Egyptomania Egypt in Western Art, 1730-1930 : Paris, Musée du Louvre, 20 January-18 April 1994, Ottowa, National Gallery of Canada, 17June-18 September 1994, Vienna, Kunsthistorisches Museum, 16 October 1994-29 January 1995 0888846363, 2711828344

Citation preview

National Gallery of Canada

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/ o m ania Egypt in Western Art

1730 1930

Paris

Musee du Louvre 20 January

18 April 1994

Ottawa

National Gallery of Canada 17 June

18 September 1994

Vienna Kunsthistorisches Museum 16 October 1994 29 January 1995

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/ 0 Egypt in Western Art 1730 1930

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R 6 u nio n

) des Mus6es Nat iona ux

8

National Gallery Musee des beaux-arts of Canada

du Canada

The exhibition

/#yP/omcz//zcz. Egy/,r i

Mrs/e/-/z ,4//, / 730--,r930 has been

organized by the Reunion des Mus6es Nationaux/Musee du Louvre, Paris

tnd the NationaIGallery of Can£lda,Ottawa, with the collaboration of the Kunsthistorisches Museum, Vienna. Published by the PublicationsDivision of the National Gallery of Canada C,qz(f Serge Th6riault

f'dzror, Lynda Muir, with the assistanceof SusanMcmaster Tr£lnslation by Alphascript, Ottawa; Language ServicesLtd., Ottawa; Bob Sandler, Montreal Proofreading by Colin Morton, Ottawa

ALL RIGHTSRESERVED

Copyright © Editions de la R6ullion des Mus6esNationaux

Paris/NationalGallery of Canada,Ottawa, 1994 Reproduction or transmission of any part of this publication,

Copyright © Spadem, Adagp, Paris, 1994

in tiny form or by any means,electronicor mechanical,including photocopying, recording, or entering in an information storage

and retrieval system,without prior consentof the publisher,is an infringement of copyright law, Chapter C--30,RevisedStatutes

Availablefrom your local bookstoreor from: The Bookstore,National Gallery of Canada, 380SussexDrive, Box 427,Station A, Ottawa

of Canada, 1970.

KIN9N4

Canadian Cataloguing in Publication Data

Designed by Bruno Pf'Sf'HI,Arcueil Typeset in Granjon by Chromascan, Ottawa

Egyptomania: Egyptin WesternArt, 17301930.

Colour separations by Sept Offset, Champigny

ISBN 0-88884-636-3(NationalGallery of Canada)

Cover printed by Imprimerie Auclair, Bagneux

Exhibition catalogue.

Printed on Job matillant 135 gram and bound by Mama Imprimeurs, Tours

Film for text by Chromascan,Ottawa

Co-published by the Reunion desMus6esNationaux. Issuedalso in French under the sametitle Includes bibliographic references: p

Includesindex Texts by Christiane Ziegler, Jean-MarceIHumbert, Michael Pantazzi 1. Egyptian revival (Art) Exhibitions. 2. Arl (Modern)--Egyptian Influences Exhibitions. 3. Art, Egyptian--Influences Exhibitions 4. Egypt in art Exhibitions

1. Ziegler, Christiane. 11.Humbert, Jean-Marcel. 111.Pantazzi,

Michael. IV. National Gallery of Canada. V. Reuniondes Mus6es Nationaux (France). VI. Title: Egypt in Western Art.

N6351.2E39E392 1994

709'.3'0744

Cover

CIP94 9860034 Ushabli ({Ptahmes

ISBN 2-7118-2834-4(Reunion des Mus&es Nationaux)

kat. 2 \ Q), Dessert Plate tca t. 2 \ 7), Console

(cat. 23), Pfaz.zoA (cat. 286), /zzg (cat. 172)

Organizers of the exhibition and authors of the catalogue

Jean-Marcel Humbert Curator, Museedu Louvre

Michael Pantazzi Associate Curator, European) and American Art

National Gallery of Canada

Christiane Ziegler Chief Curator, in charge of the D6partement desAntiquit6s Egyptieilnes, Musee du Louvre

Lenders to the Exhibition We wish to expressour gratitude to all thosewho, through their generosity, have enabled us to present this exhibition: Michel Bloit, Benoit Brecon de Lavergn6e t, Mrs. Alan M. May, Charlotte and David Zeitlin, and allthose who prefer to remain anonymous.

We are also gratefulto those in charge of the following collections:

Frallce

Amiens, Musee de Picardie Angers, Musee des Beaux-Arts

Autun, MuseeRolin Besangon, Musee des Beaux-Arts et d'Arch6ologie Chartres, Musee des Beaux-Arts Compidgne, MuseeNational du Chateau

Dijon, MuseeMagnin Fontainebleau, MuseeNational du Chateau Grenoble, Musee des Beitux-Arts Lyon, Musee des Arts D6coratifs

Marseille, MuseedesBeaux-Arts Mulhouse, Musee de I'Impression sur Etoffes Nice. Musee des Beaux-Arts Or16ans, Musee des Beaux-Arts

Public Collections Australia

Sydney, Powerhouse Museum .'laJ/rzzz

Vienna, Bundesmobiliensammlung Historisches Museum der StadeWien Osterreichische Galerie Belpiuln Antwerp,

Koninklijk

Museum voor Schone

Kunsten Ghent, Museum voor Schone Kunsten

Paris, Bibliothdque

de I'Arsenal

Bibliothdque Forney Bibliothdque Centrale desMus6esNationaux Bibliothaque Nationale Biblioth&que de I'Opera Mobilier National Museede I'Arm6e Musee des Arts D6coratifs Musee Carnavalet Musee Cogni\cq-Jay

Museedu Louvre D6partement desAntiquit6s Egyptiennes D6partement desArts Graphiques

Ca72ada

Montreal, Canadian Centre for Architecture Mcgill University, Blackader-Lauterman

Library of Architectureand Art The Montreal Museum of Fine Arts Ottawa. NationaIArchives of Canada National Gallery of Canada National Library of Canada Toronto, Royal Ontario Museum University of Toronto, Fisher Rare Book Library CzechRepublic Prague, N6rodni Galen

- D6partement - [)6partement

des Objets d'Art des Peintures

D6partement des Sculptures Musee Marmottan Musee d'Orsay

Operade Paris, PalaisGarnier Poitiers, Musee Saints-Croix Provins, Bibliothdque Municipale Quimper, Musee des Beaux-Arts Rixheim, Musee du Papier Peint Rouen, Musee des Beaux-Arts Rueil-Malmaison, Musee National desChateaux de Malmaison et Bois-Pr6au SEvres, Manufacture

Nationale

Musee National de C6ramique

Strasbourg, Musee des Arts D6coratifs Toulouse, Musee des Augustins Valence, Musee de Valence Vesoul, Musee Georges Garret

Neiheria?2ds

Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum Russia

Moscow, The State Museum of Ceramics of

Kuskovo

Game?ly

Augsburg, Stfidtische Kunstsammlungen, Deutsche Barockgalerie im Schaezlerpalais Berlin, Staatliche Museen Preussischer

United States

Kassel, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Hessisches Landesmuseum

Boston, Museum of Fine Arts Brooklyn, The Brooklyn Museum Chicago, Art Institute of Chicago New York, Cooper-Hlewitt Museum The Metropolitan Museum of Art Museum of the City of New York SantaMonica, Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities

Munich, Deutsches Theatermuseum Potsdam, Stiftung Sch16sserund G:irten

Washington, National Museum of American Art (Smithsonian Institution)

Kulturbesitz, Antikensammlung Plansammlung der Universitiitsbibliothek der Technischen Universit:it Kunstgewerbemuseum Karlsruhe, BadischesLandesmuseum

GI eat Britain

Barlaston,The Trusteesof the Wedgwood Museum Birmingham, Birmingham City Museumand Art Gallery Bournemouth, Russell-ColesArt Gallery and Museum

Private Collections

Brighton, Royal Pavilion Art Gallery and Museums Burnley, Towneley Hall, Art Gallery and Museum Cambridge, The Fitzwilliam Museum Edinburgh, National Gallery of Scotland

Canada

Hull, FerensArt Gallery London, British Museum Royallnstitute of British Architects Victoria and Albert Museum Wellington Museum, Apsley House (V & A)

Guildhall Art Gallery r£«/y

Bologna, Biblioteca Comu nile dell'Archiginnasio Florence, Palazzo Pitti, Museo degliArgenti e Galleria d'Arte Moderna Milan, Museo Teatrale alla Scala Rome,Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderns Turin, Biblioteca Civica Venice, Museo Civico Correr

4aJ/rzcz

Salzburg, St. Peter's Benedictine Abbey

Toronto, Joey and Toby Tanenbaum Fra?lce Marly-le-Roy, Jean-Marie Martin-Hattemberg Paris, Cristalleries de Baccarat Collection Cartier Great Britain

Her Majestythe Queen Scotland,Mr. and Mrs. Timothy Clifford Edinburgh, The Supreme Grand Royal Arch Chapter of Scotland Switze} {al?d

Geneva,H.H. Prince Sadruddin Aga Khan Collection Bellerive Collection Cartier

La TourdePellz(Montreux),GSArt & Collections SA

Acknowledgements After all theseyearsof preparation,we would like to offer our sincerethanks to all those who have assistedin the organization of this exhibition, curators, research assistants, colleagues, collaborators, and especially Professor Jean Leclant, who fostered

the study of Egyptomania in F'rance,Michel Laclotte, who has supported this project, and in particular, the following:

Myriam Afriat, Antoine d'Albis, Daniel Alcouffe, [)adel Amadei, [)onald Anderle, Robert Anderson, Guillemette Andreu-Lano6, Pierre Arizzoli-C16mentel, MarieFrance Aubert, Jean-Dominique Augarde, Didier Avond, Je£ln-PierreBabylon, Victoria Baker, Monique Baker-Wishart, Fr6d6ric Balourdet, [)r. JoyceBanks, David Barclay, Melvyn Barnes, Laure Beaumont-Maillet, Sophie Beckouche, Stella Beddoe, Jean-Claude Belard and his team, Christian Belaygue, Sir Geoffrey de Bellaigue, Claude Bellarbre, Marie-Agnes Benoit, Claire Bergeaud, Francois Bergot, Maliki Berri, Christine Benson,Alain-Daniel Bibrac and his team, Irene Bizot, Gaye Blake Roberts, Jean-Pierre Blanc, Bernard Blistdne, Michel Boesveld, jean Sutherland Boggs, Jacques Bontillot, F'rangois-Xavier Bouchart t, Susan Bourne,

Violaine Bouvet-Lanselle, Jean-Luc Bovot, Elisabeth Brown, F'rangoise Broyelle,

V6ronique de Bruignac, Robert T. Buck, Ann Bukantas,Jim durant, Maurice Bureau, JeanF. Buyck, F'rangoiseCzlchin, Jean-Jacques C;\novasand his team, Andre Cariou, Anne-Louise Cavillon and his team, Commandant Gerard-JeanChaduc. Rend de Chambrun, Nicole Chanchorle, Bernard Charpin, Bernard Chevallier, [)ott. Marco Chiarini, Michad] C]arke, Christophe C16ment,Timothy C]ifford, Jean-PaulCluzel, Marie-France Cocheteux-Hardouin, Elizabeth Collard, Catherine Collcutt, Gemma Cortese,Pierre Coural, Joel Courtemanche and his team, Philippe Cousin, Philippe Couton, R.A. Crighton, Marie-Laura Crosnier-Leconte,Ladislav Daniel, Aline[)ardel, ]i]isabethDavid, Eve]yneDavid, Dr. W. Vivian Davies,Ai]een Dawson, Patrick Devendeville, Jacques[)eville, Michad] Diamond, Anne Dion, Jane and Peter Dobell, Brigitte Donon, Sylvie Dubois, Beatrice[)ubost, C6ci]e Dubrue], Brigitte Ducrot, Marie-F'rance Dupuy-Baylet, Sonia Edard, Jacqueline EnsmingerFontser6,G. Epinay, Elena Eristian, ElisabethEsteve-Coll,Jean Estdve,Colleen Evans, Wendy Evans, Andr6£l Fajrajsl, JaneFarrington, Richard Fazzini, Larry J. Feinberg: JeanF6nelon,Dr. J.P.Filedt Kok, Claire Filhos-Petit, Patrick Florentiny, Frank Folliot, Jean F'orneris, G6n6ral Gilbert Forray, Danielle Fouache, Jacques Foucart,

Claude Fournet, Dr. Gerbert Frodl, Jean-RendGaborit, JeanGalard, JosetteGalidgue,

SabineGangi, Jean-ClaudeGarreta, Marie-Noel de Gary, Jean-JacquesGautier, Laurent Gendre, Marie-Th6rdse Genin, Joachim Giersberg, Danielle Giraudy, Catherine Goeres, J. Smith M. Graham, B&atriceGrandchamp, JosetteGrandazzi, Marie-NoElle de Grandry, Gilles Grated, Paul-Marie Grinevald, Fabienne Grolli&re, Sylvie Guichard, Jean-Luc Guillot and his team, Anne-Marie Hadbi, Adolf Hahnl, Antoinette Hall&, [)r. Barry R. Harwood, Arnaud d'Hauterives, Prof. [)r. Wo]f:Dieter Heilmeyer,Jean-PaulHerbert, Kathryn B. Hiesinger,CharlesC. Hill, Prof. Dr. Wolker Himmelin, Erica E. Hlirshler, Niall Hobhouse, Robert Hoozee, Viviane Huchard, Colette Humbert, Fr6d6ric lllouz, Cora F. Ives, Bernard Jacque, jacqueline Jacque, Betty Jais,Simon Jervis, F'rans;oise Jestaz,Catherine Johnston,JoanJones, Peter Kaellgren, Martine Kahane, Clio Karageorghis and his team, Jean-Francois Keller, Anna Kindl, Danielle O. Kisluk-Grosheide,Vivien Knight, Tim Knox,

Prof. [)r. Dietrich K6[zsche, [)r. Gode Kr:omer, Craig Laberge and his team, Christian Labrande, Fr6dtiric Lacaille, Genevieve Lacambre, Raymond Lachat, Albert Lacour and his team,JacquelineLilfargue, Anne Lajoix, Phyllis Lambert, Richard Landon, Bertille Lance, Pascalde La Vaissiere,Florence Le Corre, [)enise Ledoux-Lebard, Prof. Guy Ledoux-Lebard, Marie-Th6rdse Legendre, Catherine Legrand, Anne-Claude Lelieur, IsabelleLe Masne de Chermont, SergeLemoine, Jean-Marc Lori, Emmanuel Le Roy Ladurie, Jill Lever, Henri Loyrette, Jean-Daniel

Ludman, Gerard Mzlbille,Robert R. Macdonald, Prof. Dr. Ludof von Mackensen. Susan Mcmaster, Phyllis Magidson, Francoise Maison, Anne de Margerie, Benoit Mariotte, Eva Major-Marorhy, Kim Marshall, Etienne Martin, GeorgesMartin, Anne Marzin, Umberto Mastroianni, Brigitte Maurice, Ludovica Mazzola,Terence Measham,Roland Mellinger and his collaborators, R.S. Merrillees, DotrssaPaolo Messina,Gu6nolade Metz, Philippe-Alain Michaud, Regis Michel, Denis Milhau,

Lynn Miller, Elisabeth Mognetti, Eric Moines,[)ottssa Augusta Monferini, Christophe Monin, Catherine Monnier, Valerio Moiltanari, Philippe de Montebello, John Moors Cabot, H61dneMoulin, Jean-Marie Moulin, Patricia Mounier, Joachim Muckenberger, Lynda Muir, Prof. Dr. Barbara Mundi, Helen Murphy, Irena Murray, Brian

Musselwhite,

Odile Nouvel,

Michel

N6e and his team, Masoud

Eric Nussbaum, Simon Olding,

Nematollahi,

Nicholas

Olsberg,

Eckehart

Martine

N611e,

C)swam,

Eva B. Ottilinger, Mark Ouderkirk, Karen Lisa Oxorn, Dr. PeterParenzan,Caroline Paybody, Philippe Payelle,JacquesPerot, Eric Persyn, Bruno PfhfHI, [)r. Cristina Piacenti,

Marielle Pic, MichellePierron, Dianne Pilgrim, Matthieu Pinette,Anne Pingeot, Ronan Pollds, Julia Pool, John R. Porter, Evelyne Poss6m6,Andr6e Pouderoux, Norbert Pradel and his team, Tamitra Pr6aud, Marguerite Prinet, Galerie Paul Prout6, Dieter Radicke, Olga Raggio, Patrick Ragot, Roland Recht, Thomas Reese,Michel R6rolle,

Nicole de Reynids,Patricia Rigault, Adeline Rispal, R6ginede Robien, Anne Roquebert, Prof. Giandomenico Romanelli, Dottssa Valeria Roncuzzi, Pierre Roseraberg,Marie-Francoise de Rozidres, Ksenija Rozman, Judy Rudoe, Russell W.

Baker, JessicaRutherford, Marie-Jose Salmon, Paul Salmona, Jean-Pierre Samoyault, FrancoiseSiiuval, Brigitte Scan, Frederick G. Schab,Gilhem Scherf, Ekkehitrd Schmidberger,Dr. Ulrich Schmidt, Philippe Schmitt-Kummerlee, [)r. Doug]as Schoenherr, Lydia M.A. Schoonbaert, Sy]via Schoske, Dr. Marianne Scott, Anne and Jean Saris, Prof. Dr. Jurgen Settgast, Vincent Seveno, Fabienne de

Size, Alan Shestack,Hsio-Yen Shih, Prof. [)r. Hara]d Siebenmorgen,E]isabeth Smallwood, Grahame J. Smith, Sotheby's,Daniel Souli6, Doth. Ettore Spalletti, Guy

Spindler and his team, Sara Staccioli, Robert B. Stacey,Emmanuel Starcky, Monsieur Stayton, Theodore E. Stebbins, Claire H. Stewart, Claudio Srrinati, Peter

Sutton, Marilyn Symmes,Katerine Tavantzi, Pierre Th6berge, SergeTh6riault,

Philippe Thi6baut, Gary Tinterow, Giampierro Tintori, GeorgesTouzenis, RosemarieTovell, Denise Tran, FrancoiseTreppoz, Pierretre Turlais, Eric Turner, Maith6 Valles-Bled, Eric Valton and his team, Prof. Dr. H.W. Van Os, SergeVareille and his team, Paolo Veneziani, Frarlcesco Venturi, Francoise Viatte, Maida Vilcins,

Marie-Sophie Vincent-Clemot, Jean Vitter, Jonathan Voitk, Pierre-Herve Walbaum, Dr. Jean-Pierre Wallot, Matthias Waschek, Anne Watson, Nicole Wild, Christopher Walk, JamesN. Wood, Eric Zafran

For their contribution,we are alsodeeplyindebtedto the researchassistants in the many departments at the Museedu Louvre and the National Gallery of Canada: Sandrine Bernardeiiu, Catherine Bridonneau, Audrey [)oyle, So})hie Labb6-Tout&e, Graham Larkin, Emmanuelle de I'Ecotais,Nadine Palayret,and allthe administrative and technical staff of both institutions.

(l:ontents

Foreword

13

From One Egyptomania to Anott er The Legacy of Roman Antiquity ChristiaT2eZiegler

15

Egyptomania: A Current Concept from the Renaissanceto Postmodernism

l

Jean-Marcel Hulmbert

21

Note to the Reader

27

Preamble Michael Pantazzi

28

Italy and the Grand Tour

36

2

Absolutism and Enlightenment

116

3

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

168

4

Denon and the[)iscovery of Egypt

200

5

The Return from Egypt

250

6

The Development of Parallel Readings: 1815 1869

310

7

Egypt at the Opera

390

8

Confirmations of Permanence: 1869 1910

448

9

Tutankhamun and Art Deco

506

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

552

Bibliography

583

Exhibitions

597

Index of Pers ons

601

10

Foreword Once construction of the pyramid at the entrance to the new Louvre and the special exhibitions galleries underneath it was completed, we set out to define themesfor the

exhibitions that we would be presenting within these new spaces.We neededto establishcriteria particularly suited to our museum, ones that would be distinct from those of other exhibition spaces,such as the Grand Palais. The resulting exhibitions

generally sought to complement our own collections with works on loan from other

institutions, featuring an artist (the Ezz/,f/07zzoi, C/odzo/z,and Pzsazze//o exhibitions), a group of works (Tr4of ' de Sczz/z/-De/zzs), or a schoo] (Scud/zr/.ei cz//em.z/zdei da ]\4oyfzz Jge, ,4/a&eig//fr d'/s/am, Byzarzce,and the upcoming f'/mfzmx/z/lzo izzzi) all areas well-

represented in the Louvre holdings. Another theme, introduced in Pomp/yqafci and taken further in Copier-C'/fer,

explores the relationship between "modern art" and "art of the past," for artists have

alwaysdrawn inspirationfrom works of the pastin the creationof their own art. Here, too, rhe phenomena of "renaissance" and "reviv£ll" come into play, through the

development and sudden shifts of styles and the emergence of fleeting trends. Nothing illustrates this dynamic more clearly than that phenomenon for which Denora and Champollion laid the groundwork: Egyptomania

C)na visit to Ottawa in 1990,I chancedto speak with Michael Paratazziabout the Louvre's planned exhibitions, among them EgyP/omcz/7zcz. Hearing this, he eagerly opened a drawer crammed with files; he also had meticulously prepared an exhibition on the theme, but the project had not come to fruition. The enthusiasticsupport

of Shirley L. Thomson,Director of the National Gallery of Cilnada which had already collaborated with the French museums on several retnarkable exhibitions

made possible the realization of this joint venture. Wilfried S. Seipel, General

Director of the Kunsthistorisches Museum in Vienna, an Egyptologist who has retained an ;)vid interest in Egyptomania, also offered his support. As fate would have it, the leading authority on the subject, Jean-MarcelHumbert, had becomezl curator at the Louvre. Now, his role on the committee need not be limited to that of outside expert; he could organize the exhibition in collaboration with Christiane Ziegler, Chief Curator, in chargeof the D6partement des Antiquit6s Egyptiennes, and our friends in Ottawitand Vienna. If Thave related these encounters in an overly

anecdotal style, perhapsinappropriate to a foreword that should take on a more official tone, it is only in an attempt to convey the climate of internationalfellowship and co-operation that previiils and lends vitality to our museum life.

Michel Laclotte President-Directeur. Musee du Louvre

In conjunction with

Dr. Shirley L. Thomson Director, National Gallery of Canada

Dr. Wilfried S.Seipel General Director. Kunsthistorisches Museum. Vienna

From One Egyptomania to Another The Legacy of Roman Antiquity Egyptomaniais not simply rhe product of Napoleon's

societythrough the promise of eternal life offered by the

Egyptian Campaign: the entire eighteenth century is illu

cult of Osiris-Serapis and his wife Isis. Scholarly studies tell

will show. At various levels,one could equally well trace

us of the disseminationof these"lsiac" cults3which, even uraderthe Ptolemies, had already migrated from their

the phenomenonf\ll the way back to Greek and Roman

country of origin. Favoured by princely matrimonial

minated by its dazzling inHuence,as the presentexhibition

Antiquity. To understand rhe reasonsfor this longevity, it is

alliances,they took root in Cyprus, Sicily, Antioch, Athens,

useful to recall Egyptomania's deep roots in the Roman

and Delos. Tt was apparerltly frorTIthis latter Aegean island, frequented by italian merchants, that Egyptian gods were

world.' Rome not only fostered the emergence of a fascination

with Egypt, but alsocontributed to the developmentof a formal vocabularywhich, until the beginningof the nine

imported to Italy, meeting with a pi\rticularly fervent welcome

teenth century where Egypt was rediscovered by the West,

the Orient, a Serapeumis recorded as early as 105 B.C Shortly thereafter, Herculaneum and Pompeii each had

remained one of the pillars of the Egyptianizing

style.

in the Campania. At Pozzuoli, a seaportopen to trade with

Whether still in placeor urlearthedduring successive exca-

templesdedicatedto isis, in which wall paintingsof

vations, the "lilgyptian" monuments of Rome pharaonic works, copies, and interpretations were a fertile sourceof

religious rites employed an iconogri\phic repertoire that

inspiration for Europeanartists at a time when few could make the journey to rhe banks of the Nile.

emphasizedthe exotic nauire of the deities Although the new religion reflectedthe cosmopolitan nature of the H.ellenistic world, its central theme remained

the pharaonicmyth of Osiris,the legeradary king who was murdered and dismembered by his brother Seth, and then

The Egypt of the Romans The Cultural Context

resurrectedthrough the interventionof' his wife, Isis.The cult of This,promising the sameresurrectionto believers, arrived in the Romanworld at a point whenthe view than life was zin end in itselfprevailed.

Henceforth,

life would bc

regardedas a prelude to eternity, with every living act Whereasthe Greek tradition, essentiallyliterary, played a

counting towards that goal

centralrole in the creation of the Egyptian myth and the speculations that preceded the scientific approach of the

Understandably,given its attractive promise of immortality, this religion spreadrapidly along rhe trade

nineteenthcentury,the tradition handeddown by Rome

routes and followed troop movements, conversions being

was of equalimportance, although different in nature. The

frequent among soldiers. Tn Rome itself, the first Tsiac

Greeks were keen zlnd sometimes passionateobservers,

College is documented al the time of Sully

often extremely well informed, who viewed the land of rhe Pharaohs from the outside, as travellers, almost as "journal-

80 B.C. and statuesof Egyptian deities were erectedat the Capitol. Old arid dew religions mel head on in stormy con-

ists.": For the Romanswho ruled the vi\lley of the Nile from the first century B.C. onwards,Egypt wasa pi\rt of

frontation. The Roman Senate repeatedly ordered the destruction of lsiac statues and shrines. Their immediate

everyday experience.In politics and administration, they practised the same well-established routiraesthey applied

reconstruction and the fact that, in 50 B.C., no worker was willing to commit the sacrilege of demolishing the sanctu

throughout their vast Empire. But, confroratedby a country

ary again testifies to the devotion of the initiates,

around

where everything had revolved around religion for 3000years,they discovereda culture totally unlike their own

a concept of' power that would eventually lead to the

identification of the emperor with the pharaohs;alien beliefsand funerary practices;a pantheonand rites that they ridiculed and reviled,yer found strangelyseductive; lnd, above all, a religion with a universalappeal.

This religion, which spreadthroughout the entire Mediterranean basin, united men and women at all lexels of

Egyptologists will easily recognize the works on /s;zzczz we have

consulted.The following short bibliography will help non-

specialists become familiar with the subject: Baltrusaitis 1967;

lversen 1968: Moller 1969; M:liaise 1972; Roullet 1972; LeclantClerc 1985: Svndram 1990. 2. Donadoni, Curto, and Donacloni-Roveri1990, p. 27.

3. Leclant 1972,vol. I (A D); Leclant 1974,x-ol.ll (E K).

especiallyof the freed slaveswho gatheredthere; it also atteststo the protection extendedto the cult by a much higher authority. Julius Caesarmay not have been well disposedto the lsiac cult himself but with the fall of the

Rome'stemplesof Isis, Osiris, dog-like demigods,and "the sistrum that n)akesthe worshipper wail"' the temple of'

republic, the official altitude soon changed. Seeking to win over public opinion, the new Triumvirate ordered an Jsiac

white linen, performed sacred rites, and here Vespasian nr)d

temple built on the Capitoliile. Not even the defeat of cnd to the popularity enjoyedby Egyptiancults in Rome,

in the Jewishwars.[)on)itian, during whosereign the lseum at Beneventumand the temple at Praenestewere probablyconstructed,rebuilt the sanctuaryafter it was

even though a degree of mistrust of Egypt and its gods was

destroyed by fire in 80 A.D. He also decorated the gardens of

fostered by propagandaclaiming that the vanquished forces

were intent on changingthe RomanEmpire into an

his villa at Monte Circeo with copiesof Egyptian works, and had himself depicted as a pharaoh in the lseum at

Alexandrian Empire. This attitude is evident in the works

Beneventum.

Antony and Cleopatra at Actium in 31 B.C. could spell an

of Virgil and Horace: describing rhe battle of Actium, Horace speaks of "monstrous gods of all shapes, Anubis howling, brandishing arms against Nepturle, Venus, brad

Minerva...."Banishedfrom the city and pushedto the out-

Titus spent the night I)eforethe celebration of their triumph

The emperor most fascinated by Egypt was probably Hadrian, whose insatiable curiosity and interest in Oriental cults are common knowledge. Two voyagesto

skirts, the cult gained strength from theseminor persecutions,

Egypt, in 117and 129 30 A.D., servedto familiarize him with pharaonic civilization. Among the projectsthat reveal

making it even more attractive to the common people.

his taste for things Egyptian were the construction of an

Also, amongcertain elementsof the Roman

Egyptiancomplexknown asthe Canopusin his villa at

aristocracy it became fashionable to adopt a religion that

Tivoli, and the dedication of a Serapeum at Ostia.

was under attack by the State, merging as it did high moral precepts with a theatricality that fired the imagination) and

pharaohs,a tragic event occurred: his young favourite, the

feelings and had the added charm of exoticism. The

handsomeAntinous, threw himself into the Nile before

fashionable poets Tlbullus and Propertius made no effort to

sionsof' worshippers ch;\nting in the streetsof the "forbidden

reaching Thebes. Two developments resulting from the tragedy typify Roman attitudes of the time on the site of the suicide in Egypt, the city of Antino6polis was founded

city." After a period of repression resulting from a scandal

to perpetuatethe name of Hadrian's beloved;while in

in 19 B.C. (when a young noblewoman was said to have

Rome, rhe ljlgyptian belief that drowned personsjoin the

been seducedin the temple of isis by a Roman knight disguised as an Egyptian deity), the Tsiaccults took firm hold in Rome with the support and approval of most of the sub-

of pharaonic inspiration, showing him deified in the Egyptian manner and identified with Osiris, took their

sequentemperors.The lseum on the CampusMartius was

place beside Greek-style statues immortalizing

rebuilt by Caligula to underscorehis descentfrom Mark

melancholy grace. In Rome, an obelisk (standing today on

concealtheir devotion to Isis, while Ovid describedproces-

During Hadrian's secondtrip to the land of the

rarlks of rhe gods was adopted. Thus, portraits of Antinous,

the youth's

Antony, and expressionsof ljlgyptophilia proliferated under

rhe Pincio) was erected [o his memory, and numerous

his rule. It was probablyduring this period that the Egyptianizing decoration of the House of Livia on the

Egyptianizing statues of Antinous have been found in the Canopus at Tivoli. From that time on, in spite of sometimes

Palatine was executed, and the cartouche of Claudius

virulent criticism

engraved on the celebrated A4enscz /s;aca.4Two members of

on the cult of animalsand vegetables Egyptianculture

Nero's householdduring his childhood, his tutors Seneca

enjoyed unwavering popularity in Rome. 7'Af Go/dfn H;i,

and Chaeremon , were closely connectedwith Egypt. Senecahad spent time in the Nile Valley during his youth,

the famous satirical work in which Apuleius gave fictional form to the mystical experiencesof the followers of Isis, was

and his works indicate a knowledge of Egyptian cos-

written during the reign of Antoninus Plus,who alsomade

mogony. Chaeremon, an Egyptian)priest and director of the

the voyageto Egypt. His successor,Marcus Aurelius, built a

ibrary at Alexandria,is credited with a rich literatureon

temple [o Hermanubis,

the history, religion, and writing of' his native land. Both teachersundoubtedly instilled good will towards Egypt in

displayeda marked devotion to the lsiac cults: Romans

their pupil, as is evidenced by his introduction of lsiac feast days into the Roman calendar. But Nero never found time to actually visit Egypt.

ing to pharaonic tradition, or admiring a golden statue

including Juvenal'sderisorycomments

the Egyptian

Hermes.

Commodus

could see him performing the rites, his head shaven accord depicting him standing between a cow imd a bull

3 group

That was left up to his successors: Vespasianvisitedthe

generally interpreted as the image of the emperor in the guise of the god/son Hocus, betweenOsiris-Apis and Isis.'

Alexandrian Serapeum,while Titus visited the Serapeum in Memphis, where he ofhciated at the funeral of an Apis

4. Seecat.13

bull. Despite ongoing violent opposition to Egyptophilia Lucan, in an oft-quoted diatribe, denounced the presencein

16

Isis on the Campus Martius becameone of the settings for

imperial celebrations.Here Otho, dressedin the traditional

5. Lucan, Pfaricz/za,J.E. Duff (trans.), London: Heinemann, 1928

Vlll, P.831

lsiac cults and the dissemination of their imagery

reacheda peakin the first half of the third century,under

inscribed with a Latin dedication to the sun, proving that

Romans of thefirst centurywerefully awareof the

rhe Seven. After his conversion in Egypt, Septimius

Egyptian symbolism of these monuments, which they asso-

Severus stressedhis divine descent. Caracalla built a temple

ciated with the cosmic symbolism of the chariot races

to Serapison the Quirinal, decoratedhis thermal baths with

around the spina.' Two more obelisks were added to the mausoleum of Augustus in the course of the first century. From the lseum on the Campus Martius, in the area where the Pantheon still stands,came at least another six obelisks chat have been moved several times in the course of the city's long history. While most have pharaonic cartouches,

heads of Isis and Serapis, and had himself portrayed, both

in Rome and Beneventum,wearing the 7zemeiof the pharaohs. Indeed, until paganism finally succumbed to

Christianity, Egypt would remain a presencein Roman culture. This presence was given concrete form through the

arrival in Italy, and especiallyin Rome,of Egyptian monuments.Under Roman rule, Egypt gave up statues,obelisks,

it is interestingto note that the hieroglyphic inscriptions honouring Domitian and Antinous were carvedin Italy,

Were the Romans aware of the exact significance of these

like thoseon the two obelisks erectedin an lsiac shrine at Beneventumby Rutilius Lupus. Indeed, in Italy, it is in the lsiac sanctuariesthat t.he

works) This is often difficult to establish.Egypt also

majority of Egyptian or Egyptianizing works have been

renderedunto Rome" its most prized materials rhe traditional Aswan granite and dark Wadi Hammamat stone, as well as others demanded by changing tastes,such as

found: architectural elements, statues,and even cult objects such as the A4e ia /;;czcczand the bronze stand decorated

porphyry from Mount Claudianus.Egyptian artists and

shrines seem to have been located in Rome, which has not

scribes were commissioned to create Egyptian works on

yet beenfully excavated;the most important was the Tseum on the Campus Martius. The site included temples [o both

and reliefs plundered extensively from pharaonic sanctuaries.

Italian soil. These became models, along with pharaonic originals and copies,for local artists, giving birth to the first Egyptlanizing movement.

with a boat motif found at Herculaneum. Most of these

Isis and Serapisand covered a vast rectangular area, probably

bounded on the south by the present-day streetsof Pid di Marmo and San Stefano del Cacco, on the north by the Via del Seminario, on the eastby the Via di San lgnazio, arid or] the west by an axis aligned with the transept of Santa Maria

Egyptian and Egyptianizing

sopraMinerva. The lseum included monumental gates,one

Monuments of Ancient Rome

aromasor more, porticos,and severalsanctuaries.The cult was maintained there at least until the end of the fourth

italy thus becamethe country in Europe where original

century

works from ancient Egypt could be studied, together with the far more numerous copiesand interpretations produced locally. The most spectacular of these were the pyramids

third rrgzoof Rome and on the Capitoline, betweenSanta Maria d'Aracoeli and the Via della Consolazione.Vestiges

A.[).

Other

great ]siac shrines were ]ocated in the

adorning Roman tombs. One pyramid (no longer extant)

of smaller lsiac chapelshave also beenfound on the Caelian,Esquiline,and Aventine hills, and in the port of

stoodin the necropolis of the Vatican, amidst other

Ostia, where the goddess was worshipped especially by

Egyptianizing ornaments.Another, the pyramid of Caius

merchants and sailors.

Cestius,still ewesthe travellerarriving from Ostia with its

The temples of Isis were not the only placesin Rome where Egyptian monuments could be seen Alexandrian companions of Isis such as Serapis and Hermanubishad their own temples,modestin size but

exotic silhouette. Built in the reign of Augustus, it differs from Egyptian models in its relatively modest size and steep slope. Equally imposing are the obelisks of Rome: their emblematic presence punctuated all the important piazzas.;

embellished with Egyptianizing decorations,as did other related deities such as Jupiter-Dolichenus and Isis-Fortuna.

Today Rome has more obelisks than the temple of Karnak;

Egyptianizing decoration was also an important feature of

thirteen of them are still intact. Originally from Karnak,

pleasure gardens, the earliest of which are documented as

from Heliopolis near Cairo, or from Sais or Alexandria

being found in Campania.9in Pompeii, followers of isis

in the Delta, they bear the namesof the most illustrious

paintedscenes from the Nile on their walls,while Egyptianizing motifs and statues which were also scattered

pharaohs:Thutmosis 111,Sell 1, Ramses11,Apries, Psammetichus 11....Augustuswasthe first to order two of

among the groves

served as both religious and decorative

these enormous granite monoliths transported to Rome, one to serve as the gnomon for a colossal sundial installed on the Campus

Martins,

the other

to adorn

the central

spzncz

in the Circus Maximum.Symbolizing the ruler's power,

6. L'Orange 1947,pp. 70--72. 7. lversen 1968.

their presencehad a religious and political dimensionthat

8. Tertullian,

was to be exploited by the papacy 1500years later. Both are

9. Grimal 1969

De Spec/ac

/zf, Vll

elements. Similar treatments have been found in the interiors

of housesat Herculaneum and Pompeii. One of the most

of Egyptian works assembled in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, at the Museo Kircheriano,'' for example,

typical gardens, where statuettes of pharaohs and Egyptian

or in the CanopusGallery in the CapitolineMuseum,as

gods have been found, was that of Loreius Tiburtinus; it

well as the many princely collections

stretched along a canal named Euripus. This taste for artifi-

theVilla Borghese, the BarberiniPalacein Rome,the

cial rivers such as the Euripus and the "Pocket" Nile

Borgia Palace at Velletri

already ridiculed in Cicero's time

archaeologistsand artists. An inexhaustible sourceof inspiration, Egyptian works were enormously popular, and the students at the Acad6mie de France in Rome were instru-

is one of the first mani-

festations of an interest in re-creating Egyptian landscapes

for secular purposes. From Campania the fashion spread to Rome. The "Gardens of Sallust" on the Pincio are an excellent

at the Villa Albani,

all of which were frequented by

mental in making them known through all of Europe.'S

exampleof this trend, with their Egyptian pavilion erected

To the Egyptologist,thesemodelsare not truly

under Domitian or Hadrian, their obelisk, and their Egyptian and Egyptianizing statues including Tuya, mother of Ramses11,and several Ptolemaic kings. At

representative of pharaonic art. At best, the impression they

Tivoli, the Canopus re-created a Nile landscape complete

create is fragmentary and distorted: fragmentary, in that

the pharaonicworks transportedfrom Egypt to Italy were reflections of the times and tastesof the Romans. As far as

with statuesof crocodiles and a granite elephant. Its remod-

we can tell, they conveyed a particular image of Egypt and

elling involved transforming a "garden of Egypt" into the sights of Egypt," apparently alluding to incidents from

were probably chosen for essentially decorative purposesObelisks and sphinxes predominated; special efforts were made to collect lions, which are rare in Egyptian art; among representationsof gods, animals were preferred, especially

Hadrian's trip to that country,'' with Egyptian gods prominently display.ed. All along the "corridor" and in the niches of the "semicircle" were countless Egyptian and

Egyptianizing statuesimmortalizing Antinous in the company of the deities of the N ile valley.

falconsand monkeys;among humans,the proportion of kings and rzczoi-bearers was high. There were no works

from the Old Kingdom, very few from the Middle Kingdom. Ramesside monuments are documented, but works from the Late Period are far more extensively repre-

i l

Sources Available to European Artists

sented

objects from the Twenty-sixth

Many of thesetracesof ancient Egypt could still be seenin medieval Rome, particularly the obelisks, the funerary

invasion.

(Saite) Dynasty,

monuments from the Thirtieth Dynasty inscribed with the namesof the Nectanebo kings, and on into the Ptolemaic

period which was contemporaneous with the Roman Do these works reveal a deliberate selection of

pyramids, and the lions of Nectanebo which for many years

particular periods deemed more prestigious or more mean-

decoratedthe baseof the statueof MarcusAurelius at the

ingful? Most of them come from northern Egypt, which

Lateran. At the conclusion of her valuable study, Anne Roullet lists the Egyptian antiquities known in fifteenth-

offered an abundanceof monumentserected by the

and sixteenth-century

region, easily accessible to the Roman fleet, was also the site

Rome, and notes their increase:

Ramsessidekings and the last native-born dynasties.This

works still in placewere supplementedby objectsdiscov-

of Alexandria, the capital of the Ptolemies. The style of the

ered at construction sites or during early archaeological

works is naturally congruent with their date and prove-

excavations.Whether taken to ornament the Carpi or Farnesepalaces,the Villa d'Este or the Villa Medici, the

nance.Works from the Late Period have a distinctive range

Cosi or the Belvedere gardens, or

a multiplicity of divine images,and a predominanceof

like the Antinous tela-

of themes, forms, and colours: simple lines, denseinscriptions,

incorporated into

dark, highly polished materials such as hard granite, basalt,

monuments, there were almost a hundred examples to

diorite, and schism.''Works from the Ptolemaic period, whether the final embodiment of tendencies already expressedin pharaonicart or the result of a mixture of

mones of the bishop's palace at Tivoli

serve as models of Egyptian art. Interpreted ;/z il/zl by artists, they were also reproduced in collections of engravings

that brought their imageinto wider circulation;'' renderings of another famous work, the A4fnia /szaca,were often

published separately.Throughout the sixteenth century,

many Egyptian monumentsat the Capitol were put on public display.': Tn various palacesand at the foot of the Cordonata stairway, one could admire such famous works

asthe two lions bearing the nameof Nectanebo,and the

sphinxesof Hakoris and NCferites,'; which were later moved to the gardens of the Villa Borghesebefore coming [o the Louvre. Such display prefigured the great collections

8

10. Grenier 1989,pp. 975--77. 11. See, for instance, Hohenburg

1620; Kircher

Montfaucon 1719--24,10vols 12. Enzoli-Vitozzi 1990, pp. 11--20. 13. Seecat.29--30. 14. Leospo in Berlin 1989,pp. 58--71 15. Syndram 1990, pp. 16G-84 16. Bothmer 1973.

1652 54, 4 vole

influences,differs significantly from the Egyptian tradition and is endowed with its own iconography:beardedSerapis wearing the Greek &a/a/Aoi headdress, richly ornamented Canopic Osiris" figures, and many voluptuously draped

forms of Isis. Such were the works by which the art of Egypt wasrepresentedin Rome.

Theseoriginal Egyptian works were very few in number. Many excellent copieswere made in Italy, in some

A relief at Ariccia depicting the lseum Campense indicates that this type of caryatid was not uncommon in Rome. In addition to the variety of harmsand new materials

and techniques,such as eyesinlaid with onyx, one can identify the characteristicsof the sculpturalvocabularyof Roman Egyptomania. Preference was given to poses considered typical of pharaonic art

frontal presentation of

casesto provide a pendant to an original sculpture; this is true of a number of statues.'' Egyptian artists engraved

a figure kneeling or standing with one foot forward, arms close to the sides, fists closed; to elements of Egyptian costume royal /zemei headdress, cfendyyr loincloth, or

inscriptions on unfinished obelisks for emperorsand

'lsiac" woman's tunic tied over the breast; to certain elements

prominent Romans; these were pastiches in hieroglyphic

associated with thepriesthood the shaven head,andcult

form of ancient-styletitles.'' Specialistscan readily distin

objectssuch as the situla, the Canopic Osiris, or the sistrum;

guish theserather awkward fabrications from the beautiful authentic inscriptions still being carved in the shrines of the

and finally, to specific animals representing deities or evoking the landscapeof the Nile the babson, falcon, lion, crocodile,

Nile Valley.

and ibis. In sum, it was a restricted vocabulary, the meaning

Even these copies and their original models were

of which wasgradually lost, but its strong evocativepower

vastly outnumbered, however, by the Egyptianizing works

that proliferated in the secondcentury A.D. The reign of

was utilized again and again by modern European artists. No architectural models could be found in Rome, however.

Hadrian is noteworthy for the production of works that

other than pyramids. For a long time, painters had to

interpret pharaonicthemesusing new forms and materials

content themselveswith Kircher's imaginary reconstruc-

suited to contemporary tastes.Some fifty statueshave been identified, with virtual certainty, as coming from Hadrian's

tions of 1652 54, or else adapt the monuments of Classical

Villa.'9 A few original works mingle with a majority of Roman creations, making this era an important first stage

the mid-1700s, the 6lrst sketches by European travellers Pococke and especially Norden became the obligatory

n the history of Egyptomania.The imagesof Antinous,

reference works in this held until the end of the century.

combining

pharaonic

attributes

simplified

dress and carney)/ loincloth

Antiquity to servetheir purposes.From their publication in

memes head-

with the canons of classical

beauty,are particularly significant. Although he is portrayed

from the front, the youth is not posedin strict frontality;

Conclusion

leaning on one hip, he displays the curves and powerful musculature of the Greek ideal. There is no support pillar, but sometimes there is a gnarled tree trunk borrowed from Roman iconography. In the caseof paired statues,the position of the legs is symmetrical, breaking with the pharaonic convention requiring the left leg to be forward. The materials

Although Rome long remained the major point of contact between Egypt and the West, its role wasambiguous. Rome perpetuated a certain vision of Egypt that becameconfused with the reality. With no links to pharaonic traditions and no familiarity with the land itself. artists and scholarsfrom

used white marble. black marble. rossoantics do not figure in rhe pharaonic repertoire. The shiny finish was

the Renaissance right up to comparatively

probablyintendedto imitate the highly polishedworks of the series

Roman copies or interpretations. Paradoxically, those symbolsof Egypt universally recognized by artists of the

of black marble statues illustrating the typically Egyptian

eighteenth century are meaningless to contemporary

rites of the divine awakening, six works, discovered in 1736

Egyptologists. The most popular motifs are also the furthest

the Twenty-sixth

to Thirtieth

dynasties. Among

modern times

were unable to distinguish true pharaonicsourcesfrom

and now in the Vatican Museum, testify to the important

from archaeological reality: pyramids take on the silhouette

role playedby interpretation:the figure bearingofferings

of obelisks, or at best reproduce the steep slopes of the

and the priestesses(a musician and a soloist) wearing

monument of Caius Cestius; the most famous sphinxes

improbable

those of Neferites and Hakoris

/zemfs headdresses

that

nonetheless

show

unmistakable traces of the Antique, bend forward in a pose not usually seenin Egyptian sculpture; inspired by Hermes,

a double-headedhuman-bull on a lotus flower illustrates

extensively restored,

immortalize the images of two of the least known rulers of

the Late Period; emblematic status is bestowed upon the lions of the Cordonata

magnificent sculptures, indeed, but

the dual nature of the god Serapis.:' Other models, such as the busts of Antinous and Isis-Demeter, were unknown in

Lhe Nile valley.2' The Antinous telamones with lotus crowns, inspired both by colossalEgyptian statuesof Osiris and by Greek caryatids, are mirror-images of one another

but show no regard for the strict Egyptian conventions.

17. Sphinxes, for example. Roullet 1972, nos. 277, 281

18. lversen 1968and Derchain 1987. 19. Raeder 1983, vole. I and lll.

20. Grenier 1989,pls. IXV and XVll 21. Grenier 1989,pl. XXVll

19

of a type rare in Egypt until a later period. Finally, OsirisAntinous, object of admiration and point of reference,is a quintessential example of Roman Egyptomania, as is the of ten copied A4rnia /siczra.Just as, all through the centuries,

debatesabout deciphering hieroglyphs failed to distinguish

betweengenuine and fake inscriptions, so art history has

relied on the partial evidenceof Egypt as seen through Roman eyes. Theories on pharaonic art have beers based

heavily on mistaken assumptions,equating original works

from the Egyptian Late Period with Roman Antiquity's copiesand interpretations,which were themselvesoften disfigured by erroneousand even abusive restorations

Somescholars,including Quatremire de Quincy and Winckelmann, formulated harsh judgements on ancient Egyptian art; others, such as Piranesi, became its champions.

But their efforts werepremature.The rehabilitationof authentic Egyptian art would have to await the Egyptian campaign of Napoleon and the enthusiasm of Denon, the arrival in Europe of rhe first great collectionsand the journey

and brilliant insights of Champollion. Arid has modern Egyptomania turned at last to drink from these original

sources?Hardly. So strong is the influenceof Rome, so great its fascination with Egypt, that the Roman modelsendure to this day continue to and give rise to new interpretations."

Christiane Ziegler Chief Curator, in chargeof the D6partementdesAnriquiE6sfgyptiennes Nlus6edu Louvre

22. Ob\ imusexamples are the theme of Antinous, and figures inspired by the .lb/e/zicz /s;acct

20

Egyptomania: ACurrent Concept from the Renaissanceto Postmodernism

Centuries of Egyptomania have given us a legacy of objects and productions of astonishing variety and scope,which the uninitiated viewer may at times find difficult to distinguish from the gerluine art of ancient Egypt. Copy, adaptation,

appearanceand posturemay evoke ancientEgypt, is not

relocation

a

forward representation of the Battle of the Pyramids is not

London sphinx and its Egyptian arlcestors, between the Rosicrucian temple in Sim Joseand a reconstruction of the temple at Dendur in The Metropolitan Museum of Art in

in itself Egyptianizing; it only becomesso if the setting

some may

see little

difference

between

Egyptianizing unless it wears the zemei;conversely, a winged seatedsphinx, more Greek than Egyptian, is still Egyptianizing

if it wears the /zfmci. Similarly,

a straight-

includes ruined temples or obelisks that have no bearing

New York, betweensomeof Cartier'screationsand ancient

with real events. The same setting (accurate or not), when used as background for depictions of modern or cont€m-

jewellery. Yct in every casethe viewer is unconsciously

porary figures, is not Egyptianizing: only the presenceof

aware of the charm and spell of Egypt.

figures in antique costume willconfer this quality.

In fact in the West all countries, without exception,

Moreover, any modern Neo-Egyptian creation may partake

have tried to adapt Egyptian art and make it their own.

of Egyptomania if it is reinterpreted and re-used in a way that gives it new meaning, as is the casein films or advertising.

Obellsks, pyramids, and sphinxes are the most popular forms and are visible everywhere.But in addition to this

traditional trilogy, there is hardly an element of ancient Egyptian art that has not been appropriated. Reworking

In other words, Egyptomania is more than a simple mania for Egypt. It is not enough to copy Egyptian forms artists must "re-create" them in the cauldron of their own sensibility

themes from every era, from the Old Kingdom to the Late Period, Western artists have altered the purpose to satisfy

and in the context of their times, or must give them an

the tastesof an audiencehungry for the strangeand the

purpose for which they were originally intended.

appearance of renewedvitality, a function other than the

exotic. Obelisks have been used to decorate mantelpieces;

Egyptomania draws on many sources:on the one

pyramids turned into ornamental structures in gardens; sphinxes, into andirons; temples, into centrepiecesand

hand, from ancient originals that were copied or adapted,

clocks; the ze/nfr-clad head has been borrowed from the pharaohs to adorn countless pieces of furniture and decora-

travellers' narratives, explorers' sketches,and the documentary and scienrihc works that result from the archaeological

tive art; and highly fanciful versionsof hieroglyphshave

researchof Egyptologists;and on the other hand, froth

been incorporated into friezes.

Egyptomania, Egyptian Revival, Nile Style,

with varyingdegreesof fidelity dependingon the era,in

forms derived from earlier Egyptianizing production dating from the Roman period to the presentday

Egypto-

Pharaonism: many different words and terms have been

mania feeding upon itself to generate new Egyptianizing

used in various periods and countries to describe the vary-

forms and creations. Tn either case,Egyptomania may

ing expressionsof a single and specific phenomenon.It

reflect obsoleteor inaccurate sourcesand thus diverge from current archaeologicalknowledge.

consists of a borrowing,

of the most spectacular elements,

from the grammar of ornament that is the original essence of ancient Egyptian art; these decorative elements are then given new life through new uses. It is important to define precisely what we mean by Egyptomania," and not to indiscriminately apply the word

to all things connectedwith Egypt. A painting of an Egyptian landscapewith palm trees and a desert caravan bespeaksOrientalism and Exoticism, not Egyptomania;to

Egyptomania, therefore, includes two modesof expressionthat are often indistinguishable: the /VroZgyp/la / style, a revival of ancient Egyptian art that re-uses its themes in a new context, and the Nf o-/!kJ/p/za//;z;ng

style, that appropriates and adapts the forms of an earlier Egyptomania Fashion has obviously played an important part in the development of Egyptomania. First Marie-Antoinette,

travel in Egypt, to have a taste for antiquities, to brirlg back

objectsand display them in a curio collection are exl)ses-

Leclant 1985,4th fkisc.,pp 630 47. ProfessorLeclant hasdefined

sionsof Egyptophilia,' rather than Egyptomania. The factor that determines whether we may label a

other authors (fQr example Bruno Neveu, whose lecture at the

work as Egyptianizing is the antiquity of the decorative

au debut du XVlll- sidcle: le cabinet du cardinal Gualteria,

treatment. For instance, a recumbent sphinx, though its

with perfectclarity the limits of theseterms, unlike a numberof Ecole des Charles, 24 February 1977, was entitled: "L'6gyptomanie although it actually dealt with Egyptophilia)

21

equally important: travels to Rome or Egypt were the starting point for many works and for a web of mutual influences.

forms has allowed every period to adapt those most suited to the prevailing taste. Rarely does the exterior of buildings constructed or decorated in the Egyptian style reflect their interior design

Hubert Robert and Fragonard, Alma-Tadema and G6r6me maintained contacts that were reinforced by their common

and fittings. Often an Egyptianizing building is little more than a sumptuous shell; on the other hand, one may find

interests. Often the same sources were used again and

entire rooms decorated and even furnished in the Egyptian

again: the lions of Nectanebo or those from the Cordonata,

style, while nothing on the outside preparesone for this surprise.Even more frequently, an interior in the classical style might contain a seat, a precious object or a knick-

later Thomas Hope, then Denon, all contributed to the spread of the phenomenon. Contacts between artists were

along with the statuesof Antinous today in the Vatican, were among the most frequently copied works in Rome in the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, and the same was later true of the temple at Dendera. Thomas Hope was well acquainted with Denon's publications and with those of Percier and Fontaine. In every sphere,sourcesand inter-

pretations soon merged and themselvesbecamenew sources of inspiration. While Egyptomania was an enduring and ubiquitous phenomenon, it nonetheless had a number of high points

knack suggestive of ancient Egypt or, at one remove, the fashion of Egyptomania. Why this preference for hiding

the Egyptian presenceaway in the privacy of boudoirs, instead of exposing it to the light of lay? Its esoteric nature

may be one reason.An even likelier explanation is that miniaturization and adaptationto a new purposeprovide an easyway of appropriating Egypt in microcosm.This is Ehe essential

source of the Egyptian-style

furniture

and

linked to specific historical events: Bonaparte's Egyptian

decorative art objects that have graced the most diverse

Campaign, the deciphering of hieroglyphs, the raising of

interiors by the thousands all through the centuries. Apart from the sculpted decoration on apartment

obelisks in various capitals, the opening of the Suez Canal, the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun, even the various

Tutankhamun exhibitions around the world. For, another of the constants of Egyptomania is its international aspect:

buildings, fountains, and other public edifices, statuary inspired by ancient Egypt falls into two distinct categories: sculptures intended for use outdoors, consisting almost

Africa, Australia, and even Egypt itself, has succumbedto

exclusively of adaptations of sphinxes and copiesof lions or the Antinous figure; and the much more varied and extrav-

it, conforming the universal appealof its message.

agant sculptures intended for interior decoration.

rhe entire

"Western"

world,

Europe,

America,

South

ancient Egypt has found expression in a variety of ways and

The sphinx, that fabulouscreatureinherited from Egypt, is at once the most representativeand most wide-

has affected every category of the arts, from architecture,

spread of Egyptianizing themes: asinstantly recognizable as

interior design, furniture, decorative arts, sculpture and painting, to theatre and film. The works createdunder its influence are equally varied in purpose.Commemorative

a pyramid or an obelisk, it is immediately associatedwith ancient Egypt. Beginning with the Renaissance, it appears in Westernart in four different shapes:the "Egyptian-style:

and funerary monuments,commercial buildings and theatres,apartment housesand private dwellings, functional and decorative objects,one-of-a-kind jewels and

sphinx, recumbent and wearing the nfmfs; the Greek sphinx, seatedand generally winged; the same Greek sphinxwearing a nemfi; and finally the classicalmale or

mass-produced items

female sphinx, which no longer has any Egyptian features.: Only nfmci-wearing sphinxes fall within the scopeof our

The extraordinary fascination always exerted by

Egyptomania has left no genre

untouched.

