Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers' Contributions: SDGs Viewed Through the Lens of Egypt’s Strategy and Researchers’ Views 303110675X, 9783031106750

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SDG: 17 Partnerships for the Goals

El-Sayed E. Omran Abdelazim M. Negm   Editors

Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions SDGs Viewed Through the Lens of Egypt’s Strategy and Researchers’ Views

Sustainable Development Goals Series

The Sustainable Development Goals Series is Springer Nature’s inaugural cross-imprint book series that addresses and supports the United Nations’ seventeen Sustainable Development Goals. The series fosters comprehensive research focused on these global targets and endeavours to address some of society’s greatest grand challenges. The SDGs are inherently multidisciplinary, and they bring people working across different fields together and working towards a common goal. In this spirit, the Sustainable Development Goals series is the first at Springer Nature to publish books under both the Springer and Palgrave Macmillan imprints, bringing the strengths of our imprints together. The Sustainable Development Goals Series is organized into eighteen subseries: one subseries based around each of the seventeen respective Sustainable Development Goals, and an eighteenth subseries, “Connecting the Goals,” which serves as a home for volumes addressing multiple goals or studying the SDGs as a whole. Each subseries is guided by an expert Subseries Advisor with years or decades of experience studying and addressing core components of their respective Goal. The SDG Series has a remit as broad as the SDGs themselves, and contributions are welcome from scientists, academics, policymakers, and researchers working in fields related to any of the seventeen goals. If you are interested in contributing a monograph or curated volume to the series, please contact the Publishers: Zachary Romano [Springer; zachary.romano@springer. com] and Rachael Ballard [Palgrave Macmillan; [email protected]].

El-Sayed E. Omran • Abdelazim M. Negm Editors

Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions SDGs Viewed Through the Lens of Egypt’s Strategy and Researchers’ Views

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Editors El-Sayed E. Omran Soil and Water Department Faculty of Agriculture Suez Canal University Ismailia, Egypt

Abdelazim M. Negm Water and Water Structures Engineering Department Zagazig University Zagazig, Egypt

ISSN 2523-3084 ISSN 2523-3092 (electronic) Sustainable Development Goals Series ISBN 978-3-031-10675-0 ISBN 978-3-031-10676-7 (eBook) https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7 © The Editor(s) (if applicable) and The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors, and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. This Springer imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Switzerland AG The registered company address is: Gewerbestrasse 11, 6330 Cham, Switzerland

Preface to “Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030”

With the completion of this preface, a long journey that began in 2019 has come to a close. Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), a topic that is increasingly garnering the world’s attention, was the impetus for writing this book. The SDGs are essentially multidisciplinary in nature, bringing together professionals from various areas to work toward a common objective. At the United Nations in 2015, country representatives agreed on 17 goals, 169 targets, and nearly 230 indicators. However, in most countries, poor data availability makes it difficult to measure progress toward achieving the 2030 Agenda and assesses the impact of policy instruments on the SDGs. Before we get into our book, it is worth noting that Egypt’s government has taken a proactive approach to implement the 2030 Agenda. Egypt’s strategy for addressing the agenda, dubbed “Egypt’s Vision 2030,” was unveiled in March 2015. The 2030 Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS) emphasizes the importance of several sectors for Egypt’s long-term development and establishes rules and guidelines for achieving the country’s developmental objectives. The Egyptian government is focused on achieving social justice, innovation, economic development, and a healthy environment in order to improve Egypt’s quality of life by 2030, with an emphasis on the economic, social, and environmental elements. Though 2030, the deadline for implementing the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) may appear far away, it is not. The Egyptian government was one of 22 Member States that demonstrated progress in achieving the SDGs at the High-level Political Forum (HLPF) in July 2016. The HLPF encourages Member States to contribute equally to the implementation of the 2030 Agenda; in addition, the forum provides guidance and suggestions on the 2030 Agenda’s implementation and follow-up, as well as addressing new and emerging concerns connected to the SDGs. The current study adds to this body of work by providing an analytical framework that can help the Egyptian government priorities the many goals and targets set forth in the 2030 Agenda. The Sustainable Development Agenda 2030 present an excellent opportunity to place Egypt’s development on a more favorable path for its people’s future. It gives a most hopeful potential for the people of Africa, especially its young men and women, and their priceless cultural and natural environment, to revive centuries of success, leadership, and stewardship in this area of the world, which was the cradle of human civilization. Understanding the issues and pooling enough national, regional, and global resources to meet them, as v

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Preface to “Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development …

well as offering comfort against risks and openly addressing them, will be the most effective method to ensure sustainable growth and ensure that no one is left behind. This book currently highlights and focuses on the latest knowledge and information accessible to advance strategy connected to Egypt’s long-term growth. The goal of this publication is to aid Egypt’s plan for achieving the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030. The creation of this book began with the identification and invitation of lead authors to write chapters to aid Egypt’s strategy for addressing and solving challenges from the perspective of each of the SDGs. The book’s 17 main chapters largely correspond to 13 SDGs plus one chapter for the introduction and one chapter for the conclusions and recommendations. Out of the 12 chapters, 3 are devoted to renewable energies due to its importance and positive impact on the environment. The last chapter highlights the book’s most important conclusions and suggestions. It also identifies fundamental obstacles to Egypt’s approach for meeting the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030, as well as cautious future hopes. All presented materials are the authors contributions and necessarily represent the governmental point of view. Now, the reader can begin his/her adventure from wherever, depending on his/her interests and choices. Academics, professionals, and scientists, as well as undergraduate and graduate students, are among the readers and beneficiaries. This book is aimed at all stakeholders in the sustainable development sector, including financial institutions, user organizations, planners, designers, training institutions, and research institutes. We wish it could serve as a guidebook for those interested in sustainable development. We believe that the information presented here will be of the most use to policymakers, managers, and researchers seeking a broad perspective on Egypt’s urgent climate change issues, and we hope that the book will contribute to some real, albeit modest, progress toward beneficial climate change management. Advances in this book would not have been possible without the tremendous efforts of all of the authors, and we are confident that their contributions will add to the book’s relevance. It would not have been able to develop this book and make it a reality without their patience and effort in writing and revising the numerous editions to fulfill Springer’s high-quality requirements. All thanks and gratitude must go to all members of the Springer team who worked long and hard to make this book a reality for academics, graduate students, and scientists all across the world. We want to express our gratitude to all of the professionals who participated in the book chapter review processes. We are hoping it is been extensively read. If we wish to prevent prior misconceptions, we need to take a different approach and start relying on scientists’ knowledge. That opportunity did not exist a decade ago. It is now the appropriate time. Ismailia, Egypt Zagazig, Egypt April 2022

El-Sayed E. Omran Abdelazim M. Negm

Acknowledgements

The second editor is happy to acknowledge that this book is originated from the idea of the project that was supported by Science, Technology, and Innovation Funding Authority (STIFA) of Egypt, Grant No. (30771) and the British Council (BC) of UK, Grant No. (332435306) through the project titled “A Novel Standalone Solar-Driven Agriculture GreenhouseDesalination System: That Grows its Energy and Irrigation Water” via the Newton-Mosharafa funding scheme, calls 4, which supported several SDGs. Last but not least, the editors are eager to gather audiences feedback and comments in order to improve future editions.

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Contents

Introduction to “Insights into Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . El-Sayed E. Omran and Abdelazim M. Negm Overview of the Poverty, Food Security and Nutrition Situation in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Mona A. Outhman and El-Sayed E. Omran Long-Term Control of Desertification: Is Organic Farming Superior to Conventional? Soil and Established Arid Cultivation Practices at SEKEM, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Lorenz Huebner

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The Effect of COVID-19 on the Egyptian Education System and the Role of Digitalization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Marwa Biltagy

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Culture and Principles of Equity and Gender Equality as a Basis of Holistic Sustainable Development at SEKEM, Egypt . . . . . . . . . Lorenz Huebner and Helmy Abouleish

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Integrated Hydrological Modeling and Geoinformatics for Harvesting and Simulating Mountain Torrents on the Area Stretching Between Port Sudan and Ras Bennas, Red Sea . . . . . . El-Sayed E. Omran and Mohamed E. Dandrawy

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Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107 Nadia M. Eshra Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs . . . . . . . 127 Raad H. S. Al-Jibouri Economic Growth, Employment and Decent Work as a Sustainable Development Policy for All . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151 Harb A. E. Hasseen El-bardisy

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Proposed Guidelines for Planning of Egyptian Fishing Ports . . . . 165 Mahmoud Sharaan, Mona G. Ibrahim, Moheb Iskander, and Abdelazim M. Negm The Impact of Human-Induced in Mining Operations on the Increased Risk of Torrents in the Wadi Allaqi Basin . . . . . 191 Mohamed E. Dandrawy and El-Sayed E. Omran Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability of Egyptian Cities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207 El-Sayed E. Omran, Islam M. Gaber, and Tarek M. Elkashef Education for Sustainable Development, Best Practices Towards Fulfilling Egypt’s Vision 2030 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 Nehal L. Khalil Life Under Lake Nasser: Water Quality as Means to Achieving the Egypt’s Agenda 2030 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249 El-Sayed E. Omran and Samir A. Elawah Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation Along the High Dam Lake, Egypt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261 El-Sayed E. Omran, Mamdouh Hamzawy, and Mohamed A. Hammad Update, Conclusions, and Recommendations to “Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030” . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295 El-Sayed E. Omran and Abdelazim M. Negm

Contents

Introduction to “Insights into Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions” El-Sayed E. Omran and Abdelazim M. Negm SDGs, and is aware of the idea of shared but differentiated responsibility. This chapter introduces the essential technical components of the book’s chapters in a concise manner. The technical topics of the chapters are organized into themes. The book is divided into 17 chapters, each of which is organized around one of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals in Egypt.

Abstract

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 goals and 169 targets that span the economic, social, and environmental aspects of development. The translation of the SDGs into achievable and realistic development strategies is a challenge for countries. To better understand the SDGs, it is necessary to first learn about the SDGs, which have served as the foundation for measures to promote change until 2030. In keeping with the 2030 Agenda, also known as the Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS), Egypt’s government has established a work plan dubbed Egypt’s Vision 2030, which incorporates development’s economic, social, and environmental components. Almost all progress plans of Egypt are incorporated into the SDS, which is strongly directed by the SDGs. Egypt realizes that basic problems persist, despite a strong desire to accomplish the

E.-S. E. Omran Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]. edu.eg A. M. Negm (&) Water and Water Structures Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

Keywords











Poverty Desertification COVID-19 Lake nasser Geoinformatics Green energy Fishing ports




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Background/Overview

The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, which world leaders approved in September 2015, are inclusive and holistic in nature, with 17 goals and 169 targets spanning economic, social, and environmental elements of development [1]. The 17 SDGs are interconnected, because they identify that actions taken in one area have an impact on outcomes in others, and that development must strike a balance between social, economic, and environmental sustainability. Before the launch of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in September 2015, Egypt

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_1

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committed itself towards achieving sustainable development through the Egyptian Constitution, which was drafted and adopted in January 2014 [2]. It covers the three dimensions of sustainable development, as well as many of the 17 SDGs in its different articles, presented as national goals. With the political roadmap in place, and based on the embodiment of the new constitutional spirit, Egypt launched their 2030 Agenda strategy, named “Egypt’s Vision 2030,” [1] in March 2015, in accordance with the Agenda. Egypt began developing its vision for a better future through the establishment of the Sustainable Development Strategy: Egypt Vision 2030 [3] that was launched in February 2016. The 2030 Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS) highlights the importance of numerous sectors for Egypt's long-term growth and defines norms and standards for the country's development goals. Egypt has decided to revise its SDS in 2019 to guarantee that the three sustainable development components of environment, society, and economy are interdependent. The plan is inclusive, inspiring, and consistent. The literature on, and politics of, sustainable development shows two crucial factors for achieving strong sustainability. First factor implies that if there is no trade-offs between the economic, social and ecological goals, sustainable development is rare; politics tend to make trade-offs in favor of the economy at the cost of social and ecological issues [4]. While sustainable development has ecological, social and economic aspects, the difficulties in optimizing all three aspects for present and future generations has led to the rise of concepts that embody dualities of this trinity—green economy/growth (which combines the environment with the economy, UNEP 2011; World Bank 2012), green society (which combines the environment with social goals), inclusive growth (which combines growth with social aspects) and inclusive development (which focuses on social and ecological aspects) [5]. Second factor as Nelson Mandela put it, ``education is the most potent weapon you can employ to alter the world.'' Millions of people's lives are improved by investing in education [6]. Furthermore, education is one of the most

E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm

important factors influencing income disparities between individuals [7]. In conclusion, Egypt is performing better than projected in nine of the 17 SDGs, based on GNI per capita. Five of the SDGs are under-achieving, while one is performing as expected [8]. Egypt is anticipated to be performing well in terms of SDG 1. Related policies that meet the essentials of persons living in poverty at the national level are crucial. Egypt’s development toward SDG 2 (Zero Hunger) is much lower than that of its peers. SDG 2 suggests that Egypt is likely to have a nutrition problem, whereas SDG 3 (Good Health and Well-Being) is doing well. The under-five mortality rate has dropped considerably, demonstrating that Egypt is outperforming in this area; additionally, the underfive mortality rate is predicted to continue to fall relative to GNI per capita until 2030, in line with the Egyptian government's ambitious goals [1]. SDG 4, Quality Education, looks to be doing well in terms of quantitative measurements; yet, Egypt is badly underperforming in terms of education's inherent quality. As a result, while the quantitative indicators of Egypt’s educational advancement appear to be performing better than predicted given the country’s GNI per capita, we are likely to conclude that the quality of education is underperforming. This viewpoint is confirmed by the World Economic Forum’s 2015– 2016 Global Competitiveness Report, which gave Egypt a 2.1 out of 7 score for elementary education quality, placing Egypt 139th out of 140 nations. SDG 6, Clean Water and Sanitation, has improved greatly in relation to GNI per capita growth, as evidenced by the share of the population with access to clean water and better sanitation facilities. Egypt has recently made significant progress in addressing infrastructure gaps, mainly in the areas of power generation (as seen by its strong performance in SDG 7, Highways, as well as affordable and clean energy. Egypt wants to expand its industrial base, with a special focus on developing the Suez Canal Authority area into a new global hub for high-tech manufacturing and services. On the other hand, SDG 8, Decent

Introduction to “Insights into Egypt’s Strategy to Meet …

Work and Economic Growth is underperforming. Underperformance is to be expected given that Egypt is currently witnessing a second “boom” generation (which appears to be considerably larger than the first), as the rate of job creation is insufficient to absorb the large cohort of youngsters aged 15–24 entering the labor market. In terms of SDG 9, Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure, Egypt seems to be outperforming the rest of the world. While the data coverage for SDG 9 is adequate, more investigation is needed to guarantee that industry, innovation, and infrastructure are dispersed over the globe as well as the fact that the benefits are not concentrated in large urban areas (particularly the affluent urban enclaves). Because there are still considerable regional differences in service delivery and living standards within Egypt, particularly between Upper and Lower Egypt, vigilance is essential to focus SDG 9 inputs to the country's poorest communities. Based on the data available, SDG 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities appear to have significantly improved. It should be noted that due to a lack of data, this diagnostic does not address SDG 16, Peace, Justice, and Strong Institutions. However, we underline the importance of SDG 16 challenges in efforts to increase development funds accessible to Egypt [8]. The road to achieving the SDGs is not easy. The advancement Egypt has accomplished in fulfilling the SDGs is uneven across all of the Goals. Although many indicators have shown improvement, some development goals still face significant obstacles [9, 10]. it involves a variety of local, regional, and global obstacles that must be tackled by efficient pooling and coordination of efforts at all levels. Three significant concerns that must be addressed in order to achieve the SDGs: (i) political will, which is strong in Egypt and demonstrates firm commitment; (ii) integration and mainstreaming of the SDGs in the planning and policy-making process, as demonstrated by the SDS: Egypt Vision 2030; and (iii) resource mobilization in terms of financing, human capital, and institutional capacity, where additional assistance is needed. Also, like all countries, Egypt confronts numerous problems in attaining sustainable

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development across all three dimensions of social, economic, and environmental development and at various levels of national, regional, and international development. As a result, Egypt places a strong emphasis on sustainable development goals in order to combat these issues. Our planet will be transformed if we achieve the aims of sustainable development. Despite the urgent need for a significant shift in how we utilize the Earth, the issue remains whether the SDGs provide adequate support for such a transformation. This book was produced to assist us in making sense of the SDGs debate. Particularly on the issue of whether or not this problem can be handled. This book examines the most important environmental sustainability-related Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and provides a cutting-edge assessment of current progress toward meeting these goals by 2030. Egypt is featured prominently in the book as an example of a developing economy trying to meet its objectives. The findings of Egypt’s research can be informing policy in other developing countries and around the world to achieve the SDGs. Students and academics of sustainable development and climate change and practitioners and policymakers interested in sustainable development and catastrophe management will find this book quite useful. The volume focuses on essential lessons and recommendations for how research may contribute to the achievement of the 17 SDGs in various industries. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which will give a development path up to 2030, are discussed in this book. We will make the world a more prosperous place for everyone if we achieve these Sustainable Development Goals as individuals, governments, and enterprises. The volume’s content is exclusive at the Egyptian level, where policy coherence between the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development and the SDS has considerable promise. The difficulty is to transform these synergies into coherence at the national level, which might, and should, influence the SDGs’ follow-up and review process at the High Level Political Forum. The book examines where progress has been made and why some major goals have been

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difficult to attain or will be difficult to reach in the future. The book highlighting synergies between the SDS and the 2030 Agenda has the potential to increase Egypt’s incentive to meet its obligations. Experts in the subject, scientists, researchers, professors, and lecturers from Egypt have contributed to this book. The ideas and views represented in this work are those of the authors and/or editors and do not necessarily represent those of Egypt’s view. They are released to encourage more discussion of the concerns. The advice in Chapter conclusions, and recommendations under the many themes of the book can assist in resolving such issues.

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Themes of the Book

The objective of the book is to highlights the contribution of the Egyptian authors to the some of the SDGs and Egypt Agenda 2030. The 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) are: GOAL 1: No Poverty. GOAL 2: Zero Hunger. GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being. GOAL 4: Quality Education. GOAL 5: Gender Equality. GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation. GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy. GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth. GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure. GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality. GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities. GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production. GOAL 13: Climate Action. GOAL 14: Life Below Water. GOAL 15: Life on Land. GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions. GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal. The following parts provide a summary of each chapter in the book's main body, organized by theme.

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Chapter’s Summary

The main characteristics of the chapters covered in the book are presented in the following subsections under each theme of the book.

The chapter titled “Overview of the Poverty, Food Security and Nutrition Situation in Egypt”. It discusses the food security is a significant concern for Egypt’s government. This chapter examines the country's food security situation, highlighting the major elements affecting both food demand and supply. The study found that the economic situation, as assessed by GDP per capita and urbanization are key predictors of food access and usage, using data from many sources (World Development Indicators and FAOSTAT). Food access and use in Egypt deteriorated during crisis years, such as the years after the uprising of 2011. Following a 7% higher in GDP growth in 2006, the Egyptian economy contracted to 5.1% in 2009/2010. In 2012/2013, the drop in poverty rates from 2010/2011 to 2012/2013 was 2.1 thousand pounds per capita per year. Nevertheless, the annual per capita income was 2.6 thousand dollars. It was 3.9 thousand in 2015, and Egypt saw the highest decrease in poverty rates in 2017/2018, with a per capita annual income of 5.9 thousand. In 2017/2018, the per capita poverty line was £736 per month, or £8827 per year, while the absolute poverty line was £491 per month, or £5890 per year. Port Said, Western, and Damietta in Egypt's Northern provinces are the least poor, with 7.6%, 9.4%, and 14.6% poverty rates, respectively, while southern Egypt stays the worst of the sub-prefectures. The adoption of the economic reform programme during the same period is the critical driver for Egypt's high poverty rate of 4.7%. The chapter titled “Long-Term Control of Desertification: Is Organic Farming Superior to Conventional? Soil and Established Arid Cultivation Practices at SEKEM, Egypt”. It debates around oorganic farming methods, which may have advantages in the control of desertification. The practice of mulching and use of organic fertilizers—can it significantly impact soil hydrology, water use, and ultimately tendency towards salinification? We know that biodiversity, in general, enables ecosystems to adapt to climate change. Is it possible to observe this mechanism in the agroecological context of organic cultivation? Biodynamic organic farming

Introduction to “Insights into Egypt’s Strategy to Meet …

at SEKEM was established in the 1970s north of Cairo on the former arid desert ground. A variety of crops and vegetables is cultivated by means of drip irrigation. Recent evidence shows that structure, animal life and content of microorganisms of organically managed soils differ from conventionally managed soils. Despite high productivity of irrigated organic farming at SEKEM no salinification was observed even after more than 40 years of intensive cultivation, which is in contrast to the frequent experience with irrigated conventional farming in arid areas. From our review of soilbased desertification parameters, we conclude that there are two mechanisms: (1) that of improved soil parameters leading to immediate prevention of erosion, combined with (2) the long-term prevention of salinification and soil exhaustion that enables sustainable cultivation with high crop yields over numerous decades. The results of organic farming as practiced by SEKEM are indicative of important factors in achieving fertility and long-lasting prevention of desertification of arid agricultural land. The chapter titled “The Effect of COVID-19 on the Egyptian Education System and the Role of Digitalization”. The major goal of this book chapter is to determine the impact of the pandemic on Egypt's educational system, which is linked to Egypt’s Vision 2030 and sustainable development education. The COVID-19 epidemic forces us to face a serious threat and accept real responsibility. The new Coronavirus is a shock to all countries, but economies relying on technology and ensuring online services have been less affected. Policymakers can take advantage of the current crisis and turn it into an opportunity. This can be accomplished by introducing new learning methods and focusing more on the educational system's quality. In addition, dealing flexibly with technology and new learning methodologies, as well as continuing to build the digital platforms that have been established. In addition, to achieve sustainable development and poverty reduction, the concept of lifelong learning and sustainable education must be integrated.

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The chapter titled “Culture and Principles of Equity and Gender Equality as a Basis of Holistic Sustainable Development at SEKEM, Egypt”. Inspired by the early twentieth century Anthroposophy of Rudolph Steiner, the SEKEM initiative was founded in 1977 in Belbeis, Egypt. Ecological and ethical principles are the guideline of all economic endeavors at SEKEM. This was achieved by restoring and revitalizing degraded land in applying biodynamic organic agriculture, and by developing the community through arts and culture while establishing an ethical and diverse society. In 2017, after 40 years of development, SEKEM has designed 18 sustainable vision goals for 2057.They are slightly more detailed, otherwise identical to the 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals. We review the holistic sustainable approach at SEKEM, combining ecological management, economic growth, development of human growth, education and culture of equality as parts of societal responsible engagement. Developing the social and cultural life, principles of equality and empowerment of women are all key to the ecological and economic successes achieved here. We present important underlying parameters and activities, such as: unfolding the individual potential, lifelong learning, shaping of future generations to gain collective responsibility, and the integration of art. It worth mentioning that this chapter is related to Goals 5 and 10. The chapter titled “Integrated Hydrological Modeling and Geoinformatics for Harvesting and Simulating Mountain Torrents on the Area Stretching Between Port Sudan and Ras Bennas, Red Sea”. Climate and water have a very intimate and complex relationship when it comes to the Water goal (SDG 6), which aims to ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Hydrological models have been confirmed in recent decades as one of the effective measures used for studies on water resources to support decision-making, because of its importance and the accuracy of its results in simulating reality and the future.

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The study area extends between Port Sudan (Sudan) and Ras Bennas (Egypt), where the region is of great importance as it can be a future tourist city to attract beach tourism from all countries of the world. The study used modern GIS and remote sensing technology to collect and analyze geographic data to achieve the best scientific results to address the risks of torrents to the region. A prediction map was produced using hydraulic modeling to identify the best places to choose the dam positions and storage areas of dams in front of it. Proposed dams help develop the coastline from Port Sudan to the city of Berenice. By sustainable water management preparation, efficient management of flash floods for their use for agricultural purposes can be achieved. Flood water harvesting benefits can be considered twofold, i.e. saving flood losses and providing reservoir storage facilities. The harvest of the torrential water can be used by making stone and concrete dams. The dams will be used to reserve the running surface water in the valleys in separate freshwater lakes. These can be constructed on the wadis outlet, and from which approximately 10 billion m3 of water can be stored in the event of an 86.8 mm rainfall within a day. The chapter titled “Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt”. Egypt’s geographical location is characterized by a variety of renewable energy sources, including hydropower, tidal and wave power, solar power, and wind power. Egypt’s coastline stretches about 2900 km (1800 miles) along the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Suez, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Red Sea, where wind, tidal, and wave forces abound. Aswan, in Egypt’s south, is known for having the greatest rate of solar brightness in the world, with an average of over 3800 h of sunshine each year. The third and oldest form is hydropower, which is supported by the Nile River. The third and oldest form is hydropower, which is supported by the Nile River. Egypt features a large number of hydraulic structures, such as barrages, head regulators, weirs, and navigation locks that can all be used to generate

E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm

small and mini hydropower. This chapter discusses the potential of various renewable energy sources in Egypt, accompanied by a spatial map that explains the ideal sites for various renewable energy sources in Egypt. The chapter titled “Utilizing Renewable Energy as a mean to Achieve SDGs”. looks at how renewable energy, specifically concentrated solar thermal energy (CST), can help to accomplish the Sustainable Development Goals. CST is primarily utilized to meet goal #7 of acquiring (clean energy at cheap costs) and goal #6 of assisting in the attainment of goal #7 (Clean water and sanitation). Thermal energy from renewable sources, on the other hand, can help accomplish 9 additional SDGs, thanks to its more than 45 applications in agricultural, manufacturing, municipal, commercial, and residential sectors. When compared to electricity storage, thermal energy storage is the best because it can be done at a low cost, using environmentally friendly materials that are abundantly available in most countries around the world, and it now helps non-developed and poor countries by using simple-to-understand and implements technologies. Energy generation becomes more efficient, lowering CO2 emissions and contributing to environmental betterment. The chapter titled “Economic Growth, Employment and Decent Work as a Sustainable Development Policy for All”. The Sustainable Development Strategy is establishes as a development march of an advanced and prosperous an Egypt Vision 2030. It is maximizing the use of competitive possibilities and advantages. The strategy has adopted the sustainable development principle, and inclusive growth as a general framework for improving the quality of lives and welfare. The concept of economic growth is the same as the concept of economic well-being. In deepening this concept, must be increase real per capita income a realty increase and not a monetary one, and the increase in income must be in long term not a temporary. The Economic growth sustained and inclusive economic growth drives development by providing more resources for education, health, consumption, transport,

Introduction to “Insights into Egypt’s Strategy to Meet …

and water and energy infrastructure. Its lead to new and better employment opportunities. But it is not sustainable when countries are depleting their natural resources for sake of economic growth and thus shifting the burden of environmental degradation and damage to future generations. This chapter shows that rise of nominal wages above inflation rate then consumers have disposable to more spend. Increased export spending leads to higher economics growth. And the deliberate downward adjustment of the value of local currency relative to another currency it's making exports cheaper and imports more expensive. Also, shows that Egypt has workers in the public sector and workers in the private sector and another group that works informally and which consists of a large number none be represented in unions means. This chapter recommended that Egypt must be to do decrease the interest rates Lower, and borrowing cost, Increase consumer, and investment spending, Increase the real wages, deliberate downward adjustment of the value of local currency relative to another currency, increasing domestic demand, Development of technology, e.g. Internet, and computers, etc. Improved the workers skills, increasing the supply of labor by raise the retirement age. The chapter titled “Proposed Guidelines for Planning of Egyptian Fishing Ports”. To achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs), Egypt’s government works to make Egypt a safe competing country that attracts international investors. Improving the efficiency of coastal fisheries is considered one of the Egyptian strategic proposed plans in 2030. It is expected that promoting the Egyptian coastal fishing ports infrastructure, considering the environmental issues, will support their operation more eco-efficient and sustainable and enhance the SDGs 8, 9, and 14. Unfortunately, Egypt’s current planning and design methods tend to lack basic data and depend too much on the experience of a few individuals. However, the planning and design of new fishing port structures or improving the infrastructures of existing ones must conform to scientific laws and principles

7

respecting the environmental regulations and the UNSDGs. This chapter presents the proposed guidelines for planning a fishing port, covering different planning aspects. It includes water area planning, land area planning, environmental factors, and fishing port management structure and duties. The chapter titled “The Impact of HumanInduced in Mining Operations on the Increased Risk of Torrents in the Wadi Allaqi Basin”. The Wadi Allaqi Basin is of great importance in Egypt. On the Sudanese side, it is called the Wadi Jupgbah Basin. The basin has many natural characteristics and economic resources, making it a nature reserve on the Egyptian side. In the Wadi Allaqi basin, excavation, hunting and other human activities are prohibited. The basin in Egypt is a natural reserve characterized by its economic resources. The Wadi Allaqi Basin drains into Lake Nasser. It originates from the Red Sea ridge, which is characterized by geologic formations rich in precious minerals such as gold. It is characterized by its geographical location and natural vegetation, with diverse geological and terrain characteristics. Egypt looks forward to increasing the development process in the Wadi Allaqi basin so as not to harm or disrupt normal life. Because the Wadi Allaqi Basin and the Jupgbah between Egypt and the Sudan are rich in mineral and precious ores such as gold and other minerals and granite rocks used for marble and other works, the Sudanese side has exploited large parts of the basin in the search and exploration of minerals. This is lead to cutting large parts of valleys, hills and ridges and changing the morphological features of the drainage network. This could expose the region to the threat of torrential rain and the erosion of the soil, which is broken up with the waters of the rain water, towards the Egyptian side. This exposes Egypt’s development processes and protected areas to the problem and threat of torrent sediments. Unlike the Sudanese side, the parts of the Wadi Allaqi basin on the Egyptian side have been protected by the law to annex the Wadi Allaqi area on the Egyptian side to be a protected

8

area in Egypt. This study is one of the studies in which the technology of GIS and RS has been utilized to recognize mining and quarrying areas in the basin and to study the risks of floods to the region and the effect of the runoff of mining deposits with torrential water on the development in Egypt. The chapter titled “Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability of Egyptian Cities”. The quality of life in Sustainable cities and communities (Goal 11) is inextricably linked to how they use and manage the natural resources at their disposal. So, the objective of this chapter is to study the climate considerations in the planning and sustainability of the Egyptian Cities. Egypt has been characterized by its appropriate and important geographical location, with the importance of Egypt’s geographical location lying in its ruins on two important maritime outlets, the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, which in turn facilitated the process of trade between three continents—Asia, Africa and Europe. Solar radiation rates averaged 486.1–418.1– 421.5 cal/cm2/day for northern city stations (Cairo-Alexandria-Port Said). From the south to the north, relative humidity has risen from the summer to winter. Annual relative humidity values of 45%, 53.2%, 47.6%, and 46.0% have been recorded in northern Egypt's Cairo, Alexandria, Port Said, and Marsa Matruh. In the north of Egypt, annual wind velocity rates in time and space between the regions of Egypt were roughly 3.10, 2.90, and 2.81 m/s at Marsa Matruh, Alexandria, and Port Said stations, respectively. It was 1.5 in Cairo. It was roughly 4.4, 2.80 m/s in the central region of Mansoura, Bani Suef, and Arish, respectively. From the south to the north, relative humidity has risen from the summer to winter. Annual relative humidity values of 45%, 53.2%, 47.6%, and 46.0% have been recorded in northern Egypt’s Cairo, Alexandria, Port Said, and Marsa Matruh. In the north of Egypt, annual wind velocity rates in time and space between the regions of Egypt were roughly 3.10, 2.90, and 2.81 m/s at Marsa Matruh, Alexandria, and Port Said stations,

E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm

respectively. It was 1.5 in Cairo. It was roughly 4.4, 2.80 m/s in the central region of Mansoura, Bani Suef, and Arish, respectively. The chapter titled “Education for Sustainable Development, Best Practices Towards Fulfilling Egypt’s Vision 2030”. This chapter provides theoretical background about the sustainable development goals SDGs from which Egypt’s Vision 2030 is derived. Many efforts have been made to raise the awareness of the SDGs in different educational institutions in Egypt. This chapter sheds the light on some of the initiatives aiming at achieving the SDGs utilizing principles of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). Three case studies are presented where SDGs were introduced in elementary, graduate, and post graduate curricula. Insights for future implementations are discussed. The chapter titled “Life Under Lake Nasser: Water Quality as Means to Achieving the Egypt’s Agenda 2030”. Nasser Lake is one of the world's largest man-made lakes. It has been crucial to Egypt for several decades because of the country’s secure water supply. Underwater life (Goal 14) in Lake Nasser is under threat (e.g., due to pollution), leading dwindling fisheries and coastal habitats loss. As a result, the water quality of Lake Nasser must be thoroughly researched, and changes in physico-chemical parameters in Lake Nasser water must be monitored regularly and appraised. The current state of the physicochemical water parameters of Lake Nasser in Egypt is described in this study. The research was extremely helpful in determining the water quality situation in Lake Nasser and identifying the characteristics that need to be monitored on a regular basis. Thirteen (13) samples of water were analyzed for physical and chemical properties. Kalabsha, KhourKalabsha, Gurf Hussein, El Alaaki, El Madeek, Wadi El Arab, Ebreem, Toushka, KhourToushka, Abu Simble, Adendan, Sara, and Arkeen were all used to gather these samples. The purpose was to find out the compatibility of properties and its utilities. The parameters were tested are Temperature, Hydrogen-ion concentration (pH), Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Turbidity, Nitrate, Dissolved Oxygen

Introduction to “Insights into Egypt’s Strategy to Meet …

(DO) and Total Hardness (TH). The study showed that the temperatures of the samplesare suitable environment for animal and plant aquatic life (less than 40 °C). The temperatures of the samplesare suitable environment for drinking water in all water samples instead of Kalabsha and GurfHussin (more than 35 °C). The water is basic in all water samples. All water samples are less than the permissible limits of EC, TDS, DO and TH. Thus, water in Lake Nasser is suitable to aquatic life and fish. In relation to the percentage of turbidity, in Kalabsha, KhourKalabsha, GurfHussin, El Alaaki, El Madeek, WadiAlarab, Ebreem and KhourToushka, turbidity is less than 5 NTU. As a result of, it is usually acceptable to consumers and the disinfection is more effective. But in Toushka, Abu Simple, Adendan, Sara and Arkeen, turbidity is more than 5 NTU. As a result of, it isn’t usually acceptable to consumers and the disinfection isn’t effective. In relation to the percentage of Nitrate, all water samples are less than 10 ppm of nitrates in drinking water and thus are safe to use. The chapter titled “Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation Along the High Dam Lake, Egypt”. SDG target 15.3 on land degradation objectivity includes combating desertification, rehabilitating damaged land and soil, particularly land affected by desertification, drought, and floods, and striving for a land degradation-free world. Soils play a vital role in this goal and targets because they are at the crossroads of the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere, with six essential functions for humans and the environment— particularly the nexus of soils, plants, animals, and human health, which is an important asset in achieving global sustainable development. Concern for the land's well-being is frequently linked to one’s physical, economic, or cultural proximity to the land. The high Dam Lake shores in Egypt that are subject to flooding in most years are forming an area of about 5000 km2. This area is exposed after flood water subsidence. Because of some terms in Egypt- Sudan Nile

9

agreement, no water is permitted to be drawn from the lake for irrigation or any other use except if water level in the lake exceeds 180 m height. For this reason and because of the area of subsidence, farmers, amateurs and procurers tried to use the residual moisture left in the soil in cultivating some crops and fodder plants. This study aims at evaluating the possibility of practicing cultivation and probably other related activities. The importance of this study became visible when the government initiated the Tushka project in the region. Also, the need of sustainable development of the area is urgent for a Community depending only on fishing. Forty four surface and subsurface soil samples were collected from 11 sites along the western and eastern sides of the lake. Some chemical and physical studies together with some moisture characteristics were studied in these samples. The findings reveal that the soils are deficient in organic matter and phosphate and nitrogen. As a result, fertilizer use is unavoidable. The soils investigated are all sandy, non-saline, and deep to fairly deep. With the exception of some soils in the Kalabsha and Tushka depressions, which have loamy sand to sandy loam texture. Sand and loamy sandy soils have specific moisture characteristics. The capacity of the fields varies between 7.7 and 16.1%. The amount of available moisture is also low, ranging from 5 to 9% in most soils, but reaching 11–12% in the Kalabsha and Tushka depressions. Inundation increased the amount of water available due to an increase in silt and clay. However, land use should take into account the limited capacity of accessible water. In the first stage, the gradual sinking of the water level would allow for the cultivation of 50,000 fed. With the continual drop in water level, new region of varying dimensions might be cultivated. The area farmed would be controlled if the soil reached wilting threshold. Because there are just two months available for cultivation, it will be limited to fodder plants. The book ends with the conclusions and recommendations chapter conclusions, and recommendations.

10 Acknowledgements The writers (editors) this chapter would like to acknowledge the authors of the chapters for their efforts during the different phases of the book including their inputs in this chapter. This second editor acknowledges the support provided by Science, Technology, and Innovation Funding Authority (STIFA) of Egypt, Grant No. (30771) and the British Council (BC) of UK, Grant No. (332435306) through the project titled “A Novel Standalone Solar-Driven Agriculture GreenhouseDesalination System: That Grows its Energy and Irrigation Water” via the Newton-Mosharafa funding scheme, call 4.

E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm

5.

6.

7.

8.

References 1. Ministry of International Cooperation (2015) Egypt National review report for input to the 2016 HLPF. National voluntary review on the sustainable development goals 2. Egyptian Constitution (2014). https://www.constitute project.org/constitution/Egypt_2014.pdf 3. Egypt Vision 2030. www.sdsegypt2030.com 4. Lorek S, Spangenberg JH (2014) Sustainable consumption within a sustainable economy: beyond

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10.

green growth and green economies. J Clean Prod 62:33–44 Gupta J, Baud ISA (2015) Sustainable development. In: Pattberg P, Zelli F (eds) Encyclopedia of global environmental politics and governance. Edward Elgar, Cheltenham, pp 61–72 Biltagy M (2019) Human capital, labor market frictions and migration in Egypt. Appl Econ Int Dev 19–2:107–130 Biltagy M (2019) Gender wage disparities in Egypt: evidence from ELMPS 2006 and 2012. Qy Rev Econ Finan 73C:14–23 Amin-Salem H et al (2018) Sustainable development goal diagnostics: the case of the Arab Republic of Egypt. Policy Research Working Paper 8463. Office of the Senior Vice President UN Relations and Partnerships June 2018 Ministry of Planning and Economic Development (2021a); United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) (2021) Racha Ramadan (2022) The state of the Sustainable Development Goals in Egypt: focus on poverty and inequality. In: Mohieldin M (ed) Financing sustainable development in Egypt report. Cairo, League of Arab States

Overview of the Poverty, Food Security and Nutrition Situation in Egypt Mona A. Outhman and El-Sayed E. Omran

Abstract

Food security is a significant concern for Egypt’s government. This chapter examines the country’s food security situation, highlighting the major elements affecting both food demand and supply. The study found that the economic situation, as assessed by GDP per capita and urbanization are key predictors of food access and usage, using data from many sources (World Development Indicators and FAOSTAT). Food access and use in Egypt deteriorated during crisis years, such as the years after the uprising of 2011. Following a 7% higher in GDP growth in 2006, the Egyptian economy contracted to 5.1% in 2009/2010. In 2012/2013, the drop in poverty rates from 2010/2011 to 2012/2013 was 2.1 thousand pounds per capita per year. Nevertheless, the annual per capita income was 2.6 thousand dollars. It was 3.9 thousand in 2015, and Egypt saw the highest decrease in poverty rates in 2017/2018, with a per capita annual income of 5, 9 thousand. In 2017/2018, the

M. A. Outhman Institute of African Research and Studies and Nile Basin Countries, Aswan University, Aswan, Egypt E.-S. E. Omran (&) Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

per capita poverty line was £736 per month, or £8827 per year, while the absolute poverty line was £491 per month, or £5890 per year. Port Said, Western, and Damietta in Egypt's Northern provinces are the least poor, with 7.6%, 9.4%, and 14.6% poverty rates, respectively, while southern Egypt stays the worst of the sub-prefectures. The adoption of the economic reform programme during the same period is the critical driver for Egypt's high poverty rate of 4.7%. In 2004/2005, average household income was 13.46,000 pounds, which climbed considerably to 20,000 pounds in 2008/2009, and remained nearly constant in the following years, in 2 years (2010/2011) and (2012/2013), respectively. The growth was indicated to be 1000 pounds (30.49/25.35) in 2015, rising to 44.19 thousand pounds in 2016, and recovering to 5,885,000 pounds in 2017/2018. 941 of Egypt’s 1000 poorest communities are in Upper Egypt, with the rest 20 settlements dispersed across the North. The poverty gap index was 35.3%, likened to 5.9% for rural Egypt as a whole. From 16% in 1999/2000 to 21.6% in 2008/2009, 25.2% in 2010/2011, 26.2% in 2012/2013, 27.8% in 2015, and 32.5% in 2017/2018. Keywords







Poverty Food security Malnutrition SDGs Hunger Egypt







© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_2


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M. A. Outhman and E.-S. E. Omran

Introduction

The North Africa and Middle East region suffer from several problems, the most important of which are poverty and food insecurity and ways to address them. Food security and poverty in Egypt and the Middle East are a growing challenge even before COVID-19. Over the past 10 years, several underlying motivations have resulted in the world's derailment of hunger, poverty, and malnutrition in all kinds over the last ten years. With the advent of the COVID-19 pandemic and the steps taken to manage it, these issues appear to be increasing. Egypt has experienced a number of challenges since the early 2000s. Egypt's rise in food insecurity, malnutrition, and poverty rates did not happen overnight, either this year or in previous years. Rising poverty rates and a series of crises since 2005 including; avian influenza in 2006, a food and fuel crisis in 2007, economic depression through 2009, a hard macroeconomic climate in recent years, and, most recently, COVID-19. Egypt’s economy is severely hampered by malnutrition. Undernutrition, which establishes itself in stunting, wasting, and micronutrient absences in children, as well as anemia in women of generative age, is expected to drain 1.9% of Egypt's annual gross domestic product (GDP) because of lost productivity and healthcare expenses, according to The Cost of Hunger in Egypt [1]. Food expenditures are to blame for Egypt's hunger; the majority of the populace can only afford the most basic of meals. According to a 2011 UN World Health Organization research, 31% of Egyptian children under the age of 5 years old had stunted growth, up from 23% in 2005. Malnutrition not only has an impact on brain development, but it also feeds into a loop that repeats and exacerbates Egypt's problems. Egypt has succeeded in expanding food availability at the national level, but it has struggled to tackle hunger, which continues to be one of the most pressing development issues. In light of the foregoing, the United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) and Egypt’s

Ministry of Agriculture and Land Reclamation have developed a project titled “Improving Household Food and Nutrition Security in Egypt by Targeting Women and Youth,” in which nutrition education is combined with food production and income-generating actions. There has been a large body of evidencebased knowledge about the core drivers behind latest changes in food security and nutrition in a struggle to know why hunger and malnutrition have reached such critical levels. Conflicts, climate variability, extreme climatic conditions, decelerations, and economic contractions are among the growing incentives, all of which are exacerbated by the underlying causes of poverty and extremely high and persistent levels of inequality. Furthermore, millions of people all over the world suffer from food insecurity and malnutrition as a result of their inability to afford good eating habits [2]. As a result, world leaders agreed on the Sustainable Development Plan 2030 in September 2015, an ambitious vision for a society free of poverty, hunger, sickness, and desire, where all forms of life can return. A society devoid of fear and violence, in which everyone is well-educated and has equitable access to high-quality education at all levels, as well as health care and social protection. A world where everyone is dedicated to ensuring that everyone has access to safe drinking water, sanitation, enhanced hygiene, and adequate, safe, and cheap food. A world in which cities and human settlements are safe and sustainable, and where everyone has access to energy that is inexpensive, reliable, and sustainable. It is a vision encapsulated in 17 strategic sustainable development goals and 169 indivisible targets. The second goal, on the eradication of hunger, the accomplishment of food security, the enhancement of nutrition, and the promotion of sustainable agriculture, is one of the most significant of the global sustainable development goals, and it is intended at measuring Egypt's progress toward this goal [2]. The question arises now is “Why do we care about studying the phenomenon of poverty?”

Overview of the Poverty, Food Security and Nutrition Situation in Egypt

Poverty is the main impediment to development and to raising economic growth. Poverty and deprivation are among the greatest threats to peace, political and social stability and security. It is considered a fertile environment in which all forms of extremism and unbridled opposition that can target any State can grow. Reducing this problem in all its forms is the first goal of the sustainable development goals agreed upon by all States in 2015. Egypt is unlikely to fulfill some of its UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030, particularly Goal One, which focuses on eradicating poverty in all of its forms, and Goal Two, which focuses on ending hunger, attaining food security, and enhancing nutrition. So, the purpose of the current chapter is to study the role of economic reform in poverty reduction and food security.

2

Poverty and Food Security

Poverty is defined as a situation in which an individual or a society lacks the financial means necessary to enjoy the lowest level of living and well-being in the society in which he or she lives. Extreme poverty is defined as an individual's access to less than $1 per day, as well as when a family's income fails to cover the fundamental necessities of its members. Food security is becoming a global concern, especially for net food importers. Food insecurity is a problem in developing countries, notably those in Africa. According to FAO assessments [3], 33 countries, including 26 African countries, need international food aid due to violence, crop failures, and high domestic food costs. The United Nations’ Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) expresses food security as “the provision of food in sufficient quantity and quality to meet the needs of all members of society on a continuous basis for a healthy and active life.” This description contrasts from the standard definition of food security, which is defined as the state's reliance on its resources and potential to meet its food demands locally.

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This difference makes the concept of food security as defined by FAO more consistent with the current economic shifts and the accompanying liberalization of international trade in food commodities. Egypt isn’t an outlier in this regard. Egypt, as a Low Income Food Deficit Country (LIFDC), has high poverty and unemployment rates, with 17% of Egyptians experiencing food insecurity in 2011. Egypt’s child stunting rate is higher than the regional average, ranging from 28 to 58% [3, 4]. The positive implementation of the National Programme for Economic and Social Reform, launched in November 2016, bolstered comprehensive planning and an ambitious vision for the future, outlined in “Sustainable development strategy: Egypt’s Vision 2030,” as the national version of the United Nations goals for sustainable development. During this time, Egypt introduced numerous macroeconomic legislative and institutional reforms, coordinated with the stabilization of fiscal and monetary policy, structural reform of many sectors, improvement of the business environment, intensification of investment in infrastructure projects, and stimulation of inclusive and sustainable private-sector-led economic growth. Once the fruits of these efforts were on the horizon, and the Egyptian economy began to recover, marked by many positive indicators, particularly in terms of growth and employment rates, until a new challenge emerged, represented by the corona virus pandemic, the crisis struck the world economy and introduced an unprecedented period of stagnation. The reform efforts undertaken by the Egyptian State in recent years have been instrumental in strengthening the resilience of the Egyptian economy in the face of this pandemic. This has also been reinforced by the rapid and effective response of the Egyptian Government to this crisis. The balance between the preservation of human health and the continuation of economic activity in dealing with this pandemic has been taken into account by the state, and the experience has received international acclaim.

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M. A. Outhman and E.-S. E. Omran

Poverty in Egypt

On the one hand, poverty is a phenomenon that increases more in rural communities than in cities. This is because rural areas are often far removed from the concentration of funds and the absence of the upper class of society. Illiteracy and lack of education are widespread in these communities, where the children of society attend less efficient schools than in the cities, and students may drop out of school; to help parents secure their needs. On the other hand, poverty is linked not only to the economic situation of low income and need, but also to many other social problems, such as: family disintegration, psychiatric illness and, most notably, depression. Egypt’s poverty rate is rising, especially in the south of the country. According to a human development survey, 22% of Egypt’s population is poor, with the majority of these people living in the southern regions [5] (Fig. 1). In 2015, a considerable proportion of Egypt’s population was impoverished (27.8%) or prone to slipping into poverty (an additional 28.7%); the majority of the poor and vulnerable resided in Upper Egypt’s governorates. Fig. 1 Distribution of poverty in Egypt [6]

In Egypt, a significant portion of the population, close to 30%, can be classified as middle class (Fig. 2). The middle class, in comparison to the poor and vulnerable, has a greater level of education, more assets, and better access to essential services, and spends a significant portion of their money on education and health. Enlarging the middle class in developing countries is definitely an aim in order to enhance the overall economy. However, the poor, vulnerable, and middle classes in Egypt all face some level of job insecurity: we find that a significant portion of each group works in the informal economy—the socalled grey market, which is not taxed or regulated in any way by the government and often consists of low-wage labor. Paid jobs, as well as micro and small entrepreneurial activity, are the most common sources of income for all three types of households. The groupings do, however, differ significantly in terms of geography (Fig. 2). The impoverished and vulnerable population is concentrated in Upper Egypt governorates, whereas the middle class is concentrated in Lower Egypt governorates and metropolitan

Overview of the Poverty, Food Security and Nutrition Situation in Egypt

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Fig. 2 Population shares of the poor, vulnerable, and middle class [7]

areas. Even within governorates, recent estimates of poverty at the district and village levels demonstrate considerable spatial disparities in poverty. As a result, increasing general prosperity will require a regional component. Poverty in most societies is caused by several factors, notably: The exclusion from spiritual values, which has led to the absence of compassion and interdependence among people, and the principles of religion, by contrast, are fading among individuals. The children of society are no longer harmonious, feeling what happens to their relatives and their sons-in-law, and becoming human without regard to others. The prevalence of a bad consumer is pattern among members of society. We see the people of society scrambling to acquire essential and unnecessary fundamentals. This has resulted in citizens borrowing from financial institutions to secure these requirements, thus creating a debt overburden.

4

Study Results

4.1 Economic Reform in Egypt The past years have seen a commitment on the Government to introduce numerous reforms in

various areas. The present Constitution confirmed the equitable distribution of the benefits of development and the reduction of income disparities and geographically, sectorally and environmentally balanced growth. The Government's programmes have worked to improve Egyptian human life and development. That is the main objective of all development policies and programmes. The International Monetary Fund (IMF), in its successive reports on the follow-up to the reform programme of the Egyptian economy, states that the Egyptian economy continues to perform well despite less positive global conditions, resulting in a growth rate of 4.5% in the 2020/2021 financial year, a budget deficit of 6.7% of GDP and unemployment of 3.7% in the same yea. Despite the success of many economic and financial reforms, challenges remain. The wars and conflicts that have taken place in some countries, and citizens have sought refuge in other regions. The refugee has left everything behind in his homeland. One of the most important objectives of sustainable development is to focus on such central issues as reducing poverty, reducing inequalities and ensuring gender and other equality. However, human development can be said to help achieve

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sustainable development in general, but it exceeds the universal sustainable development goals set by the end of 2030. A number of incentives to promote human development are economic and social reforms that promote economic and containment growth, poverty reduction and well-being. Although poverty rates declined to 7.29% in 2019/2020, compared to 5.32% in 2017/2018, the first time poverty rates have fallen in 20 years, they still need more supportive programmes to sustain this downward trend in poverty rates. Figure 3 shows the performance of some macroeconomic variables evolved before 2014/2015, in Egypt. After a rise in GDP growth rates of 7% in 2006, the Egyptian economy declined to 5.1% in 2009/2010 (Fig. 3). The debate at the time was about the inequitable distribution of growth to different segments of society. The inflation rate reached its lowest level of 5.5% and the gross domestic saving rate reached 14.3%.The domestic investment rate was 17.1%. Before 2009/2010, the average per capita income growth rate was 3.1%.

M. A. Outhman and E.-S. E. Omran

4.2 Poverty Rate Table 1 and Fig. 4 show the Poverty Rate in Egypt before 2014/2015. Egypt is distributed into 27 governorates, which are usually classified into five or seven major areas (Urban Governorates, Urban Lower Egypt, Rural Lower Egypt, Urban Upper Egypt, Rural Upper Egypt, Urban Frontiers, and Rural Frontiers). Table 2 shows the proportion of poor people in rural areas of south Egypt is 56.7%, followed by the attendance of the rural of North Egypt, which is 27.4%. The rural of Lower Egypt countryside and Maritime Provinces, and the urban Lower Egypt, which is the lowest poverty rate of the tribal face, respectively (19.7%, 15.1%, 9.7%). Table 3 and Fig. 5 show the average poverty line was 736 guineas per person per month and the characteristics, age and quality structure and place of residence of each family. Whereas a family of two adults needs £1667 a month to be able to meet their needs. The family of two adults and two children is £2691. The family of two adults and three children is £3225 a month.

Fig. 3 Economic situations in Egypt before the national programme for economic and social reform [8]

Overview of the Poverty, Food Security and Nutrition Situation in Egypt Table 1 Poverty rate evolution% [9]

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Table 2 Poverty rate in Egypt’s regions in 2015 [10]

Year

Poverty rate

Item

2015

2009/2008

21.6

Urban governorates

15.1

2011/2010

25.2

Lower urban

9.7

2013/2012

26.3

Lower rural

19.7

Upper urban

27.4

Upper rural

56.7

Total

27.8

The proportion of the poor reached the highest in 2018/2017 to 32.5% while in 2000/1999 the proportion of the poor was 16.7%, in 2005/04 it increased to 19.6%, in 2011/2010 it became 25.2% and in 2015 it increased to 27.8% (Fig. 5). From the Table 4, it appears that the decline in poverty rates in 2011/2010 was 2.1 thousand pounds per capita per year in 2013/2012. However, per capita per year was 2.6 thousand. In 2015, it was 3.9 thousand, and in 2018/2017 the largest decline in the poverty rate occurred in Egypt, where per capita per year was 5.9 thousand. Table 5 shows the decline in poverty rates even though it was initially a slight decline 3.1 thousand pounds in 2010/2011, and then there was a slight increase in 2013/2012 to 3.9 thousand pounds. In 2015, the per capita year was 5.8 thousand pounds, followed by the apparent decline in 2018/2017, when per capita per year increased to 8.8 thousand pounds. Table 6 shows average household income in 2005/2004, which was 13.46000 pounds and increased significantly in 2008/2009 up to 20,000 pounds, and the increase in the following years

Fig. 4 Poverty rate by aggregate poverty measurement (1999/2000– 2015)

remained almost constant, in two years (2011/2010) and (2013/2012) respectively. The increase was as reported (30.49/25.35) 1000 pounds, higher in 2015 to 44.19 thousand pounds, and in 2018/2017 the average annual household income recovered to 5,885,000 pounds.

4.3 Poverty and Deprivation in Rural Upper Egypt Figure 6 demonstrates that 941 of Egypt’s poorest villages are in Upper Egypt, with the left behind 59 villages dispersed across the North. The population densities in these governorates are also shown in Fig. 6. In addition to the set of poverty indicators depicted in Egypt’s poverty map, which show that 94% of the poorest villages in rural Egypt are located in the south, it is critical to highlight the most acute signs of deficiency.

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M. A. Outhman and E.-S. E. Omran

Table 3 Poverty line per capita for the year 2017/2018 [9] Territories

Extreme poverty line

The physical poverty line

Urban provinces

6065

9280

Urban Lower Egypt

5668

8537

Lower Egypt countryside

5902

8673

Urban Upper Egypt

5752

8728

Rural Upper Egypt

5896

8866

The border Urban

5924

8569

The border countryside

6305

8979

Year

5890

8827

Month

491

736

Total Republic

Fig. 5 Proportion of poor in 1999/2000 to 2018/2017 [9]

Table 4 The value of the line of extreme poverty per capita per year [10]

Table 6 Average annual household income [10] Year

Numbers in 1000 pounds

2004/2005

13.46

2009/2008

20.25

2.6

2011/2010

25.35

2015

3.9

2013/2012

30.49

2018/2017

5.9

2015

44.19

2018/2017

58.85

Year

Numbers in 1000 pounds

2011/2010

2.1

2013/2012

Table 5 Value of national poverty line per capita per year [10] Year

4.4 Poverty in the Poorest Villages of Egypt

Numbers in 1000 pounds

2011/2010

3.1

2013/2012

3.9

2015

5.8

2018/2017

8.8

We refer to the research conducted by ELTawila et al., [12] using a representative sample of 141 villages out of the thousand when we emphasis on income and spending among the one thousand poorest villages. According to the

Overview of the Poverty, Food Security and Nutrition Situation in Egypt

19

Fig. 6 Egypt’s 1000 poorest villages in poverty within governorates [11]

findings, a person in Egypt was labeled poor if he or she spent less than LE 197 per month (LE 2364 per year) on average, and ultra-poor if they spent less than LE 148 per month (LE 1776 per year). According to the data, the average monthly per capita consumption in the 141 villages was just LE 131 per month (LE 1572 per year), well below the LE 148 per month/LE 1776 per year criteria for escaping extreme poverty. In addition, unlike Egypt’s overall shallow poverty (where the majority of the poor congregate around the poverty line), poverty in these villages is deep. The poverty gap index was 35.3%, compared to 5.9% for rural Egypt as a whole. The poverty gap is the average difference between the poverty line and the nonpoor, given as a percentage of the poverty line. This metric indicates both the severity and the prevalence of poverty.

4.5 Egypt’s Poverty Rate Egypt’s poverty rate has risen to 32.5%. Based on an examination of income, expenditure, consumption and the poverty map, a sample of 26,000 families represented in every province of Egypt. The Egyptian Central Bureau of Public Mobilization and Statistics announced an increase in the rate of poverty in Egypt to 32.5%

Table 7 Rate of increase in Egypt Rate of increase (%)

2018/2017 (%)

2016/2015 (%)

4.7

32.5

27.8

in 2017/2018, an increase of 4.7% over 2015/2016, as shown in the Table 7 and Fig. 7. The main reason for Egypt’s high poverty rate of 4.7% is the application of the economic reform programme in the same period. Table 8 shows that the northern provinces of Egypt in Port Said, Western and Damietta are the least poor at 7.6%, 9.4% and 14.6% respectively, while southern Egypt remains the poorest of the sub-prefectures. Distribution of the Poorest 1000 Villages by Province Figure 8 and Table 9 show that the northern provinces of Egypt in Port Said, Western and Damietta are the least poor at 7.6%, 9.4% and 14.6% respectively, while southern Egypt remains the poorest of the sub-prefectures. The number of poor villages in each province is among the 100 poorest. Table 10 and Fig. 9 show the suffering of Upper Egypt villages as the poorest of the 100 most impoverished villages. The villages in Sohag Province were at the forefront of 236 villages, which is 87% of the province’s villages.

20

M. A. Outhman and E.-S. E. Omran

7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 South Sinai Red Sea Marsa Matruh Suez North Sinai Port Said Cairo Alexandria Aswan Giza Average Republic Ismailia Qena Al Qalyubia Asyut Ash Sharqia Menofia New Valley Gharbia El Beheira Dakahlia Damiea Beni Suef Kafr El-Shaikh Minya Faiyum Luxor Sohag

0

Fig. 7 Proportion of the population below the national poverty line in each province

Table 8 Provincial poverty ratio 2017/2018 [10] Governorate

Average monthly wage (1000£)

Proportion of the population below the national poverty line

Governorate

Average monthly wage (£1000)

Proportion of the population below the national poverty line (%)

South Sinai

6952

Ash Sharqia

2803

24.30

Red Sea

6681

Border governorates 51.5% on average

Menofia

2705

26.00

Marsa Matruh

6446

New Valley

2681

51.50

Suez

6126

Gharbia

2622

9.40

North Sinai

6053

Dakahlia

2529

15.20

Port Said

4579

7.60 (%)

El Beheira

2585

47.70

Cairo

4156

31.10 (%)

Damietta

2529

14.70

Alexandria

3831

21.80 (%)

Beni Suef

2329

34.40

Aswan

3808

46.20 (%)

Kafr ElShaikh

2305

17.30

Giza

3766

34.00 (%)

Minya

2207

54.70

Ismailia

3257

32.40 (%)

Faiyum

2205

55.30

Qena

3007

41.20 (%)

Luxor

2190

26.40

Al Qalyubia

2991

20.10 (%)

Sohag

2061

59.60

Asyut

2822

66.70

Average Republic

3496

32.50

Overview of the Poverty, Food Security and Nutrition Situation in Egypt

21

25.00% 20.00% 15.00% 10.00% 5.00%

Faiyum

Kafr El-Shaikh

Beni Suef

Damiea

Gharbia

Menofia

Alexandria

Dakahlia

Ash Sharqia

Ismailia

Red Sea

Al Qalyubia

Luxor

Giza

Marsa Matruh

New Valley

Aswan

Qena

El Beheira

Minya

Asyut

Sohag

0.00%

Fig. 8 Number of poor villages in each province is among the 100 poorest

Table 9 Distribution of the poorest 1000 villages by province [13] Governorate

Number of poor villages in each province

Ratio (%)

Governorate

Number of poor villages in each province

Ratio (%)

Sohag

236

23.60

Red Sea

7

0.70

Asyut

207

20.70

Ismailia

6

0.60

Minya

163

16.30

Ash Sharqia

5

0.50

El Beheira

155

15.50

Dakahlia

5

0.50

Qena

60

6

Alexandria

4

0.40

Aswan

39

3.90

Menofia

0

0

New Valley

30

3

Gharbia

0

0

Marsa Matruh

27

2.70

Damietta

0

0

Giza

26

2.60

Beni Suef

0

0

Luxor

22

2.20

Kafr El-Shaikh

0

0

Al Qalyubia

8

0.80

Faiyum

0

0

The proportion of the poor increased from 16 in 1999/2000 to 21.6 in 2008/2009 to 25.2% in 2010/2011, 26.2% in 2012/2013, 27.8% in 2015 and 32.5% in 2017/2018. The report also showed that the per capita poverty line rate in 2017/2018 was £736 per

month, equivalent to £8827 per year, while the absolute poverty line was £491 per month, equivalent to £5890 per year. The global poverty line is reported to be $1.9 per person per day, according to the latest World Bank figures released in 2015.

22

M. A. Outhman and E.-S. E. Omran

Table 10 Proportion of poor people in the period from 1999/2000 to 2017/2018 [13] Time period

Incidence of extreme poverty (%)

1999/2000

2.90

2004/2005

3.60

2008/2009

6.10

2010/2011

4.80

2012/2013

4.40

2015

5.30

2017/2018

6.20

Table 11 and Fig. 10 show an increase in the proportion of the poor in all regions except Rural Tribal Face, which experienced a 4.8% decline.

4.6 Economic Reform Programme For years, Egypt had adopted a harsh economic reform programme, as part of a plan to obtain a $12 billion loan from the World Bank, the most notable of which had been the complete and abrupt liberalization of the exchange rate of the Egyptian pound against foreign exchange, or so-

called foreign exchange. “Floating,” at the end of 2016, resulted in the loss of the Egyptian currency nearly 60% of its value at that time, and the program also included consecutive increases in the price of fuel, electricity and water, followed by increases in the price of all goods and services. Inflation has reached record rates in Egypt in recent years, reaching 33% after floating, but has recently fallen below 10%, according to official figures. The exchange rate of the Egyptian pound is currently around £15.7 to the dollar, up from £8.88 per dollar just before floating.

4.6.1 National Reform Following the 2013 Revolution After the stabilization of the political situation following the revolution of 2013, the entire State system has turned to stabilize the State and its institutions after many State institutions have been exposed. To lay the foundations for the new path to development, some important and fundamental changes were needed. The Constitution was announced in January 2014 as a new contract between the state and the people.

7.00%

6.00%

5.00%

4.00%

3.00%

2.00%

1.00%

0.00% 1999/ 2000

2004/ 2005

Fig. 9 Incidence of extreme poverty

2008/ 2009

2010/ 2011

2012/ 2013

2015

2017/ 2018

Overview of the Poverty, Food Security and Nutrition Situation in Egypt

23

Table 11 Change in rural and urban poverty in 2017/2018 compared to 2015 [13] Territory

2017/2018 (%)

2015 (%)

Difference (%)

Total Republic

32.50

27.76

4.74

Urban

24.58

16.90

7.68

Rural

38.39

35.95

2.44

Urban governorates

26.73

15.11

11.62

Urban Lower Egypt

14.31

9.67

4.64

Rural Lower Egypt

27.29

19.71

7.58

Urban Upper Egypt

30.02

27.40

2.62

Rural Upper Egypt

51.49

56.70

−4.76

A social contract that responds to the demands of Egyptians, as clearly stated in article 27 of the Constitution and its contents. • Egyptians’ right to a dignified existence in all of its dimensions. • Achieving prosperity in the country through sustainable development. • Reducing unemployment. • Poverty eradication. • An equitable sharing of development aids and a reduction in income inequities. • Paying special care to small and mediumsized businesses.

• The importance of maximizing investment in human energy in the context of human development. • Raise the standard of living. • Increased employment opportunities. On the one hand, for the first time, the Constitution has established percentages of GNP for some important services in the State, limiting government spending to health (3%), education (4%), higher education (2%), and scientific research (1%) as these facilities are among the most significant components of human development. The Ministry of Planning and Economic

60.00% 50.00% 40.00% 30.00% 20.00% 10.00% 0.00% -10.00%

2017/ 2018

2015

Difference

Fig. 10 Change in rural and urban poverty in 2017/2018 compared to 2015

24

Development, on the other hand, has launched the National Sustainable Development Strategy (Vision 2030) in collaboration with government, corporate sector, civil society, and academic specialists. The State has made sure that this vision is consistent with the United Nations Goals for Sustainable Development as well as Africa Agenda 2063. One of the most important objectives of this strategy is for Egypt to be one of the world’s 30 largest economies by 2030, with three dimensions: economic, social and environmental. It was divided into 10 axes, each with a set of targets and indicators to measure the implementation of these goals. But for the economic conditions following the January 2011 revolution, it was only in the context of the pre-revolutionary economic performance that the State had to achieve its development goals, which were enshrined in the Constitution and the sustainable development strategy, that a reform programme was put in place. In August 2016, it succeeded in obtaining a loan from the Pro-Prime Monetary Fund ($12 billion) to pave the way for sustainable long-term development. A large number of national projects have been launched in many areas and in all geographical regions simultaneously. These projects, included in the Sustainable Development Strategy Vision 2030 as a requirement to achieve the National Programme for Economic, Social and Structural Reform, are among the major national projects that helped reduce unemployment and poverty after the revolution of 2013 and early 2014.

4.6.2 Development of the Suez Canal Hub The New Suez Canal excavation project was completed in 2014–2015 with purely Egyptian national funding by offering 64 billion pounds worth of investment certificates. The idea of creating the new channel was based on maximizing the use of its current branches with a view to maximizing the duplication of the two-way navigation corridor, which reducing ship transit times and increasing ship transit capacity. The Suez Canal Hub Development Project is based

M. A. Outhman and E.-S. E. Omran

on the exploitation of its current potential in its ports, the development of industrial and logistical zones and the creation of seven tunnels to connect the Sinai to the rest of Egypt’s territory, with the goal of transforming Egypt into a global economic and logistical center, inviting foreign investment, and allowing national companies to contribute in the project's operation.

4.6.3 National Sinai Development Project The project's goal is to build residential communities east of Port Said and in Ismailia and New Suez, as well as to set up over 77 thousand housing units, a network of roadways, and industrial regions and fish farms on the Sinai Peninsula. 4.6.4 The Million and a Half Million Acres Project The project’s goal is to exploit desert lands, expand agricultural land, re-map the state's population by increasing urban space, create combined modern urban communities, exploit the use of Egypt’s groundwater resources, and cultivate economic crops that produce major financial returns and contribute to closing the food gap, as well as the creation of many industries related to agricultural activity, livestock, and food industries for a more sustainable future. This is one of the state’s most visible national initiatives aiming at enhancing the condition of existing highways, constructing new roads, improving infrastructure, and establishing new urban areas. The overall length of the national road network is set to be 30,000 km. In order to absorb the increasing volume of traffic and achieve traffic liquidity, quite a lot of initiatives have been implemented in the context of the State's interest in Rod El Farag. The initiatives involved the construction and duplication of new roads, the development and upgrade of methods, the operation of six axes on the Nile, and the building of the El Dabaa and Galala Roads. A number of projects targeted at the overall development of railways have also been proposed by the government. Several projects to exploit Egypt’s unique geographical

Overview of the Poverty, Food Security and Nutrition Situation in Egypt

location have also been implemented in the port sector. By reporting global competitiveness from 128 to 28th, Egypt’s road quality index rating has improved. This project includes the administrative capital assessed at the highest global level, the new city of both worlds, which is part of the integrated urban tourism projects and the, and the new city of East Port-Said, which has an industrial sector. There's also His Galala’s North ElGalala City, which boasts a slew of tourist and social projects, including His Galala University and the world’s first Olympic village. Egypt's first model city, Ismailia, is sympathetic to those with superior requirements. Suez’s new city is the first step in Sinai's development and one of the first measures toward eradicating terrorism in the Sinai urban community.

4.6.5 National Energy Project The State has sought to provide all the required energy sources and give greater attention to clean energy. The State has also sought to develop the national electricity grid and control stations to receive an additional 2600 MW from Siemens and El Dabaa stations. The State has been able to overcome the Electricity Blackout phenomenon by implementing 169 projects at a total cost of about 308 billion pounds. Ten power transmission and distribution stations have also been set up, and the existing ones have not been overlooked, but have been cared for by providing maintenance and fuel for their operation, which has helped bridge the gap between production and consumption. In the petroleum sector, 69 projects were implemented, with 186 discoveries and a number of projects for the development of gas and petroleum fields contributing to economic returns and the production of petroleum products to meet the needs of the domestic market and export of surplus. Egypt’s economic reforms had aided in boosting growth, lowering unemployment, increasing foreign exchange reserves, and reducing governmental debt. These reforms

25

attempted to achieve more sustainable growth and social containment in order to raise living standards for all Egyptians.

5

Conclusions and Future Direction

After a rise in GDP growth rates of 7% in 2006, the Egyptian economy declined to 5.1% in 2009/2010. The decline in poverty rates in 2010/2011 was 2.1 thousand pounds per capita per year in 2012/2013. However, per capita per year was 2.6 thousand. In 2015, it was 3.9 thousand, and in 2017/2018 the largest decline in the poverty rate occurred in Egypt, where per capita per year was 5.9 thousand. The per capita poverty line rate in 2017/2018 was £736 per month, equivalent to £8827 per year, while the absolute poverty line was £491 per month, equivalent to £5890 per year. The northern provinces of Egypt in Port Said, Western and Damietta are the least poor at 7.6%, 9.4% and 14.6% respectively, while southern Egypt remains the poorest of the sub-prefectures. The main reason for Egypt’s high poverty rate of 4.7% is the application of the economic reform programme in the same period. Average household income in 2004/2005, was 13.46000 pounds and increased significantly in 2008/2009 up to 20,000 pounds, and the increase in the following years remained almost constant, in two years (2010/2011) and (2012/2013) respectively. The increase was as reported (30.49/25.35) 1000 pounds, higher in 2015 to 44.19 thousand pounds, and in 2017/2018 the average annual household income recovered to 5,885,000 pounds. 941 of Egypt’s 1000 poorest communities are in Upper Egypt, with the left over 59 settlements dispersed across the North. The poverty gap index was 35.3%, linked to 5.9% for rural Egypt as a whole. The proportion of the poor increased from 16 in 1999/2000 to 21.6 in 2008/2009 to 25.2% in 2010/2011, 26.2% in 2012/2013, 27.8% in 2015 and 32.5% in 2017/2018.

26

References 1. IDSC, Egyptian Cabinet Information and Decision Support Center (2014) The Cost of Hunger in Egypt: implications of child undernutrition on the social and economic development of Egypt. Cairo 2. FAO (2021) The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2021. Transforming diets to achieve Food security, improved nutrition and provision healthy and affordable diets for all. Rome https:// www.fao.org/3/cb4474ar/cb4474ar.pdf 3. FAO (2014) Egypt Country Brief. http://www.fao. org/giews/countrybrief/country.jsp?code=EGY 4. Ghoneim AF (2014) Egypt and Subsidies: A Country living beyond its Means. Middle East Institute 5. UNDP (2010) Egypt human development report in United Nations development programme. In: H Handoussa (ed) Institute of National Planning, Cairo 6. Salem M, Taher O (2016) A new map for urban development in Egypt, depending on mega projects of renewable energy. Conference paper

M. A. Outhman and E.-S. E. Omran 7. HIECS HI, Expenditure, and Consumption Survey (2015) 8. Ministry of Finance (2020) Monthly financial report. December 2020 9. El-Laithy H (2019) Analysis of poverty indicators from income, expenditure and consumption surveys of the Egyptian Centre for Economic Studies, 2019 10. CBPMS (2020) Statistical Year Book, Dec 2020 11. Egypt’s Poverty Map Report (2007) Poverty and geographic targeting in Egypt: evidence from a poverty mapping exercise. Rania Roushdy and Ragui Assaad working paper 0715 Nov 2007 12. El-Tawila et al (2013) Income poverty and inequality in Egypt’s Poorest Villages 13. MPED (2021) Human development report 2020: development is a right for all: Egypt. Central Bureau of Public Mobilization and Statistics, Economic Census

Long-Term Control of Desertification: Is Organic Farming Superior to Conventional? Soil and Established Arid Cultivation Practices at SEKEM, Egypt Lorenz Huebner

Abstract

Irrigation-based agriculture and agroforestry are important strategies against progression of desertification. On the other hand, rising temperatures, drought severity and erosion are increasingly impacting agricultural land of semi-arid and arid areas. Organic farming methods may have advantages in the control of desertification. The practice of mulching and use of organic fertilizers—can it significantly impact soil hydrology, water use, and ultimately tendency towards salinification? We know that biodiversity, in general, enables ecosystems to adapt to climate change. Is it possible to observe this mechanism in the agroecological context of organic cultivation? Biodynamic organic farming at SEKEM was established in the 1970’s north of Kairo on the former arid desert ground. A variety of crops and vegetables is cultivated by means of drip irrigation. We review existing scientific literature and reports from this and similar organic farms with respect to hydro-ecological parameters that are relevant in erosion and deserti-

fication processes. Recent evidence is showing that structure, animal life and content of microorganisms of organically managed soils differ from those in conventionally managed soils. We review contents of carbon and microorganisms, structure and salinity of organic versus conventional soils, as well as practices of green manure and crop rotation and their role in water balance and erosion. Despite high productivity of irrigated organic farming at SEKEM no salinification was observed even after more than 40 years of intensive cultivation, which is in contrast to the frequent experience with irrigated conventional farming in arid areas. From our review of soil-based desertification parameters, we conclude that there are two mechanisms: (1) that of improved soil parameters leading to immediate prevention of erosion, combined with (2) the long-term prevention of salinification and soil exhaustion that enables sustainable cultivation with high crop yields over numerous decades. The results of organic farming as practiced by SEKEM are indicative of important factors in achieving fertility and long-lasting prevention of desertification of arid agricultural land. Keywords

L. Huebner (&) Schulze-Delitzsch-Str. 8, D-24943 Flensburg, Germany e-mail: [email protected]







Organic agriculture Desert farming Soil hydrology Agroecology Desertification control Arid erosion Soil tilth













© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_3

27

28

1

L. Huebner

Introduction

The Egyptian Gvernment’s Vision 2030 of Sustainable Development Strategy is focused on the roles of justice, participation and social integrity in the economical development. Using the United Nation’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) as guideline, the dimensions of society, environment, and economy form the inspiring basis of Egypt’s Vision 2030 [1]. The loss of arable land due to desertification can be considered a key concern for the future of mankind, in particular for any country that has food and water constraints. Showing ways to reduce erosion and desertification will hence be aligned with the SDGs numbers 1 and 2, i.e. “No poverty” and “Zero hunger”. In this chapter we will see how the results and outcome of organic agriculture are also related to the SDGs of social and environmental dimensions, i.e. the SDG numbers 3 (“Good health and well-being”), 6 (“Clean water and sanitation”), 12 (“Responsible consumption and production”), and 15 (“Life on land”) [1]. There is a permanent threat of desertification, so that our agricultural methods need to be revised for their sustainability and effectiveness in the fight against trends of desertification. These are driven by the losses of vegetation and it´s biodiversity and the loss of hydrological connectivity of habitats, caused e.g. by deforestation [2]. Climatic factors include an increase in wind and dust storms to cause aeolic erosion, and increased frequency of heavy rain events causing water erosion. Pedological causes of desertification are the loss of structure and organic matter of soils and salinization [3]. Agriculture in the Sahara bordering areas is seen as measure against a constant risk of desertification, as in the Atlas region of Algeria. In former centuries the forests of these semi-arid regions were opened during drought to enable the grazing when pastures were dried. E.g., during a drought of 1906–1914, some 462,000 ha of forests were opened to allow for grazing of 318,000 sheep [4]. These practices gave rise to loss of vegetation and further desertification. Today, there is use of irrigated agriculture in such semi-

arid Sahara bordering areas, done as one of the measures against the potential northward progression of the desert, driven by drought, climate change, overgrazing, nomadic herds and wrong cultivation methods [5]. Analysis of the direct reasons for land degradation in Lebanon showed that natural causes, improper soil management, industrial activity/mining, overgrazing, removal of vegetation/deforestation, urbanization/ infrastructure development, withdrawal of water, and industrial emissions were the most frequent ones [3]. Growing populations may end up at a point where the available land is not sufficient to feed all, and this threat is driving the productivity of agriculture. However, this trend drives processes that may lead to land degradation in the long term. The prevention of degradation should always be preferred over the need for restoration of degraded land concerning both, social and economic aspects. According to a 2018 editorial of The Lancet—Planet Health [6], the costs related to inaction would be three times higher than costs of taking action. Substantial restoration action would be needed in order to achieve the SDGs planned for 2030 [6]. Soil erosion often results in almost irreversible decline in soil functions, productivity and environmental damage [7]. Egypt has a mostly arid, hot and dry climate with wind erosion as an important cause of the desertification processes that take place in the western, eastern and Sinai deserts of Egypt, regions with fragile arid ecosystems. In theory, organic farming systems should be less prone to erosion because they are more closely aligned with ecological cycles and processes compared to conventional farming. However, this is a theoretical assumption that would yet need to be verified [8]. This review aims to identify the possible mechanisms of how organic agricultural methods, exemplified by the long-lasting successful SEKEM community in Egypt, in contrast to traditional agriculture may impact any or even many of the parameters involved. We review recent published studies of agroecological and pedological mechanisms relevant to desertifica-

Long-Term Control of Desertification: Is Organic Farming …

tion and sustainability to determine if and how the traditional practices of sustainable organic agriculture can be expected to be more effective in desertification control. The two farming systems were specified [9] as follows: Organic farming is characterized of being much more than its deliberate avoidance of fertilizers, pesticides, antibiotics, growth hormones and genetically modified plants and animals. It is described as a holistic system for the optimal production of agroecological diverse communities of plants, soil organisms and livestock, with the principal goals of sustainability and environmental harmony, characterised by resource cycling, ecological balance and biodiversity. Specific goals of organic farming are given as the production of high-quality food in sufficient quantity and working with the natural systems— rather than against them. Also, to support the biological cycles that involve microorganisms (MO), plants, animals and soil organisms to increase and maintain long-term soil fertility. Finally, the use of renewable resources, and the aim to work within closed systems of nutrients and organic matter (as much as possible) [10]. On the other hand, conventional farming (or industrial agriculture) includes the use of chemical fertilizers, herbicides, pesticides, genetically engineered organisms, heavy irrigation and intensive tillage, and cultivation of concentrated monocultures [9]. The biodynamic organic farming activities of the SEKEM community, founded in 1977 by Dr. Ibrahim Abouleish (1937–2017), were started on 70 ha of desert land northeast of Cairo as the first entity of such kind in Egypt [11]. The biodynamic organic agriculture used is based on the teachings of Rudolph Steiner, a German philosopher of the early twentieth century. Strict organic farming is practiced, e.g. the avoidance of pesticides, herbicides and chemical fertilizers. The farm ground is seen as a self-nourishing dynamic system, and the philosophy includes the spiritual nourishment of it and the people who live on it. SEKEM has become a leading social

29

business, with companies and NGOs for the processing, marketing, and fair trade of organic products. Its organic farming practice is transferable: three new farms have been created since 2007, showing the same infrastructure as the mother farms [11]. We asked whether organic farming may be more beneficial under climate change with a forecasted increase in surface temperatures and drought events. In general, this trend can be expected to strengthen desertification processes on agricultural land. We review available data derived from the biodynamic organic farming practised successfully at SEKEM for four decades, together with results available from other organic farms to identify the specific agroecological mechanisms that may be involved in delaying or preventing the processes of erosion and desertification.

2

SEKEM Agricultural Site

SEKEM consists of five farms located in the area of Belbeis, 60 km Northeast of Cairo, with a total of about 684 ha (1628 feddan) land reclaimed from Sahara desert that is entirely managed by biodynamic organic agricultural methods since 1977. This “traditional” SEKEM land will be reviewed for comparison, most of it is under organic cultivation practices for three to four decades. Belbeis is classified as hot desert (BWh, Köppen-Geiger classification), mean annual precipitation of 25 mm and the mean annual temperature is 21.3 °C [12]. Additional land in comparable climatic condition was reclaimed from desert in two other farms in the Egyptian Sinai desert, these are under cultivation since a few years. The farm’s bovine livestock of one animal per two hectares [13] is the source of the compost used to increase crop productivity, together with methods of crop rotation, natural pest management, biodiversity, water conservation and management in closed nutrient cycles. Cultivation and seeding is done according to an astrological

30

calendar [11]. Synthetic fertilizers and pesticides are not used, and during the first years of its existence SEKEM also achieved the stop of pesticide use on the cotton fields of the neighbouring areas, a trend seen in all of Egypt thereafter. SEKEM has planted and grown 600,000 trees on its farms [11]. Trees and shrubs planted on the field edges (Fig. 1) contribute to a microclimate with shadow, windbreak and humidity. The use of trees as windbreaks was shown to reduce evapotranspiration and markedly improve wheat production's water use efficiency in the windprotected area. Hence because of their watersaving function, windbreaks were recommended as a sustainable solution, particularly for dryland farming [14]. Trees create habitats, e.g., for birds and lizards, which contributes to biodiversity and biological pest control. Agroforestry is known to enhance soil organic matter, tilth, availability of nutrients and richness of microorganisms. The canopy of perennials continually protects the ground, leaf fall results in nutrient circulation and the deep roots of trees contribute to nutrient capture [15].

L. Huebner

3

Organic—Biodynamic Cultivation Practices

3.1 Compost, Natural Fertilizing SEKEM farms are using both, organic and biodynamic preparations of fertilizers. The organic fertilizer is a compost that is matured over about three months, prepared from organic matter (straw, organic waste, clay) and cow manure by enrichment with six different medicinal plants and compost tea. The latter is prepared by aerated mixing of compost, molasses and water and is used to support the microbiological activity of compost. Organic fertilizers are applied twice a year to increase the soil organic and nutrient content of the native desert soil as the most important factor when reclaiming sandy desert ground by means of organic-biodynamic cultural methods. More than 70 tons of compost (pH of 7.3) per hectare are applied during the first year of reclaim, and year after year the soil organic content is increased this way. Overall compost production was 6,068 tons in 2019 [13]. Currently, a site to produce 10,000 tons of compost per year is built at the “SEKEM-Wahat” farm

Fig. 1 SEKEM fields reclaimed from the desert, surrounded by trees (agroforestry)

Long-Term Control of Desertification: Is Organic Farming …

[16]. Earthworms will use the compost organic matter to transfer it into mineral-rich fertilizer. The SOM and mulching with compost have an important role in soil hydrology, water storage and erosion control (see 4.2). In accordance with its anthroposophical background, SEKEM additionally uses biodynamic preparations as fertilizers. Seasonal biodynamic solutions are prepared from cow horn, cow manure and silica and are seasonally applied to the field soil [16].

3.2 Crop Rotation and Co-cultivation Crop rotation is the traditional agricultural method to reduce depletion of specific nutrients over the years of cultivation. It is an important tool, particularly in organic farming, because synthetic fertilizers are not an option here. A common sequence is that of nitrogen consuming crops, followed latest after four seasons Table 1 Crop rotation in two SEKEM farms [17]

Summer 2019

31

by nitrogen enriching crops like legumes that are grown on >20% of the cultivated land. Crop rotation also helps to break the annual replication cycle of crop pests [15]. Table 1 indicates examples of such rotation, shown for two SEKEM farms in the successive summer and winter seasons of 2019 and 2020 [17]. Even on a small farm like “SEKEM 2”, many different crops are cultivated. The biodiversity achieved in this way is considered important in creating an ecological environment where biological pathways of pest control are supported. However, the work and logistical coordination required to achieve such diversity is obvious. Compartmentalization with small patches of different crops as shown in Table 1 and crop mixtures create a vegetative texture that can keep specialist pests under control and reduce vulnerability to plant diseases [15]. The industrialised agriculture of recent decades has seen the development and use of highly bred, profitable

Hectar

Winter 2019 / 20

Hectar

Beans, Fodder plants

38.2

Anise

4.3

Henna

0.84

Henna

0.84

Marjoram

0.42

Leek

9.8

Cotton

5.1

Black Seed

3.0

Rosemary

0.42

Onions

29.9

Sennameky

2.1

Fennel

0.84

Fennel

0.42

Garlic

2.1

Goufa

0.21

SEKEM El Menia

SEKEM 2 Vegetables

0.42

Onions

1.68

Sesame

4.0

Red Radish

1.2

Corn Seeds

0.21

Borage

1.2

Courgettes Seeds

0.21

Green Beans

0.84

Tomatoe Seeds

0.21

Quinoa

0.84

Melissa

0.21

Courgettes Seeds

0.42

Sweet Pepper Seeds

0.21

Sweet Pepper Seeds

0.84

Eggplants Seeds

0.21

Eggplants Seeds

0.42

Leek

0.42

Green Manure

0.63

32

crop varieties. These typically are strongly dependant on targeted (synthetic) fertilisation, paralleled by an economic pressure that has moved agronomy towards monocropping or the cultivation of only few, often very nutrient depleting crops [15]. This is also seen in semiarid context. E.g., in India, the former multi cropping and crop rotation with millets, legumes, grassland etc. was widely replaced by cultivation with high-yield varieties of wheat, rice or sugarcane which would have caused soil disturbance, erosion problems and had disturbed the wildlife [18]. Use of certain cool-season crops and grasses in the rotation can extend the growth season into early spring and late fall. Certain perennial crops in rotation (Fig. 2) that develop deep roots like alfalfa will break up hard subsoil layers, thereby expanding the soil volume accessible to the roots of future crops [19]. The resulting increase in water storage capacity has additional value in the arid context. Similarly, cocultivation of crops that differ in their rooting systems can expand the root volume and result in SOM addition [19]. When compared to monocropping, crop rotation was shown to increase the soil carbon (organic) content and soil pore systems within a few years [20], both of which are important factors in soil tilth (see 4.1).

Fig. 2 Use of perennial crops/green manure in rotation at SEKEM

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3.3 Manual Tillage As is typical for organic farming, manual tillage is an important part of the work at SEKEM farms. Heavy groundwork and compost management is done with tractors. Also, tractors or draft animals are used for transportation. Manual tillage is intelligent and more targeted than machine work where differentiation is required, e.g., for planting and weeding of mixed cultures (see Fig. 3). More importantly, any fieldwork—be it manual or with tractor and other machines—is an important parameter in the development of soil tilth, i.e., in soil structure, soil hydrology and water storage capacity. Soil tilth is a complex, multi-parametric physical-biological condition, seen to be important in the growth of crops and other plants. Aeration and pore spaces, soil aggregate stability, SMC, infiltration and drainage of water, and contents of organisms and microorganisms can affect soil tilth. Large pores are typical for good tilth, allowing for sufficient air infiltration, water conductivity, nutrient supply and growth of roots. Soil tillage, amendments and irrigation can improve tilth and the related growth of plants. Likewise, crop rotation in combination with the cultivation of green manure as done at SEKEM (see Table 1) is known to improve tilth [21].

