research project.204 In particular, it has been proposed to prefer PLS-SEM over CB-SEM when 1) no multivariate normal distribution of indicators is given, 2) the sample size is small and 3) a complex model should be analyzed.205 Not all of the indicators of the empirical study of this thesis are normally distributed.206 Moreover, the sample sizes for the analysis of the research models of this work are rather small. Therefore, PLS-SEM has been selected for the analysis of the main study. The data analysis has been conducted with the software SmartPLS.207 After the data has been collected and the parameters of the model have been estimated, it can be assessed how well the empirical data fit the theoretically established models. In particular, evaluation criteria can be used to assess the

200

Cp. Hair et al. (2017), p. 314. Cp. ibid., p. 11. 202 Error terms are relevant for endogenous constructs (Z and Z ) and reflective indicators 3 4 (e7 –e9 ). 203 Cp. Hair et al. (2011), p. 141. 204 Cp. Hair et al. (2019), p. 14. 205 Cp. Bagozzi and Yi (1994), p. 19. 206 Cp. results of the normal distribution tests in Appendix 6 and Appendix 7 in the Electronic Supplementary Material. 207 SmartPLS v. 3.3.3 201

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quality of the structural model and the measurement models.208 These will be presented in the following.

5.2.5.1.1 Measurement Model Evaluation In a first step, the quality of the results for the measurement model must be evaluated in terms of its reliability and validity. Reliability denotes the consistency of a measure. The measurement of a construct is reliable when it produces consistent outcomes under consistent conditions. The validity is given, when the indicators of a construct measure what they are supposed to measure.209 Different evaluation criteria should be applied for formative and reflective measurement models.210 Since all constructs of the main study are reflectively measured, only the evaluation criteria for the assessment of reflective measurement models will be discussed. In the following, internal consistency reliability, convergent validity, and discriminant validity will be presented as relevant evaluation criteria for reflective measurements.211 Internal consistency reliability is used to judge whether the results across indicators are consistent. To achieve large internal consistency reliability, the correlation between the indicators must be large.212 Cronbach’s alpha is the traditional criterion for internal consistency. However, this measure tends to underestimate the internal consistency reliability in PLS-SEM. Therefore, it has been suggested to assess the composite reliability instead of Cronbach’s alpha.213 As a rule of thumb, composite reliability should be 0.7 or higher.214 Convergent validity is the degree to which indicators correlate positively with alternative measures of the same construct. When convergent validity is given, indicators should share large parts of the variance with the underlying construct. As a rule of thumb, the indicator’s outer loadings should be higher than 0.7. However, only indicators with an outer loading below 0.4 should always be eliminated. Indicators with outer loadings between 0.4 and 0.7 should only be removed when the removal leads to an increase of composite reliability or the average variance 208

Cp. Hair et al. (2017), p. 316. Cp. Hair et al. (2017), pp. 326–330. 210 Cp. Huber et al. (2007), pp. 34–39. 211 Cp. Hair et al. (2017), pp. 104–136. 212 Cp. ibid., p. 320. 213 Cp. Henseler et al. (2009), p. 299; Hair et al. (2017), p. 111. Nonetheless, it has been recommended to report the values for Cronbach’s alpha as the lower bound for internal consistency reliability (cp. Hair et al. (2017), p. 112). Therefore, Cronbach’s alpha will also be reported for the results of the reflective measurement model evaluation in this thesis. 214 Cp. Hair et al. (2011), p. 145; Hair et al. (2012), p. 429. 209

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extracted above the suggested threshold values.215 Therefore, the value of the outer loadings of indicators should be at least equal to or higher than a threshold value of 0.4. In addition, the average variance extracted (AVE) can be used to evaluate the convergent validity of constructs. When the AVE value of a construct is 0.5 or higher, the construct can explain more than half of the variance of its indicators. Therefore, the AVE should be equal to or higher than 0.5.216 Finally, discriminant validity is established when a construct is unique and reflects phenomena not represented by other constructs in the model. The heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) of the correlations can be used to assess discriminant validity.217 As a conservative threshold, the HTMT values should be equal to or below a value of 0.85. In addition, a bootstrapping procedure can be used to further test the discriminant validity of the measurement model by computing confidence intervals for the HTMT values. If this confidence interval includes the value 1, this is an indication of a lack of discriminant validity.218 Table 5.17 summarizes the recommendations for the evaluation criteria. Table 5.17 Evaluation criteria for reflective measurement models219 Criterion Internal consistency reliability

Recommendation Composite reliability > 0.7 Outer loadings > 0.4

Convergent validity Discriminant validity

AVE > 0.5 HTMT < 0.85

Source(s) Hair et al. (2011), p. 145; Hair et al. (2012), p. 429 Hair et al. (2011), p. 145 Fornell and Larcker (1981), p. 46 Henseler et al. (2015), p. 121

5.2.5.1.2 Structural Model Evaluation Once the measurement models have been assessed, the evaluation of the structural model can begin. After an assessment of the collinearity, the path model should be assessed in terms of its path coefficients, the coefficient of determination, effect sizes, and predictive relevance.220 215

Cp. Hair et al. (2017), pp. 113–114. Cp. Fornell and Larcker (1981), p. 46; Hair et al. (2017), p. 115. 217 Cp. Henseler et al. (2015), 115–135. 218 Cp. Hair et al. (2017), pp. 119–120. 219 Source: own representation. 220 Cp. Hair et al. (2017), p. 191. 216

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For each endogenous construct which is determined by two or more constructs, there is a risk of collinearity (i.e., high correlations between the predictor constructs).221 Therefore, the start should be made by assessing the collinearity among predictor constructs for each endogenous variable. The variance inflation factor (VIF) can be used for this assessment, whereby the VIF values should be below 5.222 The PLS-SEM algorithm provides estimates of the path coefficients, which reflect the hypothesized relationships among the constructs. The sign, magnitude, and significance of the path coefficients should be considered for the evaluation of hypotheses.223 The values of path coefficients are approximately between -1 (indicating strong negative relationships) and + 1 (indicating strong positive relationships). When the estimated path coefficients are close to 0, they are usually not significantly different from zero. Besides the sign and magnitude, researchers often use P-values to assess the statistical significance of the path coefficients. Typically, hypotheses are tested at a significance level of 1% (P < 0.01), 5% (P < 0.05) or 10% (P < 0.1).224 In addition, the coefficient of determination (R2 value) can be used to assess the results of the structural model. The coefficient reflects the amount of variance of an endogenous construct that is explained by all the exogenous constructs linked to it.225 R2 values of 0.19 are weak, values of 0.33 are moderate and R2 values of 0.67 are considered substantial.226 Besides the R2 value, the f 2 effect size is another important criterion for assessing the influence of exogenous constructs on an endogenous construct.227 Higher values of the f 2 effect size indicate larger impacts of an exogenous construct on an endogenous construct. An f 2 effect size of 0.02 is considered small, a value of 0.15 medium, and an effect size of 0.35 is considered large.228 Finally, Stone-Geisser’s Q2 value can be used to evaluate the predictive relevance of the structural model. A path model in PLS has predictive relevance if it

221

Cp. Huber et al. (2007), p. 108. Cp. Hair et al. (2011), pp. 146–147. 223 Cp. Henseler et al. (2009), pp. 303–304. 224 Cp. Hair et al. (2017), pp. 195–196. 225 Cp. Hair et al. (2017), p. 198. 226 Cp. Chin (1998), p. 323. 227 Cp. Chin (2010), p. 675. 228 Cp. Cohen (1988), pp. 413–414. 222

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can accurately predict data that is not used in the model estimation.229 Q2 values for endogenous constructs which are larger than zero indicate the predictive relevance of a path model for these constructs.230 Table 5.18 summarizes the above-mentioned evaluation criteria and the respective recommendations for their evaluation. Table 5.18 Evaluation criteria for the structural model231 Criterion Collinearity Path coefficients

Coefficient of determination

Effect size

Predictive relevance

Recommendation VIF < 5 Evaluate path coefficients in terms of sign, magnitude, and statistical significance weak: 0.19 < R² < 0.33 moderate: 0.33 < R² < 0.67 substantial: R² > 0.67 weak: 0.02 < f² < 0.15 medium: 0.15 < f² < 0.35 large: f² > 0.35 Q² > 0

Source(s) Hair et al. (2011), p. 145 Henseler et al. (2009), p. 303 Chin (1998), p. 323

Cohen (1988), pp. 413414 Chin (1998), p. 318

5.2.5.2 Mann-Whitney U Test The choice of the right statistical procedure to evaluate differential hypotheses depends both on the types of samples which should be compared and the distribution of the data of the variable which is hypothesized to be different between the samples. Dependent and independent samples can be distinguished as types of samples. Independent samples consist of groups that have been drawn independently from each other from the population (e.g., men and women). In contrast, dependent samples either consist of the same group for which some variables are measured multiple times (e.g., at different points in time or before and after the introduction of an experimental treatment) or they consist of different groups which have not

229

Cp. Hair et al. (2017), p. 202. Cp. Chin (1998), p. 318. 231 Source: own representation. 230

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been drawn independently from each other (e.g., when certain variables are compared for husband and wife or if the groups are formed according to a matching procedure).232 The data which will be used to evaluate the differential hypotheses of this thesis represent independent samples.233 For comparing two independent samples, a t-test or a Mann-Whitney U test can be applied. An important aspect that should be considered when choosing between these tests is the distribution of the variable data which should be compared across the groups. When the data is normally distributed, further analysis for determining the right kind of t-test can be performed. However, when the data has a non-normal distribution, the Mann-Whitney U test should be used.234 Since the data to be analyzed for the differential hypotheses have a non-normal distribution, the Mann-Whitney U test will be presented and used.235 The Mann-Whitney U test evaluates group differences based on ranks. First, the scores of all outcome variables of the separate groups are combined. Afterward, each outcome variable score is sorted and ranked based on the values, whereby the smallest value gets the lowest rank.236 The Mann-Whitney U test assesses the null hypothesis that there are no differences in the ranks between the groups and that the allocation of a rank to a group is purely random.237 For this assessment, the test statistic U is calculated which reflects the distance between the median ranks of the groups. For large samples, the test statistic U is approximately normally distributed. Therefore, it can be converted into a z value and tested for significance using the z-distribution.238 Both one-tailed and 232

Cp. Janssen and Laatz (2007), pp. 334–335. Since the respondents of the survey of this work provide data only once and are independent of each other, no dependent samples are obtained. However, the respondents belong to certain groups (e.g., adopters and non-adopters of ETMs) which represent independent samples. 234 Cp. Cleff (2019), p. 262; Sarstedt and Mooi (2019), p. 161; Thulasingam and Premarajan (2018), p. 123. 235 The Shapiro-Wilk test can be used to test the normal distribution of data, whereby a statistically significant result indicates that the data are not normally distributed (cp. Janssen and Laatz (2017), p. 249). The results of the normal distribution tests which have been performed for the variables which are subject of differential hypotheses indicate that they have a non-normal distribution (cp. Appendix 6 and Appendix 7 in the Electronic Supplementary Material). 236 Cp. Sarstedt and Mooi (2019), p. 164. 237 Cp. Toutenburg and Heumann (2008), p. 174. 238 Cp. Schäfer (2011), p. 144. 233

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two-tailed tests can be performed.239 Statistical software like SPSS which has been used for the data analysis of the present thesis also provides the statistical significance in the test results.240 Besides the significance, the effect size r can be calculated based on the z value and the sample size.241 An r value of 0.1 is small, 0.3 represents a medium effect, and a value of 0.5 and higher represents large effects.242

5.2.6

Data Analysis and Results

5.2.6.1 Research Model 1: Adopters of ETMs As already mentioned, only 22 responses from adopters of ETMs can be used for the statistical analysis. Since the sample size is rather small, the analysis involves some limitations. Small sample sizes may not reveal significant effects which exist in the population. In addition, results of small sample sizes may not be generalizable.243 However, the sample size of 22 companies shall not prevent further analysis with SEM. First, the sample size represents the recommended sample size to detect a range of minimum R2 values.244 Second of all, SEM has already been used to gain insights from smaller sample sizes.245 Therefore, the measurement and structural model will be evaluated in the following. 239

Cp. Rasch et al. (2014), p. 100. One-tailed tests are performed for directed hypotheses, two-tailed tests for undirected ones (cp. Bortz (1999), p. 116). The results for a one-tailed test can be retrieved by splitting the significance value for a two-tailed test in half (cp. Janssen and Laatz (2017), p. 656). 240 Cp. Eckstein (2016), pp. 133–135. SPSS provides an asymptotic and exact significance. The asymptotic significance is based on theoretical distributions and is only an approximation. The larger the sample size, the better this approximation. For small or unbalanced samples, tests for the exact significance should be performed. These are not based on theoretical distributions but on the probability distributions of the variables which are specifically calculated for a given sample (cp. Janssen and Laatz (2007), p. 813). The use of the exact significance is recommended when the total sample size of both groups is below 30 (cp. Universität Zürich (2020)). 241 Cp. Universität Zürich (2020). 242 Cp. Cohen (1988), pp. 79–80. 243 Cp. Hair et al. (2017), p. 23. 244 For example, this sample size is still sufficient to detect a minimum R2 value of 0.5 for a significance level of 0.01 and for a maximum of 3 arrows pointing at a construct (cp. Hair et al. (2017), p. 26). 245 For example, the study of Majchrzak et al. (2005) had a sample size of 17 and was published in a highly ranked journal.

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5.2.6.1.1 Measurement Model Evaluation Table 5.19 exhibits the quality criteria of the reflectively measured constructs of research model 1 which will be used to analyze their reliability and validity.246 Table 5.19 Quality criteria of the measurement model (Adopters of ETMs)247 Construct

Asset specificity

Importance

Relational orientation

Security measures Risks to delivery quality Process cost reductions Commitment

246

Indicators

ASSET1 ASSET2 ASSET3 ASSET4 IMPRT1 IMPRT2 IMPRT3 FOC1 FOC2 LON1 LON2 SOL1 SOL2 SECU1 SECU2 SECU3 SECU4 RISK1 RISK2 RISK3 PROC1 PROC2 PROC3 CMMT1 CMMT2 CMMT3

Outer loading

P- value

(> 0.40) 0.862 0.003 0.757 0.020 0.718 0.019 0,721 0.016 0.776 0.002 0.953 0.000 0.958 0.000 0.802 0.000 0.729 0.002 0.810 0.000 0.898 0.000 0.801 0.000 0.859 0.000 0.905 0.000 0.927 0.000 0.854 0.000 0.529 0.133 0.884 0.016 0.863 0.045 Eliminated 0.811 0.000 0.868 0.000 0.879 0.000 0.787 0.000 0.867 0.000 Eliminated

AVE

Composite Cronbach's reliablity alpha

(> 0.50)

(> 0.70)

0.588

0.850

0.767

0.810

0.927

0.887

0.670

0.924

0.901

0.672

0.887

0.853

0.763

0.865

0.689

0.728

0.889

0.812

0.685

0,813

0.545

The quality criteria can only be reasonably evaluated for constructs that have been measured with more than one indicator. Therefore, the table does not include the quality for criteria of the constructs which have been measured with a single indicator (i.e., breadth of ETM use, freight rate reductions, business process performance, and fairness of ETM fees). 247 Source: own representation.