Of all the artiststo havebeencaptivatedby the

discussion.

Egyptianizing sphinxesare generally arranged in

Egyptian dream, architects were the first to copy ancient models, even going so far as to make use of originals that

pairs. Flanking the entrancesto dwellings, or atop the wall

had beentransported to new sites.Urban architecture has

enclosing a courtyard at the gateway, or on either side of a

beenone of the most fertile grounds for Egyptomania, as is

shown by the great variety of buildings constructed and

staircase,where from the Renaissanceto the presentday their essential function has been to embody welcome and

decorated in the Egyptian style, especially since 1800. The

protection. Sometimeslinked to the funerary cult, they

manner in which Egyptian themeswere incorporatedinto

were also used to decorate cenotaphsand tombs. They

the host architecturerangesfrom inclusionas part of the

fitted comfortably into parks and gardenswhere, on a

overall design to selectiveuse of decorativeelements;but

different

monumental pyramids, obelisks, capitals and columns, or

rative structures: to ornament and surprise. Depending on

ornamental sphinxes,statues,hieroglyphs,and painted scenes,surprising as they may have sometimesseemed,

the period, their poseswere either hieratic or somewhat

scale, they served the same purpose as other deco-

were generally well received. For despite its unique nature,

Egyptianart blendsquite well with thevariousstylesof the past and with a wide variety of urban complexes, to which it lends a note of undeniable originality. The diversity of its

22

2. On different types of sphinxes in various civilizations, see Peignot 1968, pp. 12 21, 82, and Demisch 1977

on their hind legs,like curiousfelines.;The /zemfialso

Diogenes and Alexander next to the statue of the Nile god,' while Pierre Patel reproduced,in an Italianate landscape,one

changed as fashions changed, sometimes ending in points

of the lion-fountains of the Cordonata.'Even Poussin

and sometimesin graceful scrolls. In public places,the sphinx was also used to give a finishing touch to Egyptian-

added a sphinx to his F;ndzng ofA4oiff, a favoured subject Chatenjoyed a steady popularity right up to the beginning

style decorative schemes;it became a fountain spouting

of the twentieth century.

water with a calm and loudly air; it might also stoop to take

However, the heyday of this trend surely occurred in the latter half of the eighteenth century. In his painting of 1746, A/airs BroKgA/ /o P#araoAk Z)awgArer,William Hogarth surrounded his central character with all kinds of

mannered: the hgures might turn their head or even stand

on a didactic role, and no Universal Exposition was complete

without its sphinx

or sphinx-lined avenue.It hasbeen

added to sculptures with traditional figures and used in nterior decoration, it reappears in the guise of andirons,

small Egyptianizing features: mummified crocodiles, sphinxes,

of6icc furnishings desk-top ornaments, lighting fixtures, even paperweightsor inkwells. It is found in all Egyptian-

pyramids, and hieroglyphs.8 Painters gradually acquired the habit of adding an Egyptian stone or statue here and

izing iconography and remains one of its most potent

there,to lend a touch of "local Italian colour" to their landscapesand scenes as if the Roman countryside were

symbols.

Egyptian-style sculpture is perhaps the art form most rooted in its own period. Drawing on time-honoured the sphinx, for example, which is even today the

strewn with ruins that originated on the banks of the Nile. Hubert Robert, a master of this kind of composition, peopled

classical palaces and ruins with laundresses, gossiping

subject of sculpted and cast statues and continues to

women, young girls dancing, pedlars, and elegant ladies, all

intrigueinterior decorators this sculpturesetsout to

moving naturally amorlg statues of Antinous, lions, and

depict people engaged in traditional pursuits (the Harpist),

sphinxes often turned into fountains.9 H.is paintings were so

or at a significant moment of their lives (the Death of

successfulthat they found their way to everypart of Europe, thus contributing to the spread of Egyptomania. Robert was imitated by his friends Fragonard and

Cleopatra). In this respect,there is little deviation from the themes favoured by painters. Accurate copies of Egyptian

statuary are extremely rare. Figures, poses,gestures, and costumes are based instead on a variety of models, mainly

contemporary: the Egyptian women of Clodion are as easy to date as those of Chiparus.

Saint-Non; others such as Louis-Gabriel Moreau and Pierre-Adrien Parisfollowed the fashion,'oalthoughtheir production did not come near to rivalling Robert'sprolific output.''

A look at its iconographic evolution might well give us a better understandingof the courseof Egyptomania. To make the past come alive, to flx it on canvas or paper in the light of the psychological and cultural criteria

of one'stime, to communicateone's vision of Antiquity: theseare the goals pursued by the host of artists who have

3

Vasesby Claude Ballin in the park at Versailles, c. 1670.

4

Baltrusaitis 1985,pp. 11--12.

5

Baltrusaitis 1985,pl. Vlll, p. 137. 6 Circa 1640; sale catalogue H16tel Drouot, Boscher, 22 May 1985, 1ot

chosen to re-create ancient Egypt in drawings or paintings.

From the end of the fifteenth century, many artists some more adept than others took on the task of illustrating travellers' accounts or treatises of every kind. Both the ]7ypnero/omac#;a Po/zp,b=/; of Francesco Colonna,

37 7.

Pay;agesf/ rainer d'zaspzra/fon z/a/zfnnr, c. 1680 (Musee Fabre, Montpellier).

8

A/oiei Bro g#/ /o P#araoAkDaagf/a ', painting, 1746(Court Room

of the ThomasCoram Foundation);engraving,1752(The Royal Pavilion, Art Gallery and Museums,Brighton); Paulson 1971,

vol.ll., pp.44ff.

published in Venice in 1499,' and the missal of Cardinal

PompeoColonna, with Egyptianizing illuminations on its

9.

frontispiece,s are full of surprises for the reader familiar with the subject. The movement gathered strength during

the sixteenth century. Pierio Valeriano wrote his .f/ierogtyphica side de Sacris Aegyptiotum Literis Comentarii,

See for example, //z//r;e r z/e .Pa/a;.f a/z/;gaze, sale catalogue Versailles, Chapelle-Perrin, 13 February 1977, 1ot 23; C'aprrm cgmp /;en, Pevsner and Lang 1956, p. 212, R ;nei an;males,sale catalogue Drouot, Ader-Picard-Tajan, 14 June 1983, 1ot 10; 1.',4b7'euz,ofr,sale

catalogue Galli6ra, Ader-Picard-Tajan, 6 April 1976,1ot52. 10 Louis-Gabriel

Moreau, Uuf d'an yard;/z a/zzmddf peril mages,sale

and between 1636and 1679,Father Athanasius Kircher

catalogueDrouot, Ader-Picard-Tajan, 14June 1983,no. 8; Pierre-

published close to a dozen works on obelisks, sphinxes, and

Adrien Paris, .4/zrzgzzz/A(@yP/zfnneKc Ue//e n' rUafr df ma fomPoiz' fzo az,ff dfz/erf #zngmc?mzx czzz/zgz ei (gyp/zfzzi f/ fz /rfi;(Bibliothaque

hieroglyphs. Speculation on the meaning of hieroglyphs

de Besangon, D. 2896); for Paris, see also Gruber 1972, p. 131 and

increasedfrom that time on, and the many attemptsat translation gave rise to illustrated studies of the most fanciful kind for almost two more centuries. In the middle of the seventeenth century, artists tried to lend an exotic air to pseudo-antique scenes by

11

figs.4,23,54,55,63,65and87. Both Fragonard and Saint-Non producedonly a few paintings with Egyptian-style elements.One example by Fragonard is J.,ff Z.az,anal?rci, c. 1766,in the sale catalogue Hotel Drouot, Labat, 6 December 1984, 1ot. D; another is a painting with the same title in the Musee de Picardie at Amiens, also attributed to Robert. An

borrowing elements from the ruins and monuments they

example by Saint-Non is .Le Grand Esca/k'r, sale catalogue Drouot,

had seen in Rome. Jean Lemaire set the meeting of

Ader-Picard-Tajan, 14June1983, 1otI I

23

Concurrently, other painters were exploring the

Vedder (cat. 236) and Gustave Dora (cat. 332). And finally,

faprzrczoor architectural fantasy and recreating a strange

in the illustrations of Jean-Michel Moreau le Jeune (cat. 72),

imaginary world. In 1751, Joseph Vernet painted his Elem c?/'£zA/edz/fr/a//ecz/zPo/'/ mz/A Pyr.zmzd,': and Charles de

Egypt was linked with Freemasonry.'' Some pztintings even had a touch of humour, as in the portrait where the

Wailly attempteda Reconstructionof the Templeof

Egyptologist Chabas thumbs his noseat the sphinx.'*

Solomon featuring obelisks copied from those in Rome and

Among the preferred subjects of painters and sculptors, Cleopatra occupies a special place. All down the

a pyramid basedon that of CaiusCestius,alsoin Rome.': Around 1780 the genre changed direction. Desprez, in

particular, created original works that looked very much like stage sets, and presented a strange hodgepodge of

centuries, this exceptional figure has inspired the greatest number of works and the widest variety of interpretations.

Recoveringher Egyptian identity in the middle of the

styles: pyramids, obelisks, and sphinxes rose out of clouds, while imaginary tombs decorated with pseudo-hieroglyphs were peopled with ominous figures in /zrmci-headdresses

eighteenth century when Natoire had her disembark at

(cat.65 70). This quasi-esoteric useof Egyptianthemeswas

she became, over the years, one of Egyptomania's celebrities. She appearedin every medium, was portrayed in

offset by the increasingrealismand accuracybrought to illustrations of travellers' accountsat a time when many

novels and plays, and has had a brilliant career in film as well.

explorers were discovering Egypt. As sourcesbecamemore readily available at the beginning of the nineteenth century,

tion hasprovided an opportunity to re-createan imaginary

architectural

caprices became even more descriptive. All the

settings, and costumes that would then become part of

most spectacular Egyptian monuments were depicted side

Egyptomania's expanding repertoire. From their first

by side in the paintings of' this period, while timeless

presentation, Schinkel's designs for 7Af A/agzcF/a/r (cat.

creations such as Victor Hugo's sketch of a pyramid '' were

245--249) and Mariette'sfor .4zda(cat. 273 274and 275 277) were milestones of Egyptian-style stage production, and

still being made.

Tarsus.next to a lion-fountain similar to the one at the Cordonata set on a base inscribed with pseudo-hieroglyphs,'9

Indeed, over time, every manner of stageproducEgypt and to suggest adaptations of characters, situations,

Once the elements of the setting were in place, all

served as points of reference for the very numerous subse-

that remainedwasto bring them to life. Historical repro

quent productions: these works are exemplary both of the

ductions of Egyptian scenes, as such, might have easily

evolution of the phenomenonand of the relationship

fitted

or

between their creators and archaeological sources.The

:battlepainting"; but it took sometime for paintersto turn

themesdeveloped in theatre and film have actually changed

to ancientEgyptian sources,perhapsbecauseof a lack of reference material. It was not until 1825 that a new school

very little from the eighteenth century to the present. In most casesthey conform to current fashionsand references

came into being, with Benjamin Haydon as its leading

to an earlier Egyptomania, and simply adapt the theatrical

proponent.

aspect to the public's

into the flourishing

Haydon

genre of "historical

painting"

drew on the Z)fscrzP/;on de /'Egyp/r

and

Denon's work, met Belzoni, and assiduouslyexamined the

sarcophagus of Serif and everythingEgyptianin the

sometimes questionable

taste.

In concluding this brief overview of the subject,we must not reduce the study of Egyptomania to a mere history

Museum, as he records in his Z)zany.'S From then on, genre scenes "in the antique

manner"

became popular,

with

the

artist acting as portraitist, stagedirector, decorator, property man, costume designer, and of course, historian. Biblical

12

13

sceneswere the most frequent sourcesof inspiration, and painters, for whom it was always tempting to emphasize drama and the depiction of Antiquity, neededto strike the right balance between the overpowering settings suggested by the events and the psychological makeup of the characters. Soon, biblical themes became a mere pretext for piiint-

14

in 12 B.C., had a marble-covered pyramid of a distinctive pointed shapebuilt for himself. which was often copied from the 16thcentury onward: it stands in Rome, next to the Porta San Paolo. Circa 1860; Massin 1967,vol. 1, no. 204; "Victor Hlugo visionnaire,;

William B. Pope,ed., 7'Af Z)zany ofB.R. Haydn/z(Cambridge, Mass.: 1960), xo1. 3, pp. 12, 43, 55, 59, quoted in Brighton/ Manchester 1983,p. 80, note 23; seealso Ffrench 1958,pp. 148--52

16.

Hel'm&s gl'at'an{ sur ies coiollnes {es 6i ments dcssciences,by (:heat\es-

Nicolas Cochin, 1780; see successive editions'of ' Jean-Jacques

At the sametime, artists also discoveredEgypt as a subject for allegory. At the end of the eighteenth century,

Rousseau's fmzi/e ou Df /'cgaca/;o?z(1762), Book 111, with engravings

Cochin used it to representScience;''it was later used for

Baltrusaitis 1967, pp. 58-66; Pierre Chevallier, J7&/o;re Ze /a .F7anc-

Art by Picot, who revived the old theories of Quatremdre de Quincy in a painted ceiling for a gallery in the Egyptian

by Provost and l-lelman

A4afo?z/zf/'z'f #ra/zfazse, Paris 1974,vol. 11,pp. 109 114;Curl 1982, PP. 86-89. 18

Jules Chevrier, C4a&czi f/ /f Sp#zar, 1858(MuseeDenon, Chflon

19

D6barqaemeni de CI op tre a 'raise, c. \ 75Q.

Museum at the Louvre (see cat. 200). Egypt also symbolized

Mystery and Enigma, as embodied by the sphinx, for Elihu

24

des Arts," p. 37, no. 209.

766 71; Bibliothique de I'Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris (22706, vo1.64).Paris 1979,no. 85.The magistrateCaiusCestius,who died

C0 2/za/sxfzzzce dei .47'zs,no. 355, September 1981 15.

ing exoticworks that were at oncehistoricaland didactic; these extravaganzas, as yet restricted in space,were to find a new home with the birth of cinema.

Nelson Atkins Museum of' Art, KansasCity; Gaff//e dff Bfaz£x.4rzi, no. 1394, March 1985, "Chronique

sur-Sa6ne)

archaeological sources(the theme of an international

This irrational element, even more than the beauty and originality of Egyptian art, has beenthe cornerstoneof

colloquium focusing, amongother things, on the extent to which ancient forms have beenadapted).:' When an artist

Egyptomania. Every Egyptianizing object has at least one other dimension religious, esoteric, political, or commer

borrows decorative themes from Egypt to use in an entirely different spirit, he goes beyond the choices imposed by the

dal

technique itself to pursue a personal goal; consciouslyor

meaning, enabling the public to perceive each interpreta-

otherwise, he shapes his artistic expression to fit the use for

tion as contemporary

of stylistic evolution, or to a simple comparison with its

that is not Egyptian. In appropriating ancient themes

and symbols,Egyptomania has investedthem with a new Depending

on the period, it has been

which the work is intended, and in the processadjusts the

linked with revolutionary ideology, the Egyptian

themes to the psychological and aesthetic environment

Campaign,and finally the myth of Napoleon,openingthe

of the

time. The artist must also consider the symbolic meanings

door to all kinds of parallel readings.Egyptomania is also

conveyedby ancientEgypt

linked with more general notions of solidity, dream, beauty,

through its architecture, as they are known and

mystery,fear, and laughter: the surprising increasein the

understood in any given period, even though these often have nothing to do with what they denoted in Antiquity. The very symbol of art and sourcefor all architecture,

useof Egyptian themes over the decadesshowshow

sculpture, painting, and religion

ever-present and deeply rooted they are in the collective

Egypt has left us simple and strict forms that were highly

memory of the West. The phenomenon of Egyptomania has often been

appreciated in the past; they remain well suited to contem-

reduced to that period of the early nineteenth century

porary art, which appliesthem extensively.For this reason,

referred to as the "Return from Egypt," or viewed as the

Egypt is often used as a symbol of Antiquity in general, as well as the symbol of achievement in the fields of art, science,

expression of specific and fleeting moments (opening of the

and learning

hence its presencein the decoration of

Suez Canal, discovery of Tutankhamun's tomb). Tn fact, it is ageless,without genre, and all-pervasive: during Roman

schools,museums,and exhibitions. Egypt also symbolizes

times, from the Renaissance to the postmodernera. Easily

justice, wisdom, law and order, and it is interesting to note its presenceduring the nineteenthcentury in the

adapted to changes in fashion and style, Egyptomania moulds itself effortlessly to the art of the day and remains

decoration of courthouses and jails. Moreover, becauseof its

relatively unaffected by new archaeological findings or

distinctive funerary architecture, very early on it became

developments in Egyptology

the symbol of death as well as of eternal life. Almost with-

own, nourished by myths, symbols, connotations, and

out interruption since Roman times, Egyptian forms have

ancestral dreams. Neither China, Japan, India, nor Assyria,

been assimilated by funerary architecture, and in nineteenth-

mummy, for example, is a theme that can be directly and

nor on another level Greece, Rome, Etruria, nor the Gothic or Renaissancestyles, have been as laden with messages. Far from being mere imitation, Egyptomania is part of the

immediately associated with Egypt. While also representing

imitation/assimilation

military power, cruelty, and despotism, Egypt is above all the symbol of the sweetnessof life, of beauty and love a

scholarsfrom Quatrem&rede Quincy to Gombrich. While

century painting, in particular, death is often .present:the

it has a parallel life of its

dichotomy

extensively studied by

land of beautiful and sensualwomen. It further standsfor

imitation is sometimes the antithesis of creation, in the case of an Egyptianizing work the result is never a mere soulless

rhe mystery of hieroglyphs and sciencesnot revealed to the

decoration overlayed on a sterile form: the evocative power

uninitiated; this symbolismhas been taken up by

of ancient Egypt is constantly being enhancedby the many

Freemasons,Rosicrucians, esotericism, and occult sciences

new interpretationsthat have nourished it throughout the

in general. Lastly, Egypt also represents a true exoticism

centuries. A resolutely multidisciplinary approach is

which is but one of Egyptomania's many facets. While

required to help us understand the ramifications of a phenomenon made more complex by its exceptional longevity; it is impossible to deal with any of its componentsin isolation archaeological, artistic, social, cultural, historical,

certain symbols associated with Egypt were already present

at the end of the eighteenthcentury, a great many more appeared in the course of the nineteenth, at a time when the

country and its history were becoming better known. In Egyptomania, these symbols occur again and again; but

philosophical, psychological, esoteric, economic, or even

Egyptomania also conveys its own symbolic meaning,

Our task is not to make a value judgement on the aestheticqualities of Egyptomania, much lesson the fact of its existence,but rather to observeit as impartially aspossible.

which becomes implicit

in each of its creations.

Egypt's own contribution to Egyptomania is therefore more complex than might appear at first glance: for it provides the models, the themes, and some of the symbols. And although all the archaeological discoveries and great advancesin Egyptology have enhanced our understanding

of ancient Egypt, they have never completely erasedthe aura of mystery and dreams inherited from past centuries.

political.

20. 1.,'f€ypromanif

c /'(Pretluf

df /'arr#cb/OEzf,

Musee du Louvre,

Pa ris

8 9 April 1994

25

However, in studying its manifestations,we must realize

to immediately distinguish between Egyptianizing objects

that a movement of this magnitude could never have exist-

and the ancient works to which they refer. Relations

ed without profound and solid reasons. Egyptomania,

and objectsinvolved are immensein number and tremendously varied, and every day new elements previously

between themes, forms, colours, and sources,accentuated by the way the works have been grouped, are nonetheless strong enough to emerge clearly on their own; visitors are thus able to construct their own stylistic grammar without losing sight of important variations in local evolution.

unknown becausethey were privately owned are being addedto the body of works being assembledfor study.

an astonishing vitality and force. There are several reasons

although long almost completely neglected by scholars, is not a fringe phenomenon in the history of art: the buildings

After so many centuries, Egyptomania still retains

Some Egyptologists dismiss Egyptomania and its forms as unseemly, almost sacrilegious, forgetting that such adapta-

for this. Egyptomania uses,copies,rethinks, and re-creates

tions were the spontaneousresult of a fascinationwith

nality being an essentialingredient in the successof the

Egypt; and while they may have prohted from this civiliza-

movement. In doing so, Egyptomania is more than a fashion

tion's widespread appeal, they also helped spread awareness

statement or mere exoticism. It derives its greateststrength

of it. Egyptian archaeologyand even the Egyptologists reapedthe benefits of this attention, thus ensuring the

from the evocative power of its many manifestations. Nourished by symbolic meanings attributed to ancient

popularity

Egypt, though unrelated to their actual meaningsin

of their science.

forms derived from ancient Egypt

their beauty and origi-

The representative selection offered by the present exhibition is intended to enable the viewer to discover and

Antiquity, Egyptomania has survived by offering new readings of these forms passeddown through the ages.Today

understand the stylistic evolution of borrowings from Egyptian art, through referencesto ancient originals or

more than ever, we must decipher the hidden meanings behind its attractive exterior. Drawing simultaneouslyon

earlier manifestations of Egyptomania, as well as the duration

scientific knowledge of Egypt, the image of Egypt conveyed

and permanence of the phenomenon. For this reason,the

by travellers and writers, and the fantasies,myths, and

works had to be organized along chronologicaland

symbols

geographical

would have immediately confounded any attempt to under-

inextricably linked to the political, artistic, and cultural life of the day, making it a unique phenomenon in the history

stand a movement so dependent on earlier forms and

of art. In this exhibition, Egyptomania dynamically asserts

changing fashions. A rich iconography confirms the close relationship between this movement and its host forms, the most original elements of which it often assimilated and

its identity and 6lnally assumesits autonomous place.

lines: a distinction

based on aesthetic parallels

[o which

these give rise, Egyptomania

remains

combineswith Egyptianart. Thematicsections on [)anon, Opera, C]eopatra

shed a comp]ementary light on

a phenomenon that encompassesevery area of art history and every outlook. The novel installation enablesthe viewer

26

Jean-Marcel Humbert Curator, Museedu Louvre

Note to the Reader

At times, Egyptianizing works of art are so c]oseto their pharaonic mode]s that it is difhcu]t to distinguish the original from the interpretation. For clarity, we have indicated all authentic antique objects,even those not originating on the banks of the Nile; the reader may identify these by the hieroglyphic symbols that illuminate the titles of relevant catalogue entries.

Authors of catalogue entries:

J.E. Jean Estive InspecteurPrincipal MobilierNational

J.-J.G. Jean-JacquesGautier Techniciend'Art Mobilier National

J.-M.H. Jean-Marcel Humbert

G.M. Gerard Mabille

M.P.

Curator Musee du Louvre

J.-P.s.

Jean-Pierre Samoyault Conservateur G6n6ral.MuseeNational du Chateaude Fontainebleau

Chief Curator, D6partement des Objets d'Art, Musee du Louvre

N.w. NicoleWild

Michael Pantazzi AssociateCurator, European and American Art National Gallery of Canada

Christiane Ziegler

ChiefCurator

Chief Curator, D6partementdesAntiquit6s

Bibliothique-Musee deI'Operade Paris

Egyptiennes, Museedu Louvre

Preamble

Detail of the sphinx madeby David Fielding for the operas

//z s C,cesar by Handel, in 1987

Opera de Paris, after a sphinx in the Belvedere Gardens,Vienna, c. 1720, exhibited in Paris

28

The Finding of Moses Manufacture des Gobelins Pantheon until

Jens ails

After a cartoon by Antoine Paillet (162G-1701), after the painting by Nico]as Poussin(1594]665)

c. 168589 3.35 x 4.95 m Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des Objets d'Art (OA 5705) Provenance: Chateau de Fontainebleau,

1789; Mobilier

before 1900.

Exhibited in Ottawa

Za&zfZa /slarcz(cat. no. 13).The church of SanStefanodel Cacco,roughly on the site of the former temple of Isis, derived its name from the Egyptian cynocephalusthat stood near it.s This was joined, in 1435, by the two Egyptian

lions, which were placed there until 1564,when a more

conspicuousplacewas found for them at the foot of the Capitoline stairs. Excavations on the site of the lseum revealed further Egyptian material; and as late as 1883, yet another obelisk, two cynocephali, two sphinxes, a crocodile, and a column decorated with lsiac priests were found nearby,

in theVia BeatoAngelico.'Otherareasof Romewere

When he died in 1590, Pope Sixtus V could look upon Rome

almost as rich in Egyptian relics: more particularly the CampusMartius and the Circus Maximum the site of

with a certain satisfaction. During his short pontificate,

several large obelisks; the Gardens of Sallust; as well as the

begun five years earlier, his vast urban plan for the renovation of the city, with new avenuesconnecting the principal

//or/z Uarzanz. with the remainsof anothercircusand the so-called Barberini obelisk.

basilicas of Rome, had changed its appearance forever. The more surprising aspectof the Sistine plan was the installation

that proclaimed the triumph of the "true" church over pagan

at the sites of St. Peter's. the Lateran, Santa Maria del

Antiquity, the four obelisksof SixtusV werecelebratedin

Popolo and Santa Maria Maggiore, near the entrance to the papal villa, of four Egyptiar] obelisks that had once adorned

engravings, publications (notably Michele Mercati's discussion, Df g/z o&c'/zicAz d; Ro/na, of 1589and Fontana's own

Imperial

favourite architect, Domenico Fontana, moved and raised

splendidly df//'O&f/zlm

the obelisks at the rhythm of one a year, a feat of engineering

the frescoesin the Salone Sistina in the Vatican Library and

rivalled in Rome only by the architectswho had raised

in the now dismantled decorations of the Salle Grande in

someof the sameobelisks for Augustus to mark his conquest

the Palazzo elle Terme,

of Egypt.' Two other large obelisks were alternately consid-

family. An integral feature of the new Roman skyline, they became along with the pyramid ofCaius Cestius part of

Rome. Between

1586 and 1589, the Pope's

ered by Sixtus V for a fifth site, the church of Santa Maria degliAngeli, along with proposalsto move smaller obelisks

Exorcized, consecrated, and capped with the crosses

illustrated account, Z)e//a Tr.zspor/a/;one ' Ua/zca/zo, of 1590). They reappeared as well in

the ofhcial

residence of the Pope's

Ehestandard repertory of Antiquity, and were frequently

[o lesser positions, but the projects were not carried out.: More modest bur significant preludes [o theseevents

included in seventeenth- and eighteenth-century paintings.

took placein Rome from the beginning of the sixteenth

bore inscriptions,which had survivedtime but could no

century. Plans to excavate the obelisk raised at Santa Maria

longer speak; this led to attempts at decoding the signs, in what amounted to an early, albeit misdirected stage in the

Maggiore, for instarlce, had been recommended as early as 1519,perhaps with the intention of placing it in the Piazza dell Popolo; while in 1567, Cardinal Ricci proposed installing the sameobelisk, rededicated to the Holy Trinity,

30

sphinxes, fragments of columns, statuary, and most probably, that most mysterious of all Egyptianizing objects, the

Tapestry

National,

1586, four further obelisks, the two statues

of the Nile now in the Louvre and the Vatican, and numerous

More importantly, these tremendous monoliths

development of Egyptology, name.lythe deciphering of hieroglyphs. From the beginning of the seventeenth century,

at the entrance to his own villa.s Cardinal Ferdinando

increasingly,inscriptions from surviving Egyptian monuments and sculpture were copied, discussed,compared,

de' Medici, the subsequentowner of the villa, installed in the

speculated upon, and interpreted

gardens a smaller obelisk found at the site of the sanctuaries

thing learned,whether from humanist literature or Coptic

of Isis and Serapis in Rome, near the Pantheon. [n around 1555.a small obelisk of Ramsesll from the same site was erected in the Piazza San Macuto;' while its pendant first

manuscripts,and everything newly discovered,from

recorded in modern times in 1407 after removal to the

Pope Urban Vlll, bought an obelisk now known to have

convent of Santa Maria d'Aracoeli, was moved again, in

been dedicated by Emperor Hadrian to his deified favourite,

1582, [o the gardens of the Villa Mattei. Rich in Egyptian and Egyptianizing sculpture, the sanctuaries revealed over

Antinous.' in 1632,detailed drawings of it were made, and

the years the lions of Nectanebo I that stood in front of the

from a Jesuitcollege in Avignon, AthanasiusKircher, was

in the light of every-

ancient Mexican script to Chinese ideograms. In 1630, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, nephew of

a German professor of Oriental languages recently arrived

''' -s'T+a' Fpt'enB PBft'r?' ?+0'6uOORatT f: TPTPTpppn ' t'pp\p5pB'F' pl:!:l!:!

't''T':"r:r'rT+'FiP

' t"EtrF.'Faso F'(t'B'0?

: ?

#

askedto interpret the inscriptions.In 1629,the Barberini

antiquarian who formed an important eitrly collectioraof

had also bought from the Colonna family the principality of Palestrina, near Rome; it was the site of the Temple of Fortuna, which revealed a late antique mosaic with Nilotic subjects. Believed to be Egyptian, the mosaic stirred great interest and was brought to Rome [o the Barberini palace,

Egyptian works, his network of information was consider

where it joined other Egyptian antiquities, among them a

evaded him. What remained, however, was a body of

statue of Horus now in the Glyptothek in Munich and a stelastill in the Barberini gardensto this day.Cardinal

Egyptian objects in his Museo Kircheriano in Rome,'' later

Francesco'scircle included scholars actively involved in the

publications on the subject. The early visual documentation

study of antique imagery, as well as in natural sciences,

of Egyptian objects was very much the result of informa-

mathematics, theology, and astrology. Cassiano dal Pozzo, his secretary, was engaged in assembling his famous cusco

tion disseminated among enthusiasts.'' in 1626,the painter Rubens sent Peiresc a detailed drawing ': of a sarcophagus

cczr/arco

and mummy in his collection in Antwerp. When ar]

or "paper

museum"

a vast collection

of com-

able.9Kircher, who had been recommendedto Cardinal Francescoby Peiresc,embarked on a lifelong study of pharaonic Egypt, becoming the forerpost specialist of the

age,but his main ambition, the decodingof hieroglyphs,

dispersed,and a large if not altogether sound number of

mented drawings of all things relevant to the material culture

Egyptian statue was discovered in Barcelona,a drawing

of the ancient world, Egypt included.' Through Jesuitswho travelled to Africa and correspondence with scholars

was sent to Kircher, who published it in 1660.':

abroad, such as Nicolas Fabri de Peiresc, the erudite Provengal

knowledge into the visual vocabulary of seventeenth-

The integration of this speculative,often complex

31

Fig. 1. Nicolas de Largilli6re

Tbe Finding of?closes, \ 128 Oil on canvas Musee du Louvre, D6partement des Peintures, Paris

century artists was slow. When commissionedby Pope Innocent X Pamphill to place an obelisk in front of the Pamphili palace in Piazza Navona, Gianlorenzo Bernini

designed the splendid Baroque Fountain of the Four Rivers, unveiled on 12 June 1651.Earlier, however, Bernini

had designeda projectfor the installationof the Barberini obelisk, on the back of a stone elephant. The idea was based on a famous image in the HPP/zfroromac#zaPo/@#z/z(1499)

The accumulation of learning needed by an artist to recre-

ate the archaeologicalaspectof Antiquity could not have been better served than in the Barberini circle. Whether Poussin contributed drawings for Cassiano's mzlsfo ca//arco is doubtful, but he certainly consulted it for the documenta-

raised in 1667in the Piazza della Mincrva by Pope

tion of his paintings:a sheetin the BibliotecaRealein Turin, for instance,includesantiquitiescopiedfrom drawings in the musedczar/czceo, among which figure two Egyptian sistra.'' Appropriately, Poussinused Egyptian imagery for the treatment of the Story of Moses,his

Alexander Vll Chigi, another amateur of Egyptiaca and

favourite biblical theme, the Flight into Egypt, and occa-

Lhefirst to draw Kircher's attention to the statue of Nestor

sionally, in other subjects such as 7'Ae P/agzzeof,4ifod and

(cat. no. 4) he had noticed in 1639at Rignano.'s One of the

the I..andscape mi/A Sr. /oAPZa/ Pcz/moi.ts Obelisks, pyramids,

inscriptions

Egyptian lions, and statuesof personi6icationsof the Nile

by FrancescoColonna, an earlier lord of Palestrina.The Hyp/zero/omczc#za was perhaps the book to most exploit the allegorical, cryptic nature of hieroglyphs.'' The project was

not realized, but Bernini adapted it for a small obelisk

on [he base of the Minervan

obelisk explained

sustain solid learning. Bernini's design reverberated

also figure in paintings by followers and contemporariesof Poussin, and some of these works appear distinctly conceived for an erudite audience.One is tempted to include in

throughout Europe: at the end of the seventeenthcentury,

this category of works allegories'9 and the pictures of ruins

that just as the sturdy elephantsupportsthe Egyptiar] obelisk, symbol of knowledge, a robust mind is necessaryto

Nicodemus Tessin proposed two such elephants with

attributed to JeanLemaire or the remarkableFzndzng of

obelisksand a similar inscription for the entranceto the

A/oifi

Royal Palace in Stockholm.

in a private collection in London. The latter must have been painted for a special patron as it includes, along with the standard Egyptian references, mythical winged Egyptian

In painting, Nicolas Poussin was probably the first

to expressthe needfor a synthesisof the known informa-

tion aboutthe past.On his arrival in Romein 1624,he

32

was introduced to Cardinal FraracescoBarberini, his first important patron, and to Cassianodal Pozzo,who became a faithful friend and owned a large number of his works.

(fig. 2) by Charles-Alphonse

Dufresnoy

(1611--1668)

snakes,a hippopotamushunt, a recograizable rendition of

the Lateran obelisk, and an imaginary Egypti;\n palace,or

of Egypt and Ethiopia. I have put all of theseelementsin

temple, decorated with the two standing figures of Antinous

the picture to delight the viewer with its novelty and variety, and to portray the Virgin in an Egyptian setting. Poussin's knowledge of the mosaic came either

from Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli. The most revealing document concern)ingPoussin's

approach to the ancient world is a letter he wrote on

from the original or from oneof the severaldrawn copies,a

25 November 1658to his patron, Paul Fr&art de Chantelou,

set of which was made for Cassiano dal Pozzo. As shown

in connectionwith a Ho/y Fame/yzn Egyp/:' delivered that

by Charles Dempsey in his essay on Poussin's Egyptian

year.The painting had beencommissionedin 1655for

sources,the artist'sdescriptionof the figuresas "priestsof

Madamede Montmort, Chantelou'sfuture wife, who also

Serapis" is a more complex matter.:: Karcher's interpreta-

chose the subject. Begun late in 1655 and finished by

tion of the mosaicwas pub]ishedon]y in ]669 and in any

December 1657, the subject (referred to by Poussin as the

event did not make a connection with Serapis. Federigo Cesi's description of the drawings belonging to Cassiano,

Egyptian Virgin") is set in a classicallalldscape with obelisksand buildings i\lluding to Egypt and the sacred bird, Ibis. In the foreground,the Holy Family is attended by three figures with darker complexions offering dates,

however, was cited in JosephMaria Suaris' P/afnci/r a///z guar of 1655;and although Cesidid not specifically identify the group as priests, he did name Serapis in the context of

native to Egypt; while in the background, in contrast to the Christian scene,a processionof priests of Serapis or Osiris

his sanctuaryat Palestrina.:3SheilaMcTighe hasdrawn

carry an ark. In his letter, Poussinwrote: "This is the scene:a processionof priests, wreaths of leaveson their

forms part of the late Lfz/?d cape mz/£ 7;wo Aryrnp#i,24 while

shaven heads, clad in their characteristic manner, with tambourines, flutes, trumpets, and staffs lopped with sparrowhau,ks. Those inside the portico, headed for his temple,

in Christian theological terms, figures in the background of

carry a coffer ca]]ed 'Sore Apin ' [Serapis], containing

attention to the fact that a detail from the Palestrina mosaic the motif of a hippopotamus hunt, which could be reinterpreted Poussin's

Fz?zdzng (2/' /Voiei

(fig.

3 and 4) painted

for the

banker Jean Pointel in 1647.:sin the Pointel Fzndz/zg ofMoicK,

the

Eheattempt towards a convincing Egyptian ambient is par-

relics and bones of their god bearing that name. The

ticularly ambitious. The palm trees, the obelisks,the pyramids

dwelling that stands behind the woman in yellow is simply

scarcelylarger than the pyramid of Cestius, the figure of the

a refuge for the Ibis representedhere ... noneof this was

Nile leaning against a sphinx rather like the Borghese

done from imagination, but was inspired by the famous

sphinxes (cat. 33--34),the hunt in the distance, the sistrum

Temple of' Fortuna at Palestrina, whosefine mosaicauthentically and masterfully depicts the natural and ethical history

intended to identify the women as priestesses of isis, are many of the novel meansemployed to convey the "natural

Fig. 2. Charles Alphonse Dufresnoy lbe Finding ofN\odes Oil on canvas

Privatecollection,London

33

Fig. 3. Nicolas Poussin Tbe Finding ofatoses, \G4] Oil on canvas Musee du Louvre, D6partement des Peintures, Paris

and ethical history" ofthe place.

Several projects to manufacture tapestries after Poussin'smost famous biblical subjectswere proposedby Chantelou as early as 1641 first the Seven Sacraments and

later the Story of Moses but none was realized within the

artist's lifetime. [n 1683,after Louis X]V acquiredtwo of

In the caseof TZe Fz dangof A/Diff, Poussin'scomposition proved too wide. In the tapestry cartoon by Antoine Paillet,

the subject was abridged both at right and life, and the figure of the Nile was omitted altogether. Ours is listed as number 99 in the Inventaire de la Couronne and described

Poussin'spaintings derived from the Story of Moses,

as "another tapestry, made of wool and silk, with gold highlights, same factory, make, and design as the previous arie,

Chantelou's secondproject of twenty yearsearlier was set in

also depicting the Story of Moses, in a border, at the sides, a

motion, and the first two tapestrieswere commissioned

garland of flowers, grapes, and other fruits in natural silk,

from the Gobelins.:6 As eventually executed, the complete

surrounded by large, plumelike, bronze-colouredleaves with gold highlights; in the centre,the King's monogram

set of tapestries included ten subjects, eight after paintings

Brun. The successof the serieswas substantialand as a

on a blue ground, in a cartouche with a white ground; in the corners, four large fleurs-de-lis in bloom, with gold

result six setswere made at the Gobelins between 1683and

highlights...."27 in 1789, it was at Fontainebleau "chez les

]71]

princesses,"that is, in rhe apartment of the daughters of

The present tapestry belonged to the second set, begun around 1685and completed in 1689by Lefevre and

Louis XV. but only eight of the eleventapestrieswere on

by Poussin and two more after compositions by Charles Le

view.

ransills for Louis XIV The setdiffered from thefirst in as much as one of the compositions was divided in two and woven in twu$f:parole sections,lheseriesconsisdngof+leven-

pieces.Inevitably, modifications to all the compositions occurred when they were transferred to the tapestry format.

34

MichaelPantazzi Associate Curator

Europeanand American Art National Gallery of Canada

Fig. 4. T#e F; f#mg afAlasei, 1647

Etching by Charles Lenormand after the painting by Nicolas Poussin National Gallery of Canada, Ottawa

l For the issue of obelisks in Rome, see d'Onofrio 1968, vol. 1; Roullet Z

1967; lversen

1972, nos. 68--93

13

Padr6 1991,pp.301--06.

14

Calvesi1990, Proceedingsof the Congress"lnnocenzo X Pamphilj. Artistie commitenza a Romanell'eti barocca

The two obeliskswere thoseof Psammetichus11,raisedin the PiazzaMontecitorio in 1792.and the Roman imitation known as rhe Sallustian obelisk, installed in 1789 in front of the Trinity dei Monti.

PP. 17-25. 15

SeeWhitehouse 1992,p. 78. It may be noted that Alexander Vll also restored the pyramid of Cestius which, however, he proposed to transform into a church. Fagiolo dell'Arco 1977,pp. 210--17.

3 Tiradritti 1991, pp. 433--39. 4 The obelisk remained there until 1711when Pope Clement XI moved it nearby, in front of the Pantheon.

16

5

Removedin 1562to the Capitoline Museum and transferred in

17

Friedliinder and Blunt 1974,vol. VI p. 327

1838to the Vatican Museum. SeeBotti and Romanelli1951.

18

The works may be found today in the Louvre and the Art

19.

institute of Chicago, respective]y For instance, such designsas the engraved .A4emnon, reworked and

Magnusson 1980, p. 149.

no. 181,and Pietrangeli1962, note on p. 141

6 For these and the excavations of 1858 59. seeLanciani1883; Lanciani1897, pp. 500--02;and Nota 1991,pp. 283--87. 7 Found broken in three piecesin the 16th century near the Porta

Maggiore,the obelisk wasfully dug out in 1570.After its purchase by the Barberini, it remainedon the ground in front of the palace and was engraved as such by Piranesi. In the 18th century, the Presidentde Brossesand five of his friends from Burgundy pro-

published twice in the 17th century, before 1638and in 1655,and engravedthe secondtime by another artist from the Barberini circle, Cornelis Bloemaert; Johnson 1968,72:1195,repr. on p 185 20 Now in the H.armitage, St. Petersburg. 21

but the project failed. It was presentedin 1773by Cornelia

22

Dempsey 1963, pp. 1 10--1 1

Barberini [o Pope Clement XIV. and eventually raised on the

23.

Dempsey 1963, p. I lO.

Pincio onlyin 1822.

24.

In the Musee Conde, Chantilly.

For dal Pozzo, see Cass;aao da/ Pozzo,Proceedingsof the

25.

For this and an extensivediscussionof Poussin'suseand interpre-

tationof imageryfrom the Palestrinamosaic,seeMcTighe 1987,

Colloquium at the University of Naples, 1987;Herklorz in Cropper,

Perini, and Salinas1992,pp. 81--107;and T f PaperA4zfifzzm of 9.

10

Caiiiano da/ Pozzo 1993,all with bibliography For Peiresc, see Aufrire

1990, with bibliographical

references

12

26. 27.

PP.217-40. Weigert 1950,pp. 83--84. Fenaille 1903,p. 191

For Kircher, seeReilly 1974and Godwin 1979;for his interpreta-

tion of hieroglyphs, seeAllen 1960,vo1. 104,pp. 524--47,and lversen 1961,PP. 92--99;for a recent account of the Mused 11

Jouanny 1911,pp. 448 49; for a version of the letter revised to modern French, seeI,f//rfi df Poz/ii;n, with an introduction by Pierre du Colombier, Paris, 1929.pp. 299--300

posed to erect it at their expense in front of San Luigi dei Francesi,

8.

Seeclans Georg Muller's drawing from Tessin'sidea in

Kircheriano, seeLeospo 1991,pp. 269--75. Whitehouse 1992,pp. 63--79

Today in the Biblioth&queNationale, Paris.

Exhibitions: Paris 1940. no. 81

SelectedReferences: Fenaille 1903,pp. 186-88, 191--92, repo.; Weigert

1950

PP.82 85,PI.66.

35

I Italy and the

Grand flour

37

In 1710,workers in the vineyard of Leone Verospi Vitelleschi

different typesof granite for work on the statues.;On

in Rome found five Egyptian statues, the largest of which,

15 February 1715,the Roman councillors commissioned

three metres high, proved to be the only representation

Alessandro Spccchi, the architect in charge of the Capitol, [o produce a design for the installation of the sculptures

known in moderntimesof QueenTuya,wife of Sent and mother of Ramsesll.i Three further statuesof lesserantiquity

Specchi'soriginal plan called for all four statuesto

representedPtolemy ll Philadelphus, his wife Arsinoe, and

be placed on the ground floor of the portico of the Palazzo

an unidentified princess;while the fifth sculpture, known

Nuovo, noting that if necessarythe sculpturescould be

from documents to have been a damaged torso, disappeared from view after 1714.: The vineyard was on a site where the

carried out, it would have been the first Egyptian decor in

historian Sallust had built a garden in around 40 B.C. and

modernRome and a prefiguration of the small Egyptiai]

wherelater either Hadrian or Aurelian constructedan

museum established in 1748in the same building by Pope

Egyptian pavilion. The site was rich in ancient remains: before 1550it had revealeda large obelisk, now known to

Benedict XIV for the Egyptian and Egyptianizing works

be of Roman manufacture, which had briefly attracted the attention of Pope Sixtus V. but remained unexcavated. In ]706, the architect Carlo Fontana made a proposal to Pope Clement XI Albani to erect the obelisk in a niche at the site

was chosen: two of the statues, those of Tuya and Arsinoe,

of the Trevi Fountain, but the Pope was busy with plans for

another obelisk subsequentlyinstalled in 171I in front of

modelledin the 1720s.All four statuesremainedin place until1838, when they were removedto the Vatican

thePantheon.

Museum and were seen by several generations of artists

The discovery of the group of Egyptian sculptures, 6e most important to be found in the city, caught the interest

including Natoire and Hubert Robert (seecat. 43 and 44).

of the Pope.In 1714,he bought all five from the antique

at which the Clementine prizes for 1716were awarded

dealer Francescode Ficoroni and immediately gave them to the Roman people to be put on view at the Capitol. Soon afterwards they were moved to the Palazzo Nuovo com-

drew a symbolic link between the installation of the statues

moved to the gallery on the first floor. Had the plan been

excavatedat Tivoli. As it turned out, an alternative design

were placed between the columns of the portico of the Palazzo Nuovo, while the remaining two were set in the

portico of the Palazzo dei Conservatori when it was re-

Interestingly, one of the poems recited during the ceremony

on the Capitoline Hill and the recent defeat of the Turks by

drawingsby Moratti showingthe four sculptures(the fifth

Eugene of Savoy, and compared Pope Clement XI to the Roman emperors who had decorated Rome with captured Egyptian trophies. In 1738,the Jesuit Ottaviano Giustiniani published a collection of epigrams dedicated to the Pope's

having disappearedby then) beforeand after his interven-

nephew,Cardinal Annibale Albani, which included an

tion give a good idea of his restorations,as do documents

/2o/aHrgypzaon the theme of the new Capitoline portico.'

monly known asthe Capitoline Museum and in 1715they were sent to be restored by FrancescoMoratti. Careful

of 1715 mentioning travertine bought for basesand two

Also in 1738,CardinaIAnnibale, a discerning patron of the arts, presented an Egyptian obelisk to his

native city of Urbino. His younger brother, Cardinal Alessandro, was the most important collector in eighteenth-

century Rome, as well as a man with wide connections, particularly in Great Britain and Austria, playing host[o many

visiting artists.It is fair to saythat the Albani were among the first modern connoisseursto consider the civilization of

Egypt equal to that of ancient Greeceand Rome,and they gave it an exposure previously unknown in Rome. The Egyptian sculptures in the Albani collection (nig. 5) were

largely excavatedon their own lands or purchasedfrom other italian collections, evidence of the vast number of works brought from Egypt to Imperial Rome or marlufacrured in Italy during this period.s it is somewhat misleading to speak of Cardinal Alessandro Albani's "collection" as there were in fact several collections. In 1728, he sold a first group of thirty sculptures, including some nine Egyptian

lions, to the king of Poland; these are now in Dresden. A second group, primarily busts, was sold in 1734 to Pope

Clement Xll and formed the core of the collection of ancient portraits in the Capitoline Museum. The third and r'ig. 5. Charles Percier, fKpPf; S/al//es ; ffe Parr;fa afl#e yz'//izA/ban/ 1786-90, drawing. Biblioth&que de I'Institut de France, Paris

38

Italy and the Grand Tour

last collection prompted the construction of the Villa Albani. Finished in 1763,this living museum was one of the

Fig. 7. Hubert Robert, l#/erfar f /#e B /# Apart me /s af/#e V;/Za.4/bsw;, red chalk on paper

Indiana University Art Museum, Bloomington

from JohannesWiedewelt's adaptations for the royal gardens Elg. 6. Ptolemy ll Pbiladetpbas

at Fredensborg, in Denmark, to Queen Marie-Antoinette's

Detail of the decoration in the Bath Apartments of the Villa Albani

andironsat Versailles.The Egyptian and Egyptianizing objectsfound during excavationsat the site of Hadrian's Villa at Tivoli madeclear the needfor a specialgalleryin the Capitoline Museum, the so-calledCanopusGallery,

wonders of Rome under the presiding genius of Johann Joachim Winckelmann, the foremost art historian of the age, whose interest in Egypt, however, was limited and

opened in 1748. By the 1770s, a new enthusiast was added

to the list in the person of Cardinal Stefano Borgia, a vora-

whose religion remained Greek art. It was, in fact, the international controversy of the 1760son the subject of the

cious antiquarian with contacts,through a network of

preeminenceof the Greek style that led, in part through

Velletri, where he frequently entertained foreign visitors

Piranesi's efforts, to a greater appreciation of Egyptian,

and artists. he assembled a varied collection that included

Doric. and Roman architecture.

Jesuits, on four continents.In his palacesin Romeand at

Egyptian antiquities and coins along with one of the earliest

The dispersalof Cardinal Albani's last collection,

collections of Indian bronzes to be formed in Europe.'

also containing a much travelled obelisk (cat. G =9and I I I),

Various French artists were inspired by his collection; and

fortunately occurredonly at the end of the century,long after his death.One of the curiositiesof his villa wasa still

in England, the 1823studio sale of the sculptor Joseph No1lekensincluded a bust of Cardinal Borgia decorated

surviving circular Egyptian salon(fig. 6) in the Bath

with "hieroglyphics."9

Apartments, decorated with a mixture of Egyptian and Hadrianic works and modern decorationsin the Egyptian style, probably the first such historical reconstruction in

was Georg (or Giorgio) Zoega, a Danish specialist in

modern times. Leading to it was a larger rectangular room,

The curator

of the Borgia collection

Egyptian coins.'' He had furst-hand knowledge of most of

the important collections in Italy and was familiar, for instance,with the Egyptian works in the Vallisnieri, Pisani,

also with Egyptian decorative features, among which were

and Nanidi San Trovaso collections in Venice.it

two symmetrically placed statues of Antinous that were

During the yearswhen Cardinal Albani's Egyptian rooms were under construction. Piranesi embarked on two

admired and studied by both Hubert Robert (fig. 7) and Pierre-Adrien Paris,who would later apply in France with.

particular brilliance the Egyptian lessonslearned at the Villa Albani.' Egyptian sculpture was to be found in other collections in Rome, notably at the Villa Borghese and in

interrelated Egyptian projects: mural paintings for the Caffi degli Inglesi, or English coffee-house (see cat. 14 and 15), and a series of designs for Egyptian chimney-pieces.

The publicationof the etchingsin 1769,underthe title

the BarberiniPalace:an Antinous figure that still stoodin

Dfz'erie manzfrc?dz czdornarf z cczmmln;,izwas a turning point

the somewhatruined Barberinigardens in the early nineteenthcentury appearsin a drawing by the Danish

Apologetic Essayin Defence of the Egyptian and Tuscan

painter Christoffer Eckersberg;' the famous sphinxes in the

Architecture," marked a new stage in the perceptionof

Borghese gardens (cat. 29--30) were studied by tempera-

Egyptian architecture. Piranesi's projects were perhaps too

ments as diverse as Sir William

extravagant to be easily applied, but they proved a rich

Chambers and Jacques-

Louis David, and were copied in the eighteenth century for Outdoor and indoor use in almost every corner of Europe,

in the iconography of Egyptomania; while his preface,"An

mine of ideas for other artists. The decoration of the CafBe

deglilnglesi, though no less fantastic, was executed in

Italy and the Grand Tour

39

#4-$q {-+'£f=

Fig. 8. Vincenzo Brenna Desist for au Intevio %tbe ViLLal-.aal'etltum, \111-1%

Fig. 9. The Egyptian Room of the Palazzo Massimo in Rome

Pen and ink, with watercolour and gouache

Biblioteka Narodowa, Warsaw

rl07npe-/'oez/painting, demonstrating that such a treatment

waspossible.Its impact can be judged by the number of

Ehepapyrusesand a ceiling painted with scenessymbolic of Egypt, surrounding a main panel devoted to an allegory of

derivations it inspired, both in Italy and abroad, up to the

the museumitself. The four cornersof the ceiling were

early nineteenth century. In 1777 78, Count Stanislav

painted with /romps-/'orz/ reliefs of Egyptian telamones

Kostka Potocki, a noted collector and Polish translator of Winckelmann, proposed reconstructing the villa of Pliny

positioned between paired sphinxes and Egyptian lions

the Younger at Laurentum a project later abandoned. To this end he engaged Vincenzo Brenna, a young Florentine

into place.The decorationis very different from what

architect later active in Russia, to prepare plans for the

ture is undeniably Piranesianin inspiration, though more

building.'' The interiors of the villa presentedthe most

austere. Appropriately,

speculative part of the reconstruction, given the fact that

to the Borgia apartments,decoratedin the late fifteenth

none of the original decoration had survived. Brenna pro posed two alternative schemes(seefig. 8): one Roman, the

connectionbetweenthe family of PopeAlexanderVI and

other Egyptian and fully derived from the Caffe degli

Apis, the sacredEgyptian bull.''

Inglesi, suggesting that Piranesi had acquired an authority almost equal [o that of the ancients.'4As drafted, Brenna's

Inglesi was neverthelessadapted in much simplified form

projects became a form of scientific discourse: they

for an Egyptianroom in the PalazzoMassimoin Rome

acknowledged the Egyptian influence in ancient Rome an

(fig. 9); and a Piranesian scheme was at furst considered for

earlier wave of Egyptomania

one of the major projects of the late 1770s,the decoration of the Egyptian Room at the Villa Borghese.The villa housed a number of famous works by Bernini, an important collec-

while also expressingthe

enthusiasm of the eighteenth century for Egyptian motifs.

Another project, Jean-D6mosthdne Dugourc's imaginative adaption of Piraneslan decoration for a Spanish prince in 1786 (see cat. 59), unfortunately never built, would have

pleasedthe masteras a true embodimentof the spirit of his work.