Long-Term Control of Desertification: Is Organic Farming …

33

Fig. 3 Manual field work at SEKEM: planting, harvesting; transportation

However, excessive tillage such as conventional ploughing may result in the opposite of soil compaction. The physical manipulation of tillage also supports soil aggregation that often is rather short-lived. The compaction and high bulk density (BD) resulting from tillage may lead to erosion, particularly in dry and sandy soils. It can also cause low oxygen levels, decrease in soil organisms, and reduce water infiltration from rain or irrigation [22]. Hence, excessive tillage may not be supportive of stable tilth and soil structure. In undisturbed soil, good tilth is kept up by soil biota supporting the formation of soil aggregates [19].

4

Soil Properties in Organic Farming

4.1 Organic Carbon Content, Water Storage Capacity The soil of the SEKEM fields was reclaimed from desert land. The general classification of the SEKEM soil texture is loamy sand with a soil organic carbon content (SOC) of 0.8%, clay

content of 4% and pH 8.4. In comparison, the soil of the surrounding desert is sand with pH 7.7. It has a SOC of 0.2% and clay content of 1.5%, as determined by Luske and Van der Kamp [23]. Recent data [17] on average SOC values for the various SEKEM farms are given in Table 2. There seems to be a correlation between the higher SOC in the soil and the number of years in cultivation: Highest values are found for the long-term cultivated soil at the SEKEM and Adleya farms. This correlation is even more pronounced in the deeper (0–35 cm) soil layer. Such difference was already found earlier [23]: The desert soils around SEKEM had a SOC of 0.06% (0–10 cm), in contrast the fields cultivated for 4 and 5 years had a SOC of 0.58% and 0.79%, those cultivated for 30 years had a SOC of 0.99–1.39% (0–10 cm). Similar differences in SOC were found in the layer of 10–30 cm. The SOCs in an even deeper layer (30–50 cm) were not affected by the cultivation. Fields that had been cultivated for only one year already showed an increase in SOC from 0.05 to 0.24% (0– 10 cm layer). The recent data of SEKEM soil salinity (Table 2) show that the trend of SOC content is

34

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Table 2 Average SOC and pH value of the soil in SEKEM farms, Winter 2019/ 20 [17] SEKEM farm SEKEM 1, 2, 3

SOC % 0–10 cm

SOC % 0–35 cm

Soil 0–10 cm pH

Sodium absorption ratio

1.1

0.8

8.1

0.57

Adleya

1.1

0.8

8.2

0.65

Wahat/ Baharreya

0.5

0.1

6.9

0.37

Sinai

0.2

0.1

6.8

0.11

Minya

0.5

0.1

7.6

0.36

paralleled by soil pH values. The soil of the longterm cultivated farms with higher SOC is more basic. These soils' sodicity is also slightly higher than the short-term cultivated/ irrigated fields of the rather newly reclaimed farms (Wahat/ Baharreya, Sinai, Minya). Irrigation water usually adds salts, and high sodicity can lead to loss of SOM by mineralization and leaching, and susceptibility to erosion with further loss of SOM [24]. As shown in Table 2, the sodicity values from all SEKEM farms (sodium absorption ratio) are low and not of concern. Why are SOC and SOM so important components of soil, what is their role in plant growth, particularly in organic cultivation and possibly, in desertification control? Experience and long-term experiments show that SOM is an indicator of soil fertility. The labile fraction of SOM constantly releases plant nutrients. Stocks are built up in rotations with legumes and with a supply of manure and compost: With greater input of SOM the mineralization of SOM and nutrient supply of crops will be improved. However, there is no direct correlation of crop yields and total SOM or its labile fraction. Rather, its biochemical composition, turnover rate, and nutrients release are the most important factors here. In addition, the crop´s root systems are better enabled to absorb these nutrients and water from soil in crop rotation systems, compared to monocultures [25]. Probably one of the most important features of SOM is that of water holding capacity: restoration of SOM can increase the water capacity that is available to plants, depending on soil texture. Experiments to amend sandy soil with 5% wood chips and coverage with branch shelter resulted in a 50% increase in water storage compared to

untreated controls. The wood chips were slowly decomposed, resulting in an increase in biomass production over the five years of the experiment. This would provide a mechanism for long‐lasting restoration of degraded or desertified soils [26]. The water storage and soil fertility functions of SOM are also described by others [27, 28]. The SOM retains soil moisture. It reduces soil compaction and crusting of the soil surface, hence increases the infiltration of rain and irrigation water into the soil [29]. Organic cultivation and manure treatment were shown to positively impact crop yields, particularly in dry years: A farming systems trial of the Rodale Institute, USA, has operated since 1981 with replicated cropping systems: one based on organic manure, a second based on organic legume and a third conventional one, all three systems consisted of a 3- or 5-year crop rotation. During four out of five years of drought between 1984 and 1998, the organically produced maize had significantly higher yields than the conventional production. As the main reason of the higher yield the higher water-storage capacity of the organically treated soils was proposed. Measurements done in a rainy period showed that these soils had captured approximately 100% more water and retained more of it in the root zone compared to the conventionally treated soil [30]. The organic agriculture at SEKEM depends on regular irrigation, main water source is the Nile river. As per the 2019 Annual Report, the SEKEM farms had a 1.7 m3 water/ kg product relative water consumption. This had gone up from 1.4 m3 water/ kg product in 2016 and is explained with the reclamation of new land at Baharreya desert farm that needed higher amount

Long-Term Control of Desertification: Is Organic Farming …

of irrigation water [13]. As given in Table 2, the agricultural soil of this newly reclaimed farm still has a comparatively low SOC, hence low water holding capacity. Finally, an important function of SOM is that of being substrate for the decomposing biota, particularly for earthworms: Their activity contributes to soil aggregation, production of natural fertilizers and aeration of deeper soil layers. Also, their holes contribute to the storage of rainwater so that in general, less irrigation and lower amounts of fertilizers are needed. The interaction of soil organisms with SOM improves the physico-chemical and biological characteristics of the plant rhizosphere [31].

4.2 Soil Parameters Related to Tilth As we have seen in 3.2 and 3.3, crop rotation and tillage will have an impact on soil tilth—a complex soil parameter with high awareness, particularly in the context of organic farming as an important factor in crop growth. Rotation with grasses, legumes and other crops with dense or deep root systems will increase the SOM content, aggregation and aeration, all of which are important in tilth. Improvement in these parameters can be achieved within only 5 to 6 years of crop rotation [20]. Particularly of importance in arid soils: small-sized pores facilitate water retention and support the plant growth during dry periods. Soil aggregation is achieved by the activity of soil microorganisms and destruents such as earthworms that produce plant fertilizers by decomposing the SOM, thereby stabilizing the soil aggregates [19]. Soil animals such as earthworms have an additional role in tilth as their holes increase soil aeration [32]. A measurable factor that would at least indirectly affect erosion control is that of soil penetration resistance (PR). It regulates elongation of roots and access to water [33]. A high PR value can result in low crop yield because root growth and the uptake of water and nutrients is impaired [33]. Soil PR depends on BD, aggregation, texture, SOM and SMC. It is used to determine soil compaction [34]. A study comparing

35

conventional and organically farmed soils has found no difference in soil PR [35]. This result was surprising as the frequent weeding operations in organic farming, at least if done with tractors, was expected to result in higher PR values. For the BD of SEKEM soil, even a significant decrease from 1.66 (± 0.16) to 1.42 kg/l (±0.15), was found in the important 0–10 cm layer, it had declined by 14.5% after 30 years of cultivation. At depths of 10–30 cm and 30– 50 cm the BD did not differ in comparison with the surrounding desert soil [22]. In summary, good tilth results from an undisturbed process of soil-building, supported by the interaction of plant roots, soil biota (bacteria, fungi, esp. mycorrhiza, earthworms and other destruents), and abiotic soil particles. There seems to be an interdependency of tilth and plant growth, such that both can positively support each other. This explains the importance of good tilth in organic farming where the use of artificial fertilizers is avoided. We will discuss if there are potential synergies from keeping up well aerated and amended tilth in organic cultivation for more than 40 years as in SEKEM´s example—and the potential role this may play in erosion control.

4.3 Soil Microbiology Microorganisms (MO) have a key role in nutrient acquisition, in plant protection and in the release of plant growth regulatory factors. MO mediate the acquisition of nutrients by mechanisms of N fixation, solubilization of P and K, and the production of siderophores. Their surface effects can enhance plant nutrient absorption [36]. The role of MO in the protection of plants from phytopathogens is more important in organic farming where use of chemical pesticides is not an option and where pathogens can readily multiply, given the high load of various SOM substrates. Beneficial microbes—either occurring naturally or added to the soil as biological control agent—are used to control phytopathogenic MO by secretion of antibiotic compounds, competitive growth or by stimulating the immune system of plants. MO that are beneficial to plant growth

36

produce plant growth stimulators, i.e. phytohormones such as auxines and cytokinines that can improve growth and crop yield [37]. Organic farming hence depends on MO as an integral component in plant health and the production of crops. Koeberl et al. [38] have done a careful analysis of the MO cultures of SEKEM organically farmed soil, in comparison with MO cultures contained in soil of the neighboring desert not affected by human activity. The long cultivation period had introduced a change in the composition of bacterial species: Communities in farmed soil, in general, had higher diversity. The higher proportion of antagonistic bacterial strains against phytopathogens (in vitro) was significant. However, the diversity of these strains was lower. This is in line with similar studies showing that organic farming can promote natural enemies of phytopathogens, hence reducing damage as shown e.g., in the cultivation of grapes [39]. N fixing bacterial species were absent in the farmed soil but were found in desert soil. Growth of desert plants depends on the existence of rhizobacteria, however the constant compost treatment of the SEKEM soils could have saturated them with nitrogen which is given as a possible explanation of the low number of N fixing MO in the organically managed soil.

4.4 Pesticides, Fertilizers and Soil Parameters As a toxic agent, the pesticide may potentially do harm to any form of life, besides the pest species that it is applied for. The claim for some of the pesticides is to be selective. However this criterion would only relate to the animals tested by the producing company. Organochlorine pesticides are known to remain in the environment, contaminating water, air, food products, and soil. A causal relationship was documented for humans exposed to pesticides for skin and respiratory diseases, cancers, and endocrine and reproduction disorders [40]. Annual loss of around $200 million was estimated for the USA

L. Huebner

from the mortality of honeybees caused by pesticides, leading to reduced crop pollination [41]. In general, the diversity of species is reduced by pesticides, habitats are destroyed and reproduction is impaired, which reduces populations of both, animals and plants [42]. As shown in 4.1 and 4.2, earthworms are important in the decomposition of SOM, production of nutrients, soil aggregation, and fertile soil structure. Earthworm activity is affected by pesticides such as glyphosate [43]. Increased mortality and impact on reproductive functions of earthworms was shown for various agrochemical pesticides [44]. Another mechanism fatal to earthworms is the damage to their deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA, genetic material) caused by pesticides [45]. The lower SOM content that is more typical for conventional farming can lead to a transfer of high amounts of pesticide into neighbouring areas since SOM supports the binding and break down of pesticides [30] that otherwise may persist in the soil for decades. Herbicides can reduce the ground´s vegetation cover, thereby increase erosion from water runoff and wind. The resulting deformation of the soil structure, the bare land and poor soil fertility can lead to collapse of the ecosystem [40]. A marked reduction in synthetic fertilizers and pesticides applied to cotton fields in Egypt until the end of last century was initiated and brought forward by the founders of SEKEM. Since then a 90% reduced amount of pesticides is sprayed by aeroplane, more than 35,000 tons per year whilst with the new ecological methods applied the cotton yields increased by up to 30% [11]. Today, natural pest control measures at SEKEM are the use of Neem tree (Azadirachta indica) extracts and application of predators that will catch pest insects and pheromones to irritate them [16]. Soil BD, hydraulic conductivity and aggregate stability are adversely affected by using chemical N fertilisers over long time. Synthetic N fertilisers can damage health and ecology by contaminating drinking water with nitrate, eutrophication of aquatic systems and production of nitrous oxide leading to depletion of

Long-Term Control of Desertification: Is Organic Farming …

atmospheric ozone. Long term use of P fertilisers can accumulate trace metals like arsenic and cadmium contained in the fertiliser. When P fertilizer is transported with runoff into aquatic systems the water quality may get deteriorated [18].

5

Farming System and Risk of Erosion

Water flow, wind and tillage with translocation of soil are the important causes of erosion in agriculture. In combination with the forces from wind and water, tillage and unprotected soil can exert erosive function leading to soil loss. This is frequently measured by means of the Universal Soil Loss Equation [46]. When comparing farmland (organic vs. conventional system) with regards to the quantity of soil loss due to erosion, the two compared landscape elements have to be exactly the same in terms of erosivity, topography etc.—which cannot be found in practice. Due to the widely different approaches, particularly in organic farming, general statements on the risk of erosion were not possible [47]. Based on the comparison of all organic farms of a region a predicted about 15% reduced erosion would occur on organically managed arable land due to the larger size of greenland/ pastures, even though the organically farmed land was located in areas with higher susceptibility to erosion. However, the application of best farming practices to both, the organic and conventional systems had the potential to reduce the annual soil loss below 1 t per hectar [47]. How would such “best practices” look like, irrespective of the underlying organic or conventional farming system? Rasoulzadeh et al. [48] seem to have found an answer: Over five years, they studied how plant residue management on fields may affect erosion, runoff, and BD. Either, the residue was burned on the field, returned to the surface of the soil after harvest, or removed (control treatment). Rainfall simulation showed that the runoff volume was by far highest (10- to 19-times) for the burning

37

treatment and 2- to 6-times higher for the removal of residue (control) when compared to the residue covering method. Similarly, in this comparison the soil loss was decreased by 96.5% in the covering method, and increased by 192% in the burning treatment. In the latter, soil BD and PR were increased by 4.9% and 12.4%, and reduced in the covering treatment by 2.1% and 15.8%, respectively, when compared to the removal treatment (control). The conclusion is that it would be best practice in managing plant residue to return it to the soil to control soil runoff and erosion in semi-arid environments [48].

6

Synopsis: Organic and Conventional Farming in Desertification Control

Like organic farming, conventional farming also applies a variety of same methods to increase SOM, such as rotation and green manure. However, there may be marked differences in the intensity of doing so in practice: Organic farming does not use artificial fertilizers. The constant and regular application of compost, done twice a year at SEKEM, is the only additional source of plant nutrients. Organic and conventional farming may affect soil parameters differentially. A summary and the potential impact on the risk of desertification are given in Table 3.

7

Discussion and Conclusion

The concept of organic farming is that of a nutrient cycle, i.e. to give back to the soil what was taken from it in former harvest, which means to “feed” the soil and maintain its health, rather than to feed the crop directly [9]. Organic farming excludes the use of fertilizers and pesticides. Hence, successful organic cultivation strictly depends on good soil tilth, which is based on a rich and diverse soil biota to provide nutrients, soil aggregation and growth of MO that are antagonists of phytopathogens. As shown here, organic farming is an approach to manage soil tilth holistically, and

38

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Table 3 Summary of desertification control factors and how they may be pronounced differentially in organic and conventional agriculture Cultivation factor

Organic farming

Impact: risk of desertification

Conventional farming

SOM, SOC

High, regular addition of compost (SEKEM: twice a year), mulching/ organic soil cover SEKEM: marked increase in SOC in 0–35 cm layer after 40+ years of organic cultivation

Increase in water holding capacity ! resilience to drought Biota mediated increase in soil aggregation ! reducing erosion from water and wind Mulching shown to reduce soil loss, BD, PR

Typically not quite as high, no need for frequent application of compost

Soil biota

Rich biota as essential success factor—resulting in soil aggregation, pest control and production of natural fertilizers SEKEM: Higher diversity of bacterial communities in farmed soil [38]

Activity of MO, earthworms, other animals ! nutrients, soil aggregation, aeration, also in deeper soil layers ! water infiltration and storage

Use of pesticides, fertilizers may damage soil biota and agroecological system; lower SOM content not as supportive to development of soil biota

Soil tilth

Good tilth as complex factor of success: High activity of MO´s and other destruents as only source of nutrients. Soil structure, aeration, pest control—all depend on state of tilth

Soil with good tilth is rich in pores, MOs and animal destruents, not compacted, showing high aggregation even at low tillage activity. Water storage and holding capacity, small pores important during drought

Usually not managed holistically, focus rather on individual soil parameters

BD, PR

Typically low frequency/intensity of tillage BD was shown to be reduced during long-term organic cultivation at SEKEM [23]

Low PR ! elongation of roots, assess to water ! drought resilience Relatively low BD ! water uptake and growth not impaired (during drought)

High BD resulting from tillage may lead to soil loss, particularly in dry and sandy soils; may cause low oxygen levels and decrease in soil organisms, reduced water infiltration

Salinity, sodicity

40+ years of organic cultivation based on regular irrigation at SEKEM so far led to reduced soil salinity and minimal/ neglectable rise in sodicity

Reduced water infiltration, salt may accumulate, development of saline subsoils, crusting, sealing. Dense and structureless soils, prone to erosion

Misuse or overuse of synthetic fertilizers can lead to salinity of soil

tilth plays an important role in keeping away the various mechanisms of erosion from water and wind. Tilth depends on stability and aggregation of soil particles, infiltration and content of water, aeration, and drainage. Tillage is applied to improve soil tilth and crop production. However ploughing and other conventional treatments can result in soil break down and compaction, thus having an opposite effect [49].

Application of only chemical fertilizer without amendment of organic matter was reported to potentially deteriorate soil ecology and soil quality [31, 50]. The mechanisms would need to be studied further. This could be the reason why meanwhile numerous experiments are also done in conventional farming to evaluate the effects of the amendment with organic material, used alone or in combination with synthetic fertilizer. In a recent example, increase in soybean yield and

Long-Term Control of Desertification: Is Organic Farming …

soil health was found in a soybean—wheat rotation system for amendments with either straw or manure, added in combination with inorganic (N, P, K) fertilizers [51]. It has been suggested that the amending of degraded/depleted soils with SOM should make them resilient to climate change. This would be achieved by practices of cover cropping, mulching, and farming systems that integrate crops with trees or livestock [52]. All of this is being done in organic farming. An important factor in climate resilience and resistance to drought is the soil's water retention capacity, which will increase with SOC. The benefits of organic soil amendments in increasing water retention and fertility of the soil were demonstrated, e.g. [28]. Compost, manure, and other nutrient‐rich amendments have always been used in any kind of farming system. However, the decomposition of these organic materials is fast so that frequent replenishment is required, done at SEKEM regularly at the beginning of each growing season. Recent research showed the effect of amendment with woody materials that can deliver nutrients over extended periods of several years [26], which could be an alternative. Mulching with organic matter has an interesting effect directly preventing splash erosion, as Gholami et al. [53] studied. Raindrops can destroy surface soil structure, which can result in erosion and increased runoff. The method of mulching can strengthen soil aggregates and form a physical barrier that protects from the splashing effect of raindrops. Straw mulch that covered sandy loam increased the runoff commencement time by up to 110%. The runoff coefficient was reduced at different rainfall intensities, and soil loss or sediment yield was decreased by up to 63% [53]. Organic amendments as in organic farming may also help to cope with the constant influx of ions and salts resulting from irrigation. High SOC may reduce the risk of salinification as per investigation done by Zheli et al. [54]. Application of P fertilizers in combination with organic amendment mitigated the soil salinity, and increased SOM content, available water and macronutrients. Soil BD was decreased.

39

Therefore, such combination was recommended as a cost-effective measure to enhance crop production under arid and semi-arid conditions [54]. The detrimental effect that the use of pesticides and overuse of synthetic fertilizers in conventional farming can have on soil structure and agroecology (earthworms, MO, etc.) was reviewed in 4.4. Soil invertebrates, MO and other organisms are important in maintaining soil health and plant growth. Due to this role in soil fertility the amount and diversity of soil organisms is used as an indicator of soil health in organic farming [31]. A long-term experiment to study soil ecology was managed either by conventional or organic farming practices. Soil MO and nematode counts were evaluated: the MO activity and bacterial counts were significantly higher in the organically managed soil. Counts of fungi, actinomycete and nematodes also showed an increase, which was not significant. Putative fungal pathogens to the cultivated crop (onions) were predominantly sequenced from conventionally treated soil [55]. Antagonists of phytopathogens were found mainly in the organically managed soil. This is in line with the findings comparing SEKEM soil against that of the surrounding desert [38]. The direct comparison of conventional versus organic farming would require comparable environmental conditions of the two farms. As mentioned, in the Atlas region (Algeria), other Sahara bordering and Mediterranean regions the use of (irrigated) agriculture is a method to prevent further desertification or “desert progression” [5]. We learn from the long-standing example of arid organic agriculture at SEKEM that such counter-measures in desert bordering areas should be done in an agroecological mindful way. This is in order to not end in a next level of erosion, caused by high yield monocropping or excessive profit-driven exhaustion of the soil. The need for regular and frequent application of organic material in organic farming, done at SEKEM with large quantities of compost, was shown to trigger mechanisms that lead to soil health by improving the various parameters of good soil tilth: SOC,

40

soil biota, BD, PR and salinity are all improved in comparison to the soil of the surrounding desert. This improvement in the parameters of good tilth and soil health was even most pronounced in the SEKEM farms and fields with the longest period of organic cultivation of more than 40 years. In contrast, soil exhaustion, salinification and erosion are frequent consequences of long-term intensified conventional cultivation, particularly in arid agriculture that is based on irrigation, e.g. [56]. So, that in the example of organic cultivation at SEKEM with its flourishing agriculture surrounded by the Sahara, we find two mechanisms that protect from desertification: (1) that of improved soil protection, SOM richness and improved parameters of soil tilth leading to immediate prevention of erosion, combined with (2) a long-term prevention of salinification and soil exhaustion, enabling sustainable cultivation with high crop yields over numerous decades. The two are results of a consequent, rather work-intensive organic farming practice and agroecological infrastructure. They should seriously be considered part of a solution that aims to achieve long-lasting desertification prevention in arid and semi-arid regions.

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The Effect of COVID-19 on the Egyptian Education System and the Role of Digitalization Marwa Biltagy

Abstract

In September 2015, countries adopted a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to end poverty worldwide. Goal 4 in SDGs ensures inclusive and quality education and promotes lifelong learning opportunities for all citizens worldwide. On 11th, March 2020, the World Health Organization declared the new coronavirus as a global pandemic, after the disease outbreak in the Chinese city of Wuhan. Later on, the virus has spread in Italy, Spain, Germany, and many other countries worldwide. Before this pandemic, some countries were suffering from many educational problems, for example, high rates of dropping out of school, particularly in the most marginalized areas and high class intensity i.e. too many students per teacher. Specifically, the Egyptian education system faced several restrictions that limit its efficiency and weaken the quality of its outputs. The most prominent and influential of these restrictions are the limited funding resources and the low efficiency of allocating them to the components of the educational process. But with the

spread of this virus, the educational system is facing a crisis of a special type due to school closures and possible losses in human capital. This means that, the global pandemic has long-run effects that put hard-earned gains in improving education at risk. The main objective of this book chapter is to determine the effect of the pandemic on the Egyptian educational system, linked to Egypt’s Vision 2030 and education for sustainable development. The COVID-19 pandemic leads us to respond to an actual challenge and to take a real responsibility. Indeed, the new Coronavirus represents a shock to all countries, but economies that have relied on technology and ensured online services have been relatively less affected. Policymakers can benefit from this crisis, and use it as a good opportunity. This can be done by introducing new learning methods, paying more attention to the quality of the educational system. Furthermore, dealing flexibly with technology and modern learning techniques, continuing to develop the digital platforms that have been created. Moreover, integrating the concept of lifelong learning and sustainable education to achieve sustainable development and poverty reduction. Keywords

M. Biltagy (&) Faculty of Economics and Political Science, Cairo University, Giza, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]








Education Covid-19 Resilience in education SDGs Digitalization Egypt




© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_4




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M. Biltagy

Introduction

“Education is the most powerful weapon which you can use to change the world,” as Nelson Mandela said. Investment in education improves the quality of life for millions of people [1]. Moreover, education is one of the most important variables affecting individuals’ wage differentials [2]. Globally, increasing the enrollment rates in schools and facilitating access to education, especially for girls were amongst the most essential objectives over the past decade. The main targets to be accomplished by 2030 as stated by UN are to “ensure that all children complete free, equitable and quality primary and secondary education leading to effective learning outcomes, ensure that all girls and boys have access to quality early childhood development, care and preprimary education so that they are ready for primary education, ensure equal access for all women and men to affordable and quality technical, vocational and tertiary education, including university, substantially increase the number of youth and adults who have relevant skills, including technical and vocational skills, for employment, decent jobs and entrepreneurship, eliminate gender disparities in education and ensure equal access to all levels of education and vocational training for the vulnerable, including persons with disabilities, indigenous peoples and children in vulnerable situations, ensure that all youth and a substantial proportion of adults, both men and women, achieve literacy and numeracy and ensure that all learners acquire the knowledge and skills needed to promote sustainable development, including, among others, through education for sustainable development and sustainable lifestyles, human rights, gender equality, promotion of a culture of peace and non-violence, global citizenship and appreciation of cultural diversity and of culture’s contribution to sustainable development”. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a group of 17 goals designed to achieve a better and more sustainable future for all

individuals. The SDGs were set up in September 2015 by the United Nations General Assembly and are intended to be achieved by 2030. The fourth goal in SDGs is about quality education “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all”. The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) is the leading promoter for education for sustainable development. UNESCO [3] ascertained that education is a fundamental social right for all individuals. It is essential for obtaining a good job opportunity, increasing economic growth and sustainable development and achieving gender equality. Consequently, it should be situated at the center of the global development agenda. Lovren [4] mentioned that, the 2030 agenda for sustainable development focused on attaining the needed skills, expertise and knowledge. The seventh pillar in Egypt’s Vision 2030 of sustainable development strategy is concerned with education and training. The strategy put particular objectives and strategies to be achieved by 2030 for all levels of education. Egypt aims at providing education with high level of quality for all students in order to have innovative individuals and creative thinkers. Indeed, Egypt suffers from lack of sustainability awareness in the society. This challenge can be solved by incorporating sustainability concepts in the curricula of pre-university education and university education as well. Education for sustainable development is a student-centered education model with students at the heart of the learning experience. The United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (UNECE) strategy for education for sustainable development pinpointed that educational practice should be directed towards solutionorientated and participatory techniques to enable the creation of a holistic, creative and critical thinking. Accordingly, education for sustainable development in Egypt requires not only incorporating sustainable development topics in

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Fig. 1 Sustainable development goals. Source: United Nations Development Program, Sustainable Development Goals

classes but also altering the educational approaches adopted by Egyptian teachers [5] (Fig. 1). The main objective of this book chapter is to determine the effect of the Coronavirus pandemic on the Egyptian educational system, linked to Egypt’s Vision 2030 and to provide policy recommendations. This book chapter is composed of seven sections including the introduction and conclusion. The second section introduces the concept of education for sustainable development. The third section presents the lessons learnt from Covid-19 and resilience in education. The fourth point discusses the impact of the Coronavirus on the educational systems; while the fifth one presents an overview of the policy responses from the education system perspective. The sixth section suggests a matrix of proposed resilience pillars and implementation mechanisms and the final section proposes the conclusion and policy recommendations.

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Education and Sustainable Development

Applying education for sustainable development in Egypt require more education involvement through participatory approaches to constantly involve students. Changing the culture of education is integral in applying education for sustainable development. The application of a bottom-up approach to integrate education for sustainable development through several types of education: formal and informal is necessary. Informal education presents an opportunity especially if citizens are committed to change and take responsibility for their actions [6]. Education for sustainable development has to constantly integrate new challenges facing humankind through modifying and changing its paradigm to cope with the current economic and

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social paradigm of faster, further and higher which impose competition between all humans causing stress and exclusion on the social level and destruction of the natural basis of life. Accordingly, education for sustainable development should focus on creating a society with values of solidarity, care and cooperation andensuring the well-being of all [7]. This approach entails schools to integrate teaching and learning for sustainable development through their curricula as well as through sustainable school operations like stakeholder and community participation, governance, sustainability monitoring and evaluation, and longterm planning. In addition, this approach supports active and participatory learning and the dynamic engagement of all school members (educators, students and administrators) towards creating a sustainable school with a curriculum that truly incorporates education for sustainable development. Sustainability in higher education institutions needs to be inventive and result in systemic change within these institutions to allow for transformative social learning to occur. Transformative learning happens when a person, group or bigger social unit find a different perspective than the one prevailing which adds to their needed skills for sustainability. Education for sustainable development should allow for transformative social learning to take place as it aims to boost self-directed learning. In addition, higher education institutions should benefit from the notion of shaping competencies, which refers to the capacity to work and resolve problems by actively participating to transform a society’s future while channeling its economic, social, ecological and technological dimensions towards sustainable development. Through education for sustainable development eight skills are acquired under this concept: participatory and interdisciplinary work skills, foresight thinking, planning and implementation, empathy, solidarity and compassion, self-motivation and motivation of others; multicultural and transcultural acceptance and cooperation and understanding of individual and cultural models [8].

M. Biltagy

To ensure the effective implementation of sustainable development, higher education institutions should help in defining, evaluating, documenting, refining and encouraging the factors needed to successfully implement the sustainable development model. Transforming higher education by integrating education for sustainable development properly would allow for building students’ capabilities towards renovating society. Hence, universities have a huge responsibility in developing students who are tomorrow’s leaders to impact society and institutions [9]. Glavic [7] suggested that designing a proper education for sustainable development course entails a number of points to be taken into consideration. There must be a clear vision of the level and type of the targeted education whether it is primary or tertiary, life-long, formal and informal education. Identification of the required capabilities through education for sustainable development such as problem-solving, critical thinking, self-awareness as well as the context of learning experiences is very important. In addition, education for sustainable development requires employing cooperative, experimental, action-oriented and learner-centered education techniques. Students ought to work together on group assignments to resolve real problems for real entities or have group seminars to debate on problems in the sense that teachers become facilitators rather than knowledge providers while students become dynamic and accountable rather than being passive receivers of knowledge. Accordingly, teaching transformational should be employed as it utilizes strategies that encourage positive modifications in the perception of students on learning and living and creating lifelong transformation. It also works on building capacity where individuals and organizations attain, develop, and maintain the required knowledge, skills, tools and other resources to capably perform their jobs. Forster et al. [10] stipulated that the transformative learning model employed by education for sustainable development needs combining frameworks for transformative teaching in higher education institutions that adopt education for sustainable development

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along with incorporating inter and transdisciplinary methods of learning such as experimental learning, expressive arts, and outdoor education which necessitates empirical research on the influence of these applied techniques. Scherak and Rieckmann [11] suggested that the utilization of training workshops in higher education institutions to instill education for sustainable development core competencies must be regarded as starting points to highlight some competences aspects and offer guidance to further development but they are inadequate alone in teaching those skills as they necessitate a more profound and insightful process to be developed. In addition, these types of workshops are usually attended by faculty members and students with personal interest in education for sustainable development while there is a need to interest other faculty member and students who are less familiar with or impassive in education for sustainable development. Furthermore, they argued that education for sustainable development structures and content should be incorporated across all areas of the university to guarantee that research activities produce knowledge that contributes towards influencing sustainable development. Education for sustainable development at higher education institutions should be viewed as a whole institutional approach with open, accessible, holistic and reflective activities that can be joined by all stakeholders. Education for sustainable development content, approaches and values should not be considered only in a theoretical and methodological manner but rather in a critical and reflexive manner. In addition, students must be viewed as vital stakeholders that are capable of raising universities potential in creating a sustainable outlook.

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Resilience in Education: Lessons Learnt from COVID-19

The impact of the new Coronavirus on education is more severe in countries that already suffer from structural educational problems, such as high dropout rates and low return on education. Even though, study suspension and closure of

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schools and universities helped in limiting the spread of the virus, it had some negative effects on the students and their families. For example, students with low abilities were greatly affected due to their inability to self-learn and the lack of technological capabilities that are the main component of the educational process at this stage. Also, many families faced great challenges in providing the continuous care required for their children, especially in the case of a working mother. With the spread of the Coronavirus, the educational system all over the world faced a new massive crisis due to the closure of schools [12] and potential losses in human capital, considering education as one of its basic components [13, 14]. At the beginning of the pandemic, more than 1.5 billion students worldwide have been affected by the closure of schools and universities due to the spread of the new Coronavirus and this number was decreased to be 990,324,537 by the end of May 2020 due to de-confinement [15]. Egypt has adopted a comprehensive plan to face the consequences of the pandemic to reduce its impacts on citizens and on the various sectors and entities of the country. A number of presidential decisions were issued to respond to the crisis, in addition to the government’s adoption of a set of immediate measures and precautionary measures being taken in the fiscal year 2020/2021 budget. In fact, 36 billion Egyptian pounds have been allocated to the new budget to support health, education, and social solidarity sectors. Regarding the education system, studying in universities and schools has been suspended, for two weeks, starting on Sunday, March 15, 2020, and this suspension was extended until 16 of October, 2020, as part of the country’s comprehensive plan to deal with the repercussions of the Coronavirus. The new academic year 2020–2021 commenced on 17th October, 2020. To examine the resilience of the education system, some questions for policy makers should be raised, for example, • To what extent were they prepared to handle such exceptional circumstances? i.e. the

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capacities of educational institutions, teachers, professors and education managers to deliver quality education for students. • Have all barriers to learning and participation been removed? What about infrastructure, technology and flexible learning assessment? • What are the main factors that allowed some educational systems to adapt more efficiently than others, i.e., what are the factors that promote resilience in education? • What are the leading guidelines that should be considered in the future to confront any sudden shocks and ensure education continuity? Education systems worldwide changed severely because of this pandemic, in many contexts i.e. academic education and social communication and knowledge. Chances and good opportunities should come out to confront these challenges; otherwise, bad economic and social consequences will arise in the long run. Accordingly, the principal priority for the next period is to improve the education system’s resilience and promote education for all with pronounced quality education development and delivery, especially for the most disregarded children. Decision makers should plan effectively for the new situation that causes education disturbance because of COVID-19 pandemic. Education system resilience will decrease the effects of this pandemic on the educational process, guarantee better readiness for possible future emergencies and enhance the quality of education. Furthermore, the pandemic has worsened social inequities in some countries since children from poor families with deprived infrastructure were facing substantial barriers to participate in online education [16]. UNICEF has a resilient path of supporting governments in improving education systems and making them stronger by implementing advanced curricula, ensuring professional development and teacher training, and supporting outof-school children. UNICEF has focused on three pillars: education technology to design digital learning for students and teachers/professors. Second, activities related to teaching support

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contain professional development of educators, educational materials, curriculum, and assessment issues. Third, activities related to code of practice and rules to facilitate the process of assessing the learning process [16]. UNESCO [17] proposed some thoughts that ensure a resilient education system in the future: 1. Develop the definition of the right to education (education for all). 2. Improve curriculum that should not be based on memorization, to cope with new educational environment. 3. Appreciate the teaching job. “There has been remarkable innovation in the responses of educators to the COVID-19 crisis, with those systems most engaged with families and communities showing the most resilience” [17]. 4. Keep the social spaces provided by the educational institutions when converting to online education. 5. Support digital education and distance learning. 6. Make use of all the available financial resources (local and international) of public education since the pandemic has the power to damage several years of developments. 7. Resolve the issue of inequality by developing global solidarity. Ayadi [18] emphasized that solidarity should be developed as a collaboration between governments and private sector to outline the optimal public policies.

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The Impact of the Coronavirus on the Educational Systems: Some Global Experiences and Egypt

Most countries have tried to continue the educational process and provide the service, but differently, by teaching students remotely using technology through various online classes and lectures, books and electronic platforms. This is what characterizes the impact of the pandemic on the education sector, which is the continuation of the service with the transformation of its

The Effect of COVID-19 on the Egyptian …

entire delivery pattern, the introduction of new learning styles, and the change of the educational system so that it is more resilient to deal with distance education methods. However, the situation differed according to countries’ degree of progress and readiness in terms of communications and information technology infrastructure. For example, in Europe and Central Asia, there are different groups of countries with varying levels of income and development. The spread of technology and its availability is essential and vice versa, the lack of computers puts students in a disadvantageous position for academic achievement. Most countries in Europe and Central Asia region have the basic capabilities that enable schools and homes to provide and obtain educational services using technology. More specifically, 50% of these countries have the basic resources to ensure a minimum level of ability to deliver electronic content and 20% are in a position to provide good computers and internet networks. While 30% of countries do not have good internet networks, these countries are trying to use old technologies by using radio, television, and social media [19]. The experience of the World Bank in supporting Latin American and Caribbean countries in responding to the current education crisis is a good example, as the countries of the region have adapted innovative and flexible methods during this crisis. Various channels and media have been merged to facilitate teaching and learning, as follows: • All countries participating in the support program create national centers for digital educational resources or a Learning Management System (LMS) where students communicate easily with their teachers. • Adopting WhatsApp, phone, or social media to provide educational guidance and support to teachers and parents. • Using educational radio and television, as the Internet is not available to everyone. In general, distance learning using the Internet has been used in many countries, including, for

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example, China, Italy, France, Germany, the United States and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia [20]. The issue of digital economy is opportune. This topic becomes essential for sustainable development and affects most of countries and sectors. Thus, individuals approve the importance of digital economy. Policies are needed to make the digital economy work for the majority of people. Nassar and Biltagy [21] stated that “Digitalization encourages countries to capture the benefits of the digital economy as a vital motivator for development, high income and trade, the productivity growth of high-quality products and innovation. The digital markets lead to speedy technological progress because they are categorized by high innovation and investment rates”. Based on [21] and [22] mentioned that “On the other hand, workforces with low digital skills face a lot of difficulties compared to others with higher endowments of the digital economy. Hence, the disadvantages of the dominant digital economy include high levels of competition from local and international digitalized firms and losing numerous businesses and jobs, that are computerized instead. In that context, competition law plays a significant role in shaping the digital economy”. One of the most important elements of excellence of the Egyptian education system according to the Global Knowledge Index 2020 [23] based on the performance of 138 countries is: • The high percentage of students enrolled in pre-university education in general. • The high percentage of students enrolled in vocational education programs at the secondary level. • The low percentage of children out of school. • The high percentage of students enrolled in internationally ranked universities. • The higher student competence i.e. Egypt occupied an advanced position (24th place) with a value of the index of 42.9, ahead of this distinguished position over several countries which indicates the uniqueness of the Egyptian human capital.

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However, the education sector in Egypt still faces several challenges that bound its efficiency and weaken the quality of its outputs [24]. The most noticeable constraints are the low spending on education (Egypt ranked 93 out of 138 countries) and the low efficiency of allocating the finding resources to the components of the educational process. Another constraint is related to the high unemployment rate among those with higher education (Egypt ranked 119 out of 138 countries). Table 1 ascertains that Egypt has made progress in terms of educational indicators. As it ranked 83 out of 138 countries compared to the position 94 in 2019 in the sub-index preuniversity education. Moreover, it ranked 80 out of 138 countries compared to the position

103 in 2019 in the sub-index technical education and vocational training. Furthermore, Egypt advanced 7 positions in the higher education index, since it ranked 42 out of 138 countries compared to the position 49 in 2019. As for modern teaching and learning methods, Egypt advanced 4 ranks in the information and communication technology index with a rank of 74 out of 138 countries. However, this indicator does not reflect the nature of use, that is, it does not confirm that progress in the outputs of this indicator necessarily tends to increase individual and governmental uses in the education sector in particular. In terms of infrastructure, it ranked 97 with an index value equal to 56.4. This means that the country needs to develop its technological infrastructure in order to be able to keep pace

Table 1 The educational performance of Egypt Indicators

Value of indicator (Egypt)

Rank (Egypt)

The first ranked country

World average

Global knowledge index

45

72

Switzerland

46.7

Pre-university education

57.2

83

Finland

58

Knowledge capital

53

85

Finland

56

Enrolment

62

58

Sweden

55.4

Educational enabling environment

63.6

69

United Arab Emirates

60.9

Expenditure on education

39

93

Azerbaijan

44.5

Technical and vocational education and training

47.6

80

United States

50.8

Formation and professional training

43.9

96

United States

50.2

Educational structure

48.8

80

Bolivia

51.1

Qualifications of human capital

48.6

53

Finland

46.4

Higher education

45.6

42

Switzerland

40.3

Higher education outputs and quality

37.5

60

United Kingdom

36.4

Employment after graduation

27.4

119

Canada

55.2

Student competence

42.9

24

Luxemburg

20.3

Research, development and innovation

19.9

74

Switzerland

26

Research and development

22.5

58

Israel

25.1

Information and communications technology

52.4

74

United States

53.8

Infrastructure

56.4

97

Hong Kong, China

61.9

Sector competitiveness

73.0

84

United States

72.6

Impact on development

49.6

45

Sweden

44.1

Source Done by the author based on [23]

The Effect of COVID-19 on the Egyptian …

with modern technological developments. Egypt occupied an advanced position (45th place) out of 138 countries in the development impact of the ICT sector.

5

An Overview of the Egyptian Policy Responses: The Education System Perspective

As a response to the health crisis, the government via the Ministries of Education and Higher Education and Scientific Research took decisive measures since March 15, 2020, such as: 1. Suspending activities at all educational levels to reduce the number of hours of the school day. 2. Suspending studies in universities and schools for a period of two weeks, starting on Sunday, March 15, 2020, and this suspension was extended until 16 of October, 2020. 3. Closing all private educational centers and warning violators with taking legal action against them. The total number of students affected by the closure of schools and universities in Egypt has reached 27,024,690 students, where 13,144,435 are females, and 13,880,255 are males. Table 2 shows the number of students enrolled in Egypt’s different education stages [25].

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According to the Human Development Report 2020 [27], Egypt ranked 116 out of 189 countries, with an index value of = 0.707 (high human development). The expected number of years of schooling was 13.3 years, and the average number of schooling years was 7.4 years, with the value of the education index = 0.618 (Table 3). The Ministries of Education and Higher Education and Scientific Research have accelerated the procedures and decisions to curb the negative impacts on the educational process. The impact was more severe on the Ministry of Education due to the huge number of students enrolled in this sector, compared to the number of university education students, in addition to the fact that university students are more connected and interacted with the distance learning technology and Learning Management System (LMS) applied in some Egyptian universities. The procedures for dealing with the crisis and the transition to the online education were as follows: • Ministry of Education):

Education

(Pre-University

The Ministry of Education quickly to ok the necessary measures and procedures that help in transforming the traditional educational process into distance learning methods to complete the

Table 2 The number of total students in different educational levels in Egypt Educational stage

Males

Females

Total

Pre-primary education

716,651

673,291

1,389,942

Primary education

6,271,344

5,928,755

12,200,099

Preparatory education

2,571,718

2,440,586

5,012,304

Secondary education

1,897,868

1,780,302

3,678,170

Al-Azhar education

891,640

765,196

1,656,836

Society schools

41,402

91,605

133,007

Handicapped education

25,244

14,615

39,859

Total number of students in pre-university education

12,415,867

11,694,350

24,110,217

1,464,388

1,450,085

2,914,473

*

Higher education

Source Done by the author based on the data of [26] * The data is obtained from [25]

52

M. Biltagy

Table 3 Human development index trends in Egypt from 1990–2020 (Education Index) Year

Expected Number of Schooling Years

Average Number of Schooling Years

HDI

1990

9.8

3.5

0.546

1995

10.4

4.1

0.576

2000

11.1

4.8

0.611

2005

11.5

5.6

0.634

2010

12

6.6

0.665

2015

13.1

7.1

0.691

2020

13.3

7.4

0.707

Source Done by the author based on the [28]

academic year 2019/2020, these measures can be explained as follows:

and encourage students to deal with the digital software.

1. Limiting the curricula to what was taught until the date of suspension of education (March 15, 2020) for all educational levels (general/technical). 2. Developing research projects as an alternative to the traditional exams applied to some educational stages, starting from the third grade of primary school to the third grade of preparatory stage, and they have been published on the website of the Ministry of Education. 3. The digital library [29] includes many different digital educational references and resources that help students with self-learning. 4. Announcing the electronic exams for the first and second grades of secondary education, with the delivery of tablets and internet slides to first-grade students for free. 5. Introducing a live broadcast platform for virtual classes [30] and creating an educational communication platform [31] which is a free educational platform that helps teachers communicate safely with their students and supports virtual classroom online classes under the supervision of the parents. 6. Disseminating many videos explaining the methods of interaction with the Edmodo communication platform, the live broadcasting platform for the virtual classes and the digital library [32]. 7. Cooperating with Microsoft to provide office software to nearly 20 million students, free of charge, to support the new educational system

• About 981,716 teachers and 5,438,351 students registered on the platform, and nearly 1,358,750 virtual classrooms were created. More than 417,788 parents interacted on the platform with their children. Noting that all these numbers increased significantly by the end of quarantine after the completion of registration of all students, teachers and parents on the platform. 8. Requiring social distancing and wearing face masks/face shields in all schools. The new academic year 2020–2021 commenced on 17th October, 2020. The Minister of Education announced that the two to three days per week rule for attendance will apply to all students at all stages and the other days will be scheduled online to reduce the high density of students in classrooms. • Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research The role of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research was different, given that Egyptian universities include the largest university hospitals. The professors and students of these university hospitals were at the forefront of facing the Covid-19 pandemic. In addition, students’ guest houses in some universities, for example, Cairo, Helwan, Ain Shams, Assiut,

The Effect of COVID-19 on the Egyptian …

Minya, Alexandria and Mansoura were prepared to receive COVID-19 cases. As mentioned before, a large percentage of universities and students are dealing with the elearning methods, which facilitated the continuation of the educational process in most Egyptian universities. The Supreme Council of Universities issued a number of decisions in accordance with the development of the situation; the most recent decisions were in mid-April, 2020 as follows [33]: 1. The written and oral exams in all colleges are cancelled for all students enrolled in the first to third stages, and those exams are replaced by one of the following two alternatives:

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4. For postgraduate students: Each university was free to determine the date of the examinations scheduled to obtain these degrees, according to what it deems appropriate after the end of the study suspension period, provided that the period of suspension of study is not counted within the period of study necessary to obtain the academic degree. 5. Supporting scientific research to confront the virus: There have been intensive efforts by the research centers of the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research to confront the emerging Coronavirus, as: • The Science, Technology and Innovation Funding Authority (STIFA) has launched projects to confront the emerging Coronavirus pandemic, provided that the required research is in the fields of medicine, pharmacy, medical supplies, public health and information technology. • Universities announced the opportunities for funding research that would help in combating the virus and its multiple effects, for example Cairo University allocated ten million Egyptian pounds as a first stage to support research teams to find a vaccine for the Coronavirus, in addition to overcome the negative economic and social effects of the virus [34, 35].

• Preparing students for research theses in the courses that were taught in the second semester of the academic year 2019–2020 and each university has set up the standards, controls, conditions and rules necessary to evaluate and approve these theses according to the nature and specialization of each college. • Holding electronic exams for the courses taught this semester for colleges or study programs with a limited number of enrolled students and sufficient infrastructure and technological capabilities. 2. For other colleges that bylaws require practical or clinical training and practical examinations: It was stated that, the timetables that were scheduled for practical and/or clinical training are completed in the second semester after the end of the suspension period or at the beginning of the new academic year 2020– 2021. 3. For students in the final stage in all colleges: Examinations scheduled to be held by the end of the second semester of the academic year 2019–2020 were postponed till July 2020. Universities are entrusted with setting schedules and controls, taking into account giving the students an appropriate period of time before taking the exams.

6. The new academic year 2020–2021 started on 17th October, 2020. The Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research has adopted precautionary measures against the coronavirus, including implementing a system using both in-person learning and e-learning. The ministry imposed social distancing and wearing face masks inside the campus.

6

Matrix of Proposed Resilience Pillars and Execution Mechanisms

Education for sustainable development includes:

54

• The learning values and curricula that should be formulated. • The assessment methods that support the learning process. • The required educational planning and resourcing systems. • The suitable approaches of learning needed for decent and sustainable work. • The role of international support in achieving sustainability in education [36].

M. Biltagy

Covid-19 can be used as a good opportunity to make the educational system more oriented towards sustainable education. The following figure illustrates the concept of education for sustainable development (Fig. 2). The COVID-19 pandemic leads us to face an actual challenge and a real responsibility. This requires quick action by governments, private sector, civil society and international organizations.

Resilience pillars

Execution mechanisms

Developing the educational curricula and enhancing digital infrastructure

Attention should be paid to: • Develop the educational curricula. Create new specializations that help catch up with any updates. • Increase the quality of education. • Use modern technologies for education. • Use the latest developments in knowledge and technology revolution, and distance learning approaches. Progress has been made in the possibility of using electronic devices; this makes this transition to online learning possible. But at the same time, not every student has access to digital devices or the Internet at home, accordingly, this is the main challenge that should be considered to ensure that these students have access to learning resources, and find an appropriate way to help them.

Creating the necessary learning methods for decent and sustainable work

It is essential to make good use of the resources allocated to the education sector to help promote and raise the efficiency of education, improve its outputs, and link those outputs with the requirements of sustainable development and the needs of the labor market. Moreover, mixed learning methods should be used. It is well known that the most attractive learning styles are those that are more interactive i.e. face-to-face learning is better than online learning. But blended learning that combines these two alternatives can build on the best of both options and create a better learning experience. This good idea is already applied in some universities in the academic year 2020–2021, among them is Cairo University.

Using advanced planning methods to provide the required resources, and exploiting the international support to achieve sustainability in education

While there is no ideal formula for determining the optimal rate of public spending on education, it would be beneficial to allocate a large percentage of the state budget to the education sector. Of course, these amendments will result in a tangible increase in the resources allocated to education. Also, it is possible to rely on huge investment projects to pump more capital into many governmental educational institutions to improve their deteriorating conditions by modernizing their buildings and educational equipment, improving management systems, and encouraging the (continued)

The Effect of COVID-19 on the Egyptian … Resilience pillars

55

Execution mechanisms decentralization trend. That is, applying the mechanism of self-development for achieving sustainable development, and refining the skills of faculty members. Likewise, the benefits of international grants and loans provided by international organizations should be maximized, such as the Higher Education Development Project Fund, which is part of the loan agreement between Egypt and the World Bank [37].

Maximizing the role of the private sector

Fig. 2 The concept of education for sustainable development. Source: Author’s elaboration

Education in developing countries depends mainly on the funds provided by the government, unlike the case in developed countries where private financing plays an influential role. This can be attributed to the high standard of living, which enabled many people to cover the educational costs for their children, and the increasing role of industrial and financial institutions in financing education. As for most developing countries, the role of governments is essential, as the role of the private sector is still very limited. Consequently, the organizations and civil society institutions should contribute in developing the educational process. The traditional relationship between the education system and the government should be replaced by another one based on cooperation i.e. civil society organizations should participate in supporting the government efforts [37].

Provide the Necessary Resources

Qualifying Students for Sustainable and Decent Work

Education for Sustainable Developme nt

International Support

Advanced Curricula and Evaluation Methods

56

7

M. Biltagy

Conclusion and Policy Recommendations

Generally, countries with resilient systems could better react to the shocks and manage them effectively [38]. The responses to the COVID-19 pandemic differ from one country to another and from one context to another. But, they must be based on a social vision of education and human rights contexts. Actions plans must support public education, reinforce common goods and increase a global solidarity that emphasizes the cooperative responsibility for the education of everyone worldwide. Education needs to be at the heart of a post COVID-19 world. Vaccines lead to better-quality learning since vaccination increases educational attainment because vaccinated children can go to school safely and perform better. Countries can overcome the coronavirus crisis with the least possible losses, if governments take appropriate policies and procedures. Policy makers can use this sudden catastrophe as a chance by making the educational system more able to deal with technology and more oriented to continuous and sustainable. Given the fast pace of technological change, policy responses need to be continuously checked. Among the proposed alternatives to the Egyptian education system: • Continuing to develop the digital platforms that have been established and increase the number of subscribers to eliminate the private lessons and decrease the density of classes. Furthermore, it is important to develop the websites of the Ministry of Education and the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research. The Ministry of Education has already launched a new platform for reviews of preparatory and secondary education. Furthermore, two new educational channels opened in November and December, 2020 called Madrasetna (1) and Madrasetna (2). • Creating new curricula and developing educational systems; so that it will be more flexible for any developments that may arise in the future and improving the financing of

•

•

•

•

digital curricula and materials (digital libraries, lessons, educational materials, etc.). Increasing funds devoted to human development, especially the sectors of health and education. Indeed, the plan of economic development in 2020/2021 gave great attention to education and health sectors because of Covid-19. Incorporating the concept of sustainable education to achieve sustainable development and to reduce poverty, but with a focus on quality education and innovation in addition to lifelong learning. Learning at all ages plays an active starring role in developing a sustainable future. Education, in general, is essential in achieving sustainable development agenda [39, 40]. Higher education is uniquely positioned to drive the transition to sustainability; universities have the various means to influence students and providing them with the skills needed to transform existing societies into sustainable cultures. The challenge of integrating sustainability into the university curriculum is important. This includes curriculum development and the creation of new academic programs [36]. Targeting the poorest areas, providing the necessary technological equipment and internet and improving communication capabilities to ensure continuity of distance learning, whether for schools or households. Providing learners and teachers with new skills to support the knowledge-based economy by implementing an ambitious, transformative and comprehensive educational agenda.

Acknowledgements I would like to thank Professor Rym Ayadi, Founder and President, Euro-Mediterranean Economists Association (EMEA) for her valuable comments. Moreover, I am so grateful for EMEA for its financial support.

References 1. Biltagy M (2019a) Human capital, labor market frictions and migration in Egypt. Appl Econometrics Int Dev 19(2):107–130

The Effect of COVID-19 on the Egyptian … 2. Biltagy M (2019b) Gender wage disparities in Egypt: evidence from ELMPS 2006 and 2012. Q Rev Econ Finance 73C:14–23 3. UNESCO (2014) Global education for all meeting. UNESCO Muscat, Oman 4. Lovren VO (2017) Promoting sustainability in institutions of higher education: the perspective of university teachers. In: Filho WL, Azeiteiro UM, Alves F, Molthan-Hill P (eds) Handbook of theory and practice of sustainable development in higher education, vol 4. Springer, Switzerland, pp 475–490 5. Sewilam H, McCormack O, Mader M, Abdel Raouf M (2015) Introducing education for sustainable development into Egyptian schools. Environ Dev Sustain 17:221–238 6. El Deghaidy H (2016) Education for sustainability in Egypt: participants’ perspectives. In: NARST 2016, Baltimore. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.2127. 4489 7. Glavic P (2020) Identifying key issues of education for sustainable development. Sustainability 12 (6500):1–18 8. Miyakoshi M (2016) Higher education and development in Egypt: exploratory case study of the perception of E-JUST students and graduates. Master thesis in sustainable development at Uppsala university, Sweden 9. Khalil D, Ramzy O, Mostafa R (2013) Perception towards sustainable development concept: Egyptian students’ perspective. Sustain Acc Manag Policy J 4 (3):307–327 10. Forster R, Zimmermann AB, Mader C (2019) Transformative teaching in higher education for sustainable development: facing the challenges. GAIA Ecol Perspect Sci Soc 28(3):324–326 11. Scherak L, Rieckmann M (2020) Developing ESD competences in higher education institutions—staff training at the university of Vechta. Sustainability 12 (24):10336. https://doi.org/10.3390/su122410336 12. World bank education and COVID-19 13. Mincer J (1958) Investment in human capital and personal income distribution. J Polit Econ 66 14. Becker GS (1962) Investment in human capital: a theoretical analysis. J Polit Econ 70 15. UNESCO, COVID-19 educational disruption and response 16. UNICEF (2020) Building resilient education systems beyond the COVID-19 pandemic: considerations for education decision-makers at national, local and school levels. UNICEF Europe and Central Asia 17. UNESCO (2020) Education in a post-COVID world: nine ideas for public action. International Commission on the Futures of Education, Paris, France 18. Ayadi R (2020) Proposal for a three-pillar resilience framework to face external shocks: the case of COVID-19 pandemic. EMEA Policy Paper 19. Patrinos H, Shmis T (2020) Can technology help mitigate the impact of COVID-19 on education systems in Europe and Central Asia? In: Eurasian Perspectives, World Bank

57 20. Azzi-Huck K, Shmis T (2020) Managing the impact of COVID-19 on education systems around the world: how countries are preparing, coping, and planning for recovery. Published on Education for Global Development 21. Nassar H, Biltagy M (2021) Human resource competitiveness and digital economy in Egypt. In: The Egyptian economy in the twenty-first century: the hard road to inclusive prosperity. American University Press 22. UNCTAD [United Nations Conference on Trade and Development] (2019) Digital economy report: value creation and capture: implications for developing countries. New York, United Nations 23. Global Knowledge Index (2020) The United Nations Development Program and the Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum knowledge foundation, the knowledge project 24. Biltagy M (2015a) Financing higher education in Egypt: problems and suggested alternatives. FEPS J J Fac Econ Polit Sci Cairo University 16(3):3–24, (In Arabic) 25. UNESCO (2020) Institute for statistics data 26. CAPMAS (2020) Egypt in figures. Arab republic of Egypt 27. UNDP (2020) Human development report 2020. The next frontier: human development and the anthropocene 28. UNDP World human development reports, various issues 29. https://study.ekb.eg 30. https://stream.moe.gov.eg 31. https://edmodo.org 32. http://portal.moe.gov.eg/Pages/single-news-view. aspx?NewsID=4455 33. http://portal.mohesr.gov.eg/ar-eg/MediaCenter/ Pages/news.aspx 34. https://cu.edu.eg/ar/Home 35. https://cu.edu.eg/ar/Cairo-University-News-13166. html 36. Biltagy M (2015) Education for sustainability: vision and action of higher education for sustainable consumption. Int J Econ Financ 7(12):282–290 37. Biltagy M (2013) Higher education in Egypt between financing constraints and development strategies. In: El-Sayed MK (ed) Higher education reform in Egypt. Partners in Development (PID), Cairo, Egypt (In Arabic) 38. Ayadi R et al. (2020) Covid-19 in the Mediterranean and Africa: diagnosis, policy responses, preliminary assessment and way forward. EMEA-EMNES Studies 39. Lozano R, Lukman R, Lozano FJ, Huisingh D, Lambrechts W (2011) Declarations for sustainability in higher education: becoming better leaders, through addressing the university system. J Clean Prod 48:10–19 40. Elmassah S, Biltagy M, Gamal D (2020) Engendering sustainable development competencies in higher education: the case of Egypt. J Cleaner Prod 266:121959

Culture and Principles of Equity and Gender Equality as a Basis of Holistic Sustainable Development at SEKEM, Egypt Lorenz Huebner and Helmy Abouleish

Abstract

Inspired by the early twentieth century Anthroposophy of Rudolph Steiner, the SEKEM initiative was founded in 1977 in Belbeis, Egypt. The community life is based on values of human dignity and the unfolding of every human’s own potential. Ecological and ethical principles are the guideline of all economic endeavours at SEKEM. This was achieved through restoring and revitalizing degraded land in applying biodynamic organic agriculture, and by developing the community through arts and culture while establishing an ethical and diverse society. Today, 684 ha are restored with more than 2,000 people living, working and developing the mission. “Creating out of nothing”, a new SEKEM community is being developed in Wahat by fertilization of desert soil in Egypt’s Western Desert. In 2017, after 40 years of development, SEKEM has designed 18 sustainable vision goals for 2057. They are slightly more detailed, otherwise identical to the 17 UN Sustainable Development Goals. We review

L. Huebner (&) Schulze-Delitzsch-Str. 8, 24943 Flensburg, Germany e-mail: [email protected]

the holistic sustainable approach at SEKEM, combining ecological management, economic growth, development of human growth, education and culture of equality as parts of societal responsible engagement. Visible parts are the SEKEM Development Foundation, with nursery, school and school for children with special needs, a Medical Centre, the Heliopolis-University with focus on sustainability, Carbon Footprint Centre, Egyptian Biodynamic Association for the training of organic and biodynamic agriculture, and the holistic “Economy of Love” label, which reaches beyond the social aspects of the “Fair Trade” label. Developing the social and cultural life, principles of equality and empowerment of women are all key to the ecological and economic successes achieved here. We present important underlying parameters and activities, such as: unfolding the individual potential, lifelong learning, shaping of future generations to gain collective responsibility, and the integration of art. Keywords




Holistic sustainable development Unfolding individual potential Collective responsibility Art in education Economy of love SEKEM Egypt













H. Abouleish El Salam City, Cairo, Egypt e-mail: [email protected] © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_5

59

60

1

L. Huebner and H. Abouleish

Introduction

Egypt’s Vision 2030 of the Sustainable Development Strategy aims to integrate fundamental elements of participation, justice and social integrity in the country’s economical development. The United Nation’s 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are the guideline, with society, environment, and economy being the inspiring basic dimensions of the Vision 2030 of Egypt’s government [1]. The SEKEM community since its foundation in Belbeis, Egypt in 1977, and during more than 40 years of development has consequently integrated the values of an equal society, the empowerment of women, education, artistic and cultural development, circular economy and others. Visible signs are the SEKEM own institutions: from kindergarten, school and school for special needs to university, and from adult training courses to vocational training centers. All of these are founded on a rich cultural, spiritual and artistic life. These values have always been the basis of the organic organizational and economic growth of the community. It will therefore be presented as a longlasting, sustainable example of the SDG numbers 5 and 10, i.e. “Gender equality” and “Reduced inequalities”. We will see, that also other SDGs, e.g. numbers 4 and 11 (“Quality education”, “Sustainable cities and communities”) are incorporated in the way how SEKEM is set up. Finally, organic agriculture is at the economical basis of SEKEM. We are showing in a separate chapter how this also encompasses the SDGs 1, 2 and 15: “No poverty”, “Zero hunger”, “Life on land”. The name SEKEM is an ancient Egyptian word meaning “vitality”. SEKEM’s founder, Dr. Ibrahim Abouleish, wanted to develop a model community in the desert, based on agriculture with ecological awareness and responsibility, and by producing essential goods in a way that connects and supports the entire value chain. The community should be governed by social forms that promote human dignity and equality, nourished by art and culture to promote human development and to unfold the individual’s potential [2].

1.1 SEKEM Founder Developing His Vision of Society and Culture From a young age, Ibrahim Abouleish was interested in people and their way of life. Born in the small village Mashtul in the Nile delta, north of Cairo, Ibrahim moved to Cairo at the age of four, but he made regular summer trips to his hometown, bringing them knowledge, culture, and presents from the capital city. His father was an entrepreneur who set up two large companies employing many people and the entrepreneurial spirit inspired him from his childhood. Arts and culture have influenced the young Ibrahim deeply and helped shape his perception. He liked to contemplate the beautiful secrets of nature. At the age of 19, Ibrahim moved to Graz, Austria for his higher education. There he was fascinated by the Opera house and the cultural scene and wished to share it with the Egyptian society, especially with his community in Mashtul. He also became interested in philosophy and was introduced to Rudolf Steiner’s anthroposophy. The anthroposophical teachings resonated well with Ibrahim because of their spiritual aspects. When Ibrahim left for Europe, he wrote a letter to his father: When I get back, I will go to Mashtul, the village I have always loved and where I spent the best time of my childhood. I will build factories where people can work, different work than they are used to from farming. I will build workshops for women and girls to make clothes, carpets, household goods, and everything else the people need. I will let the road be tarred from the station to the village and plant trees to its right and left. I will establish shops that sell everything the people need, and it will be very tidy and clean. I will build a large theater on your grounds, where renowned artists can give performances for the people of my village. I will build a hospital which I will fill with specialists. I will make a small quarter for the doctors and their assistants and teachers to live. I will need teachers, as I want to build schools for children, from kindergarten to high school.

This vision was present and clear in the mind of the 19-year-old boy—and it came true.

Culture and Principles of Equity and Gender Equality …

1.2 Initiative for Holistic Sustainable Development Through the encounter with the European culture and especially with anthroposophy, Ibrahim Abouleish found answers to many questions and, at the same time, practical applications in many areas of life. Strongly influenced by this experience, his vision, the SEKEM vision, was formed. The SEKEM model consists of the Ecological, Economic, Societal, and Cultural dimensions. We will present how these four dimensions are interconnected with each other in achieving holistic sustainable development. In 2018, SEKEM published the “SEKEM Vision and Mission 2057” [3] consisting of 18 SEKEM Vision Goals (SVGs; Table 1) that align with the 17 goals declared as the United Nations’ SDGs [4]. SEKEM developed these SVGs to highlight the importance of cultural life, yet they are inspired and guided by the SDGs [5]. Here we review the basis and foundation that this long-term “Vision and Mission” is built on today. We will see that good progress towards sustainability has been achieved already. In this respect SEKEM may be regarded as an entrepreneur, already living sustainability in these four dimensions in a way that probably still is a future goal for many others. The intention is not

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to rest on the level of sustainability achieved, in contrast, even higher goals are envisioned for the future of SEKEM and that of Egypt until 2057. What is forming the economical, ecological, societal and cultural basis of sustainability that this future oriented community is built on, and that is now aiming to achieve even much higher sustainability objectives?

2

REVIEW: The Four Sustainability Dimensions at SEKEM

2.1 Economic Dimension of Sustainability Commercial performance and achievements at SEKEM are combined with social and cultural development. As will be presented here, the economic dimension of SEKEM includes more than a sum of economic programs, projects and activities. Doing business was considered by the founder as a human activity that should promote wellbeing. Beyond economic profits, human communities needed to be built on trust, mutual support and collaboration [2]. In the global economy, the aim should be to be globally competitive. In the end this is achieved by human beings and their

Table 1 SEKEM vision goals overview SEKEM vision goals in the four dimensions Human Development

Economic value creation

• SVG 1: Holistic education (Focus topic 2019)

• SVG 12: Circular economy

• SVG 2: Integral university model

• SVG 13: Economy of love (Focus topic 2019)

• SVG 3: Holistic research

• SVG 14: Ethical banking (Focus topic 2020)

• SVG 4: Integrative medicine (Focus topic 2020)

• SVG 15: Offer of biodynamic products

• 5 SVG 5: New culture

• SVG 16: Transparent reading

Ecology

Societal life

• SVG 6: 100% organic (Focus topic 2018)

• SVG 17: Social transformation

• SVG 7: Self sufficient water management

• SVG 18: Future-oriented governance

• SVG 8: 100% Renewable energies (Focus topic 2021) • SVG 9: Stabilized biodiversity • SVG 10: Climate mitigation • SVG 11: Zero waste (Focus topic 2018)

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individual capacity. The learning-living concept is seen as a way for workers to develop their skills and become self-motivated and successful [6]. SEKEM is considering human development as a strategy to achieve sustainability. It will impact the drive to be globally competitive and successful. SEKEM’s economic profit is not a primary focus. However, today it is comprised of a variety of market-competitive companies with over 1,500 employees, serving around 40,000 people in the community [6]. SEKEM consists of a number of independent companies that are interlinked by their common values and contribution to ecological, cultural, and social development. “Lotus” was the first company founded to process plants from organic biodynamic cultivation. In 1986, “Atos Pharma” was founded to manufacture and produce phytopharmaceuticals. Thereafter, “ISIS Organic” for foodstuff and “SEKEM Health” for over-thecounter natural pharmaceutical products were founded, followed by “NatureTex” for organic textile in 1998 (previously “ConyTex”). SEKEM for Land Reclamation, “Mizan” for seedlings, “Libra” for cattle management, “Lotus Upper Egypt” for Organic herbs and spices, and “SEKEM Labs” followed [7]. Sustainable development requires economy to take care of those who create the value. SEKEM has incorporated this important aspect of fair production in it’s ecological, societal, and cultural dimensions. It’s workers are enabled to devote 10% of their ‘working’ time to personal development. Likewise, 10% of the SEKEM added value are given back to the community through the “SEKEM Development Foundation” (SDF), whilst another 10% is invested into innovation and research [8]. Beyond applying biodynamic agricultural methods and fair working conditions, an additional component of sustainable economic activities is represented by the term ‘Economy of Love’. This is a certification standard inspired by SEKEM and set up in cooperation with other local and international stakeholders with the aim to connect the product’s value chain with the consumer to enable informed and responsible purchase decision making.

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2.2 Ecological Dimension of Sustainability “I have decided to leave Austria to start a community in the desert in Egypt based on a holistic developmental impulse for the country and people…. Now I hope that a garden in the desert can revitalize the souls of Egyptian people” (Excerpts from letters by Ibrahim Abouleish to his father). After 20 years in Europe Ibrahim Abouleish returned to Egypt. A desert area of 70 ha in the northeast of Cairo was bought to revitalize and reclaim the desert by introducing biodynamic agricultural methods and creating an exemplary model of holistic sustainable development. This way of restoration of degraded desert land was intended to be replicable throughout Egypt, even across the world. Biodynamic agriculture is an early variant of sustainable organic farming. Spiritual and cosmic aspects are seen as basis of soil, livestock and plant growth functioning as one system with ecological interrelations. Plants and animals on the farm should be in balance and with high diversity, aiming for the presence of, e.g. birds, insects, and lizards (Fig. 1). Crop rotation and fertilization with compost created from animal manure and plant residues are the basic methods of biodynamic farming. Medicinal plants are used to create biodynamic preparations for the treatment of compost and as soil nutrient at the seasonal start of field cultivation. The soil’s mineral processes and it’s bacterial and fungal biota were found to be enhanced in organically farmed soil [9]. SEKEM founded the Egyptian Biodynamic Association (EBDA) in 1994 in order to transfer knowledge and to support Egyptian farmers in the shift from conventional to sustainable biodynamic agricultural practices [7]. Through EBDA, SEKEM engages more than 280 contracted farmers in Egypt every year and offers them a fair income and a contract with fixed prices for their products. This ensures their families’ livelihood and enables them to plan and expand their business activities [10]. Workshops and training courses on new agricultural methods as well as regular cultural activities are offered to further the

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Fig. 1 Reclaimed agricultural land in the desert

knowledge and development. They are invited to discuss the challenges faced in their businesses and everyday work life on a monthly basis. Such collaboration based on solidarity rather than competition and egoism seems to benefit all–the farmers, their co-workers and SEKEM. SEKEM constantly monitors the impact of its biodynamic cultivation on soils, plants, animals, air, and water. An annual sustainability report is published since 2007, indicating its impact on the environment and the communities’ social and cultural development. SEKEM has initiated a study to compare the end-to-end costs of an organic production of five crops against the respective costs of conventional farming [11]. The costs of direct input were slightly higher for the organic method, however when the environmental impact (pollution of soil, water, air) was considered the long-term costs related to environmental and health-damage were lower. In summary, organic agriculture resulted in better long-term cost-effectiveness and in higher profitability for the society as a whole [11].

2.3 Societal Dimension of Sustainability As a daily morning ritual the SEKEM community–workers, farmers, managers gather to welcome each other (Fig. 2). The community forms a circle to create awareness and a symbol of equality. Employee representatives are elected who can discuss any concerns of the community during the social meetings that are held on a weekly basis. The meetings are also used to create the SEKEM strategies, so that an active engagement is enabled.

2.3.1 Equal Society, Empowerment of Women To strengthen an equal society, SEKEM’s activities target all people: Those of different ages and gender, different educational background and different beliefs. Nursery, kindergarten, and different schools for children and young adults were founded. A Vocational Training Centre and the Heliopolis University are

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Fig. 2 Circle formed every morning at the SEKEM community to welcome each other

run under the umbrella of SEKEM to facilitate the needs of a society. Offering the organic food, beverages, and textiles to people is considered as a matter of basic human rights and dignity. “Creating out of nothing”—this is one of the concepts at SEKEM, which in the context of desert reclaim is understood as giving the people access to new opportunities and choices. The first SEKEM mother farm was founded in a remote area of small traditional villages. Here, the SEKEM Medical Centre educates the people about health, sanitation, hygiene and disease prevention as well as nutrition and environmental issues. A holistic medical approach is taken by the hospital in serving the numerous patients, even those who cannot afford treatment. The SEKEM Medical Centre supports the efforts of empowerment of women. Gynecologists give regular sessions for the female employees on the topics of well-being and health of women and children. In Egypt, genital mutilation of women has been and still is a widespread practice, contributing to the need for gynecological consultation.

SEKEM organizes various activities in and outside its companies in order to support women’s empowerment as part of its societal sustainability. There are social workers to support the female employees in work related issues or personal problems. Through microcredits and education programs, women’s job positions are established and fostered in the outer community. In accordance with the traditional rural habits most of the women marry early in life to then concentrate on family life. However, the Egyptian society needs women to also get involved in economy and cultural life. A gender strategy for a balanced society has therefore been published as part of the SEKEM initiative for the empowerment of women, from schools to factories.

2.3.2 Partnerships, Financial Structure In 1996, SEKEM and some European business partners have established the International Association for Partnership in Ecology and Trade (IAP). It is an initiative to enhance the commitment to organic agriculture and high food quality. The IAP supports new projects and

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marketing initiatives to promote organic products. Furthermore, there has been work on questions related to measuring sustainable development, creating true prices, and building consumer trust and producer traceability. This is to nurture the global development of organic agriculture. The IAP partners meet regularly to evaluate progress of common projects, exchange experiences, and discuss new strategies. Next to the stakeholder relationships and associative partnerships along the value chain, the founders and leadership have rebuilt the legal structure of SEKEM during the recent years. This was done to move away from personal ownership. The intention is to use a structure that allows SEKEM to own itself and to not become vulnerable through inheritance or nationalization now or in future. In 2018, a Germany based limited liability company was founded, named “SEKEM Verwaltungs GmbH”—soon to be transformed into a charitable limited. In 2019, the shares of the Abouleish family were transferred into this company, which is now the majority shareholder of SEKEM Holding. According to the Egyptian law, SEKEM Holding remains an Egyptian company. However, it is considered necessary that those who lead SEKEM at its premises will have an impact so that decisions are made in the best interest of SEKEM. This intention is realized via another entity, the SEKEM Future Council. The Council has existed for many decades, it consists of long-standing coworkers and community members, who deeply carry in their heart the vision of SEKEM. Through the (charitable) SEKEM Verwaltungs GmbH, excess profit of the Holding is redistributed to the benefit of SEKEM’s cultural life in Egypt, thereby ensuring a circular flow of capital.

2.4 Cultural Dimension: Equity in Education and Development “After establishing a farm as a healthy physical basis for soul and spiritual development, I will set up a kindergarten, a school, a hospital, and

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various cultural institutions. My goal is the development of humans in a comprehensive sense—educating children and adults, teachers, doctors and farmers” (excerpts from letters by Ibrahim Abouleish to his father). Overpopulation, lack of adequate education and health care and environmental degradation are some of the current problems of Egypt. The national systems of healthcare and education do not seem to be keeping pace with the growth of its population at an annual rate of 2.0%. Profit from SEKEM companies usually is reinvested in SEKEM enterprises and in its social facilities and educational programs, which are regarded as the basis for human development. The SEKEM Development Foundation (SDF) was established in 1984. Its main concern is the quality of life of the employees, their families, and that of the inhabitants of the nearby rural area [12]. The SDF conducts formal education and adult education, healthcare programs, vocational training, community development, poverty alleviation, performing, and arts education. Moral and cultural awareness and sustainable development are expected to be enhanced by these activities since arts and sciences are being integrated into the daily life. The SDF’s mission is, “to elevate the total welfare of the Egyptian people by enabling them to determine and realize their own socially unique and culturally appropriate development path” [12]. Cultural and social forms of development are envisaged by the SDF that contribute to local, national and international development. The activities of the SDF are founded on the belief that society’s problems cannot be tackled in isolation [6]. Accordingly, the SDF’s methodology highlights the importance of integration. The community development process is regarded as a multitude of interrelated components such as vocational training, literacy training and primary health care. Communities are seen as holistic units. To target only a single of these activities would counteract the concept of integrated development. So far, about 47,000 people have benefited through the SDF and the Cooperative for SEKEM Employees (CSE) [5].

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2.4.1 Cultural Core Program Cultural and artistic activities are part of SEKEM employees’ everyday life (Fig. 3). This is based on the experience of art initiating a transformational process that enhances people’s awareness. It would enable a more precise observation of the environment and a more direct engagement in developmental issues [13]. Drawing classes, working with clay, or performing a theatre play or music—these are regular activities of SEKEM co-workers. Such artistic activities were found to elevate people’s senses for nature’s beauty and values and those of fellow human beings, thereby fostering consciousness of the environment and society [13]. The cultural core program is designed to enable the artistic and cultural development of employees, community members, and Heliopolis University students. Regular and rotational workshops are held for all community members, from farmers and workers to the top management. 2.4.2 Health Care Activities Access to adequate health care in Egypt is seen as a challenge for many marginal and rural communities. Levels of health awareness are low. This combination results in endemic diseases that otherwise could be prevented by proper education and facilities. The SDF Medical Center offers healthcare services to over Fig. 3 Artistic activities as part of everyday life

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35,700 patients annually which includes both, SEKEM community and local residents. The most common complications are eye problems, infectious and endemic diseases, skin diseases, internal ailments, etc. [5]. The clinic also provides education on important aspects of public health, including women’s health, family planning, sanitation practices and environmental health. A mobile clinic and social workers are part of its outreach program to provide health care and education for about 30,000 rural inhabitants.

2.4.3 Educational Programs The overall illiteracy rate of 27% in Egypt (2019) is one of the highest in the Middle East. Schools lack resources and often need to accommodate several shifts of children per day [13]. Likewise, vocational programs are often insufficient to meet the demand. Those lacking appropriate education are primarily affected by unemployment. Currently Egypt has an official unemployment rate of 10.76% [14]. All of SEKEM’s educational institutions are inspired by the vision that development cannot be sustainable unless guided by life and lifelong learning [12]. This idea goes back to Goethe’s concept of “organisms”. Form is required in everything people do, in the same way that forming processes take place in nature.

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The SEKEM educational impulse was summarized in the following seven theses [12]: 1. Education exists for the people and should thus be developed from their human essence, needs, environment, and cultural context. 2. Education is not focused on transferring knowledge alone, but is a holistic process that addresses intellectual capabilities, emotional needs, and actions. 3. Education is fruitful and sustainable where adequate institutions are embedded in a larger context, sustained by a learning community. 4. Education respects and esteems the background and roots of the people it addresses, it is future-oriented by nature. The generation to be educated will develop different and new values later on for which it should be prepared. 5. Visions form the core of SEKEM’s institutions, and education motivates and inspires both, teachers and students. 6. Every human being is entitled to the right of education because every individual is capable of education and of changing his or her condition of life according to their possibilities. 7. Education overcomes all national, ideological or religious frontiers and guides the people towards common responsibility for the whole earth and mankind. Art, as understood in SEKEM’s educational concept, is a universal method intended to develop senses of form, solidity, taste, and beauty in all teaching and learning activities. SEKEM intends to develop education in due consideration of the conditions encountered directly in the region, rather than taking over a certain educational system. So, it is a question of what people really need in the specific condition that they find themselves in, and in the specific places where they live. The theme “Working while learning, learning while working” is more than “learning by doing”. It expands the notion of learning as the reception and internalization of knowledge. And it covers the fact that people are embedded in an environment that acts upon them and which they transform by their activities [15]. When people become aware of this

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interrelationship and actively attempt to improve what they are doing, they will transform the world, which will act upon them to initiate new learning processes. Hence, the purpose of education is to create and enhance people’s awareness of their own relationship with their environment and living conditions, leading to development. Education is understood as a need to address the individuals equally, in their cognitive, emotional and acting aspects. The interaction of these three areas would generate a qualitative enhancement unattainable by an exclusively intellectual or manual education. Therefore, arts and handicrafts have been included in SEKEM’s educational curriculum. The evolving personality should learn to develop in carrying out artistic activities. By the accompanying artistic activities such as painting, modeling, movement, singing, making music and handicraft, teachers will receive valuable hints, helping them to individualize their teaching.

2.4.4 Nursery and Kindergarten In support of young mothers working at SEKEM, a nursery was already established many years ago. During this time it has grown to become an essential institution for women wanting to continue their work and career. A centrally located, easily accessible new group was added in 2012 to take care of babies and toddlers. In 1984, SEKEM’s SDF established a kindergarten for children of SEKEM and the nearby area, aged three to six years (Fig. 4). There is a pedagogic concept of creative play, imagination and discovery to foster the individual and social development. Young children are open and influenced by all impressions they receive. The environment of the kindergarten is loving and secure. The senses, creativity and imagination of the children are developed, allowing them to learn about their world [5]. 2.4.5 SEKEM School and School for Special Needs In 1989, the SEKEM School was founded, serving over 600 children and students of the primary and secondary level. Muslim as well as

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Fig. 4 The kindergarten at SEKEM

Christian children, primarily locals, are visiting the school. They are encouraged to live in respect of each other’s religion and practices. The Ministry of Education of Egypt has approved the school and it’s use of the state curriculum. Also new forms of pedagogical interaction are followed to develop the intellectual, social, and cultural competencies. The school therefore offers courses in theatre, crafts, music, dance and movement. SEKEM applies a holistic approach based on the Waldorf education. Eurythmy, carpentry, pottery and direct activities in nature form part of the school life. Environmental topics are covered in interactive classes of the SEKEM Environmental Science Centre, that is visited by local and international students. SEKEM’s school is founded as a learning community. The school community meets every morning in the schoolyard for a joint start. Coming together every Thursday in the school hall, the classes demonstrate on a stage what they have learned and acquired during the past week. The pupils and teachers of the nursery school and

the curative institution are invited as well. The mutual perception, the mutual appreciation, and the older students watching the younger ones presenting what they have learned themselves some years back are educational experiences of a special nature. They help promote individualization and independence. Approximately 50 children attend the SEKEM Kindergarten and approximately 600 students, mostly the children of SEKEM employees, are enrolled in its school [5]. Children with any type of disability are supported by a program for children with special needs. Consequently they are enabled to receive and apply the full rights as independent individuals. Many children with disabilities were successfully integrated into SEKEM’s various workplaces in adult age.

2.4.6 Adult Education Program The Adult Education Center ‘Al Mahad’ was founded in 1987. The training of literacy in reading and writing, computer skills, English language and computer literacy is given. Also

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courses on hygiene in the workplace, music, arts and sports. Finally, seminars and lectures on current topics are offered.

2.4.7 Vocational Training Centre (VTC) Since 1997, the Vocational Training Program has trained young people on specific skills for selfemployment. In 2019, the VTC helped trainees to begin a two to three years program, guiding them in every aspect of the chosen profession; so that after graduation their skills will allow them to find work or start their own business. Local adults are supported by short training courses in professionalizing their own business. Training in numerous areas is offered by the VTC: Computer maintenance, electronic technology, industrial mechanics, electricity, mechanical repairs, agricultural machinery, carpentry, textile production, plumbing and general administration. Since 2002, more than 1,100 students, men and women, have graduated in the VTC [5]. New graduates are a sought after resource with high reputation, stateof-the-art training and good work discipline. SEKEM developed a special vocational training concept based on the principle of combining theoretical teaching with deepening practice. Good craftsmanship is trained in the workshops of the VTC. The pupils already produce work pieces for external clients during their first practicing phases. During the second and third year the trainees go into the real professional world to work at clients’ premises. During these years, the apprentices are still present at all cultural activities and performances; they take part in the community’s social life and learn to understand themselves as important members of a successful whole. Artistic and general education for their personal development account for 20% of their training time. The VTC offers eight different technical professions. As a common theme, the handling of natural resources in a sustainable way is trained and developed. 2.4.8 Research Research was part of Dr. Ibrahim Abouleish’s life. From his studies (technical chemistry, pharmacology and medicine) in Austria and his

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work in pharmaceutical research, he was aware of the value of fact driven decisions. Research at SEKEM is on various fields, from agriculture to final pharmaceutical products. Research at the Heliopolis University for Sustainable Development (HUSD), among other is focused on the products of the SEKEM companies, also on social development, analysis of work models and poverty alleviation. Concerning the purpose of education and research, Dr. I. Abouleish, SEKEM’s founder said: “Education and science go hand in hand. Together they promote interest in the world and create awareness of the value of self-knowledge and personal advancement” [16]. Research has played an important role ever since SEKEM’s foundation. As soon as the first medicinal plants were grown, the necessity for research arose to find out how high-quality phytopharmaceuticals could be produced. Research is being carried on in the fields of art, medicine, pharmaceutics, biodynamic organic agriculture, economics, social sciences and technology. Prime goal is to establish interdisciplinary research with international networking and to foster practical entrepreneurial orientation. Since 1999, Heliopolis Academy and, since 2012 HUSD have conducted research in the fields of biodynamic organic agriculture, phytopharmaceuticals, renewable energy, green technologies and sustainable economics, humanities and social sciences [17]. In 2008, SEKEM joined the United Nations University network of Regional Centres of Expertise on Education for Sustainable Development (RCE Cairo), becoming part of a network of 175 RCEs globally [18]. It is focused on the development of sustainable education and research through cooperation of institutions on sustainability projects and knowledge exchange.

2.4.9 Heliopolis University for Sustainable Development (HUSD) In August 2009, the HUSD was acknowledged by the government of Egpt, and in 2012 it received approval to open the faculty of Business and Economics, faculty of Pharmacy and

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faculty of Engineering. SEKEM consider this a major step in realizing their vision goal for education and research. As the first non-profit university in the Middle East the HUSD has declared the sustainable development as its guiding principle. As social entrepreneurs the students are enabled to face and solve the future’s challenges. Teaching, research, learning and practice are integrated. A unique Core Program supports the student’s personal development, designed to awaken the student’s individual creativity. Social responsibility and desire to serve in society are supported by working in teams and by giving the capacity to innovate the social structures. Currently, over two thousand students develop their skills in critical and holistic thinking, in realizing challenges and assuming responsibility [17]. Since 2012, the national and international HUSD students can deepen their knowledge in technologies of sustainable development, integrating societal and cultural values. The twenty-first century with its challenges of climate change, scarcity of resources, population growth and poverty call for innovative solutions and for finding new and forward-looking answers. HUSD has declared these tasks its condition sine qua non. This distinguishes it as the world’s first university declaring sustainable development to be its overall guiding principle [17]. The HUSD campus area has an increased use of solar power and uses treated wastewater for gardening purpose. A Carbon Footprint Center was initiated in 2014 (Fig. 5), it is active in carbon assessment and CO2 emission reduction projects [19]. Conscious waste management and recycling practice as an integrated area of learning disclose inherent future potentials. This concept implies two fundamental opening gestures of the university: Opening towards the social practice outside and opening towards the creative sources of knowledge and will-power processes inside. The university integrates the Core Program in its curriculum, for the cultural development of the students and their capacity for innovation and social responsibility [17].

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The solid academic studies at HUSD also include project work with partner companies to also acquire the practical skills needed to find and apply solutions to real-life problems. In this collaboration the students can chose an area of their interest. Currently, HUSD consists of five faculties [17]: The Faculty of Engineering with a curriculum of specialized engineering and courses on environmental, economic and social topics with focus on sustainability. The Faculty of Business and Economics covering innovative and sustainable models of business and economics. The Faculty of Pharmacy with a comprehensive pharmaceutical core program and models of improved pharmaceutical infrastructure. The Faculty of Physical Therapy to pioneer and study holistic Physiotherapy. The Faculty of Organic Agriculture to conduct teaching and research in this area.