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Asset Specificity Breadth of ETM use

0.285

Commitment to ETM

0.307 0.375

Fairness of ETM fees

0.210 0.380 0.144

Freight rate reducons 0.245 0.410 0.518 0.042 Importance Business process performance

0.185 0.316 0.234 0.409 0.386 0.145 0.383 0.621 0.367 0.578 0.482

Process cost reducons 0.325 0.658 0.777 0.332 0.766 0.475 0.850 Relaonal orientaon 0.344 0.206 0.528 0.464 0.120 0.586 0.373 0.559 Risks to delivery quality Security measures

248

0.354 0.145 0.538 0.179 0.130 0.059 0.196 0.254 0.267 0.306 0.406 0.782 0.280 0.651 0.305 0.488 0.521 0.277 0.259

Source: own representation.

Security measures

Risks to delivery quality

Relaonal orientaon

Process cost reducons

Business process performance

Importance

Freight rate reducons

Fairness of ETM fees

Commitment to ETM

Breadth of ETM use

Asset Specificity

Table 5.20 HTMT values (Adopters of ETMs)248

5.2 Main Study

201

Following the previously presented procedure for the evaluation of the measurement model,249 the convergent validity of the measurement model has been evaluated in the first step. Three indicators had to be removed because of their low outer loadings.250 Except for the indicator SECU4, all indicators have high outer loadings with a value of at least 0.7.251 In addition, the AVE values for all constructs exceed the threshold value of 0.5. Therefore, it can be assumed that convergent validity is given for all constructs. In the next step, internal consistency reliability has been evaluated. Since all constructs exceed the threshold value of 0.70 for composite reliability, the measurement model performs well in terms of internal consistency reliability. Finally, the discriminant validity of the measurement model has been assessed. Table 5.20 shows that all constructs fulfill the requirements for discriminant validity because none of the HTMT values exceeds a value of 0.85. In addition, a bootstrapping procedure including 5,000 bootstrapping samples showed that the HTMT confidence intervals for none of the constructs include the value 1. This further reinforces the discriminant validity of the measurement model.

5.2.6.1.2 Structural Model Evaluation (Relationship Hypotheses) The previous analysis indicates that the measurement model is reliable and valid. Therefore, the structural model can be further analyzed. Following the previously described procedure for the evaluation of the structural model,252 the start is made by an assessment of collinearity. As can be seen, all inner VIF values are below the threshold value of 5 (cp. Table 5.21). Therefore, there are no signs of collinearity issues.

249

Cp. Section 5.2.5.1.1. The indicators RISK3, CMMT3, and FEES2 had to be removed. Since the construct fairness of ETM fees has been measured by two indicators, the elimination of the indicator FEES2 resulted in the operationalization of this construct with a single item. Given the simple structure of the construct, this was not considered to be problematic for the measurement model. 251 It is recommended that only indicators with a value below 0.40 should be directly eliminated. Indicators with outer loadings between 0.40 and 0.70 should be closely examined and only eliminated when this helps to reach the suggested threshold values for composite reliability or AVE (cp. Section 5.2.5.1.1). Since the threshold values for composite reliability and AVE already exceed the threshold values, it was decided to retain the indicator SECU4. 252 Cp. Section 5.2.5.1.2. 250

202

5

Empirical Analysis

Table 5.21 Inner VIF values (Adopters of ETMs)253

Endogenous construct Relational orientation Process cost reductions Freight rate reductions Risks to delivery quality Business process performance

Commitment to ETM

Exogenous construct

Inner VIF value

Asset specificity

1.003

Importance

1.003

Breadth of ETM use

1.042

Relational orientation

1.042

Relational orientation

1.000

Relational orientation

1.022

Security measures

1.022

Process cost reductions

1.916

Freight rate reductions

1.923

Risks for delivery quality

1.005

Security measures

1.339

Business process performance

1.501

Risks for delivery quality

1.067

Fairness of ETM fees

1.207

Table 5.22 depicts the quality criteria of the structural model for adopters of ETMs. We can observe that the model has predictive power for four out of the six endogenous variables: relational orientation (R2 = 0.404, Q2 = 0.200), process cost reductions (R2 = 0.500, Q2 = 0.312), business process performance (R2 = 0.608, Q2 = 0.458), and commitment to ETM (R2 = 0.527, Q2 = 0.101). For the constructs freight rate reductions (R2 = 0.011, Q2 = -0.060) and risks to delivery quality (R2 = 0.033, Q2 = -0.071) the exogenous constructs are not able to sufficiently explain the variance of the endogenous constructs. Furthermore, the results show clear support for H3b, H5, H10, H12b and weak support for H9 (P < 0.1). H2b, H4, H6 to H8, H11, H12a, H13 and H14 must be rejected. Figure 5.16 depicts the results of the structural model estimation in a path diagram.

253

Source: own representation.

5.2 Main Study

203

Table 5.22 Quality criteria of the structural model (Adopters of ETMs)254 Endogenous construct

Exogenous construct

Hypothesis

Asset specificity

H2b: ✗

0.244

0.204

0.100

Importance

H3b: ✓

0.573

0.004

0.548

Fairness of ETM fees

H4: ✗

-0.016

0.940

0.000

Security measures

H5: ✓

0.570

0.016

0.512

Business process performance

H13: ✗

0.144

0.521

0.029

Risks to delivery quality

H14: ✗

0.241

0.392

0.115

Security measures

H6: ✗

0.121

0.700

0.015

Relational orientation

H7: ✗

0.118

0.657

0.014

Freight rate reductions Relational orientation (R² = 0.011)

H8: ✗

0.104

0.649

0.011 -0.060

Relational orientation

H9: (✓)

0.393

0.056

0.297

Breadth of ETM use

H10: ✓

0.514

0.000

0.507

Risks to delivery quality

H11: ✗

0.129

0.589

0.043

Freight rate reductions

H12a: ✗

0.106

0.636

0.015 0.458

Process cost reductions

H12b: ✓

0.695

0.000

0.644

Relational orientation (R² = 0.404)

Commitment to ETM (R² = 0.527)

Risks to delivery quality (R² = 0.033)

Process cost reductions (R² = 0.500)

Business process performance (R² = 0.608)

✓ = Hypothesis supported

254

Path Effect P- value coefficient size f²

Q²

0.200

0.191

-0.071

0.312

(✓) = Hypothesis weakly supported

✗ = Hypothesis rejected

Source: own representation. The results are based on a bootstrapping procedure with 5,000 bootstrapping samples and a blindfolding procedure with an omission distance of 7.

255

Source: own representation.

5

Figure 5.16 Structural model results (Adopters of ETMs)255

204 Empirical Analysis

5.2 Main Study

205

5.2.6.1.3 Evaluation of the Differential Hypotheses Three of the hypotheses for the adopters of ETMs are differential hypotheses (H1, H2a, and H3a). For these hypotheses, the indicator data for the respective constructs will be compared between two groups: 1) companies using mainly spot market functionalities on an ETM and 2) companies using an ETM largely for the functionality electronic transport order. Out of the 22 adopters of ETMs, 10 companies mainly use spot market functionalities on an ETM and 9 use the ETM mainly for the functionality electronic transport order functionality.256 For these 19 responses, MannWhitney U tests have been conducted to perform group comparisons for the differential hypotheses. In the following, the results for each of the differential hypotheses will be evaluated and the start will be made with H1. H1: The relational orientation toward transportation service providers is higher for transportation services that are purchased via electronic transport orders than for those services which are sourced via spot market functionalities on an ETM. Table 5.23 shows the results of a Mann-Whitney U test which has been conducted to test the first hypothesis, including the exact significance of a one-tailed test.257 Table 5.23 Mann-Whitney U test—Relational orientation (Adopters of ETMs)258 Spot market Electronic transport MannExact functionalities order (n=9) Z Effect Indicators Whitney significance (n=10) size r U (one-tailed) Mean Rank Mean Rank Median Median rank sum rank sum FOC1 3.0 9.35 93.5 3.0 10.72 96.5 38.5 -0.556 0.292 -0.128

256

FOC2

3.0

LON1

4.0

9.05

90.5

10.95 109.5

3.0

11.06

99.5

35.5

-0.814

0.222

-0.187

4.0

8.94

80.5

35.5

-0.847

0.254

-0.194

LON2

4.0

9.80

98.0

4.0

10.22

92.0

43.0

-0.175

0,431

-0.040

SOL1

4.0

9.20

92.0

4.0

10.89

98.0

37.0

-0.691

0.276

-0.159

SOL2

4.0

9.55

95.5

4.0

10.50

94.5

40.5

-0.401

0.404

-0.092

Three companies use an ETM mainly for e-tendering. These are not considered for the group comparisons via Mann-Whitney U tests. 257 For a total sample size below 30, exact significances should be reported and considered instead of the asymptotic significance (cp. Janssen and Laatz (2007), p. 797; Universität Zürich (2020)). 258 Source: own representation.

206

5

Empirical Analysis

As can be seen, the median values of the indicators used for relational orientation do not differ between the two groups. In addition, the mean rank values are nearly identical. It is therefore not surprising, that the indicators do not show any significant differences in relational orientation between the groups. Thus, H1 must be rejected. H2a: The asset specificity is higher for transportation services that are purchased via electronic transport orders than for those services which are sourced via spot market functionalities on an ETM. The results of a Mann-Whitney U test show that there are no statistically significant differences for any of the indicators of asset specificity between the two groups (cp. Table 5.24). Therefore, H2a must be rejected. Table 5.24 Mann-Whitney U test—Asset specificity (Adopters of ETMs)259 Spot market Electronic transport Exact Mannfunctionalities Effect order (n=9) Z significance Indicators Whitney (n=10) size r (one-tailed) U Mean Rank Mean Rank Median Median rank sum rank sum ASSET1 2.5 10.45 104.5 2.0 9.50 85.5 40.5 -0.400 0.379 -0.092 ASSET2

2.0

30.5

-1.280

0.149

-0.294

ASSET3

3.0

10.35 103.5

8.55

85.5

2.0 3.0

11.61 104.5 9.61

86.5

41.5

-0.311

0.438

-0.071

ASSET4

3.0

11.10 111.0

3.0

8.78

79.0

34.0

-0.986

0.241

-0.226

H3a: The importance is higher for transportation services that are purchased via electronic transport orders than for those services which are sourced via spot market functionalities on an ETM. As predicted, the median and rank values for all indicators show that the importance of transportation services being purchased via spot market functionalities is lower than for the electronic transport order functionality (cp. Table 5.25). However, these differences are only weakly significant (P < 0.10). In addition, the differences for indicator IMPRT3 are not statistically significant. Therefore, H3a is only weakly supported. 259

Source: own representation.

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207

Table 5.25 Mann-Whitney U test—Importance (Adopters of ETMs)260 Spot market Electronic transport MannExact functionalities order (n=9) Z Effect Indicators Whitney significance (n=10) size r U (one-tailed) Mean Rank Mean Rank Median Median rank sum rank sum IMPRT1 3.0 8.25 82.5 4.0 11.94 107.5 27.5 -1.495 0.091 -0.343 IMPRT2

4.0

8.05

80.5

5.0

12.17 109.5

25.5

-1.709

0.064

-0.392

IMPRT3

4.5

8.85

88.5

5.0

11.28 101.5

33.5

-1.053

0.180

-0.242

In the following, the results of the relationship and differential hypotheses for adopters of ETMs will be summarized.

5.2.6.1.4 Summary of Results The results of the hypothesis tests for research model 1 show that there are a few relevant contextual variables that affect design variables which is relevant for RQ2 (cp. Table 5.26). The importance of transportation services affects the relational orientation toward transportation service providers and the use of ETM functionalities. Furthermore, the security measures lead to a higher commitment to the ETM. There are also a few indications for the link between the design and the success variables which are relevant for RQ3 (cp. Table 5.27). The process cost reductions have a particularly strong effect on the perception of business process performance improvements by adopters. The process cost reductions themselves are positively affected by the breadth of ETM use and the relational orientation toward transportation service providers.

260

Source: own representation.

208

5

Empirical Analysis

Table 5.26 Results of hypotheses for RQ2 (Adopters of ETMs)261 Hypothesis H1

H2a

Hypothesized effect

Result

The relational orientation toward transportation service providers is higher for transportation services that are purchased via electronic transport orders than for those services which are sourced via spot market functionalities on an ETM. The asset specificity is higher for transportation services that are purchased via electronic transport orders than for those services which are sourced via spot market functionalities on an ETM.

✗

✗

H2b

The asset specificity of transportation services has a positive effect on the relational orientation toward transportation service providers on an ETM.

✗

H3a

The importance is higher for transportation services that are purchased via electronic transport orders than for those services which are sourced via spot market functionalities on an ETM.

(✓)

H3b

The importance of transportation services has a positive effect on the relational orientation toward transportation service providers on an ETM.

✓

H4

The fairness of ETM fees has a positive effect on the commitment to the ETM.

✗

H5

The perceived security measures have a positive effect on the commitment to the ETM.

✓

✓ = Hypothesis supported

(✓) = Hypothesis weakly supported

✗ = Hypothesis rejected

5.2.6.2 Research Model 2: Non-adopters of ETMs After the evaluation of the hypotheses for adopters of ETMs, the relationship and differential hypotheses for non-adopters of ETMs will be evaluated in the following.