Piranesi might have proposed, but the simulated architecthe Sala dei Papiri was contiguous

century with Egyptianizing motifs intended to establish a

Piranesi's decorative schemefor the Caffi degli

tion of ancient sculpture, and several Egyptian pieces around which Prince Marcantonio Borghesewanted to redesign the interior. The result wasa series of theme rooms designed by the architect Antonio Asprucci, with the

Following the opening of the Museo Pio Clementino

at the Vatican in 1771,Pope Clement XIV Ganganelli decided to house the collection of ancient papyrusesin

40

The room was ready by 1776,when the papyruseswere set

assistance of his son Mario and someof the most gifted painters to be found in Rome's international artistic community. For the Egyptian Room, Asprucci enlisted the

a specialroom.'5 Winckelmann's favourite painter, the

help of the Italians TomasoConcaand Giovan Bautista

German artist Anton Raphael Mengs, was asked to design the decoration, which called for wall space for the display of

Marchetti, whom he commissioned [o paint the ceiling

Italy and the Grand Tour

and a series of wallpanels, and the French sculptor

Antoine-GuillaumeGrandjacquet(cat.33 37,39 40).'' The design, begun in 1778and completed four years later,

Neo-Egyptian motifs perhaps made in Rome by the Revelli brothers,22or the eight-piece suite of sofa, armchair, and six

went through at least three distinct phases, progressively

chairs with sistrum-shaped backs delivered in 1797 by

moving away from the Piranesianmodel. Though highly

Carlo Toussaint for the apartment of Prince Louis of

origina[, Asprucci's final concept made rich use of coloured marbles and was more in keeping with Roman practice of the day. Indeed, some of the details, such as the sphinxcs above the doors, were already part of a tradition: a related

Hapsburg-Lorraine in the Pitts Palace in Florence:' are all

arrangementof sphinxeshad beendevisedfor the entrance to the Grand Salon in the Barberini Palacewell over a

with Antinous figures that was widely imitated in Europe

century earlier, and similar sphinxes decorated the door of

(see cat. 23)

the Grand Salonin the recentlycompletedVilla Albani. Around the same date, Prince Borghese also undertook the

redecoration of some of the apartments in the Borghese Palace,including an additional Egyptian Room completed in 1782,with paintings by Labruzzi.

examples that conform to a typically italian taste. Piranesi's

contribution to the genre was, however, more influential, as Alvar Gonzalez-Palacios2'

has shown: a type of console

throughout the Neo-Classical and Romantic periods

In 1748,excavations near the church of San Lorenzo in Lucina brought to light fragments of the large obelisk of Psammetichus 11. The obelisk was known to be

buried there and had beenpartly uncoveredin the early sixteenthcentury,at which time the Latin inscription on

The sensation created by Asprucci's Egyptian

the basewas recorded. The Emperor Augustus had

decor in the Villa Borghese set the fashion for similar rooms

throughout Italy and elsewherein Europe, but the results

brought the famous obelisk from Heliopolis in 10 B.C. and installed it in Rome in the Campus Martius, according to

were seldom as successful. The closest successor,at least in

Pliny, as a sundial. A second attempt at excavation took

spirit, is the Egyptian Room conceived by Thomas Hope at

place in March 1587 under Pope Sixtus V. and in 1666 the

rhe beginning of the nineteenth century for his house in

obelisk was looked at once more, by AthanasiusKircher.

London. Asprucci's collaborator, Tomato Conca, also painted

Egyptian-style decorations in a room in the Lignani-

After each attempt, it was buried again but the excavations of 1748generated considerable excitement. Work began in

Marchesani Palace at Citti di Castello,n and somewhat

earnestin March and a fine engravingby JeanBarbault

later, in the early 1790s,Leonardo Marini drew up pro-

(fig. 10) shows the obelisk partly uncovered. The same year,

posalsfor Egyptian interiors in Turin, including one for the

the Scottish

casino of the Marchese di Bairolo.'9 in 1797, in Bologna, where a taste for the Neo-Egyptian also developed in the

Rome, made an excellent engraving of it, which was published in 1750 in Bandini's treatise Z)f oZ'f/nico Cafsczrzi4zzgr/o Among the literature provoked by the obelisk was an erudite

closing years of the century, Antonio Basoli proposed an Egyptian decorative schemefor a study in the houseof the lawyer Monte.20Furniture for such spacesis both rare and

architect

James "Athenian"

Stuart,

then in

hoax perpetrated by the Abb& Gagliani, which was sharply rebuked in print. In 1787, several architects submitted plans

poorly documented,and does not appear to have been

for the restoration and installation of the obelisk.

adapted [o any extent outside Italy. The splendid commodes with bronzes by Luigi Valadier made for the Borghese

Undoubtedly the most interesting was the suggestionby

family,2' the late eighteenth-century commodes with inlaid

giant Piranesian-Egyptianfacadewith a fountain, one of

Giovanni Antonio Antolini to place the obelisk against a the rare Italian projects of the period for an Egyptian-style building.:S in 1792, however, Pope Pius VI ordered it [o be

set up in the Piazza di Montecitorio, according to the plan

submitted by Giovanni Antinori who, like Domenico Fontana at the end of the sixteenth century, had acquired substantialexpertise in moving obelisks.

In 1789,Antinori had installed the obelisk from the gardens of Sallust in front of the Trinity dei Monti, and

three years earlier, in 1786,he had moved one of the obelisks from the Mausoleum of Augustus to near the

Quirinal, in a striking setting, flankedby the two famous statuesof the Horse gamers. The occasionwas commemorated in a superb inkwell by Vincenzo Coaci(fig. 11) presented to the Pope by the Marchese Hercolani; now in the Minneapolis Institute of Arts, this was probably the first of

many obelisk-inkwells to be produced,albeit in a simpler design.2' A legacy of an altogether different order was Fig. 10.JeanBarbault, fxc pa/;omaff#e O&e/fsf/ram fbeC.zmPzrs Afarr;zzs,after 1748,etching

Zoega'smonumental book on obeliskscommissionedby PopePius VI and completed in 1797.Z '

Italy and the Grand Tour

41

Fig. 11. Vincenzo Coaci Inkstand Representing tbe Qzr;r/Ha/ /Va#wme##, 1792

Silver, silver gilt, lapis-lazuli, and russo antics

MinneapolisInstitute of Arts Gift of the Morse Foundation

Paradoxically, the abundance of genuine obelisks

The pyramid of Caius Cestius in Rome was in a

in Rome made any local production on a grand scaleun-

somewhat different category as the sole surviving ancient

necessary.A widespread tradition associating obelisks with

monument of its type in Europe. Built lessthan fifty years

funerary or public monuments,and evenornamental

after the death of Cleopatra, it bore early testimony to

decoration, had taken root in the sixteenth century and had permeated much of Western and Northern Europe. Tn the eighteenth century, however, ornamental obelisks became

Egypt's influence on Rome. A second pyramid, near the

legion from Ireland to St. Petersburg.Ephemeralobelisks,

with a street and a church. The characteristic steepshape of

raised temporarily for ceremonial occasions,were, if anything,

the pyramid of Cestius like the pyramids at Meroe but so unlike the great pyramids at Giza can be recognized in the multitude of replicas that becamethe trademark of the eighteenth century (seefig. 12), in Northern Europe in par-

even more common. To mark the return of the King and Queenof the Two Sicilies from Vienna in 1790,for instance, rhe architect Gaetano Barba proposed a temporary Temple of Fortune, flanked by two imposing Egyptian obelisks, to be built in the square of the Royal Palacein Naples.:*

42

italy and the Grand Tour

Vatican, was demolished in the fifteenth century despite its

fame; it fell victim to new urban concerns,being replaced

ticular but also in France.Cork modelsof the pyramid were part of an architect's tools; somewhatunexpectedly,

=:=!===:::==:=T:=T::::==::::!:::::=:!=T

k +

K

K 'x,

;n.'£%

: I(.,i.';l}.-l l;* Fig. 12. Ennemond-Alexandre Petitot YoangZKonk in tbe Greek Style

Fig. 13. Luigi Campovecchio Design for a Noble Casino, \'7c)Qs

Etching byBenignoBossi

Pen, ink, and watercolour Archivio dell'Accademia Virgiliana, Mantua

Plate 9 from IU ifrzrade 2 1a Grergwe, Parma, 1771

Fig. 14. Giovanni Paolo Panini Ruins with Obelisk and be P)hamid ofCaius Cestius Oil on canvas Musee du Louvre, Paris

however, one finds in the inventory of Thomas Jefferson's

Guardi, another Venetian working later in the century, is

belongingsa model of the "pyramid called Cheops."The

impressionmade by the pyramid of Cestiuson a poetic

more complex, as he appears to have had accessto works by both Panini and Hubert Robert. Piranesi'swindows opening

imagination may be gauged by the many drawings Goethe

onto an imaginary Egypt on the walls of the CafRedegli

did of it during his visit to Romein 1788.:P Foreignartists

rnglesi, in the 1760s,no lessthan Hubert Robert'simaginary Egyptian landscapesof the same period, take an altogether

in Rome embroidered endlessvariations upon it, which grew increasingly more imaginative from the middle of the eighteenth century; its impact on Italian architects at the

new, prophetic direction in which Roman featuresare absent and an Egypt of the mind predominates.

closeof the century waspart of a larger movementthat swept through France before returning full circle to the source. A typical example of the phenomenon is the rare and very

beautifu]

]Vo&l/e

C'aizno ldrczfo ia /a forma

de//cz

Pzramzdfd; C4o Crs/zoz/zRoma (fig. 13) conceived by the

Mantuan architect Luigi Campovecchio and perhaps inspired by a precedentby Vaudoyer." The typically Roman painted architectural fantasies

with obelisks usuallytheLateranobelisk andthe pyramid of Cestius perfected by Panini in the 1750s(fig. 14)

for an international clientele represent a moment in the ufdn/a zdfa/a, or ideal views, in which Egypt and ancient Rome merged. Panini's work had an effect on both Piranesi (fig. 15)and Hubert Robert, and through them on an entire generation of artists active until almost the end of the century.

The formula had originated in the seventeenthcentury with artists who were not natives of Rome and who were. perhaps,more sensitiveto the architectural paradoxesof the

g

city. In the eighteenthcentury,the genre spreadas far as Holland, and even to Japan (seefig. 16).'' Some of the most successfuleighteenth-century ca/,ricci of Roman derivation were painted far from Rome, by artists suchas Marco Ricci,

Fig. 15. Giambattista Piranesi P)ram d ofCaius Cestias, et(]nlttg

a Venetian with a European career. The caseof Francesco

Private collection

Italy and the Grand I'our

43

Though a typical Rococo interpretation of ancient Egyptian

architecture and thus theoretically out of date, the engrav-

ings excited great interest among the young artists of the 1790s,who copied them,S'and they had a particular effect

on stagedesign.Fittingly, a memorialportrait of Tesi includes a variety of Egyptian elements.'Sit may be added

that on his return to Russia,Prince Yussupovbecamean advocateof the Egyptian style and applied it when he remodelled his house at Arkhangelskoye, near Moscow. The entrance was decorated with Egyptian lions, the staircase

flanked by Egyptian caryatidsand, at a later date,after a fire

in 1820, theceremonial dining roomwaspaintedwith Fig. 16. Utagawa Kuninaga T#e Pyramids afEglPf, c. 1800, woodcut

Piranesian motifs.

Allen Memorial Art Museum,Oberlin, Ohio

eighteenth century also marked the end of the importance of Rome as the focus of an international group of artists. In

The political changethat consumedItaly in the late

this context,

that the text of Piranesi's

Z)zz,erst

An interesting incursion into imaginary Egyptian views is provided by four engravings of imaginary temples

and English. An examination of Piranesi's Egyptian

and landscapes after designs by Mauro Tesi, a Bolognese

artist. Little is known about the original paintings and

engraved projects and text reveals, [o be sure, a thorough knowledge of the Egyptian material available in Rome and

drawings, none of which have surfaced,but it is known that

the vicinity, but shows an equally informed knowledge of

Tesi executedthem chiefly for Count FrancescoAlgarotti,

seriesof architectural fantasieson specificthemes,for which

published material from engravings of the famous ZaZ'u/a /szac.z(cat. 13) to more recent accountsof travel to Egypt, as well as theoretical literature in France. Early sketchesshow he had also carefully studied Fischer von Erlach's fantastic re-creations of Egyptian monuments published earlier in the century, which circulated widely in Rome and fired the

painters willing to follow his instructions were required.

imagination of Hubert Robert and a host of progressive

Algarotti's correspondencewith someof the artists, including

architects.The correspondenceof rhe British resident in

GiambattistaTiepolo who added6lguresto the composi-

Florence, Sir Horace Mann, shows that in the spring 1755,

tions, indicates that Test was engaged in producing landscapes

Mann sent a set of the twenty-five engravings published by

featuring Roman, Oriental, and Egyptian buildings.3ZTo

Alexander Gordon depicting the mummies and Egyptian

one artist, Algarotti

antiquities in England to Cardinal AlessandroAlbani,

who enjoyed considerable fame in Europe as an author and

critic. In 1756,he publisheda work on architecture, followed in 1762by his letters on the theory of painting.

Around 1759,Algarotti had the ideaof commissioninga

suggested Panini as an example and

urged Tesi to look at Piranesi's early plates of Roman

through the French architect Charles-Louis

monuments.In a letter of 4 March 1760,Algarotti wrote to

Sheetswith drawings from the Antique, including Egyptian motifs and views, compiled late in the eighteenth century in

Tiepolo that Tesi was busy copying the sphinxesand mummies conserved in the Institute in Bologna, itnd on 20 May of the same year Algarotti asked Tesi to send him :the little design that was missing only the seated Anubis."';

C16risseau."

Venice by the painter Pietro Antonio Novelli demonstrate

how heavily artists relied on such sourcesand how widely

they circulated: there are copies from Montfaucon's

Algarotti was certainly very busy introducing Tcsi to every-

Jn/;qa/rd

one he knew of any consequence, wrote about him to Pierre

czzzd ]Vzz&;aof 1757, from Piranesi's D;z,erie mfzn;efe, and

Jean Mariette in Paris and presented him to the Abb& de Saint-Non when the latter visited Bologna in 1761.A year

a variety of other sources."Tn Naplesdominated by the irresistiblespell of the resurrected ruins of Pompeii and

later, on 6 December1762,Algarotti wrote to Tesi to tell him that he had shown some of his drawings to the British

Herculaneum, the highly imaginativeintroduction of Egyptian motifs in locally manufactured ceramics(see

consulin Livorno, William Pitt, the future prime minister

cat. 46) still depended on engravings and models imported

and Earl of Chatham, including "an Egyptian Sepulchre

from Rome.Almost to the last momentsof the ancien

with seatedColossi.'

regime, Rome, by virtue of its heritage, remained the ideal academy for the exchange of artistic ideas; and the dying

A groupof engravings basedon Test'swork,

44

it is significant

m'zn;frf was published in three languages:Italian, French,

exp/zq IZc?of 1719, from Norden's

Tian,eZszn EgpP/

including the four Egyptian subjects,waspublishedonly in

embersof the old order gavebirth to a renewalof

1787,over twenty yearsafter his death, at the expenseof the Russian ambassador to Turin, Prince Nicholas Yussupov.

Egyptomania.By then, the basicvisual vocabularyof this

Italy and the Grand Tour

first modern manifestation had already been established.

Vatican. Those at Velletri, including the Egyptian objects, were

left to his family. Purchasedin 1815by JoachimMurat, King of 9.

10 11

Naples, they were turned over to the Naples Museum in 1817. Clifford 1992, p. 63. On Zoega, see lversen 1961, pp. 1 17--21

lversen 1961,pp. 118--19.On Egyptian antiquities in Venice, see Venice 1988,p. 146, fig. 57; Cavalier 1992,p. 91.

12 English

Other

title:

Dzz,frf

A4a/?ncrfi cy ' OI /zar f/zrzng C'fzm/?fy£

P£irts o.FHoases

Taken

fro

r] the Egyptiall

and

a7?d .4// Tosca?3

A rch itectu ) e 13 Rome 1975, nos. 248a--248i 14

Rome 1975. no. 248i.

15

R6ttgen 1980, pp. 189--246; Grafinger

16

Baltrusaitis 1967, pp. 157--65.

17

Della Pergola 1962;Arizzoli-C16mentel 1978,pp. 1--24.

18

Sist1991, p. 421,fig. 12

19

Seethe entry by Lucetta Levi Momigliano in Turin 1980,vol. I, no.305,repr.

1990--91, pp. 30--45.

20 Bologna 1979,no.57,fig.47. 2

Gonzalez-Palacios 1987, p. 106

22 See sale, Semenzato, Venice, 31 January 1993, 1ot 340, repr. 23 Colle 1992,no. 127,repr. 24 Gonzalez-Palacios 1984, vol. 1, p. 133; cat. 23 in this catalogue. 25 Faenza 1979, no. 290, repr 26 PLarsons] 1969, vol. LVlll, pp. 47 53, fig. 1. For two later versions

n the Pitti Palacein Florence and in a private collection,see Gonzalez-Palacios 1984, vol. 1, p. 169, and vol. 11,fig. 321, 322 27 lversen 1961,pp.117--19 28 Naples 1979, vol. 11,no. 579, repr. 29 Neutsch 1963, pp. 167--72, pls. 62--64. Re: Tischbein's famous

Fig. 17. Giambattista Piranesi 7'&eZ«z/ef'a7z Obe/;sf, etching

Private collection

portrait of Goethesitting on fragmentsof an obelisk, in the Stgdelsches Kunstinstitut

Obelisks (fig. 17), the pyramid of Caius Cestius, Egyptian

lions, sphinxes,canopic vases,and statuesof Antinous as an

in Rome." See Belluzzi in Mantua 1980, who also cites a youthful project of Palagio Palagi in Bologna, pp. 3 1--32,no. 26, repr. 31

M.P

l Liebenwein 1981,pp. 73--105;De Fence1982.The discoveryof the

see Beutler 1976 and

30. 'Nobleman's country house based on the pyramid of Caius Cestius

Egyptian divinity were the foundation stonesthat future students would need to consider.

in Frankfurt.

Mofhtt 1983,LXV:3, pp.440 55

This painting was inspired by a Dutch model, aswell asthe u,ood-

cut by Shiba Kokan in the O/a7?daTf Aa4zzof 1805,reproduced in French 1974, p. 130, fig. 94 32 Algarotti1765, vol. VI, pp. 93--94.

statues, now in the Vatican, is dated to either 171I or 1714; Botti

33.

34 See Raccotta di disegni originals di Mania Test estlatti da diuelse

9

and Romanelli1951, nos.28, 31,32and 33,and pp. 136--37,repr. De Fence1982,pp. 25 26.

3

On this subject, seeArizzoli-C16mentel 1978,p. 11, note 47; repro-

/zzz,; Zau;/czZe//'aa/o/e,Bologna, 1787,pls. XXXl--XXXlll,

ducedin Liebenwein 1981, fig. 1 12.

for copies, see those by Charles Tatham in his "Collection of Manuscript Drawings of 1796" at the Royal Institute of British

On the Villa Albani, seethe articles compiled in Beck and Bol

Architects, London, as well asan anonymous copy in the Cooper-

1982, u ith bibliography. The Albani collection is discussed in Allroggen-Bedel, pp. 301--80;Gaspari, pp. 381--435.

Hevvitt Musem, New York, and another attributed to Antonio

ca !faziot{ pabficata da Lodot/ico Img Calcografo in Bologna, aggiw

4 Liebenwein 1981,pp. 83--93; De Fence 1982,pp. 59--67. 5

6

On the Bath Apartments (ar "Museum"), seeR6ttgen 1982, pp. 102--03; Gruber 1978,pp.281--88 andfig. 7.

8

Now in the StatensMuseunafor Kunst in Copenhagen(6793). Cardinal Borgia died in Lyons in 1804,on his way to Napoleon's

coronation. His collections in Rome were bequeathed[o the

Algarotti1781, vol. Vll, p. 114,and vol. X, p. 244

XXXIX;

Basoli in the Museo Teatrale alla Scala.Milan. 35 Seethe drawing at the Fondazione Chi in Venice (CPG 70734) 36 Fleming 1962, p. 164 37

Reproduced in Arban 1970, pp. 4--15, with no discussion of Egyptian sources; sale,Christie's, New York, 13 January 1987,lots

85 86,88-94.

Italv and the Grand Tour

45

Statue of Osiris-Antinous Tivoli, Italy, Hadrian's Villa Reign of Hadrian(117--138 A.D.)

at leastsix related statuesthat he attributes to the same

'Russoantico

antico, suggestingthe alternating white and red colours of

workshop.' Most are in white marble, but two are in rosso

135x 46x 42 cm

the crowns of Upper and Lower Egypt.

Munich, SraatlicheSammlung Agyptischer Kunst, Wittelsbacher Ausgleichsfond(GIWAF

24)

The presentexampleis one of the red statues.At first glance,it seemsto be the traditional image of a pharaoh: the cffndy / or finely pleated loincloth and the /zemfi, or

Provenance:

striped headdress crowned by a sacred cobra were, from the

Rome, Villa Albani(A 436); collection of the

time of the Pyramids, the standard attributes of a ruler. The presence of a back pillar and the regal pose, shown in

Dukes of Bavaria

a frontal view with the (now missing)left foot forward, Exhibited in Paris.

follow the conventions of Egyptian statuary.

statues from Hadrian's Villa, is a recurrent theme in the

Stylistic analysis,however, leavesno doubt as to the date of the work: this is an Egyptianizing creation from the Roman era. Represented in a contrapposto borrowed from

Egyptianizing repertoire. The fate of Antinous, Hadrian's

rhe Greek sculptor Polyclitus, the figure, with chestthrust

favourite, is well known: he drowned in the Nile in the autumn of 130A.D., during the Emperor'sstayin Egypt.

out and arms held away from the body, is a long way from

The imageof Osiris-Antinous,as known from a group of

The dead youth was accordedthe status of a demi-god and

immortalized in statueserected in cities and shrines throughout the Hellenic world. The tomb built for him in Rome, in the "gardens of Adonis" on the Palatine,' featured an obelisk that stands today on the Pincio.: The monolith

bearsthe image of Antinous in Egyptian guise, facing the gods Thoth and Amun-Re, as well as some very correct hieroglyphic inscriptions by the scholar Petarbeschenis of

Panopolis,; who may have directed the Egyptian deification

the strict frontality of Egyptian statueswith arms tight againsttheir sides.Equally significant is the treatmentof the musculartorso with its bulky pectorals,and the thick waist bulging somewhat over the solid belt; this is the body of a mature man. The face, its central part restored, appears young by contrast in spite of its heavy, set expression;but it is as great a departure from the pharaonic ideal as it is from

the graceful portraits of the tragic youth by Hellenistic artists of the times. Other detailsforeign to the Egyptian

The most famous statue (fig. 18), for a time in the Louvre,

tradition immediately strike the specialist: the shapeof the memff, for example, with tucks around the headband and the folds in the fall of the side panels,which have remained intact. Moreover. the material usedis a red marble unknown

is now in the Vatican.S Jean-ClaudeGrenier has identified

[o rhe sculptors of the Nile Valley.

of Antinous and developedhis iconography.'The statues from Hadrian's Villa have taken up this Egyptian aspect.

Fig. 18. Am/; oaJ

Fig. 19. Etienne Dup6rac

Vatican Museum

.A#/;Maas, drawing

Bibliothdque Nationale, Paris

Fig. 20. H.mr;maasZeZamom Sabaa Croce Greca

Fig.21..An/;maas Detail of fresco-paintings by

Vatican Museum

Raphael and his students for the

Saladell'lncendio in the Vatican

46

Italy and the Grand Tour

?

Italy and the Grand Tour

47

This statue, on display in the antechamber to the Egyptian Canopus" at the Villa Albani ' was seenin Rome as early as the mid-sixteenth century (flg. 19), much earlier

than the famousstatue now in the Vatican. During the same period, similar works could be seen in the Barberini gardens, in the Villa Borghese,' and in the collection of the

Englishmztn Thomas Hope.9 The Anrinous theme is also repeated in the tvPo monumental telamones of red granite with lotiform capitals,'' today in the Vatican Museum (fig. 20). From the time of their discovery, at rhe beginning

1. Grenier 1989a,p. 929, note 5 2. lversen 1968,p.161 3. [)erchain 1987. 4. Grenier 1989a,p. 979, note 93. 5. Botts and Romanelli 195 6. Grenier 1989a,pp. 965--69. 7. Allroggen-Bedel 1982, pp. 367--436 8. Roullet 1972,p. 158, no. 173.

9. Grenier 1989a,p. 966(c).

10.Roullet 1972,p. 87,nos.IO1.:02. 11. Humbert 1989,pp. 96-97.

of the fifteenth century, they have been copied by the mas-

ters, one of the most famous examples being the ceiling of the Sala dell'lncendio in the Vatican, painted by Raphael

and his students(fig. 21).'' For Antinous, this was the beginning of a long careeras a subject for Egyptianizing

works: the scopeof the presentexhibition affords only a few important examples (cat. 24, 154, 155).

c.z

b Period

SelectedReferences: Roullet 1972,p. 86, no. 98,

Schoskeand Wildung 1985, pp. 128--30,no. 92; Bianchi

hg- 116(stillshowing

in Brooklyn 1988--89, p. 253, no. 139;Grenier 1989a,p. 966(d)

signs of'

restorations) and 117(drawing by Dup&rac, before restoration)I

note 78, and pl. XXXVll

Raeder 1983, p. 152, no. 111/31;

intellectual sphere, he was held to have invented writing,

45.5 x 25.5 cm

language, numbers, and the calendar.' As clerk to the gods, he recorded the testimonies of the dead and consecratedthe

Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des

succession of kings by writing their nameson a mythical

Antiquit&sEgyptiennes (N 4128)

tree. Master of magic, he was venerated by scribes who sometimes had their portraits done with a monkey on their

Provenance:

shoulders. In Memphis, he symbolized the divine word that

Rome, Villa Albani(A

460); acquired

in 1815.

Exhibited in Paris

gavebirth to the universe.In all of the localitieswhere he was worshipped, and especiallyin his holy city of Hermopolis, archaeologists have discovered monumental statues of baboons and vast cemeteries of sacred ibises and

Basically two kinds of monkeys are represented in Egyptian

baboons. In the Roman era, Thoth the "three times great

art: the small green Ethiopian monkey (cercopithecus

was identified with Hermes Trismegistus and viewed as the

aethiops) and the large baboon with its doglike muzzle (cynocephalushamadryas).The animal depicted here is of rhe second type: a male, with a thick mantle of fur on his shoulders. Although

in pharaonic times the baboon was

famed for aggressiveness its image was used for the verb to be angry" this one is sitting calmly, his paws on his knees, gazing up at the sky. This statue clearly represents a sacred animal, in

the poseof a babson at sunrise, a frequent motifin architec-

tural decorationrelatedto the solar cult, suchas basesof obelisks or facades of shrines. Was this statue dedicated to

the solar cult? While there is no text to guide us, it seems

more likely that it is an imageof Tooth, the moon god. Tooth could assumethe guise of either an ibis or a baboon,

seatedand crowned with the lunar disk. Ruler of the

48

Italy andthe GrandTour

F\g- 22. Small Seated PiERre with tbe Head ofa Dog

Plate X from Johann Joachim Winckelmann Histoife de !'An chez ]es Avtcietts, \]9q

e

S

# \

K

3$$.: ...x

Italy and the Grand Tour

49

repository of Egyptian wisdom. This may explain why so

Lord of the Egyptian skies, the falcon is an image

many statues of monkeys have been found in the sanctuaries

of Isis in Rome.:The origin of the presentstatueis

of the god Horus and protector of royalty. Among the Pharaoh'smany namesare Horus and Horus of Gold.

unknown, but we do know that it was in Cardinal Albani's

Other deities also assumethe shape of a falcon: Montu, the

collection in the eighteenth century, on view in the (cat. 3). The statue was wrongly identified at first: labelled

warlike god of Thebes, and Sokar, ruler of the necropolis of Memphis. Lack of information makes more precise identification of the work impossible.

Dog-headed Anubis, seated"in Morcelli's catalogue,' it appearsin an illustration in Winckelmann's book (fig. 22)

belonged to Cardinal Albani. It is mentioned in inventories

antechamber to the Egyptian Canopus along with a falcon

with the caption:"Small seatedfigure with the headof a dog."' However, by the time the architect Percier drew the room (seefig. 5),5a disk had been put back on the babson's head, restoring the lunar attribute of the deity.

c.z

We know from the Louvre archives that the statue of his collection ' and reproduced in an unpublished drawing by Percier (fig. 5),: decorating the antechamber to the

Egyptian Canopus along with its baboon counterpart (cat. 2). In Percier's drawing, the falcon still had a double crown; this awkward attempt at restorationwas removed when the statue was acquired by the Louvre. Does our falcon

comefrom Hadrian's Villa? The current stateof knowl1. Boylan 1922;f.X, vol. VI, 1986,pp. 497--523. 2. Roullet 1972, pp. 125--27.

edgedoesnot allow certainty on this point, but at leasttwo other Roman falcons appear to have such an origin.S

3. Morcelli 1785. no. 460.

4. Winckelmann 1790, p.115,pl. lO.

c.z

5. Bibliothique de I'Institut de France (MS 1008,no. 22). 1. Allroggen-Bedel 1982, p. 368, A 465, as"Agyptischer Greif. 2. Bibliothdque de I'Institut de France (MS 1008,no. 22) 3. Roullet 1972,p. 128, nos. 261--262.

SelectedReferences: Morcelli 1785. no. 460;

Winckelmann 1790, pl. 10; ViscontiandClarac1820,p. 157.

Exhibitions: Lyon 1978,no. 3.

SelectedReferences:

Visconti andClarac1820, p. 157 no. 368 (hawk); Clarac 1830, p 154, no. 368; Letellier and er in Lyon 1978, p. 14 repr. p. 13

Falcon Period or Roman Period Basalt inlaid with agate

39 cm high Front part of wings, tip of beak, and end of tail restored Paris, Musee du Louvre,

D6partement

des

Antiquit6s Egyptiennes(N 3654) Provenance: Rome, Villa Albani; acquired in 1815 Exhibited in Paris

Carvedin dark basaltsetoff by bright inlaid eyes,this bird of prey is representedin an attitude of lofty pride. The sim-

plicity of form and the sobertreatmentof volumegive the

work a monumentalquality despiteits modestsize Anatomical details are sparse;the markings of the feathers around the eyes, however, are characteristic of peregrine falcons. The falcon's eye played an important role in Egyptian

civilization: the written sign for zmcze#zl or "protected," reinterpreted as a human eye, it becomes the wdg2z/ symbol

of integrity.

50

i

Italy and the Grand Tour

Italy and the Grand Tour

51

]lq;sbor, Director of the Gateway to the Foreign Lands of the South

4

Probably from Elephantine, Egypt, temple of Khnum Reiknof Apries (c. 589 570 B.C.) Basalt

103x 37.5cm Face and hands of the figure, and all three deities restored

How this statue travelled from the distant shores of

Nubia to the Roman countryside we cannot say, but it seemsreasonableto assumethat it was brought to Italy during the first or secondcentury A.D. to decoratean imperial villa, a sanctuary of Isis, or a tomb. Nor do we know much about the circumstances in which the statue was discovered.

Paris, Mus&e du Louvre, D6partement des

In the secondhalf of the eighteenth century, it was among

Antiquit6sfgyptiennes(A 90)

the Egyptian works displayed in the Villa Albani in the antechamber to the Canopus The image, however, was

Provenance:

widely known by the middle of the seventeenthcentury,

Found in the 17th century on the Via Flaminia at Rignano, near Rome; Villa Albani(A

Neshor, also known as Psametik-menkhib, is portrayed kneeling, holding before him three statues of deities. The simplicity of form and the modest attire

through the works of Kircher.

c.z

439).

a simple cArnZg)/

signal an archaistic tendency while revealing the prefer-

Vernus 1991,pp. 241--50;the three deities would appearto repre sentthe Osirian triad.

Valbelle 1981, pp.4647 Kircher 1652--54,pl. 127 Clarac 1841--53,vol. V. p. 301, no. 2554, and vol. 11,pl. 335

Allroggen-Bedel 1982, vol.10,p.367

enceof the times for highly polisheddark stone,smooth shapes,and fluid lines. The rounded coiffure and the slight smile are characteristic of the later dynasties.A fragment of an identical statue,bearing the name of the sameindividual,

Exhibitions: Paris 1982, no. 88.

recently went on the market, which suggeststhat several

SelectedReferences:

variations on this unusual theme were executed for

Kircher165254,pl. 127;Raffei

Neshor.

in Winckelmann 1767,vol. lll, pl. IV(1), and pp. 49--52;Morcelli

The present statue was found in a mutilated state on the Via Flaminia, near Rome; it was restored, most likely

Clarac 1830.no. 367: Porter and Moss 1951, vol. Vll, PP. 408--09;

Otto 1954,no. 25(a),pp. 162-64;

1785,no. 434; Winckelmann 1790, vol. 1, pl. Vll, p. 111, note 3;

De Meulenaere 1966,p. 14, no. 42 Ziegler in Paris 1982,p. 142; Chevereau 1985, pp. 93--94,

doc.118;Curto1985, p. 12; Perdu 1990,p. 39 (b); Vernus 1991,P.241

in the eighteenth century, according to a classicizing aesthetic far removed from the Egyptian style. The face has

been disfigured by a Greek nose, and so much fantasy has been added to the divinities,

particularly

to their headdresses,

that the Egyptologist must read the inscriptions to discover

their identity. In fact, they comprise the triad or family of gods worshipped along the first cataract of the Nile: Khnum,

the ram-god, accompanied by the goddesses Sans and Anukis.2

The main inscription is engravedon the back pillar, according to common usagein the Late Period.

The hieroglyphs were studied by Kircher ' and later Champollion:' arranged in sevenvertical columns,they

B

N

relate the life of Nestor. An important figure of the sixth century B.C., Neshor is known to us from severalhistorical documents as both a military commander and a high-ranking

customsofhcial. Here, an autobiographicalinscription lists the numerous improvements he made to the shrine of the gods of the cataract at Elephantine (the present-day city of Aswan), on the orders of his sovereign, Apries. The inscription also relates the events of an expedition to the southern

part of the country in which Nestor took part. As for the statue, the hieroglyphic texts specify that it was placed in a

52

temple,probablythat of Khnum, to keep the memory of

Fig.23.Nestor

the donor alive throughout the millennia and to urge

Winckelmann

passersbyto repeat his name.

Histoire (k !'Ar} chez tes Ancient,

Italy and the Grand Tour

Plate Vll from Johann Joachim \ 190

Italy and the Grand Tour

53

Monumental Statue of Ramses ll Egypt, region around Thebes ?

Louvre, acknowledged his debt to Champollion: "The

Reign of Ramses ll (c. 1279 1213 B.C.), for the

interpretation of the inscriptions that I am publishing [see

lower part

fig. 24] is due to the learned and obliging kindness of my

Egyptian alabaster (calcite), for the lower part; Italian alabaster, probably from Volterra, for the

friend Champollion; he has carefully gone over the drawings,

upper part

the original; in this respect I was also helped by Monsieur Dubois...."z The leading Egyptologist of the day had easily recognized the cartouchesof the Pharaoh RamsesTI in two inscriptions engraved at the front in symmetrical columns:

2.03x 0.53x 1.15m Upper part restored, secondhalf of 18th century Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des

Antiquit6sfgyptiennes(A 22) Provenance:

rectifying

their character

whenever

they were unfaithful

The hng of Upper and Lower Egypt, lord of two lands Usermaat-Re Setup-en-Re, son of Re Ramses-beloved-of-Amen, may ie /;ue e/er/za//yas Rf. The same text is repeated on the

Found in Rome at the lseum Campensel

back of the statue: ... /Af /ord of/wo

Rome,Villa Albani(A 462).

Setup-en-Re, son of Re Ramses-Delayed-of-Amen,beloved of .4mwn.

What could be more Egyptian than this monumental statue

/a ds User-mace/-Rr

The untrained eye can readily detect the difference

of a seatedpharaoh?Frozen in strict frontality, with his

betweenthe material usedin the lower part, a cream-

hands resting on his knees, he has all the attributes of his

coloured stone with sinuous veins, and that of the upper part, a greenish Italian alabaster. The specialist is equally struck by a number of anachronistic details: the proportions

office: stiff. striped /zrmrf; pleatedrie 2gy/with triangular

apron; animal's tail decorating the back of the costume; czn4A,sign of life, in his right hand. The uprights of the low-backedchair and the lower part of the back pillar are engraved with beautiful hieroglyphs giving the titles of the sovereign, first correctly identified by Champollion. Oddly enough, Winckelmann

whose letters state that the statue

of the bust, with its overly wide shouldersand too thick waist; the triangular top of the back pillar; the square pattern decorating the cz/z&A;the shape of the ?zemfs minus the

usual cobra

and the carving of the stripes; and finally, the

face itself. so removed from the Ramesside style, the deep-set

occupieda placeof honour in the centreof the Egyptian

eyeswithout the traditional band of eyepaint, the undefined

Canopus at the Villa Albani in 1762

mouth, and the Greek nose.

saw it as an image of

Isis;: while Petit-Radel devoted a rather strange entry to it

There is no doubt that whereasthe lower part was

in 1804,claiming it to be a representationof Horus holding

sculpted around 1250B.C. in the Egypt of the Ramses,the

a phallus. Clarac, then director of Antiquities at the

upper part is modern. The style of the face placesthe

F=''H

f;!i''

SESOSTltlS

. XVlll ' DI'N.\STIR

Fig. 24. Hieroglyphic inscriptions Plate 244 from Francois de Clarac, htusfe desculpture antique et moder#e, 1853, vol. ll

54

to

Italy and the Grand I'our

Fig. 25.A /; oz/s Detail of the statue

Fig. 26. Ca/aiizzs afRamses

in the Vatican Museum

Museedu Louvre, Paris

Granite

ri restoration in the eighteenth century. The date can be

pinpointed if we assumethat this work, purchasedfrom Prince Albans on 5 December 1815,3is in fact the monumental

alabasterstatuewrongly identified by Winckelmann asIsis, but correctly describedin an entry by Carlo Fea: "This statue representsthe figure of a man, and was repaired as such."' Should the restoration be attributed to Cavaceppi, as was

kindly suggested to the author by I.R. Gaborit?The great Italian sculptor worked for Cardinal Albani and it was he

Exhibitions: Marcq-en-Barceul1977, no. 99.

Visconti and Clarac 1820,p. 33, no. 55; Clarac 1851,no. 2548, p.296,pl.288,and vol.ll,pl. 244 no. 395 Gnrthe inscription; Curto 1967,p. 58 and note lO (referenceto the statue identified by Winckelmann as Isis); Roullet

SelectedReferences; Winckelmann 1764, vol. 1, p. 34; Winckelmann 1779--83,p. 97 and

p.17;Winckelmann 1790, p. 174, notes land 2; Petit-Radel1804,

1972,p. 91,no. 116(Isis);Ziegler

vol. IV. PP. 109--17, PI. 56; Landon 1808, pp. 133, 134, pl. 69;

in Marcq-en-Barceul

1977, no. 99.

who executedcopiesof hieroglyphs on the modern additions to Albans's obelisk. To find the models from which he drew

his inspiration, we must look to the Egyptian or Egyptianizing collectionsthen assembledin italy.' Although the stiff flaps of the nemfs might seem to indicate otherwise,

The Albans Obelisk..

it appearsthat the H /z/lowsnow in the Vatican (fig. 25) was the model for the restored face; the modelling of the torso is

A palace garden tint boasted an obelisk. was a rarity in eightemth-

reminiscent of Greek copiesof the Roman period; the pyramidal point on the back pillar, borrowed from works of the Ptolemaic period,Sis seen in other restored works still at the

centuq Rome and much coz/fated.Apparently some perv careful

Villa Albani, including a statueof King Shabaka.'Another entry from Winckelmann's book providesa valuable clue,

ttegotiations were required b(:fore Cardinal Alessandro Albans acquired a pink. granite obelisk.aroztnd 177a, which he placed on the western terrace ofhis uiLta,at the centre ofa vast circle where auer es leadingfrom the Via malaria converged. The

the significance of which has apparently been overlooked.

monument was modest in size, a Little overdue metres high, and

The statue was found in the middle of the eighteenth century

in three sections. The central block sculptedduring the Roman

when excavations were made for the Roman seminary, near the site where the temple of Isis formerly stood in the

perl(M, carried a dedication in ueq good hieroglyphs commemo

Campus Martins; and close to it on a piece of land belonging to the Dominican Fathers...."7in other words, the statue may have been one of the pharaonic objects that decorateda

Sextiw Africanus. It seemslikely, assuggestedby Hans Wolfgang Miiller, that this was the personwho had the obelisk.erecnd in a temple near the Forum ofAugmtu.s. CardinaIALbani had the two other sectionsadded by the sculptor Paolo Cauaceppi,who

major shrineof the cult of Isis in Imperial Rome.'

rating an emperor probably Claudius and a cermin Titus

The statue'sprecise provenance in Egypt is yet to

be determined. The epithet "beloved of Amun"

Amun

being one of the major deities of the Ramessideperiod

is

scant evidence for ascribing a Theban origin. It is true that

monumental statues made from alabaster are quite rare and that some were erected in the great temple of Amun

at Thebes (including a statue dating from the reign of TutankhamunP and a colossusrepresenting Sen I).:' However,

the hypothesis remains to be confirmed; for the antiquities

chat arrived in Rome were taken from shrines all over Egypt

Neshor's effigy '' came from the region of the first

cataract, the Sais obelisk from the banks of the Delta.iZ

c.z.

'\z

1. R6ttgen 1982,vol. 10, p. 155. 2. Clarac 1851, vol. 11,part 2, pp. 826, 828, no. 395.

3. Archives desMus6esNationaux (I DD 70),p. 71 4. Winckelmann 1790, vol. 1, p. 174,note 2. 5. Bothmer 1973,.2nded., p. XIXXIV 6. Inv. Visconti, N. 1037;seealso Curto 1967,p. 58, no. I and p. 60

Hll

7. Winckelmann 1790,vol. 1, p. 174,note I 8. Roullet 1972,pp. 34--35.

9. Schwallerde Lubicz 1985,vol. 11,pl. XLVI. 10. CG 42139

11. Musee du Louvre. A 90. 12. Roullet 1972, pp. 76-77, no. 78.

56

Italy and the Grand Tour

Fig. 27. Italian School, 16th century Three Studies of tbe Atban{ Obelisk Musee Bonnat, Bayonne

rites performed in honour of a deity. Crowned with the solar disk and adorned with broad necklaces, the gods wear

the lock of hair emblematic of childhood, and play an arched sistrum with three rods; the sacred urczewicobra appearson the forehead of the child depicted in relief B 44 (cat. 6). The two young boys are not identified by any text;

they representone of the many child deities that were an

important part of the divine triads of the Late Period, whose names vary from one temple to another: Ihi, Horus

the Child, Horus the first-born of Amun, Horus Sematawy, Heqa.... In the Pharaonic period, the sistrum was used during religious ceremonies,especially in rites to appeasedan-

gerousgoddesses.During the Late Period, the instrument becameone of the emblems of the cult of Isis and thus came

into widespread use throughout the Roman Empire. The type of sistrum shown here, with a peg at the baseof the handle and the regular shape of the arch, is documented

during the Romanperiod, making it possibleto datethese two fragments executed in a deep intaglio. The style is close

to that of works from the Ptolemaic period, suggesting that the reliefs were carved in Egypt rather than in Rome.

Fig. 28.The Albani Obelisk in Munich, 1976

c.z

also inscribed symbols copied from the ancient text. The Cardinal also had the baseof the obelisk.decoratedw th four granite reliefs taken from ancient monuments. The entire

Exhibitions: Marcq-en-Barceul 1977: no. 102.

SelectedReferences lversen 1968,p. 180 ff., note 14: fig. 163 (c-d); Raullet 1972, p. 66, no. 59-60, and fig. 75--76i Muller 1975,p. 10;Ziegler in Marcq-en-Barmul 1977,no. 102

obelisk.was transportedto the Lahore aung with the rest of the

Cardinal's collection cot!$scatedfrom hif heirs. Jean-Marcel Hambert has ret aced the epkode in the obetis€s history when it

Ziegler1979a, p.35(B 44).

was temporarily ntegrated with the monument to Genera! Desaix in the Place des Victoires in Paris (cat. 111). At the$atl of the Empire in 1815, the Cardinal's heirs the ALbanijamily

said a number of the moth that had beenrestoredto them. Thus the obelisk. made its waT to Munich, where it now stands

in front of the Resident at the entrance to the Egyptian Museum (jig. 28), while thefotlr relics are stiLLin the Lahore.

c.z.

89

iB'al of the Albani Obelisk S)l\Abolic Markings A \ \

G7

'Base of the Albani Obelisk Divine Musicians Egypt, lst--2nd century A.D. Pink granite

Italy, 3rd century A.D.

Pink:gxlnite Cat. 8: 75 x 50.5 cm Cat. 9: 75 x 50 cm Paris, Musee du Louvre, [)&partement des

Antiquit6sEgyptiennes (B 4G-B47)

Cat. 6 and 7: 75 x 50.5 cm Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des

Provenance:

Antiquit6sfgyptiennes(B 44 B 45)

Rome, Tiber Island; Borgia collection; Villa Albani

(A 528) Provenance:

Rome,Villa Albani(A 528). Cat. 6 exhibited in Ottawa The scenes depicted in these [wo symmetrical fragments,

cut from the walls of some sanctuary,pertain to musical

Exhibited in Ottawa

In both fragments, the upper register is devoted to the imageof a falcon carvedin intaglio, crownedwith a solar

disk and holding an ostrich plume upright betweenits salons.The whole is a crude rendition from the Roman

Italy and the Grand Tour

57

In 1560,Pirro Ligorio had the idea of reassemblingit in the shape of a boat, with the obelisk as mast; this architectural fantasy reappears in the Villa d'Este fountain decorations at

Tivoli.: The obelisk was demolished in 1565,but fragments

remained at the site for a long time. Our two fragments were sketched there by Kircher in 1654,before they joined rhe Borgia collection at Velletri together with others soon to be dispersed -- one is now in a Munich museum, the other

in Naples. Acquired by Cardinal Albani, the two reliefs were associatedwith fragments B 44--B 45 (cat. 6 7); the

Cardinal had them recut and set in the baseof the Albani obelisk. There, they afforded artistsof the eighteenthcentury a model that had only the most tenuousof connectionswith

'z::.

the rules of hieroglyphic writing.

1. Roullet 1972, pl. LXIX. 2. Donadoni, Curto, and Donadoni-Roveri1990, pp. 38-39

period, melding two pharaonic motifs: the sign for the West

and a common representation of the falcon-god Horus. Above each bird hovers a sun, from which springs a sacred cobra, often identified with the sun's burning eye. The two

lower registers differ from each other. Relief B 47 (cat. 8)

depictstwo fish; while the other fragment (cat. 9) showsa sun flanked by cobras. The dish motif is the only one not borrowed from the Egyptian decorative repertoire; it probably representsa sign of the zodiac. Erik lversen and Anne Roullet have pieced together the story of these fragments

cut from a small obeliskthat wasstill in placewhen Cronaca drew it around 1490 98;i their ornamentation of overlaid

symbolic

markings

bears similarities

to the A4rnicz

/szara (cat. 13). The monument was apparently erected in

the third century A.D., in front of the templeof Aesculapius, in the middle of the small island in the Tiber.

58

Italy and the Grand 'lllour

c.z

M

rlEI.g

W

Exhibitions: Marcq-en-Barceul1977, no. 102.

'i-;l

no. 2--3; Rouge 1852, pp. 53--57;

Rouge 1877, p. 66; Porter and Moss 1951, vol. Vll, P. 412;

SelectedReferences:

lversen 1968,p. 180ff., fig. 163

Kircher 1654,pp. 379--82,repr.;

(a b);Roullet1972, pp.79 82, no.85,andfig.98--100; Miiller

Montfaucon

1719. vo1. 111.2.

bk. 11, ch. Vll, p. 352; Pococke

PI. XCl; Piranesi1756, vol. IV.

1975,p. 10; Ziegler in Marcq-en Barceul 1977,no. 102;Donadoni Curto. and Donadoni-Roveri

pl. 14;Clarac1851,vol. 11,p. 175,

1990,P.38.

1743,vol.ll,part2,p.207,

Italy and the Grand Tour

59

ISIDIS Magna Deorum Matrix

APv L EI'AN X. OBsc,Ri'PT{O

F\g. 29. Isis as Described by Apateins Plate in Athanasius Kircher, 1652

Fig. 30. lsiac Procession

Relief. 2nd century A.D Vatican Museum

.Ai'Eked Sistrum brushing together. Tt is customary [o distinguish between two types of sistrum, the "arched" sistrum that came into

,Rome, Temple of Isis

y

Roman Period, lst century A.D. Bronze $0.5 cm high; arch: 3.5 cm long; rods: 14cm long Paris, Musee du Louvre,

[)6partement

des

Antiquit6s fgyptiennes(E 8077)

use acrossthe Roman Empire in the first century B.C., and the "nazi" sistrum, its handle topped by a small shrine with an opening. According to later texts, the "soul" of the goddess Hathor dwelt within this shrine.

The function of the sistrum is known to us from Provenance:

inscriptions and figurative scenes.Its music, like the

Acquired in 1887.

rustling of papyri, was thought to causethe deity to appear

or the god-child to be born. Along with another ritual Exhibited in Paris and Ottawa

The sistrum, a uniquely Egyptian ritual instrument, made its appearance at the time of the Pyramids.' it is a musical

rattle

60

a frame with cross rods attached to a handle. The

object, the mc'na/, the sistrum played a key role in placating

dangerousgoddesses,by bringing joy to their hearts, warding off violence, and calming fury. Certain decorative elements such as the reclining she-cat on the arch of the sistrum are evocativeof this soothing power, related to the myth of the

slightest movement makes the rods swish as they touch the

'Eye of Re," in which the charmsof music transform a

sides of the frame. Sometimessmall metal disks or even

furious lioness into a tame cat. As Egyptian cults spread

miniature cymbalsare attachedto the rods, sliding and

throughout the Greco-Romanworld, the archedsistrum

Italy and the Grand Tour

became the emblem of the deities and of their ofhciants -priests and initiates. Examples similar to our sistrum, some plainer, others more elaborately decorated, have been found

in the treasuresof the templesof Isis, both in Rome and Pompeii. Hlere, a cat is portrayed along the top of the arch, which is long and grooved on the outer surface. Both sides of the baseof the arch are decoratedwith an lsiac headdress

-- plume and disk resting on horns -- represented in low

relief. The arch is piercedwith two seriesof round holes through which extend the three mobile rods ending in ducks' heads.Tracesof wear confirm that the object was used in ancient times.

The sistrum was described by such classical authors as Plutarch and Apuleius: (fig. 29), and its presence

on Athenian stelae,Pompeianpaintings, and ancient Roman reliefs testifies to its central role in the rites of lsiac cults (fig. 30). The Roman arched sistrum came back into

vogue during the Renaissance,and was retained as an element of furniture

ornamentation

and as an accessory

symbolizing Egypt (see cat. 41).

c.z

1. Junker 1951,vol. X, Gha, pl. 46; Fischer 1962,fig. 5-6; Saleh1977 pl. 17 2. Apuleius, iWf/amorpfoieK,XI, 12; Grifhths 1975 SelectedReferences; Ziegler 1979a,p. 61, no. 81 Ziegler and Genaille 1984, PP 959-64.

lan=tb'entalStatue as Isis Idea(il Italy, Reign

hadrian (117--138 A.D.)

Black granite 256 x 74 x 53 cm

A mortise at the top of the back pillar suggests a device for hanging Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des

Antiquit&s flgyptiennes (N 119 A) Provenance: Body: Hadrian's Villa; first mentioned in the Este family collection at Tivoli in the 17th century

transferred to the Vatican Museum, 1753. Head: Hadrian's Villa; discovered at Pantanello

in 1726;collection of the Cardinal de Polignac; removed to Berlin. 1742.

Italy and the Grand Tour

61

At first glance this monumental figure Italy

probably carved in

does not seem particularly Egyptian, except perhaps

in its theme: it is usually identified as a representation of the goddessIsis. The treatment of the faceis Hellenistic in spirit,

as are the long sleeves,the fabric clinging to the female

near the present entrance to Hadrian's Villa, that made it possible to establish the origin of the /fh.:

In the conclusion to his study of the decoration of

Hadrian's Villa, jean-Claude Grenier convincingly argues

form and undulating along the bottom of the tunic. None

Chatthe statue once occupied a large recessin one of the pavilions flanking the main body of the villa the pavilion

of the usualattributesof the cult of Isis

sistrum,situla,

at the right when facing the building. A statue of

double-plumed crown are present. To contemporaries of the Emperor Hadrian, however, this must have seemedan exotic figure. Compared with Roman work of the period,

Harpocrates in the other pavilion, today in the Capitoline

several elements unite to create an Egyptianizing effect: the

further hypothesized that the monument represented a map

strict frontality of the immobile figure with her arms pressed

of Egypt, with the exedrasymbolizing the Delta; this geographical symbolism would thus locate the statue's origins to the easternlimits of the Delta and of the City

to her sides,one foot aheadof the other; the supporting pillar with its pyramid-shaped summit;thecoiffurewith its long ringlets and curled bangs. This hairstyle is well

Museum

(646), completed

the Alexandrian

triad

centred

around Serapis,to whom the whole was dedicated. Grenier

of Alexandria.

c.z

documented in the time of the Ptolemies, notably in portraits of deified queens such as the .4ri=/zof // in New York.

Joachim Raeder has traced the statue's remarkable travels. In 1753,the Este family sold it to Pope Benedict XIV.

who placed it in the Capitoline Museum. At the time, the statue was headless.Removed to Paris in 1798,it remained

there after the peaceof Vienna, a gift from Pius Vll to Louis XVIII. In the meantime,the head,formerly owned by Cardinal de Polignac, was miraculously found again in

The Metropolitan Museum of Fine Art (MMA 20.2.21); Bianchi in Brooklyn 1988--89,no. 66, pp. 170--71.

Raeder 1983, p. 14. SelectedReferences: Petit-Radel 1804.vol. IV.

Penna 1831--36,vol. 111,pl. 28;

pp. IO1--02,pl. 51; Winckelmann

no. 471: Clarac 1841 53. vol. V.

1808-25, vo1. 111(1809), P. 347;

p. 293, no. 2585, pl. 307; Roullet

Visconti 1831,vol. IV. p. 523,

Berlin and brought to the Louvre in 1806.It wasthis piece,

vol. IV (1812), pp. 232 ff. and p. 546; vol. Vl1 (1817), pp. 32 ff.;

originally discovered in 1726in the marshy vale of Pantanello,

Clarac 1830, p. 151, no. 359;

r

1972,p. 91,no.119,pl. 113; Raeder 1983,pp. 58-59, no. 1/40i Grenier 1990,pp. 48--49.

l 12

IAzaoi-bearingStatue tabernacles housed in the inner sanctums of temples, might

Egypt, Late Period: Thirtieth Dynasty or Ptolemaic Period (4th--3rd century B.C.) Black basalt

be placed on the ground or set on a base, as is the case with

this statue.

41.5 x 8.7 x 20.3 cm

This statue is devoted to the worship of Osiris, the

Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des

god

Antiquit6s Egyptiennes(E 8069)

wrapped in a close-fitting shroud, arms folded across his

of

the

dead,

who

is easily

recognizable

in the

/zczoi:

chest,holding the crook-sceptre(#e4a)and flail, high a/rf Provenance:

crown flanked by two ostrich plumes. The little nazi is held by a man standing with his left foot forward the conventional

Acquired fromM.Stierin 1881

posein Egyptian art. The tall back pillar bearsno inscrip-

The term "nazi-bearing" is applied by Egyptologiststo

tion to establishthe man's identity. The long, plain loin-

statues

cloth, tripartite modelling of the torso, and rounded wig

of

figures

carrying

a miniature

shrine

(/zaoi),

that

contains the image of a god.' These statues were either

revealing the ears are characteristic of the Late Period. The

placed in temples

headis slightly turned, breaking with the strict frontality of previous eras. The round, pleasant face, with its small

to receive the offerings of the living and

immortalize the donor's piety

or, lust as often, in tombs.

First appearingin Egypt during the EighteenthDynasty (c. 1580--1348B.C.), they take various forms: early examples

62

mouth and stylized eyes, is in the manner of the idealized portraits of the Thirtieth Dynasty and the early Ptolemies.'

show the devout person kneeling or squatting or, more rarely during this period, standing. From about 600 B.C.,

The treatment of the face,on which the artist has lavished

Lhe Twenty-sixth Dynasty, the figures are most often

remains unfinished

depicted standing.: The nczoi,a tiny reproduction of the real

indicating the limit to which the stone wasmeant to be

Italy and the Grand I'our

all his care, contrasts with the rest of the statue,which a black line along the base presumably

worked and lacking its final polish. Documentedin Europe as early as the fifteenth century,' statuesof nczoibearers have inspired artists from Piranesi(cat.

16--21) to

Clodion (cat. 53). One of the most famous of thesestatuesis undoubtedlythat of Udjahorresne,a high-ranking ofhcial who was chief physician to the Persian conqueror Cambyses ll.