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SYNOPSIS: SEKEM—Status of Sustainability, Vision Until 2057

The SEKEM community has defined four main dimensions of sustainability, and as shown here, it seems that the community and collaborating partners are already living sustainability in these four dimensions. Education, personal development and the ability to assume responsibility for the community, society and its surrounding— these are the values of concern that constantly and consistently are taken care of by the various SEKEM institutions. We have seen how this impacts the equality of all individuals and practical examples of how it encompasses the empowerment of the women. A strong basis and model that is suggested for Egypt and the world has been built during the 45 years of development until today. It certainly should be expected to be a solid fundament to

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Fig. 5 Website of the “Carbon Footprint Center” of the Heliopolis University [19]

achieve the milestones in sustainability until 2057 that have been clearly identified [3] and are further fine-tuned by SEKEM. Ethical and fair business practice: Fair income is needed for those at the basis of the value creating chain. SEKEM has established a cooperative global network to foster fair and equal trade relationships that are considered essential for sustainable economic development. Sustainable agriculture in the desert: To contribute to a healthier condition of the land as well as the people that live and work here. It is seen as an ecological solution for the resource issues and dense population, expected to further increase in the future. Peaceful society: Respect and dignity are the guiding values for all individuals of the SEKEM companies and the larger community. There is strong committment to equality and gender equality, including the empowerment of women. Equal rights and opportunities are seen as basis of a peaceful and sustainable society. SEKEM therefore aims to strengthen the integration of women in all respects. Unfolding the potential of the individual: Human development should guide to inspirational sources, such as sciences, philosophy, religion, or arts. Freedom of cultural life, equal chances, affordable education and spiritual development

are structurally integrated at SEKEM. A holistic approach is taken to support individuals to develop their full potential and skills. Acknowledgements We are very grateful and would like to acknowledge all excellent support that this work has received from Ms. Nadine Greiss, SEKEM Egypt.

References 1. UNDP (2021) https://www.eg.undp.org/content/ egypt/en/home/sustainable-development-goals.html 2. Abouleish I (2005) SEKEM: a sustainable community in the Egyptian desert. Floris Books 3. Abouleish H, El Shamsy A, Arlt C, Abdou D, Abouleish-Boes M, Hussein N, Abouleish T, Seada T and the SEKEM Future Council (2018) SEKEM vision and mission 2057. Version 15.6.18. SEKEM Holding. https://www.SEKEM.com/ wpcontent/uploads/2018/10/SEKEM-Vision-2057_ 20180615-3.pdf 4. United Nations 17 Goals to transform our world. https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/. Accessed on 11 Oct 2020 5. SEKEM Report (2019) https://www.SEKEM.com/ wp-content/uploads/2020/06/SEKEM-Report-2019. pdf 6. Abouleish I, Abouleish H (2008) Garden in the desert. SEKEM makes comprehensive sustainable development a reality in Egypt. Innovation case narrative. Innovations Technol Governance Globalization 3(3):21–48 7. Hatem T, UNDP (2007) Case study. SEKEM: a holistic Egyptian initiative. Growing Inclusive Markets, Sector: Agriculture, Enterprise class: Large National

72 8. World Future Council (2019) Factsheet Egypt– SEKEM initiative (1977). https://www. worldfuturecouncil.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/01/ Egypt_SEKEM-Initiative-1977-Factsheet-OPA2019.pdf 9. Koeberl M, Mueller H, Ramadan EM, Berg G (2011) Desert farming benefits from microbial potential in arid soils and promotes diversity and plant health. PLoS ONE 6(9):e24452. https://doi.org/10.1371/ journal.pone.0024452 10. Gordon A, Saber S, Ludemann R, Roefs M (2015) SEKEM Impact evaluation study. Centre for Development Innovation Wageningen 11. Seada T, Mohamed R, Abdou D, Abou Bakr H, Abdelrahman H, Elaraby T, Abouleish H (2020) The future of agriculture in Egypt: comparative study of organic and conventional crop production systems in Egypt, version 2 May 2020. Study prepared by the Carbon Footprint Center. https://www.SEKEM.com/ wp-content/uploads/2020/06/The-Future-ofAgriculture-in-Egypt-study2.pdf 12. Abouleish I (2010) Education in SEKEM–SEKEM development foundation. https://www.SEKEM.com/ en/education-in-SEKEM-sdf-eng/ 13. Mader C, Steiner G, Zimmermann FM, Spitzeck H (2011) SEKEM–humanistic management in the Egyptian desert. In: von Kimakowitz E, Pirson M,

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Spitzeck H, Dierksmeier C, Amann W (eds) Humanistic management in practice, chapter 14. Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN: 978-0-230-24632-4 Macrotrends (2020) https://www.macrotrends.net/ countries/EGY/egypt/unemployment-rate. Accessed on 12 Oct 2020 Brehl J (2015) Herzensfolger. Herzensfolger: Sich treu bleiben im Beruf: Zwischen oekonomischem Zwang und dem Traum vom Gemeinwohl. Verlag Pomaska-Brand. ISBN-13: 978-3943304329 Abouleish I (2016) Die SEKEM-SymphonieNachhaltige Entwicklung für Ägypten in weltweiter Vernetzung. Info3-Verlag Frankfurt am Main, 7th edition. ISBN-13: 978-3957790279 Heliopolis University for Sustainable Development. https://www.hu.edu.eg/ Regional Centres of Expertise on Education for Sustainable Development (RCE) https://www. rcenetwork.org/portal/rces-worldwide. Accessed on 11 Oct 2020 Carbon Footprint Center of the Heliopolis University for Sustainable Development. http://cfc.hu.edu.eg/ Egypt today (2019) https://www.egypttoday.com/ Article/1/77697/Illiteracy-in-Egypt-decreases-butnumber-still-high-official. Accessed on 12 Oct 2020

Integrated Hydrological Modeling and Geoinformatics for Harvesting and Simulating Mountain Torrents on the Area Stretching Between Port Sudan and Ras Bennas, Red Sea El-Sayed E. Omran and Mohamed E. Dandrawy

Abstract

Regarding the Water goal (SDG 6), which aims to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all, climate and water have a very close and complex relationship. Hydrological models have been confirmed in recent decades as one of the effective measures used for studies on water resources to support decision-making, because of its importance and the accuracy of its results in simulating reality and the future. This study therefore relied on the latest water-resource management software, Watershed Modeling System (WMS), which contains the HEC-1 model for the construction of a hydrological flow model for basin modeling. The study area extends between Port Sudan (Sudan) and Ras Bennas (Egypt), where the region is of great importance as it can be a future tourist city to attract beach tourism from all countries of the world. These areas need to be protected from the dangers of torrents and to preserve these historical features for us and

E.-S. E. Omran (&) Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] M. E. Dandrawy Institute of African Research and Studies and Nile Basin Countries, Aswan University, Aswan, Egypt

for future generations. This study provides an attempt to identify and maintain existing and future development areas from the dangers of torrential torrents and establish standards for ways to protect them from such hazards according to a variety of different foundations and standards. The study used modern GIS and remote sensing technology to collect and analyze geographic data to achieve the best scientific results to address the risks of torrents to the region. The study has examined geological features and morphometrie drainage systems to assess the region’s geomorphological hazards and propose ways to cope with them such as dams to reach development possibilities (agricultural, urban, and tourist) after the protection work has been completed. he research made it feasible to introduce modern remote sensing (RS) and geographic information system (GIS) techniques to study the effects of the best location for the planned dams to be chosen and to assess the quantities of water needed to be stored in existing wadi dams in the study region. A prediction map was produced using hydraulic modeling to identify the best places to choose the dam positions and storage areas of dams in front of it. Proposed dams help develop the coastline from Port Sudan to the city of Berenice. By sustainable water management preparation, efficient management of flash floods for their use for agricultural purposes can be achieved. Flood water harvesting benefits can be

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_6

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considered to be twofold, i.e. to save flood losses and provide reservoir storage facilities. The harvest of the torrential water can be used by making stone and concrete dams. The dams will be used to reserve the running surface water in the valleys in separate freshwater lakes. These can be constructed on the wadis outlet, and from which approximately 10 billion m3 of water can be stored in the event of an 86.8 mm rainfall within a day. Keywords









Port Sudan Berenice Hydrological properties Modelling GIS Remote sensing Water harvest Torrential hazards WMS




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Introduction

The majority of the 17 SDGs under the internationally agreed objectives is weather- and climate-sensitive. Therefore, it focuses on the five priority areas: Agriculture and food security; Disaster risk reduction; Health; Water; and Energy. SDG 6 is designed to ‘ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all’ [1]. It defines clean, accessible water as an essential part of the world we want to live in, one that should be universally and easily accessible across the globe. Some of Egypt’s UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly the Water objective (SDG 6), are unlikely to be met by 2030, which aims to ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all, climate and water have a very close and complex relationship. One of the most crucial objectives of this plan is for Egypt to become one of the world’s top 30 economies by 2030, in terms of economic, social, and environmental characteristics. Although it is recognized that anthropogenic factors have a major impact on water resources, the influence of climate and weather is more significant. Long time series of climate data are used to estimate long time series of streamflow data for potential water-supply catchments. These derived data contribute to the information sets that help

policymakers make informed water availability, planning, and management decisions. A range of methods is available to estimate streamflow data for potential water-supply catchments, using observed data wherever possible or estimating by empirical and statistical techniques and, more commonly, using rainfall-runoff models. A comprehensive dataset would include long-term rainfall observations and evapotranspiration data along with land-use coverage, vegetation cover and impervious area information, including changes over time using Earth observations and in situ data. Furthermore, the scenario data produced from climate modelling can be incorporated into hydrological models and used to predict possible future impacts of a changing climate on water resources availability and distribution [2]. Owing to climate change, several areas around the world have witnessed unprecedented rainstorm events in recent years. These events created hazards that led to numerous casualties including property losses, economic losses, and life loss. Natural hazards, such as snow avalanches, landslides, and torrents, challenge urban growth and mountain infrastructure. Due to the ongoing socio-economic growth in some mountain regions and the potential impact of climate change on the frequency and magnitude of hydro-geomorphic processes, the adverse effects associated with these hazards could increase [3]. The most important impacts of climate variability and change are brought about through the hydrological cycle. For example, floods are the most widespread of natural disasters and droughts represent one of the greatest threats to food security: both floods and droughts impact access to water and sanitation through damage to key infrastructure and services. At the same time, the hydrological cycle is itself an essential component of the climate system, controlling the interaction between the atmosphere and the land surface and providing mechanisms for the transport, storage and exchange of mass and energy [2]. Intense rainfall on steep slopes of hill torrents results in flash flooding with a short lag period causing an unbearable loss of economy. Because

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of their sudden and extreme effects, flash flood occurrence conseders one of the most catastrophic natural hazards [4]. The frequency of flash floods in different mountain ranges has increased due to change in rainfall patterns in recent years [5–7]. Flash floods are known to be harmful for all forms of floods because of their rapid and quick impact existence [4, 8–10]. Torrents are characterized as watercourses that flow continuously or temporarily, with strongly changing perennial or intermittent discharge and flow conditions that arise within small catchment areas [8]. Torrents exhibit numerous processes, which can be differentiated by the concentration of sediments [11] or the peak discharge [12]. The conduct of rainfall-runoff in steep mountainous catchment is a complex process [13] depending solely on the physical properties of catchment (shape, size, form of stream, etc.). Due to the in-depth calculation of physical properties, the precise measurement of the discharge for such catchment poses a priority. Nevertheless, in recent decades, hydrological and hydraulic studies have been motivated by advances and progress in studies on water balance and changes in the natural environment [14]. Researchers have established varying techniques [15–18] to integrate the impacts of physical and human-induced variables on storm event runoff. Soil Conservation Service Curve Number (SCS-CN) has emerged to be an enduring technique for quantifying the volumes of flash flood discharges in catchments [13, 19]. The technological evolution over the last years has offered new opportunities in hydrological modelling, especially in the field of geoinformatics [18, 20]. The ongoing actions are aimed at improving current models (setting some obsolete ones). Afterthat, it can be testing them (with statistical methods, sensitivity analysis, field data, etc.), integrating and evaluating them. Then, it can be proposing new ones based on original ideas and resources emerging from the advancement of technologies, techniques, and sciences. The geographical information systems (GIS) and remote sensing (RS) constitute these technologies, possibly the most important ones. These innovations are at the cutting edge of

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modern geosciences, finding direct application in key sectors such as hydrology, in the study and simulation of natural phenomena and observation. Hydrological models have been confirmed in recent decades as one of the effective measures used for forecasting and tracking flash floods [20]. Globally, hydrometeorological methods have been rated as best flash flood management practises. However, hydrological estimation continues to be a problem in spatiotemporal domain due to the nonlinear conduct of flash floods. In particular, hydraulic models are affected by various uncertainties in the source input data, especially the supporting data available that defines the model performance [21, 22]. The application of global hydrology models can help to elucidate the effects of climate and socioeconomic change on water availability, the links between water-source and water-user, and the downstream impacts of upstream interventions [23]. The integrated water resources management approach is a holistic approach to water management aimed at the efficient, equitable and sustainable development and management of the world’s limited water resources and for coping with conflicting demands. Integrated water resources management is defined as ‘a process which promotes the coordinated development and management of water, land and related resources in order to maximise economic and social welfare in an equitable manner without compromising the sustainability of vital ecosystems’ [24]. It acknowledges the interconnected nature of hydrological resources and the interdependence of different water uses. One of the models providing hydrological capacities is the watershed modeling system (WMS) [18]. Water flows across the SDGs—from improving water, sanitation and health to ending hunger and poverty [25]. But there has been no discussion so far about how water resources should be managed to meet the aims. Conventional greenwater practices, such as soil and water conservation and water harvesting, are becoming resurgent worldwide in areas where irrigation is impractical. Green water can be retained in three

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ways: collecting run-off; improving the infiltration of rain in soils; and managing land, water and crops across watersheds to increase water storage in soils, wetlands and the water table. The study made it possible to apply remote sensing and geographic information system to study the effects of the best place to select proposed dams and determine the amounts of water expected to be stored in existing dams on the wadis in the study area. By combining earth observations with hydrologic and biophysical models as well as with socioeconomic data, water indicators can be monitored at high data resolutions and allow effective computation of complex water indices. Based on historical records and frequent flash flood events in the area stretching between Port Sudan and Bernes, this study seeks to address the following objectives in spatial context. 1. Recognize the role of modern technologies in simulating the dangers of torrents and ways to confront them. 2. Explore the importance of establishing small water dams on the exits of the wadis going toward the Red Sea in Egypt and Sudan. 3. Select the potential suitable sites for dam construction as a management practice. 4. Assess the role of Geoscience in the study of the future status of climate change and the conservation of water resources. 5. Detect the changes that can occur as a result of the water running toward the coastal plain on the Red Sea in Egypt and Sudan in the study area. The objectives of the study were set as to mitigate the existing risk to human life and socioeconomic activities of the area, whereas, the designed structure could be used for multipurposes. As the area under study is among non-irrigated regions (due to the low annual average rainfall) between Port Sudan and Bernes, therefore, the designed structure would also be helpful for water deficiency problems of the area. The study benefits decision makers to take future mechanisms to address any potential danger. It can be represented by torrential torrents by

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modeling and simulations [20] that show where flaw is and where it will be submerged and destroyed by flooding. Also, it can be used to clarify the protections in Egypt represented in the construction of water storage dams.

2

Methodology

2.1 Study Area and Its Problem The Blue Nile extends between 23°53′49″–18° 45′02″ North and between 37°19′04″–34°14′51″ East. The study area extends from Port Sudan (Sudan) south to the city of Berenice (Egypt) north and west borders the water division line that separates the basins that descend toward the Nile River from the basins that descend toward the Red Sea east. The region’s diaries are in the Red Sea, most of them have plows on its exits showing different areas and others pouring into khors near the sea coast. The total area of study is approximately 86,876 km2, of which 60,909.6 km2 is in the Sudan and 25,966.4 km2 in Egypt. The study area includes a large group of drainage basins (about 62) ranging from small and large basins, between Sudan and Egypt. The most important of which are the basin of the W. Kiraf, which flows from Sudanese lands and borders with a large delta that ends in the Red Sea (Fig. 1). Problems Dams, their types, and sizes are of great importance to the States that establish them, especially those that suffer from a shortage of water and use dams to store water and protect property and lives from the problems of torrential torrents. But these dams may be a major cause of destruction and a country’s unsettled plunge in short time to collapse from natural factors such as geological composition, movements, earthquakes, or the loss of larger volumes expected to be stored in dam and others. The problems identified with the study area are: (1) there are insufficient studies on establishing small or large dams on the watersheds moving toward the Red Sea for Egypt and Sudan. (2) The advantage of the annual flow of

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Fig. 1 The study area

torrential water did not consider in this area that flows into the sea. (3) Climate change increases annual rainfall in the study area and does not benefit from it in storage and development. (4) There is no future plan for the development of the region. (5) The establishment of built-up areas and extend the road network at the abdominical exits was done without prior consideration of the torrents risks. So, this study aims to solve these problems by answering a range of questions, including:

• What size of water will be used if water falls with different potential? • Which wadis can dams be created on their exits? • What types of dams can be created in the study area? • Where are the built-up centers that may be affected by the torrents resulting from the water flow of these basins? • How much of the water flowing from the torrential water does Egypt and Sudan benefit?

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2.2 Research Approaches and Techniques 1. Aapplied approach: This is applied in what is known as applied Geography, which is the approach taken from studying cause and effect as a means to achieve its purpose, i.e. it examines the relationship between man and his use of forms of Earth’s surface [26]. This approach focuses on the relationship between geomorphological forms on one side and their relationship to human activities on the other (as the relationship between the volume of flood fans and the amount of water flowing from the waterway basins). 2. Regional approach: The region is part of a clear geographical region, the Red Sea mountain range between Egypt and Sudan. It is one of the most appropriate approaches to be used here to study various forms in a region with specific dimensions and extensions. This approach aims to study the relation between rainfall amounts on subbasins in the Red Sea Mountain range and the amount of water flowing to Sudan and Egypt coasts. It is a cause-and-effect relationship, and a study of causal relationships and factors through a regional dimension of the studied event, its current state, and future expectation. The authors also used a number of techniques in this study, the most important of which are: 1. Quantitative: This method is to collect digital data and measurements on waterways and land use and its relationship to the amount of water flow on the Red Sea coast between Egypt and Sudan. 2. Cartography: By making digital maps, analyzing satellite visualizations, aerial images using GIS, and RS techniques.

2.3 Integrated Methodology The procedural approach to establish an integrated (GIS, RS, modeling) methodology and to build a roadmap to achieve the study objectives

E.-S. E. Omran and M. E. Dandrawy

is illustrated in Fig. 2 followed by stepwise explanation.

2.3.1 Overall Resources and Data Processing The study used collected data such as: (1) 90-m digital elevation model (DEM) data called Shuttle Radar topography Mission (SRTM) Data. (2) land-use data (Land use/Landcover), which was based on SCS Method. (3) Curve Number values (CN), which are a method of estimation of the amplitude and runoff based on soil types and land use/land cover type. The study was based on the analysis of the US Geological Survey and Land use maps in the study area, and on the Landsat obtained from the USGS site links, including the 2018 Landsat-8 satellite (OLI) visuals, with a spatial resolution of 152.15 m. The 10-m European (Sentinel) satellite visualization was used to determine the proposed positions for the creation of dams on the wadis exits. It also integrated with the space images in Google Earth, and the 30-m digital elevation model (DEM) to show the water drain network in the study-area basins and determine the storage capacity of lakes in front of dams. The satellite data used need many processes and treatments to prepare them for the extraction of information (Fig. 2) of which: 2.3.2 Climatic Characteristics Climatic characteristics (heat, rain, and evaporation) are among the most important natural factors affecting runoff in the region. However, any water drain system acts as a natural system due to a range of inputs such as daily precipitation, soil type, and land use with outputs such as runoff and leakage. One important climatic element of runoff can be addressed, namely, precipitation. Rain characteristics in the study area are rare except in some years when rainfalls in the form of running torrents causing surface runoff in wadis moving toward the Red Sea. The area’s rainfall was traced from satellite images, which had increased in the last few years, with rainfalling in 2019 reaching 19 mm (Fig. 3). In 2020, rain fell 16 mm and the number of rain

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Fig. 2 Overall methodology used for the data processing

days in 2019 was about 169 days, which varied (1 to 19 mm) between them. This helps to create surface runoff inside the basins that can be exploited for storage and injection of the basin in the area.

2.3.3 Topographic Characteristics Analysis of the slope and digital elevation model (DEM) of the study area shows that it is a highslope area, especially in the southern part where the 2,221-m highlands appear above sea level and have a gradient of more than 30 degrees. The terrain (Fig. 4) between them and the coast leaves a narrow coastline that expands into the larger wadis like the W. Kiraf, which features a large delta. 2.3.4 Geological Characteristics The geological feature of this region belongs to the Red Sea Mountain range, which consists of mountainous and plains, and is known for its tectonic activity, featuring granite, gabro and diorite rocks, which belong to the Pre-Cambrian era and are influenced by Red Sea fault. The Stratigraphic sequence (strata) consists of the rocks of the Quaternary, Holocene, and Cretaceous times, the order of which covers the site of the study area. The Quaternary, Holocene, and

Cretaceous rocks, consisting of multi-colored sandstone and interchange with the sand tafla, are the main components of the area’s sedementation and the stratification of rock units that make up the study area, which can be divided from newest to oldest.

2.3.5 Soil Characteristics Soil characteristics and quality are factors influencing the calculation of the hydrological characteristics of water basins using WMS software. They are a basic criterion for calculating CN to identify the hydrological groups of soil and land use. It depends on the SCS method that defines soil hydrology in four basic groups. These groups are based on the speed and enforcement of water flow within them. It referred to as A-B-C-D, each with its characteristics in runoff. Soil characteristics affect the relationship between rainfall and runoff through the rate of leakage. The D-group has high traction, owing to very slow drop-out rates of 1.3 mm/h. (http:// gsdm.ciat.cgiar.org/). This is because it is a clayey soil that is quickly saturated with water compared to the rest of the soil. One of the most important features of the soil is that it consists of different soil types such as: Clay loam, silty clay loam, or clay (Fig. 5).

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Fig. 3 Amount of rainfall in the region on 9-5-2019 (https://chrsdata.eng.uci.edu/)

The distribution of soil types and their area in the Blue Nile Basin varies for each soil type, as the soil group (A) has an area of approximately 19,391 km2 and is highly permeable, while the group (B) covers 18,364 km2 and the soil group (C) covers an area of 1852 km2, and the group (D) covers an area of 47,269 km2, from the study area of approximately 86,876 km2.

2.3.6 Land-Use Data Land cover and land use are important in calculating water flow parameters in the hydrological model for calculating water flows in the study area basins using the WMS program. Each type of land use has a value used in conjunction with the soil hydrological standard to calculate the CN value of the SCS method in WMS and from which the value of the loss and flow time of each

basin of the region can be calculated. Land use and land cover in the area vary between bare land and land covered by scattered plants in the wadis, as most of the study area is bare soil. It is also illustrated by the US Geological Survey maps available in WMS mapping service.

2.3.7 Hydrological Modeling GIS software was used to analyze and present the study problem using Spatial Analysis tools, visualization tools, and simulations. This is through the use of maps to calculate areas and changes that may occur in coastal plain and urban areas along the coast in the event of large water flows. A range of models were developed using ArcGIS software, including those for altitude extraction, slopes and the drainage system, including those for calculating lakes levels that

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Fig. 4 Characteristics of the terrain in the study area

will flood the land in front of dams, and others for hydrological simulation of valleys and watersheds. Monitoring and simulating changes in projected lake positions has also been done, identifying trends in water flow and monitoring changes that may occur on both sides of the valleys and the extent to which torrents affect the urban areas. Finally, a study applied to the coastal of the Red Sea in the study area, and the extent to which the plain and its geomorphologic manifestations were affected by the flow of water and torrents. Hydrological studies are of great importance for knowing and tracking the risks of floods and torrents. It provides appropriate solutions for water resources management and the protection of lives and property in countries and communities. This research offers a modern way to integrate GIS software with hydrological models such as the HEC-1 model into Watershed Modeling System (WMS) and apply this model to basins that

descend toward the Red Sea coast between Egypt and Sudan (Fig. 6). The WMS provides a modern mechanism for facilitating hydrological and hydraulic modeling, where the HEC-1 is a comprehensive hydrological modeling tool developed by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (U.S. Army). The model designed to simulate the incidence and running of rainfall (Simone RainfallRunoff) of basins and subbasins. The study integrated GIS software, using ArcGIS and HEC-1, a hydrological simulation model of WMS, analyzed the morphometric and hydrological characteristics of watersheds that are on the coast of Egypt and Sudan on the Red Sea. By setting up hydraulic models of rivers and storms, these models have been able to represent flow paths, model landforms, as well as water depth and drain power. Flow time, water volumes, the rainfall simulation, and the construction of a geographic database operating in the GIS environment were also calculated.

82 Fig. 5 Soil permeability characteristics of the study area

Fig. 6 Flow map for the process and steps of hydrological properties analysis of basins

E.-S. E. Omran and M. E. Dandrawy

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The process of analyzing a HEC-1 in WMS has been taken in several steps, the most important of which are: 1. Provide a digital elevation model (DEM) with the Universal Transverse Mercator coordinate system. 2. Use the Topaz tool to calculate flow directions and flow accumlations. 3. Extracte of the streams. The amount of rain that falls on each basin is also entered. The Curve Number (CN) values are calculated based on soil quality, land use/cover, time of concentration, lag time calculation, and slope. WMS automatically calculates the CN values of each sub-basin based on soil type, land use, and land use/cover. The CN values of the different sub-basins are 79. Therefore, it was possible to produce accurate results about the time of peak and the amount of drain/per second and the total amount of water volumes for sub basins as shown in Fig. 6.

2.4 Rain Probability for 100 Years The iterative analysis of the maximum daily rainfall of the study area is of great importance, as it illustrates what rainfall may be over the next 100 years based on the maximum amount of rainfall that occurred during the previous period. Accurate determination of the amount of rainfall that has raged on the basin is a major factor in accurately calculating the torrents collected from that rainfall and is the correct basis for water statistics and the likelihood of a repeat of the torrents. Proper distribution of rain and torrential measuring stations or satellite data provides reliable information covering the entire region, avoiding readings or recording errors between stations. The rain depth (rainfall intensity) is the key and influential factor in the formation of torrents that must be considered when planning for construction and development projects. Table 1 and Fig. 7 show the statistical analysis of maximum daily rainfall values, using

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different probability distributions, and testing for rainfall in different iterative times, which was conducted by referring to station records from NASA’s Space Information site (https://power. larc.nasa.gov/data-access-viewer/) and knowledge of rainfall intensity. The results of statistical analyzes are useful in determining the expected values of rain at different iterative times, using different statistical distributions. Log Pearson Type III is selected to determine the maximum rain depth value at various iterative times, with the rainfall values for iterative times 2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 years estimated at 7.23, 18.1, 30.8, 56.8, 86.6, and 129 mm, respectively. This is done using HyFranPlus and applying different statistical distributions. The analyses were carried out on the two stations of Ras Bennas, which are located on the wadis in the Egyptian part and Port Sudan station, which is located on the Sudanese side. The highest values were in Port Sudan station. Therefore, the results of Port Sudan station were adopted because they are higher in values as shown in Fig. 7 and Table 2. Table 3 shows the probability analysis of the Pearson Type 3 (WRC) rainfall values, showing that the lowest rainfall values on Port Sudan in the period 1990 through 2019 were 1.3 mm. The maximum value is 71.1 mm, with average of 13.9. The standard deviation is 17.1 and the variance factor is 2.09. Hydrological calculations are based on the making of storm calculations using rainfall statistical analysis on rain stations affecting the study area. The storm’s duration is assumed to be about 6 h. So the rain distribution can be obtained by hydrographic design for use in hydrological analysis. The rain distribution shows the design of hyetography, the time distribution of the rain, which is the depth of the rain over time, and then the time is divided into equal intervals and the corresponding rainfall is calculated. This distribution is used in calculating the resulting drain dridge of the drainage basins as one of the inputs of the mathematical model used.

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Table 1 Maximum rainfall during a day on a Port Sudan station Year

Month

Day

1957a

11

26

Maximum rain/day (mm)

Year

Month

Day

12.9

2002

11

16

Maximum rain/day (mm) 15.8

1958

11

5

19.5

2003

11

9

3.4

1959

12

16

27.9

2004

12

5

18

1960

12

9

41.9

2005

12

8

14.5

1961

12

1

60

2006

11

4

8.14

1962

11

10

51

2007

8

10

2.2

1963

1

21

39.1

2008

11

4

4.3

1990

11

27

10

2009

11

23

4.1

1991

10

15

7.3

2010

11

26

10.5

1992

11

2

3.8

2011b

1

5

71.1

1993

12

26

3.7

2012

12

6

2.9

1994

5

15

2.8

2013

4

29

1.3

1995

2

4

3.9

2014

7

23

3.7

1996

11

17

4.9

2015

10

26

5.1

1997

1

9

10.4

2016

4

29

3.5

1998

11

11

5.4

2017

8

18

4.9

1999

12

18

12.4

2018

11

8

6.7

2000

12

19

10.8

2019

1

28

2.4

2001

7

13

2.7

a

https://en.tutiempo.net/climate/ws-626410.html https://geographic.org/global_weather/ After: https://power.larc.nasa.gov/data-access-viewer/ b

2.5 Rainwater Loss Estimation

3 Some of the rainwater leaks when it falls into the ground and the type of soil surface controls the increase or decrease in the amount of loss. Then, the excess rainfall flows on Earth, causing surface torrents to flow into the wadis outlet. To calculate excess rainfall, mathematical rates representing rainfall loss or interconnectedness of runoff and total precipitation are required. So the geological classification of the soil surface has been done in terms of the type of wadis deposits and rock, the degree of rock fractures, and the percentage of each type occupied by the area of the drainage basins. It has been done using one widely used method to estimate the amount of water lost by leaking into the ground. This method called SCS-CN, which depends on the type of soil and the nature of the land use in the study area.

Results

3.1 Morphometric Characteristics of the Basins The characteristics study of drainage basins is an important means of geomorphological and hydrological analysis. It relies on the analysis of some basins properties such as basin area, its formal and geometric characteristics. Where both areas, coefficient of form, converse, and regression characteristics are studied. The study also used to analyzing the characteristics of the basin network such as density, river frequency, grade, and number of watercourses. The results of the morphometric and hydrological characteristics of the basin are useful in the studies of the geomorphological hazards of the region, where topographic phenomena affect

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Fig. 7 Probability distribution curve for Port Sudan station data to determine values rain depth using Pearson Type 3 (WRC)

Table 2 Pearson Type 3 (WRC) patch results for a Port Sudan meteorology station Time iterative, years

Q

XT Amount of possible rain

100

0.99

129

Standard deviation 83.4

Confidence factor (95%) N/D

50

0.98

86.6

45.7

N/D

25

0.96

56.8

22.4

N/D

10

0.9

30.8

8.91

13.3–48.3

5

0.8

18.1

4.05

10.1–26.0

2

0.5

7.27

1.35

4.63–9.91

Table 3 Probability analysis to determine rainfall depth values using Pearson’s Type 3 (WRC)

Statistical analysis Minimum value

1.3

Maximum value

71.1

Average

13.9

Standard deviation

17.1

Median

6.7

Coefficient of difference (Cv)

1.3

Coefficient of deviation (Cs)

2.09

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the runoff of watercourses, where surface water is transported from its sources to its mouth according to the general gradient of the basin. Figure 8 shows the basins’ spatial properties of the most important morphometric characteristics that are included in the hydrological model using the WMS program, which can be addressed as follows.

3.1.1 Area of the Basins The study area analysis shows the diversity of basin area, with the maximum area is 41489 km2 for W. Kiraf basin and the smallest area in Fig. 8 Spatial properties of the basins

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the 17.1 km2 for W. Mawg Basin. Figure 9 illustrates the spatial properties of the area basins.

3.1.2 Drainage Network The water drainage system analysis for the study area shows large basins up to the ninth grade. The most important of which are the W. Kiraf Basin, W. Hodein and other wadis up to the eighth and seventh order, to make up the area’s drainage basins. Figure 10 illustrate the stream order of the water drainage system in the study area.

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Fig. 9 Spatial distribution of the basins’ area

3.2 Hydrological Characteristics of the Drainage Basins The objective is to study hydrological variables such as lag time, time of concentration, the amount of water flow of the river basin, and determine the direction of the runoff and the water gathering areas. The calculation and evaluation of the hydrological budget of the drainage basins requires the study of their hydrological characteristics. Thses characteristics are of critical importance for studies preceding the

development of coastal areas located in the wadis outlet, particularly the Floodplains of large valleys. The strength of the run-off can therefore be assessed. The hydrological characteristics of the drainage basins can be determined by calculating both slowdown time (Latency), basin concentration and drainage time, and discharge volume. The main hydrological factors affecting the occurrence of torrents are the time of concentration, slowdown, and volume of shallow drainage of the Basins.

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Fig. 10 Distribution of stream order in the study area

3.2.1 Time of Concentration Concentration time is sometimes defined as the time period for falling rainfall at the farthest point of the watershed to reach the watershed exit [27]. The concentration time calculation formula for study area basin shows that the average overall concentration time in the study area basin was 9.7 h, which is a limited average. It means that most of the basins are very high risk, as the lower the value of the time of concentration, the higher the degree of risk. Water will take a short time to reach the basin outlet.

The focus time ranged between 2.7 h for the fastest basins in the runoff (the basin of the Mohamed Qal wadis), with a total area of 60.7 km2, an average length of 10.3 km, and the lowest slowdown time appeared in the W. Kiraf basin is 74.5 h, which has an area of 41,489 km2. It is 341 km long and is shown in Fig. 11.

3.2.2 Slowdown The time between the beginning of precipitation and the beginning of runoff is an important parameter that strongly influences the amount of

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Fig. 11 Time of concentration for the study area

loss during slowdown time, where large amounts of water leak into the soil’s cracks during this period. Length of slowdown time depends on the type of rock that is made up of the surface and its impact on cracks and faults, as well as their impact on weathering [28]. Slowdown time is automatically calculated using the WMS program during hydrological analysis. By applying the slowdown time equation to the study area basins, it was clear that the average

slowdown time in the study area basin was 5.8 min, and the slowdown time ranged between 1.6 min for the fastest basins to generate the runoff (W. Mohamed Qol Basin), with a total area of 60.7 km2, and the mean slope basin decline to 0.11 m/m. The lowest slowdown time was shown in the 44.5-min of the W. Kiraf Basin, which has an area of 41,489 km2, with an average basin gradient of 0.04 m/m as shown in Fig. 12.

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Fig. 12 Slowdown time characteristics map of the drains in the study area

3.2.3 Volume of Shallow Drainage of the Basins The amount of water collected from all over the basin (m3/sec) is a factor that considers that all parts of the basin add to the volume of drainage an equal amount of water since all parts of the basin fall on them equal amounts of water. This is not true in large basins but in small basins of no more than 200 km2. Most of the area’s basins are less than 200 km2 [29]. In this study, the authors used WMS to calculate the volume of

surface drainage of the study area basins, which were presented in Table 4. The results of the study and hydrological analysis using the HEC-1 mathematical model indicate that there are two surface runs of all the sub-drains at 5 years of Repetitive time in which the amount of rain can occur 18.1 mm (Fig. 13). Thus, surface water will be 10,9304,930 cubic meters in Egypt and Sudan, of which 874,24,390 cubic meters in Egypt and 218,80,539 cubic meters in Sudan.

Integrated Hydrological Modeling and Geoinformatics …

91

Table 4 Surface drain volume for maximum rain depth in next 100 year Name

Area km2

F5_Year

F10_Year

F25_Year

F50_Year

F100_Year

W. Hodein

11,421.7

17,365,392.0

80,308,737.0

277,276,111.0

552,625,177.0

981,314,203.0

W. Di-ib (Kiraf)

41,489.1

62,545,959.0

295,142,427.0

1,019,017,038.0

2,030,951,958.0

3,606,427,128.0

W. 2

173.7

1,338,804.0

6,191,529.6

21,377,020.8

42,605,491.2

75,655,927.2

W. Kentesrop

58.2

180,806.9

931,545.0

3,216,283.2

6,410,217.6

11,382,828.0

W. Khuda

861.3

836,021.3

5,251,680.0

18,132,091.2

36,138,172.8

64,171,725.6

W. Rahaba

1003.0

626,303.0

7,582,398.0

26,179,224.0

52,176,516.0

92,651,512.8

W. Shellal East

233.5

216,859.1

1,618,485.0

5,587,994.4

11,137,156.8

19,776,612.0

W. Shaab

738.7

580,504.9

6,191,532.0

21,377,020.8

42,605,491.2

75,655,927.2

W. 1

103.9

72,497.7

531,573.0

1,835,332.8

3,657,916.8

6,495,489.6

W. Ibib

1828.7

1,097,478.0

13,041,942.0

45,028,956.0

89,744,992.8

159,363,065.0

W. 3

140.4

58,792.0

801,375.0

2,766,835.2

5,514,453.6

9,792,165.6

W. Meisa

536.7

272,917.8

3,662,253.0

13,354,111.2

26,615,383.2

47,261,796.0

W. Didaut

475.7

149,632.6

2,381,508.0

8,222,464.8

16,387,785.6

29,100,314.4

W. ed Direira

822.8

489,416.4

6,055,344.0

20,906,841.6

41,668,368.0

73,991,856.0

W. Diit

84.4

80,291.3

524,994.0

1,812,621.6

3,612,638.4

6,415,070.4

W. Qebtit

198.7

295,890.0

1,368,417.0

4,724,658.0

9,416,484.0

16,721,154.0

W. Yoider

245.1

296,425.4

1,962,945.0

6,777,314.4

13,507,512.0

23,985,736.8

W. Tamakuaray

199.5

331,845.0

1,534,653.0

5,298,567.0

10,560,321.0

18,752,298.0

W. Ei Kuwan

125.0

149,368.5

910,101.0

3,142,195.2

6,262,560.0

11,120,625.6

W. Nakuli

103.0

157,461.0

728,202.0

2,514,202.0

5,010,934.0

8,898,070.0

W. Fodikwan

173.0

264,006.0

1,220,941.0

4,215,445.0

8,401,594.0

14,918,983.0

W. Serimtai

497.9

485,707.5

3,216,054.0

11,103,885.6

2,130,604.0

39,298,017.6

W. Gabatit

157.0

223,767.0

1,034,829.0

3,572,880.0

7,120,932.0

12,644,856.0

W. Shallal

140.5

268,476.3

1,455,966.0

5,026,929.6

10,018,912.8

17,790,904.8

W. Hebikwan

722.3

1,612,071.0

7,455,237.0

25,740,147.0

51,301,419.0

91,097,580.0

W. Ei Kwan

158.1

202,122.9

1,148,118.0

3,964,053.6

7,900,548.0

14,029,262.4

W. Tahamid

314.6

258,540.0

1,195,620.0

4,128,015.0

8,227,356.0

14,609,595.0

W. Eqlahuq

222.9

110,614.5

593,661.0

2,049,686.4

4,085,133.6

7,254,103.2

W. Ditt

114.1

258,540.0

1,195,620.0

4,128,015.0

8,227,356.0

14,609,595.0

W. Halaka

101.0

253,458.0

1,172,163.0

4,047,027.0

8,065,929.0

14,322,939.0

W. Shinab

401.5

203,904.0

942,993.0

3,255,795.0

6,488,970.0

11,522,667.0

W. Garat

116.9

454,827.0

2,103,414.0

7,262,325.0

14,474,178.0

25,702,263.0

W. Gomattawa

1617.5

2,454,168.0

11,349,657.0

39,186,111.0

78,099,909.0

138,684,528.0

Kamuikuan

71.3

130,422.0

603,102.0

2,082,291.0

4,150,104.0

7,369,482.0

W. Mag

84.4

114,942.0

531,576.0

1,835,337.0

3,657,927.0

6,495,489.0

W. Hokeb

123.1

200,325.0

926,397.0

3,198,513.0

6,374,778.0

11,319,897.0 (continued)

92

E.-S. E. Omran and M. E. Dandrawy

Table 4 (continued) Name

Area km2

F5_Year

F10_Year

F25_Year

F50_Year

F100_Year

W. Mohamed Qol

60.7

94,713.0

438,024.0

1,512,333.0

3,014,139.0

5,352,306.0

W. Omaiyu

103.6

146,805.0

678,918.0

2,344,053.0

4,671,825.0

8,295,903.0

w. Diytt

130.4

185,406.0

857,451.0

2,960,448.0

5,900,304.0

10,477,374.0

W. Kiur

819.7

1,018,293.0

4,709,238.0

16,259,226.0

32,405,457.0

57,543,417.0

W. Asir

89.7

332,337.0

1,536,942.0

5,306,472.0

10,576,065.0

18,780,258.0

W. Ballalab

45.6

56,355.0

260,640.0

899,886.0

1,793,517.0

3,184,815.0

W. Al-Kuk1

258.1

248,820.0

1,150,701.0

3,972,939.0

7,918,266.0

14,060,736.0

W. Al Kuk2

152.3

560,622.0

2,592,657.0

8,951,460.0

17,840,718.0

31,680,351.0

W. Yoider

675.1

337,656.0

1,561,536.0

5,391,417.0

10,745,382.0

19,080,927.0

W. Garar

487.7

802,878.0

3,713,031.0

12,819,702.0

25,550,304.0

45,370,506.0

W. Arbat

4395.2

6,789,009.0

31,396,779.0

108,401,430.0

216,049,458.0

383,646,051.0

W. Gabeideb el Aswad1

65.8

77,769.0

359,631.0

1,241,670.0

2,474,712.0

4,394,412.0

W. Gabeideb el Aswad

113.6

186,957.0

864,597.0

2,985,132.0

5,949,534.0

10,564,773.0

W. Port Sudan1

29.1

42,936.0

198,555.0

685,539.0

1,366,302.0

2,426,184.0

W. Port Sudan2

36.8

56,415.0

260,922.0

900,876.0

1,795,491.0

3,188,304.0

W. Mog1

178.7

98,058.0

453,471.0

1,565,664.0

3,120,459.0

5,541,096.0

W. Mog2

217.8

358,131.0

1,656,237.0

5,718,393.0

11,397,033.0

20,238,084.0

W. Mog3

17.1

61,374.0

283,812.0

979,893.0

1,952,985.0

3,467,988.0

W. Okwat

1850.0

2,882,892.0

13,332,339.0

46,031,601.0

91,743,285.0

162,911,508.0

For the 10-year Repetitive time, which can bring water depth to 30.8, surface water volume will therefore be 540,693,739 cubic meters in Egypt and Sudan, of which 439,504,167 cubic meters in Egypt and 101,189,572 cubic meters in Sudan. The total surface water volume of the basin in the W. Hodein area is 56 million cubic meters when rain occurs on the entire area of the valley drainage basin. The total surface water volume of the W. Kiraf basin is approximately 295,142,427 cubic meters when rain occurs on the entire area of the wadis drainage basin (the largest drainage basins in the study area). The results of the study showed net runoff and the average quantity of drainage in the area basins in the case of rainfall of 18.1 mm during one day, about 19,7362 m3. The highest drainage

rate of basins in the W. Crung basin was 62,545,959 m3 in one day, and the lowest value of the drainage rate was in the W. Port Sudan1, with net runoff reaching 42,936 m3/s for one day.

3.3 Harvest of the Water Torrents Dams are one of the methods used to safeguard against the dangers of water flowing from torrents. The process of dams being built on the main valleys or their sub-tributes allows the collection of tributaries into the valley, so that the aquifer in the area can be fed and exploited in human activity. The idea of damming is to increase development processes in the region by providing

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93

Fig. 13 Water volume distributions for the study area basins in the case rain fell 18.1 mm during a day (5 year iterative time)

investors with a safe condition in the event of a torrential occurrence while ensuring the largest area that can be exploited in the valleys without causing any serious damage. The idea beyond the proposed dam site from the mouth of the valley downstream is guaranteeinglarge areas of land are available for cultivation and development. The engineering dimensions of the storage dams are designed to partly control the water flow of the torrential torrents at 50 years. The nature and the components of the dams were selected to be suitable for the materials available

in the area (the dam site is adapted to the geographic nature of the site and the geomorphological forms around it). The dam reduces the maximum volume of torrential water and breaks its intensity to increase the rate of charge of the acquifer. The stone is available in the study area. The stones are designed to be covered with 50 cm thick bambots (Dabash with cement) to stabilize the front and back ends of dams and to increase efficiency in the control of the torrential water taking into account the clearance of the valley in front of and behind the dams [30]. .

94

The dam building is subject to a number of foundations and criteria when it is established, where a group of dangerous valleys have been identified that proposed dams to be built on their exits, with a proposed procedure that identifies the most suitable sites for dams to be set for each valley. The authors have applied descriptive criteria and quantitative controls [31] as shown in Table 5 and Figs. 14 and 15.

E.-S. E. Omran and M. E. Dandrawy

dam. They have an estimated storage area capacity [33], where the expected runoff of each rainfall basin was calculated at 86.8 mm, the 50-year iterative time. For example, runoff of the W. Kiraf could occur in 2,030,951,958 m3 of water in one day. The capacity of the dam to be built must therefore be greater than this amount, as the dam is designed to accommodate a volume of storage in front of it. If an area is no longer available to accommodate this amount, more than one site is chosen to create dams to accommodate such quantity and so on for the rest of the wadis.

3.3.1 Dam Position Selection Geomorphologic shapes in the drainage basins of the study area are of great importance in identifying and selecting the positions of dams, which are natural criteria for choosing the best place to create dams for storing and benefiting from the (c) Other Controls for the Dams Position Selecting water in development near the coastal plain. The study identified some geomorphological controls to determine the positions and characteristics of There are many controls for the selection of dams proposed dams in the study area where slope and where the number of dams on the valley exit has runoff were determined in case of torrents. The been selected according to the degree of basin characteristics of the proposed dams are in terms needs for dams. The most important controls and of their height, average width and length, and the conditions for determining the dams are the rise of the sides of the valley in the dam position. following: The exact location of the dam was therefore determined. The most important of which could • One basin dam is selected if the end of the basin exit is narrow and places a place for be listed as follows: collecting and storing water such as the W. Kiraf Basin. (a) Geomorphological and Topographic • More than one position is chosen to create two Controls or three dams if the end of the basin is a semiOne of the criteria by which dams are selected level, large area that is difficult to create dams as a protection factor against the dangers of or store. torrents is the geomorphological control, which is the most important for determining • If the wadis outlet is narrow and there is no water storage at the end of the basin, more the type and location of the dam. A narrow than one dam is selected to absorb and store stream between high-represented rock walls the flowing water before reaching the large helps a good place to build the dam as it wadis exit. reduces dam construction costs [32]. The presence of many large-scale boulder depos- • The water flow is in the event of 86 mm rainfall, of which the net water flow in the W. its, which have been derived from the geoRahaba Basin is 0.55 billion m3. logic rocks of the third Era, may help to build the dam or padding in the dam, as well as the • In selecting the dam position, it is best to construct it in a narrow area in front of it an presence of rocks near the study area and its ample area that can accommodate the amount limits that can be used to build the dam. of water to be stored when precipitation is in quantities up to 86 mm. (b) Hydrological Controls Hydrological controls are also an important • For wadis with near-level exits, dust dams are made to reduce the speed of water flow, where criterion on which to determine the type of

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Table 5 Characteristics of proposed dams on study area basin between Port Sudan and Berenice Name

Basin area, Km2

If rainfalls 86 mm

Base of the dam, m

Top of the dam, m

W. Al Kuk2

152.3

W. AlKuk1

Dam height, m

Stoarage capacity, m3

Lake size, Km2

Dam length, m

17,840,718.0

534.0

560.0

26.0

18,769,309.0

2.2

658.0

258.1

7,918,266.0

180.0

190.0

10.0

9,221,780.0

1.1

760.0

W. Arbat

4395.2

216,049,458.0

214.0

235.0

21.0

23,360,502.0

10.1

474.0

W. Arbat

–

–

133.0

158.0

25.0

82,717,275.0

4.1

234.0

W. Di-ib (Kiraf)

41,489.1

2,030,951,958.0

140.0

220.0

80.0

8,718,182,126.0

363.3

1247.0

W. Di-it

114.1

8,227,356.0

250.0

270.0

20.0

12,506,645.0

2.0

573.0

W. Diytt

130.4

5,900,304.0

130.0

145.0

15.0

9,251,635.0

2.6

609.0

W. ed Direira

822.8

41,668,368.0

217.0

250.0

33.0

49,550,545.0

6.6

1229.0

W. Eqlahuq

222.9

4,085,134.0

188.0

205.0

17.0

3,791,663.0

0.7

480.0

W. Gabatit

276.5

11,940,411.0

194.0

205.0

11.0

51,472,527.0

0.8

138.0

W. Fodikwan

173.0

3,799,421.0

286.0

320.0

34.0

2,933,310.0

3.8

555.0

W. Nakuli

103.0

3,321,511.0

294.0

330.0

36.0

33,024,570.0

2.3

301.0

W. Gabeideb el Aswad2

113.6

5,949,534.0

217.0

225.0

8.0

5,138,356.0

5.8

308.0

W. Garar

487.7

25,550,304.0

181.0

205.0

24.0

42,301,809.0

4.3

643.0

W. Gomattawa

1617.5

78,099,909.0

140.0

180.0

40.0

86,448,532.0

6.2

910.0

W. Hebikwan

722.3

51,301,419.0

265.0

292.0

27.0

61,878,179.0

6.4

224.0

W. Hodein

11,421.7

552,625,177.0

111.0

138.0

27.0

328,218,625.0

32.8

884.0

W. Hodein

–

–

266.0

300.0

34.0

369,568,662.0

28.2

420.0

W. Hodein

–

–

197.0

223.0

26.0

136,837,167.0

18.1

769.0

W. Ibib

1828.7

89,744,993.0

134.0

160.0

26.0

109,311,777.0

13.6

667.0

W. Kentesrop

58.2

6,410,218.0

100.0

135.0

35.0

10,282,574.0

1.3

313.0

W. Khuda

861.3

36,138,173.0

150.0

185.0

35.0

40,721,507.0

3.7

370.0

W. Kiur

819.7

32,405,457.0

80.0

108.0

28.0

58,590,688.0

5.0

764.0

W. Mog1

178.7

3,120,459.0

265.0

280.0

15.0

3,622,769.0

0.6

290.0

W. Mog2

217.8

11,397,033.0

330.0

360.0

30.0

27,731,287.0

2.2

815.0

W. Mohamed Qol

60.7

3,014,139.0

138.0

147.0

9.0

3,350,427.0

1.1

342.0

W. Okwat

1850.0

91,743,285.0

520.0

560.0

40.0

69,297,201.0

5.1

552.0

W. Okwat

–

–

561.0

590.0

29.0

36,565,990.0

3.4

W. Omaiyu

103.6

4,671,825.0

375.0

420.0

45.0

9,816,300.0

0.9

960.0 424.0 (continued)

96

E.-S. E. Omran and M. E. Dandrawy

Table 5 (continued) Dam height, m

Stoarage capacity, m3

Name

Basin area, Km2

If rainfalls 86 mm

Base of the dam, m

Top of the dam, m

W. Port Sudan2

36.8

1,795,491.0

215.0

230.0

15.0

5,063,232.0

0.9

282.0

W. Port Sudan2a

36.8

1,795,491.0

173.0

185.0

12.0

3,584,131.0

0.7

511.0

W. Rahaba

1003.0

52,176,516.0

130.0

166.0

36.0

167,552,231.0

22.1

1052.0

Lake size, Km2

Dam length, m

W. Serimtai

497.9

2,130,604.0

275.0

290.0

15.0

12,319,294.0

1.9

611.0

W. Shallal

140.5

10,018,913.0

213.0

235.0

22.0

19,962,348.0

2.2

444.0

W. Shellal Sharq

233.5

11,137,157.0

340.0

356.0

16.0

6,538,344.0

0.7

520.0

W. Shellal Sharq

–

–

424.0

465.0

41.0

41,498,502.0

3.4

878.0

W. Tahamid

314.6

8,227,356.0

209.0

328.0

119.0

5,272,966.0

1.0

184.0

W. Yoider

245.1

13,507,512.0

160.0

175.0

15.0

15,665,340.0

2.3

578.0

W. Yoidar

675.1

10,745,382.0

241.0

260.0

19.0

14,358,773.0

2.3

932.0

Fig. 14 Default models of the proposed concrete dams for the study area

high dams are difficult to operate due to the large area of the wadis outlet and the absence of high sides of water reserving and damming. • Also, for basins with low flow volumes, while level at the basin outlet, it is not necessary to create dams for storing small amounts. Most of them evaporate before being exploited in the acquifer or human right.

• The river is not a single exit, but is multidownstream, because the valley exit is flat, especially when more water flows over the valley, resulting in river capture as a result of the sculptures on adjacent streams. The valleys for which river associated with river capture are difficult to control and control their waters.

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Fig. 15 Proposed model of stone dams for water storage and protection

• It is difficult to select a dam’s position in the • The protection dams are selected in a narrow area where the stream is with low slope, absence of a part of the wadis that is traverted straight, is not to allow the sides of the dam to between two sides, increasing the length of become eroded and collapse. the dam and increasing the cost. If a high part is found between the sides of the stream, it is • One or more of the dam can be placed in the basin depending on the length of roads in the in the upper parts of the valley, reducing water basin area, the severity of the slope, and the use. Therefore the construction of dams flow of water. reduces the speed of water flow to increase the underground water right process in the interior of the soil or the construction of special 3.3.2 Spatial Distribution and Characteristics of Dams underground reservoirs in the wadis that flow into areas where they have population to The study suggested that 97 dams in the region benefit from future activities. can be built between two concrete dams, 37 stone • Most of the wadis that are wider and nearing dams, and 58 embankment dams. Dams are the circular shape make it difficult to find a classified into 3 types by construction material; storage area because of the large canyon exit not all wadis need concrete or stone dams, which in the basin and a semi-level surface at the end can be displayed as follows: of the downstream. • Some wadis have areas where storage is (a) Concrete Dams possible but less water that may be generated Concrete dams are used to protect the immein the case of prceptation of 86 mm rainfall as diate vicinity from the dangers of torrents, with seen in this study. • If the wadis carries large amounts of water the possibility of storing the flowing water in and there is no single storage location, more nearby aquifers. Based on the proposed dam than one dam along the valley is constructed building standards, it has been proposed to build concrete dams on the outlet of each wadis of Port to absorb the amount of water flowing. • Protection dams are used to reduce the speed Sudan, W. Kiraf, and W. Hodein. This is because of water flow toward road networks since if an of the fact that the population is at a distance less urban area is found, then strong storage and than 500 m from the exits, and the large amount protection dams are selected, not dams, to of water expected to flow when torrents occur, which may reach 2,030,951,958 m3, 552,625,177 reduce water speed. • The protective dams are a set of dams along m3, in W. Hodein and W. Kiraf, respectively. This study proposed the construction of the the stream placed between 1 and 2 m highet and 5 m width at the base to 1 m at the top. W. Hodein and W. Kiraf dams at height of 80

98

and 27 m and long at 1247 m and 884 m. The storage area at 363 km2, 32.8 km2 was proposed, respectively. The building of the Wadi Halabin dam is a part of the construction of the urban area with the exit of the W. Hodein (the city of Shallatin), which is an area of …. Acre. Figure 14 illustrates a model of concrete dams that can be built in the area. (b) Stone Dams The study suggests establishing a group of stone dams on the exits of some specific wadis to store water and protect development areas in their exits, on the course of some valleys of the region. This type of dams can be applied to most of the wadis in the study area such as W. Tahamid, with the maximum height of the proposed stone dams being 119 m represented in a 184-m long (Table 5 and Fig. 15). The dam is built from stone in the hills near the wadis on which the dam is built, which helps to speed up its construction and save on its expenses. Many different water drainage basins, which have different areas and width, and amounts of water flowing, are visible in the study area because of the abundant flow of water in recent years in the summer months and the changing climatic characteristics of these valleys. This study attempted to identify dams on the valleys of each basin and calculate the properties of dams and storage basins. Table 5 and Figs. 16 and 17 shows the characteristics of proposed dams on the study area basins between Port Sudan and Berenice, where the basin of the W. Crung represents the largest drainage basins in the area at 41,489 km2, with net runoff at 2030,951,958 m3 in the event of an 86.8 mm rainfall. The large basin area and high flow volume have been proposed to create a 1247-m long stone dam at 88-m high, with a storage lake at 363.3 km2 and an estimated storage capacity of 8,818,2126 m3. Table 5 also found that the W. Port Sudan Basin is the smallest drainage basin proposed to build dams on its exits in the region. The net running of the basin in the event of rainfall of 86.8 mm is 179,491 m3. A dam site has been

E.-S. E. Omran and M. E. Dandrawy

selected based on the geomorphological criteria of 282 m. The storage lake is estimated to be 0.85 km2 and has a storage capacity of 5,063,232 m3. Table 5 shows that the total length of the proposed dams is approximately 2905 m, 39 dams, with an average length of 587 m, where the longest proposed dam in the area is 1247 m. The W. Kiraf dam is the shortest of the proposed dams on the area’s valleys at 138 m. In terms of the dams height, the proposed dams are totaled 1116 m, the maximum rise in the W. Tahamid Dam where the dam was designed at 119 m highet, and W. Gabeideb el Aswad2 Dam of the first 2 is the least dam in the area, suggesting an 8-m high. It was also revealed that the storage lakes, which would be formed in case of the proposed dams (Figs. 16 and 17) being established on the wadis exits in the study area, were analyzed. The lakes total area was 575.7 km2 and storage capacity was 10,706,278,898 m3 (10 billion m3). The largest lake to emerge is the W. Kiraf Dam, with an area of 363 km2 and a storage capacity of 87,182,126 m3 (8 billion m3). The smallest of which is the W. Fodikwan Dam Lake, with an area of 3.8 km2 and a storage capacity of 293,310 m3. The harvest of the torrential water can be used by making stone and concrete dams. These dams can be used to reserve the runoff surface water in the wadis in separate freshwater lakes. It can be constructed on the wadis outlet, and from which approximately 10 billion m3 of water can be stored in the event of an 86.8 mm rainfall within a day. Approximately 1749539772m3 (1.8 billion m3) of water in the event of a 56.8 mm rainfall can be harvested and stored. In the case of 30.6 mm rain, approximately 506,727,015 m3 (0.51 billion m3) can be stored. In the event of a 18.1 mm rainfall, a fresh water volume of up to 103,886,550 m3 (0.103 billion m3) can be stored. During the analysis of satellite data, six dams were found in the basin of the region, including two dams on the basin of W. Hodein on the Egyptian side to protect the city of Shalateen and two dams on the basin of W. Mog1, 2. The basin of the W. Port Sudan2 and another dam on the W. Arbat basin on the Sudanese side to protect

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Fig. 16 Distribution of proposed dams by the wadis outlet in the study area

the city of Port Sudan were blocked. These dams were established to protect coastal cities. (c) Embankment Dams The construction of the Rockfill Dams is designed to reduce the speed of the water flow from the torrents and to block the rock masses from the sub-tributaries toward the main stream, thereby protecting the area from the risk of water and sediment flow, which is less costly and faster to build. This type of dams can be built by building

up detrital blocks of local valley soil and lining the surface to concrete-built rock blocks to prevent water from escaping from them (Fig. 18). The study suggests building up the Embankment dams on the wadis outlet. It is difficult to create dams in their exits because of the large stream, the small basin size, more than one basin exit and river capture on the wadis. The Embankment dams will reduce the speed of the flow of water and sediment. Overflowing water from the Embankment dams will flow slowly after they have been reduced and their deposits

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Fig. 17 Distribution of the locations of water tanks expected to appear after operation the proposed dams with the wadis exits in the study area Fig. 18 A model of Embankment dams to reduce water intensity and load

blocked. So that the nearby areas can be protected from the dangers of torrents and sediment flows. This method can be applied by creating a set of dams on the exits of 23 basins. The most important of which are basins W. Shaab, W.

Meisa, and W. Didaut, which have an average length of 455 m, and an average height of about 11 m. This type of dam can be used to change the path of the watercourses of other watercourses and reduce and utilize the speed of water flow [31].

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Use to simulate the properties of the Embankment dams, based on the digital elevation model of the SRTM from which dams are located and the properties of the landforms around it. The proposed lakes are reservoirs for the water to be reserved for dams, and stored for use in various activities and the right of the aquifer in the valleys. An analysis of the properties of the dams shows: • The wadis of Qebtit, Ei Kuwan and Ei Kwan have the large exits, with difficult to create dams. Also in wadis Didaut, Meisa and Wadi #1, 2, 3. • A dam was proposed in W. Tahamid to accommodate two thirds of the potential 86.8 mm rainfall of 8,227,356 m3 due to the difficulty of obtaining a water storage area. • The small valley of Wadi Mag, 84.4 km2, and the amount of water flowing in the event of an 86.8 mm rainfall in one day. • Wadie Mag, Mog3 are two small valleys (84.4, 17.1 km2, respectively), and the amount of water flow in the event of an 86.8 mm rainfall in one day is 3657927, 1,952,985 m3, respectively. In addition to the lack of development zones in the wadis exit, there is no need to create high-cost dams at the basin exit and end. • The dam in the W. Port Sudan2 as a poor location and position in the area of river capture and storage is low, and this dam is a protective dam. Another position for the dam was chosen away from the overlap zones and the paths of the runways changed. • The dam in the W. Port Sudan1 is very large and the valley is very short and appears almost circular, so it needs protection dams where it is difficult to store in this valley, because there is no narrow stream surrounding it by high banks and a storage place. • The wadis outlet of W. Gabeideb el Aswad1 is a large area, with a river bed, a difficult storage area at the exit of the wadis and a small basin. • W. Asir and W. Ballalab ends with a vast outlet where it is difficult to create a storage dam and carries a small amount of water.

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•

• • •

• •

•

4

Therefore it needs protective dams that reduce the speed of flowing water in the event of heavy rainfall on runoff. The river is being captured from the W. Amayo to the W. Diet and some water is flowing into the W. Diet, so it needs a dam on the northern part of the valley. The W. Hokeb is an irregular, small area with more than one exit and has river capture with neighboring valleys such as W. Mag. The W. Kamuikuan has more than one exit and its valley is large as well as a small wadis. W. Shinab and W. Garat have common parts of the outlet exits as well as the width of the exit makes it difficult for dams construction. Therefore protective dams can be worked in the event that areas have urban areas near the wadis or it will be established to protect the coastal road. The two sides have been involved in the construction of the new border, which is a major development in the region. The W. Halaka has a near-level and expanded exit, making the construction of a dam costly without an economic visibility study and a future agenda. The W. Tamakuaray has river capture with multiple cantas and canopies that need dams to reduce the speed of water flow.

Priorities for Dam Creation

The Design of Lakes to Be Seen The calculation of the storage capacity of the dam reservoir requires many data that determine the location, height, volume, and depth of the lake (i.e. depth measurement). Scenarios for the water depth in front of the dam, the shape and characteristics of the lake resulting from the storage to the dam and its area have been developed. This is done by interpreting the satellite image (RapiDeye) and analyzing the digital elevation model (AW3D), where the area topography and geomorphologic forms were simulated in the lake resulting from storage.

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Fig. 19 Basins that need embankment dams to reduce water intensity

The engineering dimensions of the lakes are designed to accommodate the amounts of water flowing for 50 years, taking into account the fact that the gravity of the lakes is flat to stabilize the soils of the inclination and not collapse when the water flow from the torrents. To increase the efficiency of lake storage to absorb part of the 50year-old water from the recursive wadis, the output of the excavation should be placed regularly behind the lakes at a distance of approximately 200–350 m to serve as a trapee bridge. Taking into account the fact that the bottom of

the lakes is not being flattened to increase the efficiency of the overloading. Feedback on Dams Selection All of these dams are proposed except the W. Mog1 Dam and the Port Sudan Basin 2 dam2, which were built before this study to protect Port Sudan and store running water. • Dams near residential and tourist areas and activities are initiated before other dams are planned.

Integrated Hydrological Modeling and Geoinformatics …

• Dams are done in stages to do initial and subsequent raising according to the budget. • Dams with higher flow volumes are taken care of than dams with lower flow. • Dams that are in dangerous wadis are emphasized in runoff and flow velocity.

5

Discussion and Conclusions

GIS technology led researchers to develop data processing automations and to produce reliable simulation models. They appreciate the standing and welfares of such a technology that empower them to evaluate data, contend with complications, generate instinctive visualization approaches, and make conclusions with a higher effectiveness. The objective of this chapter was to present the extended history of GIS modeling and to converse the modern observes in terms of integration of GIS with the hydrological modeling, and also to discuss the problems, the assumption, and the limitations of GIS-based hydrological models. Therefore, these models can be used as tools for policy makers to make decisions for the construction of artificial dams (i.e., containment barriers) and halting water projects in general. Thus, rainfall-runoff models together with the GIS technology are used as integrated systems of assessing potential impacts for various rainfall events. Hence, the GIS technology has the capability to postprocess the results which are obtaining from a model and sublimate them into policy. The hydrological study is important because of its knowledge, tracking, utilization, or protection against water sources. This research provides a way to integrate GIS software with hydrological models in the Watershed Modelling System (WMS) software, which includes the HEC-1 model. This research is a case study of these models on basins that are in storage of the Ethiopian Renaissance Dam. The study gathered data on the region and built a digital database using GIS, hydrological model, and meteorological station data in the Upper Blue Nile Basin.

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This study has carried out statistical analysis of rain volumes over 30 years and the depth of rain over the next 100 years. Analysis has been made of maximum rain volumes that can fall in one day within 6 stages in hundred years (2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 years). The rain depth was then based on these potential, which was 7.23, 18.1, 56.8, 58.8, 86.8, 129 mm, respectively. Through the integration of GIS and Hydrological Model Software in WMS, simulations of water flow and subdivisions have been made with the following conclusions: 1. The expected rain depth between 50 and 100 years is 86.6, 129 mm, respectively. 2. High floods can change the morphometric properties of subbasins. 3. A prediction map was produced using hydraulic modeling to identify the best places to choose the dam positions and storage areas of dams in front of it. 4. Proposed dams help develop the coastline from Port Sudan to the city of Berenice. 5. Efficient management of flash floods for its application for agricultural purposes can be achieved through sustainable water management planning. Advantages of flood water harvesting would be considered twofolds, i.e. to save the flood losses and provide the storage facility for reservoirs. 6. The harvest of the torrential water can be used by making stone and concrete dams to reserve the running surface water in the valleys in separate freshwater lakes. It can be constructed on the wadis outlet, and from which approximately 10 billion m3 of water can be stored in the event of an 86.8 mm rainfall within a day. 7. Approximately 1,749,539,772 m3 (1.8 billion m3) of water in the event of a 56.8 mm rainfall can be harvested and stored. In the case of 30.6 mm rain, approximately 506,727,015 m3 (0.51 billion m3) can be stored. In the event of a 18.1 mm rainfall, a fresh water volume of up to 103,886,550 m3 (0.103 billion m3) can be stored. 8. The total length of the proposed dams is about 22,905 m, 39 dams, with an average

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length of 587 m. The long-proposed 1247-m- 13. Drykards for torrents are recommended under the coastal road along the area to not long is W. Kiraf Dam. The shortest proposed be exposed to the dangers of torrents. dam on the area has 138 m long.

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Recommendations

Modeling of water flow and subdivisions has been made with the following testimonials: 1. Creation of some dams in the top wadis to reduces the dangers of torrents on urban areas close to the wadis. 2. Creation of some dams on the high wadis to help reduce the water flow in the main stream of large valleys. 3. A surge of water from the wadis outlet brings many sediments and different fans and delta appear on the seacoast. 4. Water flowing in front of dams can be stored and lakes used to feed the aquifer on the seacoast. 5. Creation of embankment dams (protection) will reduce water speed in the event of highvolume water flow. 6. GIS application for environmental damage that can result from massive water flows on the seashore is proposed. 7. An increase in studies on water in the region and solutions to the dangers of torrents is proposed. 8. A meteorological network in the region between Egypt and Sudan is proposed to measure the amount of daily rainfall with high accuracy and develop a torrential alarm. 9. Perform a water harvest outside the flooded season for any notice during the course of implementation. 10. Periodic maintenance of the flooded water harvesting facilities is recommended before and after the rainy season. 11. Groundwater should not be used in agricultural development projects to maintain it as a reliable strategic storage to meet drinking water needs during the drought. 12. No backfilling is recommended for efficient water storage.

References 1. UN (2018) Sustainable Development Goal 6 Synthesis. Report 2018 on Water and Sanitation New York: United Nations 2. WMO (2017) White Paper on the Contribution of the Global Framework for Climate Services to Transforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (Agenda 2030). Switzerland. 3. Keiler M, Knight J, Harrison S (2010) Climate change and geomorphological hazards in the eastern European Alps. Phil Trans R Soc A 368:2461–2479 4. van Westen C (2009) Multi-hazard risk assessment. United Nations University-ITC, Distance education course Guide book Bangkok 5. Saher FN, Nasly MA, Kadir TABA, Yahaya NKE, Ishak WMFW (2014) Harnessing floodwater of hill torrents for improved spate irrigation system using geo-informatics approach. Res J Recent Sci 3:14–22 6. Hanif M, Khan AH, Adnan S (2013) Latitudinal precipitation characteristics and trends in Pakistan. J Hydrol 492:266–272 7. Tariq MAUR, Van de Giesen N (2012) Floods and flood management in Pakistan. Phys Chem Earth Parts A/B/C 47:11–20 8. Omran E-SE (2020) Torrents Risk in Aswan Governorate, Egypt. In: Negm AM (ed) Flash Floods in Egypt. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 205–212 9. Omran E-SE (2020) Egypt’s Sinai Desert Cries: Flash Flood Hazard, Vulnerability, and Mitigation. In: Negm AM (ed) Flash Floods in Egypt. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 215–236 10. Omran E-SE (2020) Egypt’s Sinai Desert Cries: Utilization of Flash Flood for a Sustainable Water Management. In: Negm AM (ed) Flash Floods in Egypt. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 237–251 11. Costa JE (1984) Physical geomorphology of debris flows. In: Costa JE, Fleisher P, editors Developments and Applications of Geomorphology Springer; Berlin:268–317 12. Hungr O, Evans SG, Bovis MJ, Hutchinson JN (2001) A review of the classification of landslides of the flow type. Environ Eng Geosci 7:221–238 13. Fan F, Deng Y, Hu X, Weng Q (2013) Estimating Composite Curve Number Using an Improved SCSCN Method with Remotely Sensed Variables. Remote Sens 5:1425–1438 14. Moynihan KP, Vasconcelos JG (2014) SWMM Modelling of a Rural Watershed in the Lower

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Coastal Plains of the United States. J Water Manag Model 1–12 Wang W, Shao Q, Yang T et al (2013) Quantitative assessment of the impact of climate variability and human activities on runoff changes: A case study in four catchments of the Haihe River basin, China. Hydrol Process 27:1158–1174 Jiang C, Xiong L, Wang D, Liu P, Guo S, Xu CY (2015) Separating the impacts of climate change and human activities on runoff using the Budyko-type equations with time-varying parameters. J Hydrol 522:326–338 Gutiérrez F, Parise M, De Waele J, Jourde H (2014) A review on natural and human-induced geohazards and impacts in karst. Earth Sci Rev 138:61–88 Dandrawy ME, Omran E-SE (2020) Integrated Watershed Management of Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam via Watershed Modeling System and Remote Sensing. In S F Elbeih et al (eds), Environmental Remote Sensing in Egypt, Springer Geophysics, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-39593-3_ 17 Ahmad I, Verma V, Verma MK (2015) Application of Curve Number Method for Estimation of Runoff Potential in GIS Environment. In Proceedings of the 2015 2nd International Conference on Geological and Civil Engineering (ICGCE), Singapore, 10–11 January 80:16–20. Omran EE (2018) Hydrological Simulation of a Rainfed Agricultural Watershed Using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). . In: Negm AM, Abu-hashim M (eds) Sustainability of Agricultural Environment in Egypt: Part I The Handbook of Environmental Chemistry, Springer, Cham 76 Walega A, Cupak A, Amatya DM, Drozdzal E (2017) Comparison of direct outflow calculated by modified SCS-CN methods for mountainous and highland catchments in upper Vistula Basin, Poland and lowland catchment in South Carolina, U.S.A. Acta Sci Pol Form Circumiectus 16:187–207 Khaleghi MR, Gholami V, Ghodusi J, Hosseini H (2011) Efficiency of the geomorphologic instantaneous unit hydrograph method in flood hydrograph simulation. CATENA 87:163–171

105 23. Biemans H, Christian S (2019) Advances in global hydrology–crop modelling to support the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals in South Asia. Current Opinion in Environmental Sustainability 40:108–116 24. Global Water Partnership (2017) The need for an integrated approach. Available at: wwwgwporg/en/ About/why/the-need-for-an-integrated-approach/ (Accessed 15 September 2020) 25. Rockström J, Malin F (2015) Agriculture: Increase water harvesting in Africa. Nature, Wani, S P, Rockström, J & Oweis, T (eds) Rainfed Agriculture: Unlocking the Potential (CABI, 2009) 26. Turkmani GF (2011) Surface Forms: Study of the origins of Geomorphology. Arab Culture House, Cairo In Arabic 27. Fadil M (1999) The Geomorphological significance of the Morphometric variables in the hydrographic basin of the Great Sand Valley (East Hill-Algeria). The Kuwaiti Geographic Society, Kuwait(229) 28. Zayed A (2005) The Geomorphological hazards of the urban centers on the Red Sea coast are studied in Applied Geomorphology. unpublished Masters, Geography Department, Faculty of Arts, Cairo University 29. Development and Planning Center. (1983) May 15 City Protection from the dangers of torrents. First Report, Cairo University 30. Water Resources Research Institute. (2012) Water Resources Study of some of the valleys in Eastern Desert, Red Sea Governorate - Wadi Hodein Ministry of Water Resources and Irrigation, unpublished Reports 31. Turkmani GF (2009) Applied Geography foundations, fields and Applications. Arab Culture House, Cairo 32. United States Department of the Interior (1987) Design of Small Dams. A Water Resources Technical Publication, USA Third Edition 33. Christian K (1997) Earth and Rockfill Dams Principals of Design and Construction. Balkema, Rotterdam, Germany

Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt Nadia M. Eshra

Abstract

Keywords

Perfect usage of sources of energy is the key to the industrial progress which is essential to the continual improvement in the standard of living of people. Egypt’s geographical location is characterized by many different renewable resources of energies; Hydropower included tidal and waves, Solar, and wind. Egypt has more than 2900 km (1800 mi) of coastline on the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Suez, the Gulf of Aqaba and the Red Sea, where the wind, tidal and Waves energies are available abundantly. Aswan in South regions in Egypt; characterized by the highest rate of solar brightness in the world where the average of over 3800 h of sunshine during the year. The third type and the oldest one which is hydropower; Nile River is the backbone of this. Egypt has huge number hydraulic structures; barrages, head regulators, weirs, and navigation locks, all of which can be used all in small and mini hydropower generation. This chapter introduces the potentially of different renewable energies supported by spatial maps to explain the best locations of different renewable energies in Egypt.

Renewable energy Spatial map for green energy in Egypt Small hydropower in Egypt

N. M. Eshra (&) Hydropower Unit, Nile Research Institute, National Water Research, Qnater, Qalubia, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]




1




General Background

Energy is important for social stability and human welfare in developed countries and as a driver for overall growth. Renewable energy is the energy produced in the natural environment from regenerative exhaustive energy sources, such as hydropower, solar energy, wind energy, geothermal and biomass, etc. These are often referred to as non-conventional energy sources. The industrial revolution lasted two centuries, nineteen and twenty; was dependent on the production of thermal electricity produced by coal and fossil fuel from thermal power plants. The environmental effects of this form of generation are very negative as carbon dioxide levels are very high and ozone, which is involved in climate change, is rising. So, the future is now centered on renewables. Egypt is endowed with renewable energy because of its geographical position and the atmosphere. Estimating the potential of renewable energies needs wideranging expertise in other fields where potential prices need to be estimated. Auxiliary disciplines; irrigation and limited hydropower hydraulics, solar and wind metrology, and

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_8

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environmental requirements for all forms of renewable energy. Familiarity with these fields allows us to optimize electricity production output and to obtain the best positions and design solar stations. The basic concepts of renewable energy engineering and their related disciplines are discussed in this chapter. Efficient instruments such as the Geographic Information System (GIS) are used to specify the possible locations of various sources of renewable energy. GIS is used as an effective instrument for spatially differentiating between high-potential renewable energy areas and choosing the best economic sites. It offers capture, archive, query, evaluate, view, and output geographic information capability. Samples of spatial maps for hydropower, solar, and wind power sites are introduced in this chapter.

2

fuel sources) and environmentally beneficial (hydro, solar, wind, etc. sources). Figure 1 shows the contrast of renewable energy and finite (nonrenewable) energy.

3

Renewable Energies Resources in Egypt

Energy is calculated in kilowatt-hours (KWh), it is total power expended over a certain time. Energy is classified as harmful to the environment (fossil fuel and coal) and friendly to the environment (renewable or green energy). The common sources of renewable energy, are different types, are hydropower, solar, and wind. Geothermal, biogas, and nuclear forms are the other types. The famous kinds of energies endow Egypt.

Energy Sources in Egypt 3.1 Small Hydropower Resources

Egypt is considered to rely predominantly on three primary sources for all its energy-related activities: oil, natural gas, and electricity. Where thermal generation as a main source of electricity, furthermore, renewable energy (solar wind and hydropower). Renewable energy does not reach to 9% of the overall production of electricity. Energy is categorized as unhealthy (fossil Fig. 1 Comparison between renewable (green) and finite (non-renewable) energy supplies

Hydropower or hydroelectric energy is one of the oldest energy sources for generating electricity by converting mechanical moving into electricity. It is based on the natural flow of water and fell from top to bottom. In order to transform this potential into applicable electric energy, the water flow should be driven and powered by a

Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt

hydraulic turbine, transforming hydro energy into mechanical energy. Again, the latter drives a related generator that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy. As the extraction and use of hydro resources is done at the time. In the United States, the first commercial use of hydropower to produce electricity occurred in 1880, and on September 30, 1882, the first U.S. hydroelectric power station opened on the Fox River near Appleton, Wisconsin. Today, modern hydro plants use turbines and generators to generate electricity, producing mechanical energy by rotating water rotors on a turbine. This turbine is connected to an electromagnetic generator that produces electricity when the turbine spins. There are different classification of hydropower; typology, generation size, and the load classifications. • The classification according to the typologies: Run-of-river: a facility that channels flowing water from a river through a canal or penstock to spin a turbine. Run-of-river provides endless supply of electricity (base load), with some flexibility of operation for daily fluctuations in demand through water flow that’s regulated by the power. Storage (Impoundment facilities): typically an outsized system that uses a dam to store water during a reservoir. Electricity is produced by releasing water from the reservoir through a turbine, which activates a generator. Storage hydropower provides base load and the ability to be shut down and started up at short notice according to the demands of the system (peak load). Pumped-storage: provides peak-load supply, harnessing water which is cycled between a lower and upper reservoir by pumps which use surplus energy from the system sometimes of low demand. When electricity demand is high, water is released back to the lower reservoir through turbines to supply electricity. Offshore (tidal and wave): a less established but growing group of technologies that use tidal currents or the power of waves to urge electricity from seawater.

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• Hydropower Generation Classifications: There are six categories; large, exceeding 100 MW, medium range from 15 to 100 MW, and Small range from 1 to 15 MW, usually the three categories feeding into the grid. Other categories such as Mini hydropower from 100 kW to 1 MW, micro range from 5 to 100 kW, and Pico range from few hundred watts up to 5 kW, are frequently used as off grid means feeding the loads directly. • Load Classifications, divided into two types; Base load and Peak load plants Base load plant; that operates continuously to meet the minimum level of power demand. Base load plants are usually large-scale and are key components of an efficient electric grid. Base load plants produce power at a constant rate and are not designed to respond to peak demands or emergencies. Peak Load plant generally runs only when there is a high demand because they supply power only occasionally. The power supplied commands a much higher price per kilowatt hour than base load power. Peak load power plants are combined with base load power plants, which supply a dependable and consistent amount of electricity, to satisfy the minimum demand.

3.1.1 Small Hydropower Engineering and the Technical Aspects Hydraulic and hydrology from the importance disciplines which hydropower engineer needs because they help to get the good selection of the high potential sites of hydropower generation. Also geology and topographical and Power load demand assessment studies available in the site must be occurred, which means complete environmental details. Many factors must be covered to study small hydropower. • Discharge and Flow Duration Curve (FDC) Depend on available flow data (Discharge): The most urgent hydrological investigation is to be undertaken to determine the run off or flow of water available for power. The water flow (Q) are often evaluated in several ways but a more

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suitable method might be measured the river water flow velocity and river cross-section areas at the same measuring place by employing the subsequent expression:   Q ¼ Ar  vr m3 =s

ð1Þ

where Ar [m2] vr [m/s]

river cross-section, river water-flow velocity.

As is understood, the river levels change throughout the seasons, so it’s important to live water flow-rates at various intervals of the year. The best estimation is considered when available data for many years’ observation are at your disposal. FDC represents the relation between the frequency of flow and its magnitude. In other words, it is an illustration of the observed historical variation of flow over a given period with the percentage of time resolution to show the percent of time specified discharges were equaled or exceeded. FDC was plotted using mean daily discharges and the Weibull plotting position (Eq. 2) as follows: • Mean daily discharges were sorted out and ranked in a descending order and • Each discharge was assigned a rank value, R, starting with 1 in a decreasing order to n. 

R x ¼ 100 nþ1

Gross Head ¼ Elevation of the intake or reservoir Elevation of central water turbine: Net Head ¼ Gross head  Head losses Hn ¼ Hg  Hlos ½m

ð2Þ

is the exceedance probability, is the ranking number, in descending order, of all daily mean flows for the specified period of record and n is the number of daily flows.

ð3Þ

where Hn Hg Hlos



where x R

points on the main channel where the elevation contours cross the channel were labelled on the catchment drawing to calculate this element. The lower two-third channel length for the determination of head (drop) was considered in each catchment. Total discharge is transported into this section of the channel. The acquired head was then used to measure the power potential for each site. Measured Gross Head—the true vertical distance from intake to turbine—and the resulting pressure at the bottom when no water is flowing. Head Loss refers to the loss of water power where head losses estimated by around 10% from gross head, Net Head calculated as the next formula;

Net Head Gross Head Head losses due to the open channel, trash rack, intake, penstock and gate or value, Acceptable Head Loss from 6 to 15% of gross head.

• Capacity Factor The Capacity Factor (CF) is a key to measure the economics of hydropower plants; it is the ratio of the actual output of plant over a period of time, to its potential output if it were possible for it to operate at full nameplate capacity indefinitely to measure its performance. One way to express this is as follows: CF ¼ ðPm =Pmax Þ  100

• Head (difference between up and dawn levels);

where

The head is the essential parameter to figure out the hydro power potential in a catchment. The

Pm Pmax

is the measured or actual power. is the maximum power.

ð4Þ

Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt

111

• Turbine Selection The selection of the turbines depends on their technologies, conventional or non-conventional types. For the conventional types, the turbine efficiency curve (TEC) in which it is studied according to the relationship between the rated flow through the turbine (Qk) and the available flow in the river (Qj), Eq. 5. However, there are other factors in the selection process such as the head, depth of the turbines, and the cost. Conventional hydropower turbines are categorized into two common types: impulse and reaction. Each of them is suitable for different types of discharge and head. Non-conventional types (i.e. the types used in micro- and pico-turbines) are classified as a new version of impulse types as hydro matrix turbine (HMT) and reaction types as the very low head (VLH) and stream driver (Voith) turbines, the turbine selection in this type depend on the head and the discharge, addition to the diameter and the installation method in the site. The efficiency percent ¼ Qj =Qk

ð5Þ

where; this percent ranged between 70% when considering the losses and 100% without losses. Qj is the available flow in the river, and Qk flow through turbine.

3.1.2 Small Hydropower Estimation The obtained electric power from the movement of water takes different technical methods; • Historical method The generation depending (the hydrostatic energy) bon two main factors must be meeting to move the turbine; head (the difference between the two levels; up and dawn) and discharge or water flow on the turbine. This method is suitable for the impoundment, pump storage and run-ofriver. The larger the flow the more water there is, and the higher the head the higher the distance the water falls—the more energy is available for conversion to electricity. A low head site has a head of below 10 m. In this case, you need to

have a good water flow volume if you generate much electricity. A high head site has a head of above 20 m. In this case you can get away with not having a large flow of water, because gravity will give what you have an energy boost. The key equation to remember is the following and next flow chart represents the relations between the different factors of generation: Power ¼ Head  Flow  Gravity Pa ¼ ðgqqghÞ=1000 kW

ð6Þ

Php ¼ 1:3404Pkw hp where Pa q q g h ƞ

power available (kW) density (kg/m3) (*1000 kg/m3 for water) water flow (m3/s) acceleration of gravity (9.81 m/s2) falling height, head (m) efficiency (in general in the range 0.75 to 0.95).

• Recent method (Offshore or marine energy) The electric generation divided into two concepts; hydrokinetic power, which can be used the flow velocity as main factor. This method is suitable for the big rivers characterized by the high velocity (the velocity must not less than 1 m/s) and on the coastal areas closest to the beaches named tidal energy. The electric power generation depends on the hydrokinetic energy can be calculated by this equation; Power ¼ð1=2ÞðTurbine EfficiencyÞ ðWater DensityÞðTurbine Flow AreaÞ ðWater VelocityÞ3 P ¼ ðð1=2Þ  g  q  Q  V3 Þ=1000 kW where η q Q V

Turbine Efficiency Water Density 1000 kg/m3 water flow (m3/s) velocity of flow m/s.

ð7Þ

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N. M. Eshra

• The marine energy estimation

g CWR [%]

Two relationship that are important. The first one, factors that influence the power found in a wave. A wave’s power fluctuation is a measure of two variables: the height of the significant wave (in metres squared). Second one; the mean length of the wave. The average annual fluctuation of wave power in deep water required for a site to be of commercial interest is around 20– 50 kW per metre. The second is the density of the kinetic force of a stream of water. This friendship with one another Pw ¼

qg 2 H T 32p

ð8Þ

The Capture with Ratio is calculated as: CWR ¼

P D:Pw

ð9Þ

where P H T q

generated power in kW/m the significant wave height (m) the energy wave period (s) the density of sea water (kg/m3)

the acceleration due to gravity (m/s2) Capture width ratio.

3.1.3 Site Characteristics According to the historical generation method, the two factors; more flow and head characterized the high potential sites. Selection of location for the recent method, are critical for the turbine used. The stream systems got to be located in areas with fast currents where natural flows are concentrated between obstructions, for instance at the entrances to bays and rivers, around rocky points, headlands, or between islands or other land masses. 3.1.4 Existing of Hydropower Generation in Egypt Hydropower started in Egypt since 1885, by Tamia and El Azab Power Stations in Fayoum Oasis, but they stopped now due to technical problems or the building of Aswan High Dam. The construction of hydroelectric stations in Egypt continued, where the latest power station constructed was Assuit power station in 2017, the next Table 1 represents the different existing hydropower stations in details.