5.2.6.2.1 Measurement Model Evaluation Also for the non-adopters, the data analysis began with an assessment of the reliability and validity of the measurement instrument. Table 5.28 depicts the corresponding quality criteria for the reflective measures of research model 2. First, convergent validity has been assessed. Three indicators had to be removed because of their low outer loadings.262 Except for these, all remaining indicators have high outer loadings of at least 0.7.263 In addition, all constructs 261

Source: own representation. The indicators UNCT3, CMPL1, and SOL2 have been eliminated. 263 The outer loadings for the indicators UNCT4 (0.661), SOL1 (0.682), and RISK1 (0.637) do not exceed 0.70. However, the outer loadings of these indicators are still above a threshold 262

5.2 Main Study

209

Table 5.27 Results of hypotheses for RQ3 (Adopters of ETMs)264 Hypothesis

Hypothesized effect

Result

H6

The perceived security measures have a negative effect on risks to delivery quality on an ETM.

✗

H7

The relational orientation toward transportation service providers has a negative effect on risks to delivery quality on an ETM.

✗

H8

The relational orientation toward transportation service providers has a negative effect on freight rate reductions on an ETM.

✗

H9

The relational orientation toward transportation services providers has a positive effect on process cost reductions.

(✓)

H10

The breadth of ETM use has a positive effect on process cost reductions on an ETM.

✓

H11

The risks to delivery quality on an ETM have a negative effect on business process performance on an ETM.

✗

H12a

Freight rate reductions have a positive effect on business process performance on an ETM.

✗

H12b

Process cost reductions have a positive effect on business process performance on an ETM.

✓

H13

The business process performance has a positive effect on the commitment to the ETM.

✗

H14

The risks to delivery quality have a negative effect on the commitment to the ETM.

✗

✓ = Hypothesis supported

(✓) = Hypothesis weakly supported

✗ = Hypothesis rejected

exceed the threshold value of 0.5 for AVE. Therefore, the measurement model performs well in terms of convergent validity. Next, the internal consistency reliability has been evaluated using composite reliability. All constructs highly exceed the threshold value of 0.70. Therefore, it can be assumed that internal consistency reliability is given for all constructs. value of 0.40 and the constructs exceed the threshold values for composite reliability and AVE. Therefore, it was decided to not eliminate these indicators. 264 Source: own representation.

210

5

Empirical Analysis

Table 5.28 Quality criteria of the measurement model (Non-adopters of ETMs)265 Construct

Indicators

Outer loading

P- value

(> 0.40) Demand Uncertainty

Complexity

Asset specificity

Relational orientation (intention)

Freight rate reductions Supply assurance and flexibility Risks to delivery quality Adoption of ETM (intention)

UNCT1 UNCT2 UNCT3 UNCT4 CMPL1 CMPL2 CMPL3 ASSET1 ASSET2 ASSET3 ASSET4 FOC1 FOC2 LON1 LON2 SOL1 SOL2 FRGT1 FRGT2 FRGT3 FLEX1 FLEX2 FLEX3 RISK1 RISK2 RISK3 ADOP1 ADOP2 ADOP3

0.937 0.010 0.860 0.005 Eliminated 0.661 0.038 Eliminated 0.984 0.004 0.873 0,006 0.900 0.000 0.831 0.000 0.799 0.000 0.868 0.000 0.705 0.000 0.822 0.000 0.881 0.000 0.846 0.000 0.682 0.000 Eliminated 0.868 0.000 0.872 0.000 0.866 0.000 0.839 0.000 0.897 0.000 0.879 0.000 0.637 0.015 0.962 0.000 0.808 0.000 0.882 0.000 0.914 0.000 0.844 0.000

AVE

Composite Cronbach's reliablity alpha

(> 0.50)

(> 0.70)

0.685

0.865

0.799

0.865

0.927

0.871

0.723

0.912

0.876

0.626

0.892

0.850

0.755

0.902

0.838

0.760

0.905

0.843

0.661

0.851

0.800

0.776

0.912

0.856

Finally, the discriminant validity of the measurement model has been evaluated. Table 5.29 shows that all HTMT values are below a threshold value of 0.85. In addition, a bootstrapping procedure including 5,000 bootstrapping samples showed that the HTMT statistic does not include the value 1 for all constructs. Thus, there are no signs of issues with discriminant validity. 265

Source: own representation.

5.2 Main Study

211

Demand uncertainty

Risks to delivery quality

Relaonal orientaon (intenon)

Freight rate reducons

Supply assurance and flexibility

Depth of ETM use (intenon)

Complexity

Asset specificity

Adopon of ETM (intenon)

Table 5.29 HTMT values (Non-adopters of ETMs)266

Adopon of ETM (intenon) Asset specificity Complexity

0.093 0.053 0.356

Depth of ETM use 0.229 0.197 0.015 (intenon) Supply assurance and 0.364 0.065 0.086 0.031 flexibility Freight rate reducons 0.475 0.082 0.111 0.324 0.390 Relaonal orientaon 0.440 0.094 0.081 0.097 0.087 0.234 (intenon) Risks to delivery 0.167 0.127 0.120 0.320 0.123 0.183 0.125 quality Demand uncertainty

0.066 0.203 0.115 0.536 0.057 0.093 0.106 0.256

5.2.6.2.2 Structural Model Evaluation (Relationship Hypotheses) Since the previous evaluation of the measurement model shows that the measurements of the constructs of the research model are valid and reliable, the structural model will be evaluated in the following.

266

Source: own representation.

212

5

Empirical Analysis

The start shall be made with an evaluation of collinearity. Table 5.30 shows that all inner VIF values are below the threshold value of 5. Therefore, collinearity is not considered to be an issue for the structural model. Table 5.30 Inner VIF values (Non-adopters of ETMs)267

Endogenous construct

Adoption of ETM (intention)

Exogenous construct

Inner VIF value

Risks to delivery quality

1.045

Relational orientation (intention)

1.059

Supply assurance and flexibility

1.130

Freight rate reductions

1.183

Depth of ETM use (intention)

Asset specificity

1.000

Depth of ETM use (intention)

1.003

Freight rate reductions

Relational orientation (intention)

1.003

Supply assurance and flexibility

1.001

Complexity

1.000

Relational orientation (intention) Risks to delivery quality

Demand uncertainty

1.000

Relational orientation (intention)

1.000

Table 5.31 depicts the quality criteria of the structural model. The results show that the model can predict the constructs freight rate reductions (R2 = 0.230, Q2 = 0.146) and adoption of ETM (R2 = 0.311, Q2 = 0.212). For the other constructs, the values for R2 and Q2 indicate a very low predictive relevance of the respective endogenous constructs. In addition, the results provide support for H19, H25, and H26 as well as weak support for H18 and H24.268 H16b, H17b, H22, and H23b must be rejected. Figure 5.17 shows the results of the structural model evaluation in a path model.

267

Source: own representation. While the path coefficient from asset specificity to the depth of ETM use is statistically significant (P < 0.05), the exogenous variable cannot explain much of the variance of the endogenous variable depth of ETM use (R2 = 0.038). Therefore, H18 is only weakly supported. H24 is only weakly supported because the statistical significance of the path coefficient from relational orientation to freight rate reductions is not strong (P < 0.1).

268

5.2 Main Study

213

Table 5.31 Quality criteria of the structural model (Non-adopters of ETMs)269 Endogenous construct Relational orientation (intention) (R² = 0.015)

Depth of ETM use (intention) (R² = 0.038)

Adoption of ETM (intention) (R² = 0.311)

Exogenous construct

Hypothesis

Demand uncertainty

H16b: ✗

-0.105

0.408

0.011

Complexity

H17b: ✗

0.061

0.634

0.004

Asset specificity

H18: (✓)

-0.194

0.035

0.039 0.001

Relational orientation (intention)

H19: ✓

-0.322

0.000

0.142

Risks to delivery quality

H20: ✗

-0.070

0.506

0.007

Supply assurance and flexibility

H21a: ✓

0.216

0.018

0.060

Freight rate reductions

H21b: ✓

0.259

0.001

0.082

H22: ✗

0.142

0.264

0.020 0.003

H23b: ✗

-0.022

0.821

0.000 -0.003

Q²

0.003

0.212

Risks to delivery Relational orientation quality (intention) (R² = 0.020) Supply assurance and Relational orientation flexibility (intention) (R² = 0.000) Relational orientation (intention) Freight rate reductions Supply assurance (R² = 0.230) and flexibility Depth of ETM use (intention) ✓ = Hypothesis supported (✓) = Hypothesis

269

Path Effect P- value coefficient size f²

H24: -0.178 0.068 0.041 (✓) H25: 0.326 0.001 0.138 0.146 ✓ H26: 0.291 0.000 0.110 ✓ weakly supported ✗ = Hypothesis rejected

Source: own representation. The results are based on a bootstrapping procedure with 5,000 bootstrapping samples and a blindfolding procedure with an omission distance of 7.

270

Source: own representation.

5

Figure 5.17 Structural model results (Non-adopters of ETMs)270

214 Empirical Analysis

5.2 Main Study

215

5.2.6.2.3 Evaluation of the Differential Hypotheses For the non-adopters, four differential hypotheses (H15, H16a, H17a, and H23a) have been formulated. These will be tested with Mann-Whitney U tests in the following, whereby the begin will be made with H15. H15: The relational orientation toward transportation service providers is higher for transportation services to be purchased via e-tendering than for those services to be purchased via spot market functionalities on an ETM. The respondents were only asked to provide answers for the indicators of relational orientation when the potential use of an ETM was expected to be larger than 0%.271 Since 15 respondents replied that there is no potential at all to use an ETM, 98 of the 113 replies of nonadopters could be used to test H15. For these 98 replies, a Mann-Whitney U test has been conducted to evaluate the differences in the indicator values for relational orientation toward transportation services providers between companies that see a larger potential of an ETM for spot market functionalities and those seeing a larger potential for e-tendering (cp. Table 5.32). Table 5.32 Mann-Whitney U test—Relational orientation (Non-adopters of ETMs)272 Spot market Electronic transport MannAsymptotic functionalities Z Effect order (n=43) Indicators Whitney significance (n=55) size r U (one-tailed) Mean Rank Mean Rank Median Median rank sum rank sum FOC1 3.0 50.11 2,756.0 3.0 48.72 2,095.0 1,149.0 -0.249 0.407 -0.025

271

FOC2

4.0

46.68 2,567.5

4.0

53.10 2,283.5 1,027.5 -1.165

0.124

-0.118

LON1

4.0

46.86 2,577.5

4.0

52.87 2,273.5 1,037.5 -1.103

0.139

-0.111

LON2

4.0

48.80 2,684.0

4.0

50.40 2,167.0 1,144.0 -0.292

0.392

-0.029

SOL1

4.0

47.98 2,639.0

4.0

51.44 2,212.0 1,099.0 -0.641

0.262

-0.065

SOL2

4.0

50.43 2,773.5

4.0

48.31 2,077.5 1,131.5 -0.388

0.351

-0.039

It was not expected to get a valid evaluation of the potential relational orientation toward transportation service providers on an ETM when the respondents see no potential at all to use an ETM. 272 Source: own representation.

216

5

Empirical Analysis

As can be seen, the asymptotic significance does not show statistically significant differences for any indicator of relational orientation between the two groups. Therefore, H15 must be rejected. H16a: The demand uncertainty of transportation services to be purchased via spot market functionalities is higher than the uncertainty of transportation services to be purchased via e-tendering on an ETM. The median, mean rank, and rank sum values for demand uncertainty are higher for spot market functionalities than for e-tendering (cp. Table 5.33). In line with the hypothesis, this shows that respondents prefer using spot market functionalities for transportation services involving a high demand uncertainty and e-tendering for services with more stable and predictable demand. Table 5.33 Mann-Whitney U—Demand uncertainty (Non-adopters of ETMs)273 Spot market E-tendering Asymptotic Mannfunctionalities Effect (n=50) Z significance Indicators Whitney (n=63) size r (one-tailed) U Mean Rank Mean Rank Median Median rank sum rank sum UNCT1 3.0 72.25 4,551.5 1.0 37.79 1,889.5 641.5 -5.694 0.000 -0.536 UNCT2

4.0

71.21 4,486.0

2.0

39.10 1,955.0

-5.396

0.000

UNCT3

4.0

64.35 4,054.0

3.0

47.74 2,387.0 1,112.0 -2.812

680.0

0.002

-0.265

UNCT4

3.0

67.45 4,249.5

2.0

43.83 2,191.5

0.000

-0.371

916.5

-3.949

-0.508

In addition, all differences in the indicator scores across the two groups are highly statistically significant.274 Therefore, H16a is supported. H17a: The complexity of transportation services is higher for services to be purchased via e-tendering than for services to be purchased via spot market functionalities on an ETM.

273 274

Source: own representation. P < 0.001 for the indicators CMPL1, CMPL2 and CMPL4 and P < 0.01 for CMPL3.

5.2 Main Study

217

Table 5.34 depicts the results of a Mann-Whitney U test which show that the mean rank and rank sum values differ for the indicators CMPL1 and CMPL3 and are nearly the same for CMPL2. Table 5.34 Mann-Whitney U test—Complexity (Non-adopters of ETMs)275 Spot market E-tendering MannAsymptotic functionalities (n=50) Z Effect Indicators Whitney significance (n=63) size r U (one-tailed) Mean Rank Mean Rank Median Median rank sum rank sum CMPL1 3.0 51.38 3,237.0 3.0 64.08 3,204.0 1,221.0 -2.139 0.016 -0.201 CMPL2

2.0

56.97 3,589.0

2.0

57.04 2,852.0 1,573.0 -0.012

0.496

-0.001

CMPL3

2.0

53.29 3,357.5

3.0

61.67 3083.5 1,341.5 -1.420

0.078

-0.039

In addition, the differences in complexity are statistically significant for the indicator CMPL1 (P < 0.05) and weakly significant for CMPL3 (P < 0.1). But there are no statistically significant differences for the indicator CMPL2. Therefore, H17a is only weakly supported. H23a: The expected improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility are higher when firms perceive more potential for spot market functionalities than e-tendering on an ETM.

Table 5.35 Mann-Whitney U test—Supply assurance and flexibility (Non-adopters of ETMs)276 Spot market E-tendering Asymptotic Mannfunctionalities Effect (n=50) Z significance Indicators Whitney (n=63) size r (one-tailed) U Mean Rank Mean Rank Median Median rank sum rank sum FLEX1 3.0 60.45 3,808.5 3.0 52.65 2,632.5 1,357.5 -1.291 0.099 -0.121

275 276

FLEX2

3.0

60.66 3,821.5

3.0

52.39 2,619.5 1,344.5 -1.365

0.086

-0.128

FLEX3

3.0

61.79 3,892.5

3.0

50.97 2,548.5 1,273.5 -1.788

0.037

-0.168

Source: own representation. Source: own representation.