The effigy, discoveredin a mutilated condition in the ruins of Hadrian's Villa, is now in the Vatican Museum.SWrongly identified as an Isis, in the eighteenth century it was given a female head to go with the plump body in its long loin-

cloth, as the period saw fit. In this strange disguise,its image was disseminated by works as renowned as that of Winckelmann (seefig. 3 1),' which became a source-book ior painters and sculptors.

1. Wildung

1982, co1. 341, as "Naophor";

c.z Labb6 1989, pp. 309--12,

Master'sthesis.

2. Bothmer1973, p.47. 3. Bothmer 1973, p. 127, fig. 247--249 4. Cronaca,M.S. Christ Church,Oxford (0814v). The samestatue wascompletedby Pirro Ligorio, who interpreted it as a woman Codex Ursinianus, Biblioteca Vaticana, Rome(Vat. Lat. 3439, fo1. 9, v).

5. Bottsand Romanelli 1951,no. 196;Porter and Moss 1951,vol. Vll, P-416. 6. Winckelmann 1790,vol. 1, pl. VIII. SelectedReferences; Posener-Krieger 1960: P.97.

Fig. 31. Nabs-be d gSr /zre

Plate Vlll from Johann Joachim Winckelmann Histoite de !'Aff chez les Ancient, 'L19Q

Italy and the Grand Tour

63

13

Mensa lsiaca of Turin (also called Tabula lsiaca or Mensa Bembina) Bernard de Montfaucon Engraving

images were long considered an essential document for deciphering hieroglyphs. But Champollion, on his arrival

47.5 x 64 cm

in Turin, immediately

Plate 138 from I.'Am/zgzfi// fxp/zgzfZf e/ repr4en/Ze

e/z#gurfs, 1722--24,vol. ll

modern."t The object has had an eventful history. Discovered

Paris, Museedu Louvre, Bibliothdque et Archives

in the early sixteenth

des Mus6es Nationaux

pronounced the tablet "false and

century

in Italy, it was in the posses-

sion of Cardinal Bembo in 1547and thus acquired the name A4e/2icz Benz'ina; later it was included in the Duke of

duced in this engraving undoubtedly comes from the lseum

Mantua's gallery. Having miraculously survived the sack of the city in 1630,it resurfacedin the latter half of the seventeenth century in the collection of the Dukes of Savoy, and since 1832has been a showpiece of the Egyptian Museum

Campense,where it was used in the cult of Isis. It is decorated with a multitude of Egyptian figures inlaid with silver and was one of the most famous sourcesin the reper-

the goddessIsis (fig. 33), who is at the centre of the decora-

Exhibited in Paris.

The large bronze tablet (more than one metre long) repro-

toire of Egyptomania. The inscriptions accompanying the

64

Italy and the Grand Tour

in Turin. This famous work shows an Egyptian temple of tive scheme.Sitting in a nazi

a small open-endedchapel

with stylized cobras on its roof

she wears the vulture

Around the periphery are arrayed a series of vignettes, many

headdress adorned with a solar disk resting between a cow's

of which are borrowed from illustrations on funerary

horns. On either side of her are her son, the god-child

papyruses, but some include strange bearded sphinxes with

Horus, and ibis-headedTooth; while all around them on

curved wings, a motif alien to the Egyptian decorative vocabulary.Although entirely fanciful, the hieroglyphic

three levels are the major gods of Egypt, whose specific rites

are being carried out before them.: Many of thesedeities can be recognized from their attributes: in the lower register Ptah, the mummiform god of Memphis, and his companion Sekhmet,the lioness;the bulls Apesand Buchis in the middle

inscriptions are nonethelessarranged according to the conventions of pharaonic art, and many symbols are very close to the ancient source probably a Ptolemaic temple on which they are modelled. A ritual object used in the cult of

register; the goddess Anukis with her headdress of antelope

Isis, the tablet was made in Italy and can be dated fairly

horns,and Amun with his two large plumesin the upper

conhdently to the first century A.D. for it has a strong styl-

level. The many god-children, the Nile gods with pendulous

isticaffinity with the baseof a bronzestatuettefoundat

breasts,the female hgures representing the fields, and the

Herculaneum.: This would make it contemporary wien the

grimacing head of the god Bes incorporated as a pendant to

first waveof lsiac cults, known to us today through paint-

a /zaoi-sistrum all symbolizethe rich fertility guaranteedby

ings from Herculaneum and Pompeii,' and the .4K/a/szaca

the mother-goddess Isis, while the images of the union of the two kingdoms the supple intertwined plants symbolize

of Rome.S The composition

the dual royalty of Horus and the order that flows from it.

familiarity with pharaonic models, even though the figures

of the work, and its themes,

shows a good understanding of Egyptian theology and and their attributes are somewhat unconventional: the ends of the hair are smoothly rolled under, the if ma zaiay(inter-

twined lotus-papyrus symbol) is interpreted rather freely, and the vases are oddly shaped.

Often copied and reproduced from the drawing made by Enea Vico in 1559,the A/fnscz/szarawas first published in Venice in 1605 by Pignorio, a friend of Galileo and

Peiresc;with learned proofs so empty as to be laughable today, the illustrious Paduan successfullyargued the caseof Egyptian influence on the civilization oflndia. His publica-

tion of the tablet waseither cited, commentedon. or used by virtually all of the scholars,often to shore up what were

the most speculative of theories. Thus it appears in the works of Montfaucon, Kircher, jablonski, de Pauw, Caylus,

Winckelrnann, and Zoega. Artists too were irresistibly drawn to its wealth of images, and their reproductions were Fig. 32. Johann Melchior Dinglinger Detail from the XPff A/taf, 1731

Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Griines Gew61be

1:.

Fig. 33. Detail from the Afe ia lsfara af 7br/m Copyphoto from Donadoni, Curto, and Donadoni-Roveri

1990, p. 31

Fig. 34. Decoration of the anteroom

Fig. 35.Romanfresco showing an

of the castleof Masino,Piedmont Copyphoto from Leospo1978,pl. XXIX

Egyptianizing scene D6partement des Antiquit6s Grecques et Romaines, Musee du Louvre

Italy and the Grand Tatar

65

often very faithful. Dinglinger's magnificent.'lpzi H//ar of 1731 (fig. 32), for example, draws most of its themes from the ]Wfnia /f;aca.6 A century later, on 20 January 1811, an edict of the Emperor authorized the city of Paris to include a copy of the goddess Isis in its coat-of-arms: "Gales, an

antique vessel,the plow bearing a figure of Isis, sitting, urgent."7 And closer to our own time, enlarged and brightly

painted, figures from the A/enifzls;aca were reproduced in the nineteenth-century decoration of the anteroom of the castleof Marino, in the Piedmont (fig. 34).'

c.z

14

vol.XXX, 1909, P.183. 2. Derchain 1980, pp. 170--71 3. Tran Tam Tinh 1971, pp. 52 ff., pls. 111and IV 4. Tran Tam Tinh 1974, p. 100. 5. Roullet 1972, pp. 47--48.

6. Enking 1939;Watzdorf 1962,pp. 266ff. 7. Baltrusaitis 1967,p. 67 8. Leospo 1978, pl. XXIX. SelectedReferences Leospo 1978, pp. 1--28

(includes an extensive bibliography)

Mural Decoration for the Caff& degli Inglesi, Piazza di Spagna,Rome Giambattista Piranesi(1 720 1778)

h\s Prima parte di architecture e prospettiueand h\s Opera t"zrzr, or the Capitoline Egyptian lions in one of his cczPrzccz (Focillon 21), and the sistrum in an earlier design for a title

1769

Etching 21x 32 cm(plate); from an album, 57.5 x 41.5 cm

page(Pierpont Morgan Library, New York) give way to a

Inscribed

closer

in plate, lower

leff: Dfeg/zo

ed z z,e/zzzo/zf

inspection

of Roman

monuments

in Uedzz/f dz Rorncz,

de/ Caz,cz/zfr Pzxn/zfiz; lower right: Pzxn/zcfzznr.

including the pyramid of Cestius (which he had already

Legend,

depicted twice), and a detailed view of the Lateran obelisk,

below image: .4//ro SPaccz//opfr /pogo

della stessa bottega, oue si uedono .Fa !e aperture

shown alone against a dramatic sky. The title pageof

del uestiboLo le immeTtse piramidi,

Letters di giusti$catione sc-Titlea MiLord Chartemont of \ 757

ed altai edi$zi

sepolctaLI ne'deserts dell' Egitto.

brings together in a capricious composition Egyptian

Plate 45 from

friezes,broken obelisks,and the lions with Egyptian bases

by Giambattista

Z)zuerxe ma zero d/ adofnczrc? ; rammz/zz

Piranesi,

1769

Paris, private collection

The appearance in 1769 of Piranesi's Z)zz,frsrma/zzeredz

from the Acqua Fence,about which he would write in 1769:"What majesty in the Egyptian ones, what gravity and wisdoml"; By 1761,when he was engagedin gathering a corpus of Egyptian imagery, he first expressedhis belief

ado/Barrz caznmznz marked not only the publicationof the

chat Etruscan architecture was derived from Egypt in

largest group of modern designsinspired by Egyptian art,

Magni$cenzaed architettura de{ RomaTzi,a view he \atta

but alsoof his preface,issuedin Italian, French,and

elaboratedin Z);z,erstmzznzere; aswell, he includedfour

English "An Apologetic Essay in Defence of the Egyptian

obelisks

and Tuscan Architecture." if his defence was coloured by

Roma,publishedin 1762.

a polemic battle with rhe advocates of the supremacy of the

Greek style, the essaywas the first text to argue that Egyptian architecture had reacheda level of perfection beyond "the grand and the ]najestick" admitted by theoreticians.The qualities of Egyptian sculpture, which he believed largely lost, he defended lesscogently, but he argued that the stylized "character which was given them, did not proceed

from any want or ignoranceon the part of the Egyptians, nor from their having stoppedshort in the way to perfec-

66

Lester of Champollicln the Younger, Bibliotheque Egyptologique

in the title Piranesi's

page of // czzm/70 A4arzzo df//'a7z/zfa

appetite

for Egyptian

pr/ma

ma/erzcz, so

amply demonstrated in Z);ueit mlzzz;e/f,could be satisfied by works in the Gabinetto Egizio at the Capitoline Museum, EheMuseo Kircheriano. the collections of Cardinals Albani and Borgia, the Villa Borghese,his amateur archaeological excavations

at Hadrian's

Villa,

the Za&a/a

/s;ac.z (cat.

13),

the compendia published by Montfaucon, the volumes of Caylus' Rfcac;/ d'a/z/lgazr6, and travel accounts including

choseof Norden and Pococke.4Also active as a dealer,

tion, but from mature consideration,and from their having

Piranesi owned Egyptian works such as the restored small

passedthat perfection,which is denied them."' As for

sculpture of Thutmosis 111now in the Louvre (fig. 36),

Egyptian craftsmanship,at its bestit demonstrateda "perfect knowledge of all that is good arid beautiful in nature.'

which was perhapshis sourcefor a similar figure painted

There is a revealing progressionin Piranesi'sinterpretation of Egyptian motifs, from the first copies he made

repertory is neverthelesssurprising, and even more astonishing are his permutations of the Egyptian models at hand:

in the 1740safter Fischervon Erlach'sreconstructionsof

little is copied directly, everything is interpreted, transformed,

Egyptian monuments to the publication of Z);z,eriemanzere.

fragmented, reconstituted, reinverlted. Sistra become

The typically eighteenth-centurysphinxesand obelisksof

rectangular; inscribed pillars supporting the backsof statues

Italy and the Grand Tour

on the end wall of the Carredegli Inglesi(seecat. 15).His

hieroglyphs, sphinxes, obelisks, canopic vases,scarabs, lotus flowers, reliefs, aifaZ'/zs, figures in various positions, and

deified animals, was described on one of the engravings as

symbolicof the religion and politics of the ancient Egyptians; this statement, however, was somewhat contradicted by the opinion the artist expressedin his "Apologetic Essay,"that in Egypt ornament involved "not mysteries,but caprices of the Egyptian artists."'

The vexed issue of when the decoration of the Fig. 36. 7bz//moJ;s

CafRedegli Inglesi was executed, variously dated between

/.Z'.r

1765and 1767,is not likely to be settleduntil new documentssurface.It is certain that by November1767,proof

Statue with antique lon er body, once owned by Piranesi Mlus6e du Louvre, D6partement

des

Antiquit6s Egyptiennes

copies of the etchings of the CafRe and the chimney-pieces

existed and were sent to Thomas Hollis. How much earlier rhe decoration was painted remains a matter of speculation,

but Piranesi may have begun work on the murals and chimney-pieces as early as was previously believed, that is

turn into obelisksthat they hold beforethem;legsdissolve

around 1760,which may explain Hubert Robert'sEgyptian

into ornamental sheaths;crowns of Atef grow out of twined sphinxes. Despite the theoretical concerns that caused them,

ra/'ricci of that date (cat. 25). The CafHedegli Inglesi could well havebeenfinished by 1762,though work on the chimney-

the decorations of the Carre degli Inglesi and the Egyptian chimney-piecesare not scholarly attempts at illustrating the

pieces may have been carried out only later. An early date is favoured by the close parallel between the beams and lambs

greatness of the Egyptian achievement, but rather, highly

of the painted portico in the CafRcand the Egyptian decora-

original modernvariations on Egyptianthemesthat test the

tion

limits of the possible in contemporary design, and reach in the process,as noted by Wittkower, the quintessenceof the

one of the plates added to the Opfrf z,ariewhen it was

sublime.s

Of the group of sixty-six etchings in Z)zuflir mrz/zzf/f,

inserted

more

or less at the last moment

in the ScwoZa

z /iccz arch//e// z/fz .z/ZaEgzzza a e a//a Grfza(Focillon

128),

reissued in 1761.POn the other hand, an inscribed study for

Egyptian elements), but these constitute by far the most

an interior design with an Egyptian chimney-piece, sketchedon the versoof a drawing of the Templeof the Sibylat Tivoli, now in the Biblioth&queNationalein Paris

original contribution of the work. Furthermore,theywould

(B 11 r&s., fo1. 8), must also date from about 1760, as the

remain the most influential corpus of Egyptian designs in

view of the temple was published in 1761in Urdu/edz

Europe until at least the end of the eighteenth century, and

Romcz.io The sketch lacks the insistent inclusion of Egyptian

in the caseofTtaly and Russia,until well into the nineteenth

figures and fragments cha racteristic of the published chimney-

century. Focillon's remark that Piranesi was "the first to try

pieces,but already contains the basic elements of the later

to wrest this art from the obscurity of erudition and bring it

designs. Curiously, it shows a project begun as a rectangular

back to life" aptly describes an attempt so audacious as to transcend the limits of architecture.

composition but revised to accommodate an arched top, as

only thirteen can be described as Egyptian (two more contain

if destined to be fitted with a vault above.

Anticipating that somedifficulty might arise in M.P

translating his extravagant designs into three dimensions,

Piranesi proposed instead that "These ornaments which serveto make the whole uniform may be executedin painting, as I have done those of the CafRedeglilnglesi after the Egyptian taste."' in fact, the famous coffee-housewas the only one of Piranesi's Egyptian designsever realized. This was the interior described in December 1776 by the Welsh

painter Thomas Jones,in an oft-repeated observation: a filthy vaulted room, the walls of which were painted with sphinxes, Obelisks and Pyramids, from capricious

designsof Piranesi, and fitter to adorn the inside of an Egyptian-Sepulchre, than a room for social conversation."7 Two engravings, each showing a wall, give an idea of the space,conceived as a /romps-/'ofz/ rootless portico opening onto an Egyptian landscape. The profuse decoration, which

sharedwith the chimney-piecesa wealth of motifs including

1. Piranesi, D;z,e/seman;eze,p. 14. 2. Piranesi,.D;z,e/Ke ma7z;ere,p. 14 3. Piranesi,.D;z,e/Ke Hank're, p. 14 4. Messina 1983,pp. 375--84.

5. Wittkower 1975,p. 137. On Piranesi and Egyptian art, seealso Scott 1975, pp. 224--29; Wilton-Ely

1978, pp. 79, 107--09; Curl

1982,

pp. 79--83;Wittkower 1989b,p. 268.

Italy and the Grand Tour

67

m !/r"P

I/,nfc'-ra

;3ilf.:7np e. tnzrlt

per

/arturo

de/la

.rtSX'a

lott?7a.

at,c

i!

p.!'hno./;.i

il#-y«'po/crn/in

zane drZ Cax'a/ccn.Z)l+'.znJI't

Zc af,crt:.,.c

dcfivizz'&o/a

Zc

E/nn

artie

P

J-.urlidl.

=./a/r7'

7

d's"'l.' aZZ' 71 o

14

$:?il:ii:$:i#1l;l !

f., &ZZa &aeg'L clzZz.,,-o&.

:saito UR.?DLtf&z&Zoa.h} Z

/'P

Dla.yu'

15

68

Italy and the Grand Tour

r=zhl'en

xz a'tc

&Z

Z'Jpeg«. 8; am.ipZ'.7-,&ai a&.ata &pf" ,a :o.rc aZ/tu£?K £. aJ:.iofraccp.Pg:c:.

[f/ert£ZI.

ca«;;«b;e,

£ dlq£c«c

flim'Zo

c .?

:Z?z'mae.rfoa

-z£,«. .a'ZP.),a Z'#a

;Z%@,Zz

2''ne ..,paZ?h2'a.q a'c/,oZc z: &?Za. rtzcdc-''

,t.:. 3otte+..

a'.«aa''ay '

6. Piranesi, D;z/e/Kemzzzz;ere, p. 8.

16

7.0PP61946-48, vol.XXXll, P.54. 8.Piranesi, .D;z,e/se mczn;er'e, p. 10. 9. Seethe drawing formerly in the Fauchier Magnan collection, in Stogdon 1986,no.20,repr.

Design for a Chimney-piece in the Egyptian Style GiambaEtista Piranesi(1 720--1778)

10. Venice 1978, no. 72, fig. 72 verso.

1769

Etching

SelectedReferences:

Curl,1982, p. 81,pl.51;

Focillon 1964, p. 356, no. 906; Pevsner and Lang 1968, p. 216,

no. 34; Berlin 1989,no. 1/64, and

Brighton/Manchester

1983,

fig. 14;Scott1975, p.224,fig. 258; p. 34, fig. 26; Humbert 1987/1990, Carrott1978, p.22,pl. 2;Penny vol. 11,no. 133,repr.; Humbert 1978,p.90,no.83,no.276,repr.;

1989, p. 100, repr.; Syndram

Wilton-Ely 1978,p. 108,fig. 200;

1989b,no.3,pp.48 49,fig.

38 x 24.5 cm (plate) Plate 5 from Dzz,erst ma zfre dz czdof a/ e z cczmm;/z;

by Giambattista Piranesi, 1769 Paris, private collection Of the many projects

for chimney-pieces

in Z)zz,fnf nza/zzerf,

none of the Egyptian ones was ever executed,and only six of the classicaldesigns were actually carried out, including

one for John Hope, the father of ThomasHope.' This, the simplest (and perhaps most modern looking) of the chimney-

pieces,with an unusually large expanseof wall devoid of

ornament,is generally dated early in the series,the later works being significantly more ornate.

Piranesianticipatedcriticism for the alarming amount of ornament he included in the Egyptiarl projects, 15

but there is a characteristicallyfragmentedquality to the mannerin which the ornament is assembledas a whole.

Mural Decoration for

Piazzadi Spagna,Rome

The designs are the work of an emotive imagination fused with an exceptional command of dramatic effect, on occa sign pushed to delerium, but the cumulative effect of the

Giambattista Piranesi(1 720 1778)

impossible to defirle the spacein which they exist.: The pro-

the Caff& degli Inglesi,

fragments, as Manfredo Tafuri has remarked, makes it 1769

jects include the wall decoration immediately adjacerlt to the chimney-piece,and in one instanceeven furniture

Etching 21 x 27 cm (plate)

Er)graved in plate, lower left: Dice/zo fd znz,rizzo/zf

(cat. 18), but they scarcely convey a sense of the complete idea, unless the decoration of the Carre deglilnglesi may be

del Cavalier Pilanesi, \owe rl gh \. Cau' Piranesi F.

considered a backdrop. The self-defeating brilliance of

Plate 46 from

Z);z,erie mzz leff

by Giambattista

Piranesi,

dz ajar

circ z cammz

z

these etchings as architecture did not prevent them from

becoming the ultimate anthology of Egyptian motifs for

1769

Paris, private collection

the remainder of the century.' it is fascinating to see what

happenswhen a different hand, such as Dugourc's(see The etching follows a design presumably intended for ar] end wall in the CafRedeglilnglesi. The Egyptian decorative elements are different from those on the lateral wall. and

there are also two side openings simulating doors, with a large architrave above. Some of the motifs are shared with the chimney-pieces:the two figures squatting back to back at the centre of the composition and the processionalfrieze above the left door

also appear

in a plate

from

Z)=z,eric

m'z//zrre (Focillon 869), while the mythical animals above the architrave figure in Focillon 878.

M.R

cat. 57), picks out the essential elements from Piranesi's chimney-pieces and places them in a space Piranesi never imagined M.P Now in the Rijksmuseum, Amsterdam.

2. Tafuri 1972, pp. 265--319. 3. After 1801, Piranesi's son Francesco manufactured fragments and

ancientmonumentsat Plailly, including a few in the Egyptian style, made of "Etruscan" clay from Mortefontaine. Some are shown in the prospectus designed by Francesco Piranesi; see Schafer 1913, repr. p.25 SelectedReferences Focillon 1964,p. 354, no. 865;

SelectedReferences: Focillon 1964,p. 356, no. 907; Scott 1975,p. 224, fig. 259; Wittkower 1975,fig. 353; Venice

pl. 50; Brighton/Manchester,

Venice 1978, no. 322, repr.; Curl

1983, no. 34; Berlin

1982,p. 82 and pl. 59; Berlin 1989,no. 1/64,and p. 35, fig. 28;

1978, no. 48; Curl 1982, p. 81,

H.umbert

1989. no. 1/64.

and p. 34, fig. 27; Humbert 1987/1990,vol. 11, no. 133, repr.; 1989, p. 100, repo.

Wittkower 1989b,p. 135, 6g.8-12

Italy and the Grand Tour

69

0

ll

iillil'I.i' $iH1lli,.: Til;:l€ .' ::

I

l#HHll!?iFWliFliiM BWBb@

'F

lilly.

N

wg\

?

n

g

= 2

17

17

Design for a Chimney-piece in the Egyptian Style Giambattista Piranesi(1 720--1778)

the two canopicvasesresting on the lintel, with lotiform

1769

basesand Apis-head decorations.' These were copied in bronze for Thomas Hope's Isis clock (cat. 102) and also

Etching

by Giambattista Piranesi, 1769

appear as the main decorative motif on a porcelain plate manufactured at Meissen after 1774,during the time when Lhefactory was directed by Camillo Marcolini, an Italian.:

Paris, private collection

The centralmotif of the two sphinxesand rhe vulturesat

38 x 24.5 cm (plate) Plate 10 from Dzz,frxc' man ere d; czdo /zczrfz c'zmmzn/

the ang]eof ]inte] and jamb appearas well in oneof The second of Piranesi's vertical chimney-pieces, this

Piranesi's rare drawn studies of Egyptian chimney-pieces in

design is considerably more complex, with more abundant if fragmented decoration. Some of the fragments are identifiable, such as the relief at the top centre derived from the

the PierpontMorganLibrary, New York.' Here, however,

Zabu/cz /szaca (cat. 13), with a winged scarab added in the

middle. Among the more extraordinary inventions here are

0

Italy and the Grand Tour

the curved opening of the fireplace framed by the vultures wings assumes an almost ar£ 7zouz/rczz/ aspect.

M.P

:i:IBM

18

Design for a Chimney piece in the Egyptian Style Giambattista Piranesi(1 720 1778) 1769

€4

Etching

q\E. b-*:

}

''©

24.5 x 38 cm (plate)

H

Engraved

i n plate, lower left: Caz,a/;fre Pzxn//fi/ znz'.

Fig. 37. Francois-Joseph B61anger 'l\vo sheets of Egyptian motifs in

fd z/zc. Lower

the artist's sketchbook

Plate 14 from Z);z,erie mcz zerodz fzdornarf / comm;nz

Musee des Arts D6coratifs, Paris

by Giambattista Piranesi, 1769

right: .r4.

Paris, private collection

This remarkable sheet is the only one in the seriesto include with the chimney-piece design a sense of the deco-

k.

ration of the walls of the room, along with designsfor 1. The Apis head was probably derived from a bust that also figures

in another plate by Piranesi(cat. 20).The lotiform basewas copied from a fragment found at Hadrian's Villa, now in the Vatican and

Egyptian-style armchairs.

The designof the chair spawnedsomeinteresting progeny of its own.'

M.P

formerly in the Capitoline Museum; Botti and Romanelli 1951, no.214,repr. 2. A plate of this type is in the Victoria and Albert Museum,London (1978-1858).

1. See,for example, cat. 57--58,59, and 71

3. Stampfle 1978, no.68,repr. SelectedReferences: Focillon 1964, p. 355, no. 870;

repr.; Curl 1982,p. 82, pl. 55; Humbert 1987/1990,vol. ll,

Pevsnerand Lang 1968,p. 216,

no. 134, repr.; Humbert

fig. 13;Wilton-Ely1978, p.109,

p.20,repr.

fig. 201; London 1978,no. 279,

1989,

SelectedReferences: Focillon 1964,p. 355, no. 874i Scott1975,p. 234,fig.274; Venice 1978,no. 319, repr.;

Penny 1978, pp. 88--89, no. 82 repr.; London 1978, no. 277;

Humbert 1989,p. 21,repr.

Italy and the Grand Tour

71

U

g- bFLfl'B4 H Q

.'.!#

+

19

19

Design for a Chimney-piece in the Egyptian Style

F

Giambattista Piranesi(1 720--1778) 1769

Etching 24.5 x 38.5 cm (plate)

Engraved, lower left: Cczz,cz/zer P/rn fiz z/zz,. fd znc. Plate 24 from Dzz,eriema z;ered; adorncz/-c ' zrczmmz/

;.8

by Giambattista Piranesi, 1769 Paris, private collection

As is true of the other chimney-pieces, there are connections here with the designs for the Carre degli Inglesi, but the most striking feature is the two seatedEgyptians who,

although male, wear the vulture headdressesusually reserved for female deities and sovereigns. The figures bear

a certain resemblanceto Cardinal Albani's restoredseated pharaoh (cat. 5), but were in fact

on the thrones

as indicated by the reliefs

from the colossi of Memnon engraved in

Norden's7}uz,eZs ;n Zlkpp/.zndNw&za of 1757. M.P SelectedReferences: Focillon 1964, p. 355, no. 888

Curl1982, p.82,pl. 58.

72

Italy and the Grand Tour

alla ntaal€ -a.Fai in in. caa ;fil lttoitfearta+t&a/t'RZylut} I aZfnJcZgicnf: p.I /.IJfflf.t ara4&et4zlp.t i/lroForafaa d£Jl+'ra. QI !Po/Bca&l .f

'a+rrl?ar?

'.$f'

+.'.." EgiZhln.p G,xca.o =aic...,a.iirc IaJ....n)' +;;p..(.,'p8{'IR8f;

Fig. 38. Giambattista Piranesi Egyptian Chimney-piece, engtaxlng

caltnnn

4& quf.Ft..

chf J t.cduftQ /{7a/lr,

/f'a

r'

2&rf:.li.Plf{a'?ll+ &l dcrrn .?Va ztopt+ '& 1( x-cp- f£ra{.

xw

Italy and the Grand Tour

73

20

[ongwa]] of the Carredeg]iTng]esi(cat.]4). The mummies

Design for a Chimney piece in the Egyptian Style

at the left were the model for the large decorative sculpture shown as cat. 22.

M.P.

GiambaEtista Piranesi(1720 1778) 1769

Etching

SelectedReferences: Focillon 1964, p. 355, no. 8811

Curl 1982,p. 82, pl. 56; Humbert 1989,p. 98, repr.; Fennimore

24.5 x 38 cm

Scott1975, p.235,fig. 276;

1990, P. 1191, ng.

Plate 32 from Z)/z,erie ma zferf dz adornczrf ; cammzn;

Venice 1978,no. 325, repr.;

by Giambattista Piranesi, 1769 Paris, private collection The symbol of the icm'z /awy, the papyrus and lotus bound

together representing the union of Upper and Lower

22

Mummy

Egypt, with hieroglyphs above,aswell as the Apis bulls, all

c. 1785

relateto the imageryusedby Piranesion the long wall of

Painted and gilt wood

the CafRedeglilnglesi(cat. 14). The relief at the top centre

1.90m

is derived from a column found in Romeon the site of the lseum Campense.In Piranesi'stime, the column could be

Paris, private collection

seenin the gardens of the Villa Medici in Rome, but later it

Provenance:

was removed to Florence. It figures in the Dal Pozzo-

Balenciaga collection, Paris; sale, Sotheby's Monaco, 30 November 1986,1ot970.

Albanidrawings

and was also engraved by Montfaucon.

The double-headedbusts of isis and Apis at either end of

the mantelpiecewerecopiedfrom a bust found at

The purpose of this mummy, one of a pair, is as mysterious

Hadrian's Villa; formerly in the Capitoline Museum, it has

as its source. Size alone appears to indicate an architectural

been in the Vatican since 1838.z

context, perhaps as a caryatid, but such elements are rarely found in the form of mummies and sarcophagi. An early

M.P Roulet 1972,pp. 57--58, no. 16,repr. 2. Botti and Romanelli 1951, pp. 103 04 and p. 140, no. 155, repr. SelectedReferences: Focillon 1964,p. 356, no. 892;

1982, P. 82, pl. 52.; Wittkower

1989b,p. 135,hg. 8 10.

example of Egyptian caryatids in the form of sarcophagi

occurs in the late seventeenth century in an unpublished project by Nicodemus Tessin the Younger for the crypt in

the Royal Chapel in Stockholm, on which the architect noted how novel the idea was.I As shown by Jean-Marcel Humbert,

Scott1975, p.236,fig. 278;Curl

the use of decorative mummies was suggested

by the Sigur de Neufforge in his Rfc fz/ r//mf/z/azrf

21

Design for a Chimney-piece in the Egyptian Style Giambattista Piranesi(1720--1778) 1769

Etching 24.5 x 38.5 cm (plate) Engraved

i n plate, lower

left: Caz,a/zer Pzra7/fsz

t'n'u e'L'nc.

Plate 2 Ifrom Dzz,eriema ;ere d; zzdornczre z rahm;nz

by Giambattista Piranesi, 1769 Paris, private collection

This plate is unusual in that the decorative elements are arranged asymmetrically, as if a choice were being offered

The figures with obelisksat the right and the crowned busts above the chimney-piece are also prominent in the

74

Italy and the Grand Tour

Fig. 39. Johann Melchior Dinglinger Mummy, detail from the Apes A/far, 1731

Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden Griines Gew61be

d'arf#zrfc/ rr of 1757,and they are known to occur in Regerlcy furniture.:

The style of this mummy is typical of the late eight-

eenth century, and the origin may be French or Italian. A Spanishprovenance a possibility suggestedby the nationality of a previousowner seemslesslikely. The source of the design is more easily established and can be braced to one of Piranesi's chimney-pieces (cat. 21), where a

very similar but smaller mummy is shown in profile as sup

port for the mantel.The few decorativemummiesof this type that are known are invariably free-standing.A large but different late eighteenth-century French example made of plaster painted black is in a private collection. A classical looking pair of female mummies intended as ornaments, and thus much smaller, was published by Alvar GonzflezPalacios.3

M.P

The drawing is in the Nationalmuseum,Stockholm (5325) Egyptian caryatids figure aselements fnr windows in another project by Tessin, who also designed a catafalque in the f'orm of a pyramid for the funeral of Queen Ulrika Eleonora in 1693, and proposed two obelisks supported on elephants (derived from Bernini's obelisk in the Piazza della Minerva, Rome) as decoration for the portal of [he Royal Palacein Stockholm. Magnusson 1980,fig. 114 and 166. ?

3

Humbert 1987/1990, vol. 11,no. 124;Hlarris 1961,p. 5, pl. lll

Gonzalez-Palacios 1984, vol.11,p. 117,fig. 251

Exhibitions: Paris 1991, hors cat.

SelectedReferences Hlumbert 1987/1990,vol. ll p. 116, no. 124; Humbert 1989, p. 99, repr. (illustrating the pair)

F\g. 4Q. Tbe Biteaax Haase,

R.ztedesTrots-fvires, frovy}tbe Court)arc! c. 1804 06; engraving by S. Boullay

Plate7 fromJean-Charles Krafft, {ecueitdes

plus

cities maisons

de Paris et de ses environs,

Part 2, Book 1, detail

'L8Q9.

2s

Console Italian manufacture Carved and gilt wood

1.05x 1.225x 0.60m

New York, private collection Provenance:

entirely gilt rather than polychrome. It is almost certain it belonged to a larger suite of furniture that included at least one other element, a gilt wood jardini&re with an identical frieze and Antinous stand, but the origin of the set remains unclear.3 Both console and jardiniere were considered

[)adel Brunet, Paris; sa]e, Pa]ais d'Orsay, Paris,

French until recently,though they must have an Italian origin. At the end of the eighteenth century, the useof

15 February 1978, 1ot 100, repo.; private collection,

Antinous

Switzerland; sale,Sotheby's,Monaco, 2I February

popular in Europe and remained so until the mid-nineteenth

1988; private collection,

century, in numerous permutations, with the telatnones

New York.

This piece is similar in design to a console shown in Laurent Pecheux'sportrait of Margherita Gentili Boccapaduli dated 1777,the earliest documented example of a lavish use

of Egyptian motifs in furniture. The BoccapaduliPalace near the Piazza Navona was best known for Poussin's Sez,e/z Sac/czmezz/i, now in Edinburgh, which the Marchesahad inherited from Cassianodal Pozzo.Like her forebear,she

figures as supports

for consoles became extremely

either gilt or patinated in severalcolours. Among the more famous italian examp]es are a gracefu] conso]e in the Pitti

Palaceand a famous triangular table designed in 1828 by that most Egyptomaniac of early nineteenth-century designers,Agostino Fantastici. Somewhatironically, such

Antinous consolesmade of stone were used in the nineteenthcenturyin the Saladelle Imitazioni in the Vatican Museum, as stands for Hladrianic statuettes ofAntinous.'

was interested in scienceand had a collection of curiosities. She knew Piranesi, who dedicated one of his engravings to her and advised her on furniture. Alvar Gonzalez-Palacios

M.P

has surmised, with reason, that the console and 6tagire in Pecheux's portrait were probably built on Piraraesi'sspecifications.' The connection with his chimney-pieces is certainly

Gonzalez-Palacios 1984, voi. 1, p. 133. An identical table, possibly even this same one, can be seen in the Magnani Rocco Foundation in Parma; Tosini-Pizzetti1990, p. 57

striking, and it maybe noted that the Egyptiandesign elements depend wholly on prototypes then available in

Rome.The kneeling figures in relief at the centreof the frieze, for instance,repeat a sculpture from Hadrian's Villa, now lost, but known from an engraving in Roccheggiani.:

The Boccapaduliconsole was patinated red in

Roccheggiani, n.d., vol. 1, pl. LIXXVI, and Roullet1972,p. 116, no. 206, fig. 234. The Egyptian figure was also copied to serve as

a candlestick,which might be seenpaired flanking an inkwell, asin an example at Buckingham Palace purchased from Dupasquier in 1810(another was sold at Christie's, London, 18 April 1983,1oE15 repr.)

The jardinidre is reproduced in Jullian 1961,p. 131,fig. 26. For Fantastici, seeSiena 1992, no. 15M, repr. p. 204, and col. pl. 31;

imitation of Aswan granite, with details picked out in gold,

an old photograph of the Sala delle Imitazioni is reproduced in

like the Italian table (cat. 42). The console exhibited here is

Botti and Romanelli1951,pl. 11,fig. 2

Fig. 41. Antonio Sorrentino /fe Cre mlar, 1804 Porcelain, produced at the

Real Fabbrica di Napoli Museo e Gallerie Nazionali

di Capodimonte, Naples

76

Italy and the Grand Tour

N

H

e-X.

Italy and the Grand Tour

r7

:'f-KZlic=':=g

3

!B©Xil.:.@ :g@@il

l@l$12E

.$S&f:7. ':! ==;i;i.=b:.'.=u

}?d:Kx'

'-- - "---.:

.u++a..-£-

24

=;-

Antiquities of the Capitoline Museum Hubert Robert (1733 1808)

This view reunitessomeof the mostadmiredsculpturesin

c. 1763

flute-playingfaun://. ROBERT '/ / Z).ROM,4f

Rome that were shown in the eighteenth century in different galleries of the Capitoline Museum. Robert's artfully informal disorder is probably imaginary but may have been inspired, at least in part, by a moment in the history of the museum when the sculptures were waiting to be installed:

CAR 176[..]

the seated empress, then called Hg/'zPp;ncz/fe E'/dfr, shown

Valence, Mus&e desBeaux-Arts (D.81)

in the foreground on blocks, suggestsim object ready to be moved. To the left appear Ca/)zdczndPfyc#f and the Rfifz zg

Provenance:

Sa/yr,while in the background,to the right, is the Fawn.

Julien-Victor Veyrenc( 1756--1837);gift to

Piping;

thecityof Valence, 1835.

excepted, all these works were recent additions to the

Red chalk on paper 34.5 x 45 cm

Signed and dated at right on the pedestalof the

the famous

Capitoline

Exhibited in Ottawa.

78

:.£n=3P':+=:P-'--'r

collection.

.'In/;nazis

The

stands

at the centre.

monumental

HgrzPPzna

statue of 4n/znoz£i

from Hadrian's Villa had been found in 1740in the Michilli

Italy and the Grand Tour

]

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, the reputation of this work faded, though guidebooks were apt

to quote Jean-JacquesAmpdre's observation that "the melancholy features of Antinous would beat an Egyptian god, and that the Greek style reflects the solemn grandeur

borrowed from the Egyptian style."3 in its heyday, the

H /;zeuswas copiedfrom the original or from castsby virtually every artist from Rowlandson to Ingres. Mengs left

a particularly splendid drawing of the sculpture (fig. 42y and he later included the figure in the painted ceiling decora-

tion of the Saladei Papiri at the Vatican. Robert, who Hound the H/z/zoom-endlessly fascinating, retu med frequently to this model,

Fig. 42. Anton Raphael Mengs, A /

usually

in connection

with

a rchitectural

caprlc:c:.S

aas

M.P

Black chalk and charcoal with white highlights Museo d61 Prado, Madrid

1. Botti and Romanelli 1951, pp. 95--96, 138--39,no. 143. 2. Ridolfino Venuti 1766, vol. 1, p. 314; a number of other Egyptian or

Egyptianizing statues,including two others of Antinous, were

vineyard, in relatively good condition but missing the right

shown in the same room

hand and both feet. It was restored almost immediately and

Ampire 1867,vol. 11,p. 196 [our trans]ation] Agueda 1980,1:2,p. 86, no. 2, repr.

engraved by Girolamo Frezza soon after. In 1742, the

Seeparticularly the watercolour cczPrzfc-zo dated 1760from a British

4nrzno#iwas given to Pope BenedictXIV. who in turn

private collection reproduced in Pevsner and Lang 1968,fig. I

presentedit to the museum, where it joined the largest collection of Egyptian and Egyptianizing sculptures in Rome.'

At first on view in the middle of the Grand Salon.zit was

Exhibitions:

("Interior

later moved to the so-called Room of the Dying Gaul, with

Paris 1969,no. 27, pl. V

Caped cz d Psyche and the Fawn. In 1838, however, it was

Conisbee 1970,CXl1:810, p. 632; Cayeux 1985,no. 28, repr.; Rome

SelectedReferences;

transferred to the Vatican Museum, where it has recently beenreinstalled with other works from Hadrian's Villa.

1991, PP. 176 =78,178, fig. A.,

Valence 1883, no. 1; Valence

P. 178.

25

of Museum")

1914,Room IX, part of no. 5

The Pyramids, or "Egyptian Fantasy" Hubert Robert (1733 1808)

Capricious combinations of Roman monuments including

1760

rhe pyramid of Caius Cestius and obellsks occur often in

Oil on canvas

rhe paintings of Giovanni Paolo Panini, the main influence

63.5 x 95 cm

on Hubert

Signed and dated at bottom centre: Roger/z /760 / Roma

A caPrzcrzo drawn by Robert in 1756,now in the museum in Valence,depicting the arch of Septimius Severus,the pyra-

Paris, private collection

mid of Cestius,and a fragment of an Egyptiansculpture,

Robert

after his arrival

in Rome in late 1753.

exemplifies this repertory, as do a number of paintings with

Provenance:

G. Moreau-Chaslon, 1884; sale,Paris,2 May1884,

pyramids by Robert in the late 1750s.:Yet thesehardly prepare one for two dated compositions of 1760, a watercolour of an

lot 37; F. de Rides-Christofle,

imaginary interior dominated by giant figures of Antinous,

by 1928; sale, Georges

Petit, Paris, 10--1I December 1928,1ot 48, pl. IX; A.M. Louis Dumoulin, Paris; sale, Galerie

and this landscape,perhaps Robert's most extraordinary fantasy to date and, as already noted by others, without

Charpcntier, Paris, 9 June 1936, 1ot 25, pl. lll;

parallel for several decades until works

Mr. and Mrs. Fred Gelb, New York, 1962;

cenotaphs (see cat. 78 80). Piranesi's

anonymous sale, Sotheby's, New York, 9 January 1980, 1ot 12, col. repr.; Raimond Learsy, New York;

che pyramid of Cestius (Focillon 745), sometimesclaimed as

private collection.

such as Boul16e's

monumental

view of

a possiblesourceof inspiration for Robert, appearsprofoundly Roman and real in comparisonto the fantastic,

Italy and the Grand Tour

79

visionary aspect of Robert's imaginary Egyptian landscape with its colossalpyramid, its obelisks,and a secondpyramid in the distance.3The effect is unquestionably enhanced by

the very simple, direct presentation,seencloseup

the

opposite of Piranesi's panoramic view of the desert marked

by scattered pyramids in his murals for the CaffE degli Inglesi.

even grander pyramid, with vaulted spacesunder the ramps and commensurately smaller obelisks. Though generally dated to around 1760,one is tempted to ascribe a later date, certainly after the artist's return to Paris in 1765.

The specifictype of revisionsand the scaleof the building suggests knowledge of architectural

developments of

[he 1780s.

M.P

If the steep,pointed shapeof Robert'sstructure hints at the pyramid of Cestius as his prototype, the idea of a giant pyramid with ramps at its base

a pyramid so large

l

Robert's estatesale included some twenty-five paintings by Panini.

2.

SeeEhecomposition with two ruined pyramids in the sale at

as to literally disappearin the clouds owed little to the

Christie's. New York, 31 May 1989,1ot 73A, col. repr., and the

Roman landscape.It was doubtless derived, as noted by

painting dared 1759 in the sale at Sotheby's,Monaco, 17 June 1989,

Etlin, from a monumentknown from the descriptionsof Diodorus, Pliny, and Herodotus, and reconstituted by

lot369,col.repr For the remarkableoriginality of the idea at soearly a date,see Pevsnerand Lang 1968,p. 214. Severalpyramidsof smaller size

3

Fischer von Erlach in Book I of his E/zrmzfdfzner#zj/orzlcifn

flanked by obelisks and columns appear in an otherwise classical

,4rc#z/e,k/urof 1721: "Two pyramids as high as a stadium,

architectural landscapedesigned by J6r6me Charles Bellicard for

which Moeris King of Egypt erected for himself and his

the title page of J.-r. Blondel's .4r(Airrf/ rfjru/zfonf of 1752.

Queennear his Mausoleum"(seefig. 43).' The plate was

4

Etlin 1984, p.112

one of severaldesigns of pyramids by Fischer that Piranesi

5.

Rome/Dijon/Paris

6.

Rome/Dijon/Paris 1976,no. 123.

admired and copied on a sheet in the Pierpont Morgan

1976, no. 143.

Library, New York.S The plate also served as inspiration to

other French students in Rome, for instance Charles Michel-Ange Challe, who derived elementsfrom it for an architectural design of 1747, also in the Morgan Library.' in later veers, Boul16e would remember this engraving when designing his cenotaphs (seecat. 80).

A second, slightly smaller version or] panel of this earliest fully realized Egyptian landscape is in the Smith College Museum of Art in Northampton,

Mass. It shows an

Exhibitions: Paris 1933, no. 1; Copenhagen 1935,no. 187; Rome 1990--91, no.49.

SelectedReferences No1hac 1910, p. 144; Burda 1967

P.59, fig. 36; Roland Michel 1978, p. 305; Etlin 1984, pp. 112, 115, fig. 84; Syndram 1989a,

p. 876, note 25; Rome 1990--91, pl. Xll; Irace 1991, p. 158.

E\g. 4'b. Tbe Two Pyrami.ds as High as a Stadii£m

Plate XI in Fischer von Erlach, 1721 Private collection

80

Italy and the Grand Tour

11it $ ',: Jt :l:!1l:'..t;.

t.

Italy and the Grand Tour

81

26

Girls Dancing around an Obelisk Hubert Robert (1733 1808)

dancing around the obelisk. As remarked by Olivier

1798

Michel, the sketch was almost certainly intended to represent the Piazza del Popolo.' From this it must be concluded

Oil on canvas

120x 99.3cm Signed

at ]ower

that the painting, set in an Egyptian landscape,was a ]eft on the co]umn:

]7. Ro&cr/ /798

reprise of an earlier, different idea. The use of Roman

Montreal, The Montreal Museum of Fine Arts

motifsis far from uncommonin Robert'swork, but the

(964.1464)

transformation of the setting from Rome to Egypt may well have beendue to the political events of the day.The compo'

Provenance:

sition,

The artist, until his death; studio sale,Paris,

antiquariananthologyof monumentsof a typethat would

with

its accumulation

of Egyptian

ruins,

is an

with

soon become the trademark of the frontispieces of books on

girls dancing around a fallen obelisk"); bought by

Egypt. In the foreground, next to the fallen obelisk and the

Castellifor 193 francs. Purchased by Lady Davis,

remains of a colossal statue, are ladders intimating that

Montreal, prior to 1939;bequestof Lady Davis,

archaeologists have already visited the site. Women with children point at the ruins on the right, while in the middle

5 April

1809, 1ot 79 ("A composite

monument

1964.

distance some men discuss a sphinx broken in two. In the

Throughout his career, Robert returned almost obsessively

far distance, a lengthy caravan or processionadvances

to the theme of the obelisk, frequently as the focusof a

towards a pyramid. At the centre, an apparently unrelated

decorative painting. Numerous examplesof the type can be

event takes place: a group of girls in classical dress dance to

found, usually depicting a modern or classical landscape.

Representations of obelisks in an Egyptian landscape,

the sound of musicians perched high on the obelisk. This celebration of life in the midst of what the eighteenth

however, are rare and poorly documented in terms of date.

century perceived as the architecture of death may have had

A large imaginary Egyptian view with a fallen obelisk and

a symbolic value, but with Robert, passionatelyin love with

a pyramid, part of a set of four horizontal paintings,was

ruins, one is never quite certam.

M.P

[ast seen at an auction sa]e in ]976;' whi]e a striking compo-

sition of similar type with several pyramids was also part of a set of four works.: Both contained hgures and doubtless served a decorative function within an architectural context, as overdoor panels. In this context, the brilliant,

dated

composition in Montreal is somewhat atypical: evidently conceived as an easel painting, it was produced relatively late in Robert's life, in the very year Napoleon launched his Egyptian

Campaign.

As Jean-Francois

M6jan&s has

observed, Vivant Denon owned a painting by Robert described in his sale as an "architectural painting showing

obelisks and various Egyptian monuments in a tasteful composition."'

A connection between the painting in Montreal and a sheet of studies in the Yale University Art Gallery in

New Haven haslong beenknown, but it is only recently that the studieshavebeenconvincingly datedto Robert's

82

Anonymous sale,Sotheby's,London, 8 December 1976,no. 44, repr The set was in the sale at Hotel Drouot, Paris, 21 March 1901,1ot 5,

following which it was separatedinto two groups.The painting under discussion, known asPayiaged'ffyp/f in 1901,reappearedon several occasionswith a pendant, most recently in the sale,Drouot-

Montaigne, Paris, Aden-Picard-Tajan, 12 December 1989,1ot25, reproduced as Conf,erxa/zo/zaaPr8f drs pyramzdfJ.

Paris/Detroit/New York 1974--75,no. 159. Rome 1990--91,no. 48

Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences:

Montreal 1960, no. 139, repr.; Sarasota etc. 1966--67, no. 80,

Gabillot 1895,p. 262;

detail repr. on cover; Kansas City 1970,no. 22, repr.; NGC, Ottawa, 1973 74(loan); Paris/Detroit/ New York 1974--75,no. 159, repr.

Anonymous 1964,XXl:5, p. 305 repr.; Haverkamp-Begermann and Logan 1970,pp. 36-37, no. 63, and p. 37, fig. 5; Young 1970, pp. 153 and 155,fig.l;

Butler1970, p. 147,repr.;

early years in Rome. The sheet contains an overall sketch

Hlumbert 1989, p. 233; Rome

for a closelyrelated composition and a study for the girls

1990--91,p. 100 and fig.48 (a)

Italy and the Grand Tour

i;i.I''i\: '.:: ,;:'i

Italy and the Grand Tour

83

84

Italy and th Grand Tour

27

The Laundresses HubertRobert(17331808)

Cordonata.2

c. 1758--60

fountain, they were the most visible, most famous, and

Oil on canvas 47 x 65 cm

most copied lions in Rome, and figured in numerous decorative and architectural schemesthroughout Europe. They

Amiens, Musee de Picardie (Lav. 1894.145)

are frequently found in eighteenth-century painting, for

With

the lions of Nectanebo

11, also part of a

instance in John Downman's portrait of the Benjamin Cole Provenance:

family of Richmond,Virginia (Rig.80),or in a portrait of

Olympe and Ernest Lavalard de Royel gift to the Museed'Amiens, 1890.

about 1800of PrincessHelena Radziwilt by Ernst Gebauer (Nieborow Castle, Poland), who showed the princess more

or lesshugging a granite Egyptian lion, likely supplied to

Long ascribedto Fragonard, the painting was recently

her by Vincenzo Brenna.

M.P

reattributed by Jean-Pierre Cuzin to Hubert Robert. However, the issue remains conjectural, as the picture, an early

work, dates from a period when the two artists were very closeand frequently worked together.

In a sense,7'fe Lzzandrfiiesis the archetypical image of the exotic so totally assimilated to the local land-

A similar pair of lions, once in Cardinal Albani's collection,was sold by him in 1728and is now in Dresden. SeeRoullet 1972, p.130,nos.268--270.

Onofrio 1962,pp. 123 24;Roullet 1972,pp. 130--31,nas.271 272.

scapeasto ceaseto bc remarkable:two youngwomen washing their linens in an Italian garden. The laden clothesline is stretched between a tree and a monumental Egyptian lion spouting water. In the foreground is a flight of stairs decorated with sculpture, leading perhaps to a villa. The image is nevertheless deceptive: two such lions existed

in Rome, in a fittingly more formal setting at the foot of the

Cordonata"

the stairway up to the Capitol.' Found in

Exhibitions: Paris 1921,no. 15; Paris 1925,

SelectedReferences

no. 108; Paris 1931, no. 15;

London 1932. no. 181; Paris

Hlourticq and Dacier 1925, no. 108(as Fragonard);

Gonse 1900, p. 15 (as Fragonard)

1934a, no. 150: Paris 1937.

R6au 1956, pp. 121, 172, 249

1435 at the site of the Tseum Campense in Rome, the

no. 156; San Francisco 1949,

so-called Capitoline lions were placed in front of the church

no. 13; Amsterdam

(asFragonard); Wildenstein 1960. no. 102,col. repr. (as Fragonard);

of San Stefano del Cacco and later moved to the Piazza del

Besangon 1956, no. 16; Charleroi

Thuillier

Campidoglio, where Giacomo della Porta transformed

1957, no. 16; Tokyo/Kyoto 1980, no. 25, col. repr.; Rome 1990--91, no. 30, repr. (attributed to Hubert Robert).

repr.(Fragonard);

them into fountains in 1588.Tn the nineteenth century they were removed to the Capitoline Museum, but in 1955they

were returned to their former location at the foot of the

28

1951. no. 45:

1967, pp. 48, 51, col Cuzin 1986,

pp. 60-61, fig. 4 (attributed to Hubert Robert); Cuzin 1987, p 8, fig. 2; Humbert

1987/1990,

vol.ll, pp. 172 73,no. 204

Two Egyptian Lions, after the Capitoline Lions in Rome Francois-Nicolas Delaistre(1746--1832) c. 1778

Terracotta

Paris placed at the foot of the garden seepsof the mansion he built in 1777--78on the Champs-Elysees,for the Duchesse de Bourbon, n6e Louise-Marie-Th&rdse d'Or16ans.Faithful

21x 37.5x 11.5cm

copiesof the Egyptian lions in Rome,this pair wasto be

Besangon, Musee des Beaux-Arts et d'Arch6ologie

similarlyplaced,right and left of a flight of stairs,in a

(D.863.3.19 and D.863.3.20)

fashion that proved enormously popular throughout

Provenance:

Europe. The architect's choice of decorative sculpture is characteristic of his generation: both Paris and Delaistre Paris; bequeathed to t .le municipal

had studied in Rome, where Delaistre remained until 1777.

library of Besangon, 1818;deposited in museum, 1863.

wasa friend of Piranesi's,and visited the Villa Albani, of

Pierre-Adrian

In italy, Paris moved amongamateursof/lkyp/lara, which he leff someinterestingdrawings.' Among his works

As noted by Castan, Delaistre's lions were the models for

in Besangon there is alsoan enchantingcczprzcc;o of

rhe full-scale sculptures that the architect Pierre-Adrien

Egyptian antiquities in Cardinal Borgia'sgarden at Velletri.

Italy and the Grand Tour

85

's

More importantly, Paris knew and admired Hubert Robert.: In France, his career was launched by the Duc d'Aumont,

Spain)c

whose residence in Place Louis XV he decorated and who,

Emblematic ofEgypt, the sphinx etioRes a dual symbolismin

in 1779, appointed him as Louis XV's court designer.' While in charge of the Menus-Plaisirs, he designed stage setsfor the French Court, which gave him the opportunity

the Westernmind, being both enigmatic and cue!. Nor was the

to engage in fashionably exotic architectural fantasies. In

stageset for the opera at Fontainebleau (seefig. 232), pub-

Thislabulous creature with a human face on a lion's bodyfascinated the ancient Greek, who borrowed the image, made the beastfemale,and assignedher a role in one oftheir mostfamous

lished by Pierre Arizzoli-C16mentel, probably the most

myths, that of Oedipus. The Greeks also gave us the name

this latter function he designedan extravagantEgyptian

remarkable of its kind before the end of the century.' M.P 1. Gruber 1978, pp. 281--92. 2. A drawing reproduced in Gruber 1978,fig. 7, "View of an Egyptian

room in the Bath Apartments," is a copy by Paris of a drawing signed by Hlubert Robert ten yearsearlier.

3. On Paris, see Gruber 1972,.pzzii;m;Gruber 1973a, pp. 213--27; Gruber 1973b,pp. 41 53,all with bibliography. 4. Arizzoli-C16mentel 1978,p. 13, and fig. 28 on p. 32.

East immune to its power: the Great Sphinx of Giza was known to the MameLaRes as "Aba hol," or "Father of I'error.

sphinx," which seemsto deriuefrom a Gt-eek.root meaning " to bind tight" or "to strangle"; the same root occurs in the name of

a mountain close to the city of Thebes, home af the sphinx af Greek.legend.Alternately, some Egyptologkts !ink. the name to the expression "Szp-'nb," or "living image," used in pharaonic

Egyptian to denote"smtae"; it could be twitter as the image of a sphinx holding the atxkh, sign oflife.