Table 1 Existing of hydropower stations in Egypt Station

Types

Head (m)

Discharge (m3/s)

Turbines information

Power generation (MW)

Location of plants

Aswan High Dam

Large

48–76

275–345

12 * 175 mW Francis type

2100 at full capacity

Aswan, Egypt

Old Aswan Dam I

Large

8–20

7 * 33 mW, Kaplan type

231 at full capacity

Aswan, Egypt

Old Aswan Dam II

Large

8–20

4 * 67.5 mW Kaplan type

270 at full capacity

Aswan, Egypt

Esna

Medium

3.5–7.5

6 * 14.5 mW Kaplan type

90 at full capacity

Esna Barrage

Naga Hammadi

Medium

2.5–5.2

4 * 16.5 mW Bulb type

66.15 at full capacity

Nag Hammadi Barrage, Egypt

Assuit

Medium

30 at full capacity

Assuit Barrage

Lahoon

Small

Stopped Technical problem

Fayum, Egypt

Tamia

Mini

NA

NA

NA

Stopped Very old

Fayum, Egypt

El Azab

Small

NA

NA

NA

Stopped Very old

Fayum, Egypt

320

Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt

3.2 Solar Energy Resources The entire concept of solar energy is known to be the passive and active processing and usage of light and/or heat energy produced by the Sun and technologies. The listing of new solar energy technologies is shown in Fig. 2. By architecture, passive technology requires the absorption of solar energy without transforming thermal or light energy into any other form. for example of a type of passive solar technology is the aggregation, storage, and distribution of solar energy in the form of heat for home heating, particularly during the winter season. Active solar power technologies reduce a building’s fossil fuel energy requirements and the resulting fuel bill. Electricity from active solar energy has two significant applications or uses for residences and buildings. One is electricity as an electricity supply, and two is hot water and space as a household heat source. Solar energy is classified into two types: solar photovoltaic (PV) and solar power concentrate (CSP). PV, which is used in membranes, absorbs photons from the sunlight from the cells in the panel as the sun reflects on a solar panel, which creates an electrical field through the layers and helps energy to flow. The second technology focuses on CSP Solar power; Tower, Trough, Fresnel or Dish. Fig. 2 Classification of solar technology

113

• CSP technology: in order to collect and concentrate sunlight on receivers that absorb and convert solar energy to heat, this technology uses mirrors. The heat can either be used to produce steam to power a turbine to generate electrical energy or to use it as heat for the processing process that will then be used for electricity generation. This machinery is used mainly in very large power plants and is not suitable for domestic use. Thermal energy storage systems can be mounted in concentrated solar power plants so that electricity can be generated during the hours after sunset or before sunrise. This ability to store solar energy makes solar energy accumulation a versatile source of shipping-capable renewable energy. CSP systems may also be merged with combined-cycle power plants, resulting in hybrid power plants that have a combined cycle power plants, resulting in hybrid power plants that have high-value power that can be dispatched for the load. There are four types of CSP technologies; the oldest in use being is a tower and the fastest-growing as of 2017. There are different configuration variations or arrangements for both of these, depending on which thermal energy storage is used and what methods are used to store solar energy thermally. Parabolically curved, troughshaped reflectors on a receiver tube, the heat

114

absorber tube, reaching about a metre above a metre, absorb the energy of the sun in a parabolic trough CSP system. Parabolic trough-shaped mirrors in parallel rows in a solar collector area, designed to allow these single-axis trough-shaped mirrors to track the sun from east to west during the day to ensure that the sun is constantly oriented on receiving the sun. As of 2018, in commercial activity, 90% of the CSP is a trough. In order to concentrate sunlight on a receiver at the top of a pole, the power tower or central receiver systems employ sun-tracking mirrors called heliostats. A heat transfer fluid heated to about 600 °C in the receiver is used to produce steam, which, in turn, is used to generate electricity in a traditional turbine-generator. Linear Fresnel System. A linear focusing collector area consists of a large number of collectors in parallel rows, analogous to the long arrays of a parabolic trough CSP system. As a heat transfer fluid, the earliest power towers used steam, which does not lend itself to storage. In the form of a dish that focuses solar radiation onto a receiver mounted at the focal point, a Parabolic dish device consists of a parabolic-shaped point focus concentrator. On a structure with a two-axis tracking device, these concentrators are positioned to follow the light. The heat captured is usually used directly by a heat engine mounted on the receiver that travels with the structure of the dish (Fig. 3). • Photovoltaic PV technology, Photovoltaic use can be divided into a solar array of ground PV

N. M. Eshra

and liquid. Ground-based PV technologies are classified into various types; mono and polycrystalline solar panels, thin-film solar panels, etc. Monocrystalline is the latest of the technologies, and is also called single-crystalline, and has been around since 1955. Monocrystalline is still used today to generate photovoltaic cells and is arguably the most effective usable material. Polycrystalline, also referred to as multi-crystalline, came into being in 1981. A cheaper way to make solar panels is to use polycrystalline cells made of many silicon crystals. Compared to other kinds of solar panels, monocrystalline silicon photovoltaic cells have the best performance. These photovoltaic cells can achieve an efficiency of about 22.9%. In fact, however, the efficacy of fully assembled solar panels is roughly between 15 and 17%. This upper value of the efficiency is corresponding with the highest possible efficiency. The efficiency of polycrystalline silicon photovoltaic cells varies between approximately 11.5% and 14% (Fig. 4). • Liquid solar array technology (LSA), This is the newest form of solar panel, a solar capture device that is water-borne by LSA. LSA technology floats on calm bodies of water instead of placing the cells on the ground, occupying a lot of available space. The LSA incorporates a solar concentrator and a photovoltaic battery with sun-tracking and storm defense mechanisms. The LSA is a modern PV concentrator that uses relatively lightweight, water-floating plastic concentrators mounted on anchored rafts. To watch the sun

Fig. 3 a Parabolic trough systems, b power tower systems, c parabolic dish systems, d linear Fresnel system

Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt

115

Fig. 4 Classification of the solar energy technologies

both regular and seasonally, a thin plastic focusing concentrator lens rotates slowly. In a PV container that sits in the water where the cells are kept cold and functional, a small amount of silicon or other forms of photovoltaic cells are stored by convective heat transfer to the surrounding water. Under clear conditions, the power output from the units is very strong, although some shortcomings were found in the hazy conditions. For each kilowatt of electrical output, approximately 25 m2 of water area is needed if 19% efficiency (at 40 °C) is used with silicon concentrator cells. The LSA decreases water evaporation to about 70%. In addition, since they do not block light and facilitate the flow of oxygen to the water environment that is shielded, it does not affect marine life (Fig. 5).

3.2.1 Solar Energy Engineering and the Technical Aspects The solar cells are sensitive to temperature variations affecting primarily the output voltage of the PV panel, and sensitive to radiation variations primarily affecting the output current, because these values constantly. A reliable climate database with at least five years was required, as the first step of this method, to compute the daily average of: radiation (E mean), temperature (T mean), and hours of insolation (Hr day), along the years, for a specified location, which means being the solar energy engineer familiar by the atmospheric sciences and climate data to get a good assessment of the solar energy power at any selected place. To install solar energy system to get a good production the next items must be observed;

Fig. 5 a Liquid solar panel, b floating LSA panel on the water

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N. M. Eshra

• Shade can dramatically affect production of the solar energy production. Then installers may recommend trimming or removing trees to improve your panels’ electricity production. • Azimuth/Orientation The azimuth or orientation of the solar panel system will impact the production. In the Northern Hemisphere, solar panels facing due south will produce the most electricity, because they receive the most sunshine over the course of a day.While still suitable for solar, Eastern and Western facing panels produce less electricity overall because they see fewer “sun-hours” throughout the day. • Tilt The suggested tilt of your solar panel system can vary depending on geography, but most solar panel systems in the Northern Hemisphere will reach maximum electricity production at a 30 to 45° tilt. It’s worth noting that, while tilt impacts production, it has less of an effect on solar panel performance than the orientation of the panels. • Geography Some areas of the country get more sun over the course of a year. If you put the exact same roof with the same solar panel system in southern and northern Egypt, the solar panel system in southern will produce more electricity simply because there are more hours of sunshine there. • Size of the system Production estimates also take into account the total size of the system proposed, and its capacity to produce power.

3.2.2 Solar Energy Estimation for Both; CSP and PV Estimation thee amount of electrical energy depending on the technology type: • Estimated the energy from CSP plant: depend on four parameters; Annual energy yield, Capacity factor, Land requirement, Water requirement. – Annual Energy Yield calculation Eannual ¼ gannual  DNIannual  A

ð10Þ

where Eannual ηannual DNIannual A

is the annual electrical energy generated by the plant in MWh/a; is the annual solar to electric efficiency; is the annual Direct Normal Irradiation in MWh/a m2; is the area of the collectors in the collector field in m2.

– The capacity factor The capacity factor of a power plant is the ratio of the actual energy generated in a given period to the energy that could potentially be generated if the plant operated at full output continuously, the annual capacity factor would be calculated as CF annual ¼

actual energy generated ðMWhÞ 365 days  24 h  nominal power output ðMWÞ

ð11Þ The annual capacity factors that existing CSP plants are achieving are given in Table 2. All the technologies have the potential to achieve much higher capacity factors if they include thermal storage. The presence of thermal storage allows the solar energy from the collector field to be used more effectively and also allows the plant to generate electricity during the night. This can potentially boost the capacity factor up to around 75%. – The land use efficiencies The collector sector takes up the overwhelming majority of the land needed for a CSP plant. In both technologies, the collectors are arranged in a precise way to optimize solar gain during the day and throughout the year. To stop (or minimize) the shading of one collector by another, a certain amount of spacing is necessary between collectors. The productivity of land use can be expressed either as the ratio of the collector area to the total area

Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt Table 2 Capacity factor of different technologies the existing CSP plants

117

Technology

Capacity factor

Parabolic trough without storage

25%

Parabolic trough with storage

Greater than 40%

Solar tower

Around 25%

Linear Fresnel reflector

Around 17%

Dish

50%

of the plant or as the ratio of the total plant area to the production of electrical power. Land use efficiency ¼

collector area; m2 total plant area; m2 ð12Þ

Or Land use efficiency; ha=MW total plant area; ha ¼ output power; MW

E A r H

ð13Þ r

ð14Þ

where Pm is the available solar power for the specific location, and APV is the PV panel occupied area

ð15Þ

where

PR

– Water Requirement For cooling, CSP plants need significant quantities of water. The lower the performance of the power block, the higher the cooling water demand, since there is more heat loss, and it can be literally illustrated. Previous research found that the water demand ranged from 2000 to 3000 L/ MWh for the various technologies which are mentioned before. – The photovoltaic system (PV) formula to estimate the electricity generated in output of is: The daily average of power per unit area (Ps) in W/m2, has been obtained applying the next equation Ps ¼ Pm ðlocationÞ=APV w=m2

E ¼ A  r  H  PR

H

PR

Energy (kWh) Total solar panel Area (m2) solar panel yield or efficiency (%) Annual average solar radiation on tilted panels (shadings not included) Performance ratio, coefficient for losses (range between 0.5 and 0.9, default value = 0.75) is the yield of the solar panel given by the ratio: electrical power (in kWp) of one solar panel divided by the area of one panel is the annual average solar radiation on tilted panels. You have to find the global annual radiation incident on your PV panels with your specific inclination (slope, tilt) and orientation (azimut) PR (Performance Ratio) is a very important value to evaluate the quality of a photovoltaic installation because it gives the performance of the installation independently of the orientation, inclination of the panel. It includes all losses.

3.2.3 Site Characteristics The good solar generation power potential is the first step in the selection of the sites for design central solar power or photovoltaic system. The potential site, which is the direct normal irradiation (DNI) is greater than 1900 kWh/m2/year (5.2 kWh/m2/day), on other side, the location restrictions must be specified; which are must be far from airports, floodplains, wetlands, unstable

118

N. M. Eshra

with just a few gloomy days. The first solar thermal power plant at Kurymat was installed in 2011, and its location is represented in Fig. 4. It has a gross installed capacity of 140 MW, with a 20 MW solar share based on parabolic trough technology coupled with a natural gas combinedcycle power plant. Since March 2015, a 10 MW PV power plant has been operating in Siwa, with the remaining plants planned to be implemented and run accordingly. By 2018, the 37 km2 of Benban Solar Park (PV) in the Western Desert of Egypt had added 800 MW of total installed capacity (Table 3).

areas, fault areas, and seismic impact zones. A well-designed PV system needs clear and unobstructed access to the sun’s rays from about 9 a.m. to 3 p.m., throughout the year. Even small shadows, such as the shadow of a single branch of a leafless tree can significantly reduce the power output of a solar module. Shading from the building itself—due to vents, attic fans, skylights, gables or overhangs—must also be avoided. Keep in mind that an area may be unshaded during one part of the day, but shaded at another part of the day. Also, a site that is unshaded in the summer may be shaded in the winter due to longer winter shadows. The flat land with an overall slope of less than 1–3% and convenient grid connections are good signs of the site.

3.3 Wind Energy Resources

3.2.4 Projects of Solar Energy Generation in Egypt The Solar Atlas of Egypt notes that with 2000 to 3000 kWh/m2/year of direct solar radiation, Egypt is considered a “sun belt” region. Where, the sun shines 9–11 h a day from north to south,

One of the renewable energy sources that have been commonly introduced in recent years is wind power. It is only because of the sun that wind energy is feasible. The earth is heated by the sun, but it does not do so uniformly. Along with the earth’s rotation, this mechanism induces

Table 3 Projects of solar energy in Egypt

Project status and name

Generation type PV

Capacity MW

CSP

Installed Benban FIT

✓

1465

Net metering

✓

100

Decentralized PV system

✓

32 ✓

Kurymat

140

Under construction Private sector

✓

200

Kom Ombo

✓

26

West Nile

✓

600

Hurghada Coop Jika

✓

20

Kom Ombo Coop Arab fund

✓

50

Zafarana Coop-Arab fund

✓

50

Zafarana Coop-KfW

✓

50

Private sector

✓

200

Under development

Planned West Nile Total

✓

100 3033

Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt

winds that disperse over the varied surface of the earth. Wind turbines will harness the wind. Based on the way the wind is blowing, wind turbines dynamically adjust to harvest the most wind power. It is possible to use two forms of wind energy resources; shore wind applies to wind resources on land, and offshore wind power is the use of offshore turbines to harness wind power for electricity generation. Offshore wind power output is stronger as a result of the high wind speed available at offshore sites compared to onshore. Compared to onshore wind turbines, offshore wind turbines offer some benefits. These turbines are typically classified into two types of configurations: vertical-axis wind turbines in which the axis of rotation is vertical (and approximately perpendicular to the wind stream) relative to the ground. Horizontal-axis turbines, where the rotation axis is horizontal (and approximately parallel to the wind stream) with respect to the field. In addition to the design of turbines, there are essential criteria that must be studied in wind energy; is the density of wind power. Wind power density is the amount of energy available to a wind turbine at a given site for conversion into usable wind energy which is estimated in watts per square meter and is a direct function of the mean wind speed value available at that particular site. Before building wind turbines, it is important to assess the wind power density of a given location.

3.3.1 Wind Energy Engineering and the Technical Aspects There are association disciplines relative to wind energy, where the power engineers must be familiar by these disciplines such as; Climatology sciences, Geographical of the sites and the environmental conditions, and the Physics and Nature Sciences to deal and understand the design of turbines and their working to extract the maximum wind power with The least negative impact on the surrounding environment. Where wind energy can have adverse environmental impacts, including the potential to reduce degrade habitat for wildlife, fish, and plants. Furthermore, spinning turbine blades can pose a threat to flying wildlife like birds and bats.

119

• Climatology Aspect The long-term weather average is usually calculated over a 30-year period. Wind and its speed, temperature, humidity, air pressure, and precipitation are the key meteorological variables widely used in the chosen wind power sites. A place’s climate is influenced by its latitude, terrain, altitude, and surrounding water sources and their currents, so it is important to the environment and the local climatology study for the best location to be chosen. • Local Geography and the Environmental Conditions Generally, frictional drag and obstructions at the surface of the earth retard wind speed and cause a phenomenon known as wind shear. The rate at which wind speed increases with height varies with the highest rates of increases found over the roughest terrain, depending on the local characteristics of the topography, terrain, and atmosphere. The wind that flows through mountain passes, for example, will form mountain jets at high speeds. Given the discontinuous aspect of its design, quantifying the region of a wind power project is difficult. ‘Area’ means not only the ground directly disrupted by the construction of the turbines but also the surrounding area which may theoretically be affected. In reviewing various environmental impact assessments and other evaluations of wind plant land use, it appears that there are two general types of “areas” considered. The first is the direct surface area impact due to planting construction and infrastructure. The second is defined as associated with the total area of the wind power plant as a whole. • Physics and Nature Aspect In measuring wind strength, this discipline is very critical. Due to the distinct thermal conditions of these volumes, air masses shift. The turbulent peak can influence the power quality of wind power output from the perspective of the power grid. The effect of turbulence on the

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N. M. Eshra

quality of power is highly dependent on the turbine technologies used. The design of the blades, the top of the tower, the form of the turbine; all these considerations are very important in both vertical and horizontal; energy potential is very important in both.

3.3.2 Wind Power Estimation Consequently, the power output of a wind turbine (WT) depends on many parameters. The wind characteristics are more important; wind speed, wind direction, distribution of Weibull, wind shear, and wind turbulence. In wind power calculation, air density (a function of temperature, friction, and humidity) and turbine parameters also play a significant role. The power curve, turbine size, and capacity factor must provide reliable estimations of wind power for a given location. The general equation relating wind power to a swept area, wind speed, and density of air is: 1 Pw ¼ qAV 3 2

ð16Þ

where q A V

is the density of air, which is around 1.22 kg/m3 the area which air through it m2, Sweep Are = pr2 the velocity of Air m/s.

Fig. 6 Power curve of a wind turbine

This equation represents the total energy obtained from the wind flow. In terms of generating electric energy, only a certain proportion of the wind’s kinetic energy can be converted. This relation can be expressed as: P e ¼ ge gm C p P w

ð17Þ

where Pe ηe ηm Cp

is the amount of electric power generated is the electric conversion efficiency of the wind turbine is the mechanical efficiency is the power coefficient. The upper limit for the power coefficient (i.e., the proportion of the amount that can be extracted from the wind’s kinetic energy) is 59.3% regardless of the geometry of the wind turbine. Usually the power coefficient of the modern wind turbines is between 45 and 50%.

• Power curve Power curves are supplied in a tabular or graphical form by the suppliers. Power curves are normally determined from the measurements of the area. As shown in Fig. 6, the wind turbine begins generating usable electricity at a low wind speed, known as the cut-in speed. With the rise in wind speed, the power output rises continuously

Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt

121

until it reaches a saturated stage, at which the power output reaches its optimum value, defined as the rated power output. Correspondingly, the speed at this point is defined as the rated speed. At the rated speed, more increase in the wind speed will not increase the power output due to the activation of the power control. When the wind speed becomes too large to potentially damage the wind turbine, the wind turbine needs to shut down immediately to avoid damaging the wind turbine. • Capacity Factor The capacity factor of a wind turbine is used to measure the wind turbine’s actual power output in a given period (e.g. a year) divided by its power output if the turbine has operated the entire time. A reasonable capacity factor would be 0.25–0.30 and a very good capacity factor would be around 0.40. In fact, wind turbine capacity factor is very sensitive to the average wind speed. Capacity Factor ¼ Average Output=maximum Output

ð18Þ • Turbine Capacity In view of their rated power, wind turbines can be classified into a range of broad categories: micro, mini, medium, massive, and ultra-large wind turbines. Micro wind turbines, where the nominal output is smaller than several kilowatts, are particularly suitable where the energy grid is not usable. Tiny wind turbines commonly apply to turbines with a power output lower than 100 kW, where residential homes, farms and other individual remote technologies have been commonly used, such as water pumping stations, telecom sites, etc., in rural regions. The most common wind turbines have medium sizes with power ratings from 100 kW to 1 MW. This type of wind turbines can be used either on-grid or off-grid systems for village power, hybrid systems, distributed power, wind power plants, etc.

3.3.3 Site Characteristics Wind speed in any site is the main factor in selection, other factors and constraints come into play too, these factors such as: land use restrictions, proximity to towns and roads, proximity to transmission lines and airport, slope and elevation. The constraints such as: a protect areas (wind farm regions don’t have to be close to it), streams and farm must be away 250 m from the site, the slope should not be more than 30°. So topographic maps (with terrain contours, political boundaries, populated areas, roads, parks, transmission lines, and other relevant siting features) must be used, wind resource maps (including predicted wind speeds and prevailing directions) meteorological must be considered. 3.3.4 Projects of Wind Energy Generation in Egypt A total installed wind capacity of 390 MW at the end of 2008. The wind energy generation was initiated by 1st Ras Ghareb wind farm on the Red Sea Coast by 400 kW, followed by Hurghada city wind farm by 5.4 MW in phases where this farm interconnected to the local grid. The implementations of large scale grid were with (Zafarana and Gulf of El Zayt). Next Table 4 represents the different projects of wind energy in Egypt according to the annual report of NREA.

3.4 Bio Energy (Biomass) Resources The use of organic material for producing electricity is biomass energy. The use of biomass energy has the ability to reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases considerably. In a variety of ways, biomass can generate energy, but the most common is combustion-burning agricultural waste or woody materials to heat water and create turbine-spinning steam. Three main types of applications of biomass energy technologies exist; • Biofuel Biomass can be converted into liquid fuels for transportation. Biomass can be converted into

122 Table 4 Projects of wind energy in Egypt

N. M. Eshra Name

Project status

Capacity MW

Gulf of EL Zayt

Installed

580

Zafarana

Installed

545

Gulf of Suez Boo

Installed

250

Gulf of Suez Boo

Under construction

250

Gulf of Suez1

Under development

250

Gulf of Suez2

Under development

200

West Nile privet sector

Under development

250

Gulf of Suez Boo

Under development

500

Privet sector

Under development

500

Privet sector

Under development

500

Gulf of Suez3

Planned

200

Total

liquid directly (for usage in cars, trucks, buses, airplanes, and trains). The two most common types of biofuel are; Ethanol and biodiesel. • Bio-power In biopower burning biomass directly or converted into gaseous fuel to generate the electricity. Most of the biopower plants in the world use direct-fired system, which is the most common of the six types of biopower system, direct-fired, cofiring gasification, anaerobic digestion and small modular. • Bio-product Typically the making from the petroleum, the biomass is converted into chemicals for making products.

3.4.1 Biomass in Egypt According to the annual report of the Egyptian New and Renewable Energy Authority, there are three categories of status for biomass projects, as shown in Table 5.

3.5 Geothermal Energy Resources Geothermal energy is a clean and sustainable energy because heat is continuously produced

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Table 5 Biomass energy in Egypt Name

Project status

Capacity MW

Al Gabal Al Asfar

Installed

10

Privet sector

Installed

1.5

Privet sector

Under construction

3

Privet sector

Planned

51

inside the earth and not caused any pollution. Resources of the geothermal energy extend from shallow ground to hot water and hot rock found a few miles beneath the earth’s surfaces. The shallow ground or upper 3 m of the earth’s surface almost everywhere. Usage the geothermal heat is for heat buildings, and to generate electricity. Scientists have discovered that the temperature of the earth’s inner core is about 10,800 degrees Fahrenheit (°F), which is as hot as the surface of the sun. Direct-use applications require geothermal temperatures between about 70° to 302 °F—lower than those required for electricity generation. In a direct-use system, a well is drilled into a geothermal reservoir, which provides a steady stream of hot water. Some systems use the water directly. Tell now there is not found geothermal projects in Egypt but according to the annual report of NERA, A memorandum of understanding was signed between

Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt

NREA 2019, there are a conduct a economic and technical feasibility study for the possibility of stablishing geothermal projects and Atlas for promising sites, where the suggested sites are Gulf Suez, Western Sahara, Red Sea, and South Valley.

4

Geographic Information System and the Potential of Renewable Energies in Egypt

The GIS program is able to process geographic data from a variety of sources and integrate it into a map project. This technology is supporting and underlying the progress of this monumental change. It is not only improving the way we produce and deliver energy, it is changing the way we view our earth’s resources. GIS maps are interactive, on the computer screen, map users can scan a GIS map in any direction, zoom in or out, and change the nature of the information contained in the map. Some data is gathered in the field by global positioning units that attach a location coordinate (latitude and longitude) to a feature. The next three sections introduce spatial

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maps for the potential of the three types of renewable energies; small hydropower, solar, and wind energies.

4.1 Potential of Small Hydropower Egypt has a large irrigation network that includes many canals classified as main, branch, and small. Also the irrigation network depending on different types of hydraulic structures; barrages, head regulators, wires, syphon, and navigation locks. All these hydraulic structures can be exploited in the small, mini, and micro hydropower by the two technical concepts in electric generation; the hydrostatic and the hydrokinetic. Figures 7 and 8 represent the expected energy from different hydraulic structures in the irrigation network in Egypt. Figure 7 represents the canals and the different hydraulic structures, with note the red signed sites (for example) take priority in implementation because high potentiality and the environmental conditions are good. And Fig. 8 represents the maximum power can be get from some head and intermediate regulators.

Fig. 7 Spatial maps for hydraulic structures in Egypt, can be exploited in small and micro hydropower

N. M. Eshra

8000 7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

12000 Max. Power kw

Max. Power

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10000 8000 6000 4000 2000 0

Fig. 8 Maximum expected mini hydropower from some regulators

4.2 Potential of Solar Energy in Egypt Egypt was among the first countries to utilize solar energy. In 1910, American engineer F. Shuman built a practical industrial-scale solar system engine at Maadi south to Cairo using solar thermal parabolic collectors. The engine was used to produce steam which drove a series of large water pumps for irrigation. The sites which have a good potential for both PV and CSP solar energy represent in two spatial maps; the first one in right side of Fig. 9 represents the sites characteristic by potential more than 5 kWh/kWp/day. The map on left side of the figure represents the characteristics of the proposed site by high PV potential.

4.3 Potential of Wind Energy in Egypt Egypt has outstanding wind energy conditions. Particularly in the coastal regions, high and stable wind speeds are frequent (up to an average of 10.5 m/s in some sites), the high potential sites are illustrated in the spatial map in the right side of Fig. 10. Furthermore, the country’s large deserts and abundant thinly populated areas are well suited for the construction of large wind farms, the spatial map in the left side of the figure represents the potential of the wind energy; onshore in Egypt, where the wind speed in these sites more than 6 m2/s.

Fig. 9 Potential sites of solar energy in Egypt for both PV and CSP

Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt

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Fig. 10 Potential sites of wind energy in Egypt for on and offshore

References 1. Egyptian Electricity Company Holding. Annual report (2018/2019). http://www.moee.gov.eg/ english_new/report.aspx. Accessed 25 Oct 2020 2. Eshra NM (2019) Potential of mini and micro hydropower and economic operation for different hydraulic structures in Egypt. Technical report, Hydropower Unit, Nile Research Institute, Egypt 3. Department of Technical Education, Government of Uttarakhand (2008) Hydropower engineering. Alternate Hydro Energy Centre, Indian Institute of Technology, Roorkee 4. Reports of International Hydropower Association. Available on site: https://www.hydropower.org/ 5. Hydropower Europe (2019) Hydropower Technologies. State of the Art, The HYDROPOWER EUROPE Forum is supported by a project that has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement No 826010 6. Lajqi S, Lajqi N, Hamidi B (2016) Design and construction of mini hydropower plant with propeller turbine. Int J Contemp Energy 2(1) 7. Kotei R et al (2016) Estimation of flow-duration and low-flow frequency parameters for the Sumanpa stream at Mampong-Ashanti in Ghana for the 1985– 2009 period. Am Sci Res J Eng Technol Sci (ASRJETS) 15(1):62–75. ISSN (Print) 2313-4410, ISSN (Online) 2313-4402 8. Mohamoud YM (2008) Prediction of daily flow duration curves and streamflow for ungauged catchments using regional flow duration curves. Hydrol Sci J. ISSN: 0262-6667 (Print) 2150-3435 (Online). https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/thsj20 9. Owolabi ST, Madi K, Kalumba AM, Alemaw BF (2020) Assessment of recession flow variability and

10.

11.

12.

13.

14.

15.

16.

17.

the surficial lithology impact: a case study of Buffalo River catchment, Eastern Cape, South Africa. Environ Earth Sci 79:187. https://doi.org/10.1007/ s12665-020-08925-4 Liucci L, Valigi D, Casadei S (2014) A new application of flow duration curve (FDC) in designing run-ofriver power plants. Water Resour. Manag 28:881–895. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-014-0523-4 Eshra NM, Zobaa AF, Abdel Aleem SHE (2021) Assessment of mini and micro hydropower potential in Egypt: multi-criteria analysis. Energ Rep J 7:81– 94. https://www.sciencedirect.com/journal/energyreports/vol/7/suppl/C Eshra NM, Sayed Abdelnaby ME (2014) Study of application of small hydropower for Nile River in Egypt. Middle East J Appl Sci Pakistan 4(4) Eshra NM, Amin I (2020) Hybrid floating power station driven by renewable energy for Saudi Arabia coastal areas. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Conference on Electrical, Communication and Computer Engineering (ICECCE), 12–13 June 2020, Istanbul, Turkey. IEEE Explorer Publisher. https:// ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/conhome/9169751/ proceeding?searchWithin=Nadia%20M.%20Eshra,% 20Islam%20Amin Mourad MM, Ali AHH, Abdel-Rahman AK (2013) Strategies of solar energy utilization in Egyptian desert cities. In: The Seventh Annual Conference of Futuristic Studies, Assiut, Egypt Eshra NM (2018) An approach to save evaporation and regulate AHD power station discharge. In: First Cairo Water Week Conferences 2018 Alalewi A (2014) Concentrated solar power (CSP). Technical report, Higher Institute for Applied Science and Technology Zobaa A, Bansal R (2011) Handbook of renewable energy technology. World Scientific Publishing Co. Pte. Ltd.

126 18. Trieb F, Schillings C (2009) Global potential of concentrating solar power. In: SolarPaces Conference Berlin, September 2009 19. Egyptian Holding Electricity Company (2019) Egyptian renewable energy plan. Ministry of Electricity and Renewable Energy 20. Photovoltaic-Software.com. Available at https:// photovoltaic-software.com/principle-ressources/howcalculate-solar-energy-power-pv-systems

N. M. Eshra 21. Sohoni V, Gupta SC, Nema RK (2016) A critical review on wind turbine power curve modelling techniques and their applications in wind based energy systems. J Energy

Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs Raad H. S. Al-Jibouri

Abstract

Keywords

This chapter explores the possibilities of implementing the Sustainable Development Goals through the use of renewable energy, specifically concentrated solar thermal energy (CST), this kind of energy that well known has become, used mainly to achieve goal #7 of obtaining (clean energy at affordable prices), and goal #6 of helping to obtain for (clean water and sanitation). But in addition to that, thermal energy from renewable sources can achieve 9 other SDGs according to the fact that there are more than 45 uses of thermal energy in the agriculture, industry, municipal, commercial and domestic sectors. Thermal energy storage is the best, compared to electricity storage, where it can be done at low cost, using environmentally friendly materials, as well as abundantly available in most countries in the world, and now by using easy-to-understand and applicable technologies, helps the non-developed and poor countries. Energy generation becomes more efficient, reducing carbon dioxide emissions, and help the improvement of the environment.

SDGs Renewable energy CST Thermal storage Power efficiency Reducing CO2 emission

R. H. S. Al-Jibouri (&) Hamza Associates (Expertise House of Engineering Consultants), 5 Ibn Marawan Street, Dokki, Giza 12311, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]




1











Introduction

Renewable energy is a chance for many countries to secure their daily energy needs and to supply the essential activities of public services with the required energy at a reasonable cost, without causing damage to the planet’s climate, water, and soil or disturbing the fragile balance of the environment. Renewable energy also enables a country to live in a world empty (as far as possible, of course) from carbon and radioactive pollutants and the like, stopping the cumulative destruction of the environment, harming human beings, as well as other living creatures and organisms that share our lives on this planet. Renewable energy sources contribute to achieving many of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) that the United Nations approved on September 25, 2015. This is what we will explain in paragraph 6 below: “How can heat help implanting of SDGs”. With the approval of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in autumn 2015, the United Nations adopted an ambitious agenda (called Agenda 2030) to tackle several grand challenges of the twenty-first century simultaneously. This

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_9

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includes ending hunger and eradicating poverty while also protecting the environment through actions such as limiting the pace of climate change and protecting marine and terrestrial. This agenda is expressed in the form of 17 SDGs that have been broken down into 169 specific targets. A key aspect of the SDGs is ‘achieving sustainable development in its three dimensions—economic, social and environmental—in a balanced and integrated manner’ [1] (Fig. 1). This chapter is an fundamental attempt to broaden the scope of vision so that we can understand how an accurate choice of a single and specific source of renewable energy can lead us to be a means of successful and effective implementation of more than one goal of the SDG at the same time. It is, however, necessary at the outset to make a List of all types and sources of renewable energy available in the geographical area under study, arrange the list in descending order from the most abundant to the least. Then we start from the top of the list, so we

R. H. S. Al-Jibouri

search for all available technologies to take advantage of this source (i.e. the most abundant) in the present or even in the potential and promising technologies in the future. Moreover, before we define our strategy in replacing traditional energy sources with renewable energy sources, we have to remember that we do not rely on one type only. We must adhere to the principle of integration and diversity of energy sources. When we shift from relying on energy sources from fossil fuels to renewable sources, we must work in a way that integrates energy sources. There can be in the same country or city power stations that operate with more than one type of fossil fuel, one powered by gas, another by diesel, and perhaps the third is used coal. We should also vary from the types of stations that operate with multiple sources of renewable energies, one powered by solar energy and another that is not more than tens of kilometers away from it that works with wind energy or biogas, depending on the abundance of the source.

Fig. 1 Sustainable development goals SDG. https://globescan.com/catalyzing-action-sdgs-collaboration/

Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs

This principle of diversity may sometimes be decisive because if we encounter an emergency circumstance that prevents us one of the abundant resources can provide an alternative with another less abundant. If the power plants depend on the abundance of solar energy, both photovoltaic or thermal, there should be auxiliary stations running on biogas, for example, or with hydraulic energy, etc. This can be specified more by the following points: • A list of all renewable energies available within the specified geographical area, and we arrange them in descending order from the most abundant to the lowest. • A detailed study of the most abundant source. • Looking and considering the best available feasible technologies for producing energy from this source. This including, • Comparing these techniques with the possibility of using materials for manufacturing from what is available locally, whether materials or products, at the lowest possible cost. • The possibility of locally manufactured it is commensurate with the number of available skilled workers and their technical ability to digest the technologies and develop in the future. All these conditions and methodologies aim to build efficient power stations at reasonable prices. The required energy system must also contain an energy storage unit within the following specifications [2]: Financially Effective • Made from accessible and low-cost materials. • Minimal capital expenditures CAPEX and operating expenses OPEX. • Its operating life is around 30–50 years. Safe • It contains a separate part for storing energy for the maximum possible period.

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• There is no direct contact between the energy transfer fluid (ETF) and the part responsible for storing energy (SE) in the system. • Compatible with energy transfer fluid. • The moving parts of the system are as minimum as possible. Easy • Modular. • Designed for easy handling and transport. • Pre-made and quality assured before installation. • It integrates directly with a wide range of applications. Efficient • With low energy losses. • Compatible size. • With a minimum carbon footprint. All of these requirements combined, and others, contribute in one way or another to the diversity of energy use and increase the efficiency of its use. This is directly reflected in achieving more than one SDG at the same time, meaning that we seek to find a specific technology to produce renewable energy and achieve at the same time multiple goals. I will explain how to achieve this in the next section of this chapter.

2

Renewable Sources of Energy and Concentrated Solar Thermal (CST)

Energy in its general sense is the ability to accomplish work. It can take various forms, such as: mechanical, thermal, electrical, optical, magnetic, chemical, etc. Energy can be transformed from one type to another: mechanical can be transformed into electrical or thermal, optical into electrical, chemical into mechanical, etc., or vice versa. The most common types of energy currently in use are fossil fuels (carbon compounds) from

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which there are in the geological reservoirs in the ground (such as natural gas, oil and coal). However, with the increase in demand and the impossibility of compensating it, it is natural that whatever the amount of its stocks, which were formed within hundreds or thousands of millions of years, will be depleted in tens of years. There are other sources of energy (such as nuclear) that may suffice for longer periods but will also ultimately not be compensated at all, and will also be depleted. So it can be put under the heading of non-renewable energy sources. Renewable sources of energy are those that we can use what we need. Nature will substitute constantly what we use to ensure that future generations are not deprived of their right to enjoy it. for example, energy from: Sun, wind, tides, hydraulics (dams, waterfalls), geothermal, biofuels, waste to energy, green hydrogen, etc. We will not stop long to explain these types as they are nowadays a cognitive axiom that constitutes community awareness, and it is circulated daily in detail in the media and education. We also see its actual applications on urban and rural societies alike. It is easy to see it in detail from the popular and common knowledge sources among us, such as traditional media, social media, curricula, and internet search engines. It is easy to classify solar energy as the most abundant and important renewable energy source for our planet. The amount of energy we receive from the sun in one day is hundreds of times greater than the sum of what people consume from all other types of energy annually. It is also tens of times greater than all that has been extracted and consumed from all fossil fuels combined since its discovery until now. Likewise, it is greater than all reserves that are still underground and have not been extracted or exploited yet. The Sun is known to be the main source of many non-renewable energy sources and even other renewable energies. For example, wind power. Depends on the sun, where we notice the wind stopping completely at the solar eclipse. Hydropower also depends on the evaporation cycle of water due to high air temperatures, steam loading cycles, condensation of clouds and

R. H. S. Al-Jibouri

then rainfall. Solar energy is clearly the determining factor in this natural water transformation cycle. The same thing also applies to non-renewable energy sources. The sun is almost the main cause of fossil fuels formation. Without the sun, there would be no lives or plants on earth, and these are the origin of fossil fuels, such as coal and petroleum. In general, deserts occupy a large proportion of the land area in Arab countries. It may reach about 90% as in Egypt and Libya, with slightly lower proportions in the other Arab African countries: Morocco, Tunisia, Sudan, Mauritania, and Western Sahara, and other Middle East regions: Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Jordan, Syria, and the rest of the Arab Gulf countries. This means that most of these vast lands receive enormous sunlight most of the year, so solar energy is logically the backbone of renewable energies in those countries. The reader may ask what is new and unique in that. The sun shines on almost the entire planet at different angles. This is true to a large extent, but what should be pointed out here is that most Arab countries are of a desert nature and lie close to the Tropic of Capricorn in the south, and the Tropic of Cancer in the north within the so-called “Golden Belt” as shown in the map below [3], Fig. 2. This zone has the features that: • Total annual solar irradiation hours are large. • The angle of solar irradiation fall is almost vertical. • Desert climate with high temperatures most of the year, and exceeds 50 °C in some areas. To facilitate understanding some facts about solar energy, we will try to simulate these concepts with mathematical representation, where we say that solar energy consists of two components that can be expressed as two vectors: The Solar Light vector VSL and Solar Thermal vector VST. There is an angle between them and each of them has an inclination angle with the horizon, so the value of each of them and the angle of its inclination determine the final result

Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs

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Fig. 2 Direct normal irradiation world map golden-belt

which is represented by a new vector we call Solar Resultant vector VSR The value and amount of its angle are determined by the intensity of the solar radiation, the angle of its fall, geographical location in terms of latitude and longitude, climate, season (summer, winter), daytime hours, topography of the earth, the solar azimuth and solar zenith which express the position of the sun. The solar azimuth is the angle of the direction of the sun measured clockwise north from the horizon. The solar zenith is the angle measured from the local zenith and the line of sight of the sun. Within these approaches we can guess that both basic vectors in Fig. 3 have a great value in the Arab region, while at the same time that value is lower in European countries. For example: for the VSL vector which represents solar irradiation, its amount depends on the total hours of solar irradiation on earth, and its amount will certainly be large within the golden belt zone in which MENA countries are located, as we have indicated in Fig. 2. There is another factor related to solar radiation, by which we mean the solar thermal vector

Fig. 3 Mathematical presentation for physical components of light

VST, where we note that in Europe the weather is cool or moderate in summer, because it is relatively far away from the equator, so the value of the solar thermal vector VST also will not be as large as it is in most Arab countries and Africa. Note that the solar thermal vector VST is usually bigger than the value of the solar light vector VST, because of limited efficiency in light converting to electrical energy. Also, the photovoltaic cells operating range is visible light, i.e.,

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R. H. S. Al-Jibouri

46% of the solar spectrum, but the range of concentrated solar thermal systems is the visible light spectrum, plus the infrared spectrum which is 47% more, so their working range becomes 93% of the entire solar spectrum, i.e., almost double as indicated in Table 1. We recall this mathematical representation is only an attempt to simplify understanding, and we do not mean to find values or derive equations and formulas that help us in determining the actual numerical values of the two vectors or the angle of each of them hT, hL above the horizontal axis or the resulting angle h between the two vectors. Here we have to decide a constant scientific fact: the temperatures in the Arab region are relatively high compared to the European Union countries, for example, and the increase in the air temperature causes a decrease in the efficiency of photovoltaic cells in converting light into electric current. This efficiency is supposed to be from 18 to 20% at standard laboratory temperature 23 °C, slightly less or more, and the effect of high temperature on this efficiency is significant so that its efficiency can fall to a half or becomes less than 10% [4]. Another challenge is the effect of the desert environment where dust and sandstorms are frequent, causing an additional decrease in the ability of the clear surface of photovoltaic cells to collect solar light and convert it into electricity. Also, because of the high temperature of the air, the air heats up and its weight becomes light, as it expands to become low density. This air rises to atmospheric layers above the ground

Table 1 Wave length for solar spectrum and their percentage. https://www. solarpoweristhefuture.com/ what-light-wave-do-solarpanels-use.shtml

Light color

level carrying carbon particles left from the exhaust of cars and factories as a result of burning fossil fuels in them. These carbon particles remain floating in the atmosphere, which causes additional pollution with a cumulative effect on the clarity of the atmosphere. All these facts lead us to confirm and warn that photovoltaic cells are impractical and useless as a solution to generate electricity in commercial quantities or as a significant part of the national capacity to generate electricity in tropical countries, especially Arab, Middle East and North African countries. In addition to many of the great challenges that these countries may face in the future within two decades (or maybe less). And specifically at the end of the operational life of this type of solar energy system, the most prominent of these challenges is the problem of neutralizing toxic or harmful effects on the environment and water due to the materials used in the manufacture of solar panels [5]. Although the solar panels industry itself is environmentally harmful in many of its details, this topic falls outside the scope of our study in this chapter, and we will focus here on an important fact related to the use of panels after their manufacture, or in other words their effect on basic environmental elements such as water, air, soil … and the rest of the neighborhoods and creatures that share us in the natural life of the planet. This industry raises the rate of NF3 gas emission, which is 17,200 times more harmful to the environment than the impact of carbon

Wavelength in nm

% of sunlight

Ultraviolet

10–380

7

Violet

380–450

46

Blue

450–495

Green

495–570

Yellow

570–590

Orange

590–620

Red

620–750

Infrared

750–1,000,000

47

Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs

dioxide as a greenhouse gas during a period of 100 years. The emission of NF3 gas in the United States increased by 1057% in 25 years, compared to the emission of carbon dioxide, which increased only by 5% during the same period. Also, the solar panels consumed in ordinary waste dumps are currently disposed of in open and unprotected lands from weather fluctuations, and the broken panels when exposed to rain, water will wash away toxic materials into the soil, which causes severe pollution in the soil, and in groundwater sources. This has already happened in more than one place. We will explain later in this paragraph. We will try to place the most important risks of solar panel waste with specific points so that we do not lose focus, or get lost in the details: 1. At the end of the operation life of the solar panels, which actually ranges between 10 and 20 years, it results in a large amount of waste that is difficult to recycle or neutralize. And reduce its toxic effect on humans and the environment, which is estimated at 300 times that of the toxic effect of nuclear waste resulting from the generation of the same amount of electricity [6]. 2. The huge volume of waste. If we assume that the amount of nuclear waste generated at the end of a plant’s operating life that produces a specified amount of electrical energy, it can fill (for example) a soccer field with a height of 53 m. We will find that if we use solar panels to produce the same amount of electrical energy, the waste left will fill the same area (i.e. a soccer field), but it will reach 16,000 m or twice the height of the Everest mountain in the Himalayas [7]. 3. In countries like China, India, Ghana in Africa and possibly other regions, there are open dump sites for waste or electronic and technological consumables, including solar panels. There are human settlements near them, and in most cases these gatherings are random (called shantytowns) for the non-income or homeless, and it is logical that they will search for something that improves their income

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through the exploitation of these wastes (see 4). Certainly, the proper controls will not be observed in that. For example, they burn electrical wires in the open air to obtain copper from inside them. Which causes the spread of toxic gases and pollutes the environment due to burning plastic insulation in these wires, which causes chest diseases and serious health problems for modern births [6]. IRENA in 2016 calculated that the solar panels will be increase by (250,000) metric tons. This number can be increased in next years. Solar panels contain lead, cadmium, and other toxic chemicals that cannot be treated or neutralized without breaking these glass in the panels [6]. In the same year, the Japanese Ministry of Environment warned that the amount of panels waste produced in Japan could increase by as much as 2040 to 800,000 tons [8], and that a huge industrial complex like Toshiba Environmental Solutions could require continuous work for 19 years in order to be able to recycle all solar panel waste produced by Japan in the year 2020 only. And if we know that it is expected in Japan alone during the period from 2016 to 2034 (i.e. 19 years which is the same as the period of treatment of panels waste in the year 2020 only), and if we know that accurate estimates say that the annual production of waste will be 70–80 times greater than production in 2020.

Fig. 4 One of damping area for electronics trash in Maharashtra, India, 2014. Source https://www.forbes.com/ sites/michaelshellenberger/2018/05/23/if-solar-panels-areso-clean-why-do-they-produce-so-much-toxic-waste/?sh= 1b496600121c

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The important question here is: how are the non-developed countries or those that are trying hard to get out of the cycle of poverty, hunger, and backwardness to the end of the list? if this problem will be challenging or touch for a country like Japan. And its way out of all of this is in applying the principles of sustainable development, and it does not already have the energy and other resources necessary for that?. This situation includes almost of Arab countries and the majority of African countries, Asia and Latin America. In China (for example), we also find that there are the largest number of solar power plants by solar panels, nearly twice as much as in the United States, and solar panel waste is estimated at 20 million metric tons by 2050 [9]. And with all the risks and disadvantages we mentioned, unfortunately, there are no clear indications of this problem and its true size in studies that talk about the impact on the environment, especially those that are supposed to be submitted compulsorily with the request for licenses issued by the government agencies concerned with this issue to obtain Power Purchase Agreement (PPA). And if such studies already exist but they are neglected, then this is a greater calamity and a crime punishable by law because the citizen is being deceived and deceived, without any warning or warning to him about the existence of an environmental abyss that he looks at in the future on the road, and that he will inevitably reach it after a few years. In this context, we believe that the most important parties that should address this problem are finance, such as banks and other financing institutions. Suppose these institutions refrain from financing such types of projects. In that case, it is certain that even private and family financing funds and independent investors might stop financing such projects, and insurance companies will also refrain from providing insurance cover. This is in full conformity with Principle (2) of the Principles of Responsible Banking, which are six. These principles were endorsed by the United Nations as part of the UNEP finance initiative, as shown in Fig. 5.

R. H. S. Al-Jibouri

• Technologies for this type of energy do not require complex technical knowledge, easy to apply and developed with local competencies. • Highly capable of developed and manufactured. • Continuous ability to reduce costs dramatically as in mass production scale. • Most of the supplies and materials for its manufacture may be available locally. • Ease of manufacturing and operating most of its parts technically by the local trained workforce. • The short period of capital recovery. On November 2019, on the sidelines of the Arab Week for Sustainable Development-III, I had the opportunity to present these facts to the representative lady in the Union of Egyptian Banks responsible for implementing this initiative (the UNEP finance initiative), although she was shocked by the facts presented to her, and my request to her to verify them personally, However, it seems that she did not take this information seriously, and I did not receive anything from her confirming that they included it in their interests. Also, I have not noticed any change in the Egyptian market, and solar panels still take the largest share of investment and domestic financing in the field of electric energy in Egypt. In areas with a DNI value greater than 2000 kWh/m2 annually, we believe that the use of PV technology to generate electricity on a large commercial or utility scale is a wrong choice, for many reasons [17]. After a deep study of the alternatives available, we found that the most abundant, efficient, and least expensive renewable energy source in most MENA countries is CST or CSP, with its various technologies, provided we add a thermal storage at a reasonable cost. The reasons for our suggestion of this, are due to several factors including the low cost of producing kilowatts of electricity, or kilowatts of heat, which can be used directly in industrial, agricultural, and urban and other municipal utilities, as will be explained in the following paragraphs (paragraph 5 and 6). We will try to prove

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Fig. 5 Principles of responsible banking. Source https://www.unepfi.org/ banking/bankingprinciples/

that the direct use and storage of heat makes concentrated solar thermal energy the most effective tool and ability to achieve many of the SDGs simultaneously.

3

On the Concept of Levelised Cost of Electricity LCOE

LCOE is an abbreviation for [Levelised Cost Of Electricity (or Energy)]. It is the result of a mathematical equation that can take several formulas, each focusing on a specific angle. Some of them are interested in calculating details. Costs, and other formulas that include direct invisible expenses such as subsidiary costs or Hidden costs, and other formulas depending on the type of details required or that the researcher wants to focus on. We cannot go into detail about the details of each of these formulas or equations, because that is long explained and falls outside the scope of research in this chapter. However, we will discuss the most common formula for being comprehensive and straightforward as follows: LCOE ¼

The total expenses paid over the lifetime The total power generated over the lifetime of the plant

Where LCOE denotes the Levelised Cost of Electricity. It is clear that any activity to be a competitive and can replace other alternatives

should cost as little as possible. This means that our primary goal is to devalue the LCOE factor. In other words, we should seek to reduce the cost of energy, which is measured in dollars (for example), or seek to increase the production of electricity measured in kilowatt-hours. From the above equation, we note that to reduce the value of the LCOE factor, we have only two options, Either we reduce the numerator value, or we increase the value of the denominator. or we can go with both options together. Reducing the numerator numerical value can be achieved when we reduce the values of one or more costs: initial capital, operation, management, maintenance, petty cash, fuel, or whatever is related to expenses and expenditure. The second option available to us is to increase the value of the denominator, and this means increasing the amount of energy as much as possible, and this is achieved when increasing: • Operating efficiency of some or all of the system components. • The ability to store energy effectively and at the lowest possible cost. • The conversion efficiency of energy from thermal to any other type (mechanical, for example). • Raising the quality and efficiency of the materials or devices used or auxiliaries. • Increase the operational lifetime of the plant … etc.

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On the other hand, the use of these two options, to reduce the value of LCOE, could be a milestone to the way in developing future energy generation systems from concentrated solar heat or its components. This is what we will explain in the next paragraph when we talk about adding an appropriate energy storage system, how it will directly affect the value of the LCOE factor, as well as contribute to its devaluation when the rest of the factors that control and affect it fixed.

4

Energy Storage Is the Key to Increasing Efficiency and Lowering Value (LCOE)

Energy generation, in general, cannot continue 24/7 throughout the operating life of the power plant without interruption even if it is powered by renewable source, for two reasons. First, most renewable energies are not available throughout 24/7 period, such as sunrise and sunset during the day or the speed of the wind during the day or by the different seasons. Second reason relates to the properties of the components, parts, machinery, or devices that make up the generation plant, such as the efficiency and possibility of generating devices, energy transfer devices from one form to another such as: optical to electrical, thermal to mechanical, mechanical to electrical, and so on. Also compulsory interruptions due to malfunctions, periodic maintenance, parts consumption, wear and tear due to continuous operation. This fact simply means that there are time periods during which we cannot obtain the required energy from the generation system (or collectors) directly, so there must be an appropriate and auxiliary system that stores excess energy from production. and its size, type are determined according to the actual need and efficient design. so that it can continue to meet the need to energy indirectly and its continuity by generating the required energy, despite its cessation of processing from its sustainable source within the natural contexts of work.

This also requires that the energy storage system attached to the sustainable energy generation system possess basic specifications, We also discussed it in general at the end of first paragraph of this chapter. And we mention it again and add to it as follows: • Relatively low capital expenditures CAPEX and operating expenditures OPEX. • Prefabricated from easily obtainable and low cost materials. • Its operating life is not less than the rest of the system parts. • Its flexibility and high efficiency in responding to the sudden increase in energy demand within a short period of time. • It is safe in that it has no moving parts, and that the heat transfer fluid HTF does not mix with the thermal energy storage TES. • Modular • Prefabricated and Easy to carry and transport from the fabrication site to the installation site. • It integrates perfectly with other sections and parts in the system. • It is compact in its volume doesn’t take up much space. • It could be be recycled and environmentally friendly. • Zero carbon footprint [2]. The existence of an energy storage system at a low cost can be considered the master key to increase the economic viability of the system as a whole. One of the specialists likened it to an article that this type of low-cost thermal energy storage would be the as Swiss army’s knife in reducing emissions [10]. It also reduces the LCOE value. To understand this principle, we say that supply energy directly from storage means that we use this storage part only to obtain the required energy without resorting to using the rest of the generation system. In solar energy (for example) we will dispense with the use of the part specialized in collecting solar thermal energy or photovoltaic collector and its auxiliary devices to collect energy.

Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs

In other words, the energy will be stored from its renewable source in some way and isolated well, and then it will be used at a later time to generate the required energy (when energy cannot be obtained directly from its source). Or the collectors (in solar fields) are increased in order to collect a surplus of energy for a period of time so that we can later resort to it to generate energy to keep pace with the size of demand. All of these criteria (and others if any) contribute practically in the end, by reducing the Levelised Cost of Energy LCOE to the lowest possible amount. We have previously explained in our contribution [11], that the value of the LCOE factor is directly and clearly affected in inverse proportion to the number of hours of energy supply, or in other words the larger the storage system, the final cost of energy production decreases, and this means increasing the economic feasibility of the system, see Fig. 6.

5

The Need for Energy in the Form of Heat in the Industry

Global energy demand can be distributed to four main sectors: industry, transport, residentialcommercial, and various sector [12]. Industry occupies almost a third of the total global energy demand, and this third can be divided into two main parts (or portions): electricity generation, which is equivalent to about a quarter of it, and heat, which is about threequarters of the total global energy demand in industry, with an annual growth in demand estimated at 1.7% until 2030 as shown in Fig. 7 [13]. This makes the demand for heat the source, because generating electricity can be done by converting thermal energy into mechanical (rotational) energy. So it is very logical that we search directly for renewable sources of heat in order to use them to meet the energy demand in the industry, which implicitly includes electricity as well. This will make the exploitation of

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concentrated solar heat in countries that have a natural abundance of them (including most lands in Arab countries and MENA countries) much more efficient than using solar photovoltaic energy. In addition to other important reasons we explained in the paragraphs of this chapter. All of which are likely to move away from solar photovoltaic technologies in favor of adopting concentrated solar thermal technologies. This was also expressed by one of the most prominent entrepreneurs in the Middle East, Dr. Engineering Mamdouh Hamza, and one of the most interested in developing Egypt’s economy according to the highest known technical standards. In one of his books [14], he classified the countries into two categories: the countries of solar irradiation poverty, and includes most European countries and those near the poles in the north and south, which have to resort to technologies that adopt solar light as a source of renewable energy. At the opposite end, the second category includes the rich solar irradiation countries, that include most of Asia, Africa and the regions of southern Europe in addition to countries with a tropical or desert climate that is characterized by a greater number of hours of solar brightness throughout the day and throughout the seasons of the year. Thus these countries should adopt the solar heat concentration as one of the main sources of renewable energy. Each of these levels has specific and known uses in industry and in daily life. we will review and discuss some of its details in the next paragraph. In 2015, IRENA released one of the most important studies in this regard [15]. It gave a clear and accurate picture of the actual need for heat in the industry at the global level, from which we knew that heat can be classified into three main levels: • Low, which is less than 150 °C. • Medium, which is more than 150 °C and less than 400 °C. • High, which is equal 400 °C and above.

138 Fig. 6 LCOE behaviour versus three main factors [11]

R. H. S. Al-Jibouri

Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs

139

Fig. 7 Industrial solar heat pays off [13]

6

How Can Heat Helps Implantation of SDGs

Renewable energy sources are many and varied, as we indicated at the beginning of this chapter, and each of them adequately adapts to generate electricity at a reasonable price and perhaps a competitor to generate electricity by burning fossil fuels. So when we generate electricity from wind power (for example), we directly achieve SDG number 7, which stipulates Affordable and Clean Energy, and perhaps also goal No. 13, Climate Action is considering that the electricity generation should be done in an environmentally friendly way. According to my studies about one of the innovative methods used to generate electricity from CST, I found that more than these two goals of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) can be achieved.

This is what we will try to understand together starting from now through a viable hypothesis of a model that mainly aims to build a concentrated solar thermal power generating plant. To simplify the concepts, we will also assume that we have the enough financing and decided us to establish this A power plant in one of hundreds of villages in the Egyptian countryside, which is small, impoverished, and deprived of basic services such as: electricity, drinking water, sewage, health care, decent education, job opportunities, empowering youth and women … etc. To begin with, in such areas, we generate thermal energy and storing it by means of available everywhere at reasonable cost (like thermal concrete batteries), which is certainly an important factor in suppling us with more than one of the basic human needs, such as: purification of water for drinking purposes, and at the same time recycling of wastewater for industrial

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and agricultural purposes and this What was mentioned in Table 3. Economy in such villages, is already suffers from several problems, the most important of which are: • The inability to consume all agricultural or animal production within the village due to the poor purchasing power of the village residents or because the existence of a surplus in production. • It cannot be marketed outside the village due to the lack of suitable or specialized means of transportation (such as: refrigerated stores and trucks) that help move the marketing to the regions and cities most in need of these products. • The absence of any opportunity to diversify the village’s economies by introducing some basic elements that enable the village community to establish other simple industries directly or indirectly related to agricultural or animal production. • Diversify the village’s economies provide them with additional sources of income, and expand their experiences. And helps to create an appropriate environment for the transition to sustainable development. Solutions can be financially inexpensive and work on them initially through donations, charitable contributions, government support programs, or by other similar means that can achieve various solutions: • Providing a start for supply chains such as cold stores that can store surplus agricultural products, to be sold in times of scarcity in the market. As well as specialized means of transport such as refrigerated trucks that can quickly transport agricultural products to areas of consumption and protect them from damage. • Providing the technologies that operate the different cooling systems by means of heat, where someone, as an investor or a financing party, can equip transport vehicles equipped with cooling systems that operate with a thermal battery, whereby these products can be delivered safely. What is new is that we

R. H. S. Al-Jibouri

can (charge) these batteries with innovative technologies, simple, and low-cost technologies that work on the principle of recovering waste heat in factories near these villages. So the main idea is, instead of we collecting and concentrating solar heat for generating electricity only. We have another possibility of using heat itself as an independent type of energy with more applications, directly or indirectly, generating good impact on the future of that poor agricultural village and its inhabitants. If we have a look at Table 2, we will find huge and varied capabilities to develop the village community and create sustainable development opportunities. As it appears in this table, there are a (34) different use of heat, for example: Food industries, including cleaning, sterilizing, manufacturing and canning agricultural crops. It also includes beverage industries in all of its stages, also keeping fruits and vegetables fresh in refrigerated stores. Drying specific fruits with hot air stream, instead of the traditional primitive method of spreading them outdoors under direct sunlight, which exposes them to pollution and damage in addition to taking a long time with great effort. reduces waste and increases economic opportunities for the village. The table also shows us the possibility of establishing light industries such as textiles, paper, construction, metal processing, soaps and chemicals, plastics, and other industries that increase. investment opportunities in the village. All of these can be done directly from use of heat. And of course, we do not forget about generating electricity, which makes the daily life of residents much easier. By refocusing in the table below, we notice a high rate of heat demand falling in the low and medium temperature range, as in the food, beverage, paper, and textile industries. The medium temperature range is used in the plastic and chemical industries. While some industries require a higher temperature range that may reach 250 °C in various applications, including electricity generation, drying, cooking, extraction, sterilization and cleaning … and many others. Note that 48%

Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs

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Table 2 Industrial processes and temperature levels [14] #

Industrial sector

Unit operation

Temperature range (°C)

1

Food

Drying

30–90

2

Washing

60–90

3

Pasteurising

60–80

4

Boiling

95–105

5

Sterilising

110–120

Heat treatment

40–60

Washing

60–80

8

Sterilising

60–90

9

Pasteurising

60–70

Cooking and drying

60–80

Boiler feed water

60–90

6 7

10

Beverages

Paper industry

11 12

Bleaching

130–150

13

Metal surface treatment

Treatment, electroplating, etc

30–80

14

Bricks and blocks

Curing

60–140

15

Textile industry

Bleaching

60–100

16

Dyeing

70–90

17

Drying, de-greasing

100–130

18

Washing

40–80

19

Fixing

160–180

Pressing

80–100

Soaps

200–260

22

Synthetic rubber

150–200

23

Processing heat

120–180

Pre-heating water

60–90

Preparation

120–140

26

Distillation

140–150

27

Separation

200–220

28

Extension

140–160

29

Blending

120–140

Sterilising

60–90

Flour by-products sterilising

60–90

20 21

Chemical industry

24 25

30

Plastic industry

Flour by-products

31

Pre-heating of boiler feed water

30–100

33

32

All industrial sectors

Industrial solar cooling

55–180

34

Heating of factory buildings

30–80

of the total heat used in industry is within the high temperature range as in Fig. 5, in the previous paragraph. Most demand for industrial processes requires heat in the temperature ranges provided by a

solar thermal system. Typical applications and promising industry sectors appropriate for solar thermal systems for industrial applications are listed in Table 2 almost half of the applications are in the low and mid temperature ranges [15].

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R. H. S. Al-Jibouri

Table 3 Non-industrial uses of heat energy #

Sector

Operation of the unit

1

Agricultural

Regulating heat for greenhouses

2

Regulating heat in poultry roofs

3

Temperature control for commercial refrigerators (to preserve fruits and vegetables)

4

Ice making plants (molds, grated)

5

Temperature control commercial freezers (meat, fish and poultry)

6

Urban communities

Water heating for human uses

7

Purification and desalination of water

8

Sewage treatment

9

Waste to energy

10

Sterilization of commercial restaurants, kitchens, and butchers

11

Sterilization of dispensaries, clinics

These two levels of temperatures (that is, less than 400 °C) can be generated by several uncomplicated technologies and easy to understood and apply in many developing countries, thus making use of them to apply the sustainable development goals in these countries smoothly and effectively. We can also note that the list of available 34 uses in industry, as in Table 2, may be added to it another list of possible uses of thermal energy in other fields (other than industry), including the agricultural sector, municipal services or housing… etc. We note some of these uses in Table 3 [15]. We reaffirm once again here that these uses are the ones that directly benefit from the heat, not the generation of electrical energy or anything else and then convert it into heat. These uses, or only some of them, had been applied in a poor and neglected peasant village, would have certainly made a big difference to the reality of the village and its future. In this regard, I have undertaken some studies on different applications and various business model, most of them have reached common results, the most important of which are: • This type of project has a capital payback period of 3–7 years and depends on the type of technology used, the credit facilities granted, and the fiscal policy of each country.

• The cost of constructing a generation plant decreases to record levels whenever the production and installation of plant parts moves to the mass production phase, and the system parts are likely to be automated. • The operation lifetime of such plants is usually 25 years. We can increase it up to 40 years if we continuously follow a sustainable maintenance system and replace the consumable parts. This enables capital to be doubled approximately 4–13 times during its operation lifetime. • From the numbers mentioned in the two paragraphs above, we find that they can make this type of project work as a lever (or lift) for several sustainable development goals in the same time. I have counted myself 11 goals, which can be achieved in one go from the total of the (17) main known goals for sustainable development, which is difficult achieve it in other ways. There are other uses for concentrated solar heat technology, not have relationship with the topic of sustainable development, which we focus on in this chapter, such as using of concentrated solar thermal energy for recovery of heavy oil, mining, … and other uses. The above can be summarized in this paragraph by saying: The thermal energy and the

Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs

possibility of storing it in thermal batteries to use it later (i.e. as heat) when needed in industry, agriculture or other sectors, or by converting it into mechanical energy (rotational) for the purpose of generating electricity, provides an excellent input into the implementation of sustainability. When I was writing this chapter, I received an article that was published on August 7, 2020. The writer is Leigh Collins said that storing energy in the form of heat represents for renewable energies something like a “Swiss army knife” for emissions reduction. It is a wonderful analogy in that it is possible in a small, compact item to the minimum, that we can store many tools, used in daily life of a anybody, and can be useful in more than one aspect of use [10]. In addition to all of this, one of the best results that we can get from thermal batteries is that they can store excess heat that can be recovered after production processes in the industry. Many industries need high temperatures, such as steel, ceramics, glass, cement, chemicals, and pharmaceutical industries, etc. In the final stages of the production process, we need to cool the final product, as a large amount of thermal energy is released outside the factories into the atmosphere, which will cause further warms to the atmosphere. If we can collect and store this heat, or a large part of it, in thermal batteries again. means that we have actually recovered a significant fraction of the initially expended energy on operation and production. This will reduce the energy bill in the industry and at the same time contribute to reducing greenhouse gases emissions to the atmosphere and reduce climate change.

7

Financing Issue—Toward Constructing of a Business Model

In the energy issue in general, the most important outputs that are considered after environmental and climatic impacts are economic and financial results and commercial considerations. This also applies to evaluate the feasibility of using renewable energies.

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At the end of lifetime of any power plant from renewable (or even non-renewable) sources, regardless of the techniques used, the final results are evaluated according to the concepts of profit and loss. sometimes, for example, expensive technology is adopted, and its profits are few in the short run, but when calculated in the long run, it is considered more economically and environmentally feasible, also when the benefits and profits increase, or its operating lifetime is longer. Therefore, our study of the power generation plant is supposed to be expanded to include not only calculation of expenses, costs and financial profits from the day after signing the PPA to start constructing the plant until the last day of its operating life. But it should also take into calculations the expenses and hidden costs, including health, environmental impacts, cost of recycling or neutralizing parts left over as scrap from plant at the end of its operating life. For five years, we continued our attempts to design more than one integrated business model that was practically applicable on the ground. We studied financial tables that reflect the capital, operating, maintenance, administration and all other expenses. We assumed the establishment of power plants that would serve a number of different purposes each time, including: commercial investment (as we explain it in Table 4), charitable work, empowering young people, lifting government subsidies on electricity consumption, … etc., of similar purposes. The various results obtained from that experience led us to the conviction that investing in concentrated heat generation plants from the sun and storing or converting them into electrical energy can be described as in the expression “The chicken that lays golden eggs”. To clarify this rule more, we will go directly to the commercial investment model (for PPAi.e. generating electricity to sell it to the consumer). In a lecture for final year, B. Sc. students in electrical engineering, renewable energies department, Mansoura University, at the summer of 2019 proved the following table based on my calculations according to the limitations of business and environment in Egypt. as shown in Table 4.

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8

R. H. S. Al-Jibouri

Energy Use and Its Relationship to SDG

What is meant by the term energy use here is the human use of it, whether individually or collectively, in the factory, house, shop, and farm. All these activities and many others inevitably consume quantities of energy required for its operation, lighting, operation, and the completion of its work and others. With the civilizational development of humanity, which was accompanied by a diversification of use, an increase in demand, an expansion of consumption … and other things that can be put under a comprehensive title, “the thirst for energy.” The urgent need to discover more sources of energy and its diversity also appeared, and then it moved to an attempt to reduce its costs and reduce its damage to the environment, climate and other elements that make up our planet. Most of the energy used in the world since the Industrial Revolution even a few decades ago all energy sources, are from fossil fuels. More development based mainly on the presumption of availability of fossil fuel sources (coal, oil, gas) indefinitely.

At the last two decades of the twentieth century, talks began about rationalizing consumption and the importance of monopolizing energy sources, as the first and second wars revealed the importance of having energy sources under the control of the team that wants to achieve victory and defeat its enemy by preventing it from accessing energy sources. Thus, new concepts of power were formed in international politics based mainly on energy, manufacturing, money and economics, armaments … etc. What matters to us from all of this is to understand that energy and its sources have become the cornerstone of any progress or development of humanity. At the same time, there is an inherent right for future generations to these sources, or at least to obtain sufficient energy they need, even from alternative and renewable sources as possible. This was translated a few years ago by the United Nations Declaration of the Sustainable Development Goals, which identified (17) goals, and one of them provided for the right to obtain clean energy at an affordable price, and clean meant that it did not cause harm to the environment, climate and life on earth. This

Table 4 Commercial off grid investment #

Details

Value

Units

1

MODULE unit cost

2652

$/kW

2

Nominal power

200

kW h

3

Tariff of Egyptian Ministry of Electricity

11

US ₵/kW h

4

LOAN amount (capital)

530,400

$

5

LOAN period

7

years

6

LOAN interest

7%

%

7

Total money must paid to bank (loan + interest)

851,706

$

10

Annual payment to bank (loan + interest)

121,672

$/y

11

Total hours annually

8760

h/y

12

Net generation hours annually (with total capacity factor 80%)

7000

h/y

13

Total annual income

154,000

$/y

14

O&M amount (5%)

26,520

$

15

Net annual balance (income-bank’s payment—O&M)

5808

$

16

Period needed to payback loan with interest

6.68

years

17

Net annual balance after repay LOAN (income—O&M)

127,480

$/y

Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs

announcement marked a milestone in the march of humanity as efforts became concentrated to achieve these goals, and competition has become among all the actors in choosing the best, cheapest, most realistic and practical. Hence the importance of another factor that can be found in the practical application of these goals, which is the possibility of implementing several goals through the application of one goal. This is what we explained in paragraph (6) above. One of the most important examples of this is the pursuit of the SDG goal number (6) which provides for the right to have clean water, and it may be useful to mention that on April 28, 2020 The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) announced the launch of the $9 million AmericanMade Challenges: Solar Desalination Prize, a competition to accelerate the development of systems that use solar-thermal energy to produce clean water from very-high-salinity water. the Solar Desalination Prize is designed to accelerate the development of systems that use solarthermal energy to produce clean water from salt water for municipal, agricultural and industrial use. On November 16, 2020 Focused Sun is one of the winners awarded a prize from the US Department of Energy DOE [16, 17]. “The team includes two company partners, NiekAab Desal, with efforts led by Ali Amiri, and Focused Sun, with their efforts led by Shawn Buckley.” While “The Purdue University team, which created a technology called No Air.”

9

Electricity Generation Plant as Financing Tool for SDG

Although energy in general can appear in multiple forms, we focused in this chapter on two, namely thermal and electrical, and one of them can be converted into another. As we mentioned in a previous paragraph, the demand for thermal energy is twice the demand for electric energy in the industry. And obtaining thermal energy from solar radiation and increasing its concentration, with an appropriate storage method for the resulting

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heat. And then convert that thermal energy into a rotational mechanism that helps us generate electricity. Suppose we study the pattern of electricity demand. In that case we find that in previous years it was represented by the curve [18] in Fig. 8a, where the curve of electrical loads that rises and falls up and down during the day’s hours is classified into three segments in width from the bottom to the top, namely: • Base Load • Intermediate Load • Peak Load. We note that the first part is located at the bottom representing the (basic load) that cannot be reduced or shutdown, because they represent the main need in Public services such as: public transport, water and sanitation pump stations, government departments, hospitals, educational institutions, roads … and others. As for the middle segment represents consumption in the residential, commercial, industrial, and other sectors, most of which are for the private sector. This consumption fluctuates between hours of the night and day, between days of the week, regardless of their differences, and also between the seasons, i.e. in summer and winter …. etc. And the last slice, which is at the top, represent high amount of consumption, or the (peak load). And we can easily imagine where it happened, if we remember the huge demand for electricity in the middle of the day during the summer season in MENA countries because of the need to use air conditioners to cool the air, or the needs to use heaters in the cold nights in winter of the northern European countries, Canada, Russia. According to the experience accumulated during more than a century in building electricity generation systems and the preferred and appropriate fuel sources for each segment of these curves, as we find that it has been written inside the slice in Fig. 8a the type of fuel such as (coal, nuclear) in the first slice from the bottom called (Basic load) or natural gas and the combined

146

R. H. S. Al-Jibouri

Fig. 8 Typical electricity demand with or without baseload

cycle technology in the next slice called Intermediate Load, then the last slice on the top or the so-called peak load curve, suitable for generation systems that operate with gas, hydro, compensation sources. We note here that these technologies and fuel sources are not the cheapest, but they are the most efficient in temporary, emergency use. …etc. This is about Fig. 8a. As for Fig. 8b, it is classified according to a different approach. From two parts only, the first part at the bottom represents the Inflexible source, and it is appropriate to use wind, solar energy without storage in it. The second part, which is located at the top, is a Flexible source, and it is appropriate for us to use solar thermal with storage. Here, we must stop for a while in order to analyze this situation. We will find that solar energy is used in both cases,

that is, it meets all the conditions that the network should respond to efficiently. Solar thermal energy was not used with storage in either case, because the cost of this type of energy is considered high and (relatively) uncompetitive until recently. But suppose the solar thermal energy with storage is affordable and competitive. In that case, it will be the best among all kinds of technologies and other energies, and it will be the most suitable with the resources and needs of MENA countries. On the other hand, this assumes that it does not change our methodology in focusing our search for sources other than solar thermal energy to generate the required amount of electricity and depends on its abundance for distribution in the national distribution network, such as: wind energy, gasification of agricultural

Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs

waste, Hydro, Geothermal, … etc. The most important aim is to provide the energy needed for the development and progress of the country at the cheapest cost and least harm to the environment in a sustainable way.

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as well as natural disasters resulting from climate change as a result of this heavy use of traditional fuels.

11 10

Recommendations/Future Prespectives

Conclusions

We have noted from the paragraphs of this chapter that renewable energies, with their sources and their uses, have become the concern of all countries of the world despite the differences in the nature of those peoples and their civilizations, and the issue of these societies replacing traditional energy sources, such as oil and gas, with other energy sources whose of a renewable type, is a matter of top priority for those governments and societies. We also note at the same time, that the development and expansion of research in renewable energies, their manufacturing and diversification of their uses still requires a lot of effort, funding and community attention at the level of peoples, and official at the level of governments. In this chapter, it has been clear to us that implementing just one renewable energy technology can help us implement multiple goals of the Sustainable Development Goals announced by the United Nations years ago. This seems to be very practical, especially in societies that may suffer from underdevelopment and poverty, with the government’s inability to fix deficiencies and help quickly, due to scarcity of resources and lack of technical expertise of the government apparatus in developing countries, including Egypt, albeit to different degrees between Those countries. If we know, for example, that conventional fuel consumption in power stations may cost us annually between 20% and 25% of the cost of constructing the plant itself, then this means in practice, within a period of no more than four or five years, we will burn enough funding to build a plant. new at the same price. We can imagine the huge waste of money and other resources as a result, in addition to environmental pollution and its negative effects on humans and other creatures and living creatures,

From all this, we believe that we must work to change the status quo and accelerate the taking of more basic steps that are commensurate with the conditions of each developing country, we can suggest some of them as follows: 1. A survey and study of all renewable energy sources available in each country and their availability focusing on available technologies that enable us to manufacture them locally and using local materials or their alternatives as much as possible is needed. 2. The key to the optimal use of renewable energy is to focus on increasing the diversity and integration of different sources with advanced technologies. It should not be limited to specific types only or with old technologies. 3. Increase societal awareness of the importance and necessity of using renewable energies to reach a sustainable economy, or what is known as the green economy, as well as the circular economy to re-transfer product outputs and recycle them for use as new inputs in the economic process. 4. Develop plans and programs to reduce the carbon footprint and make it a goal for community development. 5. Increasing societal awareness of the sustainable development goals and integrating it with the educational process at all levels from basic education to university. 6. The issue of sources and uses of renewable energies and its relationship to sustainable development is still in its infancy, as it did not receive attention and focus until the past few decades. Everyone still has a lot of hard work, research and development in the diversity of use, development and application, and on the other hand, research in the

148

7.

8.

9.

10.

R. H. S. Al-Jibouri

without overburdening the government sciences of materials and elements in nature economy with additional burdens, and the with the aim of choosing the best and most contribution of the official bodies in govsuitable ones for making systems for generernment, parliament and various state agenating, storing and transmitting energy gencies was limited in a timely manner to moral erated from sustainable resources. Therefore, efforts, legislative and executive support to we find that it is the duty of governments and prepare the ground for these initiatives and societies, as well as companies and the priprojects within legal frameworks. vate sector, to cooperate together to encourage and support all kinds of scientific 11. The firm commitment of the government and the private sector to support local and interresearch, tests, studies and necessary activinational initiatives, and their sustainability ties that revolve around this topic. and continuous development in order to Humanity at the present time has a great develop and reduce the cost of manufacturopportunity to collaborate in the quest to ing, manufacturing and indigenizing power make the planet clean in order to increase the generation systems from renewable sources. capacity for progress, prosperity and wellbeing of all its inhabitants. And respect for the natural diversity of its creatures, organisms, and elements of nature in it. Allocating sufficient financial resources to References conduct research and manufacture prototypes 1. United Nations Statistics Division (UNSD) (2020) of parts of energy systems, with the aim of SDG indicators—global indicator framework for the applying these innovations and research studsustainable development goals and targets of the ies and operating them before their large-scale 2030 agenda for sustainable development. production, noting that these innovations in the 2. EnergyNest [Online]. Available: https://energy-nest. com/ event of their success in reaching experimental 3. Trieb F (2009) Global potential of concentrating models and ensuring the required operational solar power. In: Solar paces conference, Berlin efficiency, the costs and efforts made Pumped 4. Alshakhs M (2013) Challenges of solar PV in Saudi into scientific research this, it will be negligible Arabia. Stanford University 5. Baras A (2012) Opportunities and challenges of solar compared to the gains made in utilizing its final energy in Saudi Arabia. In: World renewable energy prototypes after industrialization, production, forum and widespread use. 6. Bliss H (2017) A list of natural resources of An initiative to motivate youth to pay California [Online]. Available: https://sciencing. com/a-list-of-natural-resources-of-californiaattention to the sustainable development 13636253.html goals through participation, attendance, and 7. Desai J (2017) Are we headed for a solar waste crisis? follow-up to competitions, conferences, 21 June 2017 [Online]. Available: https:// exhibitions, and festivals at the national level energycentral.com/c/ec/are-we-headed-solar-wastecrisis throughout the year. 8. IRENA (2016, June) End-of-life management solar Focusing on building power plants and facphotovoltaic panels tories that operate with renewable resources 9. Tomioka O (2016) Japan tries to chip away at and building them in remote and poor areas mountain of disused solar panels. Nikkei Asian Review, 8 November 2016 to study and measure their impact on the 10. Collins L (2020) Why a low-cost thermal battery economic, social and environmental reality could become the Swiss army knife of emissions of these areas. And then generalize the use of reductions. Recharge, 7th Aug 2020 these stations on a large scale, after its suc- 11. Al-Jibouri RHS, Buckley S (2019) In: Negm AM, Shareef N (eds) Waste management in MENA cess, in other regions. Forms of cooperative regions, 1st edn. Springer, Berlin, pp 377–401 and charitable work could have been used as additional keys to financing on a larger scale,

Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs 12. Solar Payback Project–Solar Heat In Industry (2017). https://www.green-cape.co.za/assets/Uploads/ Brochure-Solar-PayBack-4.pdf 13. IRENA (2017, March) Solar payback program-solar heat in industry-based on IEA statistics and calculations by IRENA 14. Hamza M (2016) Opening up to Egypt-Western desert development, 1st edn. Egyptian Lebanese Publication House 15. IEA-ETSAP and IRENA© (2015, January) Solar heat in industrial proccesses, technolgy brief E21, pp 14–15.https://www.irena.org//media/Files/

149 IRENA/Agency/Publication/2015/IRENA_ETSAP_ Tech_Brief_E21_Solar_Heat_Industrial_2015.pdf 16. https://www.energy.gov/articles/department-energylaunches-9-million-desalination-prize 17. Dini J (2018) Solar panel waste: a disposal problem, 7th Dec 2018 [Online]. Available: https:// wattsupwiththat.com/2018/12/23/solar-panel-wastea-disposal-problem/ 18. Farrell J (2011) Democratizing the electricity system, p 34. https://ilsr.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/ democratizingelectricity-system.pdf

Economic Growth, Employment and Decent Work as a Sustainable Development Policy for All Harb A. E. Hasseen El-bardisy

by deliberate downward adjustment of the value of the local currency relative to other currencies. Development of information technology, improvement of worker skills, and increasing the supply of labour by raising the retirement age are also important.

Abstract

The Sustainable Development Strategy: Egypt Vision 2030 establishes the development march of an advanced and prosperous nation that is maximizing the use of competitive possibilities and advantages. The strategy has adopted the twin principles of sustainable development and inclusive growth as a general framework for improving welfare and quality of life. The concept of economic well-being represented by economic growth must include an increase in real per-capita income which must be long term, not temporary. Sustained and inclusive economic growth drives development by providing more resources for education, health, consumption, transport, and water and energy infrastructure, leading to new and better employment opportunities. But it is not sustainable when countries deplete their natural resources for the sake of economic growth, thus shifting the burden of environmental degradation and damage onto future generations. This chapter recommends that Egypt should decrease interest rates and reduce the cost of borrowing, increase consumer and investment spending and increase real wages

H. A. E. Hasseen El-bardisy (&) Agricultural Economics Department, Faculty of Agricultural, Al-Azahr University, Assiut, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Keywords








Economic growth Employment Decent work Sustainable development Development of technology Economic growth Sustained and inclusive economic growth







1




Introduction

Economic growth leads to new and better employment opportunities. Sustained and inclusive economic growth drives development by providing more resources for education, health, consumption, transport, and water and energy infrastructure. Development is not sustainable when countries deplete their natural resources for the sake of economic growth and thus shift the burden of environmental degradation and damage onto future generations. Sustaining high real economic growth is not easy, however [1, 2]. The Sustainable Development Strategy: Egypt Vision 2030 represents a fundamental step in Egypt’s extensive development, which links the present with the future. It establishes the development march of an advanced and prosperous

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_10

151

152

H. A. E. Hasseen El-bardisy

nation dominated by economic and social justice. It revives the historic role of Egypt in regional leadership, maximizes the use of competitive advantages for the Egyptian economy to achieve prosperity through sustainable development and social justice, and ensures balanced growth. The Strategy has adopted the sustainable development principle as a general framework for improving welfare and quality of life. It is also based upon the principles of inclusive growth, and sustainable and balanced regional development, while emphasizing full participation in development, and ensuring its benefits to all parties. The strategy also considers equal opportunities for all, closing development gaps, and the efficient use of resources [3].

2

Economic Growth

There is no doubt that financial progress creates decent work while not harming the environment, promotes job creation with expanded access to financial services, and ensures that everybody gets the benefits of entrepreneurship and innovation. Increased economic growth is therefore needed to meet the target of 7% GDP growth in the least developed countries [1]. If you have ever spoken with your grandparents about what their lives were like when they were young, you will probably have learned an important lesson about economic growth. For most families in most countries living standards have improved substantially over time. This advance comes from rising incomes, which have allowed people to consume greater quantities of goods and services [4]. Economic growth occupies the prime position in the macro-economy, and is regarded as one of the most important political goals of governments in all countries. The nations of the world have been classified on the basis of their economic development into first world, second world, and third world, as well as into developed countries, developing countries, and less developed countries. National income statistics of countries are determined on the same basis, and with them, the annual average per-capita income.

A precise definition of economic growth is necessary, as well as its importance and impact on the strength and progress of states in the national economy. In the capitalist economy, development and growth are seen as the solution to the main economic problem, which is the relative scarcity of goods and services versus renewable human needs. Hence, for a capitalist society, economic growth can be defined as increasing production of goods and services to satisfy the total needs of society and exceeding them to achieve a higher level of welfare. Some define economic growth as the increase in economic production over time, and gross domestic product (GDP) is used as a measure of economic growth. The capitalist economy looks at growth at the level of society, not at the level of individuals, and at the increase in total production and national income, not the production of each individual and the amount of their income. It is the increase in the (GDP) or the total national income (TNC) to the average per-capita real income. This means the continuous increase in the real national product from one year to the next, as the production possibilities curve shifts abroad. But as far as macroeconomics is concerned, per-capita income in the developed countries is high, while developing countries have a low average per-capita income. So when we talk about average per-capita income, even in developing countries, we find people whose income is very high and individuals living below the poverty line, while in developed countries, we find others whose income is low. According to the previous definition, the concept of economic growth is the same as the concept of economic well-being. Looking at this concept in more detail, the following must be emphasized. 1. Economic growth not only means an increase in GDP, but must also include an increase in real per-capita income, meaning that the rate of economic growth must exceed the rate of population growth, so the level of economic welfare in the country must rise. However, a country does not achieve economic growth if the growth of the population at a higher rate

Economic Growth, Employment and Decent Work as a Sustainable …

prevents an increase in the average per-capita income, despite the increase in GDP. According to the foregoing: Economic Growth Rate ¼ Growth rate of national income  Population growth rate: Therefore, countries whose population is increasing at a high rate suffer from underdevelopment and most of them are developing countries. Developing countries seeking to improve their conditions should first pay attention to addressing population growth. 2. The increase in per-capita income must be a real increase and not solely a monetary one. We can calculate the real increase in income using the following equation: Real Economic Growth RateðREGRÞ ¼ Rate of increase in per-capita money income

Table 1 and Fig. 1 illustrate growth of real per-capita GDP in Egypt. From 6.37% in 2000, it rose to 7.16% in 2007 (above the target of 7%), then fell to 3.57% in 2020, and to an estimated 3.3% in 2021, which is less than half the target rate of at least 7% a year for the period July 1, 2020–June 30, 2021). It is also well below the rate achieved in 2019 and 2020. This suggests much work remains to achieve the goal of sustained and inclusive economic growth.

2.2 Promoting Egyptian Economic Growth There are two way to promote economic growth. The first is an aggregate of demand by increasing consumer spending, investment spending, government spending, and the net value of imports and exports. This is represented by the following equation [6, 7]:

 Rate of inflation:

For example, if per-capita income increases from £100 to £110 (a rate of 10%), in order to know whether this increase is real or monetary only we need to know the inflation rate. If the inflation rate is above 10%, this means a decrease in real income, not an increase. 3. The increase in income must be long term, not a temporary one that will disappear with the removal of its causes. We must therefore exclude what is known as transient growth which occurs as a result of accidental factors.

2.1 Promoting Sustained, Inclusive and Sustainable Economic Growth in Egypt Sustained and inclusive economic growth is undoubtedly a prerequisite to sustainable development which can contribute to improving people’s livelihoods in the country. Economic growth also creates new employment opportunities and provides greater economic security for everyone.

153

D ¼ C þ I þ G þ nX where D C I G nX

is demand, is consumer spending, is private investment, government spending, and net exports.

When people spend more, prices increase. When people spend less, prices fall. With the decline in incomes, aggregate demand falls. This means that to increase economic growth, there must be a rise in demand. Figure 2 illustrates how increased demand leads to increase in economic growth. According to, Egypt can increase demand by: 1. Reducing interest rates and lowering the cost of borrowing. 2. Increasing consumer and investment spending. 3. Increasing real wages: if nominal wages rise above the inflation rate then consumers have more disposable income to spend. 4. Increased export spending leads to higher economic growth.

154 Table 1 Egypt, economic growth, 1980–2020

H. A. E. Hasseen El-bardisy Year

GDP ($ Billion)

Per capita ($)

Growth rate (%)

2000

99.84

1450

6.37

2001

96.68

1378

3.54

2002

85.15

1191

2.39

2003

80.29

1102

3.19

2004

78.78

1062

4.09

2005

89.6

1186

4.47

2006

107.43

1397

6.84

2007

130.44

1667

7.09

2008

162.82

2045

7.16

2009

189.15

2331

4.67

2010

218.98

2646

5.15

2011

235.99

2792

1.76

2012

279.12

3230

2.23

2013

288.43

3263

2.19

2014

305.6

3380

2.92

2015

329.37

3563

4.37

2016

332.44

3520

4.35

2017

235.73

2444

4.18

2018

249.71

2537

5.31

2019

303.08

3019

5.56

2020

363.07

3548

3.57

Source World Bank [5] The bold significance are referring that this years the growth rate are the highly comparing with other years Fig. 1 Egypt, growth rate, 2000–2020

EgyƟan Growth Rate about (2000-2020) 8.00% 7.00% 6.00%

4.00%

rate

5.00%

3.00% 2.00% 1.00% 2025

2020

2015

2010

2005

2000

0.00% 1995

year

5. Deliberate downward adjustment of the value of the local currency relative to another currency or group of currencies makes exports cheaper and imports more expensive, increasing domestic demand.