218

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Empirical Analysis

The results of the Mann-Whitney U test show that the mean ranks for improvements in supply assurance and flexibility are higher when non-adopters have decided that the use of spot market functionalities has a larger potential for their company than e-tendering (cp. Table 5.35). For the indicators FLEX1 and FLEX2, the differences are weakly statistically significant (P < 0.1), and for FLEX3 they are significant (P < 0.05). Therefore, H23a is only weakly supported.

5.2.6.2.4 Summary of Results In the following, the results of the previous hypothesis tests for the non-adopters of ETMs will be summarized. First, there are some findings on the effect of contextual variables on design variables that are relevant for RQ2 (cp. Table 5.36). Demand uncertainty has been found to affect the functionality choice in terms of e-tendering or the use of Table 5.36 Results of hypotheses for RQ2 (Non-adopters of ETMs)277 Hypothesis H15

H16a

H16b

Hypothesized effect The relational orientation toward transportation service providers is higher for transportation services to be purchased via e-tendering than for those services to be purchased via spot market functionalities on an ETM. The demand uncertainty of transportation services to be purchased via spot market functionalities is higher than the uncertainty of transportation services to be purchased via e-tendering on an ETM. Demand uncertainty has a negative effect on the intended relational orientation toward transportation service providers on an ETM.

The complexity of transportation services is higher for services to be purchased via e-tendering than for services to be purchased via spot market functionalities on an ETM. The complexity of transportation services has a positive effect on the H17b intended relational orientation toward transportation service providers on an ETM. H17a

Result ✗

✓ ✗

(✓)

✗

H18

The asset specificity of transportation services has a negative effect on the intended depth of ETM use.

(✓)

H19

The relational orientation toward transportation service providers has a negative effect on the intention to adopt an ETM.

✓

✓ = Hypothesis supported (✓) = Hypothesis weakly supported ✗ = Hypothesis rejected

277

Source: own representation.

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219

Table 5.37 Results of hypotheses for RQ3 (Non-adopters of ETMs)278 Hypothesis

Hypothesized effect

Result

H20

The expected risks to delivery quality have a negative effect on the intention to adopt an ETM.

✗

H21a

The expected improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility have a positive effect on the intention to adopt an ETM.

✓

H21b

The expected improvements in terms of freight rate reductions have a positive effect on the intention to adopt an ETM.

✓

H22

The intended relational orientation toward transportation service providers on an ETM has a negative effect on the expected risks to delivery quality.

✗

H23a

H23b

H24

The expected improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility are higher when firms perceive more potential for spot market functionalities than etendering on an ETM. The intended relational orientation toward transportation service providers has a negative effect on the expected improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility by an ETM. The intended relational orientation toward transportation service providers has a negative effect on the expected improvements in terms of freight rate reductions by an ETM.

(✓)

✗

(✓)

H25

The expected improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility have a positive effect on the expected freight rate reductions by an ETM.

✓

H26

The intended depth of ETM use has a positive effect on the expected improvements in terms of freight rate reductions by an ETM.

✓

✓ = Hypothesis supported

(✓) = Hypothesis weakly supported

✗ = Hypothesis rejected

spot market functionalities. There are also some weak indications that complexity affects the functionality choice and that asset specificity decreases the intended depth of ETM use. Furthermore, it has been found that shippers with a higher relational orientation toward transportation service providers tend to have a lower intention to adopt an ETM. Moreover, there are several relevant findings for the interaction between the design and success variables that are relevant for RQ3 (cp. Table 5.37). It has been found that shippers have a higher intention to adopt an ETM when they expect higher improvements in terms of freight rate reductions as well as supply assurance and flexibility. In addition, shippers expect more improvement in 278

Source: own representation.

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Empirical Analysis

terms of supply assurance and flexibility for spot market functionalities than for e-tendering. The expected improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility and the intended depth of ETM use have a positive effect on the expected freight rate reductions. Higher levels of relational orientation, however, lead to lower expectations of freight rate reductions on an ETM.

5.2.6.3 Differences between Adopters and Non-adopters of ETMs Finally, the differential hypotheses for the differences between the adopters and non-adopters of ETMs will be evaluated (H27a to H27c and H28). H27a: Adopters of ETMs have a higher purchasing volume in tons than non-adopters of ETMs. The indication of the purchasing volume in tons was optional for the survey participants. For 6 out of the 135 usable responses, the participants did not provide a value. Thus, 129 responses remained for the analysis with a Mann-Whitney U test (cp. Table 5.38). Table 5.38 Mann-Whitney U—Transportation volume in tons (Non-adopters of ETMs)279 Adopters (n=21)

Non-adopters (n=108)

Asymptotic MannEffect Z significance Whitney size r (one-tailed) U Mean Rank Mean Rank Median Median rank sum rank sum 80,000.0 93.83 1,970.5 4,000.0 59.39 6,414.5 528.5 -3.864 0.000 -0.340

The results show that the adopters of ETMs have a higher median purchasing volume than the non-adopters. Since the difference is statistically significant, H27a is supported. H27b: Adopters of ETMs have a higher purchasing volume in terms of transport orders than non-adopters.

279

Source: own representation.

5.2 Main Study

221

The results of a Mann-Whitney U test for the difference in terms of transport orders also show that adopters of ETMs have a higher purchasing volume than non-adopters (cp. Table 5.39). The difference in the number of transport orders is statistically significant. Thus, H27b is supported. Table 5.39 Mann-Whitney U—Number of transport orders (Non-adopters of ETMs)280 Adopters (n=22)

Non-adopters (n=113)

MannAsymptotic Z Effect Whitney significance size r U (one-tailed) Mean Rank Mean Rank Median Median rank sum rank sum 4.5 93.18 2,050.0 1.0 63.10 7,130.0 689.0 -3.504 0.000 -0.302

H27c: Adopters of ETMs have more employees than non-adopters of ETMs. Besides a higher purchasing volume, adopters of ETMs also have more employees than non-adopters (cp. Table 5.40). The difference in the number of employees is statistically significant and therefore H27c is supported. Table 5.40 Mann-Whitney U test—Number of employees (Non-adopters of ETMs)281 Adopters (n=22)

Non-adopters (n=113)

MannAsymptotic Z Effect Whitney significance size r U (one-tailed) Mean Rank Mean Rank Median Median rank sum rank sum 5.0 93.14 2,049.0 3.0 63.11 7,131.0 690.0 -3.424 0.000 -0.295

H28: Adopters of ETMs perceive fewer risks to delivery quality on an ETM than non-adopters of ETMs.

280 281

Source: own representation. Source: own representation.

222

5

Empirical Analysis

Finally, a Mann-Whitney U test has been conducted to test whether adopters and non-adopters differ in their risk perceptions (cp. Table 5.41). Since all indicator values differ significantly, H28 is supported. Table 5.41 Mann-Whitney U test—Risks to delivery quality (Non-adopters of ETMs)282

Indicators

RISK1

Adopters (n=22)

Non-adopters (n=113)

MannAsymptotic Z Effect Whitney significance size r U (one-tailed) Mean Rank Mean Rank Median Median rank sum rank sum 2.0 53.82 1,184.0 2.0 70.76 7,996.0 931.0 -1.989 0.024 -0.171

RISK2

2.0

33.66 740.5

4.0

74.69 8,439.5

487.5

-4.671

0.000

-0.402

RISK3

2.0

32.73 720.0

3.0

74.87 8,460.0

467.0

-4.804

0.000

-0.413

Table 5.42 summarizes the results of the hypothesis tests for the differences between adopters and non-adopters of ETMs. Table 5.42 Results of hypothesis tests for differences between adopters and non-adopters of ETMs283 Hypothesis

Hypothesized effect

Result

H27a

Adopters of ETMs have a higher purchasing volume in tons than non-adopters of ETMs.

✓

H27b

Adopters of ETMs have a higher purchasing volume in terms of transport orders than non-adopters.

✓

H27c

Adopters of ETMs have more employees than non-adopters of ETMs.

✓

H28

Adopters of ETMs perceive fewer risks to delivery quality on an ETM than nonadopters of ETMs.

✓

✓ = Hypothesis supported

282 283

(✓) = Hypothesis weakly supported

Source: own representation. Source: own representation.

✗ = Hypothesis rejected

6

An Evaluation Concept for ETMs

To help shippers to make the right decisions for ETM use (RQ4), an evaluation concept will be developed in this chapter. The evaluation concept provides a structured process for the assessment and selection of ETMs. Especially nonadopters of ETMs should benefit from this evaluation concept through improved quality of related decisions and reduced time, personnel, and costs involved in the assessment and selection of ETMs. In addition, adopters of ETMs can benefit from the evaluation concept. For example, adopters can use the evaluation concept to check whether they currently use the right main functionalities for the right transportation services.1 Furthermore, insights from the evaluation of the business case can be used to measure or quantify the impact of an ETM.2 Besides being grounded in the conceptual research framework and the results of the empirical study of this work, the evaluation concept is based on recommendations for project management3 and the selection and implementation of software.4 Figure 6.1 depicts the relevant steps of the evaluation concept and shows in which chapters they will be presented. The start should be made with a needs assessment (cp. Section 6.1). This encompasses the identification of the objectives

1

Cp. Section 6.1.2.1. Cp. Section 6.3. 3 Cp. Heagney (2016), pp. 1–214; Project Management Institute (2017), pp. 1–536. 4 Cp. Abts and Mülder (2017), pp. 515–558; Krcmar (2015), pp. 211–228; Pilorget (2015), pp. 107–128. 2

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 P. Sylla, Electronic Procurement of Transportation Services, Schriftenreihe der HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-40403-1_6

223

224

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An Evaluation Concept for ETMs

Figure 6.1 Process for the evaluation of ETMs5

for the ETM implementation and the relevant ETM functionalities.6 Afterward, the activities for the selection of ETMs can begin (cp. Section 6.2). Before the implementation, the evaluation of the business case should be performed (cp. Section 6.3). In particular, the consequences of ETM use in terms of costs and the impact on business process performance should be evaluated. When the results of the business case are favorable, the implementation activities can begin. These include, for example, the setup of the system, enabling of end-users, tests, and

5

Source: own representation. This figure has been designed using resources from flaticon.com (cp. https://www.flaticon.com). 6 In a broad definition, the needs assessment deals with “[…] understanding business goals and objectives, issues, and opportunities and recommending proposals to address them” ( Project Management Institute (2017), p. 30). Besides setting objectives, the needs assessment should involve an analysis of requirements which is needed for the selection of software in general (cp. Abts and Mülder (2017), p. 526) and the selection of EMs (cp. Rickes and Scherenschlich (2018), p. 14).

6

An Evaluation Concept for ETMs

225

the go-live.7 Finally, a review should be conducted after the implementation. This includes a review of the achievement of the objectives and the lessons learned.8 A cross-functional team should be built to perform the steps for the evaluation of ETMs.9 In particular, employees from IT and logistics (or the procurement of transportation services) should be combined in a team. This ensures that the team has the needed technical and managerial expertise for making the right decisions throughout the evaluation.10 Since logistics activities typically span across multiple functions within a company, the cross-functional team should also include employees from further functions and departments which may benefit from, contribute to, or which may be impacted by the ETM implementation.11 In the following, the first three steps of this procedure (needs assessment, selection of ETMs, and the evaluation of the business case) will be presented.12

7

Cp. Section 6.3.1 for a more detailed explanation of the implementation activities. Not all the objectives broadly set in the needs assessment and specified in more detail in the business case might be realized as planned. Therefore, the achievement of the objectives should be critically reviewed after the implementation. In addition, the experiences from the implementation should be used for the future, e.g. by asking what went well and where improvements are wanted for the next time (cp. Heagney (2016), p. 14). 9 Cross-functional teams allow the realization synergies because employees with different skills work jointly on achieving the objectives of a project (cp. Kalabina et al. (2021), p. 183). 10 A combination of managerial/logistics know-how and IT expertise is generally recommended for the evaluation of IT-based logistics solutions (cp. Hausladen (2020), p. 328). 11 Employees who benefit from, contribute to or will be impacted by a project are called stakeholders (cp. Heagney (2016), p. 48). For example, the accounting department is involved in the payment of the transportation services (cp. Section 2.3.3) and may be impacted by the ETM implementation if it affects payment processes. 12 The last two steps of the procedure for the evaluation of ETMs (implementation and review) will not be part of the evaluation concept. There are three main reasons for this decision. First, the research questions and objectives of this thesis are mainly related to the first three steps. Second, the implementation and review activities are highly dependent on the outcomes of the previous steps. By covering the first three steps in detail, the needed foundation for the two last steps is built. Finally, the implementation and review activities of ETMs should be quite similar to those of other IT systems. Thus, there should be a lower need to support the activities during the implementation and review steps. 8

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6.1

Needs Assessment

6.1.1

Definition of Objectives for the ETM Implementation

At the start of any project that deals with the potential implementation of an ETM the objectives should be clearly defined. Defining the problem that should be solved during a project is crucial because the way the problem is defined also determines how it will be solved. Nonetheless, people are often inclined to skip over the definition of the problem.13 The use of ETMs can be beneficial from an ecological perspective by helping to reduce negative environmental impacts which are caused by road transportation activities of shippers.14 However, it is nearly impossible to quantify the potential or actual positive ecological impact of ETM use for a single shipper.15 Since the achievement of business value is challenging but should be feasible with the evaluation concept provided within this chapter, the start should be made by clearly defining the economic objectives. Therefore, it is important to answer the following two questions within the cross-functional team early in the project: • How can the use of an ETM help our company to achieve business value? • Should our company use an ETM and if so, how? A good start can be an open discussion within the cross-functional team about how an ETM can improve organizational performance. To assist this discussion, the impact of an ETM can be visualized in a value tree (cp. Figure 6.2). It shows that the use of an ETM affects expenses via ETM costs (i.e., ETM fees and personal costs) and the potential reductions of freight rates and process

13

Cp. Heagney (2016), p. 59. The use of ETMs may help to reduce deadheads (cp. McKinnon et al. (2015), pp. 325– 326). 15 It is very difficult for an ETM to identify those contract or spot market exchanges on an ETM which actually avoid deadheads. For example, when a shipper fills the truck of a transportation service provider with a transport order on the spot market it is not possible to determine with certainty whether this exchange actually avoids a deadhead because it may still be possible to fill the truck with another transport order. 14

6.1 Needs Assessment

227

Figure 6.2 Value tree for the impact of an ETM on organizational performance16

costs.17 The impact of an ETM on logistics performance (i.e., information capability, supply assurance and flexibility, and delivery quality) has an indirect effect on revenues or the NOA via an effect on intermediate consequences. For example, logistics performance may affect customer satisfaction which in turn has an impact on revenues via customer loyalty and price sensitivity.18 Furthermore, the background of the ETM impact, key drivers, and potential discussion points can facilitate a discussion within the cross-functional team (cp. Table 6.1).