Wearing the royal memes,the Egyptian sphinx is a manifestation

of the Phalaoh, tuhose cavtouche is often

engraved at itsleet or on its chest. A specialplace must surely be Exhibitions: Besangon 1990.

86

Italy and the Grand Tour

SelectedReferences: Castan 1886,p. 282, no. 1043;

reservedfor the monumental sphinx at Giza: its proportions

Lami 1910-1 1, p. 261; Besangon

impact ott our imagination, as do the Pyramids.Endlesssource of inspiration jor artists attd writers, the Sphinx of Giza was

1990,P.214,6g.12.

hewn .from rock. more than 4000 years ago to immortaLize

a @ngofthe Old Kingdom, probably Chephren; Laterit became

the sphinxesadorning Marie-Antoinette's andirons, and the

associatedwith the solar cult. Daring the entire period of

in#nitely more amtere sphinxes placed in Rome by Valadier tiller

pharaonic civilization, hundreds of spltinxes were carded and placed to bank. the entrancesofsacred bushings. or to line the

the Egyptian Campaign. In its symbolism as weLL,the sphinx has undergone a metamorphosis. For centuries it retained the

processional auenaes Leading to shrines. They serveda protective

gtfardian role of its pharaonic origins or epitomized the

function, guarding ample doors, and were given the head ofa

balancebetweenanimal energy and theforce ofhuman

©ng or sacred animal. Diverted from its original purpose and

thought. Ancient Greece endowed the sphinx with a subtle

modified

lute!!agenceand the ability to solve riddles. But the more prosaic twentieth centuv) has kept only one ofthe earlier connotations: the sphinx remains the symbol of its homeland the Land of the pharaoh.

in appearance

(no two Egyptianizing

sphinxes arc

alike), the sphinx theme has been borrowed by all erasand used in many countries,Jor it bands harmoniomLy with ellery style ofarchitecture.' But the sphinxesof the Roman period

them-

c.z

selvespale imitations of their pharaonicmodels are a Jar cry from those executed during the Renaissance for the Seigneur d' Uvf&. And what a contrast between tate beribboned sphinxes

ornamenting seventeenth- and eighteenth-century gardens or

1. number!

1989, PP. 204-05.

129-3N6phinxesBearing the Names of the Pharaohs Neferites I and Hlakoris p\probably Memphis region ntl-ninth Dynasty, Reign of Neferites I \find Hzkoris (399 380 B.C.)

funerary figurines,' theseare the only "portraits" in the round known with certainty to be of the two pharaohs. Each wears a striped /zemff that lets a section of hair show

at the temples. On the front of the headdress,at its almost Cat. 29: 87.5 x 47.4 x 150.4cm Cat. 30: 78.5 x 44 x 151 cm Paris, Musee du Louvre,

D6partement

horizontal apex, a sacred arnfni cobra forms a figure eight, des

Antiquit6s 6lgyptien nes (N 26, Neferites;

N 27,Hakoris) Provenance:

its flattened coils arranged symmetrically. With his long rectangular face, full cheeks,and slight double chin, the sphinx of Neferites is a milestone in royal portraiture; its departure from the Spite ideal heralds the style of the later dynasties.Despite the restoration of the noseand chipping around the eyesand mouth, other characteristic details can

stairway (first mentioned in 1513);gardens of the

still be seen:the full, somewhatprotruding lips, the long, almond-shapedeyesedged all around by a slightly out-

Villa Borghese; acquired by the Louvre

rurned rim, the brows modelled in relief as thin horizontal

Rome, possibly the lseum Campense; Capitoline in 1807.

bandscurving towards the temples,and the high-setears. It is one of Egyptomania's many paradoxesthat these two

The face of Hakoris is in a better state of preservation and

sphinxes, inscribed with the names of two obscure kings of

sharescertainof his predecessor's traits, althoughhis nose,

the Twenty-ninth Dynasty, are among the most celebrated

too, is a modern addition. The profile emphasizespromi-

of Egyptian objects.

nent cheeks and fleshy chin, while the front view reveals a

Examples of the commonly occurring "recumbent'

vigorous, square physiognomy, worked in broad contoured

type of sphinx, the animals are shown lying down, front

surfaces, separated by well-defined hollows below the

pawsparallel and extended,tails curled along their haunches

cheeksand creasesat the corners of the mouth. The eyesare

(curledto the right for Hakoris, to the left for Neferites).

treated very similarly to Neferites', except the ridge indicating

This symmetry, unusual for Egyptian sphinxes,suggests

the brows is almost imperceptible.

that the works already formed a pair during the Pharaonic period. The modelling of the bodies is restrained: the mane

is indicatedby a simplecontour and the folds of skin are

highly stylized;only the musculatureof the forelegsis

On the quadrangular base,symmetrical inscriptions

list the royal titles, eachbeginning centre front and finishing centre back. Copies made in the sixteenth century,

when the statueswere incorporatedinto a fountain in the

before restorations had damaged some of the hieroglyphs, allow us to fill in textual gaps. In the following translations, the restored passagesare set in parentheses,while portions

Villa Borghesegardens, where they were noted by

supplied by parallel readings are set in square brackets.

Athanasius Kircher in 1654.The facial treatment is of great

Neferites' inscription reads, on the right side: rTZf [iuing Hutus who rates the double country (?))[the golden

defined. There is a round hole in the chest, probably made

interestto the art historian:with the exceptionof four

Italy and the Grand Tour

87

cb..£: {

n"::'L

88

Italy and the Grand Tour

€'

/'}

/

i'bt '.{£

.6.>:' b.;; J''''\,=

It.

lv

td the Grand Tour

89

\=.gnngHIAQIA#:'T'2 Hakorisilx

d g7FRqa.Ofglnl':}.l-h 8T'@ln @,gda+#3=GIR @®:f=)©e&#iX''92=$&gH

bs%©asf$1nl} G89vG$8@a=Bji=uusFQRA#?1:6Y F8h Fig. 44.Tracing by ElisabethDavid of hieroglyphic inscriptions on the sphinxesof Neferites and Hakoris

falcon] (Send)-cetera, the hng of Upper and Lower Egypt, the

likely date to the Restoration. At centre back of Neferites

son ofRe Ncferites, may he tide eternally, beloved ofPtah who

extensively restored base,only a few of the original symbols

is south ofhis maLI,master ofMemphis, endowed with all life, with stability, with dominion andjoy Lire Re eternally\ and on the \ef\. The living Horns who rules (the double coantq ?) [the golden falcons (Setup-cetera), the king of Upper and Lower Egypt, the master oftwo LandsBaenre-mary-neteru, the

remain; the others extend along the sidesand are essentially

son of Re Neferites, may he [ioe eterna]]y, beloved ofSokarOsiris, the great god lord of the Chetit, endowedwith aLLlife, stability and dominion Lire Re eternally.

A similar text is inscribed on the baseof the sphinx

modern copies derived from the inscriptions on Hakoris; they constitute a text devoid of meaning. The sphinxes' odd itinerary offers evidence of early

Egyptomania. The mention of certain deities Ptah, south of his wall and master of Memphis, and Sokar-Osiris, lord

of the Chetit

supports the theory once formulated by

Wiedemann that these monuments originally came from a Memphite sanctuary.Rediscoveredin Romeat the beginning

of Hakoris, with titles copiedfrom Neferites. On the right s\del (The [iuing Horns) be[oued of]Ptah masters of Memphis and I'atenen, all eternity and years (?), endowed with

life, smbiLityand dominion lire Re eternally\ on the \et\. (The living norm) greatofheart wha lovesthe doublecountry,heof the two goddesses, the strong one, the goldenfalcon who satislbs the gods,King of Upper and Lower Egypt Khenem-maul-Re. Setup-en-Khnum. the sotoofRe Hakoris, may he LiveetemallT,

beloved o.f Solar-Osiris, the great god lord of the Chetit. endowed with alt Life, stability, dominion and joy like Re

H

etemalty.

Most of the inscriptions(seefig. 44) on the front and on the right side of the Hakoris sphinx are composedof strange symbols that cannot fail to strike Egyptologists as

comical. For example,the small bee shown all by itself neverappearsthis way in the hieroglyphic bestiary.A comparison of the original with its copies,and there are several, the earliest dating from the sixteenth century

more partic-

ularly the CoderP#;gA;a/zms, in Berlin, and the Coder C/rsznzanai,in the Vatican shows that these psdudohieroglyphs were added to Hill old gaps and that certain ancient fragments, still visible during the Renaissance,have

90

now disappeared. If] as Marc Gabolde has recently pointed

Fig. 45. Ceiling in the Palazzo del Td, Mantua

out, the beein a cartoucherepresents"perhapsa discreet

Copyphoto from Donadoni, Curio, and I)onadoni-Roveri

homage to the Emperor

1990,P.57

[Napoleon

Italy and the Grand Tour

]]," then the additions

n

of the Renaissance (where they were first mentioned

Anonymous Sphinxes

A. Fulvio, in 1513,at the foot of the Capitolin sphinxes had probably arrived in Italy well before It is possiblethey served to decoratesomemonument in the imperial capital, such as the temple of Isis on the Campus

Egypt,probablySaitePeriod(c.672--525 B.C.), for the body of cat. 3 I sphinx

Black basalt

Martins, as has been suggested by Anne Roullet, who has

Cat. 31: 1.19 x 2.49 x 0.78 m

compiled references to the sphinxes during the Renaissance.

Cat. 32: 1.09 x 2.39 x 0.73 m

Often alluded to in travellers' narratives and illustrated in

books, they inspired many sixteenth-century artists: the [)&partement

des Arts

Graphiques

at the Louvre

has a

drawing of them by Dup6rac(no. 26394,inv. 3855).The frontispieceof a missalattributed to Giulio Clovis shows

The headswere restored in the 18th century (?) Paris, Musee du Louvre,

Antiquit&s Jlgyptiennes(A

D6partement

des

31, A 32)

Provenance:

them facing each other in a curious fashion on either side of the Colonna family arms.: As Bertrand Jaegerhas recently

Rome, Villa Borghese

established, in about 1527--29, Giulio Romano copied pas-

Exhibited in Vienna

sagesfrom the Neferites and Hakoris texts to decorate the

Palazzodel T& in Mantua (fig. 45). Part of the texts was inscribed, as well, on an ornamental sphinx that Claude d'Urf6, the King of France's ambassadorto Rome, installed around 1550at La Bftie, his estate.The latter examplestestify

to the interestin authentic inscriptionsthat beganin this period, as opposedto the "imaginary" hieroglyphs that were in vogue at the end of the fifteenth century. They also show

the spell thesemythical beastscaston the contemporary imagination. The King of France, Francis I, led the way: in 1540,he had a pair of sphinxescopied from an Italian model placed in the stairway of the Courtyard of the Fountains at Fontainebleau.

Purchased from Prince Borghese, these two matching sphinxes adorned the gardens of his famous villa. They were moved to Paris, where they servedfor many yearsas architectural ornaments, flanking the doors to the Ecole du

Louvre. Both works have beenextensivelyrestored,in particular A 32. From the eighteenth century onward, they have been subjected to a variety of repairs involving the most diverse materials stone, plaster, and even cement.

However, the body of sphinx A 31 exceptfor the head and the tips of the front paws appearsto date from the Pharaonic period. The treatment of the body calls to mind a

sphinx inscribed with the name of Amasis, now in the Capitoline Museum.' Notable featuresare the powerful

Louvre E 5339and E 17409(Neferites);Louvre E 17408and Los Angeles L 79.70.99(Hakoris). Donadoni, CurED,and Donadoni-Roveri1990, p. 52, repr.

modelling of the thigh muscles(a definition that appeared during the Saito period),: the emphasisgiven to the rib cage (not usually conspicuous in a recumbent lion), and the folds

of skin along the belly, tracing an almost vertical line at the

back and rejoining the horizontal at the front.; As with SelectedReferences:

Roullet 1972,pp. 134-35,

many Egyptian sphinxes found in Rome, the original head

Visconti andClarac1820, p. 150, no. 350; Clarac 1830;Clarac

nos. 284 285, fig. 293--304; Traunecker 1979,p. 409;

1841--53,vol. VI p. 308, no. 2595

Beckerath 1984, pp.15,28081;

has disappeared;' it has been replaced by a face derived from Classical Antiquity, perhaps the face of a Roman

E,pl. 1000; Pierret1874/1 878,

Mysliwieck 1988,pp. 67,68,76,

vol. 11,p. 1; Gauthier 1916/1917, p. 162,V. and p. 166, XIV;

78; Jaeger 1991, pp. 236 =38,248;

Gabolde 1991, pp. 41-61.

sphinx in the Vatican Museum.Sit is bizarrely framed by a fanciful nears, its flimsy volume destroying the harmony of

the restoration. The lily displayed on front hints at the z£rafnscobra, protector of royalty. Certain works, among

©

them a bust of Isis from Hadrian's Villa ' (fig. 46), enable us to trace the processby which artists since Roman Antiquity have misconstrued the divine emblems of Egypt double plume and horns, lotus, and coiled serpent and interpreted them as floral motifs.

c.z 1.Cherpion1992, pl.I (b). 2. Cherpion1992, p.70. 3. Cherpion 1992,pp. 61-62

4. Roullet 1972, fig. 308-309, 316-317.

5. Botti and Romanelli 1951. pl. LXXVll.

6. Botti and Romanelli 1951, p.IOI,no.152.

SelectedReferences Clarac 1841--53,vol. VI p. 308,

no. 2595D, pl. 1000;Boreux 1932,1,p.39.

Italy and the Grand Tour

91

92

Italy

] the Grand Tour

l

P'

Fig. 46. Bars/af/s£ Vatican Museum

Italv and the Grand Tour

93

;:€4'

(l3...34\ Pair of Anonymous Sphinxes Ptolemaic Period (332 30 B.C.)

'Diorite Gat. 33: 63 x 1 17 x 39 cm Cat. 34: 65.5 x 113 x 38 cm Pftis, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des

hani:quotes6lgyptiennes(A 33,A 34) Provenance: Rome, Villa Borghese

Exhibited in Vienna Sphinxesfrom every period were brought together at the Villa Borghese, for purposes more decorative than archaeo-

logical. Our [wo examples are clearly antique, with the

94

italy andtheGrand Tour

\4-

£:ll': F

;

'' .;

"2:ih

5;:

.-t+

exception of the nose,the flaps of the nemff, and the tips of

the paws. Despite the sketchy modelling and mechanical treatment of the musculature of front legs and ribs, indicated

by incisedlines, they remain in the pharaonictradition, with

a well-defined

z£xaeui. They

are usually

dated [o the

time of the Ptolemies.Like the sphinxesof Hakoris and Neferites, they were used to decorate a fountain, as is evi-

denced by the holes bored in their chests, probably in the eighteenth century.

Exhibitions: Lyon 1978. SelectedReferences: Visconti and Clarac 1820,p. 159,

c.z

no. 375; Clarac 1841--53.vol. V p. 307, no. 2595 C, pl. 1000, no. 178A (drawing); Letellier and Ziegler in Lyon 1978,

pp. 15--16,repr.

Italy and the Grand Tour

95

35

Design for the Decoration of the Ceiling of the Egyptian Room at the Villa Borghese Attributed to Tomato Conch (1734 1822)

contained standing figures of Isis and Osiris surrounded by

c. 1778 Pen and ink, with watercolour 37.8 x 29.7 cm

Egyptian divinities (Anubis appears several times) and two

Santa Monica, ResourceCollection of the Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humarlities

sacrificial scenesdevoted to Cybele. In the triangular compartment, Cybele appears again, with a personification of cheNile and a crocodile at her feet. The schemewas even-

tually replaced by a single painted subject,an allegory of Cybele-Isis by Tomato Conca. This sketch likely belonged

Provenance:

to the first set of designs in which Isis and Osiris also

Hazlitt, Golden & Fox, London; purchasedin

appearedon the walls, but this is not certain. The graceful

1989.

motif of leaves on the borders was retained in the final

design,to decoratethe mock pilastersdividing the comExhibited in Ottawa A preliminary proposal for the ceiling, the design shows painted scenesseparatedby decorative borders. The panels

96

Italy and the Grand Tour

partments of the vault. Exhibitions London 1989,no. 34

M.P

36

Design for the Decoration of the End Wall of the Egyptian Room at the Villa Borghese Attributed to Tomaso Conca (1734--1822) c. 1778--79

a background

Pen and brown ink. with watercolour over

Interestingly, the idea of using Apis as a theme was retained, but in the form of a frieze of three scenespainted by Conca:

of scarabs and stylized hieroglyphs, and

aboveit a condorelief of a sacrificeto the Apis bull.

graphite

37x 46cm

Germanicus Consulting the Apes Bull, Apk Being Fed by His Priests, an& The SacriFce ofApis in the Nile. PLbQvcthe door

Santa Monica, ResourceCollection of the Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities

to the right is Cybele seatedbetween two sphinxes,eventu-

ally also rejected.The main pilasters have capitalswith Provenance:

foliage in a vaguely Egyptian style, while the lesser pilasters

Hazlitt, Gooden & Fox, London; purchased in

are decorated with rams' heads. In the final design,

1989.

Asprucci used both the foliage and the ram's-head motif in his capitals.

Exhibited in Ottawa

M.P

The drawing represents a second stage in the design of the

main wall. At the centre is a panel with the god Anubis on

Exhibitions: London 1989,no. 30 C

+';

+

F

H

h #

b

U

g

'/

Italy and theGrandTour

97

37

Design for a Door in the Egyptian Room at the Villa Borghese Attributed to Mario Asprucci(1764--1804)

c. 1780 Pen and brown ink, with watercolour over

graphite 36.5 x 24 cm

Santa Monica, ResourceCollection of the Getty Center for the History of Art and the Humanities Provenance:

Hazlitt, Gooden & Fox, London; purchasedin 1989.

Exhibited in Vienna A project for the doors in Conca's drawing (cat. 36), the study is close to the design as finally executed, though differing in several details. For the basesand capitals of the columns, the architect used what Visconti in his 1796publi-

cation describedas "an imaginary order partly copiedfrom Egyptian monuments," and the canopic vasesabove the

doorswereomitted. The view that Percierdrew of the room in 1786 90 (fig. 47) shows the plaster sphinxes modelled by Luigi Salimei facing a narrow, cylindrical vaseover each door. Today the vasesare gone and the spacebetween the sphinxes is empty-

M.P

Exhibitions London

1989, no. 29.

Wenut pons

Dynasty(c.747--656 B.C.) Granite

65x 15.4x 34cm Paris, Musee du Louvre,

D6partement

des

Antiquit6s Egyptiennes(N 4535) Provenance: Rome, Villa Borghese

Exhibited in Paris and Ottawa

Fig. 47. Charles Percier Fbe Egyptian RoomaEtbe Villa Borgbese,c. t18G.90 Detail from a drawing Biblioth&que de I'Institut 98

de France, Paris

Italy and the Grand Tour

Egyptian artists were adept at creating divine images that harmoniously blended human elements and those derived

from the animal kingdom. Unlike animal worship, this

Italy and [he Grand Tour

99

unusual compromise between anthropomorphic abstraction

of Hermopolis, today the town of Ashmunein, capital of the

and the representationof the natural world cameas no

fifteenth name of Upper Egypt. Sheis sometimesdepicted

surprise to the ancient Greeks.' To the Western mind, how-

as a hare, whose image forms the hieroglyph for her name, or as a snake.' it is quite unusual to seeher portrayed as a

ever, the combination has sometimes appeared monstrous

one need only think of its condemnationby the famous art historianWinckelmannz but it enduresas a symbolof pharaonic civilization.

Frozen in strict frontality, with an an4# symbolin

lioness; she does, however, belong to a group of dangerous

goddesseswho sometimes appear in lion-headed guise, as 'eye-lioness-afafns."The most famous of theseare: the ter-

rifying Sekhmet,often shown in the sameguise,Sand

her left hand,the goddessis seatedon a throne of ancient

Wadjyt, Bastet, and Sechemtet.' During the Late Dynastic

design, rather like that of a king. The hollow betweenher

Period, many female deities

feet, at the front of the base,was probably intended to hold

sofar took on this balefulpower,which might be regulated

a cult object.Anotherlegacyfrom the time of the

by erecting statues and performing rites of appeasement.'

Pyramids,the long sheathdress,held up by two shoulder

Thus, Wenut is named in unpublished litanies of the

straps, clings to the female anatomy, whose sloping shoul-

temple at Tod, enumerating the aspects of the dangerous goddess.' it seems likely that this statue was originally in a temple and the inscription suggests Hermopolis as the loca-

ders, high, round breasts,slim waist, and full hips conform

to Twenty-fifth dynastyaesthetics.;The long, three-part wig, its rows of curls reaching to the breast, elegantly bridges the human and animal aspectsof the goddess. Instead of a human face, we find a muzzle and mane: for

tion. However, we know nothing oats movementsbeforeit entered the collection of Cardinal Borghese.

A drawing by Charles PercierP(fig. 48) shows the

this is a lioness, symbol to the ancient Egyptian mind of the forces ofdestruction. The eye sockets,now empty and dark,

statue zlz sz/n in a corner

were once inlaid with a brilliant material

forming a pendant to another famousstatue,that of the

stone, coloured

of the Egyptian

Room, bizarrely

perched on a pedestal in the shape of a winged grifhn, and

reflecting the blazing rays of the

kneeling king Thutmosis lll (fig. 36). The latter was pur'

sun. of which the lioness is the emanation. The disk crown-

chasedfrom Piranesi himself; today it is in the D6partement

ing the figure representsthe sun itself, from which springs

desAntiquit6s Egyptiennesat the Louvre.'' At the end of

the urczfm cobra, the burning eye of the sun that consumes

the sixteenth century, Van Aelst did a drawing of Wenut

its enemies.

titled "Isis with the Head of a Cat."ii Illustrated or men-

paste,or precious metal

The goddessis named in the inscription at the back

tioned in the works of Pignorio, Montfaucon, and

of the rectangularbase:Mena/,mli/rrsi olr e Caryo/

Winckelmann, the statue acquired a degreeof fame and no small stature in the decorative repertoire of Egyptomania.

Herm(Walls, mistressqthe sb, ruler of the double counts, eye ofRe whose disk. she wears, mistressof the throne in the house

c.z

of/#f Ogdoad.A little-known deity, Wenut was the patron

Fig. 48. Charles Perrier Sheet of sketches of Egyptian motifs in the Villa Borghese

Biblioth&que de I'Institut de France, Paris

00

over forty have been identified

Italy and the Grand Tour

l 2 3

4. )

6. 7. 8. 9.

Hlerodotus, Z.'.E/zgaae,11,46, coll. "La P16iade,"Paris, 1964,p. 161

Winckelmann 1790,vol. 1,p. 2, and vol. 11,pp. 76-157. See, for comparison, the statue of Ta ariz'F in the National Archaeological Museum, Athens, and the .Bzzs/e/ dedicated by Piankhy in the Louvre (E 3915) Z..,{,vol. VI, 1986,co1.859 Kozloff in Cleveland/Fort Worth 1992 93, p. 225, no. 34 Bibliography in Ziegler 1979b,pp. 437--39. Yoyotte 1980,pp. 46--75 Basket,Wenut-Shema, Wenut... (bloc Tod inv. 70).

Paris,BibliothiquedeI'Institut;Arizzoli-C16mentel 1978, fig.4

10 AF 6936, basalt; Clarac 1820, pp. 155--56; Arizzoli-C16mentel 11

1978,

p.13,note 55.

Fig. 49. Charles Percier

Hohenburg 1620,fig. 41

Drawing showing Grandjacquet's

Exhibitions: Vienna 1992,no. 145.

.rs;sin its original position in the Egyptian Room, Villa Borghese, detail; Bibliothique de I'Institut de France, Paris

1790,vol. 1, p. 116; Clarac 1850, pl. 305 (2544); Perrot and Chipiez

1882,vol.I,p.59,fig.30;

Roullet1972, no.151,p. IOI, SelectedReferences:

and fig. 171--175; Wit 1980, vo1. 2,

Hohenburg 1620, fig. 41;

p. 362; Arizzoli-C16mentel1978, p-12,note 54 and fig.26;Seipel

Pignorius1669,fig.p.66; Montfaucon 1719 24. vo1.11.2, book 1,chapter X% pl. CIXXVI, no. 7; Saint-Non 1763,pl. 80;

in Vienna 1992,p. 365.

Visconti 1796,part 11,stanza Vlll, no. 8, repr.; Winckelmann

materials consistent with the ancient ones.In 1779,Antoine Grandjacquet, a Burgundian who made his living in Rome

restoring antiquities for Piranesi, receiveda commission for two statues, an Orzr/r and an /self,for which alabaster and

antique black marble were bought; a third commission followed

for another /si statue. In 1780, Vincenzo Pacetti,

who also provided models for the Egyptian birds above the

niches, was given an antique red porphyry torso to be restored as a /zlzzo, with white marble head and arms.

39 40 Isis and Osiris

A documentof 9 December1779,concerning paymentsfor modern white alabaster,showsthat initially

1779 81

Grandjacquet intended both the Or;rzkand the /;zi exhibited here to be polychrome but later he changed his mind: the Ofzrzkwas carved wholly in antique black, whereas for the

Cat. 39: Black marble and alabaster

/fzk, he used a combination of alabaster for the face. arms.

171x 50 x 36 cm

and feet, and black marble for the body.

Antoine-Guillaume G randjacquet( 173 1--1801)

CaE.40: Black marble

170x 47 x 34 cm

The statueswere delivered in 1781.and on 22 Septemberof that year Grandjacquet receivedanal pay-

Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des

ment a total of 510 scudi for material and work.ZHis

Sculptures (MR 1586, MR 1588)

third statue, the second /sis, copied faithfully in fine-grained

Provenance:

Commissioned by Prince Marcantonio Borghese, 1779; his son,Prince Camillo Borghese;purchased

red granitelle from the statue of Arsinoe 11,then in the Clapitoline Museum, was executed last: on ll September 1781,the architect Asprucci was reimbursed for the cost of

the stone,and on 5 June 1782,Grandjacquet was paid for

with the Borghese marbles for the Musee

his work.; Pacetti's/Kno was placed in the niche of the main

Napo16on,27 September 1807; at the Louvre

wall,

during the Restoration; deposited in Musee du Chateau de Fontainebleau; returned to the Louvre.

wall to the right. At the centreof the room wasplaceda

while

Grandjacquet's

rare /aarczrz#m (bathtub),

/szs occupied for which

Luigi

the niche in the Valadier

had

designed four bronze crocodiles as support. In 1807, when Cat. 40 exhibited in Paris.

As eventually executed, the decorative schemefor the Egyptian Room at the Villa Borgheserequired a number of monumental sculptures. To ensure a senseof visual unity, someancient fragments were restored and several modern

works basedon antique prototypes were commissionedin

EheBorghesemarbles were purchased for the Musee Napo16on,Grandjacquet's works were included with the antiquities. It was only much later in 1969 that Boris Lossky recognized them and they regained their attribution

Of Grandjacquet's three sculptures,the polychrome /;zi is the most striking. From Percier's drawing (fig. 49) and the engraving published by Visconti in 1796,we know

Italy and the Grand Tour

101

/

''

102

Italy and the Grand Tour

that originally she was crowned with gilt bronze ornaments

It is not altogetherclear how the Egyptian Room at the

and held a gilt bronze lotus in the left hand and a sceptre in the right.' Although greatly transformed, the ancient model

Villa Borghese was furnished, and indeed little is known

used by the artist can be identified as a Roman relief (now

From descriptions,it appearsthe room serveda largely

lost) with three figures, one of which was an Isis, wings wrapped around her and right arm outstretched.The relief

ceremonialfunction. Visconti'sI,e Sczz/zrf df/ Palazzode//a Uz//aBorg#fif df//a Pznczanamentions someof the furnishings, including elaborate tables designed by Vincenzo

enjoyed a certain fame in the seventeenth and eighteenth

about the furniture in the villa prior to its dispersal in 1892.

Paris), in the

Pacetti and Antonio Asprucci. Tn 1987, Alvar GonzflezPalaciosidentified two commodes noted by Visconti in the

set of drawings successively owned by Cassiano dal Pozzo

S/a/2zczd; Parfc/e. and also uncovered records in the

and Cardinal Albani, and was illustrated by Montfaucon and Winckelmann.S The Onf'zr, also very freely adapted

Borghesearchives at the Vatican of payments made in 1784 by Prince Marcantonio Borghese to the silversmith Luigi

from a more common type of sculpture, a standing pharaoh

Valadier, the architect's father, for gilt metal mounts

from Tivoli, at furstheld a gilt bronze ornament in each

intended for comodzn/ (small commodes).

centuries: it figured in drawings owned by Nicolas Fabri de Peiresc (now

in the Bibliothdque

Nationale,

hand: "In the right hand, which is lowered, a shaft ending in a crested knob, and in the left hand, which is hanging down, the famous /am, distinctive symbol of Osiris appel ring on ancient monuments."' These can be seen in the original form in Visconti's engraving. M.P

This chair, with a Borghese provenance, was possi-

bly once part of the furnishings of the villa or may have come from a suite in the Borghese Palace. The Egyptian

designincludeshieroglyphson the skirt, with a scarabat the centre

derived from Piranesi

and the extremely

ingeniousintroduction of a sistrum aspart of the backrest. The sistrum motif used in this fashion is very rare but also

1. Arizzoli-C16mentel 1978,p. 8. 2. Arizzoli-C16mentel 1978, pp. 20-21.

3. Arizzoli-C16mentel 1978, p.23 4. Visconti1796, vol. 11,repr. "Stanza Vlll," no. lO. 5. Roullet 1972, p. 64, no. 46 and nig. 65; Aufrire 1990, p. 185 and

PI.Vll,XXV A. 6. Nod11823, P.297. 7. Visconti1796, vol. 11,repr. "Stanza Vlll," no. 2

SelectedReferences; Parisi 1782 (text reproduced

pp.12,18,20,21,andp.30, hg. 19(with bibliography);

in Arizzoli-C16mentel

Humbert 1987/1990. vol. ll,

1978);

Lossky 1971,pp. 58 61, and

p. 59,fig. 6; Arizzoli-C16mentel 1978,p.lO,note 46,p.ll,note

41

no. 115; Hlumbert 1989,p. 199 col.repr.

48

Chair Roman Workshop

c.178284

d

Walnut and gilt

85cm high (approx.) Rome, Villa Borghese, Borghese Gallery Provenance: Borghese family, Rome; purchased by the State 1925.

Not exhibited

Italv and the Grand Tour

103

Italy and the Grand Tour

occurs in a set of six late eighteenth-century chairs in the

Gonzalez-Palacios 1987, p. 106.

Louis XVI style, of unknown provenance, and on chairs delivered in 1797 to the Pitti Palace in Florence.Z Related

See sale, Sotheby's, New York, 28 March 1992, 1ot 175, repr.; Colle

1992,no.127.

London 1991 92,no. 511, col. repr.

motifs can be seen on a silver table service designed for Prince Borghese by Luigi Valadier and completed in 1784:

Exhibitions

among the surviving designs is a cruet stand with two

London 1972,no. 1674,repr

draped, seated Egyptians supporting bottles, and a holder in the form of a sistrum.S

SelectedReferences: Gonzalez-Palacios 1969

P.35,6g.46.

42 Table Anonymous Italian c. 1780

plinths with capitals formed by heads of Egyptian women,

alsoof Piranesiantype but different from thoseon the

Poplar painted red, marbled green, and black to simulate Aswan granite; black marble top 89.8 x 123.5 x 59.4 cm

Boccapadulitable, are positioned unconventionally at the angle of the corners of the table. Uprights of this type are more commonly found in consoles and mantelpieces and

New York, The Metropolitan Museumof Art

are usually aligned with the frame.: it may be noted that

(41.188)

the triple incited gilt line on the inside of the uprights correspondsto the decoration of the legs of the Borghesechair

Provenance:

(cat. 41).

Gift of Robert Lehman, New York, 1941 Exhibited in Paris

The origins of this extraordinary table are unknown, but the style -- distinguished by rather massiveforms, simplicity, and great originality indicates fairly certainly that it was made in Rome, doubtless for a specific interior that remains

to be identified. The patina on the wood is in imitation of Egyptian granite, and decorativegilt hieroglyphsand cartouches (some of which also appear on Piranesi's chimney-

pieces)cover almost the entire surface.Both the patina and decoration are closely related to that on a table attributed to

Piranesi,shown in the portrait of the MarchesaGentili

M.P 1. Seecat. 23.

2. The moststriking examplesof this typeare the largeconsolewith four Egyptian legs designedby Voronikhin and Brenna for the Greek Gallery in the palace of Pavlovsk, and the chimney-piece

with bronzeuprightsfrom the Henri Samuelcollectionin Paris, reproduced in Hautecceur 1952, vol. V. p. 384. A very different late 18th-century Italian console with Egyptian uprights also set at an

angle wasreproduced in rZf Conno&xc?zzr, 168:677 (July1968), p.VIII.

Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences:

London

Johnson 1966,p.492,repr.; London 1972,p. 781; Sutton

1972, no. 1660;

New York 1978, no. 18.

1972, p.271,fig. 19;Humbert

Boccapaduli of 1777.' The curious uprights, rather like

43

1989,repr.p.131

The Courtyard of the Capitoline Museum, Rome Charles Joseph Natoire (1 700 1777) 1759

Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des Arts

Graphiques (31.381 )

Black chalk, pen and brown ink, brown and grey wash with highlights of white gouache,on blue-

Provenance:

grey paper

P.J.Mariette collection; sale,Paris, 15 November

30 x 45 cm

1775--30 january

1776, probably lot 1301, purchased

Signed and dated in pen, ]ower right: C. ]Va/oz e /759; lower left, mark of the P.J. Mariette

for the Cabinet du Roi(L. 1899and 2207).

collection:

Exhibited in Paris

see Lugt 1852.

Italv and the Grand Tour

105

:a}.4:ll;.,,;?:

''?g%

'lP#;&llR?8 &

Natoire'sdrawing takes in a much wider view than Hubert Robert's (cat. 44), which shows only the rear of the gallery;

that is where the statue of Queen Tuya stood, in the opel)ing to the right. In the centre of the composition, Natoire

hasgiven pride of placeto a statuerepresentingArsinoe (fig. 50), wife of Ptolemy ll Philadelphus;it is now in the Vatican Museum

In 1736,Pope Clement XTI opened the Capitoline Museum to the public, with its holdings of antique sculp-

ture. Archaeologists and artists gathered there for the

purposeof studyor in searchof inspiration.Mostof the Egyptianizing sources were copied at this museum before being disseminated throughout Europe

J.-M.H 1. gotti and Romanelli1951, no. 31, pp. 22--23,and pl. XXlll

Exhibitions: Tropes/Names/Rome 19' no. 73; Paris 1985--86. SelectedReferences: Duclaux 1975, no. 58(extensive

106

Italy andthe GrandTour

bibliography);

Bacou 1976,

fig. 16; Troyes/Names/Rome

Fig. 50. .ATJ;moe

1977,no.73,p.104(bibliography

Wife of Ptolemy ll Philadelphus

and list of exhibitions); Roland Michel 1987.no. 62.

Vatican Museum

Fig. 51. Antoine-Guillaume Grandjacquel /sis, 1781, granitelle statue Musee du Louvre, D6partement des

Antiquit6s Egyptiennes

g

P ©e.

m

m

1'

{.k

%

H

N:$11©l

M

©

G ©

@

44

An Artist Sketchingat the Capitoline Museum Hubert Robert (1733 1808) c. 1763 Red chalk on paper 33.5 x 45 cm Valence, Musee des Beaux-Arts (D. 80) Provenance: julien-Victor

Veyrenc ( 1756--1837); gift to

the city of Valence, 1835. Exhibited in Ottawa The portico in Natoire's drawing of 1759is seen here from a viewpoint nearer the northern end. In the foreground, to the right, is a statue of F'o/ra/za; behind it is the colossal statue

of Puff// Tuba,the mother of RamsesIt, while in the background, still to the right, is the statue of Endymzo/zwz/A//zi Z)og.As invariably with Robert, the real and the imaginary coexist with the greatest ease:the draughtsman seated on

Fig. 52. /s;s Plate 36 from Bernard

the floor, the woman standing with a child, the leaping dog

de Montfaucon

all belonging to the modern world draped antique figures.

are looked upon by

Fig. 53.Qz/ee 71/7z Mother of Ramsesll Vatican Museum

liAntiqz+i d ncPtiqtl€e, \ 122 (2nd ed.), supplement to vol. ll

Italy and the Grand Tour

107

As noted earlier, the statue of Tuya (fig. 53)and the Roman copy of Arsinoe had been installed under the arches of the portico in 1715.The presenceof the Endymion, said to have been displayed elsewhere in the Museo Capitolino,

nose,blunt chin, high cheekbones,long and slenderwaist, high shoulders, long necks and cheeks. These idols come from the ga rdens of Sallust."' M.P

has led to the suppositionthat in this drawing Robert may have fancifully rearranged the sculptures. Another of his drawings, however, showing the portico from the opposite

A counter proof of the drawing in Valence,reworked in black chalk

end, with E dymzo/z in the foreground

31 March 1962, 1ot 63, pl. XXVI. The .Endym;o/?was still in that

and Zaycz glimpsed

beyond, indicates unmistakably that his depiction is accurate.' Yet another view of the Capitoline portico, showing

Arsinoe with the statue of the Nile in the background, testifies to Robert's fascination with what was, in 1760,the most

Egyptian grouping of sculptures in Rome.:Only a few years earlier, in 1739, the President de Browseshad described the statue of the Nile(known in Rome as Marforio") to a friend, a lover of Egyptian curiosities: A large river, it first madeits bed in the Forum Martius, whence its name, Marforio, before that it was called the Rhine, or rather, the Nile. It sensesitself in its native country,

nestledamong four Egyptian granite magotsworked in

by Ango, is in the Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Mass

The drawing was last recorded in a sale, Palais Galli&ra, Paris, position in 1834,as noted by Mariana Starks in Zlaurk zz E rope: Fo/. /Bf Use of T?az,e//erlon /Af C07z/znfnr, Paris, 1834, p. 149

The drawing remains untraced but a reworked counter-proof signed and dated 1762figured in a sale, Christie's, London, 26 November 1968, 1ot 126, repr. A sheet with an isolated, careful

study af ,4xKznoe was in the Galerie Cailleux, Paris, in 1979;Paris 1979,no. 8,repr.

Char[esde Browses1928, vo]. ]], p. 160]our trans]ation]

Exhibitions: Rome/Turin 1961.no. 295; Paris 1969,no. 26, pl. Vl; Rome 1990--91,no. 119. SelectedReferences:

that dry, rigid style typical of all Egyptian statuary;yet full

AZo/;ce des Zabferzax.... 1883, Musee

of fire. The Egyptiansof old must havehad thosedistinctive physicaltraits we seein all their statues:the squarish

de Valence. no. 1; Loukomski and No1hac1930, pl. 36;

45

Pietrangeli1966, p. 275; Paris 1969,no. 26, pl. V; Pariset 1971 pp. 34--36; Cailleux 1972, pp. 57--71; Roland Michel1981, p. V. note 22; De Fence 1982, pp 37 38, note 9, pl. XV. fig. 23; Cayeux 1985,no. 28, repr.; Rome

1990--91,no. 119.

Pair ofCandelabra Reproducing a Statue of Queen Tuya c. 1800

its strands falling over her left elbow. She is clad in a long

Gilt and patinated bronze

tunic, her head in an enveloping wig that is coveredwith

86 cm high

a vulture's wings and topped with a molrzer-style cap deco-

Paris, private collection

rated with a z/rafui crown

Exhibited in Paris and Ottawa

attached, the statuettes are painstakingly accurate copies of

Apart

from

the /nor/zfr,

to which

the branches are

Lheoriginal, albeit greatly reduced in scale.There hasbeen Each of these Egyptian women in black-patinated bronze supports four gilt bronze branches. The origin of these pieces is not known no related examples have surfaced

no adaptation, no reinterpretation: Egyptomania has in this casefaithfully reproduced an authentic piece,only modifying its purpose by giving it a practical function and perhaps

and their date remains uncertain. Knowledge of the Queen Tuya statue on which they are basedgoes back to the time

thereby justifying its presence.

J.-M.H

of Hubert Robert's sojourns in Rome,' and the branches

supporting the candle-holders correspond to that period

too. However, the branchesmay have beenadded later,

1. Seecat.44

simply becausethey were not being used and seemed suited

2. Botti and Romanelli 1951,no. 28(inv. no. 22),pp. 18--21and pl. 28; Vandier 1958,vol. 111,Lz Szarzzczzre, p. 427 and pl. CXXXV. fig. 4

to thesestatuettes. In fact, the massivefigures are more in keeping with the taste of the Consulate or the Empire than

The

work

was

known

Cap;/o/;/zo; Whitehouse

with that of the pre-revolutionary period.

The twin figurines are copies of the large statue now in the Vatican.:Queen Tuya,wife of Serif and mother

of Ramses11,standswith her left foot forward, right arm hanging loosely at her side and left arm tight against her midriff; in her leff hand sheholds a fly whisk by the handle,

08

Italv and the Grand Tour

SelectedReferences: Claude Sal\y 1966,p. 56

Humbert1989, p.170.

as early

1983, p. 25

as 1755 from

Bottari's

Mz£seo

Italy and the Grand Tour

109

46

Tray and Coffeepot from a Service for Two c. 1785 90?

The numerous referencesto porcelain decoratedin the Egyptianstyle found in the inventory of n saleat the Real

Painted and gilt porcelain

Fabbrica Ferdinandea in 1807 indicate how extensive the

Tray: 46 cm(max. dram.); pot: 22 cm(diam.)

interest was in such designs in Naples. Interestingly, the

Mark: Blue /V with crown

same inventory also lists sets of engravings for sale, among

Florence, Palazzo Pitti, Museo delle Porcellane (A.c.c. 1012, 1021)

them Lorenzo Roccheggiani'splates of Egyptian designs

Real Fabbrica Ferdinandea diNapoli

and four prints reproducing the mural decorationof the Egyptian Room at the Villa Borghese,thus providing some

Provenance:

senseof the models used.i in addition to tableware,the

Possiblya gift from King FerdinandIV ofNaples

factory also produced porcelain objects:figures of Antinous and canopic vases[o be used as ornaments for clocks docu

on the occasion of his visit to Florence in 1785,

10

or part of the trousseauof Maria Louisa of Naples on her marriage with Archduke Ferdinand of

mendedin 1796.:The tray and coffeepot,now in Florence,

Tuscany in 1790; the coffeepot is listed in an

Chatincludes [wo cups, a sugar bowl, and a cream jug deco-

inventory of the Florentine grand-ducalcollections

rated in the same style.: As Alvar Gonz31ez-Palacioshas

n 1816.

noted, the coffeepot has an unusual spout, probably adapted

Italy and the Grand Tour

are part of this abundant production and belong to a service

a large and amusing decorative panel with an Egyptian scenemade up of twenty-four tiles is in the Palazzo Primoli in Rome

M.P 1. Minieri-Riccio

1878; Gonz61ez-Palacios

1984, vol. 1, p. 337.

2. Gonzalez-Palacios 1984,vol. 1,pp.338 39,vol. 11,fig. 562,563 3. The complete service is reproduced in Syndram 1988,fig. 8

4. Naples 1979,no. 374, repr. A complete servicein the Suchard Museum, Zurich, is discussedand reproduced in Syndram 1988,

P.157,6g.9. 5. Brosio1980,p. 116,fig. A Exhibitions: Naples 1979,no. 373, repr.

SelectedReferences

Morrazzoni 1935, pl.XCl; Perrotti1 978, pl. Cll; Gonz31ez Palacios 1984,vol. 1,p. 338, vol. 11, fig. 560, 561; Syndram 1988, vol. Vl--Vll, PP. 157--58,

6g.8

47

Model for Titian's Tomb Antonio Canova (1757 1822) 1795

Wood and terracotta

1.24x 1.37x 0.35m Inscribed and dated: T77'/H-l;/ECEI,/O-P/C7: /

MDCCVC Venice, Museo Correr Provenance:

Gift from G.B. Sartori to G. Zardo Fantolin;

DomenicoZoppetti,1847;Zoppettigift, 1849 The monument,to be erectedin Venicein the churchof SantaMaria Gloriosa dei Fran(where Titian is buried), was commissioned in 1790 by Girolamo Zulian, the Venetian ambassadorto the Holy See,and a group of Venetianfriends.In carly 1791,Zulian negotiateda space for the monument and Canova embarked on the project.

from the Hadrianic two-headedsculpture now in the

The idea of a pyramid with mourning figures was decided

Vatican Museum, which also figures in one of Piranesi's

upon fairly early, as indicated by Zulian's letter of 16 July

chimney-pieces (cat. 20). The appearanceon the art market

1791: "Your idea appeals to me immensely, by virtue of its innovative qualities, simplicity and expression.The contrast

in Naples in 1978 of an identical coffeepot

tions on a white background

with decora-

shows that the factory

produced the design in a variety of colours. The museum in

Florence owns another cream jug of zoomorphic design, belonging to a different Egyptian service for two.* It may be noted that the interest in Egyptian design in Naples was not entirely ephemeral, nor was it limited to fine porcelain. At the beginning of the nineteenth century, at the sametime as the Real Fabbrica, the Giustiniani man-

ufacture was also producing numerous Egyptianizing piecesand continued to do so until late in the century:

betweenthe grief of the sisterarts and that of Painting desirousit almost seemsto be buried with Titian is highly successful."'As rhe design evolved, the form of the pyramid changed, from a pointed structure similar to the pyramid of Cestius at the outset to a broader one, as in the maquette shown here; the position of the figures was also modified.

Two maquettes,known to have beenin the Accademiain Venice in the nineteenth century, are now lost, but three more are in Possagno at the Gipsoteca

Canoviana,

with

a

number of drawn studies in sketchbooks.Z

Italy and the Grand Tour

11

The death of Zulian in 1795,the year this maquette

ument in Vienna is generally said to be the first instance

was executed,and the failure to raise funds brought the

sinceAntiquity of a pyramid conceivednot as a funerary

project to a halt. However, in 1798,after Napoleon'sinvasion

ornament but as a tomb, with an entrance and figures on the threshold. As such, it is tempting to make a connection

of Italy, Canovaleft for Vienna wherehe receiveda commissionfrom PrinceAlbert of Saxe-Teschen for a tomb in the Augustinerkirche for his wife, Maria Christina of Austria the sisterof QueenMarie-Antoinette.The artist revived his 6nal scheme for Titian's monument, retaining

with the pyramid built in 1794--96by Joseph Bonomi

knew Canova and corresponded with him

body of the 2nd Earl of Buckinghamshire,at Blickling Park, Norfolk.S M.P

the pyramid but increasing the number of figures and reversing the composition. The elaborate allegorical programme for the tomb was the result of collaboration with the prince, but ultimately Canova viewed the figures as "a

sort of funeral cortige in the act of bringing the ashesto the sepulchre."

The

monument

in actuality

a cenotaph,

as

Maria Christina is buried in the imperial crypt in the Kapuzinerkirche

who

to house the

1. Quoted by Pavanello in Venice/Possagno1992,no. 82 2. Pavanello and Praz 1976,nos. 72 and 73. 3. On this suggestion, seeCurl 1982, p. 155. 4. Pavanello in Venice/Possagno 1992, no. 82; for Hubert Robert's painting, seeRome 1990,no. 9, col. pl. ll 5. Meadows 1988, p. 25, and fig. 24 28

is widely held as Canova's masterpiece.

In 1827, his students designed a similar pyramid as Canova's tomb (fig. 54) in the church of the Fran.

It has been variously suggestedthat Canova'spyramid was inspired by Piranesi or by Christopher Hewetson's B.z/dw;n A4onameiz/ of 1784 for Trinity

College, Dublin,

which Canova saw in Rome.3it is neverthelessmore likely that his first-hand experienceof the pyramid of Cestiuspro-

vided a more forcefulimpetus.Catafalquesin the form of a pyramid can certainly be traced in Italy to the early

1972, no. 31 1;

SelectedReferences: Quatremire de Quincy 1834,

Venice/Possagno1991, no. 82:

pp. 129--35; Bassi 1943, p. 26;

col.repr.

Mariacher 1964,pp. 190--91, and fig. 81; London 1972, pl. 51 Pavanello and Praz 1976,p. 99, no. 74, repr.; Argan 1979,p. 33,

repr.;Curl 1982, pp.154,155, 161;Licht1983, pp.65-75,67,

Baroque age, and Pavanello has further related the design

no. 23,repr.;Stefani1984,pp.

to a painting of 1758by Hubert Robert depicting, perhaps, an imaginary catafalque for Pope Benedict XIV.' The mon-

83--1 19,andespecially p. 119,

Fig. 54. Czzmopzz'sTomb, 1827

Monument created by Bartolomeo Ferrari, Rinaldo Rinaldi, Luigi Zandomeneghi, Jacopo

de Martini, and Antonio Bosafor their teacher Church of SantaMaria Gloriosa dei Fran, Venice

112

Exhibitions: London

Italy and the Grand Tour

note 14;Wittkower 1989a,p. 55

r'

Italy and the Grand Tour

113

48

Mjnfature Pyramid in the Name of Khonsuhotep unknown

whether these monuments were visible in the Roman era,

Ramesside Period (c. 1295 1069 B.C.)

but the possibility of this sourceof inspiration cannotbe

Limestone

dismissed.

llkjlidorigin

Although its origin is unknown,in style

39 x 37.5 x 35.5 cm Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des

Antiquit6sEgyptiennes (D 43)

Khonsuhotep's pyramidion is akin to the miniature pyramids used during the New Kingdom as the apex crowning a modest scone pyramid set above a burial vault. Its opposed

From Antiquity onward, the pyramid has held its own

faces are given matched decorative schemes,apparently

among the symbols that evoke Egypt. The overwhelming size of the most ancient pyramids built at Giza around 2620 2500 B.C. and their fascinating aura of death imme-

related to the four points of the compassand the orientation of the tomb. On the eastern face, the deceasedand his wife,

diately captured the imagination of early travellers. The

The western face depicts his parents, Nekhunefer and

name by which we know them was coined, no doubt derisively,by the ancientGreeks;it comesfrom the word

Mutem. The votive inscription on the eastern face names

py/amis, meaning a wheat cake. The Egyptian term for the monument was mcr. At least two pyramids were built in Imperial Rome and, as in Egypt, they marked the site of a

Sypy, are portrayed kneeling, their arms raised in worship.

the sun god, Horus of the horizon, emphasizingthe relationship betweenthe pyramidal shapeand the sun (a symbolism made even more obvious by pyramids and

obelisks that feature an apex plated in shining metal).

tomb. The imposing funerary monument of Caius Cestius

Above the figures are symbols of a type often found on stelae,

(fig. 55), erected during the reign of Augustus, has survived

some of which later became part of the decorative repertoire of Egyptomania: #z#a/falcon eyessymbolizing physical

to the present day in its location near the Cantel Sant'Angelo. Another pyramid, destroyed in the sixteenth century but often reproduced, stood in the necropolisof the

Vatican where other instancesof Egyptianizing funerary decor were also found.i These two monuments, which

health, wavy water sign and drinking vessel,iaea ring. In

addition to listing the namesand titles of the individuals depicted,the inscriptionsexpressa seriesof wishesfor the

rail, slender proportions. The Roman version may well

dead man, that he might: feel the gentle caressof the north wind; have air, fresh water, and incense;have cakesbrought from the table of the gods; enjoy bread, beer, cattle, poultry, and all pure and lovely things; that evil be warded off. and

reflectthe tastesand technicallimitationsof the period,or

that his praises may be sung...

served to inspire many artists (see cat. 25), differ from the

royal pyramids of pharaonic Egypt in their modest size and

c.z

possibly the exposure of Roman architects to other models.

It seemsrather unlikely they ever studied the pyramids built in the Sudan by Twenty-fifth Dynasty kings, notably choseat Merge, which are closestin size (their base covers

1. Roullet 1972,p. 42

8 to 14 square metres) and slope (65 to 70') to the Roman

pyramids.The Romanswere more familiar with the Thcban necropolisat Deir el-Medina, with its small, very pointed pyramids, set abovethe tombs of New Kingdom

SelectedReferences:

craftsmen (fig. 56). Other sharply pointed pyramids could be found around Abydos and Memphis. No recordsdisclose

vol. Vlll, p. 58(inscriptions); Rouge 1883,p. 204; Ranke and

Pierret 1874,vol. 11;Pierret 1878.

Hlermann 1935,vol. 1, p. 209, 13 Vandier 1954,vol. 11,p. 522, note 7; Rammant-Peeters 1983, doc.57,pp.62

63

] Fig. 55.The pyramid of CaiusCestiusin Rome

Fig. 56. View of a pyramid

lst century B.C.

at Deir el-Medineh

114

Fig. 57. Tbe E /ramre /a bbe Great Pyramid, the I)escr;+ Eiorz& !'£gy-

af Szzmrfse. Plate 9 from

i809-28

Italy and the Grand Tour

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117

It was probably after his return in 1732to Paris from Rome where he had won secondprize in the competition for the

Trevi Fountain

that Edm6 Bouchardon undertook a

seriesof designsfor fountains.From1735to ]737,he worked on a sculpture for a fountain commissionedby the

Duc d'Antin for the park at Grosbois,and from 1739to 1745he was occupied with rhe only fountain he actually built the Fontaine de la Rue de Grenelle. Bouchardon's drawings presumably di\te from this period in his career, Lhe1730s;they include an unusual number of Egyptian motifs. Two studies in the Louvre show fountains, with sphinxes(RF 24279) and winged sphinxes (RF 24277) respectively, while a third,

for 7'Ae Fours/aziz of/#e Graces

(RF 24677),has lions on its basecopied from the Capitoline

Egyptian lions. (interestingly, counter-proofsof the first

the door,' and similar lions appearas the decorationof a tab[e made about ]765 for the Hotel d'Uzds and attributed [o Pierre-Noel

Roussel.S

The artistic climate in Rome that had been responsible for widening Bouchardon's horizons was an essential ingredient in the developments that took place in architecture and theoretical argument towards mid-century. Much of this was expressed in experimental projects urldertaken

for competitions, ephemeral structures for the annual fA;nfa,o or designs of a decorative nature

vases, for

instance which had a great influence on the formation of the Neo-Classical style. Nicolas Jardin, for one, who won

the Prix de Romein 1741andstudied in Italy from 1744to 1748, designed a Sc/}a/cA/a/ C'tape/ in the form of a pyramid

[wo drawings exist in the Landesmuseumat Mainz, while the third was later engravedby Haquier). A fourth draw-

around 1747that was inspired by the pyramid of Cestius

ing, also in the Louvre (RF 24280),showing a variation on

career was spent in Denmark, but his design found an

and by Fischer von Erlach. Much of Jardin's subsequent

LheGrosboisfountain, hasat its centrea figure adapted

almost immediate echo among his contemporaries: a similar

from an Egyptian divinity,

pyramid figures in JosephVernet's Uifm (g'a Parr, painted

Bes.' Two additional designs,

originally in the collection of Pierre-Jean Marietta, figured as part of a group

of four

in his sale of

1775: an EgyP/zaP/

in Romein 1751and now in the Nelson-Atkins Art

Gallery, KansasCity. Variations on pyramids preoccupied a

Fo zz/a;/z. now lost or unidentified, and a Foa/z/a;n©'

variety of architects, including Charles Michel-Ange

Gf/z;zfi. now in the Musee des Beaux-Arts at Angers, which is decorated with lions copied after those of Nectanebo I

Challe, who, in the mid-1740s in Rome, produced experi-

in Rome.Z

Bouchardon's fountains seem to be the earliest systematicattempt in eighteenth-centuryFrance to incor-

porate in a modern framework an Egyptian repertory

mental compositions using colossal pyramids. In the same city, Jearl-Laurent Legeay's "bizarre exaggerations" fantastic designs for tombs, ruins, and vases fascinated a

generation of artists and architects from France, England, and Germany during the second half of the eighteenth

neglected by previous generations of artists. It is true that multiple variations on sphinxes can be fourad in the period

century.Indeed, it was two of Legeay'sdesignsthat were adapted for the Egyptianizing frontispiece of the first

of Louis XIV and the R6gence,but this particularline of inquiry was somewhat exceptional and anticipated by almost three decadesthe imaginative use of a similar

lishedin 1791' rhe crowning achievementof the Age of

Egyptian repertory by Hubert Robert. Bouchardon would

edition of Schikarleder'slibretto for 7'Af A'fczgzc F/ii/e, pubEnlightenment.