The second is an aggregate of supply by increasing productive capacity, efficiency of the economy, and labour productivity. Supply is a key driver in any economy. Aggregate supply is reflected in the relationship between production

Economic Growth, Employment and Decent Work as a Sustainable …

155

2.3 Measuring Economic Growth There are three main criteria for measuring economic development: 1. Income. 2. Social standard. 3. Structural standards.

Fig. 2 Demand increases with spending increase

level and price, as shown in Fig. 2. Aggregate supply refers to the total amount of goods and services produced in an economic framework and sold at a given price level. When prices rise, it means producers need to expand their production and supply to keep up with aggregate demand. As shown in Fig. 2, when the demand curve moves up, the supply curve also moves to a higher level. Many variables are responsible for aggregate supply. The country can aggregate supply by increasing productive capacity through: 1. development of communication technologies; 2. management of techniques, e.g. industrial relations; 3. improving skills and qualifications of the workforce; 4. changing working practices, e.g., working from home, self-employment; 5. increasing the supply of labour by raising the retirement age; 6. improving the investment infrastructure; 7. increasing spending on education (Fig. 3).

Fig. 3 Rise in supply with increased demand

2.3.1 Income Criteria Income is the main indicator used to measure development and the level of economic progress. It is counted within the GNP and includes four sub-criteria. Gross National Income (GNI) Economic growth can be measured by identifying the total national income and not the average per-capita income. However, this measure has not been accepted in economic circles. Increase or decrease in income may not lead to positive or negative results, as an increase in national income does not mean economic growth when the population is increasing at a greater rate, and a decrease in national income does not mean economic backwardness when the population is declining. It is also impossible to use this measure with the growth of migration to and from the country. Expected Gross National Income (EGNI) Economic growth can be measured on the basis of expected, not actual, income. The country may have rich potential resources and the capacity to benefit from its latent wealth and the technical progress it has achieved. Some economists recommend taking these factors into account when measuring income, but this criterion has the same disadvantage as the previous criterion (GNI), in addition to the difficulty of estimating and measuring both latent and anticipated future wealth. Average Income (AI) The average per-capita real national income is the most honest criterion for measuring economic progress. However, developing countries experience many problems with obtaining the correct figures representing the real income of individuals.

156

Population and income statistics are incomplete and inaccurate.The validity and accuracy of comparisons between underdeveloped countries is questionable, given the different bases on which it is calculated. Another issue is whether to divide the total national income by the entire population or by the working population. It is useful to calculate income for the population based on consumption and for the labour force without taking any other aspect of production into account. Attention in development should undoubtedly be directed to production and not to standards of living, i.e., to the income produced and not to the income spent. Standards of living and economic growth are initially measured using the simple growth rate, obtained by the following equation: ðreal income in the current period  real income in the previous periodÞ ¼ growth rate  real income in the previous period:

According to Table 2, the gross real income in Egypt was 97.43 billion dollars in the year 2000, increasing to 101.59 billion dollars in 2006. Thus the growth rate in this country = (101.59 − 97.43)/ 97.43 = 0.0427% , i.e., the gross real income increased at a rate of 4.27%. But the average real income per capita in Egypt was 1.420 dollars in 2000, decreasing to 1.320 dollars in 2006, so the growth rate in Egypt = (1320 − 1420)/1320 = −0.0704 , i.e., the per-capita real income fell by 7.04%. However, this rate is only suitable for measuring the growth in income between two successive periods, and is not suitable for measuring the average compound growth rate.

2.3.2 Social Criteria for Growth and Economic Development Social standards mean many indicators of the quality of services that coexist with the daily life of members of society and the changes taking place there. There are health and nutritional aspects, and educational and cultural aspects. Developing countries suffer from a significant lack of health services, inadequate and inefficient

H. A. E. Hasseen El-bardisy

educational institutions and lack of food. The most critical indicators in these areas are the following. Health Standards The most important indicators that are used to measure the progress of the health of a society are the following: 1. Number of deaths per thousand population. This includes the mortality rate for children under five years of age and for infants under one year. A high death rate means insufficient health services, insufficient food and malnutrition, all of which are backward traits. 2. Average life expectancy at birth, i.e., the average lifespan of the individual. The lower the life expectancy, the greater the degree of economic backwardness. 3. Number of people per doctor, per hospital bed, and so on. Table 3 shows that Egypt’s maternal mortality rate has been falling steadily since 2000, when it stood at 64 per 1000 live births. In 2017 it was 37, a 2.63% decline from the previous year. Educational Standards Education impacts both production and consumption. There is a widespread consensus that spending on education represents investment rather than consumption, and that this type of investment—human investment—achieves a high return, whether for individuals or for society as a whole. The educational and cultural indicators in a society are the following: 1. Percentage of people who can read and write. 2. Percentage of people enrolled in the different stages of education. 3. Spending on education relative to the gross domestic product and the gross government spending. Nutrition Standards The following are key nutritional indicators 1. Average calories consumed per capita. 2. Percentage of calorific share to the average of the necessary needs individual.

Economic Growth, Employment and Decent Work as a Sustainable … Table 2 Egyptian gross national income and average income per capita, 2000‒2020

157

Year

GNI ($ Billion)

Per capita ($)

Growth rate (%)

2000

97.43

1420

6.27

2001

100.57

1430

4.22

2002

94.94

1330

1.36

2003

90.66

1240

2.93

2004

88.80

1200

3.95

2005

91.81

1220

4.45

2006

101.59

1320

7.70

2007

119.97

1530

7.52

2008

146.88

1840

7.07

2009

172.13

2120

3.89

2010

196.29

2370

2.99

2011

216.78

2560

1.08

2012

245.18

2840

2.49

2013

267.96

3030

1.89

2014

292.27

3230

3.14

2015

309.14

3340

5.09

2016

325.20

3440

4.77

2017

292.43

3030

3.60

2018

274.94

2790

4.68

2019

269.86

2690

4.36

2020

306.86

3000

4.13

Source World Bank [8] The bold significance are referring that this years the growth rate are the highly comparing with other years

2.3.3 The Physical Quality of Life Index We have seen that health, educational and nutritional standards are all individual standards that depend on a social aspect in itself. The Physical Quality of Life Index, measuring the material quality of life, is a more comprehensive and complex social standard. The three sub-indicators for this standard are: 1. Life expectancy at birth (indicator for adults) 2. Infant mortality rate (indicator for young children) 3. Literacy (educational indicator). The quality of material life criterion is calculated according to the following steps: 1. Data on the above three indicators are collected in the countries where the material quality of life standard is to be measured.

2. The countries are ranked in descending or ascending order on each indicator. The quality of life criterion compares the degree of progress between countries and determines how advanced they are compared to other countries. However, this standard suffers from some shortcomings, namely: 1. It focuses on some, but not all, aspects of life. 2. It is concerned with the results without taking into account the efforts that have been made to achieve them. 3. The three indices that make it up are given equal relative weights. 4. The economic indicators are represented by the levels of income and output.

158 Table 3 Egypt’s maternal mortality rate, 2000‒2017

H. A. E. Hasseen El-bardisy Year

Per 100K live births

2000

64

Annual % change −1.56

2001

63

−1.56

2002

60

−4.76

2003

57

−5.00

2004

54

−5.26

2005

52

−3.70

2006

50

−3.85

2007

47

−6.00

2008

45

−4.26

2009

45

0.00

2010

45

0.00

2011

42

−6.67

2012

42

0.00

2013

40

−4.76

2014

39

−2.50

2015

39

0.00

2016

38

−2.56

2017

37

−2.63

Source World Bank [8]

2.3.4 Structural Standards For a long time, industrialized countries directed developing economies—most of which were under their political or economic control at the time—towards the production of primary agricultural and mineral products. They could then obtain them at appropriate prices and the ability of those countries to market their industrial goods could be maintained. However, since the Second World War this situation has no longer been acceptable for many reasons. Most importantly, countries which gained their independence sought liberation from their economic and political dependence on their former colonizers.The decline in the prices of primary products has also led to the deterioration of the terms of trade exchange in their favor. Most developing countries tended to bring about structural changes in their economies by industrializing in order to expand and diversify the production base. This resulted in clear changes in the relative importance of the various sectors of the national economy in these countries, and the consequent impact on the structure

of exports, imports, and employment opportunities in them. Accordingly, the indicators that can be used as a measure of a country’s economic progress and growth are: 1. The relative weight of industrial output in the gross domestic product. 2. The relative weight of industrial exports to merchandise exports. 3. The ratio of employment in the industrial sector to total employment. The higher this ratio, the more positive changes have been achieved in a state’s economic and production structure, which reflects the increase in the degree of progress and economic growth.

2.4 Economic Growth as a Sustainable Development Policy More efforts must be made to integrate the UN Sustainable Development Goals into national

Economic Growth, Employment and Decent Work as a Sustainable …

plans and strategies, by setting baselines for measuring performance and building effective statistical capacities. The success of these plans is measured by how far they advance the welfare and potential of the poorest, most excluded and most vulnerable groups in society. Countries and stakeholders emphasize that the 2030 Agenda’s primary promise—leaving no one behind—must be a foundation for implementing the Sustainable Development Goals. The United Nations undertakes comprehensive efforts to support national actors in implementing this commitment by supporting laws, policies, programs and the ratification of international treaties. These efforts include eradicating poverty, combating discrimination, and ensuring equality for all. Success in implementing the SDGs depends on national actions, establishing multilateral partnerships with governments and NGOs, strengthening cooperation between national and local entities, and encouraging inclusiveness in decision-making processes. The SDGs provide a new opportunity to demonstrate a commitment to serving the people and to build trust in political leadership. Major individual contributions from experts and scholars in particular are needed. Science is critical to understanding and identifying the synergies and trade-offs among the SDGs. It will be critical for developed countries to fulfill their official development assistance and climate finance commitments. Although the global poverty rate has been halved since 2000, efforts need to be intensified to increase the incomes of people still living in extreme poverty, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, to alleviate their suffering and build their resilience. While the proportion of people living in poverty has decreased, nearly 700 million people still live in dire conditions, and its progress has not inequality. Calculated as a percentage of the population, poverty is most deeply embedded in the least developed countries, even though the largest number of people trapped in poverty live in middle-income countries. With purchasing power parity uneven, our efforts to eradicate poverty globally must be focused at all levels, from least developed

159

countries to middle-income countries. But according to the current economic growth trajectory, around 35% of the population in the least developed countries could still be living in extreme poverty by 2030. A key factor in creating decent jobs and reducing poverty will be the promotion of structural transformation towards more productive and green activities. Structural transformation processes can generate social protection resources directed to helping people who cannot escape poverty with their own resources alone. It is important to take firm ownership of the development agenda at the national level. Gender statistics should play a critical role in monitoring progress towards gender equality and women’s empowerment in all 17 Sustainable Development Goals. The 17 SDGs are: 1. No poverty 2. Zero hunger 3. Good health and well-being 4. Qualityood education 5. Gender equality 6. Clean water and sanitation 7. Affordable and clean energy 8. Decent work and economic growth 9. Industry, innovation and infrastructure 10. Reducinginequalities 11. Sustainable cities and communities 12. Responsible consumption and production 13. Climate action 14. Life below water 15. Life in the wilderness 16. Peace, justice and strong institutions 17. Contract companies to achieve goals

3

Employment as a Sustainable Development Policy

It is known in macroeconomics that income and production represent two sides of the same coin (which is what applies to the circular flow of the overall economy). Equilibrium is achieved when aggregate demand equals aggregate supply, that is, when the value of money paid by buyers is

160

equal to the value of goods and services provided by sellers, or when total expenditure is equal to total production. The question is: is it a certain level of income or of output that achieves full employment? So there is a relationship between the study of output, income, and employment. This section examines the extent to which the economic system is able to use its resources to achieve full employment. This means that all available resources in society (land, labour, capital, organization) are fully exploited and utilized. It is well known that the value of national product that enters the market represents income for those factors of production that contributed to the production process. This national income is spent from all four sectors to be expenditure. The total over the national product. But Does this flow achieve the status of “Full Employment: Full Employment of Resources or not?”

H. A. E. Hasseen El-bardisy

3.2 The Ability of Economic Systems to Achieve a State of Full Employment

must study the relationship between the sectors of the economy. The domestic sector does not spend its entire income on consumption goods and services, but part of it leaks away in the form of savings for investment, whether in machinery, equipment, buildings or others. The domestic sector therefore spends part of its income on consuming goods and services, which goes directly to the producers, and saves a part which is directed towards financial institutions, whose job is to provide investors with loans that they use to buy investment goods from the productive sector. There is a distinction between hoarding and saving: saving is a healthy phenomenon because it employs money for the benefit of investors and the productive sector, while hoarding involves locking money out of circulation or disrupting resources. A third part of the domestic sector’s income goes to the government in the form of taxes on the value of its imports of goods and services that are not available locally. In return, producers receive the value of goods and services produced locally and exported to the outside world. The domestic sector also pays net taxes to the government, which uses them to finance its spending on the final goods and services it buys from the productive sector. Net taxes are equal to taxes minus the subsidies paid to the sector. The domestic sector therefore distributes its income in four directions: (1) consumption, (2) saving, (3) tax, and (4) spending on goods and services imported from abroad, that is, imports. The national product is “the market value of all final goods and services produced by society during a certain period of time, which is usually a year.” The national income is “sum incomes of the factors of production that contributed to the production process during a specific time, usually a year.” Aggregate spending is “the aggregate demand in society, which is represented in the spending of the four sectors that make up the economy.” These four sectors are:

In order to understand the ability of economic systems to achieve a state of full employment, we

• Household or domestic sector (consumer sector).

3.1 Full Employment In order to understand what full employment is, and how all resources remain fully employed, we need first to understand that although the classical economists long believed that the capitalist system was capable of achieving full employment, their theories were invalidated by the events of the Great Depression that swept the world in the 1930s. This was followed by the emergence of the modern Keynesian theory of full employment, named for the British economist John Maynard Keynes, and introduced in his book, The General Theory of Employment, Interest and Money. This theory was highly valued until the emergence of a new contrary case, known as “stagflation”, in which the rise in the general level of prices is accompanied by high rates of unemployment.

Economic Growth, Employment and Decent Work as a Sustainable …

• Business sector (productive sector). • Government sector. • External (global) sector. Figure 4 illustrates the according to this model.

4

economic

4.1 Empowering People Through Decent Work and Full Employment cycle

Decent Work as a Sustainable Development Policy

To achieve decent work, meaning empowering people together and leaving no one by the wayside, there is a need to create greater employment opportunities with effective enjoyment of rights. The International Labour Organization (ILO) defines decent work as “productive work for women and men in conditions of freedom, equity, security and human dignity”. Work is considered decent if it: 1. pays a fair income. 2. guarantees a secure form of employment and safe working conditions. 3. ensures equal opportunities and treatment for all. 4. includes social protection for workers and their families. 5. offers prospects for personal development and encourages social integration. 6. the workers are free to express their concerns and to organize [9].

Fig. 4 The economic cycle

Circular

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Flow

Decent work provides means to achieve sustainable development and to ensure human dignity. Employment and decent work help reduce inequalities and poverty, and empower people, especially women, young people and the most vulnerable such as those with disabilities. Decent work must therefore be supported by promoting jobs that provide decent earnings, ensure safe working conditions, provide social protection, and safeguard workers’ rights [9]. Increased job satisfaction leads to enhanced labour productivity. Satisfaction embraces enjoyment of basic rights, assurance of nondiscrimination, abolition of child labour, provision of a work environment conducive to health and safety, provision of benefits and incentives, provision of adequate pay and pension schemes, and availability of an appropriate forum to voice employee concerns [10]. The potential global labour force includes an additional 140 million potential job seekers. With about 172 million unemployed people in 2018, this means a total of 312 million people are in the underemployed category. Among those who work, more than 60 per cent are in informal employment, without access to social protection and social dialogue. Worker poverty has

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decreased but is still prevalent in some regions. About 265 million workers with their families are in extreme poverty, with less than $1.90/day per person to live on, along with an additional 430 million workers in average poverty, with between $1.90 and $3.20/day per person [4]. Less than half of all working-age women (48%) participate in the labour market compared to three-quarters of working-age men. Half the world’s population does not benefit from freedom of association and collective bargaining. 152 million children remain trapped in child labour and 40 million people in various forms of forced labour and forced marriage. Countless people are denied opportunities to learn, develop skills and have decent work because of discrimination based on gender, age, disability, political beliefs, or religious and other factors. According to the latest estimates issued by the International Labor Organization, the quality of the work performed often reflects the prevailing working conditions. Approximately 2.8 million worker deaths from occupational accidents and work-related diseases occur each year. About 2.4 million (86.3%) of these deaths are attributed to work-related diseases, while more than 380,000 deaths (13.7%) result from occupational accidents. It is estimated that 374 million workers suffer non-fatal injuries annually, many of which have serious consequences for workers’ longterm earning capacity.

4.1.1 Decent Work in Egypt A Decent Work Plan in Egypt that focuses on societal dialogue and forms the cornerstone for promoting decent work began development in June 2008. Much has been achieved in the country since the adoption of the new Labour Law 12/2003. In order to achieve real decent work in Egypt, it is important to ensure the contribution and cooperation of the three main parties to the dialogue: the Ministry of Manpower and Immigration, the Federation of Egyptian Industries, and the Egyptian Trade Union Confederation. Egypt has ratified 64 conventions. In addition to public-sector and private-sector workers, there

H. A. E. Hasseen El-bardisy

is a large number of workers in Egypt’s informal sector who should also be represented. The existence of unions provides workers with a voice, which will improve their work and living conditions and hence have an impact on society in general.

4.2 Creating Opportunities for All, Reducing Inequality and Ending Discrimination Income inequality is the result of unequal access to opportunities, and thus represents a form of discrimination. SDG 10 calls for anti-discrimination economic measures, both regulatory and active, to provide more access to opportunities and reduce discrimination. Inequality exists within and between countries. Women and girls, people with disabilities, indigenous peoples, people living with HIV or AIDS, and migrants face special challenges. Poverty and inequality are self-reproducing across multiple dimensions and manifest as gaps in skills, education, and health service delivery, living and working conditions, employment opportunities, and access to resources. The harmful effects of inequality are felt in the cohesion of societies and undermine the sustainability of their economies.

4.3 Enhancing Productivity and Building Productive Capacity to Achieve Sustainable Development Sustainable growth and the generation of full and productive employment depend on environmentally sustainable economic transformation that is socially inclusive and expands the productive capacities of economies. Economy-wide and sector-wide productivity growth must be addressed by creating a business-friendly environment that fosters investment, growth, employment creation, and growth-enhancing structural transformation. The availability of access to credit for small and medium enterprises is crucial to their continuity and their contribution to growth and employment, enabling them to

Economic Growth, Employment and Decent Work as a Sustainable …

invest in new capital, adopt new technologies and contribute to expanding the capabilities of workers. National development policies and international trade and finance frameworks should promote institutional, policy, and regulatory reforms geared towards enhancing sectorial productivity growth, technology transfer and adaptation, entrepreneurship, access to finance, and the formalization of the informal economy, with a focus on promoting decent work. Building human and material productive capacities, coupled with directing the structural transformation towards a greener economy, is essential to achieving the 2030 Agenda. This means investing in people and strategic physical capital in the context of social dialogue and attention to creating decent jobs. SDG 4 calls for “equitable and inclusive quality education” and “continued learning opportunities for all” as a contributory factor to inclusive societies and opportunities to build productive capacities and create decent work. In addition, investment in infrastructure is an important component of any development strategy and supports both direct and indirect labour demand by connecting people, expanding markets, and increasing productivity. Institutions that support skills development in the form of lifelong learning, transition from school to work and between jobs, and infrastructure investment within broad employment and industry policies should be strengthened in an integrated manner in the context of a revitalized social dialogue.

5

Conclusions

Economic growth is one of the most important indicators for a country. It is defined as the total value added to all production units operating in the different branches of production in a particular economy, such as agriculture, mining, and industry.The added value of a specific unit of production represents the difference between the value of the total production of this unit and the value of intermediate goods and services consumed in that production.Growth in this sense is

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the increase in the quantity of goods and services produced by a particular economy, and these goods are produced using the main factors of production: land, labour, capital, and organization. Economic growth is also defined as a positive change in the level of production of goods and services in a country in a specific period of time, and therefore economic growth in general means an increase in income for a particular country. Economic growth is measured as a percentage of GDP growth, and the ratio in a particular year is compared with that of the previous year. Increase in capital, technological progress, and improvement in the level of education are the main reasons for economic growth. The concept of economic growth is the same as the concept of economic well-being. In deepening this concept, the following three points must be emphasized. 1. Economic growth does not mean only an increase in GDP; there must also be an increase in real per-capita income. 2. The increase in per-capita income must be a real increase and not only a monetary one. 3. The increase in income must be long term, not temporary.

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Recommendations

The study recommends that Egypt must: 1. Reduce interest rates and lower the cost of borrowing. 2. Increase consumer and investment spending. 3. Increase real wages. If nominal wages rise above the inflation rate, then consumers have more disposable income to spend. 4. Increase export spending. 5. Increase domestic demand by downward adjustment of the value of the local currency relative to another currency or group of currencies, making exports cheaper and imports more expensive. 6. Focus on development of communications technology. 7. Improve industrial relations management. 8. Improve worker skills and qualifications.

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9. Improve working practices, including work from home and self-employment. 10. Increase the supply of labour by raising the retirement age. 11. Improve investment infrastructure, increased spending on education. 12. Promote the existence of worker unions.

References 1. United Nations Environment Programme (2021) Measuring progress: environment and the SDGs, Nairobi 2. United Nation University (2021) The Effective States and Inclusive Development (ESID) Research Center on 12 January 3. Ministry of Planning, Monitoring and Administrative Reform (2016) Egypt vision 2030 report. Sustainable Development Strategy, Cairo

H. A. E. Hasseen El-bardisy 4. Gregory Mankiw N (2009) Macroeconomics, 7th edn. 5. The World Bank (2021) Statistical performance indicators database 6. El Hasseen El-bardisy HA (2020) Principles of macroeconomics. In: Stencil hand book. Faculty of Agriculture, Al-Azhar University at Assiut, Assiut, Egypt 7. El Hasseen El-bardisy HA (2020) Fundamental of agricultural economics. In: Stencil hand book. Faculty of Organic Agricultural, Heliopolis University for Sustainable Development, Egypt 8. The World Bank (2021) World development report 9. Michel L (2006) European consensus on development. European Commissioner for Development and Humanitarian Aid 10. Al-Ayouty IA (2011) Decent work attainment and labour production: a sample survey of textile firms in Egypt. Working paper no. 162

Proposed Guidelines for Planning of Egyptian Fishing Ports Mahmoud Sharaan, Mona G. Ibrahim, Moheb Iskander, and Abdelazim M. Negm

strategic proposed plans in 2030. It is expected that promoting the Egyptian coastal fishing ports infrastructure, considering the environmental issues, will support their operation more eco-efficient and sustainable and enhance the SDGs 8, 9, and 14. Unfortunately, Egypt’s current planning and design methods tend to lack basic data and depend too much on the experience of a few individuals. However, the planning and design of new fishing port structures or improving the infrastructures of existing ones must conform to scientific laws and principles respecting the environmental regulations and the UNSDGs. This chapter presents the proposed guidelines for planning a fishing port, covering different planning aspects. It includes water area planning, land area planning, environmental factors, and fishing port management structure and duties.

Abstract

To achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs), Egypt’s government works to make Egypt a safe competing country that attracts international investors. Improving the efficiency of coastal fisheries is considered one of the Egyptian

M. Sharaan (&)
M. G. Ibrahim Environmental Engineering Department, Egypt-Japan University of Science and Technology, Alexandria 21934, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; mahmoud. [email protected] M. G. Ibrahim e-mail: [email protected] M. Sharaan Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt

Keywords

M. G. Ibrahim Environmental Health Department, High Institute of Public Health, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt M. Iskander Hydrodynamic Department, Coastal Research Institute, National Water Research Center, Alexandria, Egypt e-mail: [email protected] A. M. Negm Water and Water Structures Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]







Egyptian fishing ports Planning Guidelines Fishing port management SDG

1







Introduction

The 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) has presented a roadmap for shared prosperity in a sustainable society since its conception in 2015, a world where everyone can

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_11

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live productive and peaceful lives in a safer world [1]. After signing the 2030 plan, many countries have integrated the goals and targets into their national development plans and aligned policies and institutions behind them. Megaprojects have been undertaken to develop infrastructure and stimulate investment under Egypt’s present sustainability and economic reform objectives to enrich the country’s resources and meet future problems [2]. The marine resources, including seas and oceans significance, were represented in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs), specifically goal 14 (Life below water). SDG 14 focuses on conserving and sustainably using the oceans, seas, and marine resources. They supply nourishment (nutrition) for billions of people and livelihoods, significantly promoting other SDGs [1]. However, the prevalence of unsustainable practices (such as overfishing, pollution, and illegal fishing) could deteriorate the marine environment and, by role, limit the ability of the developing countries to maximize the use of their marine resources [3]. Additionally, Goals 1 and 2 are focused on ending poverty, hunger, and achieving food security, of which a plentiful supply of fish could provide an effective means to their realization. Fisheries also contribute significantly to the revenue of many developing nations, contributing to the achievement of Goal 8, which aims to secure long-term economic prosperity [3]. Economic growth that is both sustained and inclusive can propel progress, generate decent jobs for all, and raise living standards. Most developed countries have separate institutions responsible for coastal fisheries with their guidelines and planning concepts. A fishing port must be built, designed, and managed in harmony with the physical and biological coastal habitats in today’s world of greater environmental awareness. Technical and non-technical personnel are involved at every level of the process, whether planning, design or management. The planning of fishing ports should be subjected to scientific principles to optimize port operations’ efficiency and militate against unexpected risks and financial loss in the future [4, 5].

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Egyptian fishing ports are vulnerable to deterioration in terms of the basic infrastructure, functional facilities, and environmental impacts [6–8]. There is an essential need to have specific guidelines and standards for the planning of Egyptian fishing ports to improve the current conditions and promote the fishing industry in Egypt considering relevant SDGs. Importantly, the current planning process associated with fishing ports in Egypt tends to lack basic data and concepts and depends too much on the experience of planners [9, 10]. Goal 9 of the SDGs highlights the idea of building resilient infrastructure, supporting innovation that can unleash dynamic and competitive economic forces that generate employment and wealth, and promoting inclusive and sustainable industrialization. This chapter focuses on the Egyptian fishing ports due to coastal fisheries’ significance to the Egyptian community. It posits that promoting the Egyptian fishing ports infrastructure considering the environmental aspects, promoting their operation more eco-efficient and sustainable, and promoting SDGs 8, 9, and 14. This chapter presents the proposed guidelines for planning a fishing port considering the Egyptian fishery culture and behaviors. The proposed guidelines include (a) water area planning in terms of access/navigation channels, water area alignment, basins, and mooring and arrangement of fishing boats, (b) land area planning in terms of berths, basic facilities, functional facilities, and services, (c) environmental aspects for the planning of fishing ports, and (d) fishing port management structure and duties.

2

Egypt 2030 Strategy Vision Towards Coastal Fisheries

Egypt is dedicated to reaching Sustainable Development Goals. Egypt’s Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS) aligns with SDGs. In February 2016, the Egyptian government issued its SDS (Egypt Vision 2030), which identifies the government’s actions until 2030 and acts as its long-term development strategy by engaging all

Proposed Guidelines for Planning of Egyptian Fishing Ports

stakeholders. SDS has followed the concepts of sustainable development to enhance people’s quality of life and welfare, respecting three primary dimensions: economic, social, and environmental [11]. Egypt is implementing an ambitious plan to improve its infrastructure throughout all sectors and areas. The private sector’s and civil society’s contributions are critical to achieving these objectives. Maritime Transport Sector (MTS) issued its strategy 2030 to develop secure ports that can adapt to local and global variables, competing regionally and worldwide. Also, establishing a merchant marine fleet boosts Egypt’s economic growth as part of a long-term development strategy [12]. It’s worth noting that Egypt’s Integrated Coastal Zone Management (ICZM) was created to safeguard and administer its marine and coastal areas. Egypt’s geographic location makes it the most important crossroads for international trade between East and West. Several commercial and specialized maritime ports featured the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea. As a result, Egyptian ports must fulfill international performance criteria that assure more dependable services and higher standards in terms of quality, security, safety, environmental protection, and community engagement, many of which are tied to long-term development goals. Further, to continue its efforts at conserving coastal fisheries, Egypt has also taken significant strides toward promoting sustainable coastal fisheries by constructing new seaports and improving the efficiency of existing ports’ efficiency and environmental sustainability, which is a key component of the 2030 Agenda. According to MTS strategy 2030, the main goals include: 1. The construction and development of seaport infrastructure following international market economics and standards (constructing and renovating berths to adapt to new vessels, increasing the private sector’s involvement in port development). 2. Raising the environmental categorization of Egyptian seaports to be converted into green ports to promote the environmental sustainability criteria.

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Review of Fishing Port Planning Studies

Different guidelines have been put forward in various developed and developing countries to overview fishery ports’ planning, design, and management concepts. However, most of the recent guidelines and technical standards focus on the planning and design of marinas or small craft harbors. For instance, published guidelines include the following: “Hydraulic Design of Small Harbors,” 1984, published by the United States Army Corps of Engineers [13]; in Jamaica, “Guidelines Pertaining to Marinas and Small Craft Harbor” were published in 1996 and the same contents are presented in the “Australian Standard Guidelines for Design of Marinas” [14], “Marina and Small Craft Harbors Regulation and Guidelines,” Dubai 2007 [15], “Planning and Design Guidelines for Small Craft Harbor,” published by the American Society of Civil Engineering ASCE, 2012 [4]. Recently, in 2016, PIANC released “Guidelines for Marina Design,” Parts I, II, and III [16–18]. Few references are concerned with the planning, design, and management of fishing ports, which have characteristics similar to those of Egyptian fishing ports. Fortunately, Japan is an exception. In 1990, Japan issued a report entitled “Planning of Fishing Ports In Japan” [5]. This report contains information about applied legal frameworks for fisheries in Japan, categorization of fishing port facilities, planning criteria for individual fishing ports, and functional, operational, and mooring facilities. In 1998, “Planning of Fishing Port” was published by The World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure, PIANC [19]; this delineated questions that must be considered when constructing a new fishing port or extending an existing port. The report focused on planning principles, fish resources, sustainability, and environmental considerations. In 1985, “Port Development—A Handbook for Planners in developing countries” [20] presented information about general components of fishing ports. In 1999, the Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency (EEAA) issued

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“Guidelines for Development of Ports, Harbors and Marinas” [21], which mainly focused on the requirements of Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA), site selection, legislative frameworks, and environmental management. In 2010, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) issued a book entitled “Fishing Harbor Planning, Construction and Management” [22], which theoretically presents and explores different elements of managing fishing ports and relevant facility requirements, including the application of various construction techniques. In 2004, “Planning and Design of Ports and Marine Terminals” [23] included a section on fishing ports that summarized planning processes and pollution control as presented in the PIANC reports. In addition, in 2004, “Port Engineering” was published [24], including a section discussing fishing ports’ general components. In 2012, “Ports and Terminal” was published by Ligteringen [25]. It provides further description and detail about fishing port planning. For example, Chap. 12 offers particular equations used to plan and design navigation channels, the width of basins, the arrangement of fishing boats, and fishing port facilities. In 2014, the third edition of the “Port Designer’s Handbook,” written by Thoresen [26], was released. It contains some basic information about fishery ports and notes that there are no standards for the size of a fishing port’s berthing space, but existing ports typically have widths of 100– 150 m and lengths of 200–400 m. More than four fishing vessels berthing side-by-side together with a berth is not desired for safety reasons and depends on the utilization of port facilities. Finally, physical models combined with mathematical models are frequently favored as a more practical method of acquiring reliable data.

4

Proposed Guidelines for Planning of Egyptian Fishing Ports

Development plans for coastal regions should include a master plan for the fishing industry based on the sustainable exploitation of resources, derived from reliable data and combined

with welfare and policy assessments. They should endeavor to estimate the future status of the fishery industry and salient trends in terms of both species diversity and stock levels and then estimate the fleet needed to harvest the sea rationally and sustainably. The fishing port’s robust planning can commence with this information about the total catch, its variability, and the fishing fleet’s composition. Once the need for a new fishing port has been determined, legislation should be recognized to ensure that future development in the area does not jeopardize the fishing port and its post-harvest facilities [19]. Planning a new fishing port is reasonably straightforward and the degree of freedom to find solutions is wide. Identifying the optimal location can be difficult. Planning vis-à-vis existing ports to service a fishing fleet and related industries is a rather different process than preparing for a new fishing port.

4.1 Basic Planning Concepts 4.1.1 General Consideration Generally, the size of a fishing port is controlled by that of the operating fishing fleet and the type of fishing vessels (fleet capacity) or that land at the proposed port site. Furthermore, the size and type of land facilities depend on the ports’ throughput of fish. Land-use policies should be checked, and all information about the proposed area for the project should be collected, including information on the available land area, restricted land area, and prohibited land area. Both operations and services in a fishing port are closely related to the fishing fleet and the fish processing activities in the port area. Thus, both operations and services will be very different from port to port. The planning process must thoroughly examine what operations and services can be expected in the fishing port. When all information on the resources and the needs of a fishing port has been evaluated, and the proposed fishing fleet and activities in the harbor are known, the operational planning of the fishing port can commence. The planning process will vary depending on whether it is a new

Proposed Guidelines for Planning of Egyptian Fishing Ports

fishing port or an extension to an existing port. In both cases, planning should be carried out in coordination with regional development. The proposed area’s land use, the overall environmental conditions of the site, ease of access to the site, and the availability of sanitary water must all be considered during the planning process. In addition, the environmental impacts associated with ship repair facilities should be given particular attention. Service and repair activities are, in many countries, subject to stringent regulations due to their potential undesirable impacts on the environment. All activities and measures to reduce or prevent pollution must be approved by the relevant authorities before operations commence. Moreover, planning usually includes expanded configurations added to the basic layout, i.e., it usually considers the future expansion of the port. An Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) forms an integral part of every port master plan and is carried out in parallel with technical/ economic assessments. In most countries, the law requires an EIA, approved by governmental authorities, before the project can be supported; this has been the case in Egypt since 1994. At the preliminary stage, the cost estimates for alternative designs are required. The construction cost is an important factor in determining the feasibility of the port and can be influenced most strongly in this conceptual stage of configuration and development. When the port is located at the coast, a balance of earthwork (excavation and reclamation) is often the best solution, unless the soil is very hard (high dredging costs) or very soft (dredged material unsuitable for reclamation). In addition, the length of breakwaters should be minimized as this forms an important cost factor. Fishing ports are usually constructed near the shore or inland. They are mainly exposed to wave breaking, longitudinal current actions, wave-induced current movements, and sediment transport activity, all of which need to be considered in planning. Hydraulic models should be established as a primary step within the planning cycle, where complex interactions among the berth, breakwaters, waves, currents,

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seabed, and coastline are involved. Numerical modeling based on field studies is required to calibrate such models. Physical models combined with mathematical models are frequently regarded as a more practical method of getting reliable outputs [4, 20]. A very important requirement in the fishing industry is the analysis of markets for different goods produced from different species, particularly concerning market prices and their stability. Knowing the market makes it possible to estimate the need for sea or inland transportation routes. If inland transportation is important, investigations are required to determine the feasible road and rail links. Furthermore, the market price of fish and its outcomes for the fishermen should be satisfactory in terms of livable wages. Insufficient incomes are considered the main reason for the decline in the average age of fishermen.

4.1.2 Planning Process and Elements The first step in planning fishing ports is determining the project’s main goals and establishing a proper schedule for the facility’s design, operation, and execution. Wise project plans avoid unnecessary costs and inefficiencies from the outset. It is critical to seek community input once goals have been identified and a basic program has been formed, especially if public approval is required for funding and/or construction permits. To develop an existing port, all facilities should be examined through discussion with governmental staff, site surveys, public hearings, and stakeholder meetings. A fishing port represents a specialized type of port, and the main items in the planning process are as follows: a. Determination of present and forecast of future sustainable yields for the different species. b. Determination of corresponding fleet requirements. c. Selection of alternative sites for port construction and/or extensions and identification of the most suitable option. d. Determination of port facilities requirements considering the following main components:

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“unloading facilities; auction hall or other sales facilities; fish processing plants; quays and basins; service and repair facilities; ancillary facilities for supply of ice, water, oil, and fuel; electric power supply; rescue at sea; pilotage; tug assistance; waste collection and management; recreation and sanitation.” e. Forecasts of market demands for fresh and processed fish. Once the expected fleet composition is known, the functional requirements for the port can be formulated. In terms of vessel size per craft type, fishing boat dimensions (design vessel), number, transport volumes, port services, and principal dimensions of the port’s sea and land areas are determined using the design formulae. Since cost is an important selection criterion in all stages, the major cost elements (breakwater, dredging, and quays) are considered. After the first selection, better input data become available, and the potential alternatives are elaborated. Shoreline stabilization (avoiding deterioration of adjacent shorelines) is considered one of the most crucial environmental issues that face the design team. The suitable arrangement of intended uses will determine the final alignment of the shoreline. The economics of water and land facilities, construction, and designated basin depths are critical considerations. The elementary planning cycle is illustrated in Fig. 1. Generally, the basic planning principles and processes applicable to any fishing port must consider the following: a. Establish a suitable and safe entrance to the port. b. Ensure that the fleet is safe when it is in port. c. Maintain the required depths so that the port can function efficiently. d. Ensure the appropriate berthing facilities are present so that all activities in the port can operate efficiently. e. In co-operation with other authorities, ensure that both sea and land areas are planned, built, and managed so that all transport by land and sea can run efficiently.

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f. In co-operation with different authorities, ensure a safe and clean environment in the port. g. Ensure rational and efficient management of the port.

4.1.3 Site Selection and Alternative Plans The fishery port should be developed at a site where a fishing activity already takes place in addition to the favorable natural conditions. Poor siting can lead to losses of productive habitats, such as damage to mangroves or coral reefs. Fishers usually settle in locations where protection against nature is already available (bays, river mouths, and estuaries). Port configuration and layout depend on the nature of the surrounding topography, existing facilities, allowable wave agitation, and required drafts. In addition, the number and characteristics of vessels, as related to the catch, determine the needed facilities to be provided by the fishery port. Therefore, site selection procedures should include land use permission, which necessitates avoiding environmentally sensitive areas and compatibility with nearby land uses. The evaluation of the proposed site for a fishing port should describe present conditions at the site vis-à-vis the expectations and requirements for the project to move ahead successfully. The initial site assessment usually consists of a walk-through survey, thematic data collection, and elementary numerical modeling. This first evaluation focuses on the site features and nearby environments. Egyptian guidelines for the development of ports, harbors, and marinas provide a checklist to assess different dimensions during this initial assessment, such as operational requirements; soil investigation, topographic and meteorological assessment; water, flora, and fauna; geology and soils; transport; community issues; and cumulative issues. Generally, the regeneration of sites is preferable because this avoids developing new shoreline areas, and such sites are typically serviced with different facilities and infrastructure. The harbor should ideally be located in an area

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Fig. 1 Fishing port planning’s process

protected from wind and wave action or nestled in an area free of the effects of strong currents in a river or stream. Site selection is vital to guarantee that the facility functions in an environmentally acceptable approach. Although operational and commercial concerns are important in site selection, the location’s environmental and social features should be prioritized. Alternative Plans and Layout The preliminary investigation should cover a wide range of data from the yearly unloaded catches and transaction volume, the number and tonnage of fishing vessels, how the port is used, and the use of the hinterland to road other social conditions. When determining a layout plan for various fishing port facilities, several proposals are first prepared to select the best possible scenario. Table 1 presents the criteria used for this selection of the final plan.

4.2 Fishing Ports Planning 4.2.1 Water Area Planning Wet surface considerations largely determine a port layout. This includes the orientation and alignment of the approach channel, the turning circle, the maneuvering areas, and the port basins. These dimensions are critical because they account for a significant portion of the entire investment and are difficult to change once the port has been constructed. Generally, safe navigation requirements take precedence over considerations such as reducing wave agitation. Therefore, port entrance channels may be aligned directly to the dominant wave direction. The loaded fishing vessels do not enter the port in beam seas even though this allows waves to enter directly into the port. Furthermore, the entrance channel may be made purposely wide to allow safe navigation even though wave agitation may be increased. The fishermen who use the port can determine

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Table 1 Criteria for selecting the final layout plan Criteria

Examples

Effective functions

Safety of channel and efficiency of maneuvering, Calmness inside anchorage area (under normal and stormy conditions), functional layout of land facilities and waste disposal facility efficiency, functional layout of portside roads for smooth transport of materials

Adjustment with existing interests and projects

Ease of adjustment with existing fishery and mining interest, Ease of harmony with residents of nearby communities, Ease of adjustment with other public work projects involving ports, shores, rivers, and roads

Consideration of the surrounding environment

Environmental impacts on the nearby coastal area (shoreline change), siltation in channel and basins, influence on hinterland communities concerning noise, smell, a possible accident on an oil tank, etc. influence on natural scenery and quality of seawater

Ease of construction and maintenance

Ease of construction, low construction cost, early appearance of work benefits, maintenance after completion, and potential for future development

what is considered safe for navigation. Therefore, a breakwater and entrance channel design should always be presented to and reviewed by the port users to decide on the navigation channel acceptable but still minimizes wave agitation within the port. Otherwise, the maneuvering of small fishing boats does not tend to pose any problem because specific procedures must be taken in the dimensioning of port infrastructure. These boats have exceptional maneuvering skills, and once inside the harbor, they will frequently navigate and stop on their own. Breakwaters The breakwater layout is planned as protective facilities forming the port entrance considering siltation in the navigation channel and basin, the safety of navigation, environmental impacts, etc. The structure type of most existing breakwaters in Egypt is a rubble mound core with a concrete cube armor block because of its features such as efficiency in the economy, construction, and operation. This type of B.W is expected to decrease the reflected waves from the B.W body, minimizing the influence on nearby beaches, assuring safe navigation of small fishing boats, and improving wave calmness in the port basin. Furthermore, using pre-cast concrete armor units as a substitute for the concrete cubes of the existing breakwater can be applied for further serve wave attacks occurring at the tip of the breakwater in a deeper sea area.

It is vital to effectively design the layout and crown height of storm surge protection breakwaters, considering the breakwater’s influence in lowering storm surges. In addition to the facilities’ stability in the face of wave action. The layout of the breakwaters, structural type, and dimensions must satisfy the following conditions: a. The port entrance should have sufficient width for smooth navigation of fishing boats. b. Sufficient calmness of the sheltered basin should be ensured to allow smooth operations of the fishing port Dimensions: The width and height should have the required dimensions against the incoming waves when planning the water area layout considering that the storms’ actions may force the port. A vertical wall above the breakwater is constructed in some Japanese fishing ports to avoid unexpected wave heights from overtopping to the port side. Tip of breakwater: The crown height of the breakwater to the tip of the offshore side is set according to the equation below, based on the design wave height at the tip: Crown height ¼ 0:9  wave height in front of breakwater tip þ H:W:L ¼ ðmÞ ð1Þ Auxiliary facilities: Navigation light will be provided at the head of the breakwaters, and their specification is given as below:

Proposed Guidelines for Planning of Egyptian Fishing Ports

Visible distance: 5 miles, Flashing cycle: 3 s (flashing interval: 0.5 s). On the other hand, it is preferable to include revetment in the layout of the fishing port, stone pitching, or riprapping type of sloped revetment usually adapted to the structural type because of construction efficiency and cost. This type of revetment has characteristics of low wave reflection, which contributes to reduced wave agitation and coastal change. Slope revetment usually improves the calmness of the water area for small boats. Since waves directly enter the revetment and the port area through the port entrance, the wave reflection coefficient must be lowered to improve the water surface calmness inside the port. Navigation Channel The navigation channel is the waterway that connects a port’s turning circle (or an open berth at an offshore jetty) to the deep sea. The breadth, alignment, and depth are the three design parameters. Channel width: The width of the access channel should accord with the required number of lanes. Figure 2 gives an idea of the required width for a two-lane channel. Approach conditions to the port should be considered regarding wave action, currents, and wind, with extra margins near hard obstacles such as breakwater. The overall minimum width for a one-lane channel would be about 30–40 m, appropriate to small vessels and favorable maritime circumstances. Widths for a two-lane channel vary from 90 to 100 m [25].

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Others suppose that the entrance width usually ranges from 100 to 120 m [24]. The channel width is usually defined as 8– 10 times the width of a fishing boat where the channel connects the fishing port to the open sea. Considering the maneuverability of vessels, the entrance width can be set at 8 times the breadth of the largest fishing boat registered at the fishing port [5]. Channel width ¼ 8  width of the largest boat ðdesign boatÞ þ allowance ð4:08:0 mÞ ð2Þ Entrance width ¼ 0:5  body width of the left B:W ð 25:0 mÞ þ channelwidth þ 0:5  body width of the right B:Wð 25:0 mÞ þ allowance ð4:08:0 mÞ

ð3Þ Channel depth: The minimum depth of an entrance channel is determined by the following factors: maximum draught of the maximum-sized vessel, ship motions due to waves, variation in water levels due to tides and wind, sinkage of the boat due to squat, maximum keel clearance, channel bottom topography, and character of the bottom material [25]. hgd ¼ D  hT þ Smax þ a þ hnet

ð4Þ

hgd = guaranteed depth (for a specified reference level). D = draught design ship.

Fig. 2 Cross-section of two-lane configuration for the access channel

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hT = tidal elevation above the reference level, below which no entrance is allowed. Smax = maximum sinkage due to squat and trim (0.5 m). a = vertical motion due to wave response (Hs/2). hnet = remaining safety margin or net under keel clearance (0.3–1.0 m —soil). Some references assume that the channel depth is obtained by adding a minimum allowance of 1.0 m to the draft of the fishing boat design (the largest boat registered at the port). However, in some cases of strong sediment or littoral drift actions, the allowance may range from 2 to 2.5 m considering the accuracy of dredging processes [25].

M. Sharaan et al.

the unloading point to the storage zone to significantly limit the unloading capacity. An advantage of the finger pier is that both sides can be utilized for berthing, which thus minimizes the required quay length. The Required Quay Length It isn’t easy to create a calculation system valid for all situations, considering the many factors involved. The total lengths of unloading quays should be appropriate to accomplish the unloading activities of all active boats during the peak period. The following factors should be considered when determining the quay length:

a. The registered number of resting fishing boats at the port b. Average and peak numbers of vessels simulChannel depth ¼ draft of the largest registered taneously unloading their catch boat þ allowance ð12:0 mÞ c. Quay length per vessel required during unloading ð5Þ d. Average and peak quantity of catch unloaded per vessel The selection of optimum channel orientation e. Favorable time per day for unloading such as that in breakwaters compromises safe activities navigation and minimizing wave agitation and should be used in cases where this width would f. Time spent by vessels in unloading in relation to that in resting and at sea (fishing cycle periods) not create excessive wave agitation. Berthing Arrangements (Berthing types) Parallel to the quay: This is advantageous for unloading since fish can be moved directly from the vessel into the terminal. Consequently, high unloading speeds can be attained, but the required quay length is large. Depending on the vessel category and its function, two or more rows of vessels moored side-by-side can be considered. Perpendicular to the quay: Perpendicular berthing (longitudinal mooring) can take either head-on or stern-on; this is advantageous for mooring or resting the fishing boats in the port. Therefore, the required quay length is considerably shorter; however, this limits the unloading possibilities to manual operations. Figure 3 shows the common mooring types of fishing vessels. Finger piers: This is a variation of perpendicular berthing but requires transport equipment from

The total number of fishing boats using the port can be estimated/forecasted as follows: Designated fishing boats for the new port + registered boats at nearby fishing ports + the number of additional boats in the fishing port and other nearby fishing ports that register each day (maybe 1 or 2 per year and you plan for 20 years; thus, 20–40 boats + those expected from other ports could be estimated as 50% of the existing registered stock) [5]. The designed number of resting fishing boats at the port indicates the number of vessels based at the port and the accumulation of vessels inside the port (e.g., before national holidays). In other words, the number of vessels based on a survey of incoming and outgoing fishing boats on a peak winter day when almost all fishing boats go out or come in after or before inclement weather, as well as the number of vessels registered at other ports that may use the port facilities and the

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Fig. 3 Longitudinal and parallel mooring of fishing vessels

number of registered boats expected in the future internally or externally that may use the port. The required total quay length depends on the number and length of vessels to be accommodated and the number of vessels that can be moored side-by-side. More than three modern vessels side-by-side is not recommended. If all fishing boats stay in the port due to unfavorable weather, idle berthing quays are planned to be used in 3–5 rows [25]. Sometimes, the landing operations of fish catch from trawlers and purse seiners are planned to be carried out in a single row, while gill netters are planned according to five rows since they take 2–3 h to release fish from nets after berthing. Therefore, it may be advisable to arrange that gillnetters land their fish at the preparation berthing quay, while trawlers and purse seiners can land their catch at landing quay berthing in one row. Moreover, the management and administration of the quay, which checks incoming boats, may optimally be located near the harbor basin entrance. The coastguard controls port security, and it is preferable to include an individual quay for coastguard operations if possible and feasible. According to the following equation, the first estimation of fishing boats’ required unloading quay length can be executed [25]. Lq ¼

Cd:ðLs þ SÞ:fr Cs h :nhd

ð6Þ

Cs/h nhd Ls

fr

Mean unloading rate per vessel per hour (t/h) Number of unloading hours in a day (h/day) Mean vessel length (m), S: Space between vessels (m), considering (Ls + S = 1.1 Ls) Irregularity factor for the vessel (between 1 and 2)

Consider that around 15% of the vessels visiting the port should be able to find a free unloading berth at any given moment as a rough estimate of the number of unloading berths. The following equations can estimate the required length of the resting quay, assuming longitudinal berthing within a basin or on a finger pier or jetty (length of both sides) [25]. Lqr ¼

Nsr:ðLs þ SÞ Nsa

ð7Þ

where: Lqr: Required berthing quay length for resting of vessels (m) Nsa: Number of vessels abreast (3–5) NSr ¼

Ns:ðndr þ nduÞ ndc:fr

ð8Þ

Nsr: Number of vessels at rest Ns: Total number of vessels

where

ndr: Resting days in a cycle Lq Cd

Quay length (m) Total peak daily discharge in the ports (t/day)

ndu: Unloading days in a cycle ndc = number of days comprising a fishing cycle

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It may be possible to berth up to 6 abreast in exceptional cases, which increases capacity considerably. Therefore, Nsa can be equal to 4 in calculations of the required resting length, but we consider 5 or 6 abreast while calculating the basin width, as shown in Fig. 4. It is not advisable to have more than 3 or 4 fishing ships berthing side-by-side together with a berth for safety reasons and dependent on port amenities. The General Authority for Fish Resources Development (GAFRD) usually has all information about the total peak daily discharge in the ports (Cd), mean unloading rate per vessel per hour (Cs/h), number of unloading hours in a day (nhd), the total number of vessels (Ns), resting days in a cycle (ndr), unloading days in a cycle (ndu), and number of days comprising a fishing cycle (ndc) for all registered fishing boats according to fishing craft and boat dimensions. Days at sea and in port for unloading and provisioning make up the overall cycle period, from which the required moorings can be calculated. The frequency with which the fishing cycle is repeated throughout the year is determined by climatic circumstances, relevant legislation governing the fishing season, local conditions, and repair and maintenance requirements. Table 2 shows an example of indicative fishing cycles for different vessel categories. Complete details could be written as presented in Table 3 allocates fishing vessel time (days per year) [27].

M. Sharaan et al. Table 2 Indicative fishing cycles Vessel category

Days at sea

Unloading and provisioning (days)

Duration of a cycle (days)

I

1

1

2

II

6

4

10

III

35

5

40

IV

45– 100

8

50–110

(without tug assistance) while other vessels are moored to the quays. Wave, wind, and current environments play a critical role in berth orientation. Perfectly, the berth should be aligned within about 30° of the prevailing wind direction for safe berthing. Basin Width in Front of Resting/Preparation Quay The large and small fishing boats are moored in 3–5 rows in front of the idle berthing/preparation quay. The width of the basin should therefore be the sum of boat breadths and mooring intervals. The average breadth of the large and small boats is used in the calculation, and the mooring intervals are set at 1.0 m for both cases. Mooring width for large fishing boats ¼ ð56Þ rows  ðaverage breadth þ 1:0Þ þ allowance ð2:0 mÞ ð9Þ

Basins and Berths The basin width should be sufficient to allow the biggest vessels to maneuver and turn easily

Mooring width for small fishing boats ¼ ð56Þ rows  ðaverage breadth þ 1:0Þ þ allowance ð0:5 mÞ ð10Þ The basin width is determined by considering that the area in front of the landing berth/ preparation quay for large boats is used for navigation and turning fishing boats. Whichever is large, the diameter of the turning basin or the width of the waterway is selected as the basin width. The turning basin diameter is 2–4 times the fishing boats’ LOA (overall length).

Fig. 4 Normal and exceptional situations for resting of fishing boats

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Table 3 Fishing vessel time (days per year) Vessel category

Days at sea

Unloading of catch and provisions

Bunkering/provision and associated idle time

Idle time and maintenance/repair

Major repairs and maintenance

Number of fishing cycles per year

I

140

70

75

75

5

140

II

170

85

30

70

10

28

III

250

20

15

65

15

7

A diameter of 3 times the largest fishing boat is typically used in planning the turning basin.

Acceptable wave action at berths/basins depends on the height and period of waves and whether vessels are berthed parallel or perpendicular to the Diameter of turning basin ¼ 3  LOA fishing boat penetrating waves. Small coastal vessels can be þ allowance ð4:08:0 mÞ: unloaded for periods under 6 s with a significant ð11Þ wave height Hs of up to 0.3 m when berthed perpendicular to the approaching wave crests or The larger waterway width (channel width = 8 about 0.15 m when berthed parallel. Larger vesB + allowance) and diameter of the turning basin sels can be unloaded and serviced up to about are used as the width of the waterway and the Hs = 0.5 m and 0.25 m, respectively, for the turning basin. abovementioned wave approach directions. Therefore, the width of the basin in front of the idle berthing/preparation quay is the sum of the mooring width. Whichever waterway width 4.2.2 Land Area Planning (Facilities or turning basin diameter is larger. and Services) Basin width = Sum of mooring widths + larger Large and small fishing ports need many supof turning basin diameter or width of the waterway. porting facilities and relevant infrastructure. It Water Depth for Waterway and Basin The waterway and the basin must satisfy the following conditions: a. Waterway: Sufficient width and wave calmness should be ensured to allow smooth navigation and turning of fishing boats. b. Basin: Sufficient space and calmness should be ensured to allow the berthing of fishing boats. The water depth of the waterway and the basin is given as the draft of the fishing boats plus a minimum allowance of about 0.5 m. The water depth for mooring larger fishing boats is determined using the draft of the largest vessel. Basin depth=Water depth ¼ maximum draft of the largest=registered boat þ allowance ð0:51:0 mÞ

ð12Þ

includes water supply and cold systems, refueling facilities, landing halls, sorting halls, electricity supply, etc. The landing place should provide different fishing activities and practices facilities to improve effectiveness. As part of the planning process, it is essential to select all required facilities and estimate their general size and capacity. This should be accomplished while the function of the facility and site suitability requirements are determined. Fishing port facilities can be categorized into basic and functional facilities. Basic facilities include indispensable phenomena such as landing quays, berthing quays, a fuel quay, an administration and management quay, piers, jetties, breakwaters, revetments, in-port roads, and other infrastructure facilities. Table 4 categorizes fishing port functional facilities. Some of these facilities may be essential to a particular location and site, while others will be elective, depending

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Table 4 Categorization of fishing port functional facilities Facilities Functional Facilities

Fish handling

Fish handling sheds, washing facilities, and fish preserve facilities (freezers and refrigerators)

Supply

Water tank and related facilities, ice-making plant, ice storage, oil, fuel, and electricity supply facilities

Fishing vessel repair

Repairing yards and related facilities (slipway or ship lift)

Fishing gears

Stores for gears and fishing equipment (storage area)

Waste oil disposal

Facilities for disposal of waste oil produced in fishing vessel

Pollution prevention

Wastewater treatment facilities, processing plants, other purification facilities for the prevention of pollution

Port environment improvement

Open space, greenery, rest house, other facilities for improvement of the port environment, monitoring tools

Transport

Railroad, parking, bridge, heliport

Navigation

Navigation aids, signals, and lighting facilities for port entry

Port managing

Administration and facilities buildings

on the port’s function, user needs, and the developer’s preferences. On the other hand, the needs for a facility to quay wall closeness (the use of spaces immediately behind the quay walls) and the selection of facilities to be located closest to the quay wall vary according to the port characteristics. Table 5 shows the priorities of major facilities to be approximate to the quay wall. Basic Facilities Planning Quays and Jetties The structural type of the quay wall is selected considering the construction method, soil condition, and economic condition. Two suitable alternatives for the structural type of quay include gravity type of concrete block and steel sheet pile type. Gravity type’s structure comprising a rectangular concrete block is adopted for a quay for berthing fishing boats in different fishing ports. Steel sheet pile has more advantages over the concrete block type in terms of the construction period, construction cost, and construction procedures. In addition, Sheet piles can be driven through sand, silt, and clay deposits. If steel sheet piles are selected, protection against corrosion should be ensured. As the new fishing port will be constructed as an artificially

excavated fishing port, the structural type of the quay can be selected as a sheet pile type, enabling speedy construction by driving sheet piles on the land. The construction of quay walls is categorized dichotomously: quays with a solid structure and open piled system quays (deck is carried on pile system). However, a crucial element inside a traditional fishing port is the draft (3–6 m may be required) depending on the size, type, and the registered/targeted number of fishing boats. Solid quays for minimum 3–6 m draft: Typical plain concrete blocks are commonly used; however, this requires a suitable crane. Solid quays for minimum 6 m and beyond draft: Earthretaining structures are usually applied using special corrugated sheet piles, which interlock to each other, forming a continuous solid face. Open quays: In an open piled quay, the whole structure is open to full view. This system is more sensitive than the solid one. It requires special fendering techniques to avoid structural damage based on latteral loads. The jetty is generally used to prepare and rest small fishing boats such as gillnetters. In many cases, an opentype jetty is selected to interfere with the water circulation in the port basin.

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Table 5 Priorities of major functional facilities to be approximate to quay wall Functional facilities

Proximity to quay

Remarks

Material handling area

Closely connected to the landing quay

Secure enough space behind the handling area Avoid direct sunshine

Freezers and refrigerators

Somewhat connected to landing and preparation quays

Ice makers and ice storage

Located close to preparation quay

Cautious attention to layout because site development will become difficult after building these facilities Well-connected roads to other facilities

Oil supply facilities

Closely connected to preparation quay

Waste disposal facilities

Somewhat close to resting quay

Processing plant

No particular connection

Considering prevent foul odor and noise The site often developed independently Special measures necessary for wastewater disposal

Vessel repair facilities

Closely connected to repair quay and slipway

The shaded area must contact the shoreline, but the repair area can be placed in second-line sites

Fishing gear storage facilities

Somewhat close to resting quay

Coordination is needed if warehouses are improved as part of coastal fisheries development Sites are developed independently

Parks

No particular connection

Pay attention to the environment, safety, and accessibility

Do not build these close to landing and refrigeration facilities Keep oil tanks far apart from other structures

Quay apron width: Apron width is determined by a standard design method depending on the utilization. As a first approximation, the following values can be given for the width of a marginal quay apron: For annual operation, with or without the help of ship gears: 4–6 m. For operation with shore-based cranes and conveyors or roller tracks: 6–8 m. For operation with forklift trucks and/or lorries: 8–20 m. It is acceptable for landing quay/unloading quay/resting quay: apron width of 6 m, preparation quay: 10.0 m. The In-Port is planned beside the quay apron, the road should be two lanes, and the wharf apron and the vacant lot at the back should be used for pedestrians and truck parking. The width of a lane is 3.0 m, and the road width for two lanes using asphalt pavement is 6.0 m. For efficient fish handling and transport, around the in-port road, a 20 m land strip is secured for office space, open storage, etc.

Jetty apron width: The crown width is determined by considering light vehicles such as tricycles; the width should not be less than 5.0 m or light vehicle width  2.0 + 2.0 m allowance. In some cases, the width of finger piers can vary up to 15.0 m, where the reception shed is sometimes located on the finger pier if the available land area is very restricted. Quay level (crown height): The quay platform level is determined by adding tide, wave height, and construction height above the water level. Generally, the crown height of the quay can be estimated as follows: Crown height ¼ H:W:L þ 1  1:5 m

ð13Þ

Water depth of quay: The water depth of the quay is set as per that of the waterway and basin. The jetty’s crown height and water depth are set for the preparation and resting of small fishing boats (or other height quays)—preferably the same level.

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Auxiliary facilities to quay: Fenders and bollards should be provided along the quay. Services and Repair Facilities Provisions for hauling vessels on land for services and repairs once or twice a year should be considered. A conventional slipway or simple lifting device is usually sufficient for vessel repair and maintenance. The capacity of repair and maintenance facilities can be determined based on 5–15 days per ship per year, depending on the efficiency of the facility and the skill of its labor force. It is common in fishing port repair facilities in terms of a slipway with rail-mounted cradles and a side transfer system, operated by a system of steel wires and winches. The traditional slipway system represents a safe and reliable overhaul facility. The environmental impacts of the ship repair facilities should be given particular attention. Service and repair activities are subject to stringent regulations in many countries due to their potential undesirable consequences on the environment. The relevant authorities must approve all activities and measures to reduce or prevent pollution before operations commence [22]. If the slipway is built inside the port, this will serve as a mooring facility and improve water calmness. It is better to make a structure causing less wave reflection, such as a slipway and/or beach along the points hit by incoming waves from the port opening (like the Elmaadiya fishing port’s slipway in front of the port entrance). Furthermore, it is not appropriate to interpose a slipway in a continuous quay wall, as this will divide the service space of the quay wall. For initial planning, 5% of the total ground area is reasonable for maintenance. Maintenance locations should be positioned above the hightide mark to avoid contaminating incoming tidal water. For most instances, slipway gradients of 1:10–1:15 are the feasible limits. Functional Facilities Planning As from the ship hold, fish flow through the port can comprise all or some of the following activities: unloading, washing, sorting, boxing, weighing, icing, marketing, distribution, and storage, which

M. Sharaan et al.

requires good organization/functional facilities enabling a smooth commodity flow. Moreover, fishing boat provisioning involves fuel, water, and ice primarily. Otherwise, the administration building typically includes a port master office and different management departments situated at the back of the berthing/preparation quay to oversee activities in the fishing port. The administration building is planned as per GAFRD’s instruction and requirements. Fish handling and ice storage buildings should be located at the back of the landing quay for easy transportation. A covered hall: The wharf planning should consider all following activities; washing, sorting, boxing, weighing, icing, marketing, distribution, and storage. The area of the fish handling hall is calculated based on the fish volume handled and fish box layout; about 10% of the maximum fish catch during the summer season is assumed to be conducted in the hall at any time, considering 2–3 fish box layers. A broad alleyway is usually implemented to separate two main sections of the covered hall. The waterside section (about 8 m widths) is mostly used for washing fish; the landward section (same width and includes a truck-loading platform) is mostly used for sorting and packing. As a result, the hall’s total width should be around 25 m. The shed’s floor should not be plain concrete but should have some sort of antiskid surface. Auction hall: After unloading catch from the vessels, fish for direct human consumption are usually brought into a market hall or shed and sold to merchants who take care of the onward transport and distribution of the fish. The principal aims of the building should be to maintain a cool and hygienic environment for the maintenance of fish quality and an efficient, safe, and secure area for handling and sales activities. Finally, the building should be economically efficient and easily maintained. The main services that a modern auction hall may need to provide are unloading and handling of fish, grading, washing, and placing into boxes, storage in a chill-room until the sale. Also, it provides weighing, preparing, packing, delivery

Proposed Guidelines for Planning of Egyptian Fishing Ports

to buyers, transport to preparation room/cold storage room, and loading into vehicles for transport to external markets or processing plants. A ventilator should be installed in the machine room with forced ventilation in the toilet. The layout and total space requirements for market halls depend much on the catch’s types and quantities, the extent of preparation before the sale, the system of display, the auction system and the number of auctions, the destination of the catch, and the distribution system. Depending on the above factors, the total space requirements may range from 6 to as high as 25 m2/t. As a first approximation, the following figures are given: Preparation of the catch before the sale: 4 m2/t per auction. Display and auction, varying types and qualities: 12 m2/t per auction. Display and auction, uniform products: 6 m2/t per auction. Storage boxes and equipment and temporary storage of products: 4 m2/t per auction. Offices and merchant stalls: 4 m2/t per auction. Water supply and storage: The daily peak of water demand should be determined to plan a fishing port’s water supply and storage system. It requires reliable landing statistics, as shown in Table 6. These utilized statistics include the peak values of the following: a. Seasonal peak amounts of landing fish’s b. The anticipated fishing vessels (size and type) that could utilize the port Table 6 Daily water requirements

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c. The capacity of vessels’ crew and the port workers d. Water demand from the secondary sources (processors, food outlets, intermediaries, etc.). Water supply sources: Non-contaminated water is a conditionally main requirement based on international norms for water (freshwater or seawater) in fishing ports. In the case of the absence of adequate freshwater supplies, clean seawater could be utilized in fish rinsing, box washing. In contrast, fresh water is essential for vessel bunkering, personal hygiene, canteens, and icing activities. For cleaning purposes, seawater is usually used considering a high-pressure system (greater than 5 bar) [22]. Storage: based on the anticipated/stored water quantities, several alternatives could be applied for on-site water storage. Sometimes, it is essential to consider the following: elevated tank, receiver tank, and pump house for providing and storing the required amount of water. The elevated tank, receiver tank, and pump house are arranged preferably at the landing quay to provide water efficiently to the extensive quay. For instance, at the Elmaadiya fishing port, the capacity of the receiver tank is planned as 120 tons based on one-day consumption volume to provide one-day consumption for the port. The tank is 16 m wide, 6 m long, and 2.7 m high. The pump house is 4 m wide and 3 m long for two sets of pumps. The water capacity of the elevated tank is 10 tons, based on 2 h consuming volume per day; it is 3.5 m long, 3.5 m wide, and

Activity

Quantity of water required

Fish rinsing

1 L/kg of fish landed every day

Auction hall hose down

10 L/m2 of covered area

Fish box washing

10 L/fish box

Personal hygiene

100 L/person (including crew, unloaders, and port staff)

Canteen

15 L/person

Vessel bunkering

Dependent on the type of vessels

Ice

Maximum requirements—recorded sales

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17 m high (15 m height for water pressure—by gravity to each building). Lift pumps will pump water from the receiver tank to the elevated tank. Ice supply: It is strongly recommended to allocate a certain land area to establish such an ice factory in the future. Ice is required to prepare fish onboard the vessels and prepare the fish for public auction and onward transport. Ice may be manufactured in blocks (50 kg or less), plate form, or tube form. Space requirements for block-ice production range from 10 to 20 m2 per tonnage of ice per day capacity. The block-ice storage factor is 1.4 m3/t, which requires approximately 1.5 m2/t. Regarding the ice storage system applied at the Elmaadiya fishing port, the ice storage capacity is planned as 40 tons for two-day consumption. One-day consumption is calculated as 18.3 tons based on the average monthly fish catch during the peak season (when planning this port). Peak ice consumption is assumed as 60.1 tons, which is just after the period of rough weather when all boats in the port are loading up with ice to go out to fish. Based on the capacity of ice storage, 40 tons is required. Three pre-fabricated paneltype refrigerators (dimension of each: width 3.6 m, depth 7.2 m, height 2.4 m) shall be laid out in the building. Three compressors and one generator set are laid out next to the ice storage. Moreover, fresh fish are mostly stored while being iced in a so-called chill room, which is cooled to a few degrees centigrade below zero. Frozen fish is stored in a freezing storage room at 20 °C. Space requirements can be range from 0.5 to 1.5 m2/t, including access space and the relation between gross building area over net cold storage areas. Oil supply facilities: The facilities such as tank and oil meters are provided and constructed mostly by commercial oil companies. It is preferable to consider the relevant underground work during construction and give these oil and water facilities at a preparation quay to urge boats to move from a landing quay to a preparation quay immediately after completing landing operations. The oil supply facilities at the

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Elmaadiya fishing port are planned as having a width of 20 m and depth of 20 m for the oil tank and pump. The area for the oil supply facilities is located at the east side quay and 5 places of oil outlet valve at quay and jetty on the east side and between oil supply facilities and three areas of oil outlet valve on the west side. Refueling: If possible, fuel should not be kept in high-risk areas (beyond 10 m of a quay or a waterway, or within 50 m of being well or borehole). Fuel should be kept in a tank with enough strength and structural quality to prevent it from bursting or leaking during normal operation. The tank (or tanks) should be placed above ground. Fuel and oil are the typical constituents of seawater pollution within the fishing ports because of improper storage procedures and inappropriate handling of fuel at the quayside. Thus, protection, security, and maintenance requirements should be integrated into the designing phase for fuel and oil supply and storage facilities. Secondary containment must be installed to prevent fuel leakage through a tank or auxiliary equipment to the surrounding environment. There shall be no direct outflow to any drain, sewer, or watercourse from the secondary containment structure, which should be resistant to fuel and water. Before being discharged into a sewer or waterway, the oily water collected from the secondary containment must be processed with an oily water separator. The secondary containment system should be adequate to provide 110% of the tank’s storage capacity. In the case of multi containers, the system should maintain 110% of the largest container’s capacity or 25% of the total capacity. Power and lighting: An energy audit should be the first stage in the electrical engineering design process, whether building a new port or improving an old one. To determine the port’s power requirements, an energy audit is required. In a nutshell, power requirements for artisanal landings might range from a few kilowatts to several hundred kilowatts for medium-sized fishing ports with cold storage and ice-making facilities.

Proposed Guidelines for Planning of Egyptian Fishing Ports

Other facilities: The space requirements for port security buildings, offices, canteens, green areas, parking areas, and restrooms depend entirely on the type of fishing port and the number of people involved in fishing operations. The net repair region (clean open-air place, where fishing nets could be repaired and spread out), fire-fighting, supply stores, drainage, and public toilet separated males and females by the fishery cooperative.

4.2.3 Environmental Aspects for the Planning of Fishing Ports In fisheries, increased demand frequently leads to damaging, shortsighted fishing practices, jeopardizing the industry’s future. Many of the hardwon accomplishments of well-intentioned planners would be lost without diligent protection measures and administration, as well as an increase in spending on environmental management. There are many examples where new or existing fishing ports pose environmental risks. The following are the major anticipated environmental threats based on the project implementation: a. The impact on water quality due to turbidity will be generated during excavation and dredging works to construct an approach channel and a water basin and the impact on water quality from fishery activities after completion of the project. b. The impact on nearby shoreline due to littoral drift, which will be disturbed by the construction of breakwaters and jetties. Water quality: Since the area to be excavated and dredged contains considerable fine sands or silty clay, it is easily expected that construction activities will increase water turbidity. It could spread by longshore currents to many regions along Egypt’s Mediterranean Coast. Therefore, this impact from turbidity is serious, and it is recommended that its spread be prevented during construction by installing a silt protector in the area of excavation and dredging [28]. After completing the project facilities, there will be no production of pollutants from the

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project facilities themselves. Still, it is expected that waste from fishing boats and fishers using the fishing port will be discharged into the sea. Note that the Egyptian environmental standard for water pollution in the marine environment (1994, decree-law no. 4) prohibits wastewater discharge into the fishing region and coastal area within a distance of fewer than 500 m from the shoreline. To prevent the disposal of waste matters such as bilge oil, fish cases, and straw trash, the fishing port administrator should supervise pollution control under this decree with the cooperation of fishers. Unintentional leakages of bilge oil should be dealt with using oilabsorbent mats to be provided in the project. Environmental management’s role via monitoring fishing practices and activities should be enforced. Littoral drift: The construction of the project facilities such as breakwaters and revetments will affect the longshore current in the nearby sea area. Based on the numerical simulation of littoral drift results, it can be expected that following the construction of the basic facilities, the shoreline will change, and the case-study area will be subjected to accretion or erosion. The numerical simulation allows the layout to mitigate the environmental impact on the surrounding coastal areas. Generally, during construction, the environmental considerations should include the following. a. Environmental monitoring to ensure that the impacts at the construction site are minimized. b. Environmental monitoring and limitations imposed at the dredged material disposal site. c. Implementation of mitigation measures to minimize environmental impacts. d. Environmental monitoring is required after construction to assess long-term effects. Integration of Environmental Aspects into the Planning Cycle Port projects must have an environmental management plan that includes regular environmental monitoring of water quality throughout the construction and operational stages for determining

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the levels and sources of pollution. Furthermore, environmental mitigation plans are essential for improving the marine environment; environmental monitoring is vital for assessing the environmental quality and whether the conditions are improving or deteriorating. Furthermore, it is recommended that after the port’s construction is completed, careful monitoring of sedimentation and shoreline changes in nearby coastal areas and shoaling of the navigation channel and the port basin be continued. If needed, appropriate and timely countermeasures are considered. Fact-finding/post-evaluation: This entails reviewing the planning documents with the available environmental data. It will lead to an Initial Environmental Examination (IEE), addressing potentially significant environmental impacts. It will also establish the necessary mitigation measures and integrate them into project planning and design. If an IEE indicates a potential problem, more intensive on-site studies may be appropriate to determine the solutions. This will require the preparation of an EIA. An EIA provides for the control of pollution and the preservation of the living environment. It also lays the legal framework around which the proposed planning can be formulated. Since 1994, Egyptian environmental standards for water pollution in the marine environment have been considering EIA reports for any coastal project as essential to secure licenses for the proposed projects. Using the EIA and other advisory documents, mitigation and protective measures must be incorporated into the planning and later implemented during the future construction and operational phases. Sediment mitigation considerations: Generally, knowledge of site conditions is an indispensable part of port planning. Site analysis requires assessing local bathymetry, wave climate conditions, water levels, currents, tide. River flow rates are needed for integrated study in the case of a river, nearby proposed port area. Furthermore, data about the meteorological conditions (wind, rainfall, humidity, temperature), sediment transport, sediment characteristics, geotechnical

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properties, dredging requirements are essential into the planning and design phase, also, regarding environmental concerns, spatial planning, environment conditions (air, water, noise, soil pollution analysis), and legal advice (national and local planning requirements, permits) are essentially required. The disruption of local currents caused by the construction of breakwaters, jetties, groins, etc., can alter the patterns of erosion and deposition, resulting in damage to coastal infrastructure and nearby shorelines. Sediment transport is defined as sediment movement by currents generated by rivers, waves, and tides. Most sediment transport problems occur in entrance channels due to alongshore sediment transport, offshore bar formation, river sediment bedload, or deposition of suspended sediment. Moreover, siltation in the port entrance and outer channel can also be induced by the deposits settling due to lower current velocities and increased depth. This process becomes a significant factor for canals located in coastal areas with fine material on the seabed. Furthermore, fine material arriving from the entry and/or upriver and settling in the deepened basins and maneuvering areas is a common cause of sedimentation inside the port area. Shoaling due to drift sand is supposed to appear at the port entrance and navigation; therefore, numerical simulation to specify the dredging interval to keep navigation safe is required. The planning process must consider that every case has its characteristics and conditions. In strong offshore wave conditions, the navigation channel should be oriented parallel to the dominant wave direction (to have waves coming in the vessel’s aft instead of quartering or “beam”). Simultaneously, the alignment of the proper entrance should limit wave penetration. These two requirements are combined in practice, resulting in a modest angle between the wave direction and the approach channel’s axis. The following morphological effects need to be taken into account. a. Littoral transport occurs inside the breaking zone along the alluvial coast. As a result, breakwaters should extend beyond the

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corresponding sea depth to prevent sediment from being transported into the approach channel. b. Breakwaters are required on both sides of the coast when littoral transit occurs in both directions. Breakwater may be sufficient only when the wave environment is such that littoral movement is unidirectional. c. The breakwater length depends not only on the extent of the breakwater zone but also on the magnitude of littoral transport and the corresponding accretion rate at the breakwater. On the other hand, dredging is expensive and often the single largest operational cost for a port. The port planner should make every effort to anticipate the dredging requirements and attempt to minimize the sedimentation potential. This can only be done by conducting a detailed coastal and hydrodynamic design involving field studies, computer modeling, and physical/hydraulic modeling. Harbor flushing refers to the exchange of water, which takes place to remove stagnant or contaminated dirty water from the port and replace it with cleaner water. This is mainly achieved through tidal action and depends on the port location. Flushing can be conducted through proper basin geometry and designated channels for seawater tidal flushing. It is recommended to plan and design the basins based work with nature concept, i.e., get maximum advantage of natural induced currents and water inflows to promote the circulation patterns and improve the water quality by limiting the creation of stagnant pools of water. Furthermore, mechanical circulation may be mandatory in some circumstances. Daily Environmental Aspects (operational aspects) General environmental aspects that need to be planned for day-to-day operations include three important stages in their implementation. Awareness; Preparation of rules and regulations for the fishing port; Enforcing laws and regulations.

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Awareness is the way the users of the port can be informed about pollution avoidance and mitigation, fish handling and quality, public health and safety, and the safeguards associated with water and power supplies. Pollution avoidance and mitigation are covered by several legal frameworks, including those put forward by the International Maritime Organization (IMO), which deals with pollution avoidance. An authority’s lack of adherence or failure to provide adequate facilities or operational practices for environmental protection should be reported for action. Awareness and adherence to the guidelines is a prerequisite for efficient port operations. Facilities and mitigation measures need to be planned. Preparing rules and regulations: Rules and regulations need to address the following points: a. Pollution avoidance and mitigation addressing dumping of offal and fish waste, refuse collection, washing down procedures, reducing air pollution, and what to do in case of an incident or pollution emergency. b. The control and monitoring of potentially hazardous activities associated with fishing boat activities (preparing the catch at sea, maneuvering, and berthing, unloading, bunkering and loading of vessels, oil spillages, bilge pumping, maintenance activities). In addition to on-shore port activities (such as fish handling and quality, handling wastes, and refuse collection). Auction hall procedures and restricted washing down operations, maintenance of facilities and equipment, public and industrial water supply, power supply, maintenance of sewerage and septic tanks, upkeep of drainage channels, monitoring sources of air pollution, and transportation requirements all should be considered. Enforcement of rules and regulations: Often, environmental aspects are noted and agreed but then left as vague directives, which are enforced insufficiently. An important point in planning is that they should not be stifled by bureaucratic

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routine and a maze of unrealistic regulations, which prevent the port from reaching its full potential. On the other hand, if rules and regulations are flouted continually, this is symptomatic of important policy failures. Emphasis should be placed on user participation, and if the economic value of the rules and regulations can be explained, there should be more cooperation. The following methods are suggested. a. Preparing visual aids and attending seminars and workshops. b. Opening lines of communication to senior management of the port. For those unable to write, the seminars and training workshops would be a forum for ongoing review and improvement of enforcement procedures. c. Imposing a penalty for the breach of the more important rules and regulations. This can be in the form of on-the-spot fines levied upon owners of vessels for, say, pumping bilge water into the port area. Enforcement of the rules and regulations will be a key issue in attracting users to the fishery port.

4.3 Port Management Traditional management measures used during the last decade have proved inadequate to cope with different fishing port issues, such as overexploitation, pollution, and increasing sedimentation. Traditional management measures have not only failed in limiting catches to a sustainable level but also in preventing the current problems of water quality, deterioration of different essential facilities, and environmental impacts on the nearby coast. In all instances, a port manager or port director is in charge of the proper functioning of the port. The port captain or harbormaster should control all vessel movements inside the port to ensure the optimal utilization of quays and maritime safety. The port engineer should deal with the maintenance and repair of the structures and facilities, propose extensions and improvements, and supervise development work. An administrator should record the statistical data on landing operations and catch rates. Other services such as unloading, sales, ice

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supply, cold storage, water, and power supply, waste treatment, security, fire-fighting, and the provision of repair facilities may form part of the port organization’s activities, and as such, require separate offices. However, it may also be the case that fishery organizations or private owners under the general regulations of the port authority deal with a number of these activities. Furthermore, a maintenance dredging plan to maintain fishing port functionalities with the required depth in the entrance channel and water basin is required. The most successful approach to running a fishing facility is establishing a management structure representing all stakeholders. The main responsibilities of port management structure are to ensure: a. Adherence to the fisheries sector’s rules, regulations, and other environmental requirements (net sizes, temporarily closed seasons, overfishing legislation, etc.) b. Adherence to the facility’s rules and regulations (bulk fuel, sale of clean water, landing fees, bulk handling charges, etc.) c. Adherence to the planning authorities’ environmental conservation measures (wet waste disposal, waste recycling, etc.) d. Adherence to food safety and hygiene regulations. e. Collaboration with other users, such as in the case of a non-exclusive fishing vessel facility. f. The decision-making process should be clear (to prevent unfair tactics from allowing private interests to take over a public facility).

4.3.1 Environmental Management Practices A fishery port should have a set of guidelines under specific management practices for appropriately managing and controlling the environment within and adjacent to the designated fishing port and ensuring the quality assurance of the handled products. Professional management practices and guidelines should consider the following: a. Port operations b. Prevention of pollution c. Boatyard operations (when a slipway is present).

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Port operations: To prevent, diminish, andBoatyard operations: fishing vessel repair and address possible environmental and management maintenance facilities pose many environmental challenges from the port operations, the port hazards. The utilized chemical materials, associated processes, and their proximity to fish handling managers should: activities could exacerbate the environmental a. Comply with governmental, safety, environthreats. The most dangerous place is the boatyard, mental regulations, and legislation to prevent including painting and hull stripping. The port or decrease potential negative effects from managers should guarantee that: operational emissions and accumulated a. Abrasion, sanding, and painting should be waste-based fishing activities. conducted safely (boat skirts or covered tarb. Make all port users aware of the coastal envipaulin enclosures) and over an impervious ronment, its sensitivity, and the potential conseplane surface. quences of particular behaviors on its integrity. c. Make regular training courses to all stakeb. Vacuum sanders should be utilized to reduce holders about pollutions and its impacts on the produced dust. the environment. Also, encourage the fishers and consider the best incentives for vessel c. Environmental regulations and daily work practices should be posted at the work area to operators to mitigate the potential effects of the vessel owners. vessel operations. d. Make gathered information and data from the d. Encourage using low volatility coatings and fishing port accessible to governmental solvents. agencies with statutory responsibilities for monitoring fisheries. Prevention of pollution: To prevent, diminish, and address possible environmental day-to-day running contamination problems from the port, the port managers (the hygiene officer) should guarantee that: a. The water supply (fresh and seawater) and utilized ice within the port are clean, free of contaminants, and tested by recognized laboratories. b. The fishing port (entire place), including servicing area, boatyard, and slipway, is kept clean and swept at all times. c. Mechanical maintenances containing oils are not performed on the vessel deck or the quay, and the sewage treatment equipment is maintained in perfect excellent conditions. d. The appropriate waste reception facilities are used as specified (bilge water separator, spent oil tanks, solid waste bins, and wet waste bins) e. The leak of oil/fuel within the port is not allowed; their absorbent countermeasures are maintained available to use at all times.

5

Conclusion and Recommendation

The United Nations General Assembly adopted the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (September 2015) and a new set of goals collectively termed the SDGs. Coastal fisheries significantly contribute to the local income and seafood (nutrition) of the millions of Egyptians. Sustaining coastal fishers (fishing ports) and the fishing industry in Egypt promote goal 14 of the SDGs, which aims to guarantee the sustainable use of seas, oceans, and marine resources. Respecting the Egyptian strategy and vision 2030 towards improving the coastal fisheries to ensure that they meet Goals 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, and 14 of the SDGs, proposed guidelines for planning the Egyptian fishing ports were presented to improve their efficiency and developing the status of Egyptian fishing ports and promote their contribution in a sustainable manner considering the associated operational environmental issues. A fishing port planner and relevant authorities should be familiar with the type and seasonality of fish resources. Also, it should be noted that the

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capacity of the designated fishing port depends on the anticipated fishing fleet that accommodates the port. Furthermore, the dimensions of the onshore (land) facilities rely on the fish quantities. The planning and design of fish port structures must conform to scientific laws and principles, and design methods must also be simple. Where meeting these requirements tends to lack basic data and depend too much on the experience of a few individuals. Consequently, basic research is underway to obtain the necessary fundamental data. The environmental impacts associated with ship repair facilities should be given particular attention. Fishing vessels’ repair activities and the associated potential hazards to the environment need stringent regulations. All activities and measures to reduce pollution must be approved by the relevant authorities before the commencement of operations. At each stage of the planning and designing phase, both technical and non-technical personnel become involved. Furthermore, ports and harbor projects must have an environmental management plan, which includes regular environmental monitoring of air and water quality throughout the construction and operational stages to determine the levels and sources of pollution. Furthermore, environmental mitigation management plans are essential for improving the marine environment. Careful and accurate protection measures and professional environmental management can significantly manage environmental issues. Through this chapter, proposed guidelines for Egyptian fishing port planning are presented. It considers the Egyptian socioeconomic factors, Egyptian culture, and environmental conditions. The information presented in the proposed guidelines has been derived and developed from different worldwide approaches. Readers of these guidelines will understand the planning process and the main elements that should be considered while planning and realize the scientific and technical concepts of fishing port planning, which optimize the efficiency of port operations and militate against unexpected risks and financial loss in the future. Particular attention is paid to; (a) Water area planning in terms of

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access/navigation channels, water area alignment, basins, mooring, and arrangement of fishing boats, (b) Land area planning in terms of berths, basic facilities, functional facilities, and services, (c) Environmental aspects for the planning of fishing ports.