16

Source: own representation. Cp. Section 6.3.1 for an overview of ETM costs. 18 Cp. Section 4.4.4. 17

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An Evaluation Concept for ETMs

Table 6.1 Overview of business value impacts of ETM use19

a

b f c d e

g

h

i

j

a b c d e

Cp. Section 6.3.1. Savings of process costs depend on the number of cost drivers (cp. Section 6.3.2.1.1). The number of electronic contract tenders represents another cost driver. Cp. results of H10 in Section 5.2.6.1.2. Empirical studies indicate a positive effect of system quality on process performance (cp. Boyer and Olson (2002); Chien et al. (2012)). f A procedure to quantify process cost reductions is presented in Section 6.3.2.1.1. g Cp. results of H26 in Section 5.2.6.2.2. h The use of spot market functionalities is associated with a higher effect on supply assurance and flexibility than the use of e-tendering (cp. results of H23a in Section 5.2.6.2.3). i Security measures are important for establishing trust in the ETM and its participants (cp. Section 4.3.3.2.5). In addition, the security measures have a positive effect on the commitment to the ETM (cp. results of H5 in Section 5.2.6.1.2). j Cp. Section 5.1.3.1.2. 19 Source: own representation.

6.1 Needs Assessment

6.1.2

229

Evaluation of the Use of ETM Functionalities

Besides the objectives, the cross-functional team should evaluate the use of ETM functionalities. It should be discussed which main functionalities should be used to support the procurement of which transportation services. In addition, it must be evaluated which additional functionalities are particularly important for the shipper.20 In the following, a procedure to support the evaluation will be presented.

6.1.2.1 Main Functionalities A shipper usually needs to purchase a variety of transportation services for road transportation that are best supported by different ETM functionalities. Therefore, the start of the evaluation should be made by segmenting the transportation services which are purchased by the shipper. Due to their intangibility, however, a distinction between different transportation services is not easy. To facilitate the identification of segments, several characteristics of transportation services can be used (cp. Figure 6.3). Transportation services are always needed for certain business processes (e.g., within procurement or distribution logistics).21 Furthermore, transportation services can be required to provide goods to different internal or external customers or different customer groups.22 They may also involve different transportation requirements23 or logistics units24 . Finally, the services are needed for specific transportation relations within the transportation network of a company.25 When 20

The explanations of the ETM functionalities in this work provide a good starting point for these discussions (cp. Section 3.5). However, the range of functionalities is constantly increasing. Therefore, a first basic market research can be helpful to be up to date with the latest developments. 21 Cp. Section 2.1.2.1. 22 Internal customers are relevant for internal goods movements (e.g. movements between plants of a manufacturing company). Furthermore, shippers can serve different customer groups which share a specific set of needs and expectations, e.g. hospitals or global accounts (cp. Donovan and Samler (1994), p. 80). 23 Some products require specific vehicles or adherence to specific standards or procedures, e.g. reefer cargo (cp. Section 2.2.2). Furthermore, different shipment sizes can be relevant (cp. Section 3.3.2). 24 Cp. Section 2.2.2 for an overview of logistics units relevant for road transportation. Products can also be aggregated to product groups (cp. Kilger and Wagner (2015), pp. 129–130), which can be a basis for the distinction of different transportation services. 25 Cp. Section 2.1.2.2. The transportation relations can be analyzed on different aggregation levels (e.g., detailed delivery addresses or on a higher aggregation level of two-digit postal

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An Evaluation Concept for ETMs

Figure 6.3 Possibilities for the segmentation of road transportation services26

different segments of transportation services have been identified based on the above-mentioned characteristics, the evaluation of ETM functionalities can begin. This procedure involves the analysis of the purchasing situation and consists of three steps: (1) the assessment of the potential for market sourcing, (2) the evaluation of transportation service demand, and (3) the match of services with ETM functionalities.

6.1.2.1.1 Step 1: Evaluation of the Potential for Market Sourcing As a first step, the potential for market sourcing should be analyzed. On the one hand, this should be done based on an assessment of the availability of transportation service providers (cp. Table 6.2).27

codes). Furthermore, they could be grouped according to their geographical scope, e.g. local, regional, continental (cp. Section 3.3.2). 26 Source: own representation. 27 Asset specificity is associated with the availability of few or no suppliers (cp. Papenhoff (2009), p. 93; Picot and Dietl (1990), p. 179) and is thereby strongly related to the contextual variable availability of alternatives. Hence, both contextual variables have been combined under “availability of transportation service providers” to reduce complexity for the evaluation.

6.1 Needs Assessment

231

Table 6.2 Assessment of the availability of transportation service providers28

On the other hand, the demand uncertainty should be considered. This can be done based on the judgment of experts. In addition, the data of transportation services purchased in the past could be analyzed by calculating the average demand interval (ADI) and the coefficient of variation (CV) for certain transportation relations.29 Based on the evaluation of the availability of transportation service providers and the demand uncertainty, the identified segments of transportation services can be categorized in a matrix (cp. Figure 6.4). First, when there are no or only a few transportation service providers available for certain services, there will be no market potential.30 However, when 28

Source: own representation based on the conceptual research framework (cp. Sections 4.3.2.2.1 and 4.3.2.2.4) and the preliminary study (cp. Section 5.1.3.2). 29 The average demand interval reflects the degree to which demand is regularly occurring and the coefficient of variation measures the variation in demand quantities. For the calculation of these variables, cp. Sankaran et al. (2019), pp. 180–190. For example, services have a low demand uncertainty when the squared CV is below 0.28 and the ADI does not exceed 1.34 (smooth demand). The demand is uncertain if it can be classified as erratic, lumpy, or intermittent according to the CV and ADI (cp. Boylan and Syntetos (2008)). 30 Clearly, a competitive market only exists when there are sufficient suppliers. For example, electronic reverse auctions are preferred when there are many competing suppliers (cp. Schoenherr and Mabert (2011); Smeltzer and Carr (2003)) and when the needed supplies

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An Evaluation Concept for ETMs

Figure 6.4 Evaluation of the potential for market sourcing31

enough transportation service providers are available, either the contract or the spot market could be used. If demand uncertainty is low (i.e., the demand is frequent and/or well-predictable), there is a contract market potential. Transportation services have a spot market potential if there is a high demand uncertainty and many transportation service providers are available.32

6.1.2.1.2 Step 2: Evaluation of Transportation Service Demand After the analysis of the potential for market sourcing, the transportation service demand will be evaluated in a second step. First, the ease of the service description should be assessed (cp. Table 6.3).33 There can be different root causes for more or less difficult descriptions of involve low levels of asset specificity (cp. Jap and Haruvy (2008); Stoll (2008), p. 239). The empirical study of this thesis also provides weak indications that asset specificity has a negative effect on the intended depth of ETM use (cp. results of H18 in Section 5.2.6.2.2). 31 Source: own representation. 32 The spot market is suitable for transportation services that are difficult to plan, whereas the contract market is preferred for well-predictable or frequently recurring services (cp. reasoning for H16a in Section 5.2.1.2.1). This is also evident in the results of the preliminary study (cp. Section 5.1.3.2) and the results of the main study (cp. results of H16a in Section 5.2.6.2.3). 33 The ease of service description depends on the complexity of the service description and the degree of specifiability. It thereby combines complexity and specifiability as contextual variables to facilitate the evaluation of transportation services by reducing the number of variables that must be assessed.

6.1 Needs Assessment

233

transportation services. For example, just-in-time (JIT) logistics requires frequent formal and informal communication which is difficult to specify.34 Table 6.3 Assessment of the ease of service description35

Second, the importance of the transportation services should be assessed. There can be various reasons for more or less severe consequences of bad delivery quality or mistakes during transportation. For example, the loss or damage of goods might have severe consequences for some goods but not for others (cp. Table 6.4). Based on the assessment of the ease of service description and the importance of the transportation services, the segments of transportation services will be classified into one of three types that are relevant for the evaluation of the transportation service demand (cp. Figure 6.5). When the importance of transportation services is high, they will be classified as critical services. Transportation services with rather low importance can be further classified according to the ease of service description. Standard services are easily described, whereas the ease of service description is low for special services.

34

Cp. Lai and Cheng (2016), p. 69. Source: own representation based on the conceptual research framework (cp. Sections 4.3.2.2.2 and 4.3.2.2.6) and the preliminary study (cp. Section 5.1.3.2).

35

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An Evaluation Concept for ETMs

Figure 6.5 Evaluation of the transportation service demand36

Table 6.4 Assessment of the importance of transportation services37

36

Source: own representation. Source: own representation based on the conceptual research framework (cp. Section 4.3.2.2.3) and the preliminary study (cp. Section 5.1.3.2).

37

6.1 Needs Assessment

235

6.1.2.1.3 Step 3: Match Services with ETM Functionalities After the previous two steps, the segments of transportation services are classified according to the potential for market sourcing (no market potential, contract market potential, and spot market potential) and the transportation service demand (critical services, special services, and standard services). The final step to match the transportation services with the ETM functionalities combines these classification results (cp. Figure 6.6). For the transportation services with no market potential, the electronic transport order functionality can be used to transfer transport orders based on existing agreements to transportation service providers. Due to the low number of transportation service providers which can perform the needed services, however, the use of e-tendering or spot market functionalities is not an option. But when transportation services have a potential for market sourcing, etendering or spot market functionalities on an ETM may be used. Spot market functionalities are particularly useful when the demand uncertainty of transportation services is high (spot market potential).38 When the demand for transportation services is well-predictable (contract market potential), an ETM can support the procurement of the services via e-tendering. Furthermore, the electronic transport order functionality can be combined with e-tendering.39 However, e-tendering and spot market functionalities can be used with a restricted or unrestricted supplier base on the ETM.40 For simplicity, the use of e-tendering or spot market functionalities with an unrestricted supplier base will be referred to as open e-tendering or open spot market. Closed e-tendering and closed spot market will refer to the use of the functionalities on an ETM with a restricted supplier base. The decision to use open or closed e-tendering or an open or closed spot market should be made based on the transportation service demand. Special services have complex service descriptions and are not easily specified. For such services, it will be difficult to transact with unknown transportation service providers, and 38

The spot market is suitable for transportation services that are difficult to plan, whereas the contract market is preferred for well-predictable or frequently recurring services (cp. reasoning for H16a in Section 5.2.1.2.1). This is also evident in the results of the preliminary study (cp. Section 5.1.3.2) and the results of the main study (cp. results of H16a in Section 5.2.6.2.3). 39 E-tendering is used to identify and select the right transportation service providers for a contract that covers multiple transportation needs over a longer time. The functionality electronic transport order can be used to transfer multiple transport orders which are created for this contract (cp. Section 2.3.3.2). 40 Cp. Section 4.2.2.4.

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An Evaluation Concept for ETMs

Figure 6.6 Procedure to match transportation services with ETM functionalities41

41

Source: own representation.

6.2 Selection of ETMs

237

closed e-tendering or the use of closed spot market functionalities will be preferred.42 This preference for using closed ETM functionalities with restrictions on the supplier base should also exist for critical services which are highly important.43 Standard services can be purchased via open e-tendering or an open spot market on an ETM.

6.1.2.2 Additional Functionalities Besides the evaluation of main functionalities, shippers should also assess which additional functionalities of an ETM could be beneficial for their company. Table 6.5 provides an overview of the additional functionalities offered on ETMs as well as their potential positive effects and will be useful for this assessment.

6.2

Selection of ETMs

After the needs assessment, the selection of ETMs can begin. Typically, the procedure for the selection of software starts with many potential options which are successively reduced (cp. Figure 6.7).44 This helps to limit the evaluation efforts and to focus on the most relevant options.

42

Complexity increases transaction costs, ambiguity, and risks of transactions. Therefore, it is likely that shippers seek close relationships with transportation service providers for transportation services that involve a high complexity (cp. reasoning for H17b in Section 5.2.1.2.1). Furthermore, discrete exchanges (e.g., via electronic reverse auctions) are possible when the needed supply can be clearly specified (cp. Hawkins et al. (2009); Hawkins et al. (2010); Kaufmann and Carter (2004)), but relational exchanges are preferred when specifiability is low (cp. Radkevitch (2008), p. 93; Levi et al. (2003)). The results of the preliminary study also indicate that the use of a restricted supplier base is beneficial when the conditions and requirements must be defined in detail before the transport (cp. Section 5.1.3.1.2). 43 The importance of a supply may affect a company’s dependency on suppliers. It has been found that buyers use relational exchanges in a purchasing situation for important supplies (cp. Cannon and Perreault Jr (1999); Janz (2004), p. 299; Metcalf and Frear (1993); Werner (1997), p. 161). The results of the empirical study of this work also show that the relational orientation toward transportation service providers increases with the importance of the services (cp. results of H3b in Section 5.2.6.1.2). Furthermore, the experts of the preliminary study perceive less risks to delivery quality when a restricted supplier base is used (cp. Section 5.1.3.1.2) which may lead to a preference for the use of a restricted supplier base for important transportation services. 44 Cp. Abts and Mülder (2017), p. 528; Held (2003), p. 218; Brenner (1994), p. 99.

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Table 6.5 Overview of additional functionalities of ETMs45

45

Source: own representation.