Beginning in 1754,Hubert Robert'slong period of

ment into the artistic climate: his patron and biographer,

study in Rome eleven years spanned one of the most interesting eras in the new, emerging aesthetic.His impor-

the Comte de Caylus, himself among the furst to point out

tant Egyptian landscapes(cat. 25), and his fascinationwith

the aestheticqualities of Egyptian art in his Rfc ez/

the "Egyptian" environment at the Villa Albani in the early

seemto be the most natural personto introducethis ele-

d'Antiquitfs

flgyptiennes,

Etrusques,

Grecques et Romaines ,

published between 1752 and 1767,drew attention to Bouchardon's excellent grasp of Antiquity. Marietta, anoth-

er friend, actually owned a few ancient Egyptian pieces (sketched by Gabriel de Saint-Aubin in the margins of the Mariette sale catalogue of 1775). And Hubert Robert, an admirer, owned some seventy of Bouchardon's drawings at the time of his death.3 The pioneering quality of Bouchardon's designs

1760s.are discussed elsewhere, but his sketches of actual or

imaginary Egyptian antiquities, some engraved by the Abba de Saint-Non as part of a larger project involving other artists,' tend [o be overlooked.The sketchesproved influential, however, particularly in the decorative arts. A cursory

glance at Saint-Non's

gflPo/zzs reveal a "seated

Anubis" from the Villa Borghese; an "Egyptian, a serpent

wrapped around his body," and a statue bearing a /;aos,both

from the Barberini Palace;and a "crouchingEgyptian in

is best understood in the light of the knowledge that such clements as the Capitoline lions would appear more widely

granite" from the Palaceof the Embassyof Malta. Along

in Franceonly in the 1760s,with the introduction of the

basewith an Egyptian-style figure" and a "vasebetween two

early form of Neo-Classicism known as the "the Greek

Egyptian-style figures," both from 1763and invented by

taste" (satirized by Ennemond-Alexandre Petitot, another prot6g6 of Caylus see fig. 12). An anonymous project

girl seatedbetween two lions." in related groups appear a

for the entranceto the Hotel de Gamachesin the Rue

118

Saint-Lazard. dated October 1762, has Egyptian lions above

Absolutism and Enlightenment

with these there are a "vase decorated with hieroglyphs on a

Robert, as well as a design for a fountain, a "nude Egyptiall

vasewith two seatedEgyptian women, foot-to-foot" and

round Egyptian-style pedestalwith three women crouching in niches." Also included is a "perfume burner, with Egyptian-style

tripod, with women and two serpents

betweentheir feet," engravedin 1767by Saint-Non from a drawing by Robert's friend Jean-Honors Fragonard.P

It is instructive to look at one of Robert's designs mat was published by Saint-Non in 1767,the "fantasy vase with a lion's face," for the permutations it underwent. The artist himself included it in paintings on several occasions,

notably an imaginary Egyptian interior painted in water

colour in 1760.'' A P/a/r mz/,b.4nrzge Re//(:flby JeanJacquesLequeu in the Ecole des Beaux-Arts, Paris, dating presumably

from his student years at the end of the 1770s,

includes a rendition of Robert's vase,with the annotation in

Italian "da I'antico" (from the Antique).'' Not only had Robert's vase entered the vocabulary of contemporary ornament but, more surprisingly, it passedfor a genuine antiquity,

probably because of the somewhat misleading

title given by Saint-Non to his publication Suz/edf Z)zr-#w;/

Fe z//fi d'a/lr?f /'H/z/zgaf.': The vase was also copied in bronze as an ornament for candelabra manufactured in Paris,'; and used as model for porcelain inkwells made in Berlin.t4 Fragonard, who was closeto Robert in Rome until

1761,drew someof the Egyptianantiquities in Florence, Rome, and Naples, and likewise, as noted above,contributed a few designsfor Saint-Non'sgrz@onzt. His style,

Fig. 58. Francois-Andre Vincent Portia t ofPiewe3acques On6synle Bergeret de Grandcourt, \]]4Oil on canvas Musee des Beaux-Arts et d'Arch6ologie, Besangon

sometimes indistinguishable from Robert's, occasionally

of two Egyptian figures in pink granite," both confiscated

makes attribution

during the Revolution and depositedat the Louvre.'' Long

hazardous, as in the case of a countertwo seated

afterwards, during the Restoration, Dominique-Vivant

Egyptian women, foot-to-foot" mentioned above.'SA drawing

Denon advised Louis XVlll against returning the statues to the two heirs; ironically, each was compensated in 1819

proof

corresponding

to Robert's

"vase

with

of a garden scene,doubtless imaginary, probably also dates from this period; it includes an ornamental structure in the

form of a pyramid with two statuesof Antinous in front of it, a variation on a theme practised by other French artists

suchasPierre Lelu (alsoin Romeduring the sameperiod).'' The effect of Robert's investigations and, generally,

with "a setof the volumes on Egypt, large coloured edition, valued at 7000 francs, which would place the value of the two statuesat 14,000francs."'8 Somewhat surprisingly, one of the illustrations by Jean-JacquesLe Barbier for the 1797

edition of Mme de Graffigny's novel Z.e//rrsd'a/zf

of the new orientation in the decorative arts, was felt partic-

Pfrzzz,zennf shows the heroine surrounded by Egyptian bric-

ularly by the French architects, artisans,and amateurs active in the 1770sand 1780s.There is an interesting

a-brac in the guise of South American antiquities, including

portrait of the fermier g&n6ral Bergeret de Grandcourt, one

of Robert's patrons, painted in Rome in 1774during an extended visit he made there with Fragonard and some friends (fig. 58). The portrait, by Francois-Andre Vincent, shows him standing next to a pedestal with a large canopic

statuesof an Egyptian lion and an Egyptian woman. The Duc d'Aumont's particular love for the rarehardstonesof the type favoured in Egypt led to an arrangement in 1770 71 with Francois-Joseph B61anger, who set up a workshop for the manufacture of vases, pedestals, and

furniture with bronze mounts. The duke was one of

vase,apparently a variant of the one in the Capitoline Museum.Jean-BaptisteLebrun, who had beenin Rome

Robert's patrons, but he had opposed his nomination in

with Robert and would later marry Robert's friend Marie-

Challe. The post was eventually given to the architect

Louise-ElisabethVig6e, painted a self-portrait with an

Pierre-Adrien Paris, one of Robert's most ardent admirers,

Egyptian block-statue in the background. An Antinous

under whosedirection B61angerand his brother-in-law,

figure appears in the salon designed by Francois-Joseph

Jean-D6mosth&ne Dugourc, undertook a number of projects

B61anger for the Duchesse de Mazarin (cat. 56). The family

for members of the royal family.

of Robert's principal patron, the Marquis de Laborde, owned a number of Egyptian sculptures,among them "an

decorative arts at the end of the seventeenth century had

Isis or large Egyptian figure in grey granite" and "a group

scarcely changed in fifty years: the charming female sphinxes

1776as designer for the Cabinet du Roi, previously held by

The few Egyptian motifs introduced in the French

Absolutism and Enlightenment

19

with their zzfmfi turned

into a sort of modern headdress

used as decoration by Andre-Charles Boulle for a famous clock from

about 1695 (now in the Cleveland

Museum

of

are now in the Louvre. The design of the tableswas evidently popular, as evidenced by two later pairs of wood

corlsoleswith a similar decorativetreatment,now in the

Art) were close relatives of the lively sphinxes with diadems and divided /zemeihe used in a clock for Emperor Charles VTT

Louvre and The Metropolitan Museum of Art respectively.::

as late as 1742.j9The latter type of sphinx appearedalso on

queen,Marie-Antoinette, favoured the new Egyptianizing designs (as observed in this catalogue by Jean-Marcel

andirons (much copied in the nineteenth century), and

The French royal family, and particularly the

heads with similarly curious memesappear as mounts for a

Humbert, see cat. 52). Throughout the 1780s, B61anger

writing

produced a number of designs for the Comte d'Artois, the

table which appears in the portrait

of Said Pasha,

the Ottoman ambassador,painted by Aved in 1742.:' A move towards greater verisimilitude in the adaptation of Egyptian motifs occurred only in the 1770s,in a now lost

king's brother, which prominently

but almostlegendarypair of porphyry tableswith bronze

Egyptianizing figures for a set of six celadon vasesthey had purchased. The unattributed new design enjoyed a certain

mounts madeby Pierre Gouthi&refor the Duc d'Aumont (fig. 59). A secondpair of tables, finished by Gouthidre only

after the duke's death, was also included in the sale.The name of the designer of the tables is unknown, but he presumably belonged to the circle of B61angerand Dugourc, both of whom were responsible for introducing Egyptian motifs into the furniture of the 1780s(fig. 60). When the Gouthidre tables appearedin the sale of Lhe Duc d'Aumont's

featured sphinxes (see

cat. 63). As noted by Paul Biver (see cat. 49), in 1782 the

king's aunts commissioned modern bronze mounts with

success:it was also used for candelabra and was revived a

century later, in the 1880s,in copiesproducedby the bronze-founderBeurdeley.23 On 9 January1784,Pitoin delivered andirons "of ormolu-gilded bronze, with draped sphinxes resting on a base" to Versailles for the Cabinet of

Madame Elisabeth, the king's sister. Also for her, in 1790 Dugourc drew the model for a console with gilt bronze

estate on 12 December 1782 they were

bought for Louis XVI for the enormous sum of 80,000 livres. Described in the catalogue as "masterpieces by reason

of their subject,the unique mannerof their composition, and the perfect execution of their ornamentation,":' they were sufhciently extraordinary to merit three illustrations in the catalogue. (it may be noted in passingthat the cata-

logue was the first illustrated auction sale catalogue on record.) From the same sale Louis XVI also bought

for

7,500livres a pair of splendid vaseswith bronze mounts supported by winged female sphinxes by Gouthidre; these

$ .& /a'li.&&- aP,.;la.& I'f.fitch'

P,.&-i&«h

{m P,i.w.

.

d Z«. f;&.

1« }1,1"h' ;««l-.'nJ:& au i.u..foaf cnl\l?Xu'c tlu

120

&.f

ctrl\fonn&r

+

.oon+

Fig.59.Engraving ofatable

Fig. 60. Francois-Joseph B61anger

made by Pierre Gouthi&re for the

Des;gm#or a Cbfm#eJ.p;ere, c. 1770--80,watercolour

Duc d'Aumont

Bibliothdque

Absolutismand Enlightenment

Nationale, Paris

mounts and legs with Egyptian busts by Gouthidre.:' For che king, Dugourc

designed two heavier, larger consoles

with Egyptian hgures of a very different type, to be placed

in the Galerie des Grande Meubles at Fontainebleau. In 1786,a team of artisans worked on andirons decoratedwith sphinxes for the queen's boudoir at Versailles. (Later in the year, a similar pair of andirons was commissioned for the

Salon des Jeux du Roi at Saint-Cloud.) in about 1787, Georges Jacob made a set of armchairs with "console

armrests supported by sphinxes for her boudoir at Fontainebleau,one of which has survived in the Gulbenkian Museum in Lisbon. Jacob continued to produce remarkable furniture in the early 1790s,including

chairs with armrests in the form of winged Egyptian female figures based on designs by Francois Grognard,

which were adapted throughout Europe during the Empire.

In 1786, Dugourc created an entirely Egyptian interior for the Spanishcourt (seefig. 62), which, however, was never executed.The sameyear, an Egyptian interior was created in the apartment owned in Place Vendome by the fermier g6n6ral Bouret de Vezelay. Nothing is known about the design of the room

a loss, as it appears to have

beenthe only one oats type in Paris.

From as early as the 1760s,the prolific decorator Jean-Francois de Neufforge had advocated the "Greek

Fig. 61. 1)7rrzm;dar 7Uo ce zz, 1779

Designed by Carmontelle for the estateof the Duc de Chartres at Monceau

in the country (flg. 61). The interior of the pyramid was decoratedwith eight columnswith capitalsin the form of Egyptian heads, two false tombs, and an Egyptian-style statue that functioned as a fountain.26

taste," and among his designs are various recommendations

Between 1774 and 1784,Francois de Monville,

for the interior or exterior use of stylized mummies, con-

with the help of Francois Barbier, designed the gardens of

temporary [o the designs of Piranesi. Unfortunately,

the Desert de Retz, near Chambourcy. A fine pyramid

no

intact interior has survived, and it is a matter of someirritation to see detached

architectural

elements (see cat. 22)

without a senseof how they formed part of a whole. Carved or tapestry overdoors, decorated with Egyptian motifs such

raised on a base with two staircases served as an ice house A less ambitious obelisk made of sheet metal has not sur-

vived, but the pyramid was recently restored. A rather

different pyramid, occasionallyattributed to Claude-

as sphinxes, were quite common (an example exists in the

Nissim de Camondo Museum in Paris). More exceptional

were painted overdoors, such as the sets with Egyptian landscapesmade by Robert for locations as yet unidentified. The decoration

of the Combe d'Artois'

pavilion

at

Bagatelle, though largely pre-Neo-Classical, appears inscribed under the sign of the sphinx to an unusual degree. At Bagatelle, the sphinxes on the outdoor stairway

led towards a garden in the English style so fashionable in France in the late 1700s and soon to spread across Europe.

Largely built between 1777and 1787 by B&langerwith the help of the English landscapedesigner Thomas Blaikie, the garden also contained a modern obelisk, now lost, "bearing 600 Egyptian signs.":SThe garden was by no means the ear-

liest of its type and had been precededby several others, including one for the queen at the Petit Trianon, begun in 1774. More important, nevertheless, was the garden created

by Carmontelle at Monceau for the king's cousin, the Duc de Chartres, starting in 1778.This also included an obelisk,

plus a pyramid known as "the Egyptian tomb," connected

Fig. 62.Jean-D6mosthdneDugourc. Des;g /or z#eDefaraf/azz af/#e

[o masonic ceremonials (the duke was Grand Master of the

Egyptian

Grand Orient of France),apparentlythe first of its kind

Hazlitt, Gooden & Fox Collection, London

Room at tbe Esca ia}, Longitadina!

Section, 'L186

Absolutism and Enlightenment

.21

visions of etienne-Louis

Boul16e (cat. 7& 81) and, eventually,

to commemorative projects for the Napoleonic campaigns

In Italy. Most of these centred around heroic civic monu-

ments, memorials, and funerary architecture of a type dreamed of but seldom built, except in ephemeral construc-

tions during the Revolution (seecat. 84). The inspiration for

theseworks can be tracednot only to the Egyptianpyramids but alsoto the moderncircumstances of the pyramid of Caius Cestius as the dominant structure in the Protestant cemetery in Rome, newly inaugurated

in 1738. Some of the

visionary aspectsof this utopian architecture have also been

ascribed to the influence of Jean-Laurent Legeay, who naught Boull&e, Peyre le jeune, and Charles de Wailly, and whose capricious designs for vases and tombs are certainly

F\g. 63. Ornamental Stnlctare for [be Park at lltupes, \ 181 Engraving after a design by Jean-Baptiste K16ber

the direct ancestorsof the ominous imaginary tombs of

Louis-Jean Desprez(cat.65 70). Early in his career, Legeay himself had designed a pyramidal gate for a city; however, most of the projects by

his students and their contemporaries aimed at an expresNicolas Ledoux, was designed by Alexandre Brongniart for rhe Marquis de Montesquiou when the park at Maupertuis was being laid out between 1775arid 1780.It may be noted

sivegrandeur of an altogetherdifferent kind, informed by

that Brongniart and Montesquioubelongedto the same

competition

masonic lodge, Saint Jean d'Ecosse du Contras Social, and

sidered with regard to its origin, principles and taste, and

that the garden Brongniart's masterpiece likely rejected masonic ideals. Unlike the pyramids at Monceau and the Desert de Retz, both copied from the pyramid of Cestius in

compared, in these respects, with the architecture of

Rome,Brongniard'swasconceivedas a ruin, with the top supposedly eroded by time

new perceptions on the nature of Egyptian architecture. Tn 1785,the Acad6mie des Inscriptions et Belies-Lettres held a on the subject of "Egyptian

architecture,

con-

Greece." The winning essayby Quatrem&re de Quincy was

not published until 1803,when it came out in an edition illustrated with plates derived from Norden and Pococke's

an odd contradiction to the

very idea of the "eternal" pyramid The most original, and certainly most whimsical, garden designsof the period are those prepared in 1787by Jean-Baptiste K16ber for the Prince of Montb61iard's park at

Etupes, in Alsace (fig. 63). By a curious twist of destiny, in his later career Kl&ber became Commander-in-Chief

of the

French army in Egypt, where he was assassinatedin ]800 K16ber's projects for Etupes included a bath house in the form of an Egyptian temple, a bench, and a swing, all located

on an island reached by a bridge. These are highly original

conceptionsand nothing else quite like them was designed

until around the turn of the cerltury. As noted by JeanMarcel Humbert, the bath house,which is not derived from any specific Egyptian temple, is a brilliant reconstruction using Egyptian elements (cavetto cornice, winged disk), in spite of the clumsy mock-hieroglyphs.:' Oddly, the charm-

ing swing, which may have beeninspired by a detail of the Za&a/a /szac-a(cat. 13), is remarkably close to a design for a

clock intended for a Spanish patron, made by Charles Percier around 1800, and published in 1801as plate Vlll

of

his Rec ez/de DfcoParzo i / / r;e rfs (see cat. 168).

H

The twenty years that elapsedbetween the pyramids

painted by Hubert Robert in 1760and thoseerectedin French gardens in the 1780sis a period in the history of architecture marked by academicexercisesof an increasingly fascinatirlg type, leading to the extravagant monumental

122

Absolutism and Enlightenment

fh ''

Fig. 64. Louis-Jean Desprez

Viewaf tbePark at Haha with tbe Obelisk,\'788.92, watetcolau Nationalmuseum, Stockholm

r' travels [o Egypt half a century earlier, however, his views

were known and also expressed,more succinctly,in the E/zcyc/op/dzeA4JTAodzqnfpublished in 1788. Quatremdre's

sympathieswere overwhelmingly in favour of rhe Greek style, which he saw as superior to all others, but he granted

that Egyptian architecture

expressed permanence,

grandeur, and simplicity to an extraordinary degree.2' Claude-Nicolas Ledoux's work expressed a somewhat different aesthetic: his designs moved away from the

idea of the civic monument arid adapted Egyptii\n forms to

what might be termeddaily life, as in a plan for a woodcutter's hut, or

as part of a large forge

pyramids with an almost infernalcharacter(hg.

a set of four 65)

When Hubert Robert was incarcerated at Sainte-

P61agiein 1793,during the Revolution,a fellow prisoner, rhe poet Jean-Antoine Roucher, asked his daughter to send

him Claude Savary'sLe//rfi iwr /'Egyp/eoz}/'0/z OUPre /f Palali& e des Muurs Anciennes et Modernes de sesHabita7als o{

Fig. 65. Coquet and Bovinet, PersPeff;z,eView af/#e Forge Engraving after a design by Claude-Nicolas Ledoux Biblioth&que Nationale, Paris

1785. A few days later Roucher wrote to his daughter: "The Z,f//e7i have been read, and I think they have stirred the

imagination and the pencil of Citizen Robert. If he could find somesmall corner here, where he could be alone, he

would paint, and would again do great and beautiful things.":9The direct effect of the book on Robertis unknown, but certainly he continued to paint Egyptian subjects after his release in 1794

the same joyful imagi-

nary Egypt he had painted for four decades.By then, how-

ever, much had changed.Nowhere is the transition to the new ideology more evident than in the contrast between Saint-Non's grzMonzlf of Robert's charming and light-hearted "nude Egyptian

girl seated between two lions" published

in 1767 and the monumental

Fow/z/azn (y ' Rrgenercz/z0/2 0 z

r#f Rains o/'rff Z?ai/z//r (cat. 85), also with an Egyptian woman seated between two lions, designed by JacquesLouis David for the Revolutionary Festival of 10 August 1793

M.P.

7. 8.

Erouard 1982,pp. 88,90, 94,note 96

Cayeux 1963,pp. 297--384 Cayeux 1963,p. 336, no. 63/4c 10 Pevsnerand Lang in Pevsner 1968, vol. 1, p. 212, fig. I 1 1 Rome/Paris 1976,no. 114, repr. 12. Saint-Non 1767 9.

13.

Seethe candelabra with draped Egyptian female figures in the

14

Musee Marmottan, reproduced in Faniel e/ a/. 1960,p. 128, fig. 2, and those reproduced in Hayot 1978,p. 63, fig. 13 Syndram 1988, p. 151 Paris 1983,no. 18, repr. and Paris 1987, no. 11, repr.

15

16

For Fragonard, seesale, Sotheby's,London, 26 November 1970,

17.

lot 74, repr.; for Lelu, seeFuhring 1989,vol. 11,p. 566, no. 858, repr. Boyer 1969,vol. XXIV. pp. 66-67

18.

That is, the Ddr/'lP/io/? df /'fgJ/prf, begun under Napoleon

Bonaparte and published from 1809 to 1828 in many volumes; see Boyer 1965,p. 207. 19 SeeOttomeyer and Pr6schel 1986,pp. 477--78,p. 478, repr. 7a--7b. 20.

An identical table, possiblythe same one, is in the J. Paul Getty

21

Museum at Malibu; seeWilson 1983,p. 20, repr. SeeColombier 1961,pp. 24--30.

22

SeeWatson 1966, nos. 87 A, B, repr.

23

Seethe candelabraattributed to Fouchdrein the J. Paul Getty Museum, Malibu, in Sassoon and Wilson 1986, p. 56, no. 122, repr.

24

For the drawing by Dugourc, in the Museedes Arts D6coratifs, Paris, see Ottomeyer and Pr6schel 1986, p. 287, no. 4.15.6, repr. For an andiron similar to the one made for Madame Elisabeth. see

l

Paris 1949, nos. 301, 302; Duclaux in Paris 1973, nos. 10, repr., 18, 19, 20, repr. On the fountain at Grosbois, seeWeber 1969, p. 48, fig. 20. 7Ze C/oac#;ag G zone in the Verospi Palace in Rome also

appearsin the gr€#b/zziengraved by Saint-Non in the Saz/fde .D;x-.fJ'u;/

.Fea;/&u d'apr&

/'Hn/;gae,

1767, pl. 14; see Cayeux

the Rosebery sale, Mentmore Hlouse, Sotheby Parke Berner, 18 May 1977, 1ot 29, repr. 25

Humbert1974, p.I I.

26 Humbert 1989, pp. 38--39. On the subject of gardens, see also Paris

1963,

1978--79; Mosser 1990, pp. 256--76.

p.334,no.55/14a.

27

London 1977,no. 11, repr.

28

Cayeux (with Catherine Boulot) 1989, p. 241

Humbert 1989,p. 40. Following the 1785competition, JacopoBelgrade,a corresponding member of the Acad6mie, published .De/Z".4/'cf;/e//zz/fz fg;z;alza,

Eriksen 1974,p. 302, pl. 49.

Dissettazione d' an Carl'ispo?tdentede!!'Accademia delle Science di

Eriksen1974, p.389,fig. 396.

Pafzgz in Parmain 1786.In the f'nqc/OPcdze A/JTAodzgue af 1788,

For more on the Fei/czz/e//aC',4;/zecz at Rome,seeH. Tintelnot, Baroc&z ea/ff and &al'acer K ni/(Berlin, 1939) p. 290, and Efsayr o/? !he History gArchitectare presented to Rtidoif Wit£kower {l.awdow ,

1967).

de Quincy also refers to the "cold, monotonous and insipid eleva-

tions" characteristicof Egyptian architecture. Saint-Girons 1990, P.691 29 Cayeux (with Catherine Boulot) 1989, p. 288.

Absolutism and Enlightenment

123

49

Vase China, 18th century; France, c. 1786 Celadon porcelain; gilt bronze 57 x 28 cm (diam.)

Stamped on the mounts: 62065, 527/, 7't/ /(7350, 3/ 446; fleur-de-lis; 7// Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partemenr des Objets

d'Art (OA. 5213) Provenance:

MesdamesAd61aTdeand Victoire of France, Chateaude Bellevue; Palais des Tuileries in the 19th century; deposited in the Mobilier National 1870

Exhibited in Paris This ovoid vase in celadon Chinese porcelain, with a flower-

ng shrub motif. stands on a circular base,to which has been added a gilt bronze mount decorated with foliage, flaming torches, and gadroons. At the bottom of the paunch, the mount consists of lanceolate leaves, ears of wheat, and culots; above them is a border of vines.

Two female figures wearing antique-style sheaths,

with hairstyles strongly reminiscent of those of ancient

Egypt, appearon the neck of the mount, which otherwise consistsof symmetrical foliated scrolls embellished with foliage and fruits, pearls and pelmets.

Like two other vasesalso in the Louvre,' this one belonged to a set of six which, at the end of Louis XVT's

reign, was in the apartments of MesdamesAd61aldeand Victoire in their residence at Bellevue. One pair adorned

rhe winter drawing room, while the other two pairs were

placedon the two mantelpieces of the mam,or summer, drawing room Paul Biver has reconstructed their history. The Darnault brothers were well-known draperyand suppliers

[o Mesdames,to whom they sold the set of vasesin July 1782;at that time they had bronze mountsin the rococo style.: On 17 June 1786 the suppliers, at the request of the prirlcesses,replaced the original mounts with those still to be seen on the three vasesin the Louvre.3 Although tempting, there is no reason for attributing these new mounts, in

which the themeof Egypt is discreetlybut unmistakably present, to Pierre Gouthiire.

G.M

1.0A 5497.

SelectedReferences:

2. Archives Nationales(013775). 3. Archives Nationales(013776).

Williamson

1897, no. 294;

Dreyfus 1922,no. 441; Robiquet 1920--21, pp. 153--54; Biver 1923 PP. 265-66, 269.

124

Absolutism and Enlightenment

50

Candelabrum (One of a Pair) LouisXVI style(c. 177580) Gilt and patiraated bronze

105x 42 cm Fontainebleau, Musee National du Chateau

(F 581C) Exhibited in Paris

A winged child, coveredwith added drapery,standson the

baseof a column, holding a horn of plenty from which spring cars of wheat, three branchesadorned with Egyptian

headsbearing candle-holders,and a bouquet of tulips, roses, lilies, and carnations

The history of these objects cannot be established

with certainty before 30 March 1796,at which date they arc recorded at the Garde-Meuble National as having been

taken from the depository at the Hotel de I'Tnfantado, where they were listed as no. 140.' According to Christian Baulez, they may have been requisitioraedfrom one of the royal or princely mansions in Paris, such as the Palais du Temple (the Combe d'Artois) or the Hotel de Toulouse (the

Duc de Penthi&vre).On the 27 Thermidor Year IV of the Republican calendar (14 August 1796),they were sent to

Lagarde,Secretary-Generalof the Directory at the Luxembourg Palace.From there they went to the Palaceof the Tuileries. In 1807 they appeared in the second drawing

room of the Grand Marshal of the Palace,which afterwards becamethe main drawing room of the King of Rome. They

stayed in this room, which was used by rhe Princess C16mentir)e under the July Monarchy. In 1841, they were

sent to Fontainebleau to decorate the bedroom of Queen Marie-Am61ie.

The candelabra are in a style that was relatively rare in the eighteenth century and their dating is problematic. The statuesof the children which could be connected to the creations of Jean-Louis Prieur

as well as the shape

and ornamentation of the branchesand candle-holders would suggest a date around 1770. It seems unlikely, how-

ever, that Egyptian heads would have been included at that

lime. In a number of collections (Wallace, Huntington, etc.)

there are several series of Louis XVI candelabra with Egyptian heads (and headdressesthat show variations from the Fontainebleau examples) and these are generally dated

from the 1780s.2 On the other hand,it will be notedthat the centre branch in each of the Fontainebleau candelabra has

a smallernozzle (possiblyto provide a better view of the bouquet at the rear), in a more developed style than that of the other two branches. This cannot be viewed as the effect of a subsequentalteration, for the sametype of nozzle is to

be found on the branchesof a pair of candelabrasold at

Christie'sin Londonon 19May 1983,and subsequently on the Paris art market.; in the presentstate of knowledge it seems prudent

to suggest a date between

1775 and 1780.

Absolutism and Enlightenment

125

51

Fire-screen Georges Jacob (1739--1814)

Louis XVI style Gilded wood, covered with yellow satin

with a pattern in violet and lilac

115x 70x 35cm

Apps rently not stamped Foratainebleau, Musee National du Chateau

(F 610C) Exhibited in Paris

This screen was part of a set of Louis XVI furniture, sold in

1810by the tapissierSussefor the bedroomin the apartment of the Prince Souverain n" 2

on the furst floor of the

new princes' wing (Louis XV wing)

in the Chateau de

Fontainebleau. At the time, the set consisted of a wing chair. four armchairs, four straight-backed chairs, and a footstool, stamped by Georges Jacob, along with a firescreer] ;\nd f\ folding screen. During the Second Empire, l\ sofa carved by Cruchet was added to the set.

As the surviving chairs sold by Susie in 1810for the other rooms in the apartment carry the stamp of JacobDesmalter, it is probable that the woods for the Louis XVI

furniture were suppliedto Susseby the samehrm, which may hi\ve either kept them in stock after the end of the Ancien Regime or have purchased them at some other date

for reasonsunknown. There is no archival record of rhe name of the client for whom Jacobdid the carpentry work

on thesechairs. The carving on them is so ornate that Pierre Verlet has always believed they must have been intended for a member of the royal family. Recently, Christi;\n Baulez has suggested it was Marie-Antoinette, on

the basisof comparisonwith f\ drawing attributed to the Rousseaubrothers, who were sculptors to both the king and

queen,now at the Museede Versailles,which showsa screensimilar to the one at Fontainebleau and bearing the queen's initials. In spite of many differences between the

drawing and the object itself, it is unlikely the similarity is a matter of chance. On the other hand, careful examination shows that not all items in the set of furniture are a perfect I'his would. however, mean that this model of candelabra

might be one of the first in which the influence of Egyptian irt made itself felt in some degree.

J.-ns. 1. Archives Nationales, 02 400. Ottomever and Pr6schel1986, pp. 258, 261. 3. La Rez,ae Zzf Lozzz'/e, no. 3 (1984), L'Es/cz/7zp;/&, no. 173 (Septemb( 1984), P. 56.

match. The ornamentation of the footstool differs from that of the chairs and screen. Boulez has also been able to show mat its construction is the same as that of another footstool in the Musee de Versailles, stamped Gfoflgfs ./acoa and bearng the inscription

G/amd c.za/her df /a Rfznf

Urrjaz//fs

This is the basisfor his attractive hypothesisthat both items

belongedto a set of summer furniture delivered for the Cabinet Tnt6rieur de la Reins in ]783, and that the rest, including the screen,may be the last of the winter set for the same room. The fabric now on the screen dates from

SelectedReferences: Roussel [19041, series 4 pl. 362.

126

A.bsolutism and Enlightenment

1810;it is yellow satin with a pattern of large motifs in violet and lilac, framed by a border with a palmetto design.

r

The motif of the Egyptian sphinx was used by Jacoband his carvers on a number of occasions.It recurs on

the armrestsof the chairs from the boudoir of Marie Antoinette (Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon) and on the base of a screen made in 1785 for the Comte de Provence

(pavilion of Madame de Balbi) at Versailles.' 1.-PS 1. Reproduced in Lefuel 1923, pl. XVll SelectedReferences: Roussel[1904], series3, p]s. 312, 314; Gu6rinet, n.d., pl. 62; Theunissen

Gonzalez-Palacios 1966, p. 57 pl. 24; Boulez 1990b,no. 2, PP. 102-04.

1934, pp. 90--91;

.4 52

Bergare Jean-Baptiste Claude Ser)& (1 748 1803) 1788

Carved walnut, gilded with burnished gold on a white background 119 x 90 x 84 cm

Unsigned; initials A/,4 in a cartouche on the back

New York, The Metropolitan MuseumofArt (41.205.2) Provenance: Palais de Saint-Cloud; Marquis de Cazaux; sale.

Paris, 1923;George and Florence Blumenthal, New York; gif[ ofAnn

Payne Blumenthii1,

1941

The queen played an important part in making the Exhibited in Paris

Egyptian taste fashionable in France and elsewherein

In 1788, Jean-Baptiste Send made a remarkable suite for

Europe. She had /zemfi-clad sphinxes added to the decorations of her bedroom at Versailles and her drawing room at

Marie-Antoinette's Cabinet Particulier at Saint-Cloud; it

Fontainebleau; she herself chose, from among the art

consisted of four armchairs, a bergdre, or wing chair, a

objects in the possessionof the Crown, a large lapis lazuli

sultane, a small footstool, and a screen.I What makes these

vase, supported by four sphinxes, for the mantelpiece of her

piecesoriginal is the fact that they are ornamentedwith

bedroom at Versailles.6We know that she used seatssimilar

delicately carved, draped, female Egyptian busts, which,

to those she ordered for Saint-Cloud at Versailles and

contrary to Send's usual practice, are his own work.:

Fontainebleau. Boizot designed andirons in the form of

The fashion for furniture in the Egyptianstyle was started by the Duc d'Aumont as early as 1770;;in the years that followed, most of the active designers such as Georges

Jacob, Boizot, La Londe, David Roenrgen,and JacobDesmalter adopted the new fashion.' The form of the Egyptian-style decoration varied, from a simple head wearing a rzfmfs to sphinxes like the ones on Marie-Antoinette's

sphinxes for her bedroom at Versailles, and she liked them so much that she immediately ordered a second set for the Salon des Jeux du Roi at Saint-Cloud

In general, the presenceof Egyptomania can be felt at her residencesto such an extent that it seemsclear she herself' was responsiblefor the creation of a large part of the decorative schemes.

armchairs at Fontainebleau.S

J.-M.H

Absolutism and Enlightenment

27

1. Send's memorandum of 3 May 1788, no. 157 (Archives Nationales, Of 3646, cited in Verlet 1963, pp. 183--86,PI. 39b).

2. Send'smemorandum, above.

3. julliot ills andPaillet 1782,p. 112,no.318,andpls.27,28. 4. Humbert

1987/1990, vol. 1, PP. 135 42.

5. Circa 1787,StampedG./aron(Gulbenkian Museum, Lisbon) 6. Circa 1670, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des Objets d'Art

(MR262).

53

Egyptian Woman with a .7yaoi Claude Michel, called Clodion(1738 Terracotta

1814)

48 cm high

Signed on the back, on the baseof the rock

CLODION Paris, Musee du Louvre,

SelectedReferences: Gu6rinet, n.d., pl. 89; Salverte 1927,p. 319; Remington 1954,

pp.67,84;Mayor1957, p. 105;

D6partement

des

Sculptures(RF 2548)

Verlet 1955,vol. 1, p. 82;Verlet 1963,pl.39b.

Provenance: Mme Joseph-Auguste Dol, Paris, before 1928; bequeathed to the Louvre museum 1944.

in 1928; entered the

Exhibited in Paris

On the surface, there is nothing Egyptian about this sculpture except the idea: a priestess, in Classical dress, leans gently on an open nczoicontaining an Egyptian deity. In her

life hand is a scroll with hieroglyphs. The fascinationwith /2czoi-bearingstatues was fairly widespread; before Clodion,

Piranesi did engravings of variations derived from ancient

#

prototypes available in Rome and, as noted by Alvar Gonzalez-Palacios. Hubert Robert also produced a design

engraved by the Abba de Saint-Non as plate 96 of his gnHgozz;s.i More recently, Anne Poulet has pointed out Clodion's sophisticated use of Egyptian and neo-Egyptian

sourcesto produce an altogether original creation.: The successof the work can be measured by the many versions

basedon this prototype, as listed by Jean-MarcelHumbert and Anne Poulet.3 To these one may add a marble version

once part of the Bloomfield Moore, Barnet Lewis, and Oppenheimer collections, and a replica, with a pendant: from the Leopold Hirsh collection.'

M.P

Gonzalez-Palacios 1984, vol.1,P.133 Paris 1992, pp. 319-22.

Humbert 1987/1990, vol. 11,p. 110;Paris 1992,p. 319 Sales. Christie's, London, 24 29 May 1933, 1ot 148, repr., and Christie's, London, 7 May 1934; a terracotta by Jullian said to be in

the Paul Cailleux collection, Paris (see C07z?zaf sznrf dfJ 4r/J December 1961,p. 124)is in fact the work in the Louvre.

128

Absolutism and Enlightenment

Exhibitions; Paris 1945,no. 235; Paris 1949, no. 304; Vienna 1966, no. 120; London 1972,no. 350; Paris 1992 no.67,repr.

1957, p. V; Vienna 1966, pl. 77;

SelectedReferences: Beaulieu, Charageat, and Hubert

Laclotte e/ a/. 1989,p. 192; Paris 1992,P.29.

London 1972,fig. 58;GonzflezPalacios 1984, vol. 1, P. 133;

Hlumbert 1987/1990,vol. ll, pp.108--10,no.112,repr.p.1091

Hulbert 1989, p. 197,repr.;

..wlb 54

Seated Egyptian \Woman Attributed to Claude Michel, called Clodion

(1738 1814) c. 1795

Terracotta

20x 9 x 12.5cm Paris, private collection Provenance: Paul Cailleux, Paris.

F'l

The meaning of this Classically draped figure, identified as Egyptian by the 7zemei,is as elusiveas her destination. Silent

and mysterious,she might be the personification of an Egyptian priestess,perhapsa study for a funerary monument, or even

lesslikely

a model for the decoration for a

clock. Dated usually to arourld 1775,the figure may be sub-

stantially later if one judges by the short sleevesof her dress,characteristic of the fashion at the end of the century.

The attribution to Clodion is not certain,and the rather ample forms and static modelling suggestanother hand M.P Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences

Paris1934a,no.756.

Anonymous 1954,p. 63, repr.; Hlumbert 1987/1990.vol. ll, p. 110, no. 113; Hlumbert 1989 p.196,repr.

55

Antinous-Osiris ClaudeMichel,calledClodion(17381814) Terracotta

28x 9 x 7cm

On his return to Francein 1772,Clodion was commissioned by the Conte d'Orsay to produce a funerary monument.

A document

of 4 March

1775 stated that "I.

Paris, private collection.

Clodion, will executetwo figures in Tonnerre stone with which My aforesaid Lord the Combed'Orsay will furnish

Provenance:

me representing a male and a female Egyptian seven-undone-half feet high supporting a cubical abacusin the same

Paul Cailleux, Paris, before 1932

stone on which will be carved Egyptian characters and

Signed

on the back of the base: C/odzo/z

which are to be used as supports for the tribune to be conA copy of the Antinous in the Capitotine Museum, this terracotta is generally dated ro Clodion's first stay in Rome in the 1760s. It has been suggested that it may have been copied directly from the original, but the narrow shoulders,

structedfacing the mausoleum."'The monumentand tribune no longer exist and no visual records have survived but it has been reasonably speculated that the supports may

have been figures like this Antinous, presumably placed in

general cast of the body, nnd supporting tree trunk at the

a mannernot unlike thosein Hubert Robert'sview of the

back in a different position suggest a lively interpretation of the original rather than a faithful copy.

Villa Albani or thosein MichelangeloSimonetti'sfamous later arrangement of about 1780 in the Salaa Croce Greco

A.bsolutism and Enlightenment

129

at the Vatican. Alternatively, it could be suggestedthat a

Paris 1992,p. 318

Seated Egyptia7t Matt and a Seated EgyptiaTa WomaTI \pJ Clodion in a private collection in New York were associated

with the Orsay project. They are male and female, as specified in the contract, and could have been used as supports in the way indicated by one of Piranesi's chimney-pieces (see

cat. 19).Clodion likely met Piranesiin the 1760sand certainly knew his work, asshown by two small germs in the Egyptian

style, one holding

a /zrzoi, signed C/odzo/z Hn X//,

that is, ] 804. As has often beennoted, the harms are derived from Piranesi's chimney-pieces rather than from an Egyptian

source and are a very late echo indeed of an aesthetic in fashion years earlier.

56

SelectedReferences:

no. 59, repr.; Paris 1992, no. 66,

p. 133,vol.ll, p. 117,fig. 249;

repr.

Anonymous 1954,p. 64, repr.; Bethe 1976,p. 253, repr.; Gonz31ez-Palacios1984,vol. I

Humbert 1987/1990, vol. ll, p. 1 13, no. 1 18; Humbert

1989

p. 200, repr.; Paris 1992, pp. 29

M.R

77

Design for a Salon in the H16telde Mazarin, Paris Francois-Joseph B&langer(1744--1818)

Exhibited in Ottawa

Drawn byJean-[)&mosth&ne Dugourc(17491829) c.1778 80

In 1777.the Duc d'Aumont left the Hotel d'Aumont on the

Pen and black ink with watercolour

Rue de Beaune and leased apartments in one of the two

28.1x 33.1cm

palacesbuilt by Gabriel in the PlaceLouis XV. the present

Montreal, Canadian Centre for Architecture

Hotel de Crillon. The famoussalefollowing his death in 1782dispersed the extraordinary collections he had

(OR.1992:O015)

130

Exhibitions: Paris 1932,no. 29; Paris 1934a, no. 757; Paris 1934b,no. 114; Paris 1949.no. 305; Paris 1973,

Absolutism and Enlightenment

accumulatedor inherited, as well as the furniture and art

B61anger'sown design for the salon in the Hotel de

objectshe had commissioned for the decoratior] of his houses.t

Mazarin is of a pure, if sumptuous, Louis XVI style, but

The duke's passionfor beautiful objectswas sharedby his daughter-in-law, Louise-Jeannede Dufort-Duras, a witty

containsa reducedreplica of the statueof Antinousin the

heiresswho had inherited the title of Duchessede Mazarin. and who was described by her contemporaries as "one of the most original women of this century.' The duchess,whose own collection was dispersed after her premature death in 1781,lived from 1767on in the

Egyptian intrusion can be linked to other contemporary

Capitoline Museum (on a console to the right). This Neodesignsby B61anger,notably an Egyptian-style fireplace in a volume of projects compiled in 1770 80, the result of his study of Piranesi's chimney-pieces.6

M.P

former Hotel de Conti at 13 Qual Mitlaquais.' in the 1770s she commissioned fairly extensive new decorations from

1.For the Duc d'Aumont, seeSellier 1903,pp. 80 84;Colombier

Ehearchitect Francois-JosephB&langer;theseare unfortu-

1961, PP. 24-30.

nately poorly documented.' However, we know they

2. Burkard1989, p.52.

included a cabinet for exotic porcelain apparently designed

3. Demolished in 1845, it stood on the site of the present llcole

by Jean-Francois

Chalgrin

ing to a letter, Dugourc

(1739 1811) for which,

accord-

B61anger's brother-in-law

was

to supply Chinese characters.s

57

Nationale Sup6rieure des Beaux-Arts.

4. Hlautecceur1952,vol. IV. pp. 306,494.

5. Seetheintroductionby Christian Baulezin Lyon 1990,p. 17. 6. Arizzoli-C16mentel in Rome/Paris 1976,no. 9, repr.

Design for the Decoration of the Egyptian Room in the Casita del Principe: Cross-section Jean-D6mosth&ne Dugourc (1 749 1829)

In ]786, Dugourc

prepared

a series of designs

1786

for the decorationof two small apartmentsfor the

Pen and black ink with watercolour, on tracing

Prince of Asturias, the future Charles IV of Spain, in

paper glued in two sections onto the support 38.5 cm x 30.2 cm

in Madrid. It is not known if the projects were a com-

Inscription on mount: #' 26 and Prove/df d6cotation de la saLLe6gyptie71Tle pour t'Escarial. coupesur ta targear

EheCasitadel Principeat the Escorialand at EI Pardo mission, but at the time Dugourc certainly designed furniture for other apartmentsin the Escorialand EI Pardo and the hrm of Camille Pernon appears to have

Paris, private collection

woven samplesof wall-hangings for the Etruscan

Provenance:

Room at the Escorial. The plans, which called for Gothic, Turkish, and French rooms at EI Pardo and a

Claude Pernon, Lyon; Tassinaria nd Chftel

similar blend of historicism and exoticismat the

collection, Lyon; sale,Hotel [)rouot-Arco]e,

Escorial, were not carried out possibly becausethe novelty of the designsand the intimate, French character of the rooms failed to appeal to a court which favoured

Paris,3 June 1988,part of lot 2. In 1765, as a young

man, Dugourc

briefly

visited Rome,

where he met Winckelmann a turning point in his career.A painter at first, he turned to architecture and decoration, a profession he joined fully after he married

a more majestic style of decoration.2 The designs for the

Escorial, more complex and striking, involved a series of three rooms on the second floor of the Casita del

Principe. A floor plan and various designs,now dis-

B61anger'ssister in 1776. In the vanguard of enthusiasts

persed, show that the apartment was entered through

for the Antique, from 1780 he became the D&corateur

an Egyptian reception room, which led to an Etruscan

du Cabinet de Monsieur

salon, which, in turn, opened on a Chinese cabinet.; For

Louis XVI's brother; then,

under Pierre-Adrien Paris' direction, he provided designsfor the Duc d'Aumont. In 1784,the duke appointed him the designer for the Garde-Meuble de la Couronne. By the mid-1780s he also supplied designsto

chebronze-founderPierre Gouthidre, to the Harmof Camille Pernon, Jaume et Cie in Lyon, and to a variety

of foreign courts including thoseof Germany,Russia, and Sweden.

the Egyptian Room, the most original of the three, [)ugourc took the unusua]stepof proposingto b]ock Ehetwo windowsand illuminate it insteadfrom above, through a skylight, in the manner of a subterranean tomb.

The elevation exhibited here showsthe short wall left of the entrance to the Egyptian Room, and the

skylight and roof above. Right and leff of an Egyptian

Absolutism and Enlightenment

.3

:7':S iiiBTF:=T-4cmiT=i'b','JBa.B

Fig. 66. Jean-D6mosthdne Dugourc Design for tbe Decoration of tbe Eg)ptian Roots nt tbe Escoria!, Longitadina!

Sect on (detail), 'LISG

Watercolour on tracing paper glued in three sections onto the support

Hazlitt, Gooden & Fox Collection, London

rors (oneof which concealedthe door to the Etruscan

almost every detail of the room: the star-studded silk and the processional reliefs for the walls, the decorative sculptures on the consoles,the winged scarabson the ceiling, the

Room) make up for the absenceof windows and increase

harpists and double-winged scarabson the doors, the

the feeling of space.The elevatioraof the long wall (fig. 66)

design on the base of the Egyptian statue

showsthe sameEgyptian statueat the far right and the

from engravings of the CafRe degli Tnglesi and the chim-

spaceformerly occupied by windows blocked with false

ney-pieces (cat. 14, 15, ] 8 20). Despite this, the overall effect

doors decorated with Egyptian motifs.' The furniture visible

was strikingly

in both drawings is limited to consolesresting on three

Piranesi and in complete contrast to the recently completed

winged sphinxes and armchairs copied faithfully from

Egyptian Room at the Villa Borghese

statue are two shallow niches lined with mirrors which reflect the room. On the opposite wall, similarly placed mir-

Piranesi(see cat. 18). Piranesi was in f act the model behind

132

Absolutism and Enlightenment

all were derived

different from anything conceived by

M.P

r 1.For Dugourc's designs, seeHartmann 1976;and Arizzoli

Projet de decalanon de La saLLeEgTpttenne pour I'Escuria1, 1786, coupe sur

Za/o/zgaewr.See Rome/Paris 1976, no. 70, repr.

C16mentel in Lyon 1990, bibliographic references p. 43, note 114.

2. For an account of the Spanish projects, seeSancho 1989 3. All the designs for the Escorial project are reproduced in Sancho

1989and were part of the Tassinariand Chftel sale of 1988:the

Selected References

floor plan and three drawings for the Egyptian Room were nos. I and 2; three studies for the Etruscan Room were listed as no. 3;

Hartmann 1976;Humbert 1989,pp.IO1--02,repr.p.106;

those for the Chinese Room were nos. 4--8. 4. The drawing (38.2 X 60 cm) has inscribed on its mount: #' 25 and

58

Sancho 1989,no.102,repr. p 31.; Lyon 1990, no. 19, repr.

Designs for the Ceiling and Floor of the Egyptian Room Jean-D6mosthine Dugourc

(1 749 1829)

The right sideof this drawing showsthe inlaid decoration

1786

proposed

Pen and black ink with watercolour 32 x 60 cm

Provenance:

M.P

&

Selected References:

pp.IO1--02,repr.p.107;Sancho

Hartmann 1976;Humbert 1989:

1989, no. 102, repr. p. 32.

.f'' . .

3

#£$;: 11 i:]

' '""'' j ; *:''tf':'? '.::'':':::l= 1l

-3$3£31i:I! L

i'fz'&'ig.

#

jii :l:;Ek4t

m

i

at

2.

;;:=6.:= iz 1:iji&ii:l

E

and

cornice.

Claude Pernon, Lyon; Tassinari and Chftel collection, Lyon; sale, H16telDrouot-Arcole, Paris,

"'-'"

scarabs, hieroglyphs,

design corresponds to that shown in Dugourc's floor plan inscribed Sa//efgyp/zf/znf. The left half of the design shows the unusual solution adopted for the ceiling, with skylights, and some of the Egyptian-style reliefs on the surrounding

Paris, private collection

3 June 1988, part oflot

for the floor, with

the centre an oval with a winged disk and serpents.The

"'.;''':l

'''w

]'£?=.!

IQC$ .'0::($+:i:::::EQ. 0.

i

Absolutism and Enlightenment

133

+

59

Design for the Egyptian Room for Spain: Longitudinal Section Francois Grognard( 1752--1840) 1790

for rhe Duchessed'Alba's summer apartments in the palace

Pen and black ink with watercolour on cream-

astonishing seriesof rooms, almost an encyclopedia of style

coloured paper; fully glued 21.7 x 48.6 cm

and included an Egyptian waiting room. How much of the

Lyon, Musee des Arts D&corarifs (D6p6t du Musee du Louvre) (RF 41616)

projectwascarriedout is unknown,but in all probability little wasdone. Grognard himself wrote that work was

Provenance:

Nevertheless, along with the drawings there is a description

Part of the "Twenty coloured drawings framed

of the apartment in the form of a "Dream" addressedto the

under glassin bordersof gilded wood, proposed

duchess, as well as a text published

of Buenavista in Madrid.iThe scheme calledfor an from Pompeian

to rustic and from Moorish

suspended by the Revolution-related

decorations for the palace of the Duc d'Alba in

[o Japanese

events of 1793.

by Grognard

in 1792.:

Though long, Grognard's description of the waiting

Madrid," inventoried on the death of Grognard in

room deservesto be quoted for the symbolic value it

1840 (Gastinel-Coural, p- 76); probably Claude Pernon, Lyon; Tassinariand Chftel collection, Lyon; preempted sale, Hotel Drouot-Arcole, Paris,

ascribesto the Egyptian mode: "The third room is decorated in the style of that ingenious people that has become famous

3 June 1988, 1ot 128, col. repr., RF 4/6.r6 (stamp of

for its hieroglyphs, its pyramids, and its superstition. This is the place where all those who come to visit or to consult the

the Louvre at lower right); deposited in the Musee

Goddesswait for her to deign to show herself....The wait-

des Arts D6coratifs, Lyon.

ing room ... displays walls of green and pink granite, and at severalplaceson the ceiling hieroglyphs are inscribed. The cornice is formed by heads of Isis, in porphyry, placed

Exhibited in Paris

betweer] two pro)acting plinths supported by mutules; Formerly attributed to Jean-D6mosthine Dugourc and part

where it is cut off at top and bottom, it is replacedby a

of a group of works dispersedin 1988,this drawing was

bas-relief in porphyry that is an allegory of the worship of Osiris. Below and at several other placeson the walls, and

recently ascribed to Grognard, an associateof Camille Pernon who worked in Madrid from 1787to 1793.Chantal

Gastinel-Coural, who has outlined Grognard's career, reunited a group of designs that she connected to a project

134

Absolutism and Enlightenment

also on the ceiling, there are gold stars of the greatest brilliance, set against backgrounds of azure. In front of the decorations,at the back of the room, there is a large table of

porphyry, the legs being of the same material, and along the

design concerns a structural issue

sides and in the casementsbetween the supports there

sourcein a room without windows: the ceiling hascom-

are figures of basalt, standing on blocks of porphyry, and representing the four principal divinities of Egypt. The six

partments identical to those used by Dugourc for skylights

doors of this room are in a brown wood adorned with lions'

suggestthat the design might well be an exercisein style

headsand tabletsengravedin bronze; the seatstake the

rather than an actual proposal.

the absenceof a lighting

but theseareblockedand coveredin silk. This alonewould

M.R

form of narrow chairs coveredwith hides printed in different colours against a blue background, and the curtains, of

damask, are bordered with hieroglyphs.... Is it possible,

1. Gastinel-Coural 1990.

without a kind of veneration,to think of this people,whose

2. Grognard's texts of 1790 were submitted with the designs and subsequently published in the document entitled: i son f'xre//f rr

monuments have withstood the passage of four thousand

yearsr"'

.. ", Grognard, 1792; seeGastinel-Coural

1990,

p.69,note I,and p.76

As alreadynoted by Pierre Arizzoli-C16mentel,' the project is very closeto Dugourc's design for the Escorial of four years earlier (seecat. 57). Grognard must have seen

it in Madrid. Indeed, it appearsto be a much simplified, purer version of the same room: the proportions are the same, the doors are similarly placed and have related surrounds, the frieze is interrupted in the same manner, rhe sculpture is in the same position, the samesilk with stars is used to cover the walls. The most curious aspect of the

60

A4adamf /a Z)wcffii

3. From the "4' Lettre, 15 aoQt 1790," by Grognard, cited in GastinelCoural 1990,p. 80 [our trans]ation]

4.Lyon1990, p. 81

Exhibitions:

Selected References

Lyon 1990,no. 19,repr.

Hartmann 1976,p. 242, no. 193; Humbert 1989, pp. IO1 02, col. repr. p. 106; Gastinel-Coural 1990,pp.80--81,repr.

Decorative Design: Grotesque in the Egyptian Style Jean-D6mosthdne Dugourc(1749--1829)

1787 1808 Pen and grey ink with grey, black, and coloured washes 81.6 x 44.3 cm Signed in the centre of the temple:/. Demos/'b. Z)zzgozzrc. farc z/ec./az,.Z)f//. ; inscribed in the centre

ot the \empNe '. CE DESSIN / COMMENCE! / A PARIS / ENMDCCLXXXV}I /A ET£ / IERM{Ni /A MADRID / ENC 4XNiZ /

as Prime Minister, for the Duc d'Osuna, and perhapsfor rhe royal family, though this is unclear. Previously, in 1790, Dugourc had executed designs for the Duchesse d'Alba's

Palacetede Moncloa, which was later occupiedby Joseph Bonaparte

when he became King

of Spain in 1808.

Following his arrival in Madrid, the new king asked Dugourc to proceed with alterations to the building, and it was during this period that the architect remodelled the Cabinet de Stuc at Moncloa, finished in 1809. The inscription on the design in Amsterdam con-

A/DCCCr7//; inscribed on the versoon a strip of

nects.it with one of the Spanish projects for Joseph

papet: Ce destin a 6t6 commend a Paris en 1787 et

Bonaparte, unfortunately so far unidentified. Apparently

termingd Madrid en 1808par J. Dimosth. Dugourq

the drawing was begun in 1787 that is, shortly after

architects d%roi osephNapoleon Amsterdam, Rijksmuseum(RP-T-

Dugourc had completed the Egyptian designs for the Capita 1982:10)

del Principe at the Escorial but then abandoned.The iconographyof the drawing showsit to be an allegoryof

Provenance:

Africa, and thus, most likely, one of probably four designs

A. Sigwalt; sale,Amsterdam, F. Muller, 14June 1912, 1ot 867, repr.; Dr. J.V. van Gender, Utrecht;

for mural decorative panels on the theme of Nature and the four t:ontinents. At the centre, Nature sits enthroned on a

S. Nijstad

globe supported by elephants' heads, her feet resting on

Gallery, The Hague; purchased 1982.