References 1. United Nations, Economic and Social Council (2019) Special edition: progress towards the sustainable development goals. Report of the Secretary-General. Available: https://undocs.org/E/2019/68 2. Hussein AA, Pollock E (2019) Sustainable development approaches in Egypt. In: IOP conference series: earth and environmental science, vol 297, no 1. IOP Publishing, p 012027. https://doi.org/10.1088/17551315/297/1/012027 3. Okafor-Yarwood I (2019) Illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing, and the complexities of the sustainable development goals (SDGs) for countries in the Gulf of Guinea. Mar Policy 99:414–422. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.09.016 4. Task Committee on Marinas 2020 of the Coasts, Oceans, Ports, and Rivers Institute of ASCE (2012) Planning and design guidelines for small craft harbors. American society of civil engineers (Third edition), no 50. https://doi.org/10.1061/9780784411988 5. Planning of Fishing Ports in Japan (1990) 6. Sharaan M, Negm A, Iskander M, Nadaoka K (2016) Egyptian fishing ports challenges and opportunities case study: Mediterranean Sea ports. In: Ports. pp 540–549. https://doi.org/10.1061/978078447 9919.055 7. Sharaan M, Negm A, Iskander M, El-Tarabily M (2017) Analysis of Egyptian Red Sea fishing ports. Int J Eng Technol 9(2):117–123. https://doi.org/10. 7763/IJET.2017.V9.955 8. Sharaan M, Ibrahim MG, Iskander M, Masria A, Nadaoka K (2018) Analysis of sedimentation at the fishing harbor entrance: case study of El-Burullus, Egypt. J Coast Conserv 22(6):1143–1156. https://doi. org/10.1007/s11852-018-0624-y 9. Sharaan M, Negm A, Iskander M, Nadaoka K (2017) Questionnaire-based assessment of Mediterranean fishing ports, Nile Delta, Egypt. Mar Policy 81:98– 108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.marpol.2017.03.024 10. Negm AM, Sharaan M, Iskander M (2016) Assessment of Egyptian fishing ports along the coasts of the Nile Delta. In the Nile Delta, Springer, Cham, pp 471–494. https://doi.org/10.1007/698_2016_93 11. Ministry of planning monitoring and administrative reform Egypt (2018) The sustainable development strategy: Egypt vision 2030. https://www. arabdevelopmentportal.com/sites/default/files/ publication/sds_egypt_vision_2030.pdf

Proposed Guidelines for Planning of Egyptian Fishing Ports 12. Maritime Transport Sector (2018) The Egyptian maritime transport strategy, development and increasing the competitiveness of ports, Egypt. http://www.emdb.gov.eg/images/front/en/MTSStrategy2018.pdf 13. Taylor PW (1985) Engineering and design: hydraulic design of small boat navigation projects. Corps of Engineers, Washington DC. https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/ pdfs/ADA404299.pdf 14. Australian Standard A.S. 3962 (2001) Guidelines for design of marinas. Standards Australia International Ltd, Sydney. www.standards.org.au 15. Civil Engineering Department Ports, Customs and Free Zone Corporation (2007) marinas and small craft harbour regulations and design guidelines (First edition). Jebel Ali, Dubai, United Arab Emirates. https://infostore.saiglobal.com/en-gb/ 16. PIANC Report no 149/RecCom WG 149 part I (2016) Guidelines for marina design. https://www. pianc.org/publications/reccom/guidelines-for-marinadesign 17. PIANC Report no 149/RecCom WG 149 part II (2016) Guidelines for marina design. https://www. pianc.org/publications/reccom/guidelines-for-marinadesign-1 18. PIANC Report no 149/RecCom WG 149 part IV (2017) Guidelines for marina design. https://www. pianc.org/publications/reccom/reccom-wg-149-part-4 19. PIANC World Association for Waterborne Transport Infrastructure (1998) Planning of fishing ports. https://www.pianc.org/publications/marcom/ planning-of-fishing-ports

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20. Development Secretariat (1985) Port development: a handbook for planners in developing countries, vol 84. United Nations Publications 21. Egyptian Environmental Affairs Agency EEAA (1999) Guidelines for development of ports, harbours and marinas. Environmental Management Sector, Entec UK Ltd as part of the SEAM Project 22. Sciortino JA (2010) Fishing harbour planning, construction and management. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. https://www.fao. org/3/i1883e/i1883e00.htm 23. Agerschou H, Dand I, Ernst T, Ghoos H, Jensen OJ, Korsgaard J, Land JM, McKay T, Oumeraci H, Petersen JB, Runge-Schmidt L (2004) Planning and design of ports and marine terminals 24. Tsinker GP (2004) Port engineering: planning, construction, maintenance, and security. Wiley. https://www.icevirtuallibrary.com/isbn/ 9780727738356 25. Ligteringen H (2012) Ports and terminals. Delft Academic Press/VSSD, Delft, the Netherlands 26. Thoresen CA (2010) Port designer’s handbook. Thomas Telford, London, UK 27. Tsinker GP (ed) (2004) Port engineering: planning, construction, maintenance, and security. Wiley 28. Sharaan M, Negm A (2017) Life cycle assessment of dredged materials placement strategies: case study, Damietta port, Egypt. Procedia Eng 181:102–108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.proeng.2017.02.375

The Impact of Human-Induced in Mining Operations on the Increased Risk of Torrents in the Wadi Allaqi Basin Mohamed E. Dandrawy and El-Sayed E. Omran

Abstract

The Wadi Allaqi Basin is of great importance in Egypt. On the Sudanese side, it is called the Wadi Gabgaba Basin. The basin has many natural characteristics and economic resources, making it a nature reserve on the Egyptian side. In the Wadi Allaqi basin, excavation, hunting and other human activities are prohibited. The basin in Egypt is a natural reserve characterized by its economic resources. The Wadi Allaqi Basin drains into Lake Nasser. It originates from the Red Sea ridge, which is characterized by geologic formations rich in precious minerals such as gold. It is characterized by its geographical location and natural vegetation, with diverse geological and terrain characteristics. Egypt looks forward to increasing the development process in the Wadi Allaqi basin so as not to harm or disrupt normal life. Because the Wadi Allaqi Basin

M. E. Dandrawy Institute of African Research and Studies and Nile Basin Countries, Aswan University, Aswan, Egypt E.-S. E. Omran (&) Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]

and the Gabgaba between Egypt and the Sudan are rich in mineral and precious ores such as gold and other minerals and granite rocks used for marble and other works, the Sudanese side has exploited large parts of the basin in the search and exploration of minerals. This is lead to cutting large parts of valleys, hills and ridges and changing the morphological features of the drainage network. This could expose the region to the threat of torrential rain and the erosion of the soil, which is broken up with the waters of the rain water, towards the Egyptian side. This exposes the development processes and protected areas in Egypt to the problem and threat of torrent sediments. Unlike the Sudanese side, the parts of the Wadi Allaqi basin on the Egyptian side have been protected by the law to annex the Wadi Allaqi area on the Egyptian side to be a protected area in Egypt. This study is one of the studies in which the technology of GIS and RS has been utilized to recognize mining and quarrying areas in the basin and to study the risks of floods to the region and the effect of the runoff of mining deposits with torrential water on the development in Egypt. Keywords







Torrential hazards Wadi Allaqi Wadi Gabgaba GIS Remote sensing Geomorphological hazards Mining operations










© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_12




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Introduction

“To guarantee sustainable consumption and production patterns,” SDG 12 is officially phrased [1]. It is a vision encapsulated in 17 strategic sustainable development goals and 169 indivisible targets. The Goal 12, which fosters more environmentally friendly consumption and production patterns through a variety of measures, including specific policies and international agreements on the management of harmful compounds is one of the most significant of the global sustainable development goals, and it is intended at measuring Egypt's progress toward Agenda 2030 [2]. SDG 12 aims to guarantee that resources are used wisely, that energy efficiency is improved, that sustainable infrastructure is built, that essential services are available, that green and decent jobs are available, and that everyone has a higher quality of life. Goal 12’s objectives include developing environmentally friendly production processes and reducing waste. While mining provides crucial components for modern society and is found in a large number of the items we use on a regular basis, it also generates a lot of waste. By disconnecting environmental degradation from economic growth and accomplishing more with less, one of the greatest worldwide challenges is to integrate environmental sustainability with economic growth and welfare. In recent years, the Red Sea Mountain Zone in Egypt has been divided up and put to mining companies for precious minerals and gold, to help with Egypt's development process and increase national income. But some problems may emerge from excavation and mining, which may not appear at the moment, but may appear abruptly, if not taken into account, and to make scientific ways and means to avoid them before future crises occur most importantly by increasing them. One of the most significant is the increase in the volume of excreted and milled deposits from the excavation remains of the valley bellies, which could lead to future problems in the event

of a flood hazard to the basin [3–5], threatening future development and protected areas in the Wadi Allaqi Reserve. The Wadi Allaqi and Gabgaba basin extents a large area of up to 75,073.8 km2 between Egypt and the Sudan. The basin is 358 km long. The average width of the basin is 292 km. In Egypt, it is called the Wadai Allaqi Basin and in Sudan is called the Gabgaba Basin. The Wadi Allaqi Basin drains into Lake Nasser. The basin has a large area and multiple sub-tributaries and originates from the Red Sea highlands, when precipitation can sometimes occur if it falls in large quantities. The Wadi Allaqi Basin and Gabgaba have geographical features that enable it to develop the economic resources of the two countries, Egypt and the Sudan, if managed by modern scientific methods between the two countries. The Wadi Allaqi Basin on the Egyptian side is a nature reserve that is preserved from destruction. The parts of the basin that lie on the Sudanese side are extensively excavated for gold. The canyons, their streams, hills and ridges are being cut off in search of gold, leaving large piles of sediment and milled rocks, causing a problem in the changing morphology and hydrological characteristics of the basin. The estuary area in Egypt may be exposed to new threats, namely, the movement of massive sediments and the runoff of torrent water, which could hamper development in Egypt if this future threat is not met. The Wadi Allaqi basin has many geographical features that can be exploited for agricultural and urban development. These include the availability of floodplain soil from silt runoff deposits of the basin, the proximity of the basin to the water source of Lake Nasser, and the abundance of building materials from nearby sources such as ridges and hills. The problem is the expansion of the Wadi Allaqi basin, the rise of mining operations and the search for minerals, especially on the Sudanese side, in a non-systematic and indiscriminate manner, in which the dismemberment of wadis, hills and ridges takes place, and the formation of

The Impact of Human-Induced in Mining Operations on the Increased …

groups of dust piles that become easy to transport as the water moves towards the downstream area. This poses a risk to the future development of the Wadi Allaqi exit on the Egyptian side, owing to the amount of sediment that may be quickly brought in by torrential waters as a function of silt accumulation by the human agent in the streams of the sub and main valleys of the Allaqi basin. So, the objectives of this study are to. (1) Bring various kinds of development processes in Egypt and the Sudan, in particular with the common geographical factor between the two countries. (2) explore the effect of torrential water in the Allaqi Valley Basin. (3) identify ways to cope with the forms of movement of the remaining materials and deposits from gold exploration, especially in the event of ongoing torrents in the Area. (4) develop proposals and suggestions using modern techniques in the Wadi Allaqi basin.

2

Methodology

2.1 Study Area and Its Problem The study relies on a collection of scientific approaches that can explain the nature of the geographical factors of the region and the extent to which they can be used to bring about development processes, such as: (1) The fundamentalist approach used in the study and analysis of the natural geographical factors of the region and their impact on development processes. (2) The regional approach, which was used in the analysis of the geographical distribution of the Wadi Allaqi basin, the excavation and mineral extraction areas in the study area, its relevance to the geomorphological and hydrological characteristics of the basin, and the impact of torrents on the movement of sediments and excreta from mining and quarrying operations, also assists in the proposed planning processes within the study area. The study also used the descriptive method of describing natural geographical phenomena in the study area. It also used to describe the ships

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between these phenomena and each other in the form of an integrated system that contributes to the development process and to the risks to the region. The study also used quantitative methods to analyze some natural events within the study area, such as climate data analysis. The study also used the cartographic method, which through the interest of a collection of maps and analytics to illustrate natural values in the area, ways and means of using them as resources, as well as in the Egypt and Sudan region. Geographic research tools, such as geographical maps, satellite imagery and digital elevation models (DEM), have been used, and a range of programmes have been used in the study, most notably for the analysis and production of diverse maps. Visual interpretation of satellite images from ESRI's web service images and Google Earth images was used in the study to identify sites of quarantined places and areas exposed to drilling and shredding, such as the wadis bellies and sides of canyons. The controlled classification was then relied upon using GIS software and remote sensing. The problems are abbreviated to study the impact of human intervention in mining operations, which has changed the morphology and hydrology of the Wadi Allaqi basin Also, study the impact of wind deposits and mining operations on the increased risk of torrents in the Wadi Allaqi basin. Also, to analyze geomorphological hazards of mining operations in the Wadi Allaqi basin. The study area is characterized first by its natural resources, which can be used to bring about development processes of various kinds in Egypt and the Sudan, in particular with the common geographical factor between the two countries. Also, the torrential water in the Allaqi Valley Basin may be exploited. Ways to cope with the forms of movement of the remaining materials and deposits from gold exploration are consider the third point characterized the study area, especially in the event of ongoing torrents. Final point to be consider in the area is to develop proposals using modern techniques in the Wadi Allaqi basin.

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So, the current study answers a range of questions, the most important of which are: How dangerous are mining operations to changing the morphology of the Allaqi Valley Basin? What's the effect of the sediment accumulated in the valley bellies on the change in the hydrology of the Valley Alley Basin? Where are the mineral excavations in the Wadi Allaqi basin? How can the dangers of mining deposits in the Sudanese side on Egypt be addressed?

2.2 Natural Characteristics of the Study Area 2.2.1 Identification of Study Area The area of study is the Wadi Allaqi Basin, which originates from the water division line of the Ridge of the Red Sea (Fig. 1). The basin extends from the Sudan south to the Nasser Lake on the Egyptian side, where the study area extends between (32.39 and 35.48 west) and between latitude (19.95 and 23.24 north). The basin runs for 358 km in the Sudan and 130 km in Egypt. The basin drains into Lake Nasser near the Allaqi area. The sub-valleys that feed the

Fig. 1 Location of study area

M. E. Dandrawy and E.-S. E. Omran

Wadi Allaqi basin and the Gabgaba basin descend from the Red Sea Ridge.

2.2.2 Climate Characteristics Climate is one of the most important elements of runoff in terms of rainfall, as well as its effect in determining the types of vegetation that may grow in the region. One of the most crucial elements in assisting is the amount of rainfall. Helping the water flow and runoff of dry valleys in the region. A study of the rain characteristics of the study area found that it is a rare rain area except in some years when rain falls in the form of ongoing torrents, causing surface runoff in the sloping wadis towards the Nile River. Because the amount of rain falling over the area varied from time to time, an analysis of the iterative time of the study area was done based on the maximum amount of rain falling in the course of one day in each year over the past 30 years. This analysis gives a future look at the severity of the rainfall that is likely to fall within a day in the next 50 years. Using NASA Space Information Agency (NASA, website and by knowledge of the

The Impact of Human-Induced in Mining Operations on the Increased …

rainfall density) station records, a statistical analysis of maximum daily rainfall rates (Table 1) was done and tested, as well as the use of alternative probability distributions, to determine the value of rain in different iterative times. Table 2 do a probability analysis to determine rain depth values using the Pearson type 3 (WRC) approach.. It shows that the lowest rainfall values on the Aswan station in the period 1990 to 2019 were 0.08 mm, a maximum value of 62 mm at an average of 4.61 and a standard deviation of 13.1 and a coefficient of variation (CV) of 2.85. The results of statistical analyses are useful in determining expected rainfall values at different iterative times using different statistical distributions. Of these distributions, Log Pearson type IIII, rainfall values are estimated for iterative times (3, 10, 30, 50 years). Rain depth is then relied upon for these possibilities (1.98, 15.2, 32.8 and 45.8 mm), respectively. The application of various statistical distributions and the use of the Rainfall Statistical Analysis Program (HyfranPlus) [6], analyses have been carried out at the top in rainfall values at Aswan Station as illustrated by Fig. 2 and Table 1.

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A portion of the rainwater leaks into the subsoil. The surface soil type controls the increase or decrease of loss amounts. The excess amount of rainwater then flows onto the soil surface causing the surface torrents that flow into the valley outcrops. In order to calculate excess rainfall, mathematical equation representing rain losses or the correlation between runoff and total falling rain are required. Therefore, the geological classification of surface soil has been done in terms of the type of wadis deposits and rocks, as well as the degree of rock condensation and the percentage occupied by each species for the area of drainage basins. This method (SCS-CN) depends on the type of soil and the nature of land use in the study area.

2.2.3 Geological Characteristics The Wadi Allaqi Basin is located in an area of great diversity in its rocks. Its formation is predominantly igneous or basal rocks, covered by Nubian sandstone formations. The study area was influenced by the terrestrial movements that formed its surface (Fig. 2). Part of the territory of the region is the Red Sea Mountains, which are one of the most important components of the Great African Rift. The Red Sea Mountain Range

Table 1 Maximum amount of rain fell within a day on Aswan station Year

Month

Day

Maximum amount of rain/day (mm)

Year

Month

Day

Maximum amount of rain/day (mm)

1990

11

20

0.09

2005

4

23

0.82

1991

1

1

1.02

2006

0

0

0

1992

5

31

0.81

2007

0

0

0

1993

1

6

3.05

2008

1

21

3.05

1994

4

13

62

2009

5

10

3.05

1995

5

27

0.08

2010

0

0

0

1996

3

21

1.02

2011

0

0

0

1997

10

14

1.1

2012

10

21

1.02

1998

1

4

0.17

2013

0

0

0

1999

1

8

0.57

2014

3

10

14

2000

2

11

0.76

2015

9

12

3.05

2001

12

30

1.02

2016

0

0

0

2002

1

10

0.38

2017

12

12

0.45

2003

0

0

0

2018

5

1

1.15

2004

0

0

0

2019

1

27

2.65

After: https://en.tutiempo.net/climate/ws-624140.html, https://power.larc.nasa.gov/data-access-viewer/

196 Table 2 Pearson type3 (WRC) correction results for Aswan station

M. E. Dandrawy and E.-S. E. Omran Iterative time

Potential Amount of Rain

Years

XT

Standard deviation

50

32.8

95.3

30

21.5

39.5

10

7.93

8.76

3

1.98

0.793

Fig. 2 Geological map of study area, USGS

has emerged, from which the group of the Allaqi Valley Basin and the Gabgaba is descended. It shows a series of major faults that extend in different and predominantly (southwest northeastern) direction and its structure, such as folds and cracks.

2.2.4 Terrain Characteristics: The study area is characterized by various topographical manifestations, with high mountains, hills, sub-valleys and headwaters. A large range of mountains spanning the water division area along the Red Sea mountain range exist. The study area is limited to a level of 160 m near the High Dam Lake to over 1000 m in the Red Sea mountain range area, which has helped to diversify the terrain at elevations in the area as shown in Fig. 3.

Slope is of great importance as one of the elements of surface manifestations affecting development processes. The slope factor is essential in analyzing the suitability [7, 8] of the area for agricultural, urban and other development. The surface of the soil in the study area is highly vulnerable in the sub-valley source areas and in some parts, the slope is small to mean. The land surface of the region can be divided according to the degree of slope. There are slopes that are safe for agricultural and urban development processes and other depressions that are difficult to establish or agriculture expand. Figure 3 shows that the Wadi Allaqi Basin is dominated by a slope of 0°–5°, with areas greater than 20° in the hills, mountains and valleys. In the second order, a slope is 6°–10°. These together represent the majority of the slope in the

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197

Fig. 3 Geological and slope map of the study area, USGS

study area. In the eastern side of the study area there is areas greater than 10° in the slope.

2.3 Hydrological Properties Dry wadis, together with their hydrological role on the study area, particularly their faults are very important. Dry wadis exits are areas for agricultural and urban development. The Wadi Allaqi basin feeds a dense network of dry wadis, especially those descending from the Red Sea mountain range. This network is characterized by its connection to the network of cracks spread over the base rocks (Fig. 4). Because of the dry valleys in the study area, which originate from an area of igneous and basal rocks and thrive with mineral content, the Wadi Allaqi basin and Gabgaba were exposed to cutting and morphological shape as a result of excavations and metal searches. Large bodies of soil piles were formed from milling and drilling in the rock. This could cause future floods filled with sediments that could alter the morphology of the Wadi Allaqi basin in the event of large amounts of water falling with which to draw the sediment in the bellies of the valleys. The results of the study and hydrological analysis using the HEC-1 mathematical model

indicate surface runoff in all the sub-drainage basins of the Wadi Allaqi basin at the iterative time of 3 years, in which the amount of precipitation may occur by 1.98 mm, and thus the surface water volume will range from 7,578,848.7 m3 of water in the region as shown in Table 3. In the event of a 15.2 mm rain within a day on the basin, a surface water flow of 260,995,167 m3. In the case of a 32.8 mm rainfall expected to fall in the next 30 years, the runoff could reach 1,125,818,47 m3 of water. In the case of a 45.8 mm rainfall during a single day, which is the iterative time of the next 50 years, there may be a flow generation of 1,899,324,320 m3 of water, which requires the construction of dams to hold and store water for use and to protect development processes from the risks of torrential and sedimentary hazards that torrential water may bring, as shown in Table 3.

3

Results and Discussion

3.1 Random Mining Operation Deposits In this study, mining and gold metal in the Wadi Allaqi and Gabgaba basin were accounted for and located through ESRI Imagery Service, where the relational basin was divided into a network of

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Fig. 4 Canyon network in Wadi Allaqi

Table 3 Potential water in the next 50 years on the Wadi Allaqi basin Name

CN

Area (km2)

F3_year

F10_year

F30_year

F50_year

W. Gabgaba

97.8

44,453.3

4,756,824.9

163,812,466.8

706,615,026.3

1,192,102,577.1

W. Allaqi

97.8

26,372.5

2,822,023.8

97,182,701.1

419,203,444.5

707,221,743.3

70,825.8

7,578,848.7

260,995,167.9

1,125,818,471

1,899,324,320

Total

squares with dimensions of 5  5 km, totaled 3170 square, of which squares on the basin boundary were segmented according to the basin boundary. The total area of squares was 75,073.8 km2, the same as the basin area (Fig. 5). The number of squares appearing in quarries and mining areas was 565 with an area of 13,161.2 km2, which caused morphological changes in the surface characteristics of the soil surface within the basin as a result of the dismemberment and excavation of the bellies of the valleys, their substrates and main and their sides, as well as the peaks of the ridges, hills and others, resulting in a change in the surface profile of the region. Some 17.5% of the total area of the study has been altered by mining operations, as shown in Fig. 6.

The number of squares that have not been altered or extended by the human hands of slicing and digging resulting from gold searches was approximately 2605 square with area of 61,912.6 km from the total area examined for the Wadi Allaqi basin. About 82.5% of the area has not been subject to the morphological changes caused by human-induced mining. Figure 6 illustrates the geographical distribution of mining sites in the Wadi Allaqi basin, with an average of about 657 locations appearing in the study area. There there are squares with more than one mining site and one square with sometimes entire squares with morphological changes due to mining operations, i.e., an area spread over 25 km2, (a square area of 5  5 km).

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199

Fig. 5 Mining areas in Wadi Allaqi Basin

Most of the mining sites are spread over areas of geologic structure of igneous rocks containing quartz, where there are rock cracks containing gold. Mining operations are carried out by moving heavy equipment into the floors of dry valleys, in front of which the soil is leveled settled to facilitate movement in rocks and elevated areas, causing the soil and rock to break up and be exposed to movement with any surface runoff. The method of mining in the Wadi Allaqi basin varies according to the nature of the rocks covering the soil surface in the basin, where the mining in the veins of the valleys is broken and the sides of the main valleys are carved together with the collection of debris in the veins of the valleys, which increases the gravity of the basin by increasing sediment movement during runoff (Fig. 7).

Mining is also carried out by making trails in the foothills and slopes of the valleys to facilitate the transport of equipment to the peaks of the highlands and hills in the basin. Mining is carried out here by cutting the ridge and digging the ridge, leaving the sediment residue above the ridge, thus increasing the risk of sediment movement in the upper basin sector of the subriver ranks.

3.2 Water Depth and Speed in the Stream The Water Depth study of the Main Course of the Wadi Alaqi Basin is useful in determining the topography of the bottom of the stream and areas

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Fig. 6 Geographical distribution of mining areas in Wadi Allaqi basin

that can impede water movement and bottom load, and thus can show places to stop and reduce the movement of sediments that torrents may bring from the upper basin of the Alaqi Valley and a crypt towards the main stream of Lake Nasser. In the current study the (WMS, HEC-RAS) and the (AW3D 30 m) were used in a simulation of the water movement in the stream and the water depth. It was able to produce a map showing the water depth within the stream as illustrated by Fig. 8. Based on hydrological analysis of the Wadi Alaqi basin (Gabgaba Valley and Alaqi), the top of the water runoff has been identified in the event of a 45 mm rainfall in a single day, a possibility that may occur in the next 50 years according to the statistical analysis of the

amounts of rain over the last 30 years using a (HyFran Plus) program. The peak runoff at this probability was about 9320 m3/s for the Wadi Alaqi basin and about 8558 m3/s. Based on the top of the runoff that emerged, the depth and speed of water in the main stream was calculated at the confluence of the Alaqi basin and before its estuary in Lake Nasser. The results were as follows: • The main course of the Wadi Alaqi Basin consists of two main basins, the Wadi Alaqi Basin and the Wadi Gabgaba Basin, which meet in the main stream before its estuary in Lake Nasser. • The depths of water in the region are limited to less than 3 m to more than 12 m.

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201

Fig. 7 Forms of mining sites in the Wadi Allaqi basin

• Water in the stream increases in depth in the main stream sector coming from the Gabgaba basin due to the narrowness of the stream, the speed of the flow of water and its tendency to get deeper than expansion. • The course of Wadi Alaqi is less deep than that of Wadi Gabgaba. • The water depths of the main stream are graded after the engagement of the Wadi Alaqi and the Gabgaba Valley, where the depth of the stream in the middle increases and decreases gradually towards the sides of the stream, helping the stream to dock its load on the banks. • Water depths generally differ in the course of Wadi Alaqi from those of Wadi Gabgaba according to depth, and the appearance of rock obstacles to the main stream. Water velocity is an important indicator in the sculpture and river sedimentation processes on

the banks of the valleys. The water velocity characteristics of the main course of the Wadi Gabgaba basin (Fig. 9) and the relational nature of the study area were analyzed using the hydraulic model (HEC-RAS). • Water velocity is limited to the main course of the Wadi Alaqi and Gabgaba basin and to the area of study between less than 0.4 m/s and more than 2 m/s. • The water speed on the banks of the stream and the expanding parts of the main stream is reduced. • Water velocity increases where there are rock obstacles in the main stream, and the steep parts of the stream. • The larger the stream, the lower the water speed in the stream, as parts of the main course of the Gabgaba basin have less water speed than the main course of the Wadi Alaqi

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Fig. 8 Water depth in the main course of the Wadi Alaqi basin and Gabgaba Valley

basin, which narrows its course, helping to increase water speed and impulse. • The dislocated diversion areas are areas of water velocity and the cordoned-off areas are areas of riverine anchoring as shown in the main course of the Wadi Gabgaba basin.

3.3 Ways to Cope with Torrential Hazards Analysis of the hydrological properties of the study area over the next 50 years has shown that it may be exposed to an amount of rainwater as deep as 45.8 mm in a single day, which may result in surface runoff of 1,899,324,320 m3 of

water, as well as the amount of sediment that water may bring with it as a result of large amounts of mining and gold deposits on the Sudanese side, resulting in geomorphological hazards, which needs to be stopped by building a set of dams [9, 10] that absorb this amount of water and sediment together and that are illustrated by Table 4 and Fig. 10. In this study, two dams were designed at the exit of both Wadi Gabgaba and Allaqi, where Wadi Gabgaba needed to create a 29-m-high dam with a base at 196 m above sea level and a length of 1760 m, at the end of the valley before it met the Wadi Allaqi stream, that could accommodate about 1,377,135,109 m3 of water. A dam was built on the exit of Wadi Allaqi before it came into contact with Wadi Gabgaba a 31-m-high,

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203

Fig. 9 Water velocity in the main stream of the Wadi Alaqi Basin and Gabgaba Valley

Table 4 Characteristics of the proposed dams to be built on the exits of the Wadi Allaqi and Gabgaba Basin Wadi name

Base level

Top level

Highest

Reservoir (km3)

Reservoir area (km2)

Length (m)

W. Gabgaba

196

225

29

1,377,135,109

108

1760

W. Allaqi

199

230

31

663,257,388

73.5

1908

1908-m-long valley, its base at 199 m above sea level, and it can accommodate about 663,257,388 m3 of water.

4

Conclusions and Future Direction

The study recommends the following: • A range of dams must be made at the top of the basin to reduce the flow volume of floodplain deposits that torrents may bring.

• The exploration of minerals on the Sudanese side is growing in contrast to its Egyptian counterpart. • The search for gold is reduced in areas where sand abounds in the bellies of the valleys. • The sand accumulated in the belly of the valleys may cause drifting during torrential rains, causing risks to the urban areas and future development of the basin. • The role of high-resolution satellite imagery in the identification of quarrying areas and the fragmentation of rocks due to gold exploration

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Fig. 10 Mining areas in the Wadi Allaqi basin

• •

• •

• • •

• •

has emerged through the analysis of Google Earth images. Torrential water drains the grazed deposits of mining operations downstream. Basaltic and basaltic rock areas are the best areas where gold can be found, but are rugged in mining operations using large machinery. Moving mining gold locations to the areas of dunes and sand sheet. Precious minerals such as gold are present in areas of rock cracks, causing them to be located towards areas that are disadvantaged compared to level areas. Mining processes change the morphology of the valleys and the area, which can lead to geomorphological changes due to humans. The process of quarrying increases in narrow valleys and disappears from large valleys of wide stream level surface. In order to identify areas of fossilization by visual interpretation, there is a difference in the color of the Earth's crust from the satellite image. Mining sites can also be identified by the shape factor, where dust piles from excavations appear in the satellite image. Mining locations can also be determined by the different shape of terrestrial phenomena such as cuts in waterways or sheds in hillsides or mountain peaks.

• Quarrying and searching for gold metal and precious metals change the morphology of the surface and valleys in the region, causing other forms to emerge because of the human factor and human intervention. • Gold exploration on the Egyptian and Sudanese sides is different, as exploration is more severe on the Sudanese side, because of international policy. On the Egyptian side, there is little traffic in wadis and desert areas because of security precautions by not moving in the desert area without high security clearance, which has helped to reduce changes in the surface and morphology of the area. • On the Egyptian side, machinery and light equipment are used that do not significantly affect the morphology and geomorphological forms of the area as compared to the excavation work on the Sudanese side, in which the sides of the waterways are cut, the hills settled and large parts of the ridges cut. • Quarrying may cause new wadis to emerge, others to disappear, and sediments to accumulate. As a result of this study, there is a need to build small dams at dry canyon exits that will reduce the flow of sediment in the waterways towards the Egyptian side. This could lead to the destruction of the current and future development areas at the end of the Wadi Allaqi exit.

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References 1. United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017. Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313) 2. FAO (2021) The state of food security and nutrition in the world 2021. Transforming diets to achieve Food security, improved nutrition and provision healthy and affordable diets for all. Rome. https:// www.fao.org/3/cb4474ar/cb4474arpdf 3. Omran E-SE (2020) Torrents risk in Aswan Governorate, Egypt. In: Negm AM (ed) Flash floods in Egypt. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 205–212 4. Omran E-SE (2020) Egypt’s Sinai Desert cries: flash flood hazard, vulnerability, and mitigation. In: Negm AM (ed) Flash floods in Egypt. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 215–236 5. Omran E-SE (2020) Egypt’s Sinai Desert cries: utilization of flash flood for a sustainable water management. In: Negm AM (ed) Flash floods in Egypt. Springer International Publishing, Cham, pp 237–251

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6. Dandrawy ME, Omran E-SE (2020) Integrated watershed management of Grand Ethiopian Renaissance Dam via watershed modeling system and remote sensing. In: Elbeih SF et al (eds) Environmental remote sensing in Egypt. Springer Geophysics. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-395933_17 7. Mahdavi A, Niknejad M (2014) Site suitability evaluation for ecotourism using MCDM methods and GIS: Case study—Lorestan province, Iran. J Biodiv Environ Sci (JBES) 4(6):425–437 8. Shahrak F et al (2015) Ecotourism zoning in Sistan & Balouchestan by using GIS. J Hosp Tourism Res 44 (2):160–171 9. AL-Maitah KJ (2014) Location of the dams using GIS techniques, a case study of HRH TASNEEM BINT GHAZI for technology research station. In The 9th ed National GIS symposium, Damamm, Saudi Arabia, 28–30 April 10. Saranrom P (2011) Making portable small check dams for water preservation from rainy season up to dry season in eastern region of Thailand. Int J Environ Sci Develop 2(5)

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability of Egyptian Cities El-Sayed E. Omran, Islam M. Gaber, and Tarek M. Elkashef

Abstract

Increased urbanization has an impact on climate change, air pollution, water availability and quality, land use, and waste management. Extreme weather events can be extremely disruptive to complex metropolitan systems, making cities particularly vulnerable to climate change. The quality of life in Sustainable cities and communities (Goal 11) is inextricably linked to how they use and manage the natural resources at their disposal. As a result, the purpose of this chapter is to investigate the climate considerations in the planning and sustainability of the Egyptian Cities. Egypt has been characterized by its appropriate and important geographical location, with the importance of Egypt’s geographical location lying in its ruins on two important maritime outlets, the Red Sea and

E.-S. E. Omran (&) Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]. edu.eg I. M. Gaber
T. M. Elkashef Department of Geography, South Valley University, Qena Branch, Qena 83523, Egypt e-mail: [email protected] T. M. Elkashef e-mail: [email protected]

the Mediterranean Sea, which in turn facilitated the process of trade between three continents—Asia, Africa and Europe. Solar radiation rates averaged 486.1–418.1– 421.5 cal/cm2/day for northern city stations (Cairo–Alexandria–Port Said). From the south to the north, relative humidity has risen from the summer to the winter months. Annual relative humidity values of 45%, 53.2%, 47.6%, and 46.0% have been recorded in northern Egypt’s Cairo, Alexandria, Port Said, and Marsa Matruh, respectively. In the north of Egypt, annual wind velocity rates in time and space between the regions of Egypt were roughly 3.10, 2.90, and 2.81 m/s at Marsa Matruh, Alexandria, and Port Said stations, respectively. It was 1.5 in Cairo. It was roughly 4.4, 2.80 m/s in the central region of Mansoura, Bani Suef, and Arish, respectively. From the south to the north, relative humidity has risen from the summer to the winter months. Annual relative humidity values of 45%, 53.2%, 47.6%, and 46.0% have been recorded in northern Egypt’s Cairo, Alexandria, Port Said, and Marsa Matruh, respectively. In the north of Egypt, annual wind velocity rates in time and space between the regions of Egypt were roughly 3.10, 2.90, and 2.81 m/s at Marsa Matruh, Alexandria, and Port Said stations, respectively. It was 1.5 in Cairo. It was roughly 4.4, 2.80 m/s in the central region of Mansoura, Bani Suef, and Arish, respectively.

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_13

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Keywords

Climate change cities

1


Egypt
Cities
Sustainable

Introduction

Sustainable cities and communities (Goal 11) offers chances for synergies to emerge, including decoupling economic growth from environmental deterioration while also providing jobs and supporting clean energy innovation. The quality of life in cities is inextricably linked to how they use and manage the natural resources at their disposal. The way cities use and manage the natural resources they have at their disposal has a direct impact on their residents’ quality of life. Climate change has a significant impact in metropolitan areas, in which the consequences of one sector have an impact on others. Many global development agendas emphasize the interconnectedness of climate action and urban sustainable development: they must be parallel at all levels and across all sectors, and cities must be supported in their efforts to mainstream climate change and sustainable development into their development plans and strategies. After the development and expansion of cities, the expansion of their functions, the complexity of their activities and the increase in the numbers of their inhabitants, especially after the great industrial revolution, there was an urgent need to regulate and distribute the resources of cities. Thereby reducing the adverse effects of industrial development, which was reflected in environmental pollutants and the waste of the natural resources of most European cities. On the one hand, the consequences of the two world wars and the extensive destruction they have caused to most of the world, the need to manage cities and redistrib [1]. Ensuring the preservation of its resources is being polluted or depleted, thus developing city planning into what we call modern or contemporary planning based on: Planning and balanced distribution of population density, reorganizing city centers,

providing basic public services and various facilities to serve the city’s inhabitants, achieving social justice while preserving the city’s archaeological areas and combining elements of efficiency, beauty and creativity that balance the city’s beauty and planning efficiency at different levels of the city [2]. The authors conclude from the above the role of climate in planning, where the impact of climate and weather on the design of housing has been evident since man began building it in his ancient cultural vows for the obvious reason that one of the main objectives of its construction is to protect against weather conditions [3]. On the other hand, not only does the prevailing climate interfere with the design and direction of housing, but the detailed climate of places chosen for construction can make some places more suitable for housing than others within one type of climate. The variation in the detailed climate is due to local factors such as land rise, water bodies, vegetation, industrial areas or nearby buildings [4]. The topic received attention from UNESCO, when a special symposium was held in 1963 to study the in-room climate in dry and humid areas. A study was published in 1971 on the climate and its role in the design of housing, particularly in line with hot climates. The experience of managing and developing new communities and cities in Egypt suffers from many shortcomings in their performance. This is due in particular to the shortcomings in the stages of the preparation of structural and physical plans. The urban plans for these cities do not take into account the climatic and environmental aspects that necessity to be taken into account and studied during the stages of the development of plans for each land use system, the planning of public utility networks and the distribution of services at different levels, as well as in the planning of motorized. It is considered a branch of climate geography to study the impact of climate on human activity. One of the areas of this geographic study is that city planning and architecture are not limited to city planners and architects, but geography has a prominent role to play as an analyst and an interpreter of elements.

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability …

By studying its impact on the planning process, where it is linked to climate, space and time, by bringing it into contact with the environmental and practical realities of development, and thus promoting physical development. At the beginning of this century, the planning profession was mainly the preserve of architects and architects, but as the size of cities, the expansion of urban environments and the complexity of their environmental, economic and social problems became more complex, with planning devices in cities, especially the major ones, comprising individuals from broad disciplines such as engineering, design, geography, legislation and social [5]. The scientific and technological advances in various areas of life have had a important impact on the planning of housing through the evolution of the methods used in this field. The culture, learning, multiple needs and demands of human beings have been reflected in the planning of settlements that they have taken up. Using the natural and technological resources that can be exploited, as well as his staff, his ideas to provide a safe and comfortable environment. So, the goal of this chapter is to explore the role of climatic factors in city development and sustainability in Egypt. The methods used in this area have evolved to what we call modern or contemporary planning that combines the elements of strength, efficiency, beauty and creativity at different levels [6]. • Identify problems of urban growth of existing cities and develop appropriate solutions. • Urban renewal with the preservation of urban archaeological and heritage buildings. • Planning of new cities according to modern foundations and theories.

2

Materials and Methods

Differences in location, height and shape of extension, as well as surface and background quality, as well as human behavior and diverse activities lead to the different elements of climate

209

at the regional and local levels. It requires the human being and the planner to take into account the climate, to use it to his advantage or to avoid its effects in all walks of life. Otherwise, he or she has to bear the consequences of his or her lack of knowledge. A given climate in a region is formed by many different factors that work together to shape the climate in that region. These factors are as follows:

2.1 Astronomical and Geographic Location Location site means a statement of city centers and their relationship to the surrounding areas or beyond their borders, with which they have economic, social and political relations. The site has two concepts: the astronomical location, which is strictly defined by longitude and latitude. The geographical location is the location of the area for the neighboring territory [7]. Site means the natural characteristics of the area or area represented by the city and includes the surface, the degree of decline of the land on which the city is based, the geological structure and the likelihood that the city’s land will be exposed to earthquakes, volcanoes, the local climate that prevails in the city area and other natural geographic features [8]. The location and site (Fig. 1) have a close relationship. They influence the city in a coherent and integrated manner. They are the basis for the city’s emergence, development and sustainability, and they create a range of urban activities and relationships that form the city’s functional basis. The nature of those relationships may go beyond its domestic framework to the international level, depending on the city’s effectiveness and functioning [9]. Egyptian territory extends over about 10° wide between latitudes; 22° and 32° North, and longitudes 25° and 37° East., with a quarter of its total area to the south of the cancer orbit. This astronomical location shows that most of Egypt’s land is within the dry zone except for a narrow strip in the far north that can be outgrown in the Mediterranean climate region, as well as between

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Fig. 1 Egypt’s astronomical and geographic site 2021

the steps of length. It is like a rectangle in the north-eastern corner of Africa. Geographically, Egypt is bordered to the north by the Mediterranean; on the south by the Egyptian–Sudanese border; on the east by the Red Sea, the Arabian Gulf and the State of Palestine; on the west by the State of Libya. Egypt has an area of (1,019,600) million km2 (General Commission for Egyptian Space, unpublished data, 2021). In addition to the fact that Egypt is part of the Nile Basin, which is reflected in the diversity of its economic activities, which helps to stimulate the movement of people and goods between Egyptian cities, and even a link between Egypt and the rest of the world. It should be noted that the shape of Egypt appears to be completely rectangular [10] for the rectangular form the

coefficient of which is 1.7. Egypt extends in longitudinal form, with an average length of 200 km, with its border with the western and eastern borders, meaning that its base is Aswan province, the province of the New Valley and the province of the Halaib.

2.2 Egypt’s Location Egypt lies at the core of the world (Fig. 2), at the confluence of the continents of the Old World, Asia, Europe and Africa, and borders the State of Libya on the west, the Red Sea and the State of Saudi Arabia and Palestine on the east. It also borders the State of the Sudan on the south, overlooks the Red Sea and the Mediterranean

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability …

Sea. The Gulf of Suez and the Gulf of Aqaba, which have given Egypt an advantage and importance, connect the east and west of the Arab–Asian world, and the Great River links the east and west of the Arab world with the African Nile Valley. The importance of Egypt’s location can be highlighted as follows: 1. Its location contributed to making it an eastern gateway to the Arab world. Therefore, all campaigns targeting the Arab world from the north across the Mediterranean and across the Sinai Peninsula in the east came through Egypt [11]. Egypt, just as it protected many Arab regions against the attacks it had been targeting because of its location. It was considered a barrier to such attacks, and its location, on the other hand, represented a meeting point for civilizations and cultures. 2. This location has increased annual brightness for more than 80% of daylight hours and led

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to occasional solar brightness ranges from the north to the south, where an equal solar brightness line of 10 h is located at 30° north. While an equal solar brightness line of 11 h is located on the north 24 wide circle, this may entail thermal differences between the north and south of Egypt and the resulting variation in humidity, evaporation, atmospheric pressure values and other climatic elements [12]. 3. Making it common has contributed to the nature of the Mediterranean, the Middle East and African countries that have also passed through Egypt many times and civilizations, from the Pharaohs to the Ptolemais and Romans, affecting their culture and cultural and historical identity, owing to the existence of many diverse monuments left by those civilizations (www.sis.gov.eg). Egypt’s geographical position as a meeting point between the continents of the Old World,

Fig. 2 Egypt’s relative position at the heart of the world in 2021

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which is the main motivation behind the arrival of these Powers and the imposition of their control for a long time. On the other hand, Egypt’s position has made it a suitable place for the passage of the three divine religions through them and a meeting of cultural interaction between the countries of the North and the South and the countries of the East and the West. 4. Egypt is an attractive country for investment, because it has many components, the most important of which is its strategic position. It is close to global markets in both Europe and the Middle East. In addition, there are a series of ports in the Mediterranean Sea in Alexandria, Port Said, and in the Red Sea in Ras Shukeir, Safaga, Ain Sokhna, which have contributed to linking the Arab Gulf and European Union countries together. The presence of the Suez Canal as an important waterway and as a rapid link between East and West has greatly attracted investment. In addition, there are a series of ports in the Mediterranean Sea in Alexandria, Port Said, and in the Red Sea in Ras Shukeir, Safaga, Ain Sokhna, which have contributed to linking the Arab Gulf and European Union countries together (www.emdb.gov.eg). Oil is also from the Arabian Gulf, and this has been reinforced by the existence of plants dedicated to the manufacture of petroleum products, which in turn has contributed to the strengthening of trade links with many markets belonging to Arab, European and African countries. 5. The wildlife of Egypt is diverse, and that biodiversity is the result of the location of Egypt as a meeting place for three major geographical ranges, so it includes all the organisms within those ranges. Because of its temperate climate, there are many unique organisms that are unique to Egypt from other countries and enjoy the presence of 470 bird species, including 150 mate and resident species, which include one species endemic to the Red Sea and which is endemic to the Red Sea. It’s known as the Great Norse bird, because of its location on one of the world’s

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6.

7.

8.

9.

main routes for bird migration, as well as the fact that the Suez Canal is one of the most important places for bird convergence in the world. Egypt has an appropriate and important geographical location. The importance of Egypt’s geographical location lies in its ruins on two important maritime outlets, the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, which in turn have facilitated trade between three continents—Asia, Africa and Europe—over thousands of years with the Sinai Peninsula, a gateway to Eastern Egypt, and Egypt’s location in the north of the Nile River, which has contributed significantly to knowledge of the sources of the Nile [11]. The existence of the Suez Canal, excavated in 1879, which in turn made it the most important navigation route in the world, increasing commercial traffic and shortening the time spent on east–west cruises (www. sis.gov.eg). Latitudes and geographic latitudes are among the most important factors contributing to the determination of the climate in a region, thereby identifying the amount of solar radiation exposed to a region, and thus the changes in the climate during the year, the closer to the equator, the higher the temperature [13]. The amounts of solar radiation in the tropics are almost constant throughout the year, so those regions do not experience much climatic change during a year, unlike polar regions where solar radiation is oscillating, exposing them to seasonal climatic changes. The proximity of areas to water bodies plays an important climate-determining factor. Temperatures are constant and of little change, that is, during the summer, winter, or during the night and day, in the vicinity, compared to places far from the water bodies, which in turn experience variations and fluctuations in temperature during the summer and winter or even during the day and night. This is due to the presence of some water bodies (www.atmo.arizona.edu) water bodies are cooled or heated more slowly

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability …

during the day than on land where solar rays are concentrated on a thin layer of dirt, accelerating their heating during the day and cooling during the night. Most absorbed solar energy goes to heat the Earth’s temperature more than land-based areas with moist soil from which water is evaporated when exposed to sunlight. 10. The climate is affected by the topography of the regions, as places on mountain sides are more dry than wind-prone areas, because the air masses that occur over mountain areas move upwards to cool the air on which water vapor condenses to produce rainfall and snow. While those air masses move on the mountain side areas to lose much of their humidity. In addition to increasing temperature, which makes them able to retain moisture in the form of vapor, in addition to which the elevation of areas above sea level is an influence on the nature and composition of the climate [14]. Temperatures in highsea-level areas fall below sea level due to air cooling. The higher the sea level with 300 m, the temperature is decrease by 15 °C, when other climate factors are similar.

2.3 Land Forms Climate elements are influenced by the topography (Fig. 3) of the place in terms of elevation and the shape of the extension either parallel to or perpendicular to the wind. The climate of a region is often determined by the appearance of terrain in general. The surface of the delta is even, with surface levels ranging from 0.95 to 4 m above sea level. The valley appears to be the most extensive basin strip area in Beni Suef Province, 23 km, with a minimum width of about 250 m at the Kalabsha stranglehold. The role of the terrain in the climate of the valley and delta is thus diminished, as both represent a greater extent of the study area with local impacts such as frost, wind direction and speed, in light of which surface manifestations can be illustrated.

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Fig. 3 Geographical distribution of Egypt’s terrain

If the Nile provided agricultural production with the reasons for growth and prosperity, the Sahara ensured the country’s reassurance. This has enabled Egypt’s agricultural civilization to experience determination and continued progress. It is the country’s geographical position that has not made Egypt a fertile oasis; According to some remote oases in the desert, it has made it an important historical center of civilization, and it has been, and continues to be, the confluence of civilizations and global transport routes between different continents, diverse civilizations and diverse environments. It has served as a good guide for an advanced civilization that has spread its fruits in a wide area. The result of the interaction and combination of complex natural and human factors, in our neighborhood related to the conditions of its environment, and in our neighborhood to its location and spatial relations [15].

2.3.1 Delta and Nile Valley The Nile Valley is a narrow rift that cuts Egypt from south to north, from the Wadi Halfa to Cairo. The delta is the flat area that runs from the end of the valley at Cairo to the coast of the Mediterranean Sea, a plain [16]. The area occupied by both the Nile Valley and the Delta in the Pliocene was a mixture of Mediterranean bays, spanning a narrow arm,

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flooded by seawater, in which sediments of that era were placed, calcareous stones formed for much of the time, gradually accumulating until the valley filled and became almost dry except from isolated lakes of little importance [17]. At that time, the waters of the Nile did not come from the tropics and the Abyssinia plateau but from the territories on both sides of Egypt. So the sediments that came into the valley came from the Eastern Sahara and Western Sahara. But then the waters of the tropics and the Abyssinia plateau were able to make their way north, the Nile Stream in Egypt, and reach the Mediterranean Sea. They were able to carry to Egypt the deposits of those areas, particularly the Abyssinian deposits, the soft deposits that make up the Nile silt [18]. The Nile Valley between Halfa and Cairo can be divided into two major sections: The first is the section to the south of the meander of Qena, and the second is the section to the north. The first section extends from an area of Nubian sandstone, for which the waters of the Nile have been able to dig deep into this rock; because Nubian sandstone is rapidly eroded by running water. The Nile Valley in the area south of Aswan is so narrow that, in some quarters, it does not increase in breadth along the river itself, for example in the Kalabsha region, which has benefited from the storage of Nile water after the construction of the Aswan Dam, as has been the construction of the High Dam. Because it is based on both sides of the Nile River and protects the waters of the reservoir from spreading east and west [18]. In the area in the north of Aswan, the valley begins to narrow, and then abruptly expands at Kom Ambu, where it forms a rather large basin, consisting of fine silt deposits propagated by the Nile over former deposits [19]. After Kom Ambu the valley narrows again, widens again at Edfu, and continues gradually to the town of Qena, at which point Libya’s plateau approaches the Nile valley and the river changes direction, descending to the west with a little slope to the south. At the end of the Nile Valley, the area of the fertile plain formed by the river deposits is wide, with an average width of about 15 km [19]. The

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Nile Delta begins at Cairo, where the land level is 18 m above sea level. At this point, the Eastern and Western Plateau edges begin to move away from each other, the Eastern Plateau rim towards Ismailia, and the Western Plateau rim towards Alexandria City. Thus expanding the plain land that makes up the delta, encompassing all the area between the two ridges and the sea. It is a triangular area, expanding to 200 km wide at the Mediterranean coast, and approximately 200 km long from Cairo to the sea. The Delta has two branches, Rasheed and Damietta, which remain from several branches, some of which have been removed by deposit, and others have been transformed into irrigation canals. The Damietta branch is the longest of the two branches, and its length from Al Qanatir Al Khayriyyah to sea is 242 km. The Rashid subdivision is 236 km long. The Rashid subdivision is the two most important branches in terms of the length of the stream and the amount of water carried. The average width of the Rasheed subdivision is 500 m, and the Damietta subdivision is 270 m [20]. The plethora of sediments and the lack of tides in the Mediterranean Sea have helped to speed the delta’s formation, and the delta as a whole is descending gradually towards the Mediterranean Sea, even if it meets it at about its level, so its territory in the north needs to be repaired, and some of the northern delta’s land may be as low as the sea water level as in Lake Mariot, which is three meters below sea level. From the above, the impact of the valley and delta is evident in the climate of the nearby regions, where the temperature is moderate as we turn from the south to the north. Temperatures drop from 41.2 to 25.0 °C. The growing movement of construction and building on the banks of the Nile River to is used to control the climate and use space to create breaks and gardens. The vegetation of agriculture also reduces temperatures as we approach the valley and delta.

2.3.2 Western Desert The Western Sahara of Egypt extends from the Nile Valley east to the Libyan border west, from the Mediterranean Sea north to the Sudan border south. It has an area of approximately two thirds

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability …

of the Egyptian country. It is an expanding desert plateau, with a moderate elevation of less than the Eastern Plateau, on average 400 m above sea level, contains a large number of depressions that fall below the overall plateau level [21]. These depressions are: • Wadi al-Natrun, located in the west of the delta. • The large low operated by the Qattara Depression and Siwa Oasis, extending in an east-west direction just south of the Miocene calcareous formations. • The Low Faiyum, which is the closest of the lows to the Nile Valley, is connected to it through the Howara opening. This low occupies a large portion of Eocene calcareous stone formations. • The oasis is low and Bahariya Oasis lies to the west of the Minya Directorate, approximately 200 km from it. • The low level occupied by the Kharga Oasis and the Al Dakhla Oasis, which is very wide. It is noted that the western plateau contains high areas, such as the area of El Owainat, which lies southwest of Egypt. This area consists of igneous formations, which were able to strip off the Nubian sandstone formations that were above it and appeared on the surface of the Earth. To the north-east of the El Owainat region is another high-rise area known as the Gilf Kebir Plateau, consisting of Nubian concrete stones, and the Western Sahara can be divided into the following areas: Nubian Sandstone Area: It is found in the western plateau, and forms a large plateau that gradually descends northward until it ends with a low outcrop and an inlet. The Nubian Khersan region is higher in the south than in the north, falling from 800 m in the south to 100 m in the north [20]. Eocene calcareous zone: It is a large area that extends west of the Nile and, on the south, oversees the outdoor oasis and the inlet oasis, about 300 m above, then gradually descends northward until it ends at the Qattara Depression and Siwa Oasis, and has fallen to sea level

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approximately. In this part of the western plateau, there is the Farafra, the Faiyum and the Bahariya Oasis [20]. The calcareous zone of Miocene stone: It runs from the western low—occupied by Qattara Depression and Siwa Oasis from an elevation of approximately 200 m to the Mediterranean Sea in the north, gradually descending towards the sea to a level of 50 or 60 m above sea level near the coastal zone. In these three areas, the desert conditions prevail entirely, with the effect of heat and cold sequences in rock fragmentation, the effect of winds in the formation of sand dunes covering large areas of the plateau, and the effect on the formation of depressions found in their various destinations. The region is more severe than the Eastern Sahara because of its extreme drought. That’s why it was a sparsely populated land, although it had some inhabited areas, especially different oases. The water blew up, leading to agricultural life. Some cyclonic rains in the northern outskirts of the western plateau in the late winter and early spring, help to grow some wild plants, such as the flowers that the Maryot region is famous for, and some agricultural yields [22]. Climate conditions vary between the coast of the Red Sea and the Mediterranean Sea, where the effects of the Mediterranean Sea reach into Egypt because there are no natural impediments to the Red Sea. The extension of mountains parallel to the coast of the Red Sea has prevented marine influences from reaching into Egypt. Very high temperatures are observed compared to northern Egypt.

2.3.3 Eastern Desert Between the Nile Valley and the Red Sea, as well as the Gulf of Suez, lies the Eastern Desert and its general decline from east to west. It oversees the Nile Valley with a ridge of 300–400 m above sea level [23]. The eastern parts of this plateau consist of very solid rocks, igneous, and metamorphic. The various erosion factors were not able to carve them, and that’s why they formed high mountains ranging between 1500 and 2000 m high, with this solid mass on the west, a strip of

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Nubian sandstone, whose rocks easily eroded, so that river erosion in its northern part was able to be the famous valley of Qena, a valley running north–south, in a opposite direction and it’s connected to the Nile Valley at Qena meander. The Eastern Desert has been greatly affected by water erosion in rainforest times, being cut down heavily by ancient river streams, divided into many hills and mountain masses. These streams still exist today. • Wadi Alaqi, which connects to the Nile Valley at the town of Asyut. • Wadi Tarfa, which connects to the Nile Valley at Minya. • Wadi Hoof, which connects to the Nile Valley at Halwan. • Degla Valley, which connects to the Nile Valley at Maadi. • The Arraba Valley, which separates the Northern Galala Plateau from the Southern Galala, slopes towards the Gulf of Suez. • The Abu Had Valley, which also descends towards the Gulf of Suez near Jebel El Ghraib. • Wadi el Gemal, descending towards the Red Sea at approximately Kom Ombo latitude. The presence of many valleys in the Eastern Desert has resulted in this plateau being cut off, difficult to connect in the north–south direction [24]. Connections from east to west is relatively easy along these wadis, and the eastern plateau is also marked by its great elevation, being one of Egypt’s highest and most important mountains: • The area of Ataqa, which oversees Suez, has an average elevation of 870 m above sea level. • His North El-Galala Zone, located north of the Arraba Valley, has an average elevation of 1200 m above sea level. • The South El-Galala Zone, located to the south of the Arraba Valley, has an average elevation of 145 m above sea level. In addition to these hills are high peaks ranging from 1500 to 2000 m in height, the most

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important of which are Jabal El Shayb, Jabal Abu Diab, Jabal Hamada and Jabal’Ilbah.

2.3.4 Sinai Peninsula Sinai is separated into three primary sections in terms of terrain: • Southern Section: It is a rugged area of high altitude granite mountains. Mount Catherine reaches a height of 2640 m above sea level and is the highest mountain peak in Egypt. • Middle Section: The central highlands or the Teh Plateau and the valleys of this plateau are gradually descending towards the Mediterranean Sea. • North Section: It includes the area between the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Teh Plateau to the south. It is flat land and an easy area where water resources from the rains from the southern highlands and the hills of the central highlands are abundant. In the southernmost parts of the country is Lake Nasser (Nuba Lake), an industrial lake created from water gathered before the Aswan High Dam. In the northwest, Lake Qarun is one of the largest natural lakes in the country. In the south, the upper reaches of the St. Catherine Mountains fall to freezing, making it a fertile area for tourist activity. In the north of Sinai, temperatures are moderate because of its proximity to the Mediterranean coast [25].

2.4 City’s Functional Structure The city is a metropolitan area where the use of land varies markedly from neighborhood to neighborhood, so each part of it appears to be specialized in a particular function and distinct from the other parts of the city by function, so the city’s residential area seems completely heterogeneous and one journey from commercial heart streets to the outskirts of the city will reveal a range of successive variations. In one city there are residential areas, one for industry, one for business, one for administrative and other services [26]. While the neighborhoods of the city

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability …

vary within them as well. The neighborhoods vary in their social level. There are high-end neighborhoods inhabited by the aristocracy, which are quiet, other neighborhoods of lowincome workers and employees, characterized by noise and activity [27]. There is no doubt that the city’s function is reflected in its revival. This is therefore a special nature of the city, so it has become essential in the study of cities to divide it according to its pattern of land use, or as is common, according to its functional structure. That is, to divide it into different neighborhoods. The city’s functional structure is linked to its developmental stages and often even to the main factors that led to this growth. What are the general manifestations of city neighborhoods [28]. What are the elements and characteristics of the city’s functional structure? The answer to this question includes the need to first identify theories of the division of the city into distinct neighborhoods or areas that reflect the city’s functions and services to its territory. The main causes of land use variation within the city are due to several key factors associated with civil structure, namely commercial, administrative and transport activities [29]. Table 1 Categories of city sizes in Egypt in 2021

Fig. 4 Egypt’s city sizes in 2021

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2.5 Egyptian City Categories According to the 2021 census in 249 city, the study was conducted in the following categories of size (Table 1 and Fig. 4). The table shows that the largest proportion of Egypt’s cities belong to the population group below 50,000 and those metropolitan cities, which are larger than 50,000, account for 20.1% of Egypt’s cities [27].

2.6 Population Functions The total civilian workforce in 2021 was approximately 2229.7 thousand spread over the following economic activities (Table 2 and Fig. 5). Table 3 and Fig. 6 show that the jobs of the inhabitants of the cities of Egypt are trade, restaurants, agriculture, transport, construction, social services, electricity and finance. All cities of Egypt engage in agriculture. If the proportion of people working there varies from city to city, it ranges from 0.1% in Ra’s Garb to 86.0% in Dar al-Salah [30].

Category (per thousand inhabitants)

−50

50+

100 −

200 +

1000 +

Total

Number of cities

170

50

14

8

7

249

%

68.3

20.1

5.6

3.2

2.8

100%

218 Table 2 Economic activities of the inhabitants of the cities of Egypt in 2021

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Number of employee (1000 people)

Agriculture, hunting Mining

%

Order

454.5

20.4

2

21.8

0.98

10

Electricity and water

104.6

4.69

7

Processing industry

44.3

1.99

9

Construction and building

301.3

13.51

4

Commerce, restaurants

616.4

27.64

1

Transport and communication

371.9

16.68

3

72.2

3.23

8

Social service

134.8

6.04

5

Unclear activity

107.9

4.84

6

2229.7

100

–

Finance and insurance

Total

Given that the city’s first economic activity, which employs 50.0% and more of its actual workforce, represents its primary function and is based on the functional classification of this city. Only four of the economic activities of the cities of Egypt have more than 50.0% of the workers in a limited number of these cities, namely, agriculture (34 cities), industry, services (3 cities), mining (3 cities). These cities account for 27.2% of all Egyptian cities. Excluding agricultural cities, which are essentially non-civil trades, the remaining 8 cities represent only 5.0%, but considering that the first and second economic activities of the city together represent the category or the functional identity of this city. The data for the table show that more than one third of Egypt’s cities are in the agriculture and services category, and the second third is in the industry, services, agriculture, and trade categories, which is an early reference to the basic functions of Egypt’s cities, which are: Services, industry, trade and agriculture [31].

2.7 Urban Planning Urban planning plays an important role in the overall development of new and existing societies, as it contributes to the regulation of the

relationship between different sectors in the context of advancing development. Consequently, any failure in the planning process is hampered by the development of communities through which poor planning or re-planning has been achieved. The gap between planning theories and the mechanisms for their application is a factor in the planning process [32]. Egypt is the oldest Arab State and one of the oldest countries in the Middle East to have developed an integrated city planning or urban planning system, which includes institutions based on the planning process. Despite the long history of more than 40 years, which has been linked to the actual practice of urban planning of towns and villages, the situation of urban areas in Egyptian cities is very clearly marked by the general deterioration of public services and facilities. In addition to environmental pollution, which consists of water and air pollution, rising noise and widespread litter on the streets, slums and degradation within cities, urban sprawl in green and open areas, high building and population densities, mixed land uses and asphyxiation on the main hubs [27]. In the late nineteenth century, the Constitution of 1882 established the Councils of County, Municipal and Village Councils and entrusted them with the management of public facilities, such as organization works, roads, hygiene and

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Fig. 5 Egypt’s city population functions in 2021

Table 3 Functional identity of this city

Job category

City

Category

Number

%

Agriculture and service

89

35.7

Service and industry

40

Service and agriculture

City Number

%

Industry and agriculture

9

3.6

16.1

Service and construction

7

2.8

30

12.1

Mining and services

5

2

Service and commerce

25

10.1

Service and transport

4

1.6

Agriculture and commerce

15

6

Industry and commerce

2

0.8

Agriculture and industry

11

4.4

Commerce and service

2

0.8

Industry and service

10

4

Total

249

100

other tasks. In the early twentieth century, Act 145 of 1944 was promulgated for Municipal and Village Councils (Al-Shari’i 1995). The General Authority for Urban Planning is responsible for the formulation of national programmes for the research of strategic plans for urban development at all levels and for the preparation of strategic plans for urban development [33]. Since the establishment of the General Commission for Urban Planning in 1973, Egypt has been adopting the general planning approach until 2021. Some 102 cities have been replanned, with an estimated 42.2% of the total

number of cities estimated at 24 (Table 3 and Fig. 7). The urban planning process in Egypt requires considerable attention to the main components of the city’s urban fabric, although the nature of some of them varies from city to city [31]. That’s as follows: 1. The nature of the distribution of land uses across cities: What’s meant is the process of public use of the land that’s formed for the city areas. (Residential, industrial, commercial and

220

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Fig. 6 Egypt’s city functional categories 2021

Fig. 7 Egyptian cities redesigned until 2021

institutional) The distribution of activities and services within these areas in such a way as to achieve homogeneity and justice, so as to serve the entire population of the city equally. This is done only through statistics and field surveys, comparing them with the city’s general structural plans, and resulting in the foundations, standards and planning legislation governing

the distribution of these activities and services [34].

2.8 Morphology of the City The overall appearance of the city, which changes from time to time throughout its long history,

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability …

and cities in general are in many morphological stages. Each stage has characteristics, models and architectural forms that distinguish it from the other. The cultural heritage that reflects the culture of the city’s inhabitants in this period reflects the urban fabric of the city through the basic scheme of road and communications network, distribution of land uses, detailed schemes of plots, building designs and architectural art [35]. The variation in morphological stages is the result of changes in these components, where basic schemes change from time to time, thus changing land use in terms of distribution and area. The evolution and scientific progress have changed the urban pattern of residential areas, building models, size and height, and materials used in construction, reflecting the architectural art also used in the design of such buildings, as well as the changing street patterns and functional role of the buildings from one period to another [36]. Land use is a human modification of the natural or land environment to a physical environment, such as fields, pastures and residential neighborhoods. One of the most visible recent impacts of land use is urbanization, soil degradation, salinization and desertification. Land use defined as “Total human arrangements, activities and inputs in a specific type of land cover”. Land uses in Egypt are divided into agricultural use, 32.0% of the Egyptian land use group, then Fig. 8 Egyptian land uses 2021

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residential use 29.0%, industrial use 19.0%, transport and communications 10.0%, and the rest of the uses 10.0% (Fig. 8).

2.9 The Physical State of the Buildings Existing cities with planning problems need to study the current urban situation, which reflects the state of the old buildings. This is done through the preparation of detailed maps based on field surveys, and the recording of that information in forms that identify areas that need to be addressed through development, rehabilitation or removal and the construction of new buildings. This may include some buildings in a limited manner and may extend to entire residential neighborhoods, a process that is not easy for the inhabitants of the region. Who often do not want to move elsewhere, which runs counter to the desire of the planner who wants to show the city in a manner appropriate to the urban evolution of scientific and civilizational development [37]. In some respects, the climate interferes with modern urban planning, such as the selection of industrial, recreational and residential areas, the most important elements of climate that are considered in this planning are wind. It is that force industrial areas and waste collection areas

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to be placed in the direction of their departure from residential and recreational neighborhoods [38].

2.10 Historical and Civilizational Buildings The difference in the architectural style of the city is often evident, especially in cities with ancient historical roots, and is thus reflected in mixed layout and architectural patterns. The architecturally distinct buildings have a great place in the population as a sensory and physical feature that reflects their civilization and culture, so the locations of those buildings are identified for preservation and demonstration within the city’s vital and complementary fabric [29]. No matter what the type or size of the dwelling, the climate interferes with the choice of location and the choice of materials to be built and designed, and also the important elements that are usually taken into account in this choice are temperature, solar radiation, wind and rain. It is not only the prevailing climate that interferes with the design and direction of buildings, but the detailed climate of places to be chosen for construction can make some subjects more suitable for housing than others within one type of climate. The variation in the detailed climate from place to place is also due to local factors such as land rise, water bodies, vegetation, industrial areas or nearby housing [39].

2.11 Random Areas One of the major problems facing city planners is the existence of squatter areas scattered around the periphery of cities, especially large and old ones. The solution to this problem is not to provide them with housing, but rather to provide them with jobs that raise their standard of living, preferably to be distributed throughout the city by small groups that lead to their integration into the city’s urban community, or to return them to

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their places of origin and to pass laws that will bring them back to their places of origin [40]. The climate interferes with modern urban planning in some respects, such as the choice of industrial areas, recreational areas and residential areas. The most important elements of climate that are taken into account in this planning are the wind, because it is that dictates the position of industrial areas and waste collection areas in the direction of their departure from residential and recreational neighborhoods. Sea-side moderate winds in coastal cities and low thermal range along coasts are also important factors driving the longitudinal extension of most of these cities along the sea coast and the presence of the most important recreation and hiking areas along the beaches [4].

3

Results

3.1 Solar Radiation The data from Table 4 and Fig. 9 show the following results: Solar radiation rates on the overall average for northern city stations (Cairo–Alexandria–Port Said–Marsa Matruh on 486.1–418.1–421.5–461.5 cal/cm2/day, respectively, as well as some cities including Faiyum– Arish–Bani Suif Aswan–Luxor–Kafr AlSheikh–Mallawi was 520.9–476.2–531.0– 2 531.7–567.6–411.91 cal/cm /day, respectively. At the Edfu–Al-Minya and Qena stations was approximately 530.04–470.6–482.1 cal/cm2/day respectively. The highest solar radiation rates in the northern region were recorded at the Cairo station at 769.5 cal/cm2/day during the month of July, while the rest of the stations in the same region during the same month were 695.4– 632.3–660.8 cal/cm2/day at the marina stations at Marsa Matruh–Alexandria–Port Said. Some cities experienced the highest rates of solar radiation, the highest being at the Beni Suef station, 775.5 cal/cm2/day during July. During July, there are 770.2, 732.5, 692.1 cal/cm2/day in Faiyum, Mansoura, and Al-Arish.

563.1

602.3

623.1

639.5

561.8

615.1

695.1

701.5

705.3

714.3

706.4

709.1

700.9

Marsa Matruh

Arish

Kafr El-Shaikh

Sharm ElSheikh

Cairo

Faiyum

Beni Suef

Siwa

Luxor

Aswan

Al Dakhla

611.2

609.1

606.2

598.1

605.2

604.3

606.2

515.3

478.2

533.3

516.3

518.6

487.1

467.7

470.3

470.2

450.3

468.2

444.6

225.3

344.3

349.1

389.1

384.4

366.7

347.0

334.1

340.1

339.1

310.1

333.8

330.9

309.3

249.9

233.2

313.7

259.4

255.4

227.2

December

Port Said

Winter November

September

October

Autumn

Alexandria

Station

Table 4 Solar radiation rates at selected stations between 1990 and 2021

281.1

266.2

697

236.2

292.3

255.8

229.7

211.8

184.9

247.2

211.1

181.5

218.1

January

298.2

295.3

301.1

265.3

295.1

272.5

257.1

232.8

212.5

255.4

242.6

210.1

224.4

February

382.2

385.1

388.2

355.1

379.7

379.2

331.5

324.2

284.1

321.1

344.1

246.5

285.3

March

Spring

475.4

478.2

479.2

448.2

476.1

479.6

422.3

442.5

365.9

447.7

452.2

377.3

366.7

April

587.2

589.6

592.2

559.6

591

585.3

552.7

511.6

454.1

567.1

516.7

467.6

466.0

May

681.1

689.4

689.4

659.4

685.3

672.1

675.4

601.5

557.6

619.3

608.5

545.4

560.5

June

Summer

772.1

775.1

776.1

745.1

775.5

770.2

769.5

6758

641.4

692.1

695.4

660.8

632.3

July

769.3

772.7

766.2

742.7

764.1

755.1

759.3

673.9

619.4

688.4

683.7

625.4

639.2

August

530

531.7

567.6

507

531

520.9

486.1

956.7

411.9

476.2

461.5

421.5

418.1

Average

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability … 223

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E.-S. E. Omran et al.

Fig. 9 Distribution of solar radiation to Egypt between 1994 and 2010

Some cities also experienced the highest solar radiation rates at the Luxor station at about 776.1 cal/cm2/day during July, with the rest of the stations in the central region and during the same month at 775.5–775.1 cal/cm2/day in Mallawi and Aswan respectively. The highest solar radiation rates were recorded at all stations in the northern, central and southern study regions in July compared to the months of June and August, while solar radiation rates were 769.5 and 660.8 at the northern Cairo and Port Said stations respectively. With the rest being Mansoura and Arish stations. It was 732.5 and 692.1, respectively. The rate of solar radiation at the stations in the southern region was represented by stations Menia and Qena. It was 606.5 and 621.1 respectively.

3.2 Temperature Temperature is one of the factors affecting desertification in Egypt, where every plant requires a small temperature that cannot grow below it, and requires a high temperature that is damaged if the temperature increases above it and the plant grow at the optimal temperature [41]. As linked with all other climatic elements, monthly temperature averages at the chosen stations were about 22.9 °C at the Mansoura station, 23.0 °C at the Faiyum station and 25.5 °C at the Luxor station, as indicated in Table 5. The data for Table 5 and Fig. 10 show the highest normal temperature rates in northern cities at Port Said Station were 35.6 °C during July. The lowest normal temperature in the same

9.0

11.0

11.1

12.5

11.3

11.9

13.2

13.8

12.5

Sharm El-Sheikh

Faiyum

Beni Suef

Siwa

Luxor

Aswan

Al Dakhla

8.5

Arish

Cairo

10.6

Marsa Matruh

Kafr El-Shaikh

8.7

10.3

Port Said

11.4

11.2

11.3

10.5

9.4

11.1

10.0

9.8

7.6

6.1

8.6

8.9

7.0

13.8

12.8

13.7

13.0

12.4

13.2

12.4

11.9

9.4

6.9

10.2

9.7

8.9

18.5

18.8

18.2

17.2

16.7

17.2

16.3

16.6

12.9

11.4

13.7

13.2

12.3

March

February

December

January

Spring

Winter

Alexandria

Station

25.0

24.7

24.9

22.7

21.9

22.6

21.9

22.0

18.2

16.3

19.2

17.9

17.4

April

31.3

30.7

39.0

29.0

27.4

29.4

28.3

27.9

23.8

23.8

26.3

26.7

24.1

May

Table 5 Monthly temperatures averages at selected stations between 1970 and 2021

36.1

34.8

35.1

32.7

31.0

33.5

32.9

32.0

28.3

28.7

32.2

33.4

30.5

June

Summer

37.5

36.9

36.5

34.2

32.9

25.3

34.8

33.9

30.5

34.7

35.2

35.6

33.9

July

37.3

36.7

36.3

33.9

32.6

34.9

34.4

33.2

30.4

32.8

34.7

35.3

33.1

August

33.1

32.9

32.9

30.4

28.8

31.7

30.6

29.4

26.8

27.0

30.4

30.4

27.9

September

Autumn

26.2

26.8

26.8

25.1

23.6

25.9

24.5

23.9

21.3

20.9

24

24.8

20.7

October

18.4

18.5

18.4

17.9

15.7

18.5

17.1

15.7

14.3

13.3

16.6

16.9

13.9

November

25.1

24.9

25.5

23.2

22.0

23.0

22.9

22.3

19.4

19.2

21.8

21.9

19.9

Average

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability … 225

226

area at Arish Station was 7 °C during January, the highest in the rest of Egypt Station et al. Dakhla Station in July was 37.5 °C, and the lowest normal temperature at Arish Station in January was 6.1 °C. Central Delta stations observed the highest normal temperature at Mansoura Station 34.8 °C during July, and the lowest normal temperature within the same area, at Arish Station 6.1 m during January. Stations in southern Egypt experienced the highest normal temperature at the Edfu 37.5 °C during July, while in the central region at the Kafr al-Sheikh 30.5 °C during July. The lowest normal temperature in the south; It was at the Luxor station during the month of January 11.2, and at the same station. In summary Table 5 notes that the highest temperatures are normal at various stations in Egypt, and in both cases during July except for the Faiyum and Minya stations in August.

Fig. 10 Equal temperature lines formed over Egypt between 1990 and 2021

E.-S. E. Omran et al.

3.3 Relative Humidity Relative humidity is expressed in percentage. Relative humidity is directly affected by temperature [42]. Relative humidity is an essential component of the formation of various aquatic phenomena in the atmosphere. Human capacity to withstand air temperature is reduced, when its height is caused by high relative humidity and vice versa in the air. The data for Table 6 and Fig. 11 show: Relative humidity is increasing in the summer months towards the winter months from south to north. Northern Egypt, such as Cairo, Alexandria, Port Said and Morsi, has recorded annual relative humidity rates of 45%, 53.2%, 47.6% and 46.0% respectively. In southern Egypt, the Edfu, Minya and Qena stations were 46.3%, 42.0% and 42.7% respectively, while the moisture of the stations was Kafr Sheikh, Luxor, Minya, and Qena 53.5%, 42.1%, 42.0% and 42.7% respectively.

36.6

32.6

28.7

22.6

31.1

Siwa

Luxor

Aswan

Al Dakhla

32.9

Cairo

Beni Suef

41.6

Kafr El-Shaikh

33.6

26.0

Arish

29.6

26.5

Marsa Matruh

Faiyum

29.3

Sharm El-Sheikh

32.7

Port Said

43.2

30.5

39.4

42.5

47.7

41.4

44.7

35.5

48.7

40.0

39.3

42.7

47.8

59.3

41.4

54.3

58.7

59.6

56.6

57.6

58.9

66.9

59.0

60.3

56.3

65.7

68.3

49.6

63.7

68.6

69.5

65.8

68.9

70.4

75.8

69.0

68.5

68.3

79.6

December

November

September

October

Winter

Autumn

Alexandria

Station

Table 6 Relative humidity rates at selected stations between 1970 and 2021

73.4

49.5

66.8

67.8

68.4

71.6

68.5

73.8

77.9

77.0

71.8

72.6

82.9

January

64.7

46.5

59.4

58.8

59.6

64.9

62.5

59.4

68.8

71.0

66.4

69.4

75.5

February

58.7

36.3

49.5

51.6

49.2

55.6

54.8

51.6

59.5

57.0

57.6

59.9

68.6

March

Spring

48.7

30.8

41.5

39.8

43.8

46.7

44.5

44.7

54.0

54.0

52.3

55.6

60.1

April

35.2

23.7

29.6

32.2

33.6

34.6

35.8

33.9

42.8

44.0

35.8

39.4

44.5

May

26.9

19.9

24.5

27.9

28.6

26.7

31.7

26.4

34.2

37.0

25.8

26.6

28.8

June

Summer

25.8

17.5

23.4

27.8

29.3

25.8

29.7

25.8

35.5

24.0

24.2

25.0

25.6

July

25.6

17.9

24.1

30.4

32.5

25.7

28.8

26.8

35.7

22.0

23.9

25.9

26.9

August

46.7

32.2

42.1

44.9

46.5

45.4

46.8

45

53.5

48.3

46

47.6

53.2

Average

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability … 227

228

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Fig. 11 Equal relative humidity lines in Egypt between 1990 and 2021

In some regions of Egypt, 44.1%, 48.3% and 53.5%, respectively, were in Edfu, Minya and Qana stations, 46.3%, 42.0% and 42.7% respectively. The highest monthly rate was recorded at Alexandria Station 82.9% during January. The highest relative humidity rate was recorded at Faiyum Station at 71.6% during January. The lowest et al. Mansura Station at 26.4% during June, while the highest relative humidity rate in the southern region was recorded at Edfu Station during June at 26.9%, and the lowest relative humidity rate at Aswan Station at 17.5.

3.4 Wind Wind is the flexible and efficient medium for the transfer of climatic effects from surplus to deficiency areas, which has a clear impact on the way of life, especially in residential communities.

Wind is the horizontal movement of air and parallel to the surface of the Earth and is called aerobic convergence. This differs from the vertical movement of the air, which appears as upward and downward air currents observed from Table 7 and Figs. 12 and 13. By examining the data of Table 7 and Figs. 12 and 13, the following facts are evident: Annual wind velocity rates in time and space between the regions of Egypt were around 3.10, 2.90 and 2.81 m/s, respectively, in the north of Egypt at Marsa Matruh, Alexandria and Port Said stations, while at Cairo they were 1.5, respectively. In the central region of Mansoura, Bani Suef and Arish they were approximately 4.4, 2.80 m/s respectively. 1. The rate of wind speeds in the southern region at the Edfu–Minya–Qena stations was about 3.30-, 3.90-, 4.40 m/s.

1.4

2.2

1.2

3.2

2.8

2.7

3.1

3.5

Luxor

Aswan

Mallawi

Edfu

Minya

Qena

3.5

Arish

Beni Suef

2.3

Mansoura

Kafr El-Shaikh

1.4

2.5

Faiyum

1.4

Port Said

Marsa Matruh

2.3

Alexandria

3.6

3.2

2.8

2.9

3.4

1.5

2.6

1.5

3.6

2.5

2.6

1.6

2.0

2.8

4.3

3.6

3.2

3.4

3.7

1.7

2.8

1.9

4.3

3.2

3.0

1.8

1.8

3.5

1.3

February

4.2

3.7

3.5

3.9

4.3

2.0

3.2

2.3

4.2

3.3

3.3

2.6

1.7

3.4

1.3

March

1.4

January

December

1.1

Spring

Winter

Cairo

Average

4.3

3.9

3.7

3.8

4.5

2.1

3.3

1.9

4.3

3.2

3.3

1.9

1.9

3.1

1.8

April

Table 7 Monthly and annual wind speed rates in Egypt for 1950–2021

4.3

4.2

3.6

4.2

4.7

2.3

3.0

2.1

4.3

2.7

3.4

2.4

2.3

3.5

2.1

May

5.4

5.1

3.9

5.8

5.6

2.9

3.6

2.6

5.4

3.2

3.9

2.8

2.2

3.0

1.9

June

Summer

5.7

5.1

3.7

5.7

5.8

2.8

3.7

2.7

5.7

3.5

4.1

2.7

2.1

2.9

1.8

July

5.2

4.7

3.5

5.2

5.3

2.6

2.9

2.1

5.2

2.8

3.6

2.5

1.9

2.7

1.4

August

4.4

3.9

3.2

3.7

4.2

1.9

2.4

1.6

4.4

1.9

2.7

1.5

1.4

2.6

1.3

September

Autumn

3.7

3.0

2.9

3.3

3.5

1.5

2.3

1.4

3.7

1.9

2.6

1.6

1.8

2.6

1.1

October

3.6

3.2

2.5

3.1

3.3

1.4

2.1

1.2

3.6

1.7

2.5

1.8

1.6

2.5

1.1

November

4.4

3.9

3.3

4.0

4.3

2.0

2.8

4.4

1.9

4.4

2.7

3.1

2.81

2.9

1.5

Station

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability … 229

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E.-S. E. Omran et al.

Fig. 12 Annual wind gusts were formed at some stations in the 2021 study area

Wind speeds within the northern region were recorded at the Alexandria 2.90 m/s station, while in the central region the highest wind speeds were recorded at the Mallawi and Aswan station (5.8 m/s) during June and July. The stations in southern Egypt experienced the highest wind speed rate at the station at Mallawi and Aswan. Wind speeds are decreasing from the south to the north of Egypt as a result of its pelvic position, and the northern region is causing wind movements to the south of Egypt, which increases the wind speed.

3.5 Rain Rain is one of the most significant forms of precipitation in the study area. The following results are evident (Table 8 and Fig. 14): The monthly and annual rates for the number of rainy days in northern Egypt, particularly at the Cairo and Beni Suef stations in central Egypt, are as high as 4.6, and the number of rainy days in the interior and south of the continental tropical climate range is as low as 0.5, at the Edfu, Malawi and Minya stations, and at the Marsa

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability …

231

Fig. 13 Average annual wind speed in Egypt is 13 [40]

Matrah and Kafr al-Sheikh, owing to the increased drought of the tropical climate range [43]. The number of rainy days in the north–south direction is reduced due to the transition from the subtropical to the highly dry continental tropical climates, on the one hand, and further away from the cyclonic activity zone. On the other hand, the annual average number of rainy days at Cairo Station was 4.6 days, while 3 days were recorded at Alexandria Station and 0.5 days at Minya Station. Most precipitation falls in December, so winter is the heaviest season of the year, followed by spring and absence in autumn and summer. Rainfall varies from year to year and

monthly distribution so that it is difficult to determine the month in which the top of the rain appears.

4

Discussion

The climatic characteristics of the site are among the most important natural factors to be taken into account when choosing the location of the dwelling and include solar radiation, atmospheric pressure, heat, wind and rain. The importance and impact of the elements of the climate vary from location to location [44] and from one natural and human environment to another may be an important element in the cold upper

5.4

1.7

1.5

1.3

4.9

Mallawi

Edfu

Minya

Qena

9

5

Luxor

9.1

Beni Suef

Aswan

7.2

1.5

Kafr El-Shaikh

2.2

0.8

0.8

1

2.9

0.9

2.9

5.4

7.1

0.9

9

9.1

Faiyum

4.9

1.2

Marsa Matruh

2.9

5.4

Mansoura

4.9

Arish

9

Alexandria

Port Said

November

3.2

0.4

0.4

0.6

3.2

2.8

5.5

0.4

3.2

2.9

5

0.4

3.2

2.4

5.1

1.8

0.4

0.5

0.4

1.8

1.5

3.6

0.4

1.8

1.5

3.6

0.4

1.8

1.5

3.6

December

October

7

September

9.5

Winter

Autumn

Cairo

Station

Table 8 Rainfall rates in Egypt during 2000–2021

January

0.8

0.5

0.4

0.5

0.8

1.3

2

0.5

0.8

1.3

2

0.5

0.8

1.3

2

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.7

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.7

0.1

0.2

0.1

0.7

February

0.5

0.1

0.3

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.4

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.4

0.1

0.1

0.1

0.4

March

Spring

0.1

0

0

0

0.1

1

0.6

0

0.1

1

0.6

0

0.1

1

0.6

April

2.1

0.2

0.2

0.1

2

0.6

2.2

0.1

2

0.6

2.2

0.1

2

0.6

2.2

May

4.2

0.4

0.4

0.4

4.2

2.5

6.7

0.5

4

2.4

6.7

0.5

4.4

2.5

6.7

June

Summer

4.1

0.6

0.4

0.6

4.1

4.3

7.5

0.6

4.3

4.3

7.5

0.6

4.2

4.3

7.5

July

4.4

0.7

0.5

0.7

4.1

7.6

9.5

0.7

4.2

7.6

9.5

0.7

4.2

7.6

9.5

August

2.4

0.5

0.5

0.5

2.4

3

4.6

0.5

2.4

3

4.5

0.5

2.4

3

4.6

Average

232 E.-S. E. Omran et al.

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability …

233

Fig. 14 Equal rainfall lines formed for Egypt between 1990 and 2021

displays of the Earth’s surface, but less so in the moderately airy middle displays or undesirable in the hot lower displays [45].

4.1 Solar Radiation On the Earth’s surface, the Sun is the primary source of energy and life, and this energy comes from the Sun is responsible for all weather phenomena in the atmosphere. Solar radiation in the general sense of radiation energy released by the Sun in all directions. This energy is responsible for thermal energy on the Earth’s surface and atmosphere. The amount of solar radiation that reaches the surface of the Earth fluctuates from one geographical area to another, due to the different amount of radiation fall angle that reaches the Earth from one season to another where it increases. The amount of rays also varies with the number of daily sunshine hours. The amount of

solar rays reaching the Earth’s surface is affected by the dispersion of water and plant bodies and the nature and colors of the rock forming the Earth’s surface. In general, the white surfaces reflect the greatest amount of rays falling on them, as opposed to black surfaces absorbing a large amount of rays falling on them, and soft surfaces reflect a greater amount of rays reflected in rough surfaces [46]. The influence of the solar radiation component is limited in choosing the location of the ornament if the area is generally flat, empty or sparsely wooded, as in desert areas where the whole region is exposed to equal solar radiation [47]. In regions of varying terrain where there are high heights that prevent solar rays from reaching its vicinity, especially in the north or south, for example; Mountains in the northern half of the Earth, stretching from east to west, prevent solar rays from reaching the lands in the northern foothills, while mountains in the south of the Earth from east to west prevent solar rays from

234

reaching the southern surfaces and nearby lands, and dense trees from reaching the Earth’s solar rays, unlike exposed areas.

4.2 Relation of Radiation to the Sustainability of Cities Sunlight is considered to have a strong and direct impact on human life, and its Earth force yield of about 50% of the original power is determined by several factors: Direct radiation and radiation from the Earth’s surface or from clouds and rays absorbed by the atmosphere [48]. Together, the Earth’s thermal balance is formed and protected in two phases: Reduction of direct and reflective rays falling on the facades of the building, by providing the buildings with clusters of trees and shrubs of perennial sunlight before they reach the walls of the building and shading them, planting green areas of palm around the building, resulting in no reflection of the light rays into the walls, as well as reducing the intensity of decay in the surrounding logic, and finding bodies of water [49]. Protection of building against rays, affected by several factors: The centerpiece of the longitudinal building would preferably take the direction east–west, that is, the longitudinal facade is north. The sunlight falls on one long facade is south. The northern part takes the amount of heat in the extremely hot period, and the southern one takes more heat in the cold period. Several experiments have been conducted to the most appropriate shape of the building and of different areas. The shape and mass of the building are of great importance in determining the amount of shadows in the building [46]. The surface of the building is exposed to direct sunlight throughout the daytime hours. • Covering the upper surface of the ceiling with a sunlight reflector for the transmission of thermal energy resulting from the fall of the rays. This requires continuous maintenance. • The roof is constructed of two tiles completely separated from each other, leaving a vacuum

E.-S. E. Omran et al.

for the movement of completely free air, and here the upper tile is the canopy that protects the main surface or the lower tile of the sun with the air layer between them acting as the thermal insulation [50]. • The use of insulation material such as silton or styropore placed above concrete tiles and the use of water machine guns on roofs, where the temperature of the roof is reduced as a result of evaporation and the lower surface outside the walls of the building (capuli) is covered by a dark-colored ray-absorbing material. The walls are also exposed to a lower amount of sunlight than the ceiling due to their different exposure to the Sun depending on their direction during daylight hours. So for the walls it is preferable to use a non-soft surface, such as bleaching, or protruding. So that the pros drop a shadow that may reach the entire surface of the interface when needed [18]. Applying to Egyptian cities, it noted the large stretch of coastal cities along the north coast, the Red Sea coast, and along the banks of the Nile River [51].