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Figure 6.7 Phases for the selection of ETMs46

6.2.1

Preselection of ETMs

First, the cross-functional team should get a broad overview of the available alternatives in the ETM market. Therefore, market research on the available ETMs should be conducted.47 Since there are many potential ETMs, a detailed evaluation cannot be performed for all ETMs on the market. A pragmatic approach for reducing the set of alternatives is to use must-have criteria. As the name indicates, must-have criteria need to be fulfilled by the options on the market to be considered for further evaluation.48 Since must-have criteria will most likely differ from company to company, they should be defined within the cross-functional team considering the specific requirements of their company. Several must-have criteria may be relevant for the preselection of ETMs. First, the required functionalities should be offered on an ETM.49 For example, if a 46

Source: own representation. Market research can be conducted based on information from the internet, the press, trade fairs, or discussions with other companies (cp. Abts and Mülder (2017), p. 529). Furthermore, market studies provided by research institutes or consulting companies can be used (cp. Hausladen (2020), p. 323). 48 Cp. Abts and Mülder (2017), p. 513; Krcmar (2015), p. 214. 49 The required functionalities can be the main or additional functionalities of an ETM. 47

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shipper has determined that the use of electronic reverse auctions and system integration must be supported by an ETM, all ETMs which do not fulfill these requirements can be excluded. Second, the ETM should provide a good fit with the needed transportation services. In particular, the transportation services for the relevant logistics units and shipment sizes should be offered on the ETM. For example, some ETMs focus on CEP shipments50 or transports with specialized vehicles51 while others provide access to transportation service providers for a broader range of PTL and FTL shipments52 . An ETM should only be considered for a detailed evaluation if it can provide access to the needed transportation services and the corresponding transportation service providers which can offer them. Third, ETMs may cover the needed geographic scope of transportation services to varying degrees. Some platforms already offer their services globally, while others are still limited to regions or major cities.53 For example, some ETMs mainly cover goods movements between Germany and France or Eastern Europe.54 Especially when the ETM should be used to find new transportation service providers, it should be evaluated at an early stage whether the ETM can provide access to relevant transportation service providers which can perform the services for the respective geographic scope. Finally, the fee levels of the ETM should be acceptable for the shipper and ETMs could be excluded when they are too expensive.

6.2.2

Detailed Evaluation of Alternative ETMs

After the number of ETMs has been reduced to a manageable set in the previous preselection, the detailed evaluation of the alternative ETMs in the crossfunctional team can begin.55 The goal of the detailed evaluation is to find an ETM 50

For example, Courier.net (cp. https://www.courier.net) or Packlink.com (cp. https://www. packlink.com) support transactions for CEP shipments. 51 There are ETMs that support transportation services for reefer cargo (e.g., https://coolload. com) or bulk goods in silo trucks (e.g. https://siloladungsboerse.com). 52 For example, Transporeon (cp. https://www.transporeon.com) and Timocom (cp. https:// www.timocom.de) offer access to transportation service providers which can move goods with standardized or more specialized vehicles. 53 Cp. Manke and Funder (2017), p. 13. 54 Cp. Sänger (2004), p. 98. 55 Since each further alternative must be evaluated, the efforts of the evaluation depend on the number of alternatives that are selected for the detailed evaluation. A good number of alternatives for a more detailed evaluation typically consists of 3 to 6 options.

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among multiple alternative ETMs which is the best match for the requirements of a shipper. For this evaluation, the scoring model will be used.56 Three steps should be followed for scoring the ETMs: (1) the definition of evaluation criteria and their respective weights, (2) the scoring of the ETMs, and (3) the ETM selection.57

6.2.2.1 Step 1: Definition of Evaluation Criteria and Their Weights Before any of the potential ETMs is examined in detail, the evaluation criteria and their weights should be defined by the cross-functional team.58 When the list of criteria is large, criteria can be combined into categories. The ETM properties that have been identified in the conceptual research framework represent a solid foundation for the relevant categories to be evaluated.59 Figure 6.8 shows the relevance of these ETM properties due to their association with the business value impacts of an ETM. Especially the evaluation of the offered functionalities should be of high importance because they have a direct impact on the business processes and can improve their performance. Previous studies also indicate that the system quality

56

“Scoring model” is the translation of the German term “Nutzwertanalyse” (cp. Hartel (2015), p. 83; Riedl (2006), p. 111). Alternatively, the term “utility analysis” could be used for the translation of the term (cp. Schulze (2009), p. 166.). The scoring model is a methodology for multi-criteria decision-making (cp. Schleich (2018), p. 43). It has been selected because it is a methodology that is well accepted for solving problems in logistics and supply chain management (cp. Hausladen (2020), p. 330; Hartel (2015), p. 83; Schulze (2009), p. 166). Furthermore, scoring models are considered suitable for selecting software (cp. Feyhl (2004), pp. 94–95) or EMs (cp. Held (2003), p. 221). The procedure is also very popular in corporate practice (cp. Schneeweiß (1991), p. 120). An important reason for this popularity may be that in comparison to other methods for multi-criteria decision-making (e.g. analytic hierarchy process), scoring models are easier to understand (cp. Riedl (2006), pp. 117–118). One of the inherent weaknesses of the scoring model is the subjective weighting which might be (consciously or unconsciously) guided by the interests of participants (cp. Geier (1999), p. 143; Götze (2014), p. 199; Kühnapfel (2019), p. 13). However, there are ways for reducing this weakness. For example, the method of pair-wise comparison could be applied to elicit the weights (cp. Kühnapfel (2019), pp. 13–16 Quah and Toh (2012), pp. 77–83). 57 These steps are derived from recommendations that have been provided in the literature (cp. Feyhl (2004), pp. 94–95; Kühnapfel (2019), pp. 5–25; Riedl (2006), pp. 111–115). 58 The evaluation criteria should be defined in a group with 3 to 20 members, whereby a group size between 5 and 10 people can be considered optimal (cp. Kühnapfel (2019), p. 5). 59 Cp. Sections 4.3.3.2.1 to 4.3.3.2.6.

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Figure 6.8 Value tree for the detailed evaluation of ETMs60

of e-procurement systems or EMs can have a positive impact on business process performance.61 Besides such a direct impact, system quality has been found to have a positive effect on the acceptance of e-procurement systems.62 This is important because the acceptance of an ETM by employees is not only necessary

60

Source: own representation. Cp. Boyer and Olson (2002), pp. 490–493; Chien et al. (2012), pp. 465–466. 62 Cp. Adomavicius et al. (2013), p. 497; Brandon-Jones and Kauppi (2018), p. 34; Chakraborty et al. (2002), pp. 64–68; Lee and Lin (2005), pp. 169–171; Lin (2007), pp. 371– 373; Kang (2014), pp. 457–460; Kollmann (2001a); Zahedi et al. (2010), pp. 310–312. 61

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to avoid negative consequences,63 but also to increase business process performance.64 Information quality65 and service quality66 are further ETM properties that are relevant for the acceptance of an ETM. The market liquidity of an ETM should be considered because it can affect the freight rate reductions and supply assurance and flexibility.67 Moreover, ETMs can implement a range of security measures that can decrease the risks to delivery quality.68 Finally, the fee levels of ETMs are relevant for ETM costs. Table 6.6 provides an overview of these ETM properties as categories and more detailed criteria which can be used for a detailed evaluation of ETMs. Each criterion must receive a percentage value as weight, whereby the sum of the weights for all criteria is 100%.69 Once all relevant criteria have been defined and weights have been determined, the potential ETMs should be examined in the next step.

63

For example, employees may work against an IS which they do not accept (cp. Brown et al. (2002), p. 284) or the obligatory use of an unaccepted system leads to lack of job satisfaction which is associated with absenteeism or higher employee turnover (cp. Sørebø and Eikebrokk (2008), p. 2358). 64 The voluntary use extension by employees, for example, can improve outcomes for firms (cp. Hsieh et al. (2011), pp. 2027–2031. 65 Several studies indicate that information quality is positively associated with the acceptance of e-procurement systems (cp. Chakraborty et al. (2002), pp. 64–68; Jones and Kim (2010), pp. 632–633; Kassim and Hussin (2013), pp. 10–13; Ramkumar et al. (2019), p. 340). 66 There are a few indications for a positive effect of service quality on the acceptance of e-procurement systems (cp. Brandon-Jones and Carey (2011), pp. 283–286; Devaraj et al. (2002), pp. 324–327; Lee and Lin (2005), pp. 169–171; Zhou et al. (2009), p. 331. 67 Clearly, the potential to increase supply assurance and flexibility for the procurement of transportation services depends on the number of transportation service providers which can be reached on the ETM. Furthermore, a larger number of transportation service providers on an ETM should also positively affect freight rates. It has been found, for example, that competition among suppliers has a positive effect on the success of electronic reverse auctions (cp. Wagner and Schwab (2004), p. 21). 68 For example, ETMs can implement qualification systems (cp. Section 4.3.3.2.5). 69 When categories are used, the start should be made by assigning weights to these first. Afterward, weights should be assigned to the criteria within the categories. The weight of an individual criterion is determined by multiplying the weight of the category with the weight of the criterion within the category. For example, when the weight of a category is 40% and the weight of the criterion within the category is 10%, the weight of the criterion is 4% (cp. Kühnapfel (2019), pp. 12–14).

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Table 6.6 Categories and criteria for the evaluation of ETMs70 Category

Functionalities

System quality

Criteria

Source(s)

Support of needed processes for purchasing on the spot market Support of needed processes for e-tendering Support of needed processes for electronic transport orders Provision of needed additional functionalities The ETM provides superior functionalities compared to its competitors In general, in its solutions and new products, the ETM is highly innovative The ETM provides a broad range of services to users

Self-developed

The ETM is easy to use The ETM is easy to learn The user interface can be easily adapted to one’s personal approach The ETM system responds quickly enough The ETM requires only the minimum number of fields and screens to achieve a task The ETM can be easily modified, corrected, or improved The ETM allows easy navigation through the process The ETM ensures orders are processed quickly

Information quality

Service quality

Market liquidity

Security measures

Fee levels

70

The ETM content is clear, concise, easy to understand, and well organized The ETM provides sufficient information about sellers and services The information on the ETM is effective Information available from the ETM is important Information from the ETM is easy to understand I think the ETM gives prompt service I believe the ETM is always willing to help customers When the ETM promises to do something by a certain time, it does so The ETM is dependable The ETM has the knowledge to do its job The ETM addresses the specific needs of customers The ETM is never too busy to respond to user requests Number of buyers/sellers of transportation services Number of transactions Revenue / revenue forecast The ETM has a third-party privacy/security seal The ETM emphasizes the security of data The ETM provides sufficient transaction controls (qualification system, reputation system, policy for dispute resolution, etc.) The ETM provides sufficient security controls (authentication systems, data security systems, backup strategy, etc.) The ETM provides a privacy policy. Level of one-time ETM fees Level of recurring ETM fees

Source: own representation.

Zahedi et al. (2010)

Boyer and Olson (2002) Gablé et al. (2008)

Brandon-Jones and Carey (2011) Brandon-Jones and Kauppi (2018) Thitimajshima et al. (2018)

Jones and Kim (2010) Gablé et al. (2008) Lin (2007) Zhou et al. (2009)

Self-developed Held (2003, p.226) Chakraborty et al. (2002) Saeed and Leitch (2003)

Self-developed

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6.2.2.2 Step 2: Scoring of ETMs Knowledge about the ETMs must be gathered to perform a well-founded evaluation. There are different possibilities for gaining such knowledge, e.g., vendor workshops71 , exchanges with reference customers72 , or tests73 . The scoring of the ETMs should be done as soon as one of the options has been finished for a specific ETM because a detailed recollection can only work when there is a short period between the presentation and the scoring. For each criterion, a score on a defined scale must be provided by the team members of the cross-functional team. A good scale for scoring, for example, is a scale between 0 and 10 with 0 indicating a low or bad rating and 10 indicating a high or good rating.74 Gathering and using the scores of all team members allows for utilizing the judgment of all involved parties. Furthermore, this procedure provides a transparent overview of similarities and differences in the perception of the evaluated alternatives. Afterward, the weighted scores for each criterion per ETM must be calculated by multiplying the criterion weight from step 1 with the score of this step. This allows calculating a total score for each ETM per team member of the crossfunctional team (cp. Table 6.7).

71

In vendor workshops, the ETM operators can present the functionalities and possibilities of their ETM. It is generally a good idea to prepare such workshops and presentations with a demo script which is sent to the ETM operators beforehand (cp. Groß and Pfennig (2017), pp. 277–287). 72 Reference customers are companies that already use the specific IT system which should be evaluated (cp. Abts and Mülder (2017), p. 529). Typically, the ETM operators bring the reference customer and the shipper together. 73 Tests provide very good insights into the processes and functionalities supported by ETMs. 74 Cp. Kühnapfel (2019), p. 17.

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Table 6.7 An example of the calculation of ETM scores per team member75

6.2.2.3 Step 3: ETM Selection Since the implementation and use of ETMs require time as well as human and financial resources, the number of ETMs must be limited to one or few ETMs per company.76 The selection of these should be based on the total scores for the alternative ETMs of all team members who have participated in the scoring. Besides fulfilling selection criteria to different degrees, ETMs can also encompass different costs in terms of fee levels.77 Therefore, a matrix can be used to analyze how well an ETM performs in terms of total scores and costs (cp. Figure 6.9).

75

Source: own representation. More than one ETM can be needed, for example, when one ETM alone is not appropriate for purchasing all the different types of transportation services of a shipper. In such cases, it is a good idea to present in a transparent way to which degree each of the ETMs is appropriate for a certain type of transportation service. For example, this can be done by consolidating the types of transportation services and the suitability of different ETMs for purchasing them in a matrix (cp. Held (2003), p. 229; Kersten and Held (2001), p. 48). 77 Fee levels could also be represented as criteria that receive score values. However, this involves the transformation of precise monetary values into more abstract score values. 76

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Figure 6.9 Comparison of costs and scores of ETMs in a matrix78

6.3

Evaluation of the Business Case

Before the decision to use a certain software is made, it should be evaluated whether the expected benefits from its use exceed the costs it causes.79 The same applies to the implementation of ETMs: the decision to use a previously identified ETM should ultimately be based on the costs and benefits it produces. This will be summarized in the business case. A business case provides an overview of all aspects of a planned IT project which are relevant for decision-making. This summary supports the evaluation of the economic and strategic conformity of an IT project to enable a final management decision on its execution.80 Figure 6.10 shows that costs and the impact on business process performance must be evaluated for the business case of an ETM. 78

Source: own representation adapted from Riedl (2006), p. 115. Cp. Abts and Mülder (2017), pp. 545–547; Wieczorrek and Mertens (2011), p. 275. 80 Cp. Brugger (2009), p. 13. 79

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Figure 6.10 Contents of the business case of an ETM81

The procedure presented in the following aims to make these impacts of the ETM measurable.

6.3.1

ETM Costs

All costs which are caused by an ETM should be considered during the evaluation of the business case. There are two general types of costs in the context of ETMs that must be considered: (1) ETM fees which have to be paid to ETM operators and (2) personnel costs for activities related to ETMs.82 For both types, costs 81

Source: own representation. In general, hardware, software, personnel, and other costs represent different types of IT costs (cp. Potthof (1998), p. 7). ETM fees usually cover the software costs as well as costs for hardware (e.g., a computer server) and other costs (e.g., costs for renting space required for hardware) that an ETM operator incurs in course of the provision of its services. Personnel costs can occur for different activities during the implementation (e.g., training) and productive use of an ETM (e.g., support).