Africa. Immediately above and below are representationsof Exhibited in Paris

From 1800on, Dugourc was in Madrid, where he worked on various pro)ects for Godoy, recently returned to power

Autumn and Winter. Further aboveis a medallionwith Herculeswrestling the Libyan Antaeus,and a grotesque with dromedaries.Further below is a templeof Diana of Ephesus, frequently associatedwith Isis in the eighteenth

Absolutism and Enlightenment

.35

@ mm :

m

4 iHA,

. iH

@

W

36

Absolutism and Enlightenment

century and here intended to be Isis, the regenerative force of Nature: above the entrance of the temple are inscribed Ehewords M,'17'R/ MdGN/4E to the Great Mother. To the right and left of the design are a seriesof hieroglyphs, part-

ly derived from the Lateran obelisk in Rome but largely invented; some of these appear as decoration also at the far right of the drawing for the Casita del Principe (seecat. 57).

M.R

W

SelectedReferences; Anonymous 1983b, p. 64, p. 74, hg. 6; Gastinel-Coural

1990,

pp.66,74,col.repr. p.65.

61

Clock France: end of the 18th century Bluish-grey marble; gilt bronze 69 x 32.5 x 24 cm

Signed on the clockface: TZzJT /2 Park;

inscriptions: J7P n' 466 (in ink on paper label); 44409 (stencilled);

Pr6zdf

cf (in ink on the

accession label)

Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des Objets d'Art (OA 5 308) Provenance:

Transferred from the Mobilier National, 1901 Exhibited in Paris

Overall, the clock has the form of an obelisk resting on a rectangular base;at the corners, four bronze milestonesare

linked by chains.On the front of thelower portion thereis a bronze bas-relief depicting a concert of cupids, while the

left and right sidesdisplay trophies of love. Below the face, two partially draped lions each rest a paw on a globe; above, a triangular bas-relief shows two draped nymphs bearing

the terrestrial globe with a triumphant cupid holding a

eternity, the motif was particularly well suited to its use by a

torch. Reliefs with military trophies adorn the leff and right sides. An armillary sphere crowns the whole composition. This model of clock, the work of a so far unidentified

theme of the Triumph of Love.

designer, is a good illustration of the fascination exercised

by the form of the obelisk or pyramid over the creative imagination of artists and decoratorsat the end of the eight-

eenth century. Similar examples abound. As a symbol of

clockmaker; here. it is also associatedwith the timeless G.M. SelectedReferences: Williamson

1883, no. 387

Williamson 1897.no. 387 Dreyfus 1922,no. 379.

Absolutism and Enlightenment

137

62

Sphinx French, artist unknown c. 1770 Terracotta 25 x 31 x 12.5cm Paris, private collection

of the Egyptian sphinx but disregards every inherent characteristic:the hieratic poseis abandoned,the female body

as if fearing the cold of the North

is partly covered

in drapery, the charming your)g head is turned to the side, and rhe Egyptian nfmfi is transformed into a sort of decora-

tive diadem falling to the shoulders.Less new than might Provenance:

appearat first glance, this type has a relatively long ancestry

Paul Cailleux, Paris

mat can be traced to sphinxesof the 1550sattributed to Simone Mosca and made for the Cesi tomb in Santa Maria

The sphinx occupies a special posits.onin the history of the

della Pace in Rome. Among derivations from the same type

survival of ancient Egyptian imagery: it is the one element

one can include, in the seventeenthcentury, the sphinxes in

to have remained in almost uninterrupted use in the

a painting by Charles-AlphonseDufresnoy in the Mus&e

Western world, and the only one to have generated a multi-

Magnin in Dijon and, later, those on a pair of eighteenrh-

tude of new iconographic variations. Tf the typology of

century Italian consoles.:

Egyptian lions was hardly transformed by the handsof artists, the sphinx allowed the widest possible freedom of

interpretation.' From the later seventeenthcentury, when

sphinxesbegin to decoratethe parks and buildings of

1. For the sphinx in art, seeDemisch 1977,pairzm 2. Gonzalez-Palacios 1971, p. 70, fig. 13; Rome 1991,no. 31,repr.

Europe, the treatment of their form, increasingly casual and

imaginative, departs further and further from the Egyptian

prototype.It is only at the end of the eighteenthcentury that a return to sourcestakes place. The type of decorative sphinx shown here, characteristic of the eighteenth century, retains the general idea

138

Absolutism and Enlightenment

Exhibitions: Paris 1934b,no. 136.

SelectedReferences: Humbert

1989, repr. p- 219

r 63

Clock Belonging to the Comte d'Artois From a design by Francois-Joseph B61anger

The only referenceto this clock documentedin Series02 at

(1744--1818); movement by Jean-BaptisteLepaute c. 1785

the Archives Nationales is in a "general summary of a

Gilt bronze, white marble, and varnished metal

Lenoir, keeper of the valuable furniture of the Maison [rlf]

sheet 35 x 30 x 13 cm

de I'lnfantado, to the Director and the Inspectorof the

Inscribed on the clockface: I,rpczurf, //gfr da Ro;

ing the nameof Le Pautre [szr]in white marb]e,adorned with sphinxes,surmountedby military trophies,and other

Paris,Mobilier National(GMI.10109) Provenance:

Comte d'Artois; Ministdre de I'Equipement et du Logement; Mobilier National.

number of inventories of furniture delivered by C]itizen]

Garde-Meuble National ... 8 Niv6se Year 4 ... I clock bear-

ornamentsin gilt bronze."' The monogramH7 on the base is that of the Combed'Artois. There is no trace of this object in the prince's papers, preserved at the Archives Nationales

in SeriesRI.: The varnished background of the medallion

Absolutism and Enlightenment

39

64

Set of Andirons

links it to the six sconcessuppliedby the bronze-founder

End of the 18th century

R6mond for the Palaisdu Temple, which are sheathedin

Gilt and patinated bronze

blue-tinted enamel.3

28.5 x 29 x 11.7 cm (each piece) Fontainebleau, Musee Nationaldu Chateau(F 818)

The clock is supported by seatedwinged sphinxes

wearing Egyptian ne/neiand positioned back [o back. A related clock with

recumbent winged sphinxes was

Eachpieceof this set of andironsconsistsof a recumbent

de[ivered in 178] to the Combe d'Artois for the Pavilion

sphinx in patinated bronze, resting on a rounded base in

de Bagatelle, largely decorated from designsby B61angerin

gilt bronze, fluted at the ends and supported by tapered legs with flutings and gadroons. The base itself is decorated

which sphinxes,winged or otherwise,figured prominently. That clock is lost but the model is known in severalslightly

with a bas-relief portraying a winged figure holding a

different examplesin the Wallace collection in London,

sword in one hand and an olive branch in the other, and

The MetropolitanMuseumin New York, and the

with two heads surrounded by ivy leaves. The set appears in the inventory of the Tuileries in 1807,but the date of its making and the name of the maker are unknown. The style suggestsa date at the end of the Louis XVI period or in the final years of the eighteenth

Prefecture des Yvelines.' Variations on the theme pro-

liferated in the 1780s,including a curious but not very successfuldesign by Jean-FrancoisForty engraved as plate 3 o{ h\s Cahier de Six Pendules,a t' Usagedes FoTtdeurs

of c. 1780;a clock with marble sphinxesin the Louvre;s and even English examples, such as the bronze and Wedgwoodceramicclock madeby Vulliamy in 1799for a Mr. R. Borough.' J.-J.G.and M.P

century

The sphinx is directly derived from antique sculptures in the Egyptian tradition and is undoubtedly taken

from drawings madein Rome. It is not copiedafter the sphinxes basedon a model by Boizot that were made in 1786 for Queen Marie-Antoinette

1. Archives Nationales, 02 466. 2. Archives Nationales 3. Baulez 1990. 4. Gauthier 1988, pp. 126--29, fig. 12--15. 5. Verlet 1987, p. 305, repr.

J P.s 1. Verlet 1987, pp. 215 16, fig. 241, 242

6. Kelly 1965,fig. 51 SelectedReferences:

SelectedReferences:

Gauthier 1988,pp. ll 1, 115:

Samoyault 1989, p. 250 no.247

hg.24.

140

Absolutism and Enlightenment

for Versailles.

6s70 Imaginary Tombs in the Egyptian Style Louis-Jean Desprez(1743 1804)

Vivant Denon, Pierre-Adrian Paris, and Claude-Louis

c. 1779 84

Chftelet.

Pen and black ink with grey wash, watercolour,

When King Gustav 111 of Sweden stopped in Rome in 1783, he engaged Desprez as a stagedesigner, and

and graphite' (cat.65 68);aquatint(cat.69 70)

in the following year the artist left for that country, where

his creations were highly successful.When Gustav TTI

Cat. 6S: Corpse Lying in State 14.2 x 20 cm

placed him in charge of architectural designs on his estates at Drottningholm and Haga in 1787, Desprez suggested

Cat. 66-.Death Seated

14.6x 19cm

numerousexterior and interior decorationsin the Egyptian

Cat. 67'.Death Carrying ci Lamp

style.: His career ended with the assassinationof the king

14.5 x 20 cm

in 1792.

The Zom&rexpressa wide variety of ideas,and art

Cat. 68-.Totnb Supported by Fotlr Sphinxes 14.5 x 20

historians have seen them as anything from theatrical

New York, Cooper-Hewitt Museum (1 938-88-3950

designs to political statements; according to the latter view,

through 3953)

the predominant shadows represent the opposition, while

the power of the crown is lampoonedby the imageof

Cat. 691Death Seated

34 x 50 cm

Death guarding a tomb. Desprez's Egyptian inspiration, which blends sphinxes, funereal figures in voluminous

Signed:dfiprez

nrmci, and freezeswith mock hieroglyphs, is the logical out-

Cat. 7Q-.Tomb Supported by Four Sphinxes

comeof his visits to Rome and the contemporaryfashion,

Signed:

and his work joins that of such artists as Denon and Paris. But it also expressesthe myth ofdeath in terms of Egyptian

37 x 51 cm

Z)esprfz

z z,f z/

Paris, Biblloth&que Nationale(Ha 52, pls. 17 19)

civilization, a myth for which Egyptomaniahas in every period been a ready vehicle.

Provenance: Giovanni

J.-M.H

Piancastelli(cat.

65--68);

Mr. and Mrs. Edward D. Brandegee(cat. 65 68). CaE.69 70 exhibited in Paris; cat. 65 68 in Ottawa

Another drawing (Z)faze Ca yzag a f.amP, 24 X 29.7 cm) is in the Musee des Beaux-Arts in Poitiers; see Baderou 1955, pp. 38 39;

Paris1974b,p.44 2. Wollin 1939, p. 109, pl. 97; Lindhagen 1952, pp. 89 93; Lundberg

1972;Paris 1974a,p. 23, no. 51/11, p. 25, no. 54; Humbert 1989,

In his various roles

as draughtsman, engraver, architect,

P. 104

nterior decorator, stage designer, and painter Desprez, a former pupil of Blondel and Cochin, displayed such inde-

pendentbehaviourthat he did not win the Grand Prix de Rome until he was thirty-three. When he arrived in Rome n 1777 he was invited

to join

in illustrating

the Uoyczgr

P;rzorfigwrof the Abba de Saint-Non,and he left for nine months in southern Italy, accompanied by Dominique-

Fig.67 Aquatint signedI.aafsle

Exhibitions: Houston/San Francisco 1967--68. nos. 126-129; H.amburg 1989, nos. 96-97; Stockholm 1992. nos.137--138.

SelectedReferences Wollin 1933.

Fig.68 DesPrez

Bibliothdque Nationale, Paris

Aquatint

signed DesPrez ;7zpe /f

Biblioth&que Nationale, Paris

Absolutism and Enlightenment

.41

'$'

Q

66

142

Absolutism and Enlightenment

Absolutism and Enlightenment

.43

71

JosephRecognizedby Hhs Brothers Baron Francois Gerard(1770 ]837) 1789

Oil on canvas

1.11x 1.44m Signed at lower right Angers, Musee des Beaux-Arts(65.J.1881) Provenance:

Collection de I'Acad6mie des Beaux-Arts, 1789; Museum Central des Arts; depositedby the State, 1798.

decorationminimal, reducedto two Capitoline lions. If the general movement of the figures echoes Jacques-Louis David's Oa/# of/Ae //oru/zz of five yearsearlier, the Egyptian decoration on the architrave is derived from Piranesi's chimney-pieces, as is Joseph's throne, adapted from the

samechair that inspired Dugourc a few yearsearlier. The painting is said to have been exhibited at the Salon of 1789 but it does not hgure in the catalogue,nor is it mentioned in the reviews; probably there was some confusion between

LheSalon and the exhibition of works competing for the

Prix de Rome held at the Acad6mie in 1789.A sketch,

formerly cataloguedasby an unknownartist but more Though full of dramaticincident, the story of Josephdid not figure prominently among the biblical subjectsassigned

to his painting.' it is actually closer to the compositions by

to the students at the llcole Nationale Sup6rieure dcs Beaux-Artsin Paris. Its appearanceas a set themeat the

Th6venin and Meynier but not sufhcientlyso as to allow a conclusive attribution. Alternatively, it may be a sketch for

competitionfor the Prix de Romeof 1789provided an

the lost painting by Louis-Andre-Gabriel Boucher,the sixth competitor for the Prix de Rome that year.

unusual opportunity to include historical referencesapp'o'

priate to the subjectand set in Egypt. Five of the six competing entries for ]789 have survived,allowing an unusual indeed exceptional perspectiveon how young artists dealt with the Egyptian element. Louis Girodet's composi-

tion. which receivedthe first prize, setsthe actionin an interior featuring mummiesin nichesand a throne with winged lions. Charles Meynier, who sharedthe furst prize with Girodet, submitted an interior with both Doric and Egyptian columns, reliefs with Egyptian hieroglyphs, a

sphinx, and two statuesof Antinous.' CharlesTh6venin, who shared the secondprize with Gerard, devisedan austere

architecture with Egyptianizing columns.: The painting by Jean-Charles Tardieu also included Egyptian columns and

two sphinxes,one holding a miniature pyramid and the other a sistrum.; All gave local colour to the architecture to some degree, but dressed the figures in Classical costume (although

Gerard gave Joseph a /zfmfs)

Gerard's composition is, in a sense,the most successfulof the group and the one wiM the most solidly conceived

architecture. The effect is massive and the sculptural

144

recently attributed to Gerard, does not appear [o be related

Absolutism and Enlightenment

M.P.

1. Both paintings are in the Ecole Nationale Sup6rieuredes BeauxArts, Paris. 2. In the Musee des Beaux-Arts, Angers

3. Tardieu's painting was on the art market in New York in 1983;see

WheelockWhitney & Company,New York, .N;ne/een/A Cenzary Pa; /;lags,1983,no. 2, col. repr

4. Roland Michel in Paris 1973,no. 28; Mtihlberger 1991,col. repr. PP 70-71 Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences

Brussels 1975, no. 132, repr.;

Musee d'Angers 1832,no. 36; Lenormant 1847,p. 36; Jouin

Fukuoka/Kyoto 1989,no. 52, :ol.repr.

1870, p. 28, no. 115; C16ment de

Ris 1872,p. 455; Guiffrey 1908, p. 47; Fontaine 1930,p. 222; Vergnet-Ruiz and Laclotte 1962, p. 237; Roland Michel in Paris 1973,nos.27, 28; Lacambre in

Paris/Detroit/New York 1974--75,p. 428; Bernard 1983: col.repr. p. 64.

Absolutism ai]

;nlightenmen

72

Egyptian Initiation Scene Jean-Michel Moreau le Jeune(1741--1814)

1792 Pen and brown ink with brown wash 26.1 x 38.5 cm Signed and dated lower centre

Quimper,MuseedesBeaux-Arts (74-22-1 ) Provenance:

candidate is swathed in bandages in preparation for three

successive ordeals by fire, water,and air. A pharaohand various dignitaries attend the ceremony, which takes place

beneatha triangular vaulting, a form that representsthe sacredsymbol for the elements.

The drawing was intended to illustrate a volume by Francois-Hlenri Delaulnaye on the history of religions,'

which was never finished. The illustration was later engraved, however, by A.C. Giraud le Jeune as an illustration for Alexandre Lenoir's book on Freemasonry.' J.-M.H.

Acquired on the Paris art market, 1974. 1. Etienne

Exhibited in Paris.

1991, vol. 1, pp. 149--79

2. These ordeals play a central role in Moz;irt's opera 7#f Mag;f F/zi/e (Vienna 1791)

The mystifications of Cagliostro and, in a different sphere, the development of Freemasonry' are intimately associated

with the literary disseminationof myths supposedlyoriginating in ancient Egypt but in fact created by misinterpretation. In this way, pharaonic Egypt becameseenas the

3. Francois-Henri Stanislas Delaulnaye, .f/k/o;re GZ /ra/e e/ Par/;culture desReligions et du CHIle de Tolls les Peoplesdu Monde tart Ancient qae Modelaes, Oaurage O?nd de Trots Cents Figales Glaofes sar tes])essins de Moreau ie penne, Pat\s, \ 79 \ 4. Alexandre

Lenoir,

Z.a Ffcznc-#e-macon/zerfe PI ozfugepar /'frP/zrarzon

des JUy / /ei .4nc;e/zi ez Abode/'7zes, Paris, 1814.

sourceof initiation rites that had nothing at all to do with the ancient religion. Moreau's drawing depicts the so-called rites of the first degree of the initiation into Freemasonry, corresponding to thosethat were supposedto have been practised during

Exhibitions;

SelectedReferences

Paris 1974. no. 105; Morlaix 1987i

Aaron 1985,no. 54,pp. 60, 110

the receptionof initiates at Memphis.On the right, the

Bois-le-Duc 1992,no. 53.

Humbert 1989, p. 234

©

146

Absolutism and Enlightenment

&i..!s%

B

4

73

b

Procession in Hlonour of the Goddess Isis Jean-Michel Moreau le Jeune (1741 1814) 1791

Pen andink

23x 59cm Signed and dated lower right Paris, Didier Aaron collection Provenance: De Bryas collection; sale, Hotel Drouot, Paris,

24 june 1954. Exhibited in Ottawa and Vienna

faithful on a palanquin, heads the procession; farther back,

priests carry other divinities(such

as Apis) or religious

objects (such as a sistrum). On the other hand, the setting

is a completesurprise, being typical rather of a Roman countryside dotted with fortified palacesand offering only a couple of palm trees by way of an exotic touch. Similarly, Ehecrowd in the procession is more reminiscent of Roman Antiquity as seen by Classicalartists than of ancient Egypt; at best it suggeststhe later cult of Isis at Pompeii.;

This type of imagery illustrates to perfection the imprecise, inaccurate conceptions developed in historical works before Bonaparte'sEgyptian Campaign and the birth of Egyptology.

Egypt

its civilization and its religion preoccupiedmany

eighteenth-century humanists. In their attempts to understand the origins of civilization, historians and philosophers

were all too ready to borrow examples from cultures and customs, such as those of ancient Egypt, which were at that

time better known at the mythic level than the scientific. This is the spirit in which Moreau has drawn his procession," which was intended to illustrate the never-

completed work by Delaulnaye on the history of religions.:

J.-M.H. Coulet 1984,pp. 21--28. 2. Seecat.72,note 3. 3. A possible lustinlcation for this kind of bias can be found in the

A4f/amoryDiff by Apuleius, in which the author describesa procession in honour of the goddessIsis. Apuleius had undergoneinitiation into the religion of Isis, but he was obviously only acquainted with the diluted versions of the Late Period, which we may suppose [o be illustrated in Moreau's drawing

All in all, the componentsthat might give the scenean Egyptian flavour are few in number: a seatedimage of a

Exhibitions:

goddesswho is half-lioness and half-monkey, borne by the

Paris. Salon of 1791 . no. 505.

SelectedReferences Humbert 1989,p. 235

Absolutism and Enlightenment

147

e

74

Funeral of an Egyptian Queen Jearl-Michel Moreau le Jeane(1741 1793

plausibility. The figures are i\lso representativeof a

Penandink

is possibleto identify, in a compositiorl which must still be

23 x 59 cm

termed rather corlfused, clearly defined types: shaven-headed

Paris, Didier Aaron collection

priests, and wearers of animal masks (their heads encircled

Provenance:

cz/z4A or carrying standards shapedlike animal gods. The

De Bryan collection; sale, Hotel Drouot, Paris: 24 June 1954.

funeral chariot is decorated with two sphinxes, which have

Exhibited in Ottawa and Vienna.

as effective as possible

Classical Antiquity as seen by rhe eighteenth century, bur it

by strips of fabric adorned with hieroglyphs), holding the

wings, indeed, but are wearing /?f/ fi headdresses,and two lions. evidence of the artist's effort to make his composition

J.-M.H Unlike the P/oc-ciizo/zz/2F/o o r (g'rAf Goddess/szs (cat. 73),

this drawing shows evidence that Moreau was making

Exhibitions: Paris,Salon of1793,no.650

an effort to come closer to the historical and archaeological

realities he had ignored two years earlier. The landscape certainly remains more Roman than Egyptian, but the tem-

SelectedReferenc.

ples, a pyramid, and a colossal statue lend the scene greater

Humbert 1989, p. 235

a@!.$:.$

:l;;$1z: '4

3

K'':

148

Absolutism and Enlightenment

.;xgg©

{

('

75

K F,;

lsiac Procession Guillaume Boichot (1735 1814)

nudity of certain figures with costun)esthat are almostbiblical,

1801

and thus

Pen and black ink with grey wash over graphite

fectly the way in which people at the end of the eighteenth

36.7 x 63 cm

century imagined the ancient cult of Isis at Pompeii. However,

Signed

and

dated

lower

leff:

G. Z?ozc#o/

o/z rzznz

with no real concern for archaeology evokes per-

by restricting the sceneto the head of the procession,he

Le?loin

eliminates the remaining portions, which did, in the original,

Autun,MuseeRolin(S.E.26)

contribute features in an Egyptian style that was much

Provenance:

more convincing. In general, Boichot's inspiration,

Alexandre Lenoir; M.Y. Repoux;gift of M.Y. Repoux

nectedwith Alexandre Lenoir, is certainly related to

to the Musee de la Soci6t6 Eduenne.

masonic sympathies; these were encouraged by the growth

intimately con-

in the r)umber of lodges after Bonaparte's Egyptian Exhibited in Paris

Campaign.

J.-M.H Guillaume Boichot, like many of the artists of his time, was keenly aware of themes derived from ancient Egypt,' and lsiac ceremonies occupy an especially important place in his

work.: However, he does not display any great originality

in this composition,in which he plagiarizes from an engraving made from a drawing by Moreau le Jeune

Fountain composed of an Antinous figure and four sphinxes: Musee Denon, Chalon-sur-Sa6ne (D. 32, seefig. 158)

2. Bellier De La Chavignerie 1882--85, vol. 1,p. 107.

3. The engraving, inverted from the drawing, is reproduced in Hlumbert1988a,p. 62.

(cat. 73).S

Far from enhancing the Egyptian character of the scene, the small changes Boichot makes in standards, musical instruments, shields,garlands actually give it a more

definitely Roman feeling. He mixes the Classical heroic

Exhibitions: Paris, Salon of 1801, no. 34; Autun 1876, no. 15; Autun 1967

SelectedReferences: Humbert 1988a,p. 62

Paris 1974,no. 9; Autun 1988, no. 62.

Absolutism and Enlightenment

.49

,0hq"6

£"-' ns.''''

i

?.nl:wJ5,h..nw.

H

Jm«Va'

Fig. 69. Jean-Jacques Lequeu Eglp/jazz Bridge w;fb [ f s, c. 1800, drawing Bibliothique Nationale, Cabinet des Estampes, Paris

-says"'

''y'

«lg:-;i

iWJ).

.h«

tb$h 4««!f'"-a dial'j'mg

£n.'-a

'',

E

150

Absolutism and Enlightenment

P' 76.77Hlouse in the Egyptian Style surmounted by a cupola, which gives the entire composition jean-Jacques Lequeu(1757--1825?) c. 1800

a Moorish touch; an obelisk located behind the facade serves as a sundial.

Pen and black ink with grey wash and watercolour

The Bath Room of the Egyptian-style house has as

Cat. '76. SmaLLHouse in the Egyptian Style

its basic decoration mock hieroglyphs, a sacrificial scene, and two Egyptian-style harms decoratedwith cartouches.

44.6 x 31 cm (plate)

The Hall of Morpheus is heavily decoratedin the late

Cat. 77'.Interior ofthe Bath Room ofthe House in the Egyptian Style and The Side of the HALLofMorphem,

eighteenth-centurystyle, and the only Egyptian decorative clements in it are four columns with palm-shaped capitals.

Uset}as the Ent}.ance {a the Bedchamber

Lequeu included in this seriesof drawings a with sphinxes, a porch with Egyptian

30.6 x 44.6 cm

Zr mp/e of Wisdom

Paris, Bibliothique Nationale, Cabinet des Estampes (Ha 80, pp. 35, 58)

heads,and a bridge ornamented with hieroglyphsand four pairsof sphinxes(fig. 69).

Cat. 76 exhibited in Ottawa; cat. 77 in Vienna The facade of this house is based directly on a temple gate; in front of each of the two massive pylons there is a seated

colossus:the male figure on the right, who is wearing trousers under his loincloth, has his hands placed between

In these works, Lequeu blends the drama of preRomanticism with the dreams and innocencethat characterized the visionary architects of the end of the eighteenth century. But he also brings in his own eccentric personality and bizarre universe both partially tracing their sources[o his visit to Italy in 1783as well as to the Revolutionary ideas of the time

his thighs; the female figure on the left has a more traditional costume and pose, with her arms crossed over her chest. Each of the bases is decorated with a cartouche. and a

J.-M.H.

frieze of mock hieroglyphs extends above each head, also

Exhibitions: Houston/San Francisco 1967-68,

SelectedReferences: Hlouston/SanFrancisco 1967--68

with a cartouche at its centre. The originality of the idea is

no.97.

no.97,pp.156-57,no.109,

further enhancedby the mixture of styles:eachpylon is

78 80

PP. 180-81

C'enotaphs etienne-Louis Boul16e(1728 1799)

are truly characteristic inasmuch as they present amournful

c. 1780 85

image of the arid mountains and of immortality."' His

Pen and ink with grey wash

main sourcesfor Egyptian material were Norden, Quatremdre de Quincy, and, above all, Fischer von Erlach.

Cat. 78. Cenotaphin the Egyptian Style

Boul16e'spyramids are quite unlike the pyramidal

44.5x 106.6 cm

structures used to adorned parks and gardens,or the

Cat. 79'. Cenomphin the Form ofa Truncated Pyramid 39 x 61.3 cm

charming ruins of Hlubert Robert. They are immenseand dramatic, animated by anonymous crowds who wander through disturbingly chiaroscurospaces.It is true that his structures are often truncated and endowed with strange

Cat. 8Q: Ceaomph in the Fot'm ofa Pyramid

36x 109.9 cm

Paris, Bibliothdque Nationale, Cabinet des Estampes (Ha 55, pl. 26; Ha 57, pls. 13, 24)

ramps, intermediate

platforms,

and subterranean

passages,

but the referenceto Egypt is alwaysimmediatelyobvious. On the eve of the Revolution, countlessartists designed projects abounding in such pyramids, and Ledoux even

Cat. 78 exhibited in Paris; cat. 79 in Ottawa: cat. 80 in Vienna.

transformed them into industrial architecture (seefig. 65).: The fact is that Boul16e,untroubled by the opinion of the encyclopedistsand philosophers

Boul16eoften wrote of his admiration for the architecture of

who denounced such

the ancient Egyptians and especially for their pyramids:

monuments as expressions of despotic pride employed simple, exact draughtsmanship to restore to the pyramid

;The Egyptians have left us famous examples. Their pyramids

its profound significance as a funerary monument.SThe

Absolutism and Enlightenment

151

g

152

Absolutism and Enlightenment

Revolutionaries turned this symbolism to their own account

H

lnd the pyramid remainedvery much in vogueuntil the end of the Empire.

Our fascinationwith the work of the visionary architects is indeed essentiallylinked to their proposalsfor

funerary architecture.' But their designswould not have been so successful if the reference to Egypt

the guarantor

of a kind of immortality as symbolizedby its pyramids had not addedto their imaginativeflights the solid reality

Fig. 70 and 71. Etienne-Louis Boul16e

of tangible morluments that had already for many centuries nourished the dreams of generations.

Bibliothdque Nationale, Cabinet des Estampes,Paris

OvewiewoftbeCevlotapbs with theirEwctostfre 'Walls

J.-M.H Cited in P6rousede Nloi)tclos 1968,p. 132 2. Hlouston/San Francisco 1967--68;Mouilleseaux 1989 3. Caso 1976 4. Bandiera 1983

Exhibitions: Houston/San

Selected References Francisco

1967--68.

nos. 4, 5, 17; Rome/Paris 1976, no. 16; Paris 1990,no. 17.

Houston/San

Francisco

1967--68

pp.22--23,36;P6rousede Montclos1969,p. 192; Rome/Paris1976,pp. 59--65; Mouilleseaux 1989, pp. 30--3

K6risel1991, p. 161

Absolutism and Enlightenment

.53

#

H

P

n n"

81

Cenotaph for a Warrior fltienne-LouisBoul16e(1 728 1799) c.178085

There would be nothing Egyptian about the cenotaph were it not for the frieze of colossithat extends around

Pen and ink with grey wash 33.7 x 56.1 cm

the baseof the "lid." This frieze, consistingof Egyptians standing side by side, is copied from the Capitoline

Paris, Bibliothique

H /z owi, which was well known at the time ' and frequently reproduced in treatises on architecture and decoration

Nationale, Cabinet des

Estampes (R&serve Ha 57,pl. 27)

(seecat.1,24). Exhibited in Paris

J.-M.H.

As with all Boul16e's work, we are struck by the gigantic size of this structure, an aspectfurther enhanced by the tiny

154

figures at its foot; here, the monument has assumedthe

Exhibitions: Houston/San Francisco 1967--68.

SelectedReferences: Hlouston/SanFrancisco 1967-68

form of an enormous antique sarcophagus.

no.13.

p.32

Absolutism and Enlightenment

n

#

®

[

82

d%«)«

& 42;-.ala«&gz-a,,..,p-

g%w

Cenotaph for Newton The Roman pines planted on the terrace remove

Joseph-Jean-PascalGay( 1775--1832) 1800

any possible coldness or impersonality from this composite

Etching by an anonymous engraver

architecture, and illustrate, once again, the closeinteraction

24.9 x 47 cm

between the Egyptian and Roman sources.

J.-M.H

P\ate atom Collection des Prix que I'Acad6mie

d'Architecture Couronnait et Proposait Toms!esAns by Athanase D6tournelle, Paris, 1806

Exhibitions:

Paris, Bibliothdque Nationale, Cabinet des

Houston/San

Estampes (Ha 76)

no.139.

Francisco

1967--68.

SelectedReferences: D&tournelle 1806;Hlouston/ San Francisco 1967--68,p. 225 Humbert 1989,p. 44

Exhibited in Paris

A pyramid with some twenty-eight steps,coveredwith horizontal inscriptions, surmounted by a statue, and containing

within

it the cenotaph proper

a celestial globe (see

fig. 72) standsin the centreof a quadrant plantedwith trees. Midway along each side, an avenue of eighteen sphinxes

leadsto a door similar to the one in the enclosurewall for the temple of Montu at Karnak in Egypt. The baseconsists of a slanted wall with a cavetto cornice. and is covered with freezes depicting

Greco-Roman

hgures.

E\B.'l'L. Etevat on af tbe Cewotapbfof tqewton b) Ga) Engraving after a design by Joseph-Jean-Pascal Gay

Biblioth&que Nationale, Cabinet des Estampes,Paris

Absolutism and Enlightenment

h

;S.::i;:s8$€#

'l...L I)}l...:\('l! \

., /

\

.

.-

+'

IB)l!( J.O LlrIS X\rJ I)i'ol)ofccs

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,"'".

.:'If'z'lc

]!']' ]..\ S£L}.].]< ]yOi)]!i{,\ cn (acc dcs 'l'ltuilc!.lcs

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Place Louis XVI and the Opera House Proposed for the Carousel Opposite the Tuileries

83

Francois-Joseph B61anger(1744 1818)

derived from the Roman vision of Egypt, such as the lions

1781

of the Cordonata,or obelisks with basesdecoratedwith

Etching by Pierre-Gabriel Berthault (1737 1831)

Antinous figures.' For the Romans, the obelisk, originally intended to display the surf's rays in a material form on each side of temple entrances, became an isolated element of architec-

37.5 x 53.3 cm Paris, Musee Carnavalet, Cabinet des Estampes

(TypoGC4 A)

tural decoration.B61anger's drawing lendsthe form a new B61angeris a perfect exampleof the many artists who, at

importance, and prepares the way for the popularity which

the end of the eighteenth century, had becomeaware of

this type of monumental decor was to recoveron a vast

Egyptian art through their contacts with Rome. Signs of

scaleat the end of the eighteenth century.S

this can be found in a number of his works, suchas the

1.-M.H

ornamental structures and the interior and exterior decoration of the Pavilion de Bagatelle(1777 87), as well as many designs.'

When it wasdecided,in the 1780s,to look into the possibilities for using the vast space between the Louvre and the Tulleries to lay out a Place Louis XVI and build a

new opera house,: dozens of proposals were received. B61angeralone put forw:\rd at least Give,;all direct varia dons on Roman Antiquity: they included not only versions

of the Pantheonand Trojan's Column but alsoelements

56

Absolutism and Enlightenment

1. For example,P/arz.H07' zz/zf'gyPrza/z-s/y/fFzrfP/acf(1770 80, Biblioth&que National), P/ando/ a/z O&r/zi4 zn./}ozzr (f/Ae Co/onzzadf (#'/Af I.omz,rf (Musee du Louvre,

Cabinet des Arts Graphiques),

and

Planfor fln Obeiiskjor {he Pon!-Nerd(\ 8Q9). 2. Chastel and P6rousede Montclos 1966. 3. Daniel Rabreau has published two other designs by B61anger:see

:Un Opera au Louvre," Bfazrx-,'l7'/s Mzzgczzznf, no. 15 (July August 1984),PP.56 59 4. On Antinous. seecat. 1, 24. 55, 153, 154--155 5. Humbert 1974; Hlumbert 1985b,especially pp. 424--26.

r' Funeral Ceremony in Hlonour of the Martyrs of the Tenth

84

in the Jardin National, 26 August 1792 Charles Monnet

(1732 after 1808)

and of no effect, it was at once taken down. The ceremony,

c. 1797

entirely military and sombre, took place on the 25th, at

Etching by lsidore-StanislausHelman

nightfall, but I could scarcely witness it; the pack of specca-

(1743-1806? 1809?) 50 x 66.7 cm

[ors wastoo great for tile; I left and wcnt quietly to my abode.

No\anion: 1} Paris, chez Decroaan. Editeu}. Rae du rampart, 4 uis-&-uis te Th a }.e FI'a71gais

Paris, Musee Carnavalet, Cabinet des Arts

Graphiques (TopsGC3 F)

Theseare the words in which Jean-Georges Wille describesthe funeral ceremony of 26 August 1792,held to pay tribute to the Revolutionaries who died in the attack on the Tuileries on 10 August that year. Everything had been done to ensure the presenceof' a large crowd; a notice posted

I have seena large pyramid being erectedat the Tulleries. blackish in colour, with inscriptions on its Hoursides; it was set up in the great round basin, opposite the main entrance of the Chateau, in memory of those who lost their lives in rhe attack on the Chateau on 10 August. A few days earlier, an obelisk had been erected at the entrance to the principal avenue,for the same purpose, but, being found too slight

/'"'

a

a

E

up in the streetscalled upon Parisiansto assemblefor an act of remembrance: "Citizens, a National festival will be cele-

brated on Sunday in honour of our fallen brethren who died fighting for liberty. The representatives of the people will lay civic wreaths at the foot of the pyramid to be erected at the Tuileries. We call upon every citizen to attend this solemn festival with his garland of oak leavesor flowers, or

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n

Absolutisna and Enlightenment

157

with his wreath, and at the end of the ceremony to lay it at the foot of the monument raised to the glory of the heroes who have aided us to vanquish the tyrantsl":

absolutismof the pharaoh as yet another symbol of royalty

and feudalism

and have been destroyed for that very

reason.

porary structure, merely shaped in wood and covered with

The fact that this did not happencan be explained by the continuing link betweenEgypt andAntiquity, which

cloth, as we learn from other authors who speakof "the

appeared to confer upon it a kind of ideal purity for a people

pyramid of black sergeraisedon the basin of the Tuileries

who had had their fill of monuments built by generationsof

with the inscription: Silence, they are at rest."' But the fact remains that, unsubstantial and impermanent, and there-

kings. Egyptomarlia would, in fact, draw new strength from the Revolution,would be assimilatedby it into new

fore p;\radoxical, as this structure might be, the funerary

symbols, and would find in it a new public.

The pyramid in question was of course just a tem

J.-M.H.

link to the pyramidal form remained intact. The pyramid was also used for other purposes during

the Revolutionary period as a symbol of the durability of rhe "Immortal Decree,"4 or of the celebration of the

destruction of the emblems of feudalism,Swhich were now LOvanish for all eternity that sameeternity symbolized by Ehepyramids of Egypt. We may be surprised that Egyptomania survived in the Revolutionary period, considering the elitism charac-

terizing its introduction and the interest displayedin it by

Marie-Antoinette,either of which might have brought it into disrepute or even elimini\ted it. For Egyptomania

could easily have been seenas an expressionof the

85

1.Jean-Georges Wille, A//moz'rrif/ /ou/'aar,Paris, 1857,pp. 357 58 ourtranslation]. 2. Cited in Drumont

1879, n.p. [our trans]ation]

3. Jules Renouvier, /{zi/ozrf de /'.4r/ przzdan/ /a Repo/zi/zoa,Paris, 1863,

P.419 4. Ph !osophy auld Patriotism C07}qaering Prejudice, ewgtav\ng b'j Picquenot after Mar6chal, 1790; Humbert

1987/1990,vol. 1, p. 42.

5. "F&te de la Destruction des Embldmes de la F6odalit6," 14 July 1792on the Champ de Mars in Paris. See,for example,the watercolour drawing by Louis-Gabriel Moreau (Biblioth&que Nationale, Cabinet des Estampes, Collection Destailleur, no. 565), reproduced n Tulard 1989, p. 134

The Fountain of Regeneration,on the Ruins of the Bastille, 10 August Charles Monnet 1797

1793 (1732 after 1808)

Engraving by lsidore-StanislausHellman

(1743 1806? 1809?) 26.7 x 43.5 cm Paris, Musee de I'Arm6e, Cabinet des Estampes (07802)

The first anniversary of the fallon the monarchy, 10 August 1793, was marked in Paris by a great "Festival of Regenera-

tion"' orgs\nizedin the form of six "stations": scattered acrossthe city. The structures built for the occasion included the fountain created from drawings by Jacques-Louis

David for the first station at the Place de la Bastille, which was intended to astorlish the crowds (fig. 73). David's design

was meant for a major commemoration; he recalled its symbolic purpose when he offered to engrave the sceneon a

medal: "One of the most characteristic moments in this festiva[ is that in which our common mother, ]Va/z/re,presses

out from her fertile breaststhe pure and health-giving liquor of regeneration.";The designwon the preliminary contest,' and was modelled by Suzanrleand Cartellier (fig. 74). It was theres'orean Egyptian goddesswho personi-

fied Nature before the gaze of the astoundedParisians; seatedbetween two lions, she directed the water springing

158

Absolutism and Enlightenment

r$9 . 1.x pllc

ll

ixa-x:inl:LX

Flg- 1'5. Place de [a Bastille

(the first station of the Festival of 10 August 1793)

Unknown artist Watercolour Musee des Arts D6coratifs, Paris

:2

c(/, :/....., ).,.,/..,c#?, .}';.-.:'''''. ;Qo .}},,, /...,' ).,z'-':, ).-,,£: .:(2d..../.'//i. £'. ;;, al ,.;/,.«:v3

# '!j1l

Za

lzzizedz Zu

.http ZwR!€&te

B\g. '74. Tbe Fo utah afRegeneration }w tbe Rtlins oftbe Bastille Trial coin in pewter (future 5-d6cimes piece)

Flg. 15. Fo stain afRegeueration Erected on tbe Rltins of tbe Bastille

Engravedby Dupr6 after a designby

Engraving Biblioth&que Nationale, Cabinet des

Jacques-Louis David

Estampes, Paris

Flg. '76. Fountain ofRegene atiavz Drawing by gassy Musee Carnavalet, Paris

Bibliothdque Nationale, Cabinet des M6dailles, Paris

Absolutism and Enlightenment

159

from her breastsinto a basinornamentedin front with an adaptation of a winged disk (fig. 75: 76). The pose,in itself

hasnothing Egyptian aboutit, and the fact that the figure is so eminently recognizableis attributable only to its atnre:

some day this figure might be erected in bronze in this

rhe

same square."'o His wish was not to be granted, and

bronze(i plaster statue disappeared at the beginning of the

the characteristic loincloth and the pzfmesadorned with the

crescentof Diana, which in turn recallsa Hathoric symbol

.X\so ca\\ed FesLwatofTqaLui-e Regcnetnled awd Festival of the Lntty

It should be noted that this type of "Egyptian-style" fountain

czlzd//?dlurn&z/z/y orz#f RepK&/zr.

was not really new: in 1747an engraving in the reissued 7'#/orzf ff Pra/iqaf d# /czrdznczgf by Dezallier d'Argenville showed a similar fountain in the Eg) ptian style. Carmontelle

2. The station at the Champ de Mars presented a curious Classical

iH :ll ; i ::::! :::: ll; I

had repeatedthe samemotif in the interior of the pl'ramid he had built in 1773in the garden of the Duc de Chartres at

MonceauS;his contemporary, Hubert Robert, frequently used the same theme.

However, the fountain did not simply reproduce a

fashionable genre; a representation of this kind, loaded with the heavy symbolism of the \ irtues of ancient Egypt,

left room for varied interpretations-- political, religious, and social. Tt was above all the symbolof an entire religious ideology, the elements of which are to be found in a number

nfworks centred around Isis and her attributes:' "Antiquity furnished two models, the many-breasted Diana and the

veiled Isis. who had been represented,especially by Roman ,rt. as a simulacrum of Nature, on the one hand mother and nurse to everything existing, and on the other impenetrable to man."' This conception

appears clearly in the speech

delivered by H6rault de S&chellesduring the ceremony: OH NATURED Receivethis expressionof the eternal devotion of the French people to thy lawsl And may these fruitful waters springing from thy breasts,this pure draught that quenched the thirst of the furst Humans, consecratein

Session of 20 August 1791, Article 2). 4. "'Announcement of the subjects of the competition:

The .subjects

lilllih#iil:l:i;lI lll

lb$E:l!$11:11illEHiil p::

ill(iBl;lF;x:';:u=:;% December 1986,1ot 15.

7. Bonneville1791,vol.I,P.20 8. Renouvier 18a3, P. 406 jour [ranslationl.

9. 1)zscoup j P/-o/conf/ Pa/-;Wa/'If/can Hfrazz/Z df SlcAf//cf..., n.p, Year

[1(1793), PP.3 4

:,HitsHI lilslili Ader-Picard-Tajan,

Rliilli

17 February 1986, 1ot 116, PI. IV

this cup of fraternity and equalit) the oathsthat France svbears to thee on this day."''

When jean-Georges Wilde went to seethe fountain

a few daysafter the festival he expressedthe unanimous sin-

Exhibitions: Paris 1949,no. 322; London 1972: no. 644; Vizille 1985,no. 17.

Baltrusaitis 1967,p. 29;London Humbert 1987/1990, vol. 1, P.43

Gutwirth1992, P.364

Alexander the Great at the Tomb of Cyrus the Great Pierre-Henri de Valenciennes(1750 1819) 1796 Oil on cam-as

40x 90.5cm Chicago, Art institute of Chicago(1983.35) Exhibited in Ottawa. Provenance:

Hunt Collection,England;Hunt sale,Christie's, London, 5 February 1802,1ot 61, repurchasedfor £28.7.0; The Reverend George Augustus Frederick

16C

Paris 1949, no. 322, P. 59; 1972, P. 928; Vizille 1985, P. 23;

opinion of his fellow-citizens= "1 looked upon it with a gular pleasure.It is true to the statuesof the Egyptians, and the composition in general is excellent. I would hope that

86

SelectedReferences:

Absolutism and Enlightenment

Hart, Tower House,Arundel, Sussex;estatesale, Sotheby's, 20 May 1873. Anonymous sale, Redford, Henry Spencer, 9 November 1978,1ot212, repr.;

Trafalgar Galleries, London, before 1979; purchased 1983

The subject of the painting, mentioned in the lost chronicles of Aristobulus of Cassandreia (who claimed to have been

presentat the event), and cited in Arrian's .4naZ'ails and repeated by Plutarch and others, is Alexander the.Great's

visit to the tomb of Cyrus the Great at Pasargadae.On

arriving, he found the tomb unsealed,Cyrus' golden

r

sarcophagus rifled, and his skeleton scattered. Moved by the

decorated with Persian capitals and reliefs, the latter recog-

sight, in Adrian's version, Alexander ordered the negligent

nizably the man-headed winged bulls of the palacein

Magi responsiblefor guarding the tomb to be tortured. In

Khorsabad. In hjs X/Zmc i df PfrKpfc/iz,rP/azzgae,Szzzuz de R(Wer;onif/ Co/zie/Zi zlzzZ/?z'f. . . , first published in 1799, Valencienneshinted that he had visited Greece,Asia Minor, and Egypt, although no proof of this has ever surfaced and there is nothing in his work to suggest the visits occurred

Plutarch's version, he had Polymachus, the author of the deed, put to death. A morality tale on the uncertainty and

mutability of the affairs of the great, the theme was seldom depicted.

This painting by Valenciennes has as a pendant the

Between1769and 1786he certainly did travel to Italy three

representation of another episodefrom the history of

times, spending a total of some ten years there. Like all his

b.\exandet, Mount Athos in Thrace, Carved as a Statue of

contemporaries he studied the monuments of Rome: a

,4/rxa/oder,also at the Art Institute of Chicago.: Signed and

sketchbook in Toulouse includes drawings of the

dated 1796, it is undoubtedly the painting Valenciennes exhibited at the Paris Salon in 1796,and thus contemporary

Capitoline Egyptian lions and the pyramid of Cestius,and

with the work shown here.Though usuallysaid to have appearedin the saleof the artist's studio (Paris,26 April

[wo at the Louvre, a sketch (RF 2992),and an idealized

1819),both paintings were evidently in England by 1802. The unusual subject aside, this work is remarkable for the curious architecture it depicts Egyptian buildings

In any event, Valenciennes was uncommonly erudite. His Z/Zine/zi df Periperrzuf cited a long list of books, includ

severalof his oil views of the pyramid are known, including landscape with a rainbow (RF 3006).

ing a large number of illustrated travel accounts,3among

Absolutism and Enlightenment

161

collection

them Norden'sZraue z Ef p/ a d Nzf&fa,the inspiration

are discussedin New York 1990,no. 55, repr

3. 1'oulouse 1956,pp.17--18.

for the buildings depicted here. M.R

l 2

Among the few examples is one in the seriesof twenty-one subjects inspired by the //kzoz f de Cyrm, exhibited by Collin de Vermont at the Salon of 1751;seeParis 1751, p. 19, no. 20.

Exhibitions;

supp."Burlington International

London 1979,no. 24,col. repr.

Fine Arts Fair," repr.; Bzfr/;ag/ozz

A/agar;lzf, CXXIV:947(February

The subject, an allegory of architecture, was also depicted by Fischer von Erlach; seeOechslin 1982,pp. 7--26.A related earlier sketch in the Bibliothique Nationale and a finished drawing of a

SelectedReferences:

1982), p. XXll, repr.;7Zf 4 r

Seguier 1870, p. 211; James 1897,

later date signedand dated#n 8 (1799),in a New York private

Magazz'ne, CXXl;918(1979),

Institut gChicaga Annul! Report /982 /983, Chicago 1983, PP.12,37,6g.17.

87

vol. 111,P. 154; .Bz£r/; g/o

The Fifth Plague of Egypt (The Seventh Plague of Egypt ?) In 1802Turner painted the ZenzAPfag f ofEgyPr,'

Etching by Joseph Mallord William Turner (1775-1851) 1808

which he also engraved in 1816;while a sketchbook of

EngravingbyCharlesTurner(17731857)

on the subject of Cleopatra.S Yet it was not until the 1830s

28.4 x 42.9 cm (plate) Plate XVI from Z,z&er Srz£Zzorum, by

that he returned to Egyptian subjectsin connectionwith

1805 06 contains studies that show he considered a painting

Ottawa, National Gallery of Canada (3260)

illustrations for two books. One was a view of the pyramids engraved by Edward Finden for his I.a/zArape ///ui/rar;o/zi of/ e Bz&/f, first issued in 1834--35.As Turner had not visit-

Provenance:

ed Egypt he used a sketch "taken on the spot" in 1818by the architect Charles Barry as a model.6in 1836,Turner

J.M.W. Turner,

1808

Cotswold Gallery, Boston; purchased 1925.

was asked to illustrate the works of the poet Thomas Moore,but the project failed and insteadhe illustrateda

Exhibited in Ottawa and Vienna.

new edition

The engraving is a variation on the painting (Indianapolis Museum of Art) that Turner exhibited in 1800at the Royal

Academyin London.' Though criticized by John Ruskin and, later, by Walter Armstrong (who thought the pyramids looked like tents), the work was much admired by

younger artists and establishedTurner's reputation as a

l 2. 3. 4.

major painter.' The subject of the composition has provoked some debate. When shown in 1800, Turner gave it the title "The Fifth Plague of Egypt," though in the Academy catalogue

he quoted from Exodus 9:22 23

which describes the

of Moore's

Egyptian

7'fe Z#=carea/2,

5.

Butlin and Jail 1977, pp. 9 10,no. 13 (T%f Fz$ZfP/aguf). For its effect on younger artists, seeHlolcomb 1974, pp. 47--48, 57.

Upstonein London i989, no. 19 In the Tate Gallery, London; seeButlin and Jail 1977,pp. 15 16, no. 17 This sketchbook is in the Tate Gallery, London, na. 90; seealso

Finberg1909, vol.1,pp.233,237. 6.

Rawlinson 1913, vol. 11,p. 307; H.errmann 1990,p. 210.

7.

Rawlinson 1913,pp. 323--24;Hlerrmann 1990,pp. 220--21.Moore's navel, first published in 1827, was also used as a basefor a musical

Seventh Plague: "And the Lord said unto Moses, Stretch

spectacle, 7ff

forth trine hand toward heaven,that there may be hail in all the land of Egypt, upon man, and upon beast,and upon

Tate Gallery) contains a series of thirteen illustrations and a distinct

every herb of the field, throughout the land of Egypt. And Moses stretched forth his rod toward heaven: and the Lord

EarzhqKa&f,' or 7'#e Sofa/f

secondseriesof nine finished drawings. In the end, only four vignettes were engraved by Edward Goodall for the edition of1839.

ground; and the Lord rained hail upon the land of Egypt. In the engraving Turner retained the title TZf F{HzA P/agee. The versescertainly correspond to the image, but, as noted

by Robert Upstone, the title could be correct and the

SelectedReferences;

stooped figure of Aaron perhaps gathers the soot which

Finberg 1911, p. 25, no. 16, repr

closes will throw in the air to begin the Sixth Plague.;

Herrmann 1990,p. 46, fig. 30

Absolutism and Enlightenment

of /#f Nz/f, performed in

London in December 1828.Turner's sketchbook no. 280 (in the

sent thunder and hail, and the fire ran along upon the

162

romance

published in 1839' the furst treatment of a subject that also later inspired Edwin Long's A/f/Ae (cat. 336). M.P

$

-....-Jc4#

\

&

4

Absolutism and Enlightenment

163

88

View of an Imaginary Egyptian Temple Louis Francois Cassas(175G-1827) 1799

temple are certainly based on the statue of Queen Tuya in

Etching by Louis-JacquesCathelin (1738 1804)

Sekhmet/Wenut at the far right may well havebeenbased

Rome, and

the sculptures

of the seated goddess

58x 80cm

on the statue in the Borghese Collection (seecat. 38). The

I nscriptions: lower right: Z)fitz/z/par L.F Caisai; lower centre: Z,cijgzfrfs par Df€/}ef/ze;lower lefts

view showsan ancient ritual, with a processionand priests burning a sacrificeat an altar, an idea perhapstaken from

Graz/spar CateLin

Desprez'sreconstruction of the temple of Isis at Pompeii for

Plate 97 from

Saint-Non's Uoyagf P;ZZorfigz/e.

Uoyczgf Pzrroffiqzze de /a Syrzc, df /a

Ph6nicie, de la Palestine et de h Basie-Egypte, b'j Cassas, part

XVII.

Paris, Bibliothdque de I'Arsenal (Gr. Fol. Z 9,

A ritual processionoccursalsoin the highly theatrical Zr mp/e .z/zdPyrczmzd,which Goethe saw in Rome

during his visit to Cassas.He describedit in September

PI. 97)

1787as "A pyramid, tentatively restoredafter somedocu-

Exhibited in Paris

ments.Along its four sidesrun pro)ectingarcadeswith obelisks attached to them. These are approached by avenueslined with sphinxes, similar to those which can still

In 1782.when a student in Rome, Cassastravelled to Sicily

be seen in Upper Egypt. This drawing depicted the greatest

to provide illustrations for the Abba de Saint-Non's volume

of travels (to which Denon and Desprez also contributed,

architecturalconceptionthat I ever sawin my life, and I do not believe it could be surpassed."; Fifty years later, the

among others). In 1783, after a brief stay in Paris, he joined

same architectural

qualities

led Jakob

Oath

to use Cassas

the Comte de Choiseul-Gouffier, the new ambassadorto

work for his stagedesign for 7Ae Magic F/ /f at the

Constantinople, in an extended voyage to Greece,Turkey,

Stadttheater

the Middle East, and North Africa, landing in Egypt in

in Mainz

in 1836.4

In 1794, Cassas' interest in architecture led him to

December 1785. In October 1786, he left Constantinople,

plan a museum in Paris of models of "the finest specimens

where he had prepared his drawings, intending to return to

of the architectureof all peoples."The gallery eventually

France. By February 1787,however, he had travelled no

opened in 1806 in his house at number 8, Rue de Seine,

further than Rome, where he remained until 1792;'his circle there included Piranesi's sons,the notorious Cagliostro, and

with seventy-fourmodels;eight were devotedto Egyptian

the architect Asprucci.Z

view of the architecture gallery, unfortunately dispersedin 1903,in which there are two Egyptian buildings, including

In 1787,Cassasannounced the publication of three volumes of plates under the title voyage Pzr/oreiq e df /a Syria, de la Ph6nicie, de LaPalestine et de la Basie-Egypte. Despite the sensation they created in Rome, the drawings

architecture. An engraving by Sylvestre Bancoshows a

a temple with telamones that is not unlike the temple in the

engraving and thus, presumably,an ideal building rather than the model of an actual one.5

remainedunpublisheduntil the end of the century,when the project wasonly partially realized: in 1799, Cassasissued thirty separateinstalments comprising 173of the 330 plates

1954, pp. 114 23; Gilet

1989, pp. 279 87

originally intended. The published designsincluded pic-

2. Lossky has speculated that Asprucci may have derived inspiration

turesque views as well as a number of imaginative designs,

from Cassasfor the design of the Egyptian Room in the Villa

extraordinary variations on Egyptian themes.Presentedas

Borghese. However, Asprucci's design was finished in 1782, before

speculative restorations of ruins (fig. 77 and .78), they pre-

Cassasmade his visit to Egypt. SeeLossky 1954,p. 119 3. J.W. von Goethe, /fa/lan /oa/7/q, /786-/788, transl. by W.H. Auden,

figure and rival in ambition the work of Etienne-Louis Boul16e.