4.3 Temperature When a amount of sunlight falls onto a wall, part of that ray is reflected back into the perimeter wall, while the other part is absorbed into energy that first heats the outer surface of the wall and then into the rest of it to reach the inner air of the building [46]. The heat transfer to and from the building takes four different forms: • Conduction is the flow of heat through the molecules of the material from the larger part of the thermal energy to the lower part of the thermal energy [46]. • Convection: It means the flow of the hot matter molecules themselves from place to place and a change in their thermal content. • Thermal radiation is the transfer of heat during a given vacuum by electromagnetic waves. • Evaporation and condensation.

Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability …

For dry hot zones, the role of the exterior in determining the amount of heat transferred to and from the building depends on the choice of its material according to its thermal properties and the way it is designed. Increasing the heat resistance of the material by reducing the heat intensity from the outside to the inside and vice versa and the color works [52]. The density of the building material raises its heat resistance. The use of heavy materials with a large thermal capacity increases the time lag, which keeps temperatures constant inside for as long as possible. The use of bladed or double walls gives good results to reduce heat penetration. The air trapped between the two parts of it acts as a thermal buffer. It is of lightweight with the potential to use multiple layers and various form [38]. Applying to Egyptian cities, it has been observed that most of the cities, especially the new ones, extend along the northern coast of Egypt, and the proportion of cities created in desert areas is almost non-existent as temperatures rise.

4.4 Relative Humidity Has to Do with City Sustainability It is known that if the humidity of the atmosphere is below the appropriate limit and for a long period of time, it affects the outer skin of the human body. Therefore, hot zones have maintained humidity in the atmosphere at a reasonable level that is comfortable and avoids the adverse consequences of drought [53]. In this regard, natural methods of environmental control have been used and divided into two groups: Methods used inside the building, hydrating the air by the composer and methods used outside the building, in which the air is supplied with moisture before entering the building. These methods do not fundamentally deviate from the methods used internally to moisturize, and their moisture is obtained by spraying the surrounding plants and using the water basins and placing them in the

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prevailing wind path, providing the air with moisture before entering the building and applying to the cities.

4.5 The Relationship of Wind to City Sustainability There are three main factors that generally affect wind movement: the difference in atmospheric pressure and the roughness of the Earth’s surface. The nature of the territory, such as terrain, clusters of trees and forests, and the shape and mass of urban clusters, also have a direct effect on changing the original form of wind movement, which affects the movement of air in a location where the blocks of buildings are related to each other, as well as the position of plants and trees for them [54]. Applied to Egyptian cities, the shape, mass and position of the building affect the direction of the wind in the form of the flow of air around it. Spotted buildings achieve more regular air movement and reduce silence. Ventilation also has an impact on aperture design (1) RADIO, 2013. Studies conducted to better position the aperture for wind direction to optimize ventilation have shown the following: When there are two vents with opposite walls in a room, and one of these vents is perpendicular to the wind, the air flows directly from these vents to the corresponding vent, forming an air current that causes some inconvenience. This difference leads to heterogeneity of ventilation in the vacuum of the room, and when the vents of the same previous position are opposite, but tilted on the wind, most air volume passes and moves through the vacuum [55]. With the exception of the area adjacent to the source, the wind spreads the contaminated material by the air, moves it away and abates its concentration, reducing the risk of pollution. Plants and trees perform the purification process with great success, filtering the atmosphere and absorbing the smells, thereby reducing pollution.

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4.6 The Relationship of Rain to the Sustainability of Cities Rainfall is the measurement, understanding and prediction of rainfall distribution across different regions of the planet, atmospheric pressure factor, humidity, terrain, cloud type and rainfall volume, through direct measurement or remote sensing data [30]. Current techniques predict precise rainfall within three or four days in advance using digital weather forecasting and fixed-orbit satellites collect visible and invisible wavelength data (using Infrared waves). To measure real precipitation at a specific location by estimating cloud blight, water content and rainfall-related probability. The geographic distribution of rain follows significantly factors such as climate type, terrain and environmental humidity in mountain areas, heavy precipitation occurs where the tilting flow is as high as possible with the direction of terrain-facing winds at altitude [31]. On the other side of the mountain where the direction of descent is, we can find desert climates as a result of dry air caused by compressive heat bringing the movement of the monsoon basin or the range of convergence between the two orbits of the rainy seasons to the seven savanna regions [26]. Applying to Egyptian cities, the impact of urban thermal islands increases rainfall in terms of quantity, intensity and wind direction in cities. Global warming may also cause changes in precipitation patterns, including wetter conditions at high latitudes and in some humid tropics, drier conditions in subtropics and mid-latitudes [33].

The highest normal temperature rates were recorded in northern cities at Port Said station in July, and the lowest normal temperature in the same area at Arish station in January. Relative humidity has increased from the summer months to the winter months from the south to the north. Northern Egypt, such as Cairo, Alexandria, Port Said and Marsa Matruh, has recorded annual relative humidity rates of 45%, 53.2%, 47.6% and 46.0% respectively. Annual wind velocity rates in time and space between the regions of Egypt were around 3.10, 2.90 and 2.81 m/s, respectively, in the north of Egypt at Marsa Matruh, Alexandria and Port Said stations. At Cairo it was 1.5. While in the central region of Mansoura, Bani Suef and Arish, it was approximately 4.4, 2.80 m/s respectively. The monthly and annual rates for the number of rainy days in northern Egypt, in particular at the Cairo and Beni Suef stations in central Egypt, have increased at the same rates in the coastal areas by as much as 4.6, and the number of rainy days in the interior and south of the continental tropical climate range has been reduced to 0.5 days at the Edfu, Malawi and Minya stations, the Marsa Matruh and Kafr Sheikh. The tropical climate in which these regions are located, on the one hand, and the high level of condensation for most of the year, on the other, are exceptions to the central Cairo and Beni Suef stations, which recorded a relatively high rate of 4.6 and 4.6% of the general average, respectively, owing to the arrival of cold air masses in these areas and their exposure to emerging air depressions in the eastern Mediterranean.

5

References

Conclusion

Egyptian cities have multiple functions: services, industry, trade, agriculture, transport and construction, as well as finance, electricity and mining. It ranged from 0.1% in Ras Garb to 86.0% in Dar es Salaam. Solar radiation rates at northern city stations (Cairo–Alexandria–Port Said) with averaged 486.1–418.1–421.5 cal/cm2/day, respectively.

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Education for Sustainable Development, Best Practices Towards Fulfilling Egypt’s Vision 2030 Nehal L. Khalil

Abstract

This chapter provides theoritical background about the sustainable development goals SDGs from which Egypt’s Vision 2030 is derived. Many efforts have been made to raise the awareness of the SDGs in different educational institutions in Egypt. This chapter sheds the light on some of the initiatives aiming at achieving the SDGs utilizing principles of Education for Sustainable Development (ESD). Three case studies are presented where SDGs were introduced in curricula in elementary level, graduate level and post graduate level. Insights for future implementations are discussed. Keywords




Sustainable development goals (SDGs) Education for sustainable development (ESD) Reorienting curricula Best practices




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Introduction

In 1992 The United Nations held a Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the ‘Earth Summit’ in Rio de

N. L. Khalil (&) Educational Psychology Department, Suez Canal University, Ismailia, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]

Janeiro, Brazil with the participation of 179 countries. The primary objective of the Rio ‘Earth Summit’ was to produce a comprehensive plan of action to build a global partnership for sustainable development to improve human lives and protect the environment.

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From MDGs to SDGs

The Millennium Summit was held in New York in 2000, where the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were presented as follows: 1. To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. 2. To achieve universal primary education. 3. To promote gender equality and empower women. 4. To reduce child mortality. 5. To improve maternal health. 6. To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases. 7. To ensure environmental sustainability. 8. To develop a global partnership for development. The MDGs were planned to be achieved by 2015, however the UN report on MDGs in 2015 showed that progress in MDGs has been uneven across regions and countries, leaving profound gaps. Millions of people are being left behind, especially the poorest and those disadvantaged because of their sex, age, disability, ethnicity or

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_14

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geographic location. Therefore, efforts were 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts by regulating emissions and needed to reach the most vulnerable people [1]. promoting developments in renewable energy. 2.1 SDGs Development and Efforts 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable Due to the difficiencies in MDGs achievement development. levels worldwide, the UN presented the Sus- 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use tainable Development Goals SDGs in the summit of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage that was held in New York in September 2015. forests, combat desertification, and halt and The 17 goals for sustainable development were reverse land degradation and halt biodiveradapted by all United Nations member states that sity loss. agreed to taking action by all countries—devel- 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for oped and developing—in a global partnersustainable development, provide access to ship. They recognize the SDGs as an ambitious justice for all and build effective, accountable and universal agenda to transform our world and inclusive institutions at all levels. through ending poverty and other deprivations, 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and improving health and education, reducing revitalize the global partnership for sustaininequality, and enhancing economic growth. able development [2]. The 17 SDGs are: 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere. 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition, and promote sustainable 3 ESD: A Way to the Future agriculture. 3. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being UNESCO declared its role achieving the goals of sustainable development through the four major for all at all ages. 4. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality edu- thrusts of ESD: cation and promote lifelong learning oppor- 1. Improving quality basic education; 2. Reorienting educational programs; tunities for all. 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all 3. Developing public understanding and awareness; women and girls. 4. Providing training. 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, susempowers learners with knowledge, skills, values tainable and modern energy for all. 8. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable and attitudes to take informed decisions and make economic growth, full and productive responsible actions for environmental integrity, economic viability and a just society. employment and decent work for all. Education for Sustainable Development is a 9. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization, and foster lifelong learning process and an integral part of quality education. It enhances the cognitive, innovation. social and emotional and behavioral dimensions 10. Reduce income inequality within and among of learning. It is holistic and transformational, countries. 11. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, and encompasses learning content and outcomes, pedagogy and the learning environment itself. safe, resilient, and sustainable. The ESD for 2030 roadmap aims at supporting 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and prothe role of education to ensure the actualization of duction patterns.

Education for Sustainable Development, Best Practices Towards …

SDGs which will lead to a more just and sustainable world. ESD for 2030 outlines actions in five areas: policy, learning environments, building capacities of educators, youth and local level action, and societal transformation required to address the urgent sustainability challenges. It also underlines six key areas of implementation: country initiatives on ESD for 2030, ESD for 2030 Network, communication and advocacy, tracking issues and trends, mobilizing resources, and monitoring the progress [3]. In Egypt, the model of Child University is exemplary in terms of country level initiatives; as it uses education as a means for equipping young children with the necessary knowledge to achieve SDGs, and to transform society by building active citizens and leaders of the future. The sustainable development strategy, Egypt Vision 2030, has set three main objectives: 1. Improving the Educational System’s Quality to Conform to International Systems 2. Availing Education for All Without Discrimination 3. Enhancing Competitiveness of the Educational Systems and its Outputs. UNESCO stated five pillars for education for sustainable development: 1. Learning to know This pillar focuses on knowledge, values, and skills to respect and search for knowledge and wisdom. Under this pillar many skills can be covered and integrated in the teaching and learning process; for example, learn to learn. Acquire a taste for learning throughout life. Develop critical thinking. Acquire tools for understanding the world. Understand sustainability concepts and issues.

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process; for example, see oneself as the main actor in defining positive outcomes for the future. Encourage discovery and experimentation. Acquire universally shared values. Develop one’s personality, self-identity, self-knowledge and self-fulfillment. Be able to act with greater autonomy, judgment and personal responsibility. 3. Learning to live together This pillar focuses on knowledge, values and skills for international, intercultural and community cooperation and peace. Under this pillar many skills can be covered and integrated in the teaching and learning process; for example, participate and cooperate with others in increasingly pluralistic, multi-cultural societies. Develop an understanding of other people and their histories, traditions, beliefs, values and cultures. Tolerate, respect, welcome, embrace, and even celebrate difference and diversity in people. Respond constructively to the cultural diversity and economic disparity found around the world. Be able to cope with tension, exclusion, conflict, violence, and terrorism situations. 4. Learning to do This pillar focuses on knowledge, values and skills for active engagement in productive employment and recreation. Under this pillar many skills can be covered and integrated in the teaching and learning process; for example, be an actor as well as thinker. Understand and act on global and local sustainable development issues. Acquire technical and professional training. Apply learned knowledge in daily life. Be able to act creatively and responsibly in one’s environment. 5. Learning to transform one self and society

2. Learning to be This pillar focuses on knowledge, values and skills for personal and family well-being. Under this pillar many skills can be covered and integrated in the teaching and learning

This pillar focuses on knowledge, values, and skills to transform attitudes and lifestyles. Under this pillar many skills can be covered and integrated in the teaching and learning process; for example, Work toward a gender neutral,

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nondiscriminatory society. Develop the ability and will to integrate sustainable lifestyles for ourselves and others. Promote behaviors and practices that minimize our ecological footprint on the world around us. Be respectful of the Earth and life in all its diversity. Act to achieve social solidarity. Promote democracy in a society where peace prevails. ESD is recognized as a key enabler of all Sustainable Development Goals and achieves its purpose by transforming society. ESD also empowers people of all genders, ages, present and future generations, while respecting cultural diversity.

3.1 Theory into Practice In order to employ ESD pillars in education, innovative learning and teaching methodologies were utilized and implemented. The rational of using innovative teaching and learning methodologies relates to the nature of ESD as students need to contextualize their learning into their thinking and alter their behavior according to the change in their mindset, therefore the used methodologies were essential. For example service based learning which is an educational approach where a student learns theories in the classroom and at the same time volunteers with an agency (usually a non-profit or social service group) and engages in reflection activities to deepen their understanding of what is being taught. service based learning is suitable for learning to know and to do, in the same time as students provide services to their local communities, they will practice learning to transform oneself and society, this will eventually lead to learning to BE through changing their personalities into being more involved in the local community.

3.2 Best Practices In the following section a case study is presented as a model of best practices for using education for sustainable development with pre-school children. This activity focused on the Little

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Earth Charter (LEC), a document with eight principles powering a global movement aiming to turn conscience into action for a thriving earth. The Earth Charter was created in 2000 with the aim of developing a just, sustainable and peaceful society for the twenty-first century. Many governments, businesses, institutions, world organizations like UNESCO and individuals endorsed the earth charter through various activities and initiatives. The mission of the little earth charter states “to establish a sound ethical foundation for the emerging global society…” which means bringing that foundation to children aged 4–8. The purpose of the LEC is to help teachers convey its universal principles to children at an early age, with a view to becoming responsible earth stewards for a sustainable future. The principles of the little earth charter are: 1. Life Life means respecting and caring for all living things, no matter how big or how small. All life is important, not just human life, so treat all living things with respect and consideration. 2. Interconnected The Interconnected Principle means that everything is connected to everything else. Each and every person and living creature has its own special qualities. We all have a place on this earth and we all need each other. 3. Family The Principle of Family stresses that everyone in the human family is well treated. In other words working with others to make sure that all boys and girls have a home, clean water to drink, food to eat, a school to go to and a doctor to look after them if they are sick. 4. Past The Principle of the Past means that you will learn from all the different people who have lived

Education for Sustainable Development, Best Practices Towards …

before you, discovering what made their lives good and what made their lives difficult and their gifts of wisdom will inspire you. 5. Earth The Principle of the Earth means that you promise to take care of this Earth, the water, the air, the soil and all living things and you will do everything in your power to live in a way that is neither wasteful nor greedy. The Earth is the home we share.

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of the problems in Egypt like climate change, poverty, slums, and spread of waste. Videos and lectures were used to introduce the little earth charter to students for two weeks, each week the lecture last for two hours. Students were given time to reflect on what they learnt and came up with activities and learning experiences to raise the children’s awareness of the little earth charter principles. A total of nine activities were planned, implemented and evaluated to be used in other schools in Ismailia governorate. Figure 1 shows some preschool children planting seeds.

6. Peace The Principle of Peace means that you promise to live in peace and to cooperate with others to resolve conflicts in a non-violent way. If you do have a conflict, you must seek solutions that are fair to everyone. 7. Love The Principle of Love means that you promise to be truthful and kind to others, build trust amongst those who know you, and understand the ways of each person you meet. It means that you will take responsibility for your actions in all things.

4

Infusing Sustainability in Curricula

There have been many efforts by different authorities to achieve the 17 SDGs, these efforts had different approaches. The first approach was to reorient curriculum to address sustainability. We will provide two models for reorienting curriculum to address sustainability at the basic education and university levels.

4.1 Practices from Primary Education Level

8. Future The Principle of the Future means that you will do everything possible in your lifetime to make sure that everyone now and in the future can live together in health, peace and harmony on this beautiful Earth. LEC Case Study The LEC is introduced to 17 students in the faculty of education, Suez Canal University, majoring in preschool education. They were asked to reflect on the eight principles of the little earth charter and come up with activities and planned learning experiences through which the little earth charter can be introduced to preschool children (aged 4–6). Transformative learning process is utilized to help participants acknowledge experience and understand the emotions related to some

EduCamp Project and Children University In 2010 the European commission funded an international project under TEMPUS program that included many partners from Germany, Portugal, Ireland and Egypt. The project aimed at developing educational activities to promote the knowledge of sustainability of school children. These activities are aligned with the curriculum taught at the Egyptian schools from grade 4–12. The project’s main plan was to train teachers and university staff members who work in the faculties of education and teach students who will be the in-service teachers after graduation. Using the Training Of Trainers (TOT) approach guaranteed the increase in the numbers of teachers with time. The training workshops took place in the universities participating in the project; namely;

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Fig. 1 Planting seeds in an activity that covers principle “earth”

University of Graz (Austria), RWTH Aachen University (Germany), University of Limerick (Ireland) and CEIFA (NGO, Portugal). The training workshops were thematic where every workshop focused on one of the major fields in sustainability; Education for sustainable development, biodiversity, agriculture, water and energy. Through these workshops four toolkits were developed to address the five dimensions; general ESD topics (our world), biodiversity, agriculture, water and energy that introduce topics and concepts related to sustainability and at the same time align with the curriculum taught at the Egyptian schools. Activities were added in different subject matters like Arabic language, math, religion, science, social studies, arts, music and physical education. Some of the concepts that were introduced to the students under the title “our world”: sustainable and unsustainable behaviors, diversity and respect, sustainable land use, farming and building, living things around us, carbon cycle and carbon footprint. The following topics were introduced in the second dimension (biodiversity): food chains, energy transfer, habitual awareness, conservation and preservation of natural habitats, endangered

species, globalization and interdependence, social justice and equity. In the third dimension (agriculture) the following topics were introduced: nutrition and food groups, food safety, quality of food, ecosystem services, garbage and waste (reduce, reuse, and recycle) composting, water resources, virtual water, and chemicals in agriculture. In the fourth dimension (water) the following topics were introduced: water cycle, water consumption and waste, world water map, water value, water desalination, ground water and reservoirs, aquifers and contamination of ground water, Nile history, floods, water rights, macro and microorganisms, geopolitical issues and Egypt’s share of water. In the fifth dimension (energy) the following topics were introduced: energy transformation and transfer, energy consumption and wastage, energy conservation, sources of energy (renewable, nonrenewable), biomass as energy, effects of climate change and greenhouse effect. In 2013 after the funding period of the project —AUC’s Center for Sustainable Development (CSD), in cooperation with the Education for Sustainable Development beyond the Campus [4] consortium, handed over Education for

Education for Sustainable Development, Best Practices Towards …

Sustainable Development (ESD) school kits to the Ministry of Education for implementation in public schools across the country. The pilot implementation phase was implemented in seven public schools in six governorates, with the schools twinning with partner universities in these governorates (AUC, Cairo, Alexandria, Fayoum, Suez Canal, Zagazig and Heliopolis universities), in addition to the establishment of seven centers of excellence in sustainability education. Nearly 200 teachers were trained on integrating sustainable development techniques into their daily teaching routine. The project, which began in 2010, also involved analyzing public school textbooks in terms of content on sustainability. EduCamp members conducted interviews and presented questionnaires to teachers, students, and administrators to gauge their awareness of sustainable development concepts. Most importantly, the survey revealed that students were eager to participate in hands-on learning activities and not be limited by theoretical learning styles and memorization for exams. The developed kits with activities to present and promote sustainable development inspired another project that was funded by the Egyptian ministry of higher education and coordinated by the Academy of scientific research and technology (ASRT) called “Children University”. Children’s University is an educational project that is increasingly wide spreading worldwide. It introduces school children to scientific and critical thinking, creativity, questioning and problem solving. The idea behind it is to enable children to meet professors and scientists as role models and to share their everyday curiosity with professional scientists and researchers. More than 27 Governmental and Private Egyptian Universities participate in implementing different activities provided by the program coordinators from ASRT. It introduces students from the ages of 9–15 years to exciting learning activities outside the normal school day within neighborhood university premises. All activities are reviewed by local Children’s University professors and scientists to ensure the quality of learning provided and also by curricula expert designers to

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ensure its alignment with the school curricula. Although open to all, the Children’s University aims particularly to reach less fortunate children facing educational and socioeconomic difficulty especially children of Upper Egypt and rural areas.

4.2 Practices from the Graduate Level Higher education is perceived as the way for ensuring a skilled and productive work force able to transform oneself and society toward social and economic justice; ecological integrity and the wellbeing of all living systems on the planet. Arguably, such a transformation necessitates establishing and maintaining partnerships between the academic world and the world students encounter after graduation [5]. One of the successful stories of infusing sustainable development in university curriculum is RUCAS, a project funded by the European commission under TEMPUS program. Reorient University Curricula to Address Sustainability (RUCAS) project included three partners from the EU; Greece (University of Crete), Italy (Padova University), Ireland (Dublin City University), and from south Mediterranean countries Egypt, Jordan and Lebanon participated in the project. RUCAS aimed to: 1. Support ESD development in the Higher Education sector in Egypt, Jordan, and Lebanon. 2. Build capacity amongst university staff to embed ESD in curricula and pedagogy. 3. Review and revise undergraduate curricula to address ESD in line with the Bologna and Lisbon processes. 4. Assist the coordination and dissemination of ESD policy, research, curriculum reform and practice in the partner institutions that are expected to function as role models in the region. Form each country from south Mediterranean two universities was involved. These universities

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were responsible for the processes of analyzing the content of the curricula, defining the concepts and topics of sustainability to be infused in the courses, determining the competencies related to the twenty-first century skills and the five pillars of ESD to be infused in the teaching and learning processes. An innovative approach to evaluation also was adapted to assess the degree to which students have attained the five pillars of ESD; learning to be, learning to do, learning to know, learning to transform oneself and society and learning to live together. The RUCAS model can be shown in this diagram: The RUCAS model works as follows: 1. Deciding what to teach and how to teach it focuses on the first two out of seven RUCAS professional development processes, namely: • Planning for course revision and design, and • Creating the revised course syllabus. In dealing with the tasks integrated into these two processes university teaching staff participating in the RUCAS project needed to critically reflect on the content of their courses and teaching methods to see what gaps and what emphases were missing in relation to sustainability. 2. Designing and implementing teaching focuses on the third and fourth professional development processes, namely: • structuring the course modules, and • implementing the revised course. 3. Assessing, maintaining and changing foci on the fifth, sixth and seventh professional development processes, namely: • reviewing the progress of course implementation, • evaluating the course impact, and • maintaining the development courses and/or planning new revisions based on the feedback form students and staff members. Pre-in- and post-course surveys were used to assess student learning from the start of the course until the end, adopting the strategies of reflection in and on the action.

N. L. Khalil

The interventions carried out by the RUCAS project have contributed significantly to building capacity among university teaching staff in six universities from Egypt, Lebanon and Jordan. These staff members initiated course curriculum revisions to address sustainability. In total, more than 100 teaching staff in the partner institutions has been part of the professional development process that made them able to revise their courses. The best practices was captured by many of those staff members in scientific paper that explains the process and outcomes of the reorientation and showing case studies from different Arab universities [6, 7]. RUCAS has resulted in more than 170 university courses being revised to address sustainability across the six prioritized academic disciplines (educational sciences, social sciences, applied sciences, technical sciences, business/ economics, and health sciences). More than 4000 students were involved in the monitoring and evaluation activities. Students that participated in practicum placements totaled 1861 during the autumn semester 2012–13. The general trend was that almost all the themes of the practicum assignments were contextualized in the local environment.

4.3 Practices from Post Graduate Level One of the examples of good practices in addressing SDGs through education is developing a master degree in climate change, sustainable agriculture and food security (CCSAFS). The project is co-funded by the European Commission’s Erasmus plus program for capacity building in higher education. The project is coordinated by University of Crete (Greece) with members from Italy (Padova University) and Cyprus (Fredrick University). Partners form Egyptian and Jordanian universities participated in developing the courses and the bylaws of the master degree as well as implementing the program. A total of 15 courses were developed for the M.Sc. utilizing the interdisciplinary approach

Education for Sustainable Development, Best Practices Towards …

was different disciplines is interconnected. Some of the courses include: Consumer behavior, Food Security, and Marketing, Economics of Climate Change, Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security, research methods and advanced statistical analysis, climate change adaptation and mitigation, Social Entrepreneurship in the Organic Food Industry, Sustainability Justice and Food Security, Genetics and Genomics in Sustainable Agriculture, GIS and RS Applications in Climate Change, Sustainable Agriculture and Food Security, Precision Farming, Risk Analysis in the Food Chain, Small Scale Farming, Indigenous Knowledge and Local Food Supply, Sustainable Fisheries and Food Security, Sustainable Management of Soil and Water, Sustainable and Ethical Livestock Management. CCSAFS MSc aims to build theoretical and research capacities by integrating approaches that can be applied to enhance agricultural sustainability and environmental integrity to adapt to climate change at local and international levels. Graduates from the master in CCSAFS are equipped with skills and tools for developing agricultural practices, policies, and measures to address the challenges that climate change poses to agriculture and food security.

5

Conclusion

SDGs are the roadmap adapted by most of the world countries. Egypt declared its 2030 strategy for sustainable development and many efforts have been planned and carried out since its

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launch till now. In this chapter examples have been provided for the early efforts carried out by Egyptian universities that paved the way to implementing SDGs in different levels of education. Some of the provided examples and projects showed how to institutionalize sustainable development goals in different institutions weather governmental or non-governmental. These efforts would not be possible without successful collaboration with experts from different countries who transformed their knowledge and expertise to their colleagues from south Mediterranean countries.

References 1. UN report on MDGs (2015) 2. UNESCO (ed) (2017) Education for sustainable development goals learning objectives, Paris 3. https://en.unesco.org/themes/education-sustainabledevelopmen.t/toolbox (2021) 4. EduCamp (2014) Project integrates sustainability into Egyptian public schools. American University in Cairo (AUC). Available at https://www.aucegypt.edu/news/ stories/educamp-project-integrates-sustainabilityegyptian-public-schools 5. Makrakis V (2014) Cross regional ESD professional development for reorienting university curricula to address sustainability. https://www.platform.ue4sd.eu/ uploads/practices/2/downloads/RUCAS%20Example. pdf 6. El-Deghaidy H (2012) Education for sustainable development: experiences from action research with science teachers. Discourse Commun Sustain Educ 3(1):23–40 7. Khalil NL (2012) Reorienting an educational psychology course to address sustainability: a case study. Discourse Commun Sustain Educ 3(1):109–120

Life Under Lake Nasser: Water Quality as Means to Achieving the Egypt’s Agenda 2030 El-Sayed E. Omran and Samir A. Elawah

Abstract

Nasser Lake is one of the world’s largest man-made lakes. It has been crucial to Egypt for several decades because of the country’s secure water supply. Underwater life (Goal 14) in Lake Nasser is under threat (e.g., due to pollution), leading in dwindling fisheries and the loss of coastal habitats. As a result, the water quality of Lake Nasser must be thoroughly researched, and changes in physicochemical parameters in Lake Nasser water must be monitored regularly and appraised. The current state of the physico-chemical water parameters of Lake Nasser in Egypt is described in this study. The research was extremely helpful in determining the water quality situation in Lake Nasser and identifying the characteristics that need to be monitored on a regular basis. Thirteen (13) samples of water were analysed for physical and chemical properties. Kalabsha, Khour Kalabsha, Gurf Hussein, El Alaaki, El Madeek, Wadi El Arab, Ebreem, Toushka, Khour Toushka, Abu Simble, Adendan, Sara, and

E.-S. E. Omran (&) Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]. edu.eg

Arkeen were all used to gather these samples. The purpose was to find out the compatibility of properties and its utilities. The parameters were tested are Temperature, Hydrogen-ion concentration (pH), Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solids (TDS), Turbidity, Nitrate, Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Total Hardness (TH). The study showed that the temperatures of the samples are suitable environment for animal and plant aquatic life (less than 40 °C). The temperatures of the samples are suitable environment for drinking water in all water samples instead of Kalabsha and Gurf Hussin (more than 35 °C). The water is basic in all water samples. All water samples are less than the permissible limits of EC, TDS, DO and TH. Thus, water in Lake Nasser is suitable to aquatic life and fish. In relation to the percentage of turbidity, in Kalabsha, Khour Kalabsha, Gurf Hussin, El Alaaki, El Madeek, Wadi Alarab, Ebreem and Khour Toushka, turbidity is less than 5 NTU. As a result of, it is usually acceptable to consumers and the disinfection is more effective. But in Toushka, Abu Simple, Adendan, Sara and Arkeen, turbidity is more than 5 NTU. As a result of, it isn’t usually acceptable to consumers and the disinfection isn’t effective. In relation to the percentage of Nitrate, all water samples are less than 10 ppm of nitrates in drinking water and thus are safe to use.

S. A. Elawah High and Aswan Dams Authority, Aswan, Egypt © The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_15

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E.-S. E. Omran and S. A. Elawah

Keywords







Water pollution Water quality Sustainable development goals Lake Nasser

1




Introduction

The United Nations’ approval of the 17 Sustainable development Goals (SDGs) outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development prompted scientists to collect data for planning and monitoring socioeconomic development and the underlying environmental sectors [1]. By establishing a particular objective (SDG 14: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development pushes water quality issues to the forefront of international action by ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all). In today’s globe, water pollution is a severe problem, and solving it has become a key priority for sustainable development. For thousands of years, the Nile has been Egypt’s most important source of freshwater; it offers efficient water in the Nile Valley and Delta Region for drinking, irrigation, and canalization [2, 3]. Between January 1964 and June 1968, the Aswan High Dam was built, creating Lake Nasser [4, 5]. The Lake has a surface size of around 5000 km2 [6–8]. The Lake has a large water storage capacity of 150–165 km3 and can handle up to 11,000 m3/s of water flow. Lake Nasser has a mean depth of 90 m and a maximum width of 60 km [9, 10]. Lake Nasser has been one of the biggest man-made lakes in the world [7]. Because of Egypt’s reliable water supply, it has been vital to the country for decades. As a result, Lake Nasser’s water quality must be fully investigated, and changes in physico-chemical parameters in Lake Nasser water must be monitored and assessed on a regular basis. This study covers the existing situation of the physico-chemical water parameters, including Nitrate-nitrogen, nitrite-nitrogen,

orthophosphate, total phosphate content, dissolved oxygen content, chemical oxygen demand, and biological oxygen demand for Lake Nasser in Egypt. Goal 14 strives to drastically reduce pollution in all forms. Underwater life is under threat (e.g., due to pollution), leading in dwindling fisheries and the loss of coastal habitats. Water contamination is a major problem in the twenty-first century. In a world where freshwater is in short supply is constantly increasing and water resources are restricted, water pollution puts further strain on already stressed water supplies. Water pollution is defined as the direct or indirect addition of substances or energy into water by humans, with negative effects such as harm to living resources, risk to human health, inhibition to aquatic activities, loss of water quality in relations to its use in sectors such as agriculture and industry, and a decrease in accommodations [11]. Water pollution is still a big issue in today’s globe, and solving it has risen to the top of the priority list for sustainable development. Fisheries, on the one hand, show a serious role in global food security, livelihood, and economic development. Fishing, on the other hand, has the potential to disrupt fish habitats, reduce biodiversity, and alter ecosystem function, which has negative long-term social and economic effects. To maintain a healthy balance, fish stocks must be kept within biologically possible limits—at or above the abundance level that ensures the highest level of sustainable output. To answer the question of “How does water contamination relate to the other Sustainable Development Goals?” The goal of this research is to find a solution to this problem, which is vital in recognizing and understanding critical development challenges related to water quality. The purpose of this research is to give scientific and legal knowledge based on the data collected. What is happening at Nasser Lake, and what are the ramifications? Second, it raises awareness by spreading information and giving education.

Life Under Lake Nasser: Water Quality as Means to Achieving …

2

Addressing the Connections Between Water Pollution and the Sustainable Development Goals

Water quality [12, 13] appears to be more prone to deterioration as the world’s population increases, so do the sources of water pollution, posing health and environmental dangers as well as social and economic challenges. According to [14], water quality issues are a serious concern in both developed and developing countries, posing new threats to water security and development. As a result, combating water contamination has climbed to the top of the international agenda. Water quality challenges are increasingly in the center of international action, thanks to the 2030 Agenda [15] and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). In this part, the connections between water contamination and the SDGs will be studied and clarified. It’s not meant to be an exhaustive list of all possible connections, but rather a beginning point for recognizing and acknowledging them. SDG 1 has had studies done on the links between one SDG and the others [16], SDG 4 [17, 18], SDG 6 [15], and SDG 14 [14]. Other studies have been produced that reveal links between all of the SDGs [19, 20]. In order to address the major concerns posed by water quality problems, Goal 6 intends to “ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all.” Other SDGs, such as poverty reduction, health, sustainable consumption and production, and life on land, directly target water quality. Water quality and long-term growth are linked in a variety of ways, in addition to these direct ones. Despite this, no attempt has been taken to better understand these links and interdependencies. SDG 14, Life Below Water, concentrates on ocean, sea, and marine resource conservation and sustainable use. Among the goals are to reduce marine pollution (14.1), protect marine ecosystems (14.2), mitigate the effects of ocean acidification (14.3), stop overfishing (14.4) and illegal fishing (14.6), conserve ocean and coastal areas

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(14.5), and increase economic benefits to small island developing countries (14.6) (14.7). SDG 14 calls for a reduction in marine pollution, which can be achieved by using effective water pollution control measures. Land-based activities such agricultural run-off, untreated sewage, rubbish, and the release of fertilisers and pesticides are thought to contribute for 80% of marine pollution [21]. Because polluted groundwater or rivers eventually flow into the sea, any contaminant or waste detected in these effluents has the potential to affect coastal and marine ecosystems. SDG 14 calls for a decrease in marine pollution, which can be accomplished through the implementation of appropriate water pollution control measures. 80% of marine pollution is considered to be caused by land-based activities such as agricultural run-off, untreated sewage, trash, and fertiliser and pesticide discharges [21]. Because polluted groundwater or rivers eventually flow into the sea, every contaminant or trash found there has the potential to harm coastal and marine ecosystems.

3

Methodology

3.1 Study Area The Aswan High Dam is 3830 m in length, 980 m in width at its base, 40 m in width at its crest, and stands 111 m tall. It has a volume of 43 million cubic meters. Water can flow through the dam at a maximum rate of 11,000 m3 per second. The Toshka Canal connects the reservoir to the Toshka Depression, and there are additional emergency spillways for an additional 5000 m3 per second. Lake Nasser is a 550-kmlong reservoir with a 35-km-widest point with a surface area of 5250 km2. It has a capacity of 132 km3 of water. Water supply systems and access to drinking water in poor countries are a global challenge that needs immediate attention. Egypt’s most important natural resource is Lake Nasser, the world’s largest artificial lake. As a result, it must be thoroughly investigated.

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Statistical and standard methods were used to evaluate the representative water samples in each section. The results exposed the dominancy values of the parameters. However, Line and Bar graphs were used for values comparison. Moderated parameters values were calculated to have a general view of the sections waters properties of Nasser Lake inside Egyptian Borders and for utilities assessment. Thirteen (13) samples of water were analyzed for physicochemical properties. These samples were taken at Kalabsha, Khour Kalabsha, Gurf Hussein, El Alaaki, El Madeek, Wadi El Arab, Ebreem, Toushka, Khour Toushka, Abu Simble, Adendan, Sara and Arkeen by sampler device from Lake Nasser as shown in Fig. 1. The following parameters were tested: Temperature; Hydrogen-ion concentration (pH); Conductivity (EC); Total Dissolved Solids (TDS); Turbidity; Nitrate; Dissolved Oxygen (DO); Total Hardness (TH). Date of sampling, time of

E.-S. E. Omran and S. A. Elawah

sampling, total depth (m) and air temperature (°C) in these sections in Lake Nasser during September and October, 2018 are shown in Table 1. Results of Lab. Analyses of pH, Ec, TDS, Turbidity, Nitrate, Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Total Hardness (TH) for these sections in Lake Nasser during September and October 2018 are shown in Tables 2.

4

Results

4.1 Temperature Temperature is an important water quality and environmental parameter because it controls the rate of chemical and biological reactions, determines the maximum dissolved oxygen concentration in the water, and governs the sorts and types of aquatic life. Temperature measurement is the most common physical test for water

Fig. 1 Map showing the locations of the water samples in Lake Nasser

Life Under Lake Nasser: Water Quality as Means to Achieving …

253

Table 1 Field information for Lake Nasser during September and October 2018 Site name

Km from HAD

Date of sampling

Time of sampling

Total depth (m)

Air temp. (°C)

Kalabsha

41

24/9/2018

02:35

42

36

Khour Kalabsha

41

10/12/2018

01:10

38

28

Gurf Hussein

80

25/9/2018

14:55

65

36

El Alaaki

95

25/9/2018

13:03

67.5

35

El Madeek

130

10/10/2018

7

40

28

Wadi El Arab

171

10/09/2018

07:20

52

29

Ebreem

228

10/07/2018

08:15

68

30

Toushka

247

10/04/2018

12:05

65

32

Khour Toushka

256

10/04/2018

13:15

30

33

Abu Simble

281

10/02/2018

09:35

58

30

Adendan

307

30/9/2018

07:45

50

30

Sara

325

29/9/2018

08:35

40

30

Arkeen

333.3

28/9/2018

12:55

35

32

Table 2 Lab. analyses of water sections in Lake Nasser during September and October 2018 Site name

pH

EC, µs/cm

TDS, ppm

Turbidity, NTU

Nitrate, ppm

DO, mg/l

TH, ppm

Kalabsha

8.03

238

155

4.36

1.3

4.72

102

Khour Kalabsha

8.3

247

161

2.83

1.6

6.03

104

Gurf Hussin

8.03

239

155

2.27

1.1

5.98

102

El Alaaki

8.06

240

156

2.91

1.2

5.98

102

El Madeek

8.2

235

153

2.32

1.7

5.24

100

Wadi Alarab

8.07

235

153

3.39

1.6

4.78

100

Ebreem

8.18

228

148

4.82

1.9

5.64

100

Toushka

8.21

227

148

6.48

1.9

5.9

100

Khour Toushka

8.6

234

152

3.15

1.8

7.03

100

Abu Simple

8.32

224

146

15.02

1.8

6.6

100

Adendan

8.33

220

143

19.48

1.9

7.06

100

Sara

8.23

216

140

26.98

1.3

7.12

100

Arkeen

8.27

216

140

27.04

1.2

6.94

100

quality. It has an impact on the amount of dissolved oxygen in the water, aquatic plant photosynthesis, aquatic organism metabolic rates, and the sensitivity of these organisms to pollution, parasites, and disease. The aquatic ecosystem’s metabolism is regulated by water temperature. High water temperatures stress

aquatic ecosystems by diminishing the water’s ability to hold vital dissolved gases like oxygen. Because high temperatures reduce accessible oxygen in the water, fish deaths can occur. When the water temperature reaches 40 °C, it becomes an undesirable environment for aquatic animal and plant life. Cool water is more

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E.-S. E. Omran and S. A. Elawah

palatable than warm water, and temperature affects the acceptability of a variety of inorganic elements and chemical pollutants that might affect flavor. High water temperatures encourage the growth of microorganisms, which can lead to problems with taste, odor, color, and corrosion. Accurate readings for drinking water is between 13 and 35 °C [22]. In the study area, the temperatures of the samples vary from 28 to 36 °C. i.e. the temperatures of the samples is suitable environment for animal and plant aquatic life (less than 40 °C) as shown in Fig. 2. The temperatures of the samples are suitable environment for drinking water instead of Kalabsha and Gurf Hussin (more than 35 °C) as shown in Fig. 2.

8.22. The water is basic in all water samples as shown in Fig. 3.

4.3 Electrical Conductivity (EC) The capability of water to conduct an electrical current is measured by its conductivity. Conductivity rises as salinity rises because dissolved salts and other inorganic compounds conduct electrical current. Temperature has an impact on conductivity: the warmer the water, the higher the conductivity. The permissible limit of EC is 1400 [23]. In study area, all water samples are less than the permissible limits of EC. Thus, water in Lake Nasser is suitable to aquatic life and fish as shown in Fig. 4.

4.2 Hydrogen-Ion Concentration (pH) 4.4 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)

Fig. 2 Line graph shows the temperatures of the water samples at the sections in Lake Nasser inside Egyptian borders and permissible limits

Air Temp. (oC) permissible limit for animal and plant permissible limit for drinking water

A total dissolved solid (TDS) is a measurement of the molecular, ionized, or micro-granular (colloidal sol) suspended content of all inorganic and organic compounds present in a liquid. TDS levels are frequently expressed in parts per million (ppm). Panels of tasters have rated the palatability of drinking water in relation to its TDS level as follows: excellent, less than 300 mg/l; good, between 300 and 600 mg/l; fair, between 600 and 900 mg/l; poor, between 900

45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 Kalabsha Khour Kalabsha Gurf Hussin El Alaaki El Madeek Wadi Alarab Ebreem Toushka Khour Toushka Abu Simple Adendan Sara Arkeen

Despite the fact that pH has no direct impact on consumers, it is one of the most critical operational water quality characteristics. The pH scale determines whether a chemical is acidic or basic. The pH scale ranges from 0 to 14, with 0 being the most acidic and 14 being the most alkaline. A pH of 7 is considered neutral. A pH of less than 7 is considered acidic. A pH of more over 7 is considered basic. In the study area, the pH values in all water samples lie within the WHO standard for drinking water [23] with an average

Life Under Lake Nasser: Water Quality as Means to Achieving … Fig. 3 Line graph shows the pH of the water samples at the sections in Lake Nasser inside Egyptian borders

pH value Neutral

Fig. 4 Line graph shows the EC of the water samples at the sections in Lake Nasser inside Egyptian borders and permissible limits

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

255

Basic Acidic

1600 1400 1200 WHO standard for drinking water ( WHO, 1984) EC, μs/cm

1000 800 600 400 200 Kalabsha Khour Kalabsha Gurf Hussin El Alaaki El Madeek Wadi Alarab Ebreem Toushka Khour Toushka Abu Simple Adendan Sara Arkeen

0

and 1200 mg/l; and unacceptable, greater than 1200 mg/l. In study area, all water samples are less than the permissible limits of TDS. Thus, water in Lake Nasser is suitable to aquatic life and fish as shown in Fig. 5.

4.5 Turbidity (NTU) Particulate particles from the source water causes turbidity in drinking water. Consumers generally accept the sight of water with a turbidity of less than 5 NTU, though this may vary depending on local conditions. Particulates have the ability to

both shield germs against disinfection and accelerate bacterial growth. When disinfecting water, the turbidity must be minimal in order for disinfection to be successful. In the study area, in Kalabsha, Khour Kalabsha, Gurf Hussin, El Alaaki, El Madeek, Wadi Alarab, Ebreem and Khour Toushka,, turbidity is less than 5 NTU. As a result of, it is usually acceptable to consumers and the disinfection is more effective. But in Toushka, Abu Simple, Adendan, Sara and Arkeen, turbidity is more than 5 NTU. As a result of, it isn’t usually acceptable to consumers and the disinfection isn’t effective as shown in Fig. 6.

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E.-S. E. Omran and S. A. Elawah

Fig. 5 Line graph shows the TDS of the water samples at the sections in Lake Nasser inside Egyptian borders and permissible limits

1200 1000 800 WHO standard for drinking water ( WHO, 1984)

600 400

TDS, mg/l 200 Kalabsha Khour Kalabsha Gurf Hussin El Alaaki El Madeek Wadi Alarab Ebreem Toushka Khour Toushka Abu Simple Adendan Sara Arkeen

0

Fig. 6 Line graph shows the turbidity of the water samples at the sections in Lake Nasser inside Egyptian borders and permissible limits

30 25 20 Turbidity (NTU) 15 Drinking water standards

10 5 0

4.6 Nitrate Nitrate is a naturally occurring chemical generated when nitrogen reacts with oxygen or ozone. Although all living things require nitrogen, large quantities of nitrate in drinking water can be harmful to health, especially for infants and pregnant women. Plants and animals produce huge amounts of nitrates, which are emitted in smoke and industrial or vehicular emissions. When nitrate concentrations exceed 50 mg/L, nitrate levels climb. Although nitrate can occur naturally, its presence in drinking water is most typically linked to contamination caused by excessive fertilizer use, as well as poor farming methods and sewage disposal.

The US Environmental Protection Agency has set a maximum contamination limit of 10 mg/L or 10 ppm of nitrates in drinking water under the Safe Drinking Water Act. The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives defined an acceptable daily intake (ADI) for nitrate ions in the range of 0–3.7 mg (kg body weight) 1 day 1 (JEFCA). In study area, all water samples are less than 10 mg/L or 10 ppm of nitrates in drinking water and thus are safe to use as shown in Fig. 7.

4.7 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) The amount of gaseous oxygen (O2) dissolved in an aqueous solution is measured by dissolved

Life Under Lake Nasser: Water Quality as Means to Achieving … Fig. 7 Line graph shows nitrate of the water samples at the sections in Lake Nasser inside Egyptian borders and permissible limits

257

12 10 8 Drinking water standards Nitrate

6 4 2

oxygen analysis. Diffusion from the surrounding air, aeration (rapid movement), and as a waste product of photosynthesis all contribute to the presence of oxygen in water. Total dissolved solids gas concentration in water should not exceed 110% (13–14 mg/l) to have a negative impact on the environment. Above this concentration, aquatic life may be harmed. “Gas bubble disease” can affect fish in waters with too much dissolved gas; nevertheless, this is a relatively uncommon experience. The bubbles, also known as emboli, obstruct the passage of blood via the blood arteries, resulting in death. External bubble emphysema can also develop and be visible on fins, skin, and other tissue. “Gas bubble illness” affects aquatic invertebrates as well, although at levels higher than those that kill fish. A certain amount of dissolved oxygen is required for optimal water quality. In study area, all water samples are less than the permissible limits of DO. Thus, water in Lake Nasser is suitable to aquatic life and fish as shown in Fig. 8.

4.8 Total Hardness (TH) The amount of lime dissolved in your water determines the hardness of your water. Soft water is defined as water having a calcium hardness of less than 100 ppm (mg/l). Total hardness can be lowered or raised by diluting with new water or

Arkeen

Sara

Adendan

Abu Simple

Khour Toushka

Ebreem

Toushka

Wadi Alarab

El Alaaki

El Madeek

Gurf Hussin

Khour Kalabsha

Kalabsha

0

adding calcium chloride. Water categorization guidelines in particular [22] are: Classification

Hardness in ppm

Soft

0–60

Moderately hard

61–120

Hard

121–180

Very hard

More than 180

Hard water is generally safe to drink. In fact, it could be advantageous to your overall health. Hard water has several advantages, including meeting your dietary needs for important minerals like calcium and magnesium. In the study area, all water samples are considered moderately hard as shown in Fig. 9.

5

Conclusion and Recommendations

Lake Nasser is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world, which its water quality must be thoroughly investigated, and changes in physicochemical parameters in Lake Nasser water must be monitored and assessed. Underwater life (Goal 14) in Lake Nasser is threatened (for example, due to pollution), resulting in diminishing fisheries and the loss of coastal ecosystems. So, the purpose of this chapter is to give scientific and legal knowledge based on the data

258 Fig. 8 Line graph shows DO of the water samples at the sections in Lake Nasser inside Egyptian borders and permissible limits

E.-S. E. Omran and S. A. Elawah

16 14 12 Drinking water standards for DO DO in mg/l

10 8 6 4 2

Fig. 9 Bar graph shows TH of the water samples at the sections in Lake Nasser inside Egyptian borders and permissible limits

Arkeen

Sara

Adendan

Abu Simple

Toushka

Khour Toushka

Ebreem

El Madeek

Wadi Alarab

El Alaaki

Gurf Hussin

Khour Kalabsha

Kalabsha

0

TH (ppm)

TH (ppm)

105 104 103 102 101 100 99 98

collected. What is happening at Nasser Lake, and what are the ramifications? Second, it raises awareness by spreading information and giving education. Chemical analyzes were tested for both physical and chemical parameters in Lake Nasser inside Egyptian Borders at 13 water samples of sections at Kalabsha, Khour Kalabsha, Gurf Hussein, El Alaaki, El Madeek, Wadi El Arab, Ebreem, Toushka, Khour Toushka, Abu Simble, Adendan, Sara and Arkeen. The study showed that the temperatures of the samples are suitable environment for animal and plant aquatic life (less than 40 °C). The temperatures of the samples are suitable environment for drinking water in all water samples instead of Kalabsha and Gurf Hussin (more than 35 °C). The water is basic in all water samples. All water

samples are less than the permissible limits of EC, TDS, DO and TH. Thus, water in Lake Nasser is suitable to aquatic life and fish. In relation to the percentage of turbidity, in Kalabsha, Khour Kalabsha, Gurf Hussin, El Alaaki, El Madeek, Wadi Alarab, Ebreem and Khour Toushka, turbidity is less than 5 NTU. As a result of, it is usually acceptable to consumers and the disinfection is more effective. But in Toushka, Abu Simple, Adendan, Sara and Arkeen, turbidity is more than 5 NTU. As a result of, it isn’t usually acceptable to consumers and the disinfection isn’t effective. In relation to the percentage of Nitrate, all water samples are less than 10 ppm of nitrates in drinking water and thus are safe to use. Continuous monitoring of the quality of drinking water sources in these sections (in Lake

Life Under Lake Nasser: Water Quality as Means to Achieving …

Nasser) is recommended. Drainage systems must be provided for ships to discharge the waste away from the Lake Nasser.

References 1. United Nations (2017) Resolution adopted by the General Assembly on 6 July 2017. Work of the Statistical Commission pertaining to the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development (A/RES/71/313) 2. Ghodeif K, Grischek T, Bartak R, Wahaab R, Herlitzius J (2016) Potential of river bank filtration (RBF) in Egypt. Environ Earth Sci 75(8) 3. Negm A (ed) (2017) The Nile River. The handbook of environmental chemistry 4. El Gamal T, Zaki N (2017) Egyptian irrigation after the Aswan high dam. In: Irrigated agriculture in Egypt, pp 47–79 5. Salih S, Allawi M, Yousif A et al (2019) Viability of the advanced adaptive neuro-fuzzy inference system model on reservoir evaporation process simulation: case study of Nasser Lake in Egypt. Eng Appl Comput Fluid Mech 13(1):878–891 6. Farhat H, Aly W (2018) Effect of site on sedimentological characteristics and metal pollution in two semienclosed embayments of great freshwater reservoir: Lake Nasser, Egypt. J Afr Earth Sci 141:194–206 7. Omran E-SE, Negm A (2018) Environmental impacts of AHD on Egypt between the last and the following 50 years. In: Grand Ethiopian renaissance dam versus Aswan high dam, pp 21–52 8. Omran E-SE, Negm A (2018) Environmental impacts of the GERD project on Egypt’s Aswan high dam lake and mitigation and adaptation options. In: Grand Ethiopian renaissance dam versus Aswan high dam. Springer, Cham, pp 175–196 9. El Shemy M (2010) Water quality modeling of large reservoirs in semiarid regions under climate change– example Lake Nasser, Egypt. Dissertation, University of Echnische 10. Khalifa N, El-Damhogy K, Fishar M, Nasef A, Hegab M (2015) Using Zooplankton in some environmental biotic indices to assess water quality of Lake Nasser Egypt. Int J Fisheries Aquat Stud 2 (4):281–289 11. Chapman D (1996) Water quality assessments: a guide to use biota, sediments and water in environmental monitoring, 2nd edn. E & FN Spon, London, p 609

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12. Omran E-SE, Selmy S, Ghallab A, Gad A-A (2012) Evaluate and mapping groundwater quality using geostatistics for sustainable land management in Darb El-Arbaein, South Western Desert, Egypt. In: 21st century watershed technology: improving water quality and environment conference proceedings, May 27–June 1, 2012, Bari, Italy. American Society of Agricultural and Biological Engineers, p 1 13. Omran E-SE, Ghallab A, Selmy S, Gad A-A (2014) Evaluation and mapping water wells suitability for irrigation using GIS in Darb El-Arbaein, South Western Desert, Egypt. Int J Water Resour Arid Environ 3(1):63–76 14. UNESCO UNE, Scientific and Cultural Organization (2015) International initiative on water quality: promoting scientific research, knowledge generation and dissemination and effective policies to respond to water quality challenges in a holistic and collaborative manner towards ensuring water security for sustainable development. UNESCO, Paris, France, p 26 15. United Nations (2016) Water and sanitation interlinkages across the 2030 agenda for sustainable development. UN-Water, Geneva, Switzerland, p 48 16. UNSCN (2014) Nutrition and the post-2015 sustainable development goals: a technical note. UNSCN Secretariat, Geneva, Switzerland, p 21 17. Vladimirova K, Le Blanc D (2016) Exploring links between education and sustainable development goals through the lens of UN flagship reports. Sustain Dev 24:254–271 18. UNESCO (2016) Transboundary water cooperation and the sustainable development goals. UNESCOIHP, Paris, France, p 48 19. Farmer A (2017) Tackling pollution is essential for meeting SDG poverty objectives. Institute for European Environmental Policy, London, p 8 20. ICSU ISSC (2015) Review of targets for the sustainable development goals: the science perspective. ICSU and ISSC, Paris, France 21. GESAMEP (2015) Pollution in the open oceans 2009–2013. A report by a GESAMP task team. GESAMP report, United Kingdom, p 87 22. WHO (2011) Guidelines for drinking-water quality, 4th edn. World Health Organization. ISBN 978-92-4https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/ 154815-1. 44584 23. WHO (1984) Guidelines for drinking-water quality. Recommendations World Health Organization. https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/252072

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation Along the High Dam Lake, Egypt El-Sayed E. Omran, Mamdouh Hamzawy, and Mohamed A. Hammad

Abstract

SDG target 15.3 on land degradation objectivity includes combating desertification, rehabilitating damaged land and soil, particularly land affected by desertification, drought, and floods, and striving for a land degradation-free world. Soils play a vital role in this goal and targets because they are at the crossroads of the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere, with six important functions for humans and the environment—particularly the nexus of soils, plants, animals, and human health, which is an important asset in achieving global sustainable development. Concern for the land’s well-being is frequently linked to one’s physical, economic, or cultural proximity to the land. The high Dam Lake shores in Egypt that are subject to flooding in most years are forming an area of about 5000 km2. This area is exposed after flood water subsidence.

E.-S. E. Omran (&) Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] M. Hamzawy Researcher at High and Aswan Dams Authority, Aswan, Egypt M. A. Hammad Soils and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Cairo Al-Azhar University, Cairo, Egypt

Because of some terms in Egypt- Sudan Nile agreement, no water is permitted to be drawn from the lake for irrigation or any other use except if water level in the lake exceeds 180 m height. For this reason and because of the area of subsidence, farmers, amateurs and procurers tried to use the residual moisture left in the soil in cultivating some crops and fodder plants. This study aims at evaluating the possibility of practicing cultivation and probably other related activities. The importance of this study became visible when the government initiated the Tushka project in the region. Also, the need of sustainable development of the area is urgent for a Community depending only on fishing. Forty four surface and subsurface soil samples were collected from 11 sites along the western and eastern sides of the lake. Some chemical and physical studies together with some moisture characteristics were studied in these samples. The findings reveal that the soils are deficient in organic matter and phosphate and nitrogen. As a result, fertilizer use is unavoidable. The soils investigated are all sandy, non-saline, and deep to fairly deep. With the exception of some soils in the Kalabsha and Tushka depressions, which have loamy sand to sandy loam texture. Sand and loamy sandy soils have specific moisture characteristics. The capacity of the fields varies between 7.7 and 16.1%. The amount of available moisture is also low, ranging from 5 to 9% in most soils, but reaching 11–12% in

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_16

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the Kalabsha and Tushka depressions. Inundation increased the amount of water available due to an increase in silt and clay. However, land use should take into account the limited capacity of accessible water. In the first stage, the gradual sinking of the water level would allow for the cultivation of 50,000 fed. With the continual drop in water level, new region of varying dimensions might be cultivated. The area farmed would be controlled if the soil reached wilting threshold. Because there are just two months available for cultivation, it will be limited to fodder plants. Keywords




Soil–water properties Sustainable development Land degradation SDGs High Dam Lake Egypt




1










Introduction

Soils are now recognized as the most complex biomaterials on the planet and a self-regulating biological factory, yet soil loss or degradation remains one of the most insidious and underacknowledge challenges in the twenty-first century. Soils are complex ecosystems made up of both living and non-living elements that interact in a variety of ways. Even though agricultural systems are not totally natural systems, soil is one of the aspects of natural capital that add to agricultural production. To produce crops, farming combines natural soil, manufactured capital, farm equipment, human capital, and farmer skill. Soils are the cause and basis of ecosystem facilities that include support, regulation, provisioning, and cultural functions. Egypt’s government continues to be concerned about soil health and quality. The capability of land to accomplish specified functions is measured by its quality. The United Nations’ approval of the 17 Sustainable development Goals (SDGs) outlined in the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development prompted scientists to collect data for planning

and monitoring socioeconomic development and the underlying environmental sectors. Targets in SDGs 2, 3, 6, 11, 13, 14, and 15 encourage direct attention of soil resources. In relation to SDG no. 2 agricultural biomass production is the main target [1]. Goal 15 emphases on sustainable forest management, reducing and reversing land and natural habitat deterioration, effectively combating desertification, and halting biodiversity loss. All of these initiatives are aimed at ensuring that the benefits of land-based ecosystems, such as sustainable livelihoods, are appreciated for future generations. SDG goal 15.3 on land degradation neutrality, for example, calls for combating desertification, restoring damaged land and soil, particularly land affected by desertification, drought, and floods, and striving for a land degradation-free world by 2030. In most of these goals and targets, soils play a prominent role, because they are at the crossroad between the atmosphere, the geosphere, the hydrosphere, and the biosphere, with 6 important functions for humans and the environment [2]—especially the nexus of soils, plants, animals, and human health is one important asset within the realization of a global sustainable development. All these globally defined goals and targets can be met at a local level, considering that there are many thousands of different social, economic, cultural, and physio-geographic conditions at the global scale, under which these goals and targets have to be realized. Soil science has a long tradition in distinguishing between the local, regional, and global SDG 15: Protect and restore terrestrial ecosystems and promote sustainable use of natural resources physio-geographic conditions and their use under different aspects. In this context, the functions of land and soil, providing goods and services to humans and their environment, is of paramount importance [3, 4]. Combating desertification [5] and halting and reversing land degradation is one of the most significant aims of Sustainable Development Goal 15. While this is the only SDG directly related to desertification, there are apparent ties to other SDGs due to the connectivity of land

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation …

263

with food, energy, and water. So, the purpose of the current work is to study soil water properties of some soils in the shoreland in order to use adequately the water held by the soil for cultivating some suitable crops without violating the water share of Egypt. Also, to follow soil development likely to occur due to adding of Nile silt and organic residues to these inundated lands by frequent floods.

refers to the process of reducing soil water holding capacity and conductivity, soil biodiversity loss, soil pollution, and/or nutrient load (SDGs 3.9, 6.4, 6.5, 14.1, 15.5), in addition to being a separate item among the SDGs (15.3). Soil organic carbon (SOC) is the most important soil property in terms of climate regulation (SDG 13.2). Hydraulic properties of the soil (water retention and conductivity) as well as nutrient cycling are important indicators of soil productivity. Also essential are vertical soil properties (horizons), underlying hydrology, and topography. The most basic soil physical property, on the other side, is soil texture, which determines hydraulic properties. However, because it is unlikely to change in the medium term, monitoring is focused on other essential features (i.e., OC, bulk density, salinity). These will also have an impact on the water status of the soil. Not only does OC play a key role in soil water properties and climate regulation, but it also affects soil nutritional status. Contamination and soil biodiversity are two distinct issues that will require independent monitoring systems. Nonetheless, most of the SDGs can be met if these factors of soil quality can be examined and managed. Global and regional soil quality properties must be taken into account and incorporated into policies ranging from sustainable urbanization to agricultural growth. The functions of soil and the risks that it faces are numerous, as are the soil indicators. For all of these concerns, monitoring soil and land changes is a difficulty that must be overcome. The SDGs support to reorganize soil monitoring programmes, which can supply the requisite data and information when paired with new sources of soil knowledge and widespread use of modern technological solutions. The aim of this work is to study moisture characteristics in some soils inundated in flood seasons in different localities along the High Dam Lake in order to make utmost benefit of the soil moisture in cultivating appropriate crops without the need of irrigation beyond the Nile valley agreement. Already, some parts of these lands are cultivated.

2

Soil-Related SDGs

Goal 15 encourages a variety of corresponding processes for the protection, conservation, and sustainable use of resources (such as soil, water, and biodiversity) as well as the restoration or rehabilitation of degraded natural resources and ecosystem functions that are tailored to the biophysical and socioeconomic context. The principles for sustainable land management (SLM) action are knowledge management, capacity development, and coherence and alignment with policies and investments through integrated land resource planning strategies. Through the use of SLM technologies, approximately two billion hectares of land can be restored and rehabilitated [6]. The UN Statistical Commission has updated the list of global SDG indicators during its 48th session [7]. There is presently no soil-based indicator attached to any of the soil-related SDGs [8]. In circumstances when disaggregation of indicators is relevant, the option of incorporating such indicator is expressly presented [7]. The importance of adding soil indicators from the signaling through implementation stages in order to accomplish the SDG targets based on soil resources is obvious [9]. To meet the SDGs, soil qualities that affect soil productivity and risks must be assessed and monitored, with a focus on soil hydraulic properties, nutrient status, pollution, soil biodiversity, and SOC changes. Land degradation is defined by a reduction of soil production [10]. Land degradation, however,

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Methodology

3.1 Study Area The High Dam Lake is one of the largest manmade Lake in the world. It stretches 500 km south of Aswan city. The first 350 km are in Egypt and are known as High Dam Lake [11]. The rest (150 km) is called Lake Nubia and falls in Sudan. The total surface area inside Egypt is estimated at about 5000 Km2. The maximum capacity of the Lake as reported by the High Dam Lake Authority, is 165 milliard cubic meter at 182 m elevation (a.s.l). The area around the Lake is totally desert with a hot and almost rainless weather. Lake High Dam is now the main source of fresh water for all ways of life in Egypt. The western plain along the Lake has in some areas a level less than 182 m (a.s.l) and are used to divert flood water exceeding the permissible level (182 m) of the Lake. The shorelands which are flooded every year through the flood season occupies the western side of the Lake and are estimated as 50,000 fed. Regional developing plan was set (1980) to cultivate 15,000 fed. by small farmers with Tomato, watermelon, wheat, eggplant and some other fodders. Japan International cooperation agency, Desert Research Center and South Valley University were doing integrated studies on the region. Movable irrigation pumping machines are used to give one or two supplemental irrigations. Fodder plants may give one or two cuts without irrigation using only the water held by the soil after the flooding season. Several sites were selected for undertaking this study. These are lying along both sides of Lake High Dam (Fig. 1). • Areas at the western side of the lake including Kurkur, Kalabsha, Garf Hussein, Tomas, Tushka, Abu Simbel, Sara (west) and at the shores of lakes formed at Tushka depression. • Areas at the eastern side of the lake including, El Allaqi (Abosko), El Sayala and Quastal (Table 1; Fig. 1).

3.2 Soil Sampling and Analyses Determinations of physical and chemical properties were conducted on soil samples taken from surface and subsurface soils (0–30 and 30– 60 cm) at 11 sites along lake High Dam shores under inundated and non-inundated conditions. Table 1 shows a list of soil samples taken from the different sites. The following are the analyses undertaken to fulfill the aim of this study: Particle size analysis [12]; Soil total N content [13]; Available phosphorus [14]; Soil reaction (pH value) [15]; Total carbonates [15]; Organic matter content [15]; Total soluble salts [14].

3.2.1 Studying the Change of Soil Texture Before and After Flood The change on soil texture at the 11 sites {Abu Simbel, El Allaqi (Abosko), Tomas and Afia, ElSayala, Tushka, Kurkur, Sara west, Tushka Depression, Quastal, Kalabsha, Garf Hussein} along lake shores before and after flood at two successive seasons were evaluated by particle size distribution of the soil samples taken after every season.

3.3 Water Content in Soils There are two main procedures for measuring soil water content, destructive and nondestructive. Destructive procedure entails a soil sample taken from the field each time a water content value is desired. The non-destructive methods rely upon using a sensor placed in the soil. Soil samples were collected weekly from the 11 sites along Lake Shores before and after flood to determine the moisture content. Gypsum electrodes (Delmhorst model Ks-D1 instrument Co. Towaco. N.J. U.S.A) were used to determine the moisture content of soil at different depths (10, 30 and 60 cm). Reading of moisture contents were taken weekly along the period between February to October in the Kurkur site [14]. Determination of saturation %, moisture equivalent, field capacity,

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation …

265

Kurkur Kalabsha

Tushka Depression

El.Allaqi (Abosko)

Garf Hussein

El-Sayala

Tushka Abu Simbel

Tomas& Afia Quastal

Sara west

Kurkur

Kalabsha

Tushka Depression

El.Allaqi (Abosko)

Garf Hussein

Tushka El-Sayala

Abu Simbel Tomas& Afia Sara west Quastal

Fig. 1 Sites of soil samples taken from High Dam Lake shores and as seen on a Landsat image (2001)

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Table 1 A list of soil samples taken from High Dam Lake shores Sample No.

Site

Location and depth

1

Abu Simbel

Non-inundated

2 3

Inundated

4 5

Non-inundated Inundated

8 Non-inundated Inundated

12 Non-inundated Inundated

16 Non-inundated Inundated

20 Non-inundated Inundated

24

Surface Subsurface

Sara west

Non-inundated

26

Surface Subsurface

27

Inundated

28

Surface Subsurface

Tushka Depression

Non-inundated

30

Surface Subsurface

31

Inundated

32

Surface Subsurface

Quastal

Non-inundated

34

Surface Subsurface

35

Inundated

36

Surface Subsurface

Kalabsha

Non-inundated

38

Surface Subsurface

39

Inundated

40

Surface Subsurface

Garf Hussein

Non-inundated

42 44

Surface Subsurface

23

43

Surface Subsurface

Kurkur

22

41

Surface Subsurface

19

37

Surface Subsurface

Tushka

18

33

Surface Subsurface

15

29

Surface Subsurface

El-Sayala

14

25

Surface Subsurface

11

21

Surface Subsurface

Tomas and Afia

10

17

Surface Subsurface

7

13

Surface Subsurface

El.Allaqi (Abosko)

6

9

Surface Subsurface

Surface Subsurface

Inundated

Surface Subsurface

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation …

267

wilting point in soil samples of the 11 sites were carried out. Water content at field capacity is obtained by saturation of soil samples with water and left to infiltrate until all free water is released. Wilting point refers to the % of water at the lower limit of available water. It is measured by the pressure membrane method at 15 atm pressure [16]. A saturation percentage was determined according to Richards [17]. Because of difficulties encountered in measuring field capacity in situ (F.C) and the various factors affecting the values obtained. The moisture equivalent was established and described as the quantity of water reserved by a soil when a 10 mm thick layer of soil material was centrifuged for 40 min in a gravitational field of 1000  g [18].

plant in the inundated areas. The experimental treatments were as follows: 1. Control (without adding) 2. Sugar cane industrial waste at the rate of 8 m3/fed (m3 equals 253 kg). 3. Compost at the rate of 2 m3/fed (1 m3 equals 1056 kg). 4. Chicken manure at the rate of 2 m3/fed (1 m3 equals 1102 kg).

3.4 Field Experiments

The analyses of some components of the natural conditioners used are recorded in Table 2. The area of the experimental plot was 9 m2 (3 m  3 m). Cowpea was planted in rows 10 cm apart by placing the seeds in holes 3–4 cm deep and 5 cm apart. Three seeds were placed in each hole, then thinned to two seedlings after germination. The experimental design was a complete randomized blocks with 4 replicates for each treatment. The green yield and dry matter yield (kg/fed) were estimated after 60 days (Fig. 2).

A field experiment was conducted at Kurkur shore, located some 40 km south of Aswan city, to evaluate the possibility of using available moisture remained in the soil after flooding for 3.5 Physiographic Features the cultivation of Cowpea as a fodder crop in 3.5.1 Topography of the Region order to obtain any possible cuts. A control experiment was undertaken in The reservoir formed by the construction of the similar nearly non inundated soil using common High Dam extends approximately 500 km south, about 350 km of which lies within the Egyptian irrigation at ½ of the field capacity. The experimental plot was 4 m2 (2 m  2 m) border and is now named High Dam Lake. The in area: Cowpea seeds were sown in holes Lake is about 18-km in width and many khors, or 4.4 cm deep and 5 cm apart in rows 10 cm inlets of varying sizes with numerous small apart. After germination, each hole was seeded dendritic branches characterize its shores. The with three seeds, which were subsequently shorelands of major khors such as Kurkur, Kaltrimmed to two plants. For each treatment, the absha and Tushka lie along the western side experimental design was a complete randomized while El Allaqi lies in the Eastern Shore. The design with four repetitions. The treatment con- topography of the shoreline ranges from rugged sidered was the irrigated and non-irrigated ones. cliffs in places at Abu Simbel along the Eastern The plants were harvested after 60 days. Green Shore to the flat terrains of relatively low gradiyield and dry matter yield (kg/fed) were weighed, ent as in wadis Tushka and Kalabsha. The topographic conditions of the High Dam Fig. 2. A field experiment was conducted at Kurkur, Lake Area are roughly distinguished into the to study the effect of applying natural condi- following four categories [19] as shown in tioners (Sugar cane residuals, Compost and Fig. 3. Chickens manure) for maximizing the benefit of (a) Rocky hills with intermediate or steep slopes and relatively high relief. utilizing residual moisture in growing Cowpea

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treated with natural conditioners Fig. 2 Graphic design for studying the possibility of using residual moisture content of some inundated soil

Table 2 Analysis of conditioners used in the experiment

Conditioners

O.M %

Ash %

N%

P%

Sugar cane residuals

52.86

17.248

2.293

0.438

Compost

22.83

59.932

1.851

0.502

Chicken manure

40.20

32.157

4.4253

0.714

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation …

269

(b) Tablelands with rain-eroded crevices or wadis. (c) Sandy plains studded with hills and rocks outcrops (d) Lower plains with gentle slopes covered with varying depths of sandy topsoil’s.

The western sector is essentially formed of the sedimentary formations which include the upper cretaceous/lower paleogene sediments. Nubian sandstone, Dakhla shale, Kurkur, Garra and Dungul chalk and limestone formations are exposing at Sinn El Kadab scarp. Many wide vallies cutting this sector are filled with sand, silt and clay deposits, can be used in agriculture [20, 21].

The western lakeshore consists of the lower Nubian Plain and the Nubian Tableland divided by the Sinn El-Kaddab steep scarp. Hills and tablelands are found along the middle part of the shore but most of the foreshore and further inland areas are flat planes corresponding to the categories (c) or (d). Some of the shore agricultural development has started recently in a few selected spots. In contrast, hills and tableland predominate in the eastern lakeshore with rugged rias-type shoreline. Korosko Hills and Um mnaga and Hammed Uplands inhibit easy access to the shorefront from further inland. In terms of topography, the Allaqi Plain and some low-lying parts of the upland’s can sustain some agricultural activities in the eastern shore.

3.5.2 Geological Formation The geology of the High Dam lake area can be divided roughly into two sectors, the eastern and the western sectors, divided by High Dam Lake. The eastern sector is characterized mainly by basement and metamorphic rocks related to the late Precambrian basement complex of Egypt. These rocks include granite, marble, and basalt and also contain some economic ores. Fig. 3 Generalized crosssection across Lower Nubian Plain from Kurkur Oasis to River Nile) [19]

3.6 Climate In terms of climatic conditions, Egypt is divided into four regions: the Mediterranean Coast, the Delta, Middle Egypt and Upper Egypt. The coastal region is blessed with a relatively mild climate. The mean annual temperature is 20 °C with maximum and minimum mean monthly temperature being 30 °C (July) and 10 °C (January and February), respectively. The highest average annual precipitation is only about 143 mm. Most rain falls in the months of December and January. The delta region has a mean annual temperature of 19 °C, but the mean monthly maximum and minimum differ more widely from 35 to 5 °C. The average precipitation falls off to a half of the coastal region. The mean annual temperature increases further inland, with mean monthly maximum and minimum temperatures being 36 °C and 6 °C respectively for Middle Egypt while degrees ranging from 40 to 7 °C, are characterizing Upper Egypt. The average annual rainfalls drop

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E.-S. E. Omran et al.

Table 3 Climatic norms in Aswan area for the different seasons of year 2000 Season

Mean max. temp. (°C)

Mean min. temp. (°C)

Mean daily. Temp. (°C)

Winter

26.0

12.2

19.1

Spring

28.3

23.0

31.2

Summer

41.1

16.6

Autumn

29.1

15.1

% Mean daily. Rel. humidity

Mean max. w. speed (km/h)

Mean min. w. speed (km/h)

Mean day temp. (°C)

Mean night temp. (°C)

26.7

6.4

3.7

22.9

15.6

5.8

18.8

7.4

4.4

32.4

27.0

10.3

34.1

20.1

6.6

4.2

37.1

29.8

11.8

21.8

25.0

5.4

2.2

24.8

18.2

6.2

off sharply to 33 mm in Middle Egypt. In Upper Egypt however, rainfall is almost nil as shown in Table 3. The khamasin, the hot driving wind from the Libyan Desert, blows through the country in the spring. This storm is known sometimes to raise the temperature 20 °C, in two hours, and poses a great hazard with its high velocity and great quantity of sand and dust it carries unhampered by the generally flat terrain formation in the western desert. Detailed climatic norms characterizing the study region are given in Table 4.

3.7 Soil El-Demerdashe et al. [22], classified soils of Lake High Dam region into; Entisols, suborder Pasmments, great group Quartzipasmments, and Torripasmments. On the sub-group level, they are classified as belonging to Lithic and Typic Quartzipasmments, and Torripasmments. Harga et al. (1976), studied soils of Wadi El-Allaqy and reported that they belong to the order Entisols,

Evaporation (mm/day)

and suborder Pasmments. On the great group level, they belong to the Quartzipasmments, and Torripasmments. Each of these great groups is further distinguished into two groups; Lithic and Typic. Quartzipasmments, are the dominant groups in the area under investigation. El-Kadi, et al. [23], conducted a semi-detailed survey of Wadi Kalabsha, located at about 75 km south of Aswan, using aerial photographs. The survey identified three classes; Class 2 and 3 land are suitable for fruit orchards; fodder plants and field crops with special management practices. Class 4 land could be planted locally with rustic species of the carob-tree type orvine trees. El-Demerdashe et al. [24], conducted a semidetailed survey of the area located southwest of Aswan, known as Wadi Kurkur, the soils belong to the order Entisols, suborder: Pasmments and Orthents. On the great group level, three categories could be distinguished, the Quartzipasmments, Torripasmments and Torriorthents. Further distinction of these soil groups showed that the soils meet the requirements of the Lithic and Typic subgroups.

Table 4 Climatic norms in Tushka area for the different seasons of year 2000 Season

Mean max. temp. (°C)

Mean min. temp. (°C)

Winter

24.3

Spring

33.5

Summer

39.9

24.9

9.4

34.1

8.9

30.4

42.1

4.0

Autumn

27.8

14.8

20.5

58.1

6.5

20.6

29.8

2.7

% Mean min. Rel. humidity

% Mean max. Rel. humidity

10.6

17.1

57.1

19.1

9.6

42.0

Mean max. w. speed

Mean min. soil temp (°C)

Mean max soil temp. (°C)

Evaporation (mm/day)

7.7

18.3

28.6

5.8

6.5

25.1

37.9

7.6

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation …

271

Abdel Salam, et al. [25], studied the soils of the wadis Kalabsha, Tushka, Dakka and Allaqi; and evaluated their capability into 2, 3, 4 and 5 classes. In short, the soils belonging to the Vertic Torriorthents are Placed under class 2 land, those belonging to the Typic Torriorthents and Typic Torripasmments are placed under class 3. Typic Quartzipasmments, are placed under class 4 land where as Lithic Quartzipasmments, and Lithic Torripasmments, are placed under class 5 land. They added that class 2 and 3 land are suitable for fruit orchards; fodder plants and field crops with special management practices. Class 4 land could be planted locally with rustic species of the carob-tree type or vine trees, which have powerful rooting. The soils classified as class 5 land are of less agriculture potentiality.

calculated and should be considered when designing development projects around the lakeshore. Fluctuation levels are classified into the following;

3.7.1 Fluctuation of Water Level With the present structural dimensions of the High Dam, the water surface of the reservoir fluctuates in a range between the lowest water level of 147 m and the highest water level of 183 m. With the scheduled completion of Tushka Spillway and the future development in water management in the downstream area, the reservoir will require a new operation regime, which must be established through detailed simulation studies (WMP). The salient objective of the water Master Plan is to optimize the Egyptian share of Nile water. The Tushka Spillway will probably enable the operation of the reservoir at a higher range of water level to the extent that it does not result in undesirable effects on the Sudan’s cultivated areas and the stability of the High Dam body. Benefits of additional power generation due to the higher range of operation may compensate for the negative factor of increased evaporation loss, a consequence of the expansion of the surface area due to the higher range of operation. The long-term trend in discharge at Aswan indicates that the nature of the runoff during 1870–1900 showed considerable difference from that of the present century. The average natural inflow at Aswan during the 1870–1900 period was calculated at 85.7 milliard m3. The following possible range of water fluctuation has been

• In the medium year: water level fluctuation is from approximately 169 m to 177 m. • In the drought year: water level fluctuation is from approximately 175 m to 166 m. • In a normal flood year: According to the report of “ Studies and researches of Tushka spillway project,” water level in two cases of 0.5% (150.3 milliard m3) and 8% (118.8 milliard m3) flood probability reach approximately 182 m and 181.3 m, respectively.

3.7.2 Soil, Water, Plant Relationship Water use efficiency is considerably decreased with increasing soil water tension and salt content. Field capacity, Wilting percentage, available water and total porosity are characteristics positively correlated with each of silt plus clay and organic matter content, while coarse sand is adversely correlated. Soil plays a unique role in the soil–plant-atmosphere system. It has been established that soil is not required for plant growth, and that plants can truly be grown hydroponically (in a liquid culture). Plants, nevertheless, are normally cultivated in soil, and soil qualities have a direct impact on the availability of water and nutrients to plants. Soil water influences plant growth both directly and indirectly through its control over plant water status, aeration, temperature, and nutrient delivery, uptake, and transformation. Understanding these qualities is essential for effective irrigation planning and management. The quantity of water in the soil is commonly expressed as a percentage of volume or mass, or as soil water potential. Water content does not always reflect whether or not water is available to plants, nor does it represent how water travels through the soil profile. Water content simply provides information on the relative amount of water in the soil. The soil water content and soil water potential have a relationship, and the soil water characteristic curve depicts this relationship

272

graphically. The ability of a soil to hold water is determined by the size, shape, and arrangement of soil particles as well as the accompanying voids (pores). In a salinity trial and a drought experiment, Katerjia et al. [26] investigated the influence of water stress on corn output. The water stress day index was calculated by measuring the pre-dawn leaf water potential on a regular basis throughout the growing season to identify the plant’s water status (WSDI). Corn yield response was unaffected by salinity or drought conditions. The WSDI is a valuable indicator for predicting crop salinity and drought tolerance. The effects of water stress occurring at various growth stages during the reproductive cycle of grain sorghum were examined in open field circumstances under a Mediterranean environment, according to Mastrorilli et al. [27]. By comparing four yield components (above ground biomes, grain yield, 1000 grain weight, and seed number) and WUE to those of the well-irrigated crop, the sensitivity of phonological stages exposed to identical water stress was determined. The sensitivity was highest during the early stages of blossoming. According to Porporatoa et al. [28], a drop in soil moisture content during droughts lowers the plant water potential and slows transpiration. This leads to a decrease in cell turgor and relative water content, which leads to a series of more significant damages. According to a study of the literature on plant physiology and water stress, vegetation water stress begins at the soil moisture level that corresponds to incipient stomata closure and peaks at the wilting point. Water is carried virtually continuously throughout plants, according to Dorota et al. [29]. Water moves continuously from the soil to the roots, from the roots to various sections of the plant, and finally to the leaves, where it is released as water vapor through the stomata into the atmosphere. The consequences of water stress on plant growth are depicted schematically. The most significant economic impact of insufficient water on agricultural crops is a drop in yield. When there is insufficient water in the

E.-S. E. Omran et al.

root zone, the plant will close some or all of its stomata to limit the amount of water lost by transpiration. Because the CO2 essential for this activity reaches the plant through the stomata, photosynthesis is reduced. Reduced photosynthesis lowers biomass output, resulting in lower yields. According to Gaiser et al. [30], soil water retention is a significant component that controls crop development and production in semi-arid environments. The soil’s ability to hold water over time may help to alleviate water stress and boost yield stability. Crop growth models can be utilized to represent the processes that influence soil water dynamics and crop water intake, but they require accurate input data. Gaiser et al. [30] discovered that trustworthy data on water retention in connection to soil type, texture, and organic matter concentration is scarce in semiarid tropical locations. The findings show that clay mineral composition has an impact on soil water retention. Adaptations to limited water supplies are inherited features that allow a species to survive and compete well in drought situations. Numerous biochemical reactions of plants to limited water supplies are the best understood adaptations, but the mechanisms of interaction between biochemical processes and water relations are poorly understood, and adaptive benefits of modified plant behavior are hypothetical. According to Hsiao [31], and Oertli [32], the main location of water stress damage in plants is unknown; there may be more than one such site, although injuries are most likely connected to turgor pressure reduction. Drought causes a plant to produce a larger root/top ratio, which is an adaptive adaptation. Because seeds are significant storage organs, annual plants have a lower root/shoot ratio than perennials [33]. In general, water consumptive use was increased with the greatest number of irrigation’s as reported by Prashar and Singh [34], and Rao and Bhardwaj [35]. El-Sayed [36], showed that water consumptive use was lowered due to exposing wheat plants to high moisture stress [37], found that the maximum rate of water use of wheat was 0.33 inch/day at the period from

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273

flowering to milk stages. On the other hand, Prashar and Singh [34] indicated that consumptive use was low during germination to jointing. At flowering it comes nearly five times the initial value then it decreased during maturation. Erie et al. [38] indicated that consumptive use might vary from one plant to another, season to season and day to day.

studied species was fully accounted for by increasing the concentration of the inorganic ions, sodium, chloride, phosphorus and sulphates together with soluble sugars, but the contribution of these solutes were offset by a decrease in the concentration of total carbohydrates. Maksoud, et al. [43], investigated influence of different soil moisture levels, i.e. irrigation at 15, 30, 60, and 90% depletion of the available soil moisture on the “American” “Balady” and “Chines” garlic Cultivars under the condition of Zagazig region. They reported that irrigation at 30% depletion of the available soil moisture was the most suitable and favorable treatment for increasing growth rate, average bulb weight, total and exportable yield as well as efficiency of water utilization and water used/yield ratio. Water stress reduced plant height, number of leaves and branches, total leaf area, dry weight of shoot per plant, yield, and its components, according to Abo-El-Kheir et al. [44]. Bean plants (Phaseolus vulgaris L. variety Giza 3) cultivated at 90 percent field capacity had higher amounts of acidic auxins, acidic and basic gibberellins, and low levels of inhibitors than those grown at 54% field capacity, according to El-saied et al. [45]. They went on to say that as the percentage of field capacity was raised, plant height, number of leaves generated, and net number of leaves decreased.

3.7.3 Soil Moisture, Plant Growth and Yield Experiments show that the irrigation at 30% depletion of the available soil moisture was the most suitable and favorable treatment for increasing growth rate, average bulb weight, total and exportable yield as well as efficiency of water utilization and water used / yield ratio. Denmead and Show [39] studied the impact of soil moisture stress on corn development and productivity. The rate of stem elongation decreased by nearly 75% when available water was low, and it continued to diminish as the wilting point neared. Grain yield was reduced significantly by all stress treatments and the reduction was more pronounced when moisture stress was imposed at sulking stage than when imposed at the vegetative or ear stage. Irrigation was particularly crucial at crownroot initiation stage, according to Cheema et al. [40], and removal of irrigation at late tailoring and flowering phases lowered grain yields by 23 and 20%, respectively. At late Jointion or milky stages moisture stress caused little reduction in grain yield. Because of the decline in effective tillers, yields were reduced by roughly 60% when two consecutive irrigations were skipped, at crown-root initiation and late tailoring. Doncheva [41], reported that moisture level maintained at over 70% of field capacity, increased the accumulation of N compounds, mainly proteins, in wheat grains. Youssef, et al. [42], studied the influence of water deficits on plant water relations and accumulation rates of sugar, protein nitrogen, ash and inorganic ions, as well as the seed oil percentage in two important oil crop plants (Helianthus annus and Sesamum indicum). They found that the increased water saturation deficit in the two

3.7.4 Soil Moisture and Nutrient Availability The question of available soil moisture as related to nutrients uptake by plant has been a subject of controversy for a relatively long Period of time. One group of investigators argues that as long as the available water content of the soil is in excess of the permanent wilting point, the effect of water on nutrients uptake is unimportant. Another group of investigators suggest that the transition from the available to unavailable state is gradual and that the plant response may be affected to a measurable degree by this transition before reaching the permanent wilting point. Under field conditions, crop roots in the surface soil are frequently exposed to moisture content well below the wilting coefficient, while the

274

lower regions of the root system are in contact with soil that has available moisture. Aboul Roos and Amre [46], studied the Distribution of applied water soluble phosphate among the various inorganic phosphorus fraction in six alluvial soils of different textures using three rates of P application and under three different soil moisture conditions. They found that when the phosphates in soil samples were kept moist at field capacity for 3 days, most of the applied P was retained as Al-P fraction. They added that the initial reaction that follows the addition of soluble phosphate appeared to be very rapid and possibly was mainly influenced by specific surface activities with Al, Fe, and Ca rather than other factors. Subsequent changes are very slow to occur. They also reported that water-logging conditions greatly accelerate the reaction of added phosphate with soil constituents. Under this condition, transformation of Al–P to both Fe–P and Ca–P occurred. Abdel-Aal et al. [47], studied the effect of free Fe Oxides on moisture retention. They reported that free iron oxides occurring either as discrete aggregates or coatings on soil particles may affect the moisture characters is soils, They added that, the removal of free Fe Oxides increased the retained moisture with 1.23–1.62 times in moisture equivalent and 1.45–2.33 times in wilting point. Also, the amounts of these oxides were very low but they had a great power in blocking the interplanar surfaces of the expanded clay minerals (montmorillonite).