82

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249

can vary in their frequency of occurrence (one-time or recurring).83 Figure 6.11 summarizes the costs which can occur when using an ETM.

Figure 6.11 Overview of ETM costs84

One-time ETM fees are, for example, fixed subscription fees or compensations for initial consulting. For recurring ETM fees, a distinction can be made between transaction-based fees and periodic fees. Transaction-based fees can be charged as fixed amounts per transaction (e.g., a certain amount per transport order) or as a percentage of the purchasing volume. Fixed periodic fees must be paid in defined time intervals and are not based on transactions (e.g., a monthly fee per user).85 83

Cp. Gehra (2005), p. 176; Potthof (1998), p. 7; Schumann (1992), p. 66. Source: own representation. 85 Cp. Sänger (2004), p. 82; Schwind et al. (2011), p. 3; Stockdale and Standing (2002), p. 230. 84

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Personnel costs are a result of activities performed by internal employees or external personnel (e.g., consultants or employees of the ETM). One-time personnel costs are caused by activities for the system setup86 , enabling of end-users87 , tests, and go-live88 . After the go-live, the ETM is in productive use and further recurring personnel costs can occur. For example, these can include support (e.g., solving errors) and maintenance (e.g., performing updates). In addition, further adaptations (e.g., new functionalities) of the ETM might be needed.

6.3.2

Business Process Performance Impact

In addition to the costs caused by the ETM, the impact on business process performance in terms of logistics costs and logistics performance should be evaluated.

6.3.2.1 Logistics Costs For the evaluation of logistics costs, the impact of an ETM on process costs and freight rates should be estimated. How such an estimation can be achieved will be presented in the following.

6.3.2.1.1 Process Costs The start of the evaluation of improvements in terms of process costs should be made by identifying the relevant processes which will be affected by the ETM. Since the use of functionalities is always connected to business processes, the relevant processes can be identified based on the intended use of ETM functionalities.

86

Activities for the system setup include all activities to prepare the ETM and connected IT systems for productive use. This can include, for example, configuration, programming, establishing, or changing system interfaces or migration of data. 87 The activities for enabling end-users comprise user-related tasks that are needed so that end-users can effectively work with the ETM (e.g., training, documentation, or granting authorizations). 88 Once the needed system setup and enabling of end-sers has been completed, it can be tested whether the ETM is ready for productive use (go-live). Typically, higher efforts to support users and make short-term corrections are needed shortly after the go-live.

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An ETM can lead to process cost reductions via three main levers: 1) elimination, 2) automation, and 3) acceleration of processes (cp. Figure 6.12).89

Figure 6.12 Levers of ETMs for process cost reductions90

89

Elimination refers to the possibility that unnecessary or non-value-adding process steps are eliminated. Automation means that manual activities are replaced by computers and software. The acceleration of processes means that processes can be performed faster (cp. Best and Weth (2009), pp. 124–157; Krickl (1994), pp. 27–29). 90 Source: own representation based on Best and Weth (2009), pp. 124–157 and Krickl (1994), p. 28.

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Once the impact on the identified processes is clear, the quantification in terms of process cost reductions can be done with insights from activity-based costing.91 In particular, cost drivers for the relevant processes should be identified.92 For example, the number of transport orders could be a cost driver. Figure 6.13 depicts the steps which need to be performed to estimate the total process cost reductions for a specific process. First, the process costs with and without an ETM should be estimated to calculate the reduction of process costs per cost driver.93 The total process cost reductions can then be calculated by multiplying the process cost reductions per cost driver with the number of cost drivers for a certain time (e.g., per year).94

6.3.2.1.2 Freight Rates Reductions in freight rates can be achieved when spot market functionalities or e-tendering are used on an ETM.95 Therefore, the purchasing volume that is expected to be conducted via these ETM functionalities is an important input for the estimation of potential freight rate reductions. In addition, it must be estimated to what extent a percentage reduction of freight rates can be achieved for this purchasing volume. The empirical study of the present thesis shows that most of the adopters of ETMs perceive that the use of an ETM reduces freight rates.96 In addition, most of the respondents estimate 91

Activity-based costing is an instrument for business controlling. The beginning of activitybased costing has been made in the research community in the USA (cp. Miller and Vollmann (1985); Cooper and Kaplan (1988)). In the German research community, the instrument termed “Prozesskostenrechnung” which is based on activity-based costing has been introduced in the late 1980 s (cp. Horváth and Mayer (1989)). 92 Cost drivers are all factors that cause a change in the cost of an activity. They are used to identify the root cause of the work and cost of an activity (cp. Emblemsvåg and Bras (2001), p. XVIII). 93 The process costs can be calculated based on the needed time for conducting the process for a single cost driver. For example, when a process without an ETM requires 10 minutes of an employee’s time and a fictitious rate of 90e per working hour is used, the process costs per cost driver amount to 15e. When it is estimated that the time per cost driver can be reduced to 4 minutes with the help of an ETM, the costs per cost driver are reduced by 9e to 6e. 94 When an ETM is used to support multiple business processes, the estimated process cost for all processes must be summed up to calculate the total process cost reductions. 95 Only these ETM main functionalities support the information and negotiation phases and can therefore reduce freight rates. In addition, the empirical study has confirmed that a higher depth of ETM use in terms of these functionalities is also associated with higher expected freight rate reductions (cp. results for H26 Section 5.2.6.2.2). 96 13 out of 22 respondents of companies using an ETM replied that abolishing the use of an ETM would increase freight rates (cp. Section 5.2.4.2.2).

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Figure 6.13 Quantification of process cost reductions via cost drivers97

that reductions in freight rates range between 1% and 5%. These values can be used as a starting point for own estimations. Based on the estimated purchasing volume and the expected percentage reduction in freight rates, the estimation of potential freight rate reductions is a result of the simple multiplication of both figures.98 Since this calculation is based on uncertain assumptions, sensitivity or scenario analysis can be used to complement the calculation.99

6.3.2.2 Logistics Performance In contrast to logistics costs, it is not possible to measure the logistics performance impact of an ETM with monetary values. However, the impact on logistics performance can be quantified with a few non-monetary key performance indicators (KPIs). In the following, it will be discussed which KPIs will be relevant for logistics performance in terms of supply assurance and flexibility, delivery quality, and information capability.

97

Source: own representation. For example, if a purchasing volume of 1,000,000e can be conducted via spot market functionalities or e-tendering on an ETM and the use of the ETM is expected to lead to 5% lower freight rates in comparison to current ones, the total freight rate reductions amount to 50,000e. 99 Cp. Brugger (2009), pp. 340–348; Potthof (1998), p. 29. 98

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6.3.2.2.1 Supply Assurance and Flexibility Increases in supply assurance and flexibility can be achieved especially when spot market functionalities are used.100 To estimate the impact of an ETM, two KPIs can be used. First, the supply assurance for transportation services can be measured with the following KPI:101 Supply assurance =

T ranspor t or der s without shor tage o f ser vice supply × 100 T otal number o f tr anspor t or der s

When it is the aim to improve supply assurance, it must be estimated how large the use of the ETM will improve the KPI. A good starting point for this estimation is to find out how many transport orders can currently not be fulfilled because of difficulties to purchase them. In a second step, it can then be estimated how many of these transport orders could be fulfilled via the use of an ETM in the future. Second, the flexibility of transportation service supply could be measured as follows:102 Supply f lexibilit y =

N umber o f transpor t or der s with f ul f illed changes × 100 T otal number o f changes f or transpor t or der s

Like the evaluation of the ETM impact on supply assurance, the start for the evaluation of an impact on flexibility should be made by determining the current number of changes by customers which cannot be fulfilled today. To estimate the impact of the use of an ETM on flexibility, it must be estimated how many of these unfulfilled changes will be fulfilled when using an ETM.

100

Cp. results of H23a in Section 5.2.6.2.3. The definition is based on a definition of the service level in logistics (cp. Schönherr (2015), p. 169; Reichmann (2011), p. 379). 102 The KPI is derived from a definition of delivery flexibility (cp. Disselkamp and Schüller (2004), p. 138). In contrast to this general definition of delivery flexibility, the flexibility defined within this thesis focuses only on changes related to transport orders. 101

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6.3.2.2.2 Delivery Quality Purchasing activities in the online environment are often associated with higher risks to the reliability of transportation service providers.103 Since problems with delivery quality can have many negative effects,104 the potential impact of ETM use on delivery quality should not be neglected. A pragmatic way of dealing with the risks to delivery quality can be to set a target value for the delivery quality of the transportation services which are purchased on an ETM. This can be done with the help of the following KPI:105 Deliver y qualit y =

N umber o f f lawless transpor t or der s on the E T M × 100 T otal number o f tr anspor t or der s on the E T M

This allows assessing after the implementation of an ETM whether the purchased transportation services meet the expectations in terms of delivery quality. Besides avoiding the negative effects of insufficient delivery quality, this can also help to proactively deal with objections toward using an ETM based on concerns for delivery quality.

6.3.2.2.3 Information Capability Tracking and tracing functionalities provided by ETMs can increase the information capability for shippers and their customers. In the context of B2C e-commerce, the use of such functionalities is almost the norm already. It can be expected that information capability will also play an increasingly important role in the B2B context. Therefore, shippers should consider the potential impact of using an ETM on information capability. The impact of an ETM in terms of information capability can be evaluated based on the following KPI:106

103

Cp. Section 4.4.3.3.2 and Section 5.1.3.1.2. Cp. Section 4.4.4. 105 This KPI is adapted from a definition of delivery reliability (cp. Schneider and Hennig (2008), p. 216). Quality issues of transport orders can occur in terms of timeliness, accuracy, and condition (cp. Section 4.4.3.3.2). It should be kept in mind that transportation service providers are not responsible for all problems with delivery quality (e.g., if a delay is caused by long waiting times in the plant of a shipper). 106 No existing possibilities for measuring information capability have been found in the literature (cp. Böttcher (1993), p. 229; Kaminski (2003), p. 123; Rennemann (2007), pp. 185– 186; Seeck (2010), p. 10). Therefore, the KPI has been self-developed. 104

256 I n f or mation capabilit y =

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An Evaluation Concept for ETMs

N umber o f or der s with status/location in f ormation × 100 T otal number o f tr anspor t or der s

After determining the number of transport orders for which status and/or location information are already present without the use of an ETM, it must be estimated for how many transport orders such information will be available when using an ETM.

7

Conclusion

This work was motivated by several identified research gaps which exist in the context of ETMs: there is little knowledge about the current use of ETMs and the results of previous research do not support decision-makers in the assessment of ETM use or the evaluation of the business value impact of ETMs. To build a solid foundation for closing these research gaps, a conceptual research framework has been developed. Based on the contingency approach, relevant design, contextual and success variables have been identified. Subsequently, these conceptual results were used for empirical analysis. After a preliminary study based on expert interviews, the main study of this thesis consists of a web survey that was targeted at manufacturing, retail, and wholesale companies in Germany. Research models for adopters and non-adopters of ETMs have been developed and tested with a total of 178 responses, whereby 135 were usable for statistical analyses. In course of this procedure, many useful results for the research questions have been obtained. After a summary of these results, the managerial and scientific contributions, the limitations of this work, and potential avenues for future research will be discussed.

7.1

Summary of Results

In the following, the main results for the four research questions of the present thesis will be summarized.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Fachmedien Wiesbaden GmbH, part of Springer Nature 2023 P. Sylla, Electronic Procurement of Transportation Services, Schriftenreihe der HHL Leipzig Graduate School of Management, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-658-40403-1_7

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RQ1: What is the status quo of ETM use for the procurement of transportation services? Overall, the current and planned use of ETMs in Germany is rather low, ETMs are mainly used by larger companies, and e-mails are important for the transfer of transport orders. Only a little more than one out of ten survey participants use an ETM to purchase transportation services.1 The non-adopters of ETMs are also quite hesitant when it comes to implementing an ETM in the future. 71% replied that they do not intend to use an ETM in the future and only 10% indicated that their company will implement an ETM within the next 12 months. Experts have predicted that logistics platforms will be used to handle large parts of the freight business in 2025.2 Given the low current use and few concrete plans for ETM implementations as indicated by the survey responses, this prediction seems rather optimistic. The use of ETMs is attracting interest mainly from larger companies. Companies that have adopted an ETM have more employees and a larger purchasing volume (in terms of transportation volume in tons and transport orders) than non-adopters of ETMs. There are two reasons why the use of an ETM might be preferred by larger companies. First, it will be easier to realize freight rate reductions or efficiency gains for processes when a company has a larger purchasing volume. Second, larger companies are more likely to have sufficient power and resources to implement ETMs. Besides the company size, adopters and non-adopters also differ in their perception of risks. In particular, the non-adopters perceive higher risks to delivery quality on an ETM than adopters. Finally, the survey responses show that e-mails are important for the transfer of transport orders to transportation service providers.3 However, especially when the communication for many transport orders and transportation service providers must be handled, the use of e-mails will be associated with inefficiencies.4 Therefore, there is still room to improve the communication between shippers and transportation service providers by using ETMs.