It seemslikely that someof the drawings were not done in Constantinople (where Cassassaid he had left a set of tracings in case of an accident) but were executed in

164

1. For Cassas, see Boucher 1926, vol. 11, pp. 27--53, 209--30; Lossky

NewYork, 1966,pp.389--90. 4. Stuttgart1987,p. 72,fig. 58 5. Reproduced

in Boucher

Rome.Suchis the casewith the Firm ofcz/z/mczg/ary

SelectedReferences;

Eg p/zzz/zTemp/f, in which the caryatids supporting the

Humbert 1989,repr. p. 25

Absolutism and Enlightenment

1926, p. 213. See also Szambien 1988, fig. 19

!'

W

Fig. 77. Louis Francois Cassas

View aran ImaginalW Eg)ptiavz Temple Plate 95 from Vo7zz.geP;/fof"eigzze, part XVll Biblioth&que Nationale, Cabinet des Estampes,Paris

Fig. 78. Louis Francois Cassas View alan \mag nary Eg)ptiavl Temple Plate 96 from VaWage P;//oresqz/e, part XVll

Biblioth&que Nationale, Cabinet des Estampes,Paris

Absolutism and Enlightenment

.65

\

166

Absolutism and Enlightenment

89

''The Monuments of Egypt" Manufacture d'Oberkampf

a Jouy-en-Josas

c. 1808

colours,including black and brown. An examplein red and yellow is preservedin the Art Institute of Chicago.'

M.P

Cotton, printed with a copper roller

40 x 43 cm Mulhouse, Museede I'Impression sur Etoffes (954.307.2)

1. C)nthis subject seeHumbert 1987/1990,vol. 11,p. 266, no. 306. 2. Paris 1978, nos. 39, 40, 107.

3. For instance,"Josephin Egypt" or episodesin the life of Moses derived from Poussin, or "Bonaparte in Egypt"; see Paris 1978 nos. 13,14,p.156.

Provenance: Louis Becker, Paris.

4. Luring 1979,p. 117,fig. 3

Early textiles with Egyptian motifs are rare.' Orientalist subjectsderived from Andre Modeste Gr6try's opera 7'Ae Carat,an orca;ro, or decorative motifs such as "Obelisk with

Exhibitions: Mulhouse 1986

SelectedReferences; Jacque and de Bruignac 1978,

pl. 7;Br6dif1989, pp.151,179,

Rabbit," printed on cotton at Nantes, introduced

repr. pp. 150--51 (example printed in black at the Musee d'Oberkampf, Jody); Humbert 1989,p. 115, col. repr. p. 282

Egyptianizing elementsvery modestlyaround 1785to 1790.2Still at Nantes, in the first decade of the nineteenth century, recent historical or biblical subjects would include Egyptian themes.' The most famous printed cotton of this

genre, however, was doubtlessly "The Monuments of Egypt," manufactured at Jouyby Oberkampf. The design conformed with both the new passionfor antique motifs and the older (and in some ways more compelling) interest at Jouy in current events as subjectsof decoration. As noted by Josette Br6dif, the design shown here

Baptiste Huet

possibly by Jean-

is composed of ancient or picturesque

elements derived from several plates from Cassas' Uoyagf

P;//oreiq r de /a Syr=f, including a small temple adapted

from the one in the previousentry (cat. 88).The appealof Lhebook is understandable,although someof the images chosen for the print represented a landscape that no longer existed: the fort of Alexandria, shown below the pyramid to

the left, had been destroyed in 1800 during the Egyptian Campaign, for example. The fabric was printed in various Fig. 79. Louis Francois Cassas

Vieworan \magma ) Eg ptian'remote Plate 98 from Vagzzge P;f/oresqwe, part

XVll

Bibliothdque Nationale, Cabinetdes Estampes,Paris

Absolutism and Enlightenment

167

3

From\lVedgw/ood to Thomas Hope

©

169

Shortly after her arrival in the spring of 1717in Turkey,

engraved from his own drawings. These included a few

where her husband had been posted as British ambassador,

sculptures,a mummy belongingto ColonelWilliam

Lady Mary Wortley Montagu wrote from Adrianople to

Lethieullier (later given to the British Museum), part of the

the Abba Conti about some of her acquisitions: "I have be-

lid of the cofhn of Kh'hap given by Dr. Robert Huntington

spoken a mummy, which Ihope will come safe to my hands, notwithstanding the misfortune that befell a very

in 1683 to Oxford University, and a mummy sent.by

price for it, and the Turks took it into their headsthat he

Pocockefrom Egypt for the Museum of Dr. Richard Mead. This, incidentally, was the same Dr. Mead who as a young man. in 1695.claimed to have found in the Turin museum

must certainly have some considerable project depending

Ehe mislaid

upon it. They fancied it the body of God knows who; and

enjoyeda certain success(as noted elsewhere,Cardinal

that the fate of their empire mystically dependedon the

Albani received a set in 1756),but his "Essay Towards

conservation of it. Some old prophecies were remembered upon this occasion,and the mummy committed prisoner to the Seven Towers, where it has remained under closecon-

Illustrating the History, Chronology, and Mythology of the

finement ever since: T dare not try my interest in so consid-

Alexander," finished in 1741, was never published. Shortly after its completion Gordon sailed for South Carolina, the

fine one designed for the King of Sweden. He gave a great

erablea point asthe releaseof it; but I hopemine will pass without examination."' Whether Lady Mary obtained her mummy is unknown, but her enthusiasmis typical of her

Ancient Egyptians, from the Earliest Ages on Record,till

the Dissolution of Their Empire, near the Times of

first Egyptophile to reach the American shores,where he earned a living as a painter and died before 23 July 1755.

age, combining as it did antiquarian curiosity with a pas-

The Egyptian Societyquickly grew to include

sion for travel. Her wayward son, Eduard Worsley

Colonel Lethieullier, who had visited Egypt in 1721,and

Montagu, spent several years in Egypt with more tangible

various aristocratic associatessuch as the 2nd Duke of

results:in 1767,a number of objectsbrought by him from Egypt, including a granite head,reliefs,and a mummy in a

Montagu, Lord Sandwich's great-uncle, who was admitted in January 1742.That year Pococke arranged for the exam-

the growing collection of Egyptian works started in 1753

ination at the houseof the 2nd Duke of Richmondof a mummy, subsequentlysold by the Duke to the architect

with the bequestof Sir Hans Sloan.

John White, who in turn gave it to another architect, Sir

cofhn, were given to the British Museum where they joined

A full generation earliera moresignificantevent had taken place: on lIDecember 1741,over a dinner(later

[o be known as the "Feast of Isis") at Lebeck'sHead Tavern, in Chandon Street, London, several travellers who had visited Egypt proposed to form an Egyptian Society "to enquire into Egyptian antiquities" and to promote and pre-

John Shane. By late 1742, however, the Egyptian Society

was winding down, with its last meeting taking place on 16 April 1743.Nonetheless, it was at that moment that the Society began to have its most interesting effect. In 1743, Pocockebegan to publish his O&ierz,a/z0/2i o/zEgypt, the scc

serve "Egyptian and other learning." The Hounding members

ond volume of which appeared in 1745;German and French translations followed in 1754 55 and 1772 73

included John Montagu, Earl of Sandwich, Dr. Charles

respectively. Norden's

Perry, [)r. Richard Pococke,and Capt. Frederick Norden, a

somewhat later, in 1757, though some of the engravings

[)ane,

illustrating it had circulated as early as 1741. Pococke and

under

the presidency

Sheich."2Lord Sandwich

of Sandwich

with

the tit]e of

graz,fZ; /o EfyP/ a d Ar%&zawas issued

whose emblem of ofhce was a

Norden's volumes remained the principal referenceworks

and Perry had lust returned from Egypt. Pococke

on Egypt for artists and architects from Piranesito

had travelled up the Nile in 1737 38. Norden, who had beenin Egypt at the sametime asPococke(and met him as he was ascending the Nile towards Nubia), was highly

Valenciennes until they were displaced by the publication of Vivant Denon's Ravagedani /a Basie f/ /a JYazz/f ffy/)/e in

enthusiastic about Egyptian architecture. On his return, he

Lfz'czn/, which also came out in 1743, proved of lesser value

had written to Baron von Stosch,an antiquarian dealer in Rome and one of Cardinal Albani's associates:"Let them

to artists. Lord Sandwich's own travels were published only

talk to me no more of Rome;let Greecebe silent .. . What

at the end of the century, in 1799,but his collection of

magniRlcencel What mechanical What other nation ever had the courage to undertake work so surprisingl"'

Egyptian objects was seen at Hinchinbrook, his country house,by Horace Walpole, who noted on 30 May 1763, 'Many small Egyptian idols, brought from Egypt by the

sistrum

Soon after the group was formed it admitted a number of fellow enthusiasts as associatemembers, including Dr. William Stukeley, who acted as secretary and

brought along a Scotsman,AlexanderGordon. Someyears before joining the Egyptian Society,Gordon had proposed to solve the riddle of hieroglyphs and also [o illustrate all rhe Egyptian mummies in England. In 1737,he published a

setof twenty-five platesof Egyptian works in England,

170

Za&a/a /szaca (cat. 13). Gordon's engravings

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

1802. Charles

Perry's

poorly

illustrated

.4 rlf m of/#c?

presentEarl."' A similar collection could be seenin ireland

in the houseof Lord Charlemont, who had travelled to Greece,Egypt, and the Middle East in 1749,taking with him the artist Richard Dalton, who madewatercoloursof Egypt. Lord Charlemont left no record of the Egyptian part of his travels, hinting darkly about "the inhospitable and

ungallant Regions of the Nile,"s but he owned a number of

Egyptian antiquities purchased in Egypt and perhaps in Rome,where he had briefly met Piranesi in 1753.Marino House. his Neo-Classical residence near Dublin, was designedby Sir William Chambers. In 1762,Charlemont asked Johann Henry Muntz to design an Egyptian Room

for the antiquities at Marino House;the project wasnot carriedout and no further attemptof this naturewasmade until early next century, by Thomas Hope. Oddly, the project

proposedby Munoz was in a Neo-Gothic style.'

An earlier and more important collector,Thomas

Herbert. 8th Earl of Pembroke,had assembledbetween 1690and 1730at Wilton House, Wiltshire, one of the great collections of the period. His classical antiquities were of largely Italian origin, but a number of sculptures had been purchased in Paris in the carly 1700sfrom the Mazarin col-

lection. An account of the house in 1767,before it was transformed by JamesWyatt, describessomeof the objects

Among them: the statueof a "river in Egypt running into [he Nile," with an ibis and crocodile;' a nzzoi-bearing statue showing "Isis with Osiris, her husband, in a Coffin open '

from the Mazarin collection, with "a great Multitude of Hieroglyphicks quite round the bottom, and behind the statue;"9 "Cleopatra

Fig.80.JohnDownman Tbe Bentjamin Co],eFamily, c. \]85 Oil on canvas

Springfield Museum of Fine Arts, Massachusetts

with Caesarion, her son by Julius

Caesar,sucking on her lap. Her seatis an Egyptian Im-

Rome,but rather by the two Egyptian figures at the

provement for softness, and so as to fit higher or lower as

entrance to Wilton House.

they pleased;"''and "Sesostris,the head is of red Egyptian

Paradoxically, whereas knowledge about Egypt

Granite; the bust part is of the White Egyptian Granite; the head is adorned with a tiara, after the Egyptian form, and

emanatedfrom England in the secondhalf of the eighteenthcentury,the figurative repertorythat informed the

hasa peculiar liveliness;it wasfound amongstthe pyra-

first Egyptianizing designsin England and that prevailed

mids."'' More interestingly, on each side of the Jacobean

until the end of the century was largely imported from

entrance to the house were "Two Statues in black Marble,

Rome, the principal destination on the Grand Tour. As in

out of the ruins of the Palacein Egypt, in which the Viceroys of Persia lived many years after Cambyses

the rest of Europe, the two principal architecturalforms

returned to Persia, from the conquestof Egypt."':

been used in funerary architecture since the late sixteenth century, with the term "pyramid" generally being applied

In the 1730s,William Kent designedfurniture for the famous Double Cube room at Wilton House, including setteesin a late Baroque style supported by female sphinx hgures. Sphinxes, in fact, reappear as supports in consoles designed by Kent around the samedate for Houghton Hall.

In 1758,during one of the many alterations of Wilton House, Sir William Chambers was asked to design a new entrance to the main court. Chambers is generally associat-

ed with the voguefor the Chinesestyle,vastlymore popular than the Egyptian; but around 1758 59, he also pro-

posed for Sherborne Castle, Dorset, one of the rare

associatedwith Egypt, the pyramid and the obelisk, had

to both structures. There is an echo of the raising of obelisks in Rome in one of Shakespeare'sbonnets,and Shakespeare's own epitaph by Milton reads: "What need

my Shakespearefor his honour'd bones,/ The labour of an age in piled stones>/ Or that his hollow'd reliques should

be hid / Under a star-ypointing pyramid?" Patrick Conner has noted that a large ornamental obelisk raised at Nonsuch Palacein the late 1500sdisappeared with the destruction of the palace in 1682.'' The earliest surviving obelisk is one

Egyptianizing projects of the period, a gate flanked by two

erected in 1702 by Nicholas Hawksmoore at Ripon; many others followed, and obelisks became an important focus in

unusual seated Egyptian figures, each holding

a /zaps.';

the developing art of landscapearchitecture, to which

Chambers. who first studied under Blondel in Paris, continued his studies in Italy, where he must have been aware of the presenceof Egyptian antiquities; there is a fine sketch

William Kent contributed so much. Kent placedan obelisk

by him of one of the Borghese sphinxes in Rome in a note-

the gardenaround 1742.A grander obelisk designedby

book in the Victoria and Albert Museum. In this instance,

Kent was strategically placed on the axis of an avenue at

however, one suspects that the idea for the gateway at

Houghton Hall in ]729. Still at Houghton, Kent proposed

SherborneCastle was not inspired by anything seen in

an entrance flanked by two structures topped with pyra-

in the gardenat Chiswick, the houseof his patron Lord Burlington; it was joined by several sphinxes elsewherein

From \wedgwood to Thomas Hope

171

mids; it waseventually built, but differently. For the gardens at Chatsworth, he planned two templessupporting pyramids

at the baseof the cascade.An obelisk wasraised on the grounds of Alexander Pope'svilla at Twickenham, where Pope also suggestedEgyptian decorations for one side of a

garden temple. The combined efforts of Kent's principal predecessors,Sir John Vanbrugh and Hawksmoore (who carried out some of Vanbrugh's unfinished projects) produced startling effects: the park at Castle Howard had two

obelisks, two pyramids, the very nine Pyramid Gate, and another gateway decorated with two pyramids. Vanbrugh also designed a stepped pointed pyramid, sixty feet tall, which was built in the park at Stowe only after his death in

1726.The monument no longer exists,but Gilbert West's poem of 1732about the gardens at Stowe claims it was Vanbrugh's last invention.

Although in the secondhalf of the centurya

Harmsworth Park. As the century drew to a close,lamp-posts in London, for instance those in Cavendish Square, were designed in the form of obelisks and so they appear in a painting by Francis Wheatley, A/z/&Be/om A4azd,exhibited at the Royal Academy

in 1792.

Ireland deserves a special note for the finest obelisks

raised anywhere. These extravagant creations of Baroque derivation, built in the first half of the eighteenth century,

are quite unlike anything erected in Eraglandand of very different inspiration. The largest, built by Sir Edward Lovett Pearcein 1717asa mausoleumfor the Allen family at Stillorgan, is indebted to Bernini's design for the obelisk

in the Piazza Navona in Rome.Other, simpler obelisksof

the 1740s,attributed to Richard Castle,may be found at Belan,County Kildare, and Dangan, County Meath. To Castlealso is attributed the desigraof the most famousif

preference for lighter garden buildings, small temples or

least Egyptian of the Irish obelisks, the Castletown Folly

Chinese pavilions, replaced the more massiveEgyptian

builtin

pyramid, the motif was still adapted for the widest possible use. Sometime after 1733, a Mr. Paulet St. John erected a

thirty-foot-high steeppyramid on Mount Farley at Farley Down to mark the grave of a favourite horse.The Stanway

pyramidin Gloucestershire, built in 1750by RobertTracy,

1741.i9

Except for the appearance of sphinxes as decorative

elements for entrances or rooflines, eighteenth-century public or domestic architecture shows hardly a trace of the Egyptian, even though many architects of the period used Egyptian motifs at one time or another. Tt should be noted.

is a seventy-foot-high memorial to his father. In 1777,John

however,that the Doric style, much used in the latter part

Carter proposedan Egyptian Pyramidical Dairy, which

of the century, was often considered to border on the

never advanced beyond the project stage. However, later in

Egyptian. A rare, early example of the application of an

Ehecentury George Durant built a large "Egyptian Aviary ' of pyramidal form to shelter his poultry at Vauxhall Farm.

Egyptian facade on a commercial building, the office of the

This structure formed part of a larger and very strange

around 1804,prompted Sir John Shaneto lecture against it.

seriesof garden ornaments, now mostly lost, someof which were decorated with hieroglyphs.'Sin 1782,John Knill, the mayor of St. Ives, built an obelisk-like pyramid in his town and left provisions in his will to pay ten young girls and an old woman to dance around singing the Hundredth Psalm, every five years on 25 July a curious parallel with Druid

Someyears earlier, Soanehimself had designed a rather

overtonesto Hubert Robert'spainting (cat. 26).'' Smaller variations on the idea of the steppedpyramid were built at

newspaper 7'ff Courier (fig. 81), probably dating from

hybrid garden temple in the form of a pyramid flanked by sphinxes (6ig. 82). The decoration with Egyptian) subject

matter executed in the early 1770sfor Ralph Wallet's Library at MedleyHouse,Great Canford (seecat. 97 98) appears to be the first recorded instance of such use in England and was linked to Willed'sown antiquarian interests.

The furstinterior with decorationin the Egyptian

Halswell House. Goathurst, Somerset,"In Honour of a

style appeared only twenty years later, in Scotland, in a

pure r)ymph," as well as in Ireland at Mount Mapas, Killiney, and at The Neale,Mayo, the latter designedby Lord Charlemont for his sisters.i7 The more conventional

Aberdeen.:' in 1790, James Playfair drew plans for the house in an austere, advanced Neo-Classical style; construc-

pyramids decorating tombs also became frequent in the latter

room designed for Charles Gordon, at Cairnes House, near

tion was begun in 1791. In late 1791,Playfair travelled [o Italy, ar)d again in the spring of 1793, he visited Rome. On

part of the century, and appear to have been used for the great as well as for the common. The small pyramid that marks the tomb of John Bryan, mason and carver, who died

his return, he plannedthe interior of severalroomsin

in 1787at Painswick,Gloucestershire,precedesby a few

Egyptiitn style

years the much grander pyramid built in 1794by Joseph

Bonomi as a mausoleum for the Earl and Countessof

journal, on lIMay 1793.The stillsurviving decorationwas very simple, consistingof an architrave, door and window

Buckinghamshire at Blickling, Norfolk.';

surrounds, and a chimney-piece made of simulated basalt

In 1771, George Dance the Younger, who had

studied in Rome, designed a large obelisk for the centre of St. George's Circus in London, the first such project for an

urban space.The buildings around the square were constructed only much later, and later still (in the twentieth

172

ceratury)the obelisk was moved to the Mary Geraldine

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

Cairnes House, including a vaulted billiard room in the designed in half a day, according to his

with incited hieroglyphs.The idea for the room hasbeen ascribed to the most recent Neo-C]assica] currents on the

Continent,to the architectureof Boul16eand Ledoux,21 or to Playfair's visits to Italy.:: The decorationof the room very closelyfollows Piranesi'sfurstpublishedEgyptianizing

design, an engraving in the Scab/a czzz/zraarcAz/e//a/a a//a Egzzzarz.z e cz//aGreco of circa 1760.

Around the sametime, probablyin 1794,George Dancethe Younger redesignedthe library at Lansdowne Housein London for the 3rd Duke of Richmond,with a vast Egyptian chimney-piece Ranked by two Egyptian cary-

atids. More modest Egyptianizing chimney-pieceswere occasionally imported from Italy, becoming popular only in

rhe early 1800s.The original design(now in Sir John Shane'sMuseum), shows that Dance initially intended to

place a bust of Minerva in a central position abovethe chimney-piece.:; When the room was finished, however, the position was occupied by a different bust, the Lansdowne Antinous, which enhanced the Egyptian effect of the chimney-

piecebut did not greatly changethe generaleffect of the room. The Duke, who opened his collection of castsat

46. T. Kiwi. SAO Aung and &arhr

Doon, Laadm a.d. pl 2

Fig. 81. Facade of 7'&e boaz'fer ofhce on the Strand, London c. 1804

Outline engraving

Whitehall for the use of students in 1758.owned other Egyptian works as well. According to Horace Walpole, the

harpists, however,

great tragedian Mrs. Siddons found "the best mode of

as part of the mural decoration in the Egyptian Room at

expressing intensity of feeling ... from seeing the Egyptian

Stowe, largely inspired by plates in Denon.

statuesat Lansdowne House, with the arms closeby the side and the hands fast clenched." In the fine arts of the period Egyptian references

are few, notably in a Fzndz g ofA/ojai by Hogarth, painted on a set theme for the Foundling's Hospital in 1746,and in Anna Damer's marble bust of Miss Freeman as Isis. in the Victoria and Albert Museum. In the latter the symbolism is discreet, consisting of a stylized lotus flower in the hair and a sistrum carved on the base. The same can be said about

made their first appearance only in 1805

England's most imaginative contribution to late eighteenth-century Egyptomania came from an unexpected

quarter, namely ceramics. Beginning around 1770and continuing for the next four decades,the manufacture established at Barlaston by Josiah Wedgwood

one of the

era's most fascinating individuals began producing designsof Egyptian inspiration marked by ever-increasing

variety and originality.:7 Improving on the "Egyptian black" ware utilized by Staffordshirepotters,Wedgwood

furniture, apart from what seemeda promising beginning in a project of 1758 by John Vardy for a console for Spencer

House in London. The highly unusualdesign,preservedin the British Museum, shows the console supported by a winged sphinx with one torso and two bodies.:' A more orthodox approach to sphinxes was taken sporadically by

Robert Adam, who usedthem as a motif, in opposedpairs,

in a mirror from 1771suppliedfor SaltramHouse, Devonshire,and alsoin his designsof 1775and 1777for furniture at Osterley Park.25Sphinxes facing each other appear as well in a design by James Stuart for a chimney-

piece at Newby Hall. Tt is worth noting that around that

date copiesafter Egyptian wall paintings brought by James

Bruce were circulating in London and seenby various amateurs.Bruce had left for Egypt and Abyssinia in 1768,

taking with him a Bologneseartist, Luigi Balugani.One of the sites they visited was the tomb of Ramses 111in the Valley of the Kings, where Balugani drew the two now famous harpists painted on the wall. Balugani died during the voyage.Bruce returned to England in 1773,but his book

and illustrations were not published until 1790.26 Horace

Walpole saw the drawings in 1776and remarked to Sir William Mason that the Theban harpist was "as beauti-

fully and gracefully designedas if Mr. Adam had drawn it for Lady Mansfield's dressing room," suggesting that the mood of the times was ready to absorb such novelties. The

z..a,.-'a.a) q././r ' w'. 9'f£j5F,, .;,game Fig.82.SirJohn

#-,.7-'

Soane

Design for an Egyptian Garden Temple, 1778,etching Sir John Shane'sMuseum, London

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

.73

used a finer material, named for the occasion "basalt." The

chat posterity might have you in all forms"::

first models appear to have been Egyptian lions, and a variety

degree reflected in decorative excessesof the kind decried by Soane.There are marvellous caricaturesby Rowlandson

of recumbent sphinxes with and without wings. As shown by Harold Allen, by 1770the manufacture already owned a copy of Montfaucon's .4n/iq ;/g fxp/zgwfe, which provided

a variety of Egyptian modelsand motifs that were incorporated in the design of the famous Wedgwood canopic

was to some

(fig. 84 and 85) that span the periodup to about 1811and epitomizebetter than anythingelsea view of the renewed passion for all things Egyptian. The Egyptian decorative schemesin various country houses date from that moment,

vases.Engraved plates from Fischer von Erlach, the Za& /a /szara,indeed much of the repertory employed by Piranesi a few years earlier, were put to use in an altogether different

and were generally derived from new material published

way. The issue is discussed elsewhere in this catalogue (see

tributed enormously to the developmentof Neo-Classical

cat. 91 96) but cannot be overemphasized,given the extent of Wedgwood's impact on European ceramics. Napoleon's invasion of Egypt in 1798and Nelson's victory at the Battle of Aboukir of the sameyear ensured a renewal of English interest in Egypt at least as great as that

furniture design in England, show how broad an Egyptian

by Denon,but not exclusivelyso.The sketchesof Charles Tatham, who was in Rome in 1794 96 and later con-

and Neo-Egyptian iconographyhe used,as JamesStevens Curl has pointed out.29 Tatham's sources range from statues

in Rome to Tesi's capt;cc and recently published French designs. By 1800, he proposed a curious design for a table

in France.Lady Hamilton'swish for Nelson "If I was

for Castle Howard, decorated with hathoric headsand with

King of England I would make you the most noble, puis-

the sidesin the form of pylons, which predatesthe

sant Duke Nelson, Marquis Nile, Earl Alexandria,

Egyptianizing furniture designed by Thomas Chippendale

Viscount Pyramid, Baron Crocodile, and Prince of Victory,

in 1802and 1805for Stourhead.In 1804,two yearsafter the

Si'p-.

publication of Denon's voyage da/zi /a Basie e/ /a Nazi/e fgypff, Tatham proposed a greenhousefor Trentham Hall, Staffordshire, in the form of the temple at Dendera. Poised,like Tatham, at the juncture of two centuries,

e

Thomas Hope belongs to both. His Egyptian Room in

43 c>;..

e'-g «'r

ZR

X

.&&.I

London, perhaps his most famous creation, was invented,

designed,and completedbetween1799and 1804.Thus, it belongschronologically after the "return from Egypt," after

Denon's voyage that pivotal event in the evolution of Egyptomania. And it is in the nineteenth century, in the

B

Regency period, that Hope's influence was greatest. Yet, the

conception, the design, and even, for the most part, the inspiration of his Egyptian Room is so markedly different from early nineteenth-century creations as to situate it firmly as the last great design oats type in the eighteenth century.

M.P

;.i ' '"/ .Zz

«,''' £/}w

,p«£y':i. a'

.z.-'4.

..AB,.

(l-:::::i.,.;J& Fig. 83.GeorgeMorland. Hieroglyphic letter, 1787 Her Majestythe Queen,Windsor Castle

174

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

ANT I QUARIAN S G

Fig. 84. Thomas Rowlandson

Fig. 85. Thomas Rowlandson

T#e .Am£il4z/zrZ2zm.s, hand-coloured etching

A oder A f/g es,1806,etching

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

The Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York

The Elisha Whittelsey Fund, 1959

The Elisha Whittelsey Fund, 1956

l Montagu 1992,p. 143,letter to AbbaConti, 17 May 1717.In the

13.

park at Wentworth Castle,Yorkshire, there is an obelisk in Lady

14.

Mary's memory.

15.

Jones1974,p. 125.

On the origin and activities of the Egyptian Society,seeDawson

16.

Jones 1974, p. 45. The date of the pyramid is uncertain

1937, pp. 259 60; Wortham

17.

jones 1974,pp.234,384,434

18.

On pyramids in England, seeCurl 1982,pp. IO1--03. On obelisksin Ireland, seeFitz-Gerald 1968,pp. 185 97

2.

1971, p. 38; James 1981, pp. 4 6; and

Piggott1985,p.118.

Curl 1982, p. 100,pl.87. Brighton/Manchester 1983, p. 15

1739 in Norden 1757, vol. 11, p. xxiii, cited by

19.

20.

4.

Conner in Brighton/Manchester 1983,p. 7. ;Horace Walpole's Journals of Visits to Country Seats,"A.P. Opp6, ed., in Wa/Po/f Soczezy, vol. XVI (1927--28),p. 49.

Walker and McWilliam 1971,pp. 184--87,and no. 3843,4 February 1971, pp. 248--51.On Egyptian influence in Scotland generally, see Grant 1988,pp. 236-53.

5.

TheTrauets of Lord Chartemont in Greece & Turkey!749,\N.B.

21

Curl 1982, p. 102.

Stanford and E.J. Finopoulos, eds. 1984,p. 75.

22.

Walker and McWilliam 1971, p. 249

This combination of Egyptian and Gothic is seensurprisingly often; at Wentworth Woodhouse in Yorkshire near Lady Mary

23 Thornton and Dorey 1992,p. 99, ng. 102. 24 Coleridge 1968, p. 49 and fig. 75

Wortiey Montagu'sobelisk, there is a pointed pyramid with a

25.

Adam's design for a mirror, dated 1775,and his design for six

26.

armchairs for the State Bedroom at Osterley Park House, dated 24 April 1777,can be seen in Sir John Shane'sMuseum, London. Published in five volumes in 1790 under the title 7}az,fh/o Z)lkcoz,er

3. Letter of 19 April

6.

Gothic-style entrance known as the "Needle's Eye." in 1795,in

An Introductory.Discourse on the Principlesof Gothic Architecture," JamesMurphy would attempt to show that the Gothic vault was basedon the pyramid. 7.

Martyn 1767,vol. 11,Dublin.

8.

Martyn Martyn Martyr Martyn Martyn

9. 10. 11

2.

1767,vol. 1767, val. 1767, vol. 1767,vol. 1767,vol.

11,Dublin, 11,Dublin, 11,Dublin, 11,Dublin, 11,Dublin,

p. 98. p. 99. p. 124. p. 128. p. 85.

the Scarce of he Nile, in the "gears1768, }769, 1770, }77}, }772, and 27.

On Wedgwood ceramic in the Egyptian style, seeChellis 1949,

pp 260--63, andAllen 1962, pp. 65 88 28.

Warner 1960,p. 45, also cited by Conner in Brighton/Manchester

29.

1983,P.27. Curl 1982,pp. 103--06.

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hlope

175

90

Canopic Jar with Human Hlead Third Intermediate Period (c. 900 B.C.)

Amset'sface,framed by a broad wig, is highlighted with

Stuccoed and painted wood

bright colours that contrast with the pure white of the body

29.5x 13.7cm

The painted text gives the name of the protective genius

Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des

and the owner of the jar: "Amset; ]Osiris], the holy father and pure priest who enters Karnak, Padiuf son of Peppy,

Antiquit6sEgyptiennes (N 2952a)

justified.

Authentic canopic jars of the pharaonicperiod,

Exhibited in Paris and Ottawa

preserved in various collections of curiosities and reproduced

city of Canopus, in the Nile delta. Early archaeologists

in scholarly works, were an early source of inspiration to artists.: However, the images of Osiris-in-a-Jar sculpted

thought that the god Osiris was worshipped at Canopus

during the Roman period, with their rich hieroglyphic

during Roman times in the form of a wide-bodied vase

decoration, acted as an even greater stimulus to the artistic

topped with a human head; they used the berm ca/zopzcto describe funerary jars of the same shape. It became evident,

imagination.Used for rituals that were part of the cult of

however, that the traditional term was erroneous once the

and in Italian statuary.'Among the piecesfound in Italy,S

deity in question was identified as Osiris-(or Isis-)in-a-Jar,

the vase unearthed at Monte Circeo, from the ruins of a

and the link with water, symbolizing life, was established.'

villa belonging to the emperor Domitian, spawnedsome

Although this representationof the deity is typical of

interesting progeny:' drawings of it appeared from the six-

The vases known as canopic jars take their name from the

Isis, they figured in many ancient Roman reliefs (fig. 87y

Roman Egypt, its connection with the city of Canopus is

teenth century onwards in the works of Kircher,

tenuous at best.

Montfaucon, Caylus, and Winckelmann (fig. 88).' it is not

Placed in tombs in the time of the pharaohs, canopic jars contained the entrails removed during mum-

surprisingto find this well-known object reinterpretedin

Wedgwood ceramicware(cat.91 92).

mification: liver, stomach, bowels and lungs. Sculpted

c.z

images of the ancient protective geniuses, the four sons of

Horus, customarily decorated the lids: human-headed Amset, dog-headed Duamutef, falcon-headed Qebehsenuf]

and baboon-headedHopi. These personified the vital func-

tions associatedwith breathing and eating, and thus ensuredthe survival of the deceased.In the set of four canopicjars to which this examplebelongs(fig. 86), their presenceis entirely symbolic, since the vasesare simulacra.

1. Wild 1981 2. See for example the canopic vase of Ahmes, from President Bon's collection at Montpellier, in Montfaucon 1724,vol. 11,pl. XLIX. 3. Wild 1981, pl. Xlll n 4. Miiller 1969,nos. 284 and 288, pl. XXX

5.Roullet1972, fig. 164,165,323,324 6. Rome.Villa Albani; Curto 1985,no. 13 7. Roullet 1972,p. 98.

Fig. 86. Four canopic jars of Padiuf, c. 900 B.C. Stuccoed and painted wood

Museedu Louvre, D6partement des Antiquit6s fgyptiennes (N 2952 a-b-c-d)

Fig. 87.Priests of Isis holdingcanopicjars

Fig. 88. Canopic vase,

Detail of an lsiac procession

Winckelmann

on a granite column from

Histoire de !'art chez !es

the Roman era

.Amc;emJ,1790, vol. I

Museo Capitolino, Rome

176

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hlope

from Johann Joachim

F

& From Wedgwood to Thomas Hlope

177

91

Canopic Vase Wedgwood and Bentley c. 1773 Etruria ceramic: black basalt with red-orange painted encaustic decoration 32.2 cm high

Mark: MENG Wood & BENTLEY: ETRURIA Brooklyn,

The Brooklyn

Museum (56.192.33)

alsoca,ned a nozzle, and a note in JosiahWedgwood's hand would seem to confirm this possibility.SThe narrow-

ing at the basegives this vasean idiosyncraticshape,very different from the ancient originals.6

The painted decorations are relatively faithful reproductions of Bernard de Montfaucon's drawings (fig. 89) of a basalt canopic vase from the Hadrianic period,

on view at the time in Rome.' The English artist, however,

Provenance:

has taken a few liberties: the sun and the sacred cobras are

Emily Winthrop Miles Collection

bigger, the figures on the sides have disappeared, and Montfaucon's strange nemfi with vertical folds perhaps derived from an imperfect copy of a three-parr wig has

Josiah Wedgwood initially

became interested in using

Egyptian models in 1770;' and in 1773,Egyptii\n pieces-sphinxes, candlesticks, lions, and cameos made their appearance in the Wedgwood and Bentley catalogue Canopic jars were among the earliest vasesmade by the firm, starting in 1771.: These Wedgwood pieces represent

the first seriousattemptsto introduce the Egyptian style into English ceramics.' However, JosiahWedgwood's sourceswere restrictedto his library, that is, to the engravings in the works of Bernard de Montfaucon ' and the

been replaced by a more conventional headdress.

A.nother canopic jar manufactured by Wedgwood (fig. 90), the exact contemporary of the model shown here: is made of two separate parts, the top being a lid: its general

shapeis exaggeratedly rounded, but follows Bernard de Montfaucon's drawing more closely, especially in respect to

the base.Another version receiveda painted ornamentation directly copied from the canopic vase in the Villa Albani.;

Canopic jars were one of the favourite items in

This canopic vaseis a good exilmple of Wedgwood's

Wedgwood's Egyptianizing repertoire. They were issued in various shapesand styles, with an assortment of painted

adaptation of models that were already rather approximate

and applied decorations; some models were still being

versions of Egyptianizing

produced untilquite

Combe de Caylus, which he adapted to suit his own taste.

Roman pieces from the time of

Hadrian. Unlike most Egyptian vases,the present vasedoes not open and was therefore intended purely for decorative purposes.However, the trace of a fastening for a nozzle on top of the head suggeststhat the vasemay once have served

as a candlestick. Other models from the same period

recently(see cat. 228 and 315).

J.-M.H Reilly 1989,vol. 11,p. 111, caption for fig. 72. 2. "Are not Canopus's a good middle size vase for painting?" Josiah

Wedgwood to Bentley, 13 February 1771,letter quoted in Reilly 1989, vol. 1, p. 418, caption for fig. 581

3. Reilly 1989, pp. 91--96. 4. The book was in Josiah Wedgwood's library. See catalogue dated

10 August 1770,in the archives of the Wedgwood Museumat Barlaston. cited in Allen 1962, p. 70, and repr. ;Z';Z.by Mrs. Robert [). Che]]is, "Wedgwood & Bentley Source Books," p 60-

5. "The nozzle and allthe other parts may be screw'd fast together for those who choose them so,'' Wedgwood to Bentley, 13 February

1771.]ettercited in Reilly 1989.The following year,Lord CharlemonE suggested that Wedgwood use rhe lotus as a nozzle on

his canopic jars: seeWedgwood to Bentley, 6 April1772(Barlaston,

Wedgwood Museum, E 25 18364),letter cited in Reilly 1989, p.398,caption forfig.531 6. There is another example at Bar\aston(Rei]]y]989, no. 581, p- 418)7. It is known as the "Villa Albani" canopic vase. See Montfaucon 1719,vol. 11,part 2, pl. CXXXll; Roullet 1972, no. 144a, p. 97; and Curio 1985, no. 13, p. 46. Montfaucon reproduces the Villa Albani vase;Silvio Ctirto describesand reproduces(pl. XVT) a very similar model preserved in the Vatican 8. Rei]]y 1989,vo]. ], no. 582, p- 4]8, and pl. C 99.

Fig. 89. The "Villa Albani ' canopic vase, from Bernard de Montfaucon liAntiqnit6 expliqK€e, \l'L 9.

vol.ll

78

Fig. 90. Wedgwood and Bentley

Pair of canopicjar candlesticks,c.1774 Black basalt

From Wedgwood to.Thomas Hope

Exhibitions: Chicago 1962,no. 357.

SelectedReferences Allen 1962, p. 69; Allen 1981,p. 52

l

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

.79

Blancmange Mould

92

Wedgwood and Bentley Early ]9th cerltury Glazed ceramic

19.2x 15.2x 8.5cm Barlaston, Wedgwood Museum(3659) The purpose of this curious mould, recorded in Charles Gill's 7}az,r//ert Aro/e&oo&(fig. 91), was to imprint the shape

of a canopic jar on the pudding, in relief. The vaseis a copy much more faithful than the previous piece (cat. 91) of

the model reproduced by Bernard de Montfaucon.' The head,with its three-part wig, also zippearson a Wedgwood inkstand of the sameperiod.: This type of canopic vasehad already been reproduced by Johann Melchior Dinglinger in

1731in his 4Pzi.4//czr(fig. 92),; but it is unlikely that the artists employed by Wedgwood were acquainted with Dinglinger's work.

J.-M.H Seecat.91,note Seecat.315; also compare cat Enking 1939.

93

Lotus Vase Wedgwood and Bentley c. 1785

Ceramic: rossoantico and black basalt

32x 18.7cm Bournemouth, Russell-ColesArt Gallery and

Museum (BORGM 8186) Provenance:

In the collections since 1921;undoubtedly part of Sir Merton Russell Cores' original collectiorl

Of all the objects in the Egyptian style created at the Wedgwood pottery, this vase is surely the oddest, and the

Fig. 91. Charles Gill T}avec,I,er's Notebook

Wedgwood Museum, Barlaston

80

Fig. 92. Johann Melchior

leastEgyptian.' Tt was inspired by an equallyodd drawing

Dinglinger

by Fischer

Canopic vase Detail from the AP;s A//'?r, 1731 Staatliche Kunstsammlungen Dresden, Griines Gew61be

z,beSoa/, representing"two Egyptian porphyry vases,four handshigh, belonging to the Marquis del Carpio, Viceroy

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

von

Erlach

(fig.

93),

entitled

7fe

/mmol/a/i/y

(Z/'

ofNaples.

The two headsof the original model have been

eliminated,3 but the monster resembling some nocturnal

bird of preyderivedfrom the wingedscarabhasbeenkept. Two heads, each wearing a zzezzlei,replace the handles;

behind the heads, a sun disk framed by two sacredcobras dominates a strange motif suggestive of rhe sun's rays. The

body of the vasealso bears motifs in relief borrowed from

Montfaucon4 and an unusual Greek fret from the same source

runs

along

the top and the base.S

As this vase shows, the sources for Egyptomania

are mar)y and varied, and they all must be viewed with some caution. At the end of the eighteenth century, artists

had no way of assessingthe validity of the information available [o them. In fact, the word "Egyptian," as they used it, was more likely synod)ymous with "strange" than with any archaeological reality.

When an already complex vocabulary is enriched -as in this instance by a baroque imagination, the resulting

work goesbeyondsuchcategoriesas"copy" and "imitation to achievean identity all its own

J.-M.H l Another example of this vase repr. in Allen 1962, p. 76, and Allen 1981, P. 63. 2

4

E/zra'ud'fznc?/ ziroric#fn ,47f#z/e4/mr,Vienna, 1721, part V. pl. 3 They were used, however, Foranother vase(Allen 1962,p. 79) Mot)tfaucon 1719-24,1.'d/z/zgaz/ fxP/zgmZf,\-ol. 11,part 2, pl. CXLI

5

Montfaucon

3

1719-24,

.L'.4/z/;giz;//

ex/)J';gz/ge, vol.

11, part

2

pl. CIXIXXIX. Montfaucon reproducesan engraving by Francesco Ficoroni after a relief discovered on the Aventine Hill in 1709.

Fig. 93. Johann Bernhard Fischer von Erlach Tbe llnmor ant) oftbe Sotto Design for a vase, from f b;s/or;sc.bem ..4rc#;/e

/wzrr/e/

er

///r, 172 1, part V

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

181

Fig. 94. Wedgwood Seated sphinx,

end of18th century 94

Ceramic: black basalt Private col.lection

Covered Vase Supported by Two Sphinxes Wedgwood

and listed in the 1773catalogue.'The latter typeswere

c. 1820

made of a black ceramic that imitated Egyptian basalt; they were set on a base with no inscriptions.'

Ceramic: black basalt 35.2 cm high

Barlaston, Wedgwood Museum(1136)

The memes is the key element enhanced after 1805 by the addition

82

linking

this sphinx

with Egyptomania.The Egyptiancharacterof the vasewas of "hieroglyphs"

(creat-

Various sphinxes appeared in the Wedgwood and Bentley

ed by the manufacture)on the sidesof the base;S it was

catalogue from 1770 onward. The recumbent winged

sometimes produced in rossoantico.

sphinx, offered in a variety of colours,' declined in popular '

Sphinxes were among the essentially ornamental

ity, ceding to the recumbentwinglesssphinx: and to the

f)fecescreated by Wedgwood in the late eighteenth century,

sitting winged Greek sphinx, also produced from 1770on

before the firm's emphasis shifted to more utilitarian items.

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

However, like many other objects manufactured in the Wedgwf)od workshops, they were soon made into candlesticks by the addition of a nozzle.' And from 1777on, they

1. Allen 1962,p. 75; Reilly 1989, vol. 1, p. 638. 2. Allen 1962,p- 74; Allen 1981, p. 59.

3. Reilly 1989,vol. 11,Appendix L.

this Renaissance vase attests.7 The design is simple; the two

4. Allen 1981, p. 59; Reilly 1989, vol. 1, p. 462, fig. 664, and vo1. 2, P.456. 5. Allen 1962,p. 74

sphinxes and the Greek key pattern at the basegive the object

6. Reilly 1989, vol. 1, pl. C 127, vol. 1, p. 638, and vol. 11, p. 575.

a timeless quality-

7. Allen 1981,p. 61; Reilly 1989,vol. 11,pp- llland

were also incorporated into more ambitious creations, as

The eighteenth-centuryblack sphinx (fig. 94) was

456.

8. Humbert 1989,p. 153. The vasewas given a similar gilding in editionsofc.1875

in continuous production until 1938,aswas this vase.The black

sphinx was revived in 1978with the issueof Wedgwood's Egyp/;an Z?d;lion when, surprisingly, the nemfs and the hieroglyphs on the base were gilded.'

J.-M.n.

95

Tea Service Wedgwood c. 1815 20

At the beginning of rhe nineteenth century, Egyptian-style tea services were one of the novelties of [he Wedgwood

Tin-glazed ceramic, white relief ornamentation Teapot: l0.2 cm high

line.' They were generally dark red (russoantico) with

Sugar Bowl: 6.4 cm high

exceptionto the rule. The interestof this teaset,however,

Cream Jug: 7.6 cm high London, British Museum, Department of Medieval

lies in its decoration.

and Later Antiquities (1989, 11-2, 1, 2, and 3 respectively)

into general use around !805,: and were used from then on

inscription:

Wedgwood artists, unlike those working for other

WEDG]r00D

on each piece

Mark: 8 on cream jug Provenance: Purchased atauction Exhibited in Paris and Vienna

black ornamentation, the present piecesbeing a notable

The relief"hieroglyphs"createdaround1775came [o decoratet€a servicesand canopic jars (seecat. 228). European manufacturers, forswore original hieroglyphs

and imitations, preferring to invent their own symbols. Their figures were amply proportioned, clearly defined, and striking. Easily recognized and identified, the hiero-

glyphssoonbecamea kind of trademark,"typical

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

.83

Wedgwood." Authentic Egyptian characters,delicateand hard to read. would never have had this impact. The hieroglyphs, like the crocodile lid-himdles thai appeared at the same time, are adapted from the Ta&r{/a /rzac-a (cat. 13), demonstrating that it continued to play an

important role in the spreadof Egyptomania at the beginning of the nineteenth century.

J.-M.H 1. other examplesof this tea service appear in Allen 1962,p. 84; Allen 1981, pp. 64--65; Reilly

1989, vol. 1, p. 445, and vol. 11,p. 489.

2. Chellis 1949,p. 258 ff., dating them to the beginningof the 19th century; Reilly 1989, vol. 1, p. 445, caption for fig. 632, and vol. ll, p. 92, caption for fig. 53, gives an earlier date for their creation, but [he same date for their general application

Exhibitions: Essen1992, no. 293

96

Vase Decorated with

Hlieroglyphs and Obelisks Wedgwood c. 1810 20 Ceramic: russo antico and black basalt 24.4 cm high

I nscription: 14/Ef)G brood Z Barlaston, Wedgwood Museum(1322) Except in ornamental pieces designed for consoles or

mantelpieces,obelisks were rare motifs in Egyptianizing production; here, they seemto servealmost as armature for the vase.I But what makes them truly original is that they

lre coverednot only with fanciful figures,but also with hieroglyphs that have an aura of authenticity unusual for Wedgwood.

From the moment the Wedgwood artists decided to incorporate such well-known forms as obelisks into their vase, it became clear that the decorative scheme could not

be completed exclusively with strange figures bearing no relation to reality. Without entirely abandoning their imag-

inary "hieroglyphs" (seecat. 95), set in a band around the upper part, the artists bowed to the current dictatesof fashion and employed the genuine characters so often featured by their competitors.

J.-M.H For a similar model, with two headseachwearing a ne/nes,see Reilly 1989,vol. 11,P. 92. SelectedReferences:

Reilly1989, vol 11,P.489

84

From \wedgwood to Thomas H.ope

9798 Egypt andOsiris JamesRecord after William Collins 1785

Engraving

Cat.97:43.3x 44.1cm Cat.98:28.3x 51.8cm

The two engravings reproduce parts of the decoration

executedfor the antiquarian Ralph Wallet(1719--1795) at Merley House, Great Canford. In 1772,Willed had two wings added to his residence,one of which was to househis collection of books, known to contain "a copious collection

Mr. and Mrs. Timothy Clifford

of exotics," as one reader, George)ionysius Egret, h;\s

Provenance:

wide, 7 metreshigh

Purchasedon the art market

schemeambitious: in Willed's words, it was to be repre-

noted. The library was large

sentative

Exhibited in Ottawa and Vienna

of "the

25.6 metres long, 7 metres

and the subjectfor the decorative

rise and progress

of Civilization

and

Knowledge, asfounded on Religion

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

185

H

97-98 Egypt and Osiris james Record after William Collins 1785

Engraving

Cat.97:43.3x 44.1cm Cat.98:28.3x 51.8cm Mr. and Mrs. Timothy Clifford Provenance: Purchased on the art market. Exhibited in Ottawa and Vienna.

The two engravings reproduce parts of the decoration executedfor the antiquarian Ralph Willed (1719--1795) at

Merley House, Great Canford. In 1772,Willed had two wings added to his residence, one of which was to house his

collectionof books,known to contain"a copiouscollection of exotics," as one reader, Georg Dionysius Egret, has noted. The library was large

wide, 7 metres high

25.6 metres long, 7 metres

and the subjectfor the decorative

schemeambitious: in Willed's words, it was to be repre tentative

of "the

rise and progress

of Civilization

;ind

Knowledge, as founded on Religion

From Wredgwoodto Thomas Hlope

185

6

The execution of the stucco reliefs, basedon

among the earliest executed anywhere in the West.

Willed's own designs, was entrusted to William Collins.

Although the decoration includes Egyptian elements,the

The work did not take long to complete,as by 1776,evi-

style employed is conventionally western.

M.P

dently pleasedwith the outcome, Willed published a description

of the library,

in English

and French.

In 1785,

he reprinted the volume with twenty-five illustrations showing the decorative scheme.The Egyptian designs appearbe the earliest to be carried out in England and

99

SelectedReferences: Willett 1785:Hlutchins 1813

vol.lll,P.12

The Egyptian Room in the Thomas slope House, DuchessStreet, London Thomas Hope (1769 1831)

of travel. The son of an Amsterdam banker of Scottish

1807

origin, in 1787he had embarked on an extensiveGrand

Lineengraving 47 x 30 cm

Tour that included severalvisits to Italy.' His father,John Hope, had been a patron of Piranesi; a cousin knew

PI. Vlll

in.fJozzie oZ2 F r f/ recznd /nzerzor

Winckelmann and Cardinal Albani, and, more recently,an

Decoration Executed From Designs by Thomas H(We,

uncle, Henry Hope, had attempted to buy part of the

London, 1807

Borghese marbles.: Though he commissioned works from artists in Rome, Thomas H.ope was chiefly interested in antiquities and undertook more distant travel to the Middle East, to Egypt in 1797,and to Athens in 1799.

Paris, Biblloth&que Forney Exhibited in Paris

186

Exhibitions: Brighton/Manchester 1983, no.31(cat.97 and 98).

On his permanent return to London in 1799,Thomas Hope

From 1799on, Hope designedthe interiors and much of furniture for his houseand purchasedadditional

bought from Lady Warwick, Sir William Hamilton's sister,

piecesin Paris,likely designedby CharlesPercier,whom he

a house on Duchess Street and began alterations [o prepare

would have met a decadeearlier in Rome. His aim, as

it for the collections he had accumulated over severalyears

noted by David Watkin, was to create a coherent ambient

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

{

symbolic of the antiquities contained within.3 The seriesof reception rooms some designed around a work of art and the galleries for sculpture, paintings, and Greek vases

were decorated in an advanced Neo-Classical style that ranged from the sumptuous to the austere, and included Indian and Egyptian Rooms. The house was opened to the

public in 1804.George Dancewas heard to remark that however much there might be amusementin seeingthe House ... it certainly excited no feelings of comfort as a dwelling."' in 1807,Hope published the main interiors and contents of the house in .f/owie,tofu F r/zz/arr a/zd/n/fr;or Decoration Executed From Designs by Thomas Hope, a mani-

:18.,,.l:c....J.aa ;., £.&.-.

festo on principles of design with outline engravings by Edmund Aiken and George Dawe from Hope's own drawings. Though Hope was savagely criticized for overloading

his walls with symbolical imagesof Antiquity,S the volume had considerable effect on Regency design and established

4euP. #..#k.,..

#''#

3, +e«6c

a{.a;

Fig. 95.The Egyptianroom in Walsh Porter's Craven Cottage, c. 1805

Anonymous drawing

Guildhall Art Gallery,London

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

187

Egyptian /izi in green basalt, a red marble relief ot a sacri-

what came to be knoll,n as the "Hope style.

The issueof a symbolic grammar of ornament was

nowhere more evident than in the Egyptian Room. The reasons were explained

by Hope:

"Happening

to possess

several Egyptian antiquities, wrought in variously coloured

materials, such as granite, serpentine, porphyry, and basalt, ofwhich neither the hue nor the workmanship would have

ficial scene,:\nd some vasesnot seenin the engraving of 1807.ii The classicaleffect of the room and the litrge number

of modern copies from Hadrianic prototypes shows hou' close Hope's Eg)pt an Egypt revised by Rome was to

late eighteenthcentury ideals. His interior, however,

well .ccorded with thoseof my Greek statues,chiefly exe

assumesan emblematic significance in its recognition of the

cured in white marble alone, I thought it best to segregate

theseformer, and to place them in a separateroom, of

spiritual realitiesbehind material facts: his refusal to adapt the Egyptian monumentshe had seen,as in the exuberant

which the decoration should, in its character, bear some

lnd no more plausible Egyptian decor createdcirca 1805for

analogyto that of its contents."'The samep'inciple had

been i\pplied twenty years earlier by Asprucciin the Egyptian Room at the Villa Borghese,from which Hope alsoderived rhe Hoof plan and the three similarly position-

Walsh Porter's Cra\-en Cottage (fig. 95), was consistent with his stated idea that "modern imitations of those wonders of

antiquity, composed of lakh and of plaster, of calico and paper . -. can only excite ridicule and contempt."'' M.P

ed falsedoors required by symmetr)-

The room has beenpreservedin an engra\ing, but much of its effect is leff to the imagination. Hope observed:

The ornamentsthat adorn the walls of this little canopus .ire. partly, taken from Egyptian scrolls of papyrus;those that embellish

the ceiling,

from

Egyptian

mummy

cases;

tnd the prevailingcolour of both, as well as of the furni-

For a full account of Hope, see Baumgarten 1958 and Watkin 1968.

2. Della Pergola 1962,p. 26. 3. Watkin 1968, p. 193

4. 7'bf Dla/y (f/osrpA Fa/zngron,1979,vol. VI, PP 22 86. 5. The reviewsin rhe f'dln&ulFA /?fuzfw (July 1807)and rhe Mo/zr#/y Rfz,lrw ( 18t)9)are discussedand cited in Watkin It)68, pp. 214 18.

ture, are that pale yellow imd that bluish green which holds so conspicuousa rank among the Eg)ptian pigments; here

6. Hope 1807,p. 26 The floor plan of Hope's hotlse was conjectural until 1987when

lnd there relieved b) massesof black i\nd gold."' At rhe

Thornton and Watkin reconstructedit on the basisof a sketch

centre of the room was a smallrnumm)- displayed in a case

Dadeby Francis Douce. The plan is slightly inaccurate asit shows a door at the centre of the wall between the Egyptian Room and the Drawing Room. Thornton and Watkin 1987,p 163, fig. 3.

designed by Hope, with two day-beds, also from his design (see cat. 100). At the corners stood four pedestals with ancient canopic vases.while the two lateral false doors were

blocked by /zao.--bearingstatues:a Ptolemaic kneeling priest

to the right and a standingpriest from the Salleperiodto the left. On the table at the back u,ere modern canopic vases

copiedfrom onein the VaticanMuseumwith Sablet's 7'Af

9. Probably the painting exhibited at the Didier Aaron gallery,New York, .4 T/me/esi /le/';rzzge, 1987, no. 8, col. repr.

10. Previouslv believed to be a Ua/z;/y and sold as such in the Hope sale,Christie's,[-tendon. 20 ju]) 1917, 1ot 52; seealso cat. 103 Westmacott 1824, P. 216 12. Hope 1807, p. 27

Fz7irS/fp.to above, and a grey basalt lion from the palace of

Tiberius ftt Capri, below the table.Still at the back. in front of a false door, was a modern onyx standing pharaoh. On

Lhetableto the right weretwo copiesof the \vatican Antinous in black marble, and abode,