3.7.5 Effect of Some Soil Conditioners on Moisture Content Sandy soils are widespread in the Middle East and North Africa as well in other arid and semiarid regions of the world. The agricultural productions of these soils are usually low and expensive. Trials to improve their productivity have been attempted by mixing organic matter or farm manure with soil surface or by forming impermeable layer (made up of different materials) at different depths of the soil (Balba 1975). The application of organic manure is a common practice but under arid and semi-arid conditions its beneficial effect becomes insignificant.

E.-S. E. Omran et al.

Incorporation of synthetic polymers within sandy soil is relatively a new approach to improve water holding characteristics of the coarse textured soil. Polyacrylamide increased available water in coarse sand and the effect varied with the type of the commercial product used [48].

3.7.6 Effect of Some Physico-chemical Properties on Water Availability Very gradual change in moisture release with increasing pressure is normally observed. Between 0.33 and 1 atm., half of the remaining moisture is lost. Above one and up to five atm most of the available moisture is practically lost and between 5 and 15 atm. the very small portion of available moisture that remains is lost. Soluble sodium salts alter soil moisture properties and pore size distribution depending on their kind and concentration. All of the sodium salts studied enhanced field capacity and wilting point while reducing accessible water. The kind and concentration of soluble sodium salts in reclamation projects alter soil moisture properties and pore size distribution, according to Gouda et al. [49]. All of the sodium salts investigated increased field capacity and wilting Pont, while reducing accessible water. The correlation coefficients between soil moisture measures and soil salinity contents are quite substantial, according to the researchers. Field capacity and wilting point have a positive relationship, whereas accessible water has a negative relationship. Kandil, et al. [50] reported that soil salinity and alkalinity affect water availability to plants either directly by specific ionic and osmotic effects, or indirectly by their regulation of soil structure and porosity. 3.7.7 Water Requirement The effect of available soil moisture depletion in the root zone during different stages of plant growth is an important factor under irrigation agriculture, which received considerable attention. As the water supply is inadequate for most of the productive lands, a great effort should be made to obtain the highest possible efficient use

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation …

275

of available water resources. The knowledge of consumptive use is essential for the estimation of water requirements. Since experimental data on the consumptive use is lacking at present, the use of climatologically methods for obtaining these values was adopted.

normally ranges between 15 and 45% by volume. When a soil’s moisture content is at or near field capacity, plants can easily extract water. However, as a soil dries up, greater forces hold the pore water in place until plants can no longer take any water from the soil. The “wilting point” of a soil is the moisture level at which it begins to wilt.

3.7.8 Water Movement Conditions Knowledge of the factors affecting water movement rate in soil under both saturated (Ks) and unsaturated (K) rate conditions, especially at the available moisture limits is essential to solve the problems of irrigation, drainage, water conservation, nutrient transport, pollution and ground water contamination [51]. The hydraulic conductivity as capillary conductivity is a function of the total volume of conducting pores, their mean size, continuity and the degree to which these pores are filled with water at the time they are serving as the conducting medium [52, 53]. These soil characteristics are not constant, but vary according to changes in the soil physical conditions, especially soil structure [54]. Soil structure were mainly determined by particle size distribution, organic matter, the management practices, kind of exchangeable bases and the existence of soluble salts [55]. 3.7.9 Water Relationships Water use efficiency is considerably decreased with increasing soil water tension and salt content. Field capacity, Wilting %, accessible water, and total porosity are all favorably connected with silt plus clay and organic matter content, while coarse sand is adversely correlated. The soil water content and soil water potential have a relationship, and the soil water characteristic curve depicts this relationship graphically. The ability of a soil to hold water is determined by the size, shape, and arrangement of the soil particles, as well as the accompanying voids (pores). Weaker capillary forces “hold” water in the soil pores. Water is also held as a “film” encircling soil particles by stronger adsorptive pressures. When a soil’s capillary forces can no longer hold any more water, the soil is said to be at “field capacity.” The actual soil moisture content at field capacity varies by soil texture, but

4

Results and Discussion

This study was carried to evaluate the possibility of using the residual moisture content after flooding in cultivating some forage plants for developing animal production in the area. The study was conducted at the selected sites along High Dam lake shores on the East and west sides.

4.1 Physico-chemical Characteristics of the Studied Soils Samples collected and analyzed at the beginning of the work was found to be sandy in texture in general. Except for Tushka depression where the subsurface texture was loamy sand in the noninundated sites. The inundated soils in year were not different in texture except for Tushka depression and Kalabsha (Table 5). To follow possible change in the next year, the analyses of inundated areas proved a slight change in clay and silt contents at the extent of sand. This increase in fine fractions is likely to occur with years leading to finer textures (Table 6). Table 7 and Figs. 4, 5, 6 shows that soil samples of the western side are more calcareous than those of the eastern side because of their proximity to the limestone plateau. Maximum amounts of CaCO3 in the western sites range between 4 and 8%. While in the east, CaCO3 percentages are generally lower especially in areas near the eastern ranges (igneous and metamorphic rocks) Calcium carbonates however, seen to be beaconed in the inundated soils as they decrease by inundation. The non inundated soils are generally devoid of any

276

E.-S. E. Omran et al.

Table 5 Texture of soil samples taken from different sites along the High Dam Lake shores (Season 2000) Sample No.

Location

1

Abu Simbel

El.Allaqi (Abosko)

Subsurface

97.76

0.36

1.88

Sand

97.5

0.34

2.16

Sand

Subsurface

96.72

0.46

2.82

Sand

Non-inundated

Surface

94.88

1.18

3.94

Sand

Subsurface

94.19

1.31

4.5

Sand

Inundated

Surface

93.12

2.12

4.76

Sand

Subsurface

93.54

2.32

4.14

Sand

Non-inundated

Surface

96.98

0.14

2.88

Sand

Subsurface

96.16

1.32

2.52

Sand

Inundated

Surface

97.86

0.42

1.72

Sand

Subsurface

96.48

0.68

2.86

Sand

Non-inundated

Surface

93.38

0.74

5.88

Sand

Subsurface

93.32

1.72

4.96

Sand

Inundated

Surface

95.59

1.47

2.94

Sand

Subsurface

92.92

1.79

5.29

Sand

Non-inundated

Surface

95.1

3.7

1.2

Sand

Subsurface

94.38

3.82

1.8

Sand

Inundated

Surface

97.34

1.48

1.18

Sand

Subsurface

96.3

2.2

1.5

Sand

Non-inundated

Surface

90.2

4.64

3.16

Sand

Subsurface

90.58

3.38

6.04

Sand

Inundated

Surface

89.8

5.74

4.46

Sand

Subsurface

91.4

4.92

3.68

Sand

Non-inundated

Surface

94.78

2.58

2.64

Sand

Subsurface

93.78

3.16

3.06

Sand

Inundated

Surface

95.3

1.8

2.9

Sand

Subsurface

94.62

1.2

4.18

Sand

Non-inundated

Surface

88.18

5.82

6.55

Sand

Subsurface

84.08

11.06

4.28

L. Sand

Inundated

Surface

83.84

7.82

8.34

L. Sand

Subsurface

78.34

12.70

8.96

S. loam

Non-inundated

Surface

89.2

6.85

3.95

Sand

Subsurface

90.52

4.22

5.26

Sand

Inundated

Surface

87.66

4.56

5.78

Sand

Subsurface

90.59

5.45

3.96

Sand

Non-inundated

Surface

89.74

2.34

7.92

Sand

Subsurface

92.14

3.52

4.34

Sand

Inundated

Surface

89.34

3.88

6.78

Sand

Subsurface

85.14

8.20

6.66

L. Sand (continued)

8 9

Tomas and Afia

10 11 12 13

El-sayala

14 15 16 17

Tushka

18 19 20 21

Kurkur

22 23 24 25

Sara west

26 27 28 29

Tushka Depression

30 31 32 33

Quastal

34 35 36 37

Kalabsha

38 39 40

Texture class Sand

Surface

6 7

% Clay 1.82

Inundated

4 5

% Silt 0.41

Surface

2 3

% Sand 97.77

Non-inundated

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation …

277

Table 5 (continued) Sample No.

Location

41

Garf Hussein

% Silt

% Clay

Texture class

0.22

1.98

Sand

Surface Subsurface

97.04

0.34

2.62

Sand

Inundated

Surface

97.05

0.27

2.68

Sand

Subsurface

97.88

0.36

1.76

Sand

42 43

% Sand 97.80

Non-inundated

44

Table 6 Texture of soil samples taken from different sites along the High Dam Lake shores (Season 2001) in the inundated areas Sample No.

Location

3

Abu Simbel

4 7

El. Allaqi (Abosko)

8 11

Tomas and Afia

12 15

El-sayala

16 19

Tushka

20 23

Kurkur

24 27

Sara west

28 31

Tushka Depression

32 35

Quastal

36 39

Kalabsha

40 43 44

Garf Hussein

% Sand

% Silt

% Clay

Texture class

Surface

95.60

1.38

3.02

Sand

Subsurface

95.40

1.32

3.28

Sand

Surface

91.98

2.32

5.70

Sand

Subsurface

92.98

2.64

4.38

Sand

Surface

96.87

0.82

2.31

Sand

Subsurface

96.52

0.56

2.92

Sand

Surface

94.60

1.84

3.56

Sand

Subsurface

92.42

2.15

5.43

Sand

Surface

95.43

1.82

2.82

Sand

Subsurface

95.20

2.60

2.20

Sand

Surface

88.34

7.32

4.34

Sand

Subsurface

91.90

5.12

2.98

Sand

Surface

93.90

2.13

3.97

Sand

Subsurface

94.20

1.22

4.58

Sand

Surface

83.42

8.12

8.46

L. Sand

Subsurface

77.82

12.92

9.26

S. Loam

Surface

86.41

7.94

5.65

Sand

Subsurface

89.90

6.62

3.48

Sand

Surface

88.70

4.32

6.98

L. Sand

Subsurface

84.92

8.23

6.85

L. Sand

Surface

96.87

0.43

2.70

Sand

Subsurface

97.62

0.52

1.86

Sand

recognizable amounts of organic matter. The inundated soils however, are relatively higher in O.M due to inundation and the deposition of Algae and plankton. The results as shown in Table 7 and Fig. 5 revealed that the total soluble salts in soil were decreased by inundation. The EC of nuninundated soils at Garf Hussein area for example, ranged between 10.1 and 10.4 ds/m. While it

was ranging between 0.9 and 1.3 ds/m in the inundated areas. pH values do not change with inundation. They range between 7.4 and 9.0, i.e. slightly alkaline (Table 7). The general trend is that Nitrogen concentration becomes higher in the surface soil after inundation Total Nitrogen in the non-inundated soils ranges between 42.6 and 162.4 ppm, while the inundated soils have values ranging between

278

E.-S. E. Omran et al.

Table 7 Chemical analyses of soil samples taken from different sites along the High Dam Lake shores Sample No.

Location

1

Abu Simbel

2

Noninundated

3

Inundated

4 5 6

El.Allaqi (Abosko)

7

Noninundated Inundated

8 10

9

Tomas and Afia

Noninundated

11

Inundated

12 14

13

El-sayala

Noninundated

15

Inundated

16 18

17

Tushka

Noninundated

19

Inundated

20 21 22

Kurkur

Noninundated

23

Inundated

24 26

25

Sara west

Noninundated

27

Inundated

28 29 30

Tushka Depression

31

Noninundated Inundated

32 34

33

Noninundated

35

Inundated

36

Quastal

% O. M

Total nitrogen ppm

Available phosphorus ppm

Surface

–

96.4

2.34

Subsurface

–

120.3

3.11

Surface

0.360

164.3

5.37

Subsurface

–

103.8

4.36

Surface

0.083

142.5

3.63

Subsurface

–

69.3

3.36

Surface

0.114

142.7

4.72

Subsurface

0.042

104.1

4.36

Surface

–

96.5

2.32

Subsurface

–

93.2

3.82

Surface

0.042

152.5

6.11

Subsurface

–

63.7

4.38

Surface

–

53.4

2.67

Subsurface

–

42.6

3.36

Surface

0.021

112.1

4.46

Subsurface

–

64.8

3.12

Surface

–

49.5

3.61

Subsurface

–

43.2

5.16

Surface

0.070

122.7

3.85

Subsurface

0.280

144.2

4.67

Surface

0.550

162.4

3.42

Subsurface

0.070

117.1

2.30

Surface

0.680

164.7

4.37

Subsurface

0.120

122.3

3.84

Surface

–

53.6

4.66

Subsurface

–

48.6

4.06

Surface

0.23

131.4

6.12

Subsurface

0.056

96.2

3.22

Surface

–

66.2

3.92

Subsurface

–

73.4

2.38

Surface

0.480

102.3

8.22

Subsurface

0.056

77.2

4.38

Surface

–

112.7

4.32

Subsurface

–

72.1

3.11

Surface

0.304

146.7

4.71

Subsurface

0.045

107.3

2.62 (continued)

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation …

279

Table 7 (continued) Sample No.

Location

37

Kalabsha

38

Noninundated

39

Inundated

40 42

41

Garf Hussein

Noninundated

43

Inundated

44

Fig. 4 Calcium carbonate content in soil samples collected from different sites of shorelands a separate areas and b as shown in all areas

% O. M

Total nitrogen ppm

Available phosphorus ppm

Surface

–

78.6

4.38

Subsurface

–

92.4

3.82

Surface

0.43

162.4

7.32

Subsurface

0.056

131.4

6.14

Surface

–

55.4

4.18

Subsurface

–

46.3

2.68

Surface

0.022

96.5

4.68

Subsurface

–

42.7

4.38

a 14

noninundated subsurface noninundated surface inundated supsurface inundated surface

12

calcium carbonat

10

8

6

4

2

0 Abu Simble

El-Alaki (Abosko)

Tomas & Afia El-sayala

b 14

calcium carbonat %

12

10

Tushka

Kurkur

Abu Simble Tomas & Afia Tushka Sara west Qustal Garf Hussein

Sara w est

Tushka Depression

Qustal

Kalabsha

Garf Hussein

El-Alaki (Abosko) El-sayala Kurkur Tushka Dep ression Kalabsha

8

6

4

2

0

noninundated subsurface

42.7 and 164.7 ppm. Table 7 and Fig. 5. Total nitrogen is also higher where organic matter is present. The general trend is that the

noninundated surface

inundated supsurface

inundated surface

Phosphorous content becomes higher in the surface soil after inundation. Available Phosphorous in the non-inundated soils ranges between 2.305

280

E.-S. E. Omran et al.

Fig. 5 a Organic matter content of inundated and noninundated soils at different sites along the High Dam Lake shores. b Salinity conditions in the soils along High Dam Lake shores

and 5.16 ppm, while the inundated soils ranging between 2.62 and 8.225 ppm (Table 7; Fig. 6). As mentioned before, the general rule of increasing salinity in the non-inundated soils is always valid. On the other hand, the inundated soils are leached but still the surface is more saline than the subsurface. This is generally valid except in few cases where the opposite is prevailing. In any case, evaporation plays a great role in raising salts to the surface. Kalabsha and Garf Hussein soils however, are more saline in the noninundated areas where salinity reaches values around 10.0 ds/m. Bicarbonates in all soils are relatively high inducing high pH values (9.04). The dominant anion is sulfate while chloride is subdominant. Sodium cation is dominant but did not account for chloride content. Sodium sulfate

beside calcium and magnesium sulfates are accordingly present. Potassium cation is following the EC trend in most of the soils (Table 8).

4.2 Moisture Properties Moisture content at saturation do not exceed 35% while the average is ranging between 26.6 and 22.0%. Tushka depression and Kalabsha soils are relatively finer than other soils. Their textures are sandy loam and loamy sand respectively. The addition of suspended clay with flood and surface run-off waters is expected (Table 9). As these soils are generally sandy except those in Kalabsha and Tushka depression (L.S–S. L), the field capacity is ranging between 7.7 and

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation …

281

Fig. 6 a Total nitrogen (ppm) and b available phosphorus (ppm) of inundated and Non-inundated surface soil samples taken from different sites along the High Dam Lake shores

16.1%. As a general trend with few exceptions, inundation increased water holding capacity. This is due to the addition of organic matter and silt. Reviewing, the values of F.C and WP, the available moisture are ranging between 4.3 and 9.0%. The available moisture content in these soils are very low. Inundation however increased water holding capacity and is giving a promise that with inundation, texture is getting finer and WHC is accordingly becoming better. Land use of these soils, should consider the poor water available moisture and should plan for growing specific crops and fodder plants that could consume the limited available water if supplemented irrigation is not planned.

The soils in the region are saturated to the field capacity content within March and April, while moisture depletion to the wilting point is reached within May and June, this is the only growing season, i.e. two months. The area estimated to be cultivated on this available moisture reaches 50,000 feddan. With continuous decrease of lake water level, new areas are becoming available for cultivation and total cultivated areas are almost doubled. With system, about 100,000 feddan are expected to be cultivated. These estimations are only based on fodder land use where few cuts could be obtained with subsiding of water level (Table 9; Figs. 7, 8, 9 and 10).

Tomas and Afia

El-sayala

24

23

inundated

Surface

21

Subsurface

Surface

Subsurface

Subsurface

20

Noninundated

Surface

19

Kurkur

Subsurface

18

22

Surface

17

Surface

Subsurface

Inundated

Subsurface

16

15

Noninundated

Surface

14

13

Surface

Subsurface

Inundated

Subsurface

12

11

Noninundated

Surface

10

9

Surface

Subsurface

inundated

Subsurface

8

7

6

Surface

Surface

5

Noninundated

Surface

Subsurface

Subsurface

Inundated

Noninundated

4

3

El.Allaqi (Abosko)

Abu Simbel

1

2

Location

Sample No.

8.3

5.6

1.2

3.2

2.8

3.4

8.2

4.7

1.7

3.2

1.2

1.8

2.1

3.8

3.2

6.4

0.9

1.1

3.7

2.3

0.8

1.2

5.2

2.3

% CaCO3

9.1

7.8

8.3

8.1

8.7

8.1

8.9

8.7

8.6

9.0

8.5

8.3

8.5

8.6

8.5

8.2

8.6

8.9

8.4

8.2

8.8

8.1

8.9

8.7

pH 1:2.5 suspension

0.51

0.71

0.60

4.35

0.25

1.71

1.24

1.36

1.47

0.26

1.20

2.96

0.49

0.65

2.79

1.85

0.71

1.07

2.24

2.36

0.34

1.47

1.71

3.84

EC dS/m in soil paste

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

CO3

2.60

4.20

2.80

5.00

1.20

2.00

2.80

2.20

2.60

1.15

1.81

2.40

2.80

3.20

2.00

2.00

2.80

3.40

2.00

2.20

1.40

2.20

2.20

4.60

HCO3−

1.80

2.50

2.50

17.00

0.95

3.4

2.2

3.6

1.80

1.05

1.52

7.40

1.62

2.00

13.60

4.80

3.50

6.80

6.40

7.00

1.70

4.60

3.60

4.00

Cl−

0.65

0.41

0.67

21.44

0.30

11.61

7.35

7.81

10.31

0.41

8.61

19.81

0.51

1.29

12.27

11.70

0.80

0.45

13.89

14.30

0.30

7.81

11.19

29.20

SO4=

Anions meq/L (saturation extract)

Table 8 Chemical analysis of soil samples taken from different sites along the High Dam Lake shores

1.84

1.61

3.13

20.28

0.78

1.87

3.17

5.43

4.74

1.17

4.45

14.48

2.24

2.48

15.75

7.93

2.60

4.41

8.32

8.27

1.23

11.96

7.70

7.00

Na+

0.41

0.74

0.13

0.82

0.20

0.61

1.50

1.15

0.43

0.13

0.36

1.2

0.17

0.31

0.78

4.04

1.19

1.45

4.98

3.66

0.68

2.71

2.82

3.84

K+

2.20

4.20

2.20

0.56

0.51

3.57

0.28

1.98

2.66

1.22

1.95

0.31

1.58

5.41

0.44

1.50

3.80

1.53

0.52

1.22

0.45

3.41

0.31

4.00

2.34

5.72

Mg++

0.63 (continued)

18.80

1.20

12.60

5.00

5.80

7.60

1.00

5.60

8.40

2.00

2.20

7.60

5.00

2.80

3.60

8.60

8.20

1.20

4.80

4.20

21.80

Ca++

Cations meq/L (saturation extract)

282 E.-S. E. Omran et al.

Quastal

Kalabsha

Garf Hussein

44

43

Inundated

Noninundated

Subsurface

Surface

Subsurface

Surface

42

41

Surface

Subsurface

inundated

Subsurface

40

39

Noninundated

Surface

38

37

Surface

Subsurface

Inundated

Subsurface

36

35

Noninundated

Surface

34

33

Surface

Subsurface

Inundated

Subsurface

32

31

Noninundated

Surface

30

29

Surface

Subsurface

Surface

Subsurface

Inundated

Noninundated

28

27

Tushka Depression

Sara west

25

26

Location

Sample No.

Table 8 (continued)

5.0

7.3

2.3

5.6

1.3

3.2

1.4

6.4

4.4

8.4

0.9

6.7

3.2

3.9

4.0

3.5

2.9

4.4

12.0

5.5

% CaCO3

8.16

7.89

8.30

7.51

8.3

8.3

7.8

7.4

8.2

7.3

8.6

7.9

8.3

8.2

8.3

8.0

7.6

8.3

8.2

8.2

pH 1:2.5 suspension

1.34

0.94

10.16

10.36

0.27

0.37

2.05

10.87

0.47

2.39

0.53

4.37

0.46

0.61

1.86

5.49

0.82

0.32

3.96

3.64

EC dS/m in soil paste

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

0.0

CO3

2.50

2.60

2.60

2.40

1.50

1.60

1.80

3.20

2.60

11.00

2.80

2.60

2.50

3.00

2.40

2.20

2.80

2.10

2.40

3.00

HCO3−

4.40

3.80

63.80

62.20

0.95

1.80

2.60

45.20

0.60

6.20

1.90

8.60

1.80

2.40

12.40

42.40

3.00

0.92

3.00

7.40

Cl−

6.42

3.00

35.14

39.01

0.28

0.28

16.08

60.28

1.43

6.62

0.56

32.45

0.28

0.62

3.78

10.22

2.31

0.17

34.18

25.91

SO4=

Anions meq/L (saturation extract)

6.48

3.86

70.70

28.58

1.05

1.54

4.28

49.56

1.14

5.56

2.43

19.48

2.00

2.43

8.13

25.52

3.82

0.59

14.91

10.22

Na+

0.69

0.80

2.66

1.76

0.26

0.18

1.86

3.48

0.23

0.92

0.23

1.23

0.20

0.23

1.48

3.43

0.56

0.26

2.40

1.81

K+

4.80

4.20

20.00

37.00

0.95

1.70

5.20

43.20

2.80

12.89

1.80

17.20

1.80

2.00

4.90

14.40

3.20

1.90

20.20

15.80

Ca++

1.43

0.43

12.20

35.88

0.46

0.28

9.19

12.40

0.48

4.50

0.80

5.77

0.55

1.38

3.70

11.51

0.57

0.43

2.11

8.51

Mg++

Cations meq/L (saturation extract)

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation … 283

284

E.-S. E. Omran et al.

Table 9 Some moisture characteristic of selected surface soil samples taken from different sites along the High Dam Lake shores Sample No.

Location

1

Abu Simbel

% saturation

Moisture equivalent

Field capacity

Wilting point

Available water

Surface

20.0

7.31

11.80

4.97

6.83

2

Noninundated

Subsurface

20.0

7.80

11.11

4.97

6.14

3

Inundated

Surface

23.0

7.50

12.01

5.75

6.26

Subsurface

18.5

7.56

10.66

4.625

6.04

Noninundated

Surface

21.4

8.48

12.47

5.35

7.12

Subsurface

20.6

8.95

13.34

5.15

8.19

Inundated

Surface

22.4

8.75

13.77

5.60

8.17

Subsurface

20.8

8.45

11.85

5.20

6.65

Noninundated

Surface

18.2

8.46

9.58

4.55

5.03

Subsurface

20.8

7.90

11.07

5.20

5.87

Inundated

Surface

22.0

8.30

11.90

5.50

6.40

Subsurface

20.0

7.83

11.23

4.97

6.26

Surface

23.0

9.27

14.60

5.75

8.65

14

Noninundated

Subsurface

23.0

8.82

13.16

5.75

7.41

15

Inundated

Surface

20.0

8.12

12.56

4.97

7.59

4 5 6

El.Allaqi (Abosko)

7 8 9 10

Tomas and Afia

11 12 13

El-sayala

16

Subsurface

19.0

9.10

11.94

4.75

7.19

Surface

20.6

7.72

13.36

5.15

8.21

18

Noninundated

Subsurface

20.0

8.62

13.43

4.97

8.46

19

Inundated

Surface

21.0

7.37

12.50

5.25

7.25

17

Tushka

20

Subsurface

20.0

7.57

12.85

4.97

7.88

Surface

30.0

8.73

15.33

7.50

7.83

22

Noninundated

Subsurface

29.6

9.55

15.85

7.40

8.45

23

Inundated

Surface

28.4

10.04

16.13

7.10

9.03

21

Kurkur

24

Subsurface

26.2

9.71

14.27

6.55

7.72

Surface

20.0

8.45

13.70

4.97

8.73

26

Noninundated

Subsurface

22.0

7.83

13.47

5.50

7.97

27

Inundated

Surface

20.0

8.45

13.24

4.97

8.27

Subsurface

20.4

8.70

13.87

5.10

8.77

Noninundated

Surface

24.2

10.41

16.35

5.50

10.85

Subsurface

21.2

9.83

17.13

5.30

11.83

Inundated

Surface

33.0

11.80

17.22

8.75

8.47

25

Sara wast

28 29 30

Tushka Depression

31 32

Subsurface

35.0

12.25

18.50

8.25

10.35

Surface

24.6

9.52

14.48

6.15

8.33

34

Noninundated

Subsurface

20.0

7.88

11.57

4.97

6.60

35

Inundated

Surface

31.0

9.80

19.73

7.75

11.98

Subsurface

19.4

7.85

9.16

4.85

4.31 (continued)

33

36

Quastal

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation …

285

Table 9 (continued) Sample No.

Location

37

Kalabsha

38

Noninundated

39

Inundated

40 41 42

Garf Hussein

Noninundated

43

Inundated

44

% saturation

Moisture equivalent

Field capacity

Wilting point

Available water

Surface

25.4

11.17

16.95

6.35

10.60

Subsurface

22.4

8.73

13.95

5.60

8.35

Surface

26.4

10.51

16.73

6.60

10.13

Subsurface

22.0

10.35

13.44

5.50

7.94

Surface

18.6

7.89

11.75

4.65

7.10

Subsurface

20.0

7.70

12.58

4.97

7.61

Surface

19.4

8.53

10.13

4.85

5.28

Subsurface

19.4

7.71

11.56

4.85

6.71

Abu Simble El-A laki (Abosko) Tom as & A fia

22

%

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 0

20 18 16 14 12 10

%

8 6 4 2 0 noninundated surface

noninundated subsurface

inundated surface

inunda ted subsurface

Abu Simble Tomas & Afia Tushka Sara west

noninundated surface

Field capacity Abu Simble Tomas & Afia Tushka

noninundated subsurface

El-Alaki (Abosko) El-sayala Kurkur Tushka Depression

inundated surface

inundated subsurface

Wilting point

El-Alaki (Abosko) El-sayala Kurkur

noninundated surface noninundated subsurface

% 14

% 14 12

12 10

10

8

8

6

6

4

4

2 2

0 inundated subsurface

inundated surface

noninundated subsurface

noninundated surface

0 Garf Hussein Kalabsha Qustal Tushka Depression

Sara west Kurkur

Tushka El-sayala Tomas & Afia El-Alaki (Abosko)

Abu Simble

Available water content Fig. 7 Some physical properties of soil samples collected from different sites along the Shores of High Dam Lake

4.3 The Area of Shorelands The area of the shorelands that could subsided at different flood levels are estimated

morphmetrically (Table 10). As an example if the difference of water subsidence is between 180 and 160 m, the areas are estimated at 633,000 feddan, (Landsat images 1984 and 2001, Fig. 11).

286

E.-S. E. Omran et al.

40

35

% S atu ra tio n Fi eld cap aci ty

Moisture persent

30

25

20

15

10

5

0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 37 36 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 Sampel No

Moisture characteristics of soil samples collected from different sites

Moisture status (%) of Kurkur soil

%

Garf Hussein 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Field

Kalabsh Wilting

2/15/20003/15/20004/15/20005/15/20006/15/20007/15/2000

Moisture status (%) of Kalabsha soil

Moisture status (%) of Garf Hussein soil

Fig. 8 Moisture characteristics and status of soil samples collected from different sites along the Shores of High Dam Lake

4.4 Experiment Field A field trial was conducted to assess some growth parameters of Cowpea cultivations under condition of residual moisture and irrigation. The results show that the green yield reached 4798.44 kg/fed under no irrigation depending on residual moisture in the soil after water subsidence while it reached 8376.89 kg/fed under irrigation treatment with an increasing of 42.72%. The results also show that a significant increase was found in plant height with irrigation treatment (Table 11). The results of the dry matter yield show that there is a significant increase due to irrigation as shown in Table 11 while there is no significant increase in roots length between the two treatments. The root / shoot ratio however, was increased in case of residual moisture treatment (Table 11; Figs. 12, 13, 14 and 15).

Field experiment was conducted to evaluate the response of cowpea plant to the additions of different organic matter to the soil under the condition of residual moisture. The data as shown in Table 12 revealed that the addition of any of the organic matter used has increased significantly the green yield, the dry matter, plant height and root length over the control. The increase due to the added organic matter were chickens manure > sugar cane > compost respectively.

4.5 Current Land Use The foreshore land lies under the 182 m level, of the High Dam and are covered with the water of the lake seasonally, partially or completely depending on the storage of flood water, between the months of August and December, then the

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation …

287

Tomas & Afia

Tushka

%

24 22 Abu Simble 20 Field 18 16 Wilting 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2/15/20030/15/2004 0/15/20050/15/2006 0/15/20070/15/2000 %

30 28 Tushka Deprssion 26 Field 24 22 Wilting 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2/15/2000 3/15/20004/15/20005/15/20006/15/20007/15/2000

%

Fig. 9 Moisture status (%) of soil as changed with time

24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Field

Sara west

Wilting

2/15/20030/15/20040/15/20050/15/20060/15/20070/15/2000

%

El-Sayala 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

Field

Quast Wilting

2/15/2030/105/2040/015/2050/105/2060/015/2070/105/2000

Fig. 10 Moisture status (%) of some soil, as changed with time

288

E.-S. E. Omran et al.

Table 10 Shoreland areas due to water subsidence as estimated morphometrically Level land

178

176

174

172

170

168

166

164

162

160

Shoreland areas at different water flood subsidence (Thousands of feddans) 180

93

176

250

317

378

433

488

538

585

633

178

–

83

157

224

286

340

395

445

493

540

176

–

–

74

140

202

259

312

362

412

459

174

–

–

–

67

129

186

238

288

336

383

172

–

–

–

–

62

119

171

221

269

317

170

–

–

–

–

–

57

109

159

207

255

168

–

–

–

–

–

–

52

102

150

198

166

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

50

98

145

164

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

48

95

162

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

48

160

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

–

Fig. 11 Landsat image showing the photo for High Dam Lake area after flooding in season 1984 and season 2001

1984

2001

Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation …

289

Table 11 Cowpea cultivation under residual moisture and irrigation treatments Treatment

Green yield (kg/fedden)

Dry matter (kg/fedden)

Plant height (cm)

Roots length (cm)

Residual moisture content

4798.44

1050.0

34.168

22.58

Irrigated

8376.89

1833.56

57.27

24.1

Kg 9000

yield K .gm/fedden GreenGreen yield Kg / fedden

8000

Dry matter Kg / fedden dry matter K .gm/fedden

7000 6000 5000 4000 3000 2000 1000 0

irrigation

Residual moisture content

Fig. 12 Green yield and dry matter (kg/fed) of Cowpea cultivation under irrigation and residual moisture contents

Fig. 13 Plant height and roots length (cm) of Cowpea cultivation under residual moisture content and irrigation treatment

70

Residual moisture content

60

On residual moisture content

50

irrigation ( at filed capacity )

cm

40

30

20

10

0

Roots Length cm

water declines from the beginning of January till July every year, leaving about 50,000 feddans of Fertile land around all the shore of the lake. The soils of these areas retains the water to various

Plant height cm

periods, hence can be cultivated with fast growing short life crops, to benefit from the retained moisture of the soil instead of loosing it by evaporation. These lands are considered a natural

290

E.-S. E. Omran et al.

Fig. 14 Effect of organic conditioners on growth and yield of Cowpea plant cultivated under residual moisture content of some inundated soils along the High Dam Lake shores (Kurkur area)

Fig. 15 Plant height and roots length (cm) of cowpea cultivation under residual moisture content of some inundated soil along High Dam Lake (Kurkur area)

Table 12 Effect of application of different organic conditioners on growth and yield of Cowpea plant cultivation under residual moisture content of some inundated shore soil of High Dam Lake (Kurkur area) Treatment

Green yield (kg/fed)

Dry matter (kg/fed)

Plant height (cm)

Roots length (cm)

Control

4381.4

763.8

34.847

21.23

Residual sugar cane industry

5430.25

893.73

55.097

24.22

874.08

48.69

20.58

62.78

24.6

Compost Chicken manure

4841.75 11,913.0

resource and may be supplemented by additional irrigations. An estimate of about 5000–10,000 feddans are cultivated annually. Main cultivated crops are: water melon, green pepper, tomato, eggplant, wheat, broad bean, lupines, medicinal plants, sesame, barley, fun Greek, sorghum, okra, caw pea and clover.

1877.2

The area of this kind of land varies yearly according to the water level fluctuations. Irrigation of these lands is usually performed by an easy, low cost system, which suits its nature, as it is connected to the water level in the lake. The system used is a kind of line irrigation, using mobile pumps and tubes 100–200 m long,

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291

connected to the lake water by a small canal which can be deepened, in the time of water draw-down to be able to irrigate winter crops. Summer crops are cultivated on other areas, which has been covered with flood water, directly after water draw-down. From the beginning of agricultural Land use in the area a great deal of attention has been given to preventing any possible pollution in order to preserve the purity of the area by using biological fertilizers and biological pest control.

could be cultivated. Reaching wilting point in these soil would Control the area cultivated. The only two months available where cultivation is possible would limit cultivation to fodder plants. Few cuts generally two are only possible. The use of soil conditioners enhanced water holding capacity and yield and is highly recommended. With supplemental irrigation, the current land use is supporting growing of water melon, green pepper, tomato, eggplant, wheat, broad bean, lupines, medicinal plants, sesame, barley, sorghum, okra, caw pea and clover. Biological fertilization and biological pest control are recommended as a quality control of the environment.

5

Conclusion

The study revealed that almost all the studied soils are sandy, non-saline and deep to moderately deep. Except some soils in Kalabsha and Tushka depression where texture is loamy sand to sandy loam. The soils are generally very poor in organic matter and low in available phosphorus and nitrogen. Hence, fertilizers application is inevitable. Soil moisture characteristics are indicative of sandy and loamy sandy soils. Field capacity is ranging between 7.7 and 16.1%. Available moisture is also low ranging between 5 and 9% in most soils while it reaches 11–12% in Kalabsha, and Tushka depression. Inundation raised relatively available water due to relative increase in silt and clay. Land use however, should consider the poor capacity of available water. The very high expected hydraulic conductivity and very rapid infiltration of these soils would hinder efficient use of residual moisture in cultivation. The soils in the region are saturated to field capacity within March and April, while depletion of moisture to wilting point is reached within May and June. This duration is encouraging and it seems that there is an upward movement of water because of a gradual decrease of water table through post flooding time. Gradual subsidence of water level would permit the cultivation of 50,000 fed in the first stage. With Continuous decrease of water level another area probably of the some dimensions

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Update, Conclusions, and Recommendations to “Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030” El-Sayed E. Omran and Abdelazim M. Negm

Abstract

Keywords

This chapter summarizes the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) in Egypt (in terms of conclusions and suggestions) and includes findings from the volume’s instances. Furthermore, certain (update) findings from a few newly released research studies connected to the SDGs were discussed. This chapter contains 17 goals that were documented during the book process and address the economic, social, and environmental aspects of development in Egypt. Conclusions will be based on the researcher’s perception of the study’s findings and restrictions. In addition, this chapter contains data on a series of proposals for directing future research toward the SDGs, which is the Egyptian government’s key strategic issue. The set of recommendations is intended for experts who want to conduct additional study that goes beyond the scope and conclusions of this book.

Egyptian cities Food security Water quality High dam lake degradation

E.-S. E. Omran (&) Soil and Water Department, Faculty of Agriculture, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 41522, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected] A. M. Negm Water and Water Structures Engineering Department, Faculty of Engineering, Zagazig University, Zagazig 44519, Egypt e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]




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Torrents

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Introduction

The Sustainable Development Strategy (SDS): Egypt Vision 2030 is a step toward inclusive development, motivated by the successes of ancient Egyptian culture and linking the present to the future. SDS is a road plan to get the most out of competitive advantage to realize Egyptians’ ambitions and aspirations for a dignified and decent living. Egypt is forging ahead by developing the national Sustainable Development Strategy: Egypt’s Vision 2030, which is based on the embodiment of the new constitutional spirit and prioritizes welfare and prosperity, which will be achieved through sustainable development, social justice, and balanced geographic and social growth. Growing population, water scarcity, corruption, and political turmoil in neighboring countries are only some of the obstacles Egypt confronts in achieving Vision 2030. Egypt realizes that basic problems continue, despite a great desire to accomplish the SDGs. A high birth rate, brain drain, water shortages, migration, discrimination against women and girls, a developing informal sector, and instability

© The Author(s), under exclusive license to Springer Nature Switzerland AG 2022 E.-S. E. Omran and A. M. Negm (eds.), Egypt’s Strategy to Meet the Sustainable Development Goals and Agenda 2030: Researchers’ Contributions, Sustainable Development Goals Series, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-031-10676-7_17

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in surrounding countries (particularly Libya and Syria) are numerous obstacles to long-term growth. Water scarcity in Egypt and across the area is a major issue for the country’s rising population, particularly since the agricultural sector absorbs two-thirds of the country’s fresh water supply. Egypt places a high premium on ensuring sustainable water resource management. As a result, this book attempts to tackle the problem in order to combat these obstacles. This book assesses current information and examines recent changes in the SDGs. As a result, this chapter will give broad conclusions and focus on the following central issue. GOAL 1: No Poverty. GOAL 2: Zero Hunger. GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being. GOAL 4: Quality Education. GOAL 5: Gender Equality. GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation. GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy. GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth. GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure. GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality. GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities. GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production. GOAL 13: Climate Action. GOAL 14: Life Below Water. GOAL 15: Life on Land. GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions. GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal. The following part includes a summary of the key findings of some of the most current (updated) available studies on the SDGs in Egypt and the book chapters’ main conclusions and recommendations for researchers and decisionmakers. This chapter’s update, results, and suggestions are based on data collection described in this book.

deficiencies in children, according to The Cost of Hunger in Egypt, as well as anemia in women of reproductive age, is estimated to drain 1.9% of Egypt’s annual GDP due to lost productivity and health-care costs [1]. Conflicts, climate variability, catastrophic climatic circumstances, decelerations, and economic contractions are only a few of the expanding temptations, all of which are compounded by poverty and exceptionally high and persistent levels of inequality. In addition, millions of people around the world suffer from food insecurity and malnutrition due to their inability to afford healthy eating habits [2]. The second objective, which focuses on ending hunger, achieving food security, improving nutrition, and promoting sustainable agriculture, is one of the most important global sustainable development goals. It will be used to assess Egypt’s progress toward it [2]. Since the early 2000s, Egypt has faced numerous obstacles. The surge in food insecurity, malnutrition, and poverty rates in Egypt this year and in past years, did not happen suddenly. Egypt has thrived in increasing national food availability, but it has struggled to address hunger, which remains one of the most severe development concerns. Poverty and hardship are among the most serious dangers to international peace, political and social stability, and security. It is seen as a fertile ground for all types of extremism and unfettered resistance that can be directed against any state. The first goal of the sustainable development goals agreed upon by all states in 2015 is to reduce this problem. Egypt is unlikely to achieve some of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030, particularly Goal One, which focuses on eradicating poverty in all forms.

2

The chapter titled “Long-Term Control of Desertification: Is Organic Farming Superior to Conventional? Soil and Established Arid Cultivation Practices at SEKEM, Egypt”. The Egyptian government’s Vision 2030 of Sustainable Development Strategy emphases on the economic development responsibilities of justice, participation, and social integrity. The elements of society, environment, and economy form the

Update

Based on the core book theme, the following are the significant updates for the book project: The chapter titled “Update on an Overview of the Poverty, Food Security and Nutrition Situation in Egypt”. Malnutrition has a significant economic impact in Egypt. Undernutrition causes stunting, wasting, and micronutrient

Update, Conclusions, and Recommendations …

inspiring basis of Egypt’s Vision 2030 [3], which is based on the United Nations’ 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Desertification, which results in the loss of arable land, is a major problem for humanity’s future, mostly for countries with food and water shortages. We’ll look at how organic agriculture’s results and outcomes link to the SDGs of social and environmental dimensions, such as SDG 3 (“Good health and well-being”), SDG 6 (“Clean water and sanitation”), SDG 12 (“Responsible consumption and production”), and SDG 15 (“Life on Land”) [3]. In both social and economic terms, it is always preferable to prevent degradation over the requirement for repair of degraded land. According to a 2018 editorial in The Lancet—Planet Health [2018], the costs of inaction would be three times more than the costs of action. To attain the SDGs envisaged for 2030 [4], significant restoration activity would be required. Organic farming techniques, in theory, should be less prone to erosion than conventional farming because they are more closely connected with biological cycles and processes. This is, however, a theoretical assumption that has to be confirmed [5]. Chemical fertilisers, herbicides, insecticides, genetically altered organisms, heavy irrigation and intensive ploughing, and the development of concentrated monocultures are all examples of conventional farming (or industrial agriculture) [6]. The chapter titled “The Effect of COVID-19 on the Egyptian Education System and the Role of Digitalization”. As Nelson Mandela put it, “education is the most potent weapon you can employ to alter the world.” Millions of people’s lives are improved by investing in education [7]. Furthermore, education is one of the most important factors influencing income disparities between individuals [8]. Over the last decade, raising school enrollment rates and facilitating access to education, particularly for females, have been among the most important goals around the world. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a set of 17 goals aimed at making the world a better and more sustainable

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place for everyone. The United Nations General Assembly established the SDGs in September 2015, to achieve them by 2030. “Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all,” says the fourth aim of the SDGs. It is necessary to gain a good job, promoting gender equality, and increase economic growth and sustainable development. As a result, it should be at the forefront of the global development agenda. According to 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development, Lovren [9] focuses on obtaining the necessary skills, expertise, and knowledge. Education and training are the seventh pillar of Egypt’s Vision 2030 sustainable development strategy. The strategy set specific goals and strategies for all levels of education to achieve by 2030. Students are at the core of the learning experience in education for sustainable development, which is a student-centered education approach. As a result, education for sustainable development in Egypt necessitates bringing sustainable development subjects into classrooms and changing Egyptian teachers’ instructional methodologies [10]. Many countries, including China, Italy, France, Germany, the United States, and the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, have used distance learning over the Internet in general [11]. “Digitalization encourages countries to reap the benefits of the digital economy as a critical motivator for development, high income and trade, the productivity growth of high-quality products, and innovation,” according to Nassar, and Biltagy [12]. Because high rates of innovation and investment characterized them, digital markets lead to rapid technical growth.” On the other hand, workforces with poor digital skills suffer a lot of difficulties compared to others with better endowments of the digital economy,” according to Nassar, and Biltagy [12] and UNCTAD [13]. As a result, the downsides of the dominant digital economy include increased rivalry from local and foreign digitalized organizations and the loss of a large number of businesses and jobs to computerization.

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Competition law plays a significant role in shaping the digital economy in this context.” The chapter titled “Culture and Principles of Equity and Gender Equality as a Basis of Holistic Sustainable Development at SEKEM, Egypt”. The Sustainable Development Strategy’s Vision 2030 for Egypt strives to incorporate basic principles of participation, justice, and social integrity into the country’s economic development. The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) of the United Nations serve as a guide, with society, environment, and economy serving as the inspirational basic components of Egypt’s government’s Vision 2030 [3]. We’ll show how these four elements are intertwined in order to achieve comprehensive, long-term development. SEKEM issued the “SEKEM Vision and Mission 2057” [14] in 2018, which includes 18 SEKEM Vision Goals (SVGs) that match with the 17 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [United Nations 2020]. SEKEM created these SVGs to emphasize the importance of cultural life, but they are inspired by and directed by the SDGs [15]. Sustainable development necessitates that the economy look after those who create value. This important aspect of fair production has been incorporated into SEKEM’s ecological, societal, and cultural dimensions. Its employees are allowed to spend 10 percent of their ‘working’ time on personal development. Similarly, the “SEKEM Development Foundation” (SDF) returns 10% of the SEKEM added value to the community, while another 10% is invested in innovation and research [16]. The Ecological, Economic, Societal, and Cultural components make up the SEKEM model. Since its founding in Belbeis, Egypt, in 1977, and throughout the course of more than 40 years of development, the SEKEM community has incorporated ideals such as equality, women’s empowerment, education, artistic and cultural development, circular economy, and others. The SEKEM own institutions are visible signs: from kindergarten, school, and special needs school to university, and from adult training courses to vocational training facilities. All of

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them are built on a foundation of vibrant cultural, spiritual, and creative life. These ideals have traditionally served as the foundation for the community’s organic organizational and economic progress. As a result, it will be portrayed as a long-term, sustainable example of SDGs 5 and 10, which are “Gender equality” and “Reduced disparities.” The chapter titled “Integrated Hydrological Modeling and Geoinformatics for Harvesting and Simulating Mountain Torrents on the Area Stretching Between Port Sudan and Ras Bennas, Red Sea”. Weather and climate are sensitive to the bulk of the 17 SDGs under the internationally approved targets. As a result, it concentrates on five key areas: agriculture and food security, disaster risk reduction, health, water, and energy. ‘Ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all,’ says SDG 6 [17]. Because of their rapid and immediate impact, flash floods are recognized to be damaging to all types of floods [18–, 19–21]. Watercourses that run constantly or intermittently, with strongly fluctuating perennial or intermittent discharge and flow conditions that originate within narrow catchment regions, are referred to as torrents [19]. Torrents display a variety of processes that can be distinguished by sediment concentration [22] or peak discharge [23]. It describes clean, accessible water as a fundamental component of the world we want to live in, one that should be available to everyone everywhere. Some of Egypt’s UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), mainly the Water goal (SDG 6) that aims to ensure the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all, are unlikely to be achieved by 2030. Climate and water have a very strong and complex relationship. This study aims to mitigate the existing risk to human life and socioeconomic activities in the area stretching between Port Sudan and Bernes, based on historical records and frequent flash flood events in the area stretching between Port Sudan and Bernes. The designed structure could be used for multiple purposes. Because the

Update, Conclusions, and Recommendations …

research area is located between Port Sudan and Bernes, it is among the non-irrigated zones (due to low annual average rainfall). As a result, the built structure would be beneficial to the area’s water deficit concerns. The chapter titled “Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt”. Renewable energy is now the focus of the future. Egypt has abundant renewable energy resources due to its geographic location and climate. Estimating the potential of renewable energies necessitates a breadth of knowledge in other industries where potential pricing must be calculated. Auxiliary disciplines include irrigation and limited hydropower hydraulics, solar and wind metrology and environmental criteria for renewable energy in general. We can optimize power production output and secure the ideal places and develop solar stations if we are familiar with these sectors. The chapter titled “Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs”. Renewable energy sources help to achieve many of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), which were accepted on September 25, 2015. This is what we’ll talk about in paragraph 6: “How can heat aid in the implementation of SDGs?” A fundamental aspect of the SDGs is achieving sustainable development in all three dimensions—economic, social, and environmental—in a balanced and integrated manner. Solar panels contain dangerous compounds such as lead, cadmium, and other metals that cannot be removed or neutralised without shattering the panels’ glass. 2017 is the year of bliss. If we suppose that the amount of nuclear waste generated at the conclusion of a plant’s operating life provides a specific amount of electrical energy, it can cover a soccer field with a height of (53) m, for example. We will discover that if we use solar panels to produce the same quantity of electrical energy, the garbage produced will fill the same space (i.e. a soccer field), but it will rise to 16,000 m, or twice the height of the Himalayan mountain Everest [24].

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The presence of a low-cost energy storage system might be considered the master key to increasing the system’s overall economic viability. According to one of the experts, this form of low-cost thermal energy storage would be like a Swiss army knife in terms of decreasing emissions [25]. I received an article that was published on August 7, 2020, while I was writing this chapter. According to writer Leigh Collins, storing energy in the form of heat acts as a “Swiss army knife” for renewable energy emissions reduction. It’s a beautiful comparison in that we can store numerous tools, used in everyday life by anybody, in a little, compact item that can be useful in more than one area of use [25]. The chapter titled “Economic Growth, Employment and Decent Work as a Sustainable Development Policy for All”. Economic expansion has resulted in more and better job opportunities. Economic growth that is both sustained and inclusive propels development by increasing resources available for education, health, consumption, transportation, and water and energy infrastructure. It is not sustainable when governments deplete their natural resources in the pursuit of economic expansion, thereby shifting the weight of environmental deterioration and destruction to future generations. Maintaining high real economic growth is difficult [26]. Financial progress, without a doubt, creates decent while not affecting the environment. Increasing access to financial services will help to create jobs. Ensure that all share the advantages of entrepreneurship and innovation. As a result, increased economic growth is required to reach the UN Environment Programme’s [26] aim of 7% GDP growth in the least developed nations. Equal opportunities for all, reducing development disparities, and effective resource utilization are also part of the strategy [27]. Increasing employment and providing adequate jobs for all people are critical components of long-term development. Employment and decent labor aid in the reduction of disparities and poverty and the empowerment of people,

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particularly women, young people, and those with disabilities. Greater job satisfaction is linked to increased labor productivity. The enjoyment of basic rights, the assurance of non-discrimination, the abolition of child labor, the provision of a work environment conducive to health and safety, the provision of benefits and incentives, the provision of adequate pay and pension scheme, and the availability of an appropriate venue to voice employee concerns are all included in satisfaction [28]. The promotion of structural transformation toward more productive and green activities will be a crucial component in producing good jobs and reducing poverty. Social protection resources can be generated as a result of structural transformation processes to assist persons who are unable to escape poverty on their own. It is critical to establish solid ownership of the development agenda at the national level. All 17 Sustainable Development Goals should use gender statistics to track progress toward gender equality and women’s empowerment. The chapter titled “Proposed Guidelines for Planning of Egyptian Fishing Ports”. After signing, many nations have incorporated the goals and targets into their national development plans and linked policies and institutions in support of the 2030 plan. Under Egypt’s current sustainability and economic reform objectives to enrich the country’s resources and tackle future difficulties, megaprojects have been undertaken to develop infrastructure and stimulate investment [29]. The importance of marine resources, such as seas and oceans, is reflected in the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UNSDGs), particularly objective 14 (Life below water). SDG 14 focuses on oceans, seas, and marine resources conservation and sustainable use. They provide food and livelihoods for billions of people and support other SDGs [30]. However, unsustainable activities (such as overfishing, pollution, and illegal fishing) may damage the marine environment, limiting developing countries’ ability to optimize the utilization of their marine resources [31]. Scientific concepts should be applied to the planning of fishing ports

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in order to maximize port efficiency and protect against unanticipated dangers and financial loss in the future. Egyptian fishing ports are prone to deterioration in fundamental infrastructure, functional amenities, and environmental implications [32, 33]. Specific guidelines and criteria for the planning of Egyptian fishing ports are required to improve current circumstances and promote the fishing sector in Egypt while taking into account relevant SDGs. The chapter titled “The Impact of HumanInduced in Mining Operations on the Increased Risk of Torrents in the Wadi Allaqi Basin”. SDG 12 is officially worded as “to ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns” [34]. It’s a vision encompassed in 17 strategic goals for sustainable development and 169 indivisible targets. Goal 12, which encourages more environmentally friendly consumption and production patterns through a variety of measures, including specific policies and international agreements on the management of harmful compounds, is one of the most important global sustainable development goals, and it is used to track Egypt’s improvement toward Agenda 2030 [2]. The relevance of slope as one of the elements of surface manifestations influencing development processes cannot be overstated. The slope element is critical in determining the area’s appropriateness for agricultural, urban, and other development [35, 36]. One of the most significant is the increase in the volume of excreted and milled deposits from the valley bellies’ excavation remains, which could cause future issues in the event of a flood hazard in the basin [19–21], jeopardizing future development and protected areas in the Wadi Allaqi Reserve. Many geographical features in the Wadi Allaqi basin can be used for agricultural and urban development. The availability of floodplain soil from the basin’s silt runoff deposits, the basin’s proximity to Lake Nasser’s water source, and the accessibility of building materials from adjacent sources like as ridges and hills are among them. The problem is the expansion of the

Update, Conclusions, and Recommendations …

Wadi Allaqi basin, the rise of mining operations, and the search for minerals, particularly on the Sudanese side, in a non-systematic and indiscriminate manner, resulting in the dismemberment of wadis, hills, and ridges, and the formation of groups of dust piles that become easy to transport as the water moves downstream. Due to the amount of material that may be quickly carried in by torrential floods as a result of silt deposition by the human agent in the streams of the sub and main valleys of the Allaqi basin, this poses a risk to the future growth of the Wadi Allaqi exit on the Egyptian side. The chapter titled “Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability of Egyptian Cities”. Sustainable cities and communities (Goal 11) provides opportunities for synergies, such as decoupling economic growth from environmental degradation while also creating jobs and encouraging clean energy innovation. Through the growth of the methodologies utilized in this sector, scientific and technical advances in numerous aspects of life have had a significant impact on housing planning. Human culture, learning, and different needs and demands have all been represented in the settlement design that they have undertaken. Using the available natural and technical resources and his team and his ideas, he creates a safe and comfortable atmosphere. As a result, the chapter aims to look into the significance of climatic elements in Egyptian city development and sustainability. The approaches utilized in this sector have progressed to what we refer to as modern or contemporary planning, which incorporates elements of strength, efficiency, beauty, and innovation on several levels [37]. Because the air masses that occur over mountain areas move upwards to cool the air on which water vapor condenses to produce rainfall and snow, the climate is affected by the topography of the regions. Places on mountain sides are drier than wind-prone areas, because the air masses that occur over mountain areas move upwards to cool the air on which water vapor condenses to produce rainfall and snow. While

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those air masses pass through mountainous areas, they lose a lot of humidity. In addition to rising temperature, which allows them to retain moisture in the form of vapor, the elevation of land above sea level has an impact on the climate’s type and composition [38]. Lake Nasser (Nuba Lake), an industrial lake built from water collected before the Aswan High Dam, is located in the country’s southernmost regions. Lake Qarun is one of the country’s largest natural lakes, located in the northwest. The upper reaches of the St. Catherine Mountains in the south are below freezing, making it a popular tourist destination. Because of its proximity to the Mediterranean coast, temperatures moderate in the north of Sinai [39]. The city is a metropolitan area where land use varies significantly from neighborhood to neighborhood, so each part of it appears to be specialized in a particular function and distinct from the other parts of the city by function, so the city’s residential area appears to be completely heterogeneous, with one journey from the city’s commercial heart streets to the outskirts revealing a range of successive variations. There are residential areas, industrial areas, business areas, administrative areas, and other services areas all in one city [40]. The chapter titled “Education for Sustainable Development, Best Practices Towards fulfilling Egypt’s Vision 2030”. Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) equips students with the knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes they need to make informed decisions and conduct responsible actions that promote environmental integrity, economic viability, and social justice. Education for Sustainable Development is a lifelong process and an essential component of high-quality education. It improves learning on cognitive, social, emotional, and behavioral levels. It is comprehensive and transformative, encompassing learning content and results, pedagogy, and the learning environment as a whole. The ESD for 2030 roadmap aims at supporting the role of education to ensure the actualization

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of SDGs which will lead to a more just and sustainable world. ESD for 2030 recommends five areas of action to address the critical sustainability challenges: legislation, learning environments, educator capacity building, youth and local level action, and societal transformation. It also highlights six major implementation areas: country initiatives on ESD for 2030, the ESD for 2030 Network, communication and advocacy, identifying issues and trends, mobilising resources, and tracking progress [41]. In Egypt, the model of Child University is exemplary in terms of country level initiatives; as it uses education as a means for equipping young children with the necessary knowledge to achieve SDGs, and to transform society by building active citizens and leaders of the future. The chapter titled “Life Under Lake Nasser: Water Quality as Means to Achieving the Egypt’s Agenda 2030”. By creating a specific goal (SDG 14: ensuring the availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all), the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development brings water quality challenges to the forefront of international action. Water pollution is a serious problem in today’s world, and addressing it has become a top concern for longterm development. The Nile has been Egypt’s most important source of freshwater for hundreds of years; it provides reliable water in the Nile Valley and Delta Region for drinking, irrigation, and canalization [42, 43]. The Aswan High Dam, which created Lake Nasser, was erected between January 1964 and June 1968 [44, 45]. Goal 14 aims to decrease pollution in all forms to zero. Underwater life is in danger (due to pollution, for example), diminishing fisheries and losing coastal habitats. In the twenty-first century, water contamination is a big issue. Water pollution is still a major problem in today’s world, and resolving it has gone to the top of the sustainable development priority list. “How does water contamination connect to the other Sustainable Development Goals?” is a topic that has to be answered. The study aims to

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identify a solution to this problem, which is crucial in recognizing and comprehending critical water quality development challenges. The chapter titled “Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation Along the High Dam”. Lake, Egypt. Agricultural biomass production is the key aim for SDG no. 2 [46]. Sustainable forest management, decreasing and reversing land and natural habitat deterioration, effectively combatting desertification, and halting biodiversity loss are all highlighted in Goal 15. For example, SDG 15.3 on land degradation neutrality asks for combatting desertification, rebuilding damaged land and soil, especially land affected by desertification, drought, and floods, and achieving a land degradation-free world by 2030. Soils play an important role in most of these goals and targets because they are at the crossroads of the atmosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere, with six important functions for humans and the environment particularly the nexus of soils, plants, animals, and human health is one important asset within the realization of global sustainable development. The functions of land and soil, which provide commodities and services to humans and their environment, are critical in this context [47, 48]. One of the most important goals of Sustainable Development Goal 15 is to combat desertification [49] and to halt and reverse land degradation. While this is the only SDG directly related to desertification, there are clear links to other SDGs due to the interconnectedness of land with food, energy, and water. Soil hydraulic properties, nutrient status, pollution, soil biodiversity, and SOC changes must all be studied and monitored in order to accomplish the SDGs. Monitoring soil and land changes is a challenge that must be solved in order to address all of these concerns. The SDGs encourage the reorganization of soil monitoring programmes, which, when combined with new sources of soil knowledge and extensive use of modern technological solutions, can provide the necessary data and information.

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The chapter titled “Long-Term Control of Desertification: Is Organic Farming Superior to Conventional? Soil and Established Arid Cultivation Practices at SEKEM, Egypt”. In the example of organic cultivation at SEKEM with its flourishing agriculture surrounded by the Sahara, we find two mechanisms that protect from desertification:

Several findings were reached by the editorial teams during the current book project. Aside from methodological ideas, the chapter draws essential lessons from the book’s instances. These conclusions are important to understand the Egypt’s strategy to meet the sustainable development goals and Agenda 2030. These are (1) that of improved soil protection, SOM richdiscussed in the following in no particular order. ness and improved parameters of soil tilth leading to immediate prevention of erosion, The chapter titled “Update on an Overview of combined with the Poverty, Food Security and Nutrition Situation in Egypt”. After a rise in GDP (2) a long-term prevention of salinification and growth rates of 7% in 2006, the Egyptian econsoil exhaustion, enabling sustainable cultiomy declined to 5.1% in 2009/2010. The decline vation with high crop yields over numerous in poverty rates in 2011/2010 was 2.1 thousand decades. pounds per capita per year in 2013/2012. However, per capita per year was 2.6 thousand. The two are results of a consequent, rather In 2015, it was 3.9 thousand, and in 2018/2017 work-intensive organic farming practice and the largest decline in the poverty rate occurred in agroecological infrastructure. They should seriEgypt, where per capita per year was 5,9 thou- ously be considered part of a solution that aims to sand. The per capita poverty line rate in achieve long-lasting desertification prevention in 2017/2018 was £736 per month, equivalent to arid and semi-arid regions. £8827 per year, while the absolute poverty line We learn from the long-standing example of was £491 per month, equivalent to £5890 per arid organic agriculture at SEKEM that such year. The northern provinces of Egypt in Port counter-measures in desert bordering areas Said, Western and Damietta are the least poor at should be done in an agroecological mindful 7.6%, 9.4% and 14.6% respectively, while way. This is to not end in a next level of erosion, southern Egypt remains the poorest of the sub- caused by high yield monocropping or excessive prefectures. The main reason for Egypt’s high profit-driven soil exhaustion. The need for regpoverty rate of 4.7% is the application of the ular and frequent application of organic material economic reform programme in the same period. in organic farming, done at SEKEM with large Average household income in 2005/2004, was quantities of compost, was shown to trigger 13.46,000 pounds and increased significantly in mechanisms that lead to soil health by improving 2009/2008 up to 20,000 pounds, and the increase the various parameters of good soil tilth: SOC, in the following years remained almost constant, soil biota, BD, PR and salinity are all improved in two years (2011/2010) and (2013/2012) in comparison to the soil of the surrounding respectively. The increase was as reported desert. This improvement in the parameters of (30.49/25.35) 1,000 pounds, higher in 2015 to good tilth and soil health was even most pro44,19 thousand pounds, and in 2018/2017 the nounced in the SEKEM farms and fields with the average annual household income recovered to longest period of organic cultivation of more 58,85,000 pounds. 941 of Egypt’s 1000 poorest than 40 years. In contrast, soil exhaustion, communities are in Upper Egypt, with the left salinification and erosion are frequent conseover 59 settlements dispersed across the North. quences of long-term intensified conventional The poverty gap index was 35.3 percent, linked cultivation, particularly in arid agriculture that is to 5.9 percent for rural Egypt as a whole. based on irrigation, e.g.

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The chapter titled “The Effect of COVID-19 on the Egyptian Education System and the Role of Digitalization”. Generally, countries with resilient systems could better react to the shocks and manage them effectively [34]. The responses to the COVID-19 pandemic vary greatly from country to country and context to context. They must, however, be based on a social vision of education and the surroundings of human rights. Action plans must enhance public education, strengthen shared goods, and strengthen global solidarity by emphasizing the cooperative responsibility for everyone’s education around the world. In a post-COVID-19 world, education must be at the center. Vaccines lead to better-quality learning since vaccination increases educational attainment because vaccinated children can go to school safely and perform better. Countries can overcome the coronavirus epidemic with the fewest losses feasible provided appropriate rules and procedures are implemented. Policymakers can take advantage of this unexpected disaster by improving the educational system’s ability to deal with technology and making it more focused on continuous and long-term learning. The chapter titled “Culture and Principles of Equity and Gender Equality as a Basis of Holistic Sustainable Development at SEKEM, Egypt”. The SEKEM community has defined four main dimensions of sustainability, and as shown here, it seems that the community and collaborating partners are already living sustainability in these four dimensions. Education, personal development and the ability to assume responsibility for the community, society and its surrounding—these are the values of concern that constantly and consistently are taken care of by the various SEKEM institutions. We have seen how this impacts the equality of all individuals and practical examples of how it encompasses the women empowerment. The chapter titled “Integrated Hydrological Modeling and Geoinformatics for Harvesting and Simulating Mountain Torrents on the

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Area Stretching Between Port Sudan and Ras Bennas, Red Sea”. This study has carried out statistical analysis of rain volumes over 30 years and the depth of rain over the next 100 years. Analysis has been made of maximum rain volumes that can fall in one day within 6 stages in hundred years (2, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 years). The rain depth was then based on these potential, which was 7.23, 18.1, 56.8, 58.8, 86.8, 129 mm, respectively. Through the integration of GIS and Hydrological Model Software in WMS, simulations of water flow and subdivisions have been made with the following conclusions: 1. The expected rain depth between 50 and 100 years is 86.6, 129 mm, respectively. 2. High floods can change the morphometric properties of subbasins. 3. A prediction map was produced using hydraulic modeling to identify the best places to choose the dam positions and storage areas of dams in front of it. 4. Proposed dams help develop the coastline from Port Sudan to the city of Berenice. 5. Through long-term water management planning, efficient management of flash floods can be achieved for agricultural objectives. Flood water harvesting has two benefits: it reduces flood losses and provides storage for reservoirs. 6. The harvest of the torrential water can be used by making stone and concrete dams to reserve the running surface water in the valleys in separate freshwater lakes. It can be constructed on the wadis outlet, and from which approximately 10 billion m3 of water can be stored in the event of an 86.8 mm rainfall within a day. 7. Approximately 1749539772 m3 (1.8 billion m3) of water in the event of a 56.8 mm rainfall can be harvested and stored. In the case of 30.6 mm rain, approximately 506,727,015 m3 (0.51 billion m3) can be stored. In the event of a 18.1 mm rainfall, a fresh water volume of up to 103,886,550 m3 (0.103 billion m3) can be stored.

Update, Conclusions, and Recommendations …

8. The total length of the proposed dams is about 22,905 m, 39 dams, with an average length of 587 m. The long-proposed 1247-mlong is W. Kiraf Dam. The shortest proposed dam on the area has 138 m long. The chapter titled “Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt”. The proper use of energy sources is the key to industrial success, which is necessary for people’s living standards to continue to improve. Egypt’s geographical location is characterized by a variety of renewable energy sources, including hydropower, tidal and wave power, solar power, and wind power. Egypt’s coastline stretches about 2900 kms (1800 miles) along the Mediterranean Sea, the Gulf of Suez, the Gulf of Aqaba, and the Red Sea, where wind, tidal, and wave forces abound. Aswan, in Egypt’s south, is known for having the greatest rate of solar brightness in the world, with an average of over 3800 h of sunshine each year. The chapter titled “Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs”. Renewable energies, with their sources and their uses, have become the concern of all countries of the world despite the differences in the nature of those peoples and their civilizations, and the issue of these societies replacing traditional energy sources, such as oil and gas, with other energy sources whose of a renewable type, is a matter of top priority for those governments and societies. We also note at the same time, that the development and expansion of research in renewable energies, their manufacturing and diversification of their uses still requires a lot of effort, funding and community attention at the level of peoples, and official at the level of governments. This chapter has been clear to us that implementing just one renewable energy technology can help us implement multiple goals of the Sustainable Development Goals announced by the United Nations years ago. This seems to be very practical, especially in societies that may suffer from underdevelopment and poverty, with the government’s inability to fix deficiencies and help quickly, due to scarcity of resources and

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lack of technical expertise of the government apparatus in developing countries, including Egypt, albeit to different degrees between those countries. If we know, for example, that conventional fuel consumption in power stations may cost us annually between 20 and 25% of the cost of constructing the plant itself, then this means in practice, within a period of no more than four or five years, we will burn enough funding to build a new plant at the same price. We can imagine the huge waste of money and other resources as a result, in addition to environmental pollution and its negative effects on humans and other creatures and living creatures, as well as natural disasters resulting from climate change as a result of this heavy use of traditional fuels. The chapter titled “Economic Growth, Employment and Decent Work as a Sustainable Development Policy for All”. Economic growth is defined as an increase in the amount of products and services produced in a country over a given period of time, and therefore economic growth in general means an increase in income for a particular country. Economic growth is measured using the percentage of GDP growth, and the ratio is compared in a particular year with the previous one. The increase in capital, technological progress and improvement in the level of education are the main reasons for economic growth. The continuous increase in the real national product from one year to the next, as the production possibilities curve shifts abroad, the concept of economic growth is the same as the concept of economic well-being. In deepening this concept, the following must be emphasized. A. Economic growth does not mean only an increase in (GDP), but it must increase real per capita income. B. The increase in per capita income must only be a realty increase and not a monetary one C. The increase in income must be in long term not a temporary.

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Egypt has ratified 64 conventions, in addition, in Egypt there are workers in the public sector and workers in the private sector and another group that works informally and which consists of a large number, which should also be represented. The existence of unions means that workers have a voice so that they can be referred to. This will improve their work and living conditions that have an impact on society in general. The chapter titled “Proposed Guidelines for Planning of Egyptian Fishing Ports”. Coastal fisheries significantly contribute to the local income and seafood (nutrition) of the millions of Egyptians. Sustaining coastal fishers (fishing ports) and the fishing industry in Egypt promote goal 14 of the SDGs, which aims to guarantee the sustainable use of seas, oceans, and marine resources. Respecting the Egyptian strategy and vision 2030 towards improving the coastal fisheries to ensure that they meet Goals 1, 2, 3, 8, 9, and 14 of the SDGs, proposed guidelines for planning the Egyptian fishing ports were presented to improve their efficiency and developing the status of Egyptian fishing ports and promote their contribution in a sustainable manner considering the associated operational environmental issues. A fishing port planner and relevant authorities should be familiar with the type and seasonality of fish resources. Also, it should be noted that the capacity of the designated fishing port depends on the anticipated fishing fleet that accommodates the port. Furthermore, the dimensions of the onshore (land) facilities rely on the fish quantities. The planning and design of fish port structures must conform to scientific laws and principles, and design methods must also be simple. Where meeting these requirements tends to lack basic data and depend too much on the experience of a few individuals. Consequently, basic research is underway to obtain the necessary fundamental data. The environmental impacts associated with ship repair facilities should be given particular attention. Fishing vessels’ repair activities and the associated

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potential hazards to the environment need stringent regulations. All activities and measures to reduce pollution must be approved by the relevant authorities before the commencement of operations. At each stage of the planning and designing phase, both technical and non-technical personnel become involved. Furthermore, ports and harbor projects must have an environmental management plan, which includes regular environmental monitoring of air and water quality throughout the construction and operational stages to determine the levels and sources of pollution. Furthermore, environmental mitigation management plans are essential for improving the marine environment. Careful and accurate protection measures and professional environmental management can significantly manage environmental issues. The chapter titled “The Impact of HumanInduced in Mining Operations on the Increased Risk of Torrents in the Wadi Allaqi Basin”. The study concludes the following: • A range of dams must be made at the top of the basin to reduce the flow volume of floodplain deposits that torrents may bring. • The exploration of minerals on the Sudanese side is growing in contrast to its Egyptian counterpart. • The search for gold is reduced in areas where sand abounds in the bellies of the valleys. • The sand accumulated in the belly of the valleys may cause drifting during torrential rains, causing risks to the basin’s urban areas and future development. • The role of high-resolution satellite imagery in the identification of quarrying areas and the fragmentation of rocks due to gold exploration has emerged through the analysis of Google Earth images. • Torrential water drains the grazed deposits of mining operations downstream.

Update, Conclusions, and Recommendations …

• Basaltic and basaltic rock areas are the best areas where gold can be found, but are rugged in mining operations using large machinery. • Moving mining gold locations to the areas of dunes and sand sheet • Precious minerals such as gold are present in areas of rock cracks, causing them to be located towards areas that are disadvantaged compared to level areas. • Mining processes change the morphology of the valleys and the area, which can lead to geomorphological changes due to humans. • The process of quarrying increases in narrow valleys and disappears from large valleys of wide stream level surface. • In order to identify areas of fossilization by visual interpretation, there is a difference in the color of the Earth’s crust from the satellite image. • The shape factor can also identify mining sites, where dust piles from excavations appear in the satellite image. • Mining locations can also be determined by the different shape of terrestrial phenomena such as cuts in waterways or sheds in hillsides or mountain peaks. • Quarrying and searching for gold metal and precious metals change the morphology of the surface and valleys in the region, causing other forms to emerge because of the human factor and human intervention. • Gold exploration on the Egyptian and Sudanese sides is different, as exploration is more severe on the Sudanese side, because of international policy. On the Egyptian side, there is little traffic in wadis and desert areas because of security precautions by not moving in the desert area without high security clearance, which has helped to reduce changes in the surface and morphology of the area. • On the Egyptian side, machinery and light equipment are used that do not significantly

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affect the morphology and geomorphological forms of the area as compared to the excavation work on the Sudanese side, in which the sides of the waterways are cut, the hills settled and large parts of the ridges cut. • Quarrying may cause new wadis to emerge, others to disappear, and sediments to accumulate. The chapter titled “Climate Considerations in the Planning and Sustainability of Egyptian Cities”. Egyptian cities have multiple functions: services, industry, trade, agriculture, transport and construction, as well as finance, electricity and mining. It ranged from 0.1% in Ras Garb to 86.0% in Dar es Salaam. Solar radiation rates at northern city stations (Cairo-Alexandria-Port Said) with averaged 486.1–418.1–421.5 cal/cm2/day, respectively. In July, the highest normal temperature rates were recorded in northern cities at Port Said station, and the lowest normal temperature in the same area at Arish station in January. Relative humidity has increased from the summer months to the winter months from the south to the north. Northern Egypt, such as Cairo, Alexandria, Port Said and Marsa Matruh, has recorded annual relative humidity rates of 45%, 53.2%, 47.6% and 46.0% respectively. Annual wind velocity rates in time and space between the regions of Egypt were around 3.10, 2.90 and 2.81 m/s, respectively, in the north of Egypt at Marsa Matruh, Alexandria and Port Said stations. At Cairo it was 1.5. While in the central region of Mansoura, Bani Suef and Arish, it was approximately 4.4, 2.80 m/s respectively. The monthly and annual rates for the number of rainy days in northern Egypt, in particular at the Cairo and Beni Suef stations in central Egypt, have increased at the same rates in the coastal areas by as much as 4.6, and the number of rainy days in the interior and south of the continental tropical climate range has been reduced to 0.5 days at the Edfu, Malawi and Minya stations, the Marsa Matruh and Kafr Sheikh.

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The chapter titled “Education for Sustainable Development, Best Practices Towards fulfilling Egypt’s Vision 2030”. SDGs are the roadmap adapted by most of the world countries. Egypt declared its 2030 strategy for sustainable development and many efforts have been planned and carried out since its launch till now. In this chapter examples have been provided for the early efforts carried out by Egyptian universities that paved the way to implementing SDGs in different levels of education. Some of the provided examples and projects showed how to institutionalize sustainable development goals in different institutions weather governmental or non-governmental. The chapter titled “Life Under Lake Nasser: Water Quality as Means to Achieving the Egypt’s Agenda 2030”. Lake Nasser is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world, which its water quality must be thoroughly investigated, and changes in physico-chemical parameters in Lake Nasser water must be monitored and assessed. Underwater life (Goal 14) in Lake Nasser is threatened (for example, due to pollution), diminishing fisheries and losing coastal ecosystems. So, the purpose of this chapter is to give scientific and legal knowledge based on the data collected. What is happening at Nasser Lake, and what are the ramifications? Second, it raises awareness by spreading information and giving education. The study showed that the temperatures of the samples are suitable environment for animal and plant aquatic life (less than 40 °C). The temperatures of the samples are suitable environment for drinking water in all water samples instead of Kalabsha and Gurf Hussin (more than 35 °C). The water is basic in all water samples. All water samples are less than the permissible limits of EC, TDS, DO and TH. Thus, water in Lake Nasser is suitable to aquatic life and fish. In relation to the percentage of turbidity, in Kalabsha, Khour Kalabsha, Gurf Hussin, El Alaaki, El Madeek, Wadi Alarab, Ebreem and Khour Toushka, turbidity is less than 5 NTU. As a result of, it is usually acceptable to consumers and the

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disinfection is more effective. But in Toushka, Abu Simple, Adendan, Sara and Arkeen, turbidity is more than 5 NTU. As a result of, it isn’t usually acceptable to consumers and the disinfection isn’t effective. In relation to the percentage of Nitrate, all water samples are less than 10 ppm of nitrates in drinking water and thus are safe to use. The chapter titled “Soil–Water Properties for Reduce Land Degradation Along the High Dam”. The study revealed that almost all the studied soils are sandy, non-saline and deep to moderately deep. Except some soils in Kalabsha and Tushka depression where texture is loamy sand to sandy loam. The soils are generally very poor in organic matter and low in available phosphorus and nitrogen. Hence, fertilizers application is inevitable. Soil moisture characteristics are indicative of sandy and loamy sandy soils. Field capacity is ranging between 7.7 and 16.1%. Available moisture is also low ranging between 5 and 9% in most soils while it reaches 11–12% in Kalabsha, and Tushka depression. Inundation raised relatively available water due to relative increase in silt and clay. Land use however, should consider the poor capacity of available water. The very high expected hydraulic conductivity and very rapid infiltration of these soils would hinder efficient use of residual moisture in cultivation. The soils in the region are saturated to field capacity within March and April, while depletion of moisture to wilting point is reached within May and June. This duration is encouraging and it seems that there is an upward movement of water because of a gradual decrease of water table through post flooding time. Gradual subsidence of water level would permit the cultivation of 50,000 fed in the first stage. With Continuous decrease of water level another area probably of the some dimensions could be cultivated. Reaching wilting point in these soil would Control the area cultivated. The only two months available where cultivation is possible would limit cultivation to fodder plants. Few cuts generally two are only possible.

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Recommendations

A key aspect to meet the sustainable development goals and Agenda 2030 impacts in Egypt’s plan is to be able to adapt to new problems in the future. To attain this goal, we propose that mitigation and adaptation require built-in flexibility. Throughout the book project, the editorial teams identified a few places that may be improved upon. This section, based on the authors’ findings and conclusions, offers a series of recommendations for future researchers, stakeholders, and decision-making, organized by subject: The chapter titled “The Effect of COVID-19 on the Egyptian Education System and the Role of Digitalization”. Given the fast pace of technological change, policy responses need to be continuously checked. Among the proposed alternatives to the Egyptian education system: • Continuing to improve the existing digital platforms and increasing the number of members in order to eliminate private sessions and reduce class density. It’s also critical to improve the Ministry of Education’s and Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research’s websites. A new platform for reviews of preparatory and secondary education has already been launched by the Ministry of Education. In addition, Madrasetna (1) and Madrasetna (2), two new educational channels, launched in November and December 2020, respectively (2). • Developing new curriculum and educational systems so that they are more adaptable to future changes, as well as increasing the funding of digital curricula and materials (digital libraries, lessons, educational materials, etc.). • Increasing funding for human development, particularly in the areas of health and education. Because of Covid-19, the economic growth strategy for 2020/2021 paid special emphasis to the education and health sectors.

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• Including the concept of sustainable education in order to promote long-term development and reduce poverty, but with a focus on quality education and innovation and lifelong learning. Learning at all ages is critical to the development of a sustainable future. Education is critical for reaching the Sustainable Development Goals [35, 36]. Universities have the different methods to influence students and provide them with the skills needed to change existing societies into sustainable cultures, making higher education uniquely positioned to spearhead the transition to sustainability. Integrating sustainability into university curricula is a significant task. Curriculum development and the formation of new academic programmes are examples of this. • Focusing on the poorest communities, providing appropriate technology equipment and internet access, and enhancing communication capacities to ensure that remote learning, whether for schools or homes, continues. • Implementing an ambitious, revolutionary, and comprehensive educational agenda to provide learners and instructors with new skills to support the knowledge-based economy. The chapter titled “Culture and Principles of Equity and Gender Equality as a Basis of Holistic Sustainable Development at SEKEM, Egypt”. A strong basis and model that is suggested for Egypt and the world has been built during the 44 years of development until today. It certainly should be expected to be a solid fundament to achieve the milestones in sustainability until 2057 that have been clearly identified and are further fine-tuned by SEKEM. Ethical and fair business practice: Fair income is needed for those at the basis of the value creating chain. SEKEM has established a cooperative global network to foster fair and equal trade relationships that are considered essential for sustainable economic development.

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Sustainable agriculture in the desert: to con- 5. Creation of embankment dams (protection) will reduce water speed in the event of hightribute to a healthier condition of the land as well volume water flow. as the people those live and work here. It is seen as an ecological solution for the resource issues 6. GIS application for environmental damage and dense population, expected to increase in the that can result from massive water flows on future. the seashore is proposed. Peaceful society: Respect and dignity are the guiding values for all individuals of the SEKEM 7. An increase in studies on water in the region and solutions to the dangers of torrents is companies and the larger community. There is proposed. strong commitment to equality and gender equality, including the empowerment of women. 8. A meteorological network in the region Equal rights and opportunities are seen as basis between Egypt and Sudan is proposed to of a peaceful and sustainable society. SEKEM measure the amount of daily rainfall with therefore aims to strengthen the integration of high accuracy and develop a torrential alarm. women in all respects. Unfolding the potential of the individual: 9. Perform a water harvest outside the flooded season for any notice during the course of Human development should guide to inspiraimplementation. tional sources, such as sciences, philosophy, religion, or arts. Freedom of cultural life, equal 10. Periodic maintenance of the flooded water chances, affordable education and spiritual harvesting facilities is recommended before development are structurally integrated at and after the rainy season. SEKEM. A holistic approach is taken to support individuals to develop their full potential and 11. Groundwater should not be used in agricultural development projects to maintain it as a skills. reliable strategic storage to meet drinking The chapter titled “Integrated Hydrological water needs during the drought. Modeling and Geoinformatics for Harvesting and Simulating Mountain Torrents on the 12. No backfilling is recommended for efficient water storage. Area Stretching Between Port Sudan and Ras Bennas, Red Sea”. Modeling of water flow and 13. Drykards for torrents are recommended under subdivisions has been made with the following the coastal road along the area to not be testimonials: exposed to the dangers of torrents. 1. Creation of some dams in the top wadis to reduces the dangers of torrents on urban areas close to the wadis. 2. Creation of some dams on the high wadis to help reduce the water flow in the main stream of large valleys. 3. A surge of water from the wadis outlet brings many sediments and different fans and delta appear on the seacoast. 4. Water flowing in front of dams can be stored and lakes used to feed the aquifer on the seacoast.

The chapter titled “Resources of the Renewable Energy in Egypt”. Geothermal Energy Resources could be one of Egypt’s potential renewable energy directions. Because heat is continuously created inside the earth without causing pollution, geothermal energy is a clean and sustainable source of energy. Geothermal energy resources range from shallow ground to hot water and hot rock found a few kilometres beneath the surface of the earth. Almost everywhere, the shallow ground or the top 3 m of the earth’s surface.

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The chapter titled “Utilizing Renewable Energy as a Mean to Achieve SDGs”. We must work to change the status quo and accelerate the taking of more basic steps that are commensurate with the conditions of each developing country; we can suggest some of them as follows:

generated from sustainable resources. Therefore, we find that it is the duty of governments and societies, and companies and the private sector to cooperate together to encourage and support all kinds of scientific research, tests, studies, and necessary activities that revolve around this topic.

1. A survey and study of all renewable energy sources available in each country and their availability focusing on available technologies that enable us to manufacture them locally and using local materials or their alternatives as much as possible is needed.

7. Humanity at the present time has a great opportunity to collaborate in the quest to make the planet clean in order to increase the capacity for progress, prosperity and wellbeing of all its inhabitants. And respect for the natural diversity of its creatures, organisms, and elements of nature in it.

2. The key to the optimal use of renewable energy is to focus on increasing the diversity and integration of different sources with advanced technologies. It should not be limited to specific types only or with old technologies. 3. Increase societal awareness of the importance and necessity of using renewable energies to reach a sustainable economy, or what is known as the green economy, as well as the circular economy to re-transfer product outputs and recycle them for use as new inputs in the economic process. 4. Develop plans and programs to reduce the carbon footprint and make it a goal for community development. 5. Increasing societal awareness of the sustainable development goals and integrating it with the educational process at all levels from basic education to university.

8. Allocating sufficient financial resources to conduct research and manufacture prototypes of parts of energy systems, with the aim of applying these innovations and research studies and operating them before their largescale production, noting that these innovations in the event of their success in reaching experimental models and ensuring the required operational efficiency, the costs and efforts made Pumped into scientific research this, it will be negligible compared to the gains made in utilizing its final prototypes after industrialization, production, and widespread use. 9. An initiative to motivate youth to pay attention to the sustainable development goals through participation, attendance, and follow-up to competitions, conferences, exhibitions, and festivals at the national level throughout the year.

6. The issue of sources and uses of renewable 10. Focusing on building power plants and facenergies and its relationship to sustainable tories that operate with renewable resources development is still in its infancy, as it did and building them in remote and poor areas not receive attention and focus until the past to study and measure their impact on the few decades. Everyone still has a lot of hard areas’ economic, social, and environmental work, research and development in the reality. And then generalize the use of these diversity of use, development and applicastations on a large scale, after its success, in tion, and on the other hand, research in the other regions. Forms of cooperative and sciences of materials and elements in nature charitable work could have been used as with the aim of choosing the best and most additional keys to financing on a larger scale, suitable ones for making systems for generwithout overburdening the government ating, storing and transmitting energy economy with additional burdens, and the

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investment infrastructure, contribution of the official bodies in gov- 11. Improved increased spending on education. ernment, parliament and various state agencies was limited in a timely manner to moral 12. Existence of worker unions. efforts, legislative and executive support to prepare the ground for these initiatives and The chapter titled “The Impact of Humanprojects within legal frameworks. Induced in Mining Operations on the 11. The firm commitment of the government and Increased Risk of Torrents in the Wadi the private sector to support local and interAllaqi Basin”. As a result of this study, there national initiatives, and their sustainability is a need to build small dams at dry canyon exits and continuous development in order to that will reduce the flow of sediment in the develop and reduce the cost of manufacturwaterways towards the Egyptian side. This could ing, manufacturing and indigenizing power lead to the destruction of the current and future generation systems from renewable sources. development areas at the end of the Wadi Allaqi exit. The chapter titled “Economic Growth, The chapter titled “Education for Sustainable Employment and Decent Work as a Development, Best Practices Towards Sustainable Development Policy for All”. The fulfilling Egypt’s Vision 2030”. These efforts study recommended that, Egypt must be to do: would not be possible without successful col1. Decrease the interest rates Lower, and bor- laboration with experts from different countries who transformed their knowledge and expertise rowing cost. to their colleagues from south Mediterranean 2. Increase consumer, and investment spending. countries. 3. Increase the real wages, if nominal wages The chapter titled “Life Under Lake Nasser: rise above inflation rate then consumers have Water Quality as Means to Achieving the disposable to more spend. Egypt’s Agenda 2030”. Continuous monitoring 4. Increased export spending leads to higher of the quality of drinking water sources in these economics growth. sections (in Lake Nasser) is recommended. Drainage systems must be provided for ships to 5. Deliberate downward adjustment of the discharge the waste away from the Lake Nasser. value of local currency relative to another currency, group of currencies, its making The chapter titled “Soil–Water Properties for exports cheaper and imports more expensive, Reduce Land Degradation Along the High increasing domestic demand. Dam”. Lake, Egypt. The use of soil conditioners enhanced water holding capacity and yield and is 6. Development of technology, e.g. Internet, highly recommended. With supplemental irrigaand computers. tion, the current land use is supporting growing 7. Management of techniques, e.g. industrial of water melon, green pepper, tomato, eggplant, relations. wheat, broad bean, lupines, medicinal plants, sesame, barley, sorghum, okra, caw pea and 8. Improved the worker skills, and clover. Biological fertilization and biological pest qualification. control are recommended as a quality control of 9. Working practices, and work from home, the environment. self-employment. 10. Increasing the supply of labor by raise the retirement age.

Acknowledgement This second editor acknowledges the support provided by Science, Technology, and Innovation Funding Authority (STIFA) ofEgypt, Grant No. (30771) and the British Council (BC) of UK, Grant

Update, Conclusions, and Recommendations … No. (332435306) through the project titled “A NovelStandalone Solar-Driven Agriculture GreenhouseDesalination System: That Grows its Energy and Irrigation Water” via theNewton-Mosharafa funding scheme, call 4.

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