1

Only 22 out of 178 respondents were adopters of ETMs (12.4%), cp. section 5.2.4. Cp. Junge et al. (2019), p. 37. 3 Most non-adopters use e-mail to transfer transport orders to transportation service providers (cp. section 5.2.4.2.3). 4 For example, it might be necessary to search and read multiple e-mails to find out whether a transportation service provider has agreed to perform a transport. In comparison, the structured process and overview of transport orders provided by ETMs will typically facilitate a quick determination of the status of transport orders even when their number is large. 2

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259

RQ2: Which determinants are relevant for the use of an ETM? Three main areas of determinants are relevant for the use of an ETM: the purchasing situation, the relational orientation toward transportation service providers, and ETM properties. The purchasing situation reflects factors of a company’s transportation services that affect the way how shippers and transportation service providers interact. As the results of the survey study show, the purchasing situation is relevant for the use of an ETM. Demand uncertainty has a particularly strong effect on the use of ETM functionalities. Long-term contracts and e-tendering are preferred when there is a frequent and well predictable demand for transportation services. In contrast, spot market functionalities are used for transportation services that are infrequently purchased and involve a high demand uncertainty. There are also some indications that importance, complexity, and asset specificity affect ETM use. Spot market functionalities appear to be less suitable for important transportation services which involve high negative consequences when performed wrong. Furthermore, the transportation services which have the potential to be purchased via spot market functionalities have descriptions involving a lower complexity than services that can be purchased via e-tendering. Transportation services sometimes also involve specific assets (e.g., specially trained personnel, specific trucks, and special equipment). There are weak indications that the need for such specific assets has a negative effect on the intended depth of ETM use. Besides the purchasing situation, the ETM properties are relevant for decisions on the use of an ETM. These refer to criteria and attributes which can vary between ETMs and are important for their successful use. The results of the empirical study highlight that security measures implemented by ETMs are important. In particular, the commitment of adopters toward an ETM is largely driven by the perceived security measures. Furthermore, non-adopters rate the quality of the ETM in terms of service, information, and system quality as the most important criteria for the selection of ETMs. The relational orientation toward transportation service providers is a further significant factor affecting the use of an ETM. It reflects how ETM functionalities are used to support more or less relational exchanges between shippers and transportation service providers. The empirical results indicate that it is the most important variable for explaining the intention to adopt an ETM, whereby relational orientation has a negative effect on this intention. Most of the survey participants have a high relational orientation in terms of solidarity, long-term orientation, and

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relational focus toward transportation service providers.5 Since the responses of the survey participants show an overall high relational orientation toward transportation service providers and the relational orientation has a negative effect on the intention to adopt an ETM, it seems to be the major reason for the observed reluctance toward ETM adoption. There are a few potential reasons for the observed tendency toward relational exchanges for the procurement of transportation services. Because a service cannot be judged before it is performed, experience and credibility play an important role when purchasing services in general.6 Furthermore, issues during transportation can have serious consequences (e.g., product loss, production downtimes, or dissatisfaction of customers). Therefore, shippers might be inclined to rely on partners whom they trust. This can also be reinforced by the results of the empirical study of this work which show that shippers seek close relationships with transportation service providers when transportation services are perceived to be important. RQ3: How is the use of an ETM related to business value impacts for shippers? The use of an ETM is directly associated with impacts on business value in terms of logistics costs (process costs and freight rates) and logistics performance (supply assurance and flexibility, delivery quality, and information capability). The main study of this thesis provides several insights into the effect in terms of logistics costs. First, an ETM can affect freight rates. Those adopters of ETMs that perceive an effect on freight rates indicate reductions most often in a range between 1% and 5%. The results of the study also show that the perceived potential to achieve freight rate reductions on an ETM has a positive influence on the intention to adopt an ETM. The freight rate reductions themselves are positively affected by the intended depth of ETM use. Furthermore, there are weak indications that relational orientation affects the expected freight rate reductions. The higher the relational orientation of non-adopters toward transportation service providers, the lower the expected freight rate reductions on an ETM. The relational orientation also affects the process cost reductions, but with a positive sign. Thus, it seems that the relational orientation toward transportation service providers affects how shippers realize cost reductions on an ETM: process cost reductions are more relevant when 5

Cp. Figure 5.9 in section 5.2.4.2.1. This is also in line with a few results of other empirical studies which indicate the relevance of relational exchanges between shippers and transportation service providers: A study from 1994 indicates that the relationship between shippers and forwarders is rather long-term oriented with an average duration of approximately 15 years (cp. Büschken (1994), pp. 145–146). Another study finds that 18 of the 22 participating shippers are working together with fewer than four carriers (cp. Steffen (1996), p. 258). 6 Cp. Pfohl (2018), p. 292; Rümenapp (2002), p. 19.

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relational orientation is high, and freight cost reductions are more important when it is low. The results for adopters also show the relevance of process cost reductions because the achieved process cost reductions have a positive effect on the perceived business process performance. Furthermore, the results of the survey indicate that the realization of process cost reductions increases with the extent to which additional functionalities are used (breadth of ETM use). Therefore, shippers should consider the use of multiple ETM functionalities when they want to achieve process cost reductions. There are also a few relevant findings for the ETM impact in terms of logistics performance. Within logistics performance, supply assurance and flexibility refer to the positive impact which the use of an ETM can have on the availability of transportation service supply and the flexibility with which transportation services can be sourced. An expected effect of ETMs on supply assurance and flexibility has been found to be positively associated with the intention to adopt an ETM and the perception of potential reductions in freight rates. Especially the use of spot market functionalities is associated with improvements in terms of supply assurance and flexibility. Interestingly, no effects of the perception of risks to delivery quality on adopters or non-adopters have been observed in the empirical study.7 RQ4: How should shippers proceed to evaluate the use of an ETM? Based on the results of the conceptual research framework and the empirical analysis, an evaluation concept for ETMs has been developed which provides practical guidance for decision-makers within manufacturing, retail, or wholesale companies. The start of the ETM evaluation should be made with a needs assessment that clarifies the objectives of the ETM implementation and identifies the relevant functionalities. An overview of potential impacts of ETM use, key drivers, and potential discussion points has been developed to facilitate the discussion of objectives.8 Furthermore, a stepwise procedure has been proposed that supports decision-makers in their choice of ETM main functionalities.9 Subsequently, shippers must decide which ETM to use. For this selection of ETMs, companies should first conduct a preselection based on must-have criteria (e.g., based on the required functionalities or the fit with needed transportation services). A detailed evaluation based on the result of a scoring model should follow 7

The risks to delivery quality do not affect the business process performance or commitment to ETM for adopters (cp. section 5.2.6.1.2) or the adoption of ETMs by non-adopters (cp. section 5.2.6.2.2). 8 Cp. Table 50 in section 6.1.1. 9 Cp. Figure 6.6 in section 6.1.2.1.3.

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for a limited set of ETMs which fulfill these criteria. Based on the ETM properties which have been identified in the conceptual research framework, categories and criteria have been proposed which can be applied for the detailed evaluation of ETMs in terms of scoring.10 Finally, the business case of ETMs should be evaluated before implementing any ETM. Besides the one-time and recurring costs which are caused by an ETM, this evaluation should also consider the impact of an ETM on business process performance.11 A procedure for the estimation of reductions of logistics costs in terms of freight rates and process costs has been developed. Furthermore, KPIs for quantifying the potential impact on logistics performance were proposed.

7.2

Contributions

7.2.1

Managerial Contributions

The evaluation concept for ETMs which has been developed in the present thesis provides practical support for manufacturing, retail, and wholesale companies for the assessment of ETM use and the evaluation of the business value impact. However, the results of the empirical study also provide insights that can help managers of ETM operators. As already mentioned, the participants generally have a high relational orientation toward transportation service providers. This has implications for the design of ETMs. For example, ETMs which allow transactions with well-known business partners might have a higher acceptance than providers which aim at an anonymous matching of supply and demand on an open market. Furthermore, ETMs should invest in security measures. These can increase the trust of shippers in the ETM and the transportation service providers which ultimately leads to the commitment to an ETM. Moreover, service, information, and system quality are important selection criteria. Therefore, ETM operators should constantly improve the quality of the ETM and signal this quality to potential new customers. Finally, it can be advised to constantly enhance and extend the functionalities of an ETM. The survey responses of adopters of ETMs show the relevance of process cost reductions for the perception of improvements in terms of business process performance. Since the use of a wide range of functionalities is positively related to process cost reductions, 10 11

Cp. Table 6.13 in section 6.2.2.1. Cp. Figure 6.10 in section 6.3.

7.2 Contributions

263

a broad range of functionalities will be valuable for shippers and contribute to the success of an ETM. There are also a few relevant insights for transportation service providers. Some of them may pursue a strategy of building close relationships with shippers. Since the results of the empirical study show that there is a positive effect of the importance of transportation services on the relational orientation of shippers, transportation service providers may be advised to focus on business areas where services with high perceived importance are offered to shippers.

7.2.2

Scientific Contributions

The present work provides the first quantitative study which examines determinants of ETM use and its business value impact. Besides this, it also contributes to the scientific body of knowledge in various ways. The most important aspects will be presented in the following. As already mentioned in the introduction, most of the previous empirical studies in the e-procurement literature have focused on the procurement of physical products instead of services. This work extends previous research by identifying and empirically testing hypotheses in the context of the procurement of transportation services. Furthermore, the use of EMs or their business value impact has so far only been studied on a rather broad level.12 In contrast, this thesis studies ETM use at the more detailed level of single functionalities (functionality choice) and the impact of ETMs in the form of more detailed business process performance variables. This more detailed level of analysis helped to gain significant new insights. For example, the results of this work show under which circumstances spot market or contract market functionalities are preferred by shippers which is a decision that has just recently been considered to be in great need of research.13 In addition, the results of the empirical study show that the relational orientation 12

For example, the use of EMs has often been investigated in terms of adoption (cp. Gottschalk and Foss Abrahamsen (2002), p. 330; Jianyuan et al. (2009); Joo and Kim (2004), p. 95; Son and Benbasat (2007), p. 92; Upadhyaya et al. (2017), p. 58; Quaddus and Hofmeyer (2007), p. 204). Moreover, global measures without a distinction of subdimensions or different variables of business process performance are often used in EM or e-procurement studies (cp. Chang and Wong (2010), pp. 269–270; Johnson et al. (2007), p. 1273; Ranganathan et al. (2011), p. 539; Shi and Liao (2015), p. 946; Tai et al. (2010), p. 5407). 13 In the context of the procurement of transportation services, a previous study has made a distinction between contract and dynamic spot market relationships and concludes that

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has a positive effect on process cost reductions but a negative effect on freight rate reductions. Such a differentiated result could not be obtained without a more detailed distinction and empirical analysis of variables within the business process performance dimension. While previous empirical studies have shown that a large variety of factors are relevant to the adoption of EMs,14 the effect of the business relationship between buyers and sellers (relational orientation) on the adoption has so far been completely neglected. The results of the empirical study of this thesis, however, indicate that relational orientation may have a significant effect on the adoption of ETMs. Since business relationships are certainly not only relevant for transportation services, relational orientation may also be of importance for the adoption of EMs which support the exchange of other services or goods. The relevance of the relational orientation is also interesting in the context of a broader discussion in the literature about the interdependencies between IT and governance structures of companies. This discussion is centered around the move to the market hypothesis which states that the overall effect of the developments in IT will lead to a larger extent of market coordination.15 The results of this work cast doubt on the general applicability of the move to the market hypothesis. Based on transaction cost theory, the hypothesis is built mainly on arguments that IT developments will increase the efficiency of markets. However, this reasoning ignores aspects of the purchasing situation and the social and relational context of transactions. This study shows that close relationships with business partners can inhibit the adoption of ETMs. Therefore, differences in the importance of business relationships may be responsible for varying degrees of EM use. For example, it has been noticed that the move to the market hypothesis may be more applicable in consumer purchasing than in industrial purchasing.16 This

„[…] there is great need to be able to better segment networks appropriate for these different relationship forms“ (Caplice (2021), p. 17). 14 Relevant factors for the adoption of EMs include external pressure (cp. Deng et al. (2019b); Joo and Kim (2004); Misra et al. (2020); Son and Benbasat (2007); Upadhyaya et al. (2017)), product characteristics (cp. Son and Benbasat (2007); Upadhyaya et al. (2017)), firm size (cp. Joo and Kim (2004)), top management support (cp. Deng et al. (2019b); Jianyuan et al. (2009)), perceived benefits (cp. Misra et al. (2020); Quaddus and Hofmeyer (2007)), demand uncertainty and market volatility (cp. Son and Benbasat (2007)), and critical mass and organization characteristics (cp. Quaddus and Hofmeyer (2007)). 15 Cp. section 4.2.2.4. 16 Cp. Rosenthal et al. (1993), p. 116.

7.3 Limitations and Future Research Directions

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may be a result of more relational buying decisions in the B2B than in the B2C context.17

7.3

Limitations and Future Research Directions

The present work is not without limitations. These and potential avenues suggested as directions for future research will be discussed in the following. One limitation is that the results of the empirical study are based on crosssectional data. Since the data has been collected in a relatively short time, the responses might be affected by periodical effects. For example, low transport capacities resulted in freight rates reaching a three-year high shortly after the end of the survey.18 The perception of such a market situation might have influenced the evaluation of certain variables and their interactions (e.g., the freight rate reductions which can be achieved on an ETM). Therefore, longitudinal studies should be considered for future research. While a sufficiently large sample size could be achieved for non-adopters of ETMs, only a relatively small sample size was achieved for adopters of ETMs. Small sample sizes may not be generalizable and can fail to reveal significant effects that exist in the population.19 Since ETMs are more often adopted by larger firms, future studies should focus on such firms for retrieving a larger response from adopters. Moreover, the study relies only on responses provided by key informants. The input of key informants was necessary because no objective data is available for some of the variables. When responses are only provided by key informants, however, it cannot be ruled out that their subjective perceptions have biased the obtained results. Furthermore, the survey instrument has been designed in a way that minimizes the risk of common method bias. In addition, a statistical test that has been conducted does not indicate that it is likely that such a bias is present.20 Nonetheless, common method bias cannot be completely ruled out. Finally, the scope of this study represents another limitation. The study focused on the procurement of transportation services for road transportation.

17

Cp. Homburg et al. (2010), p. 201. Cp. DVZ (2021). 19 Cp. Hair et al. (2017), p. 23. 20 Cp. section 5.2.4.1.2. 18

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It is questionable whether the obtained results are also relevant for transportation services of other transportation modes (e.g., rail or air), for other logistics services (e.g., warehousing), or services outside of the logistics context (e.g., consulting services). Thus, readers should exercise caution when generalizing the results of this study. Given the small number of empirical studies dedicated to the e-procurement of services, further research in different service contexts is needed. Furthermore, the survey has only been conducted within Germany. Since the use of e-procurement might be subject to cultural and country-specific differences,21 a transfer of the results to other countries should be made with caution. Future studies should be conducted in additional countries, considering possible cultural and national differences. Besides the aforementioned possibilities, two directions for future research seem particularly promising. First, the antecedents and consequences of relational orientation in the context of e-procurement deserve further study. Besides its effect on ETM adoption, it can be expected that relational orientation influences the adoption of e-procurement or EMs for the procurement of other services or goods. However, whether relational orientation is of relevance in these other contexts requires further empirical research. Moreover, the present thesis only identifies the importance of transportation services as a significant antecedent of relational orientation. Therefore, future studies should explore further drivers of the relational orientation in the context of the procurement of transportation or other services. Second, several interesting questions remain for bringing the relational orientation of shippers and the potential to optimize transportation activities via market-based coordination together. For example, there is a lack of research on the criteria which are used by shippers or transportation service providers to find suitable business partners. The knowledge of such criteria, however, may be very useful for ETMs to match the participants in the right way.22

21

Cp. Batenburg (2007), p. 189. This has also been mentioned by the experts of the preliminary study (cp. section 5.1.3.1.3).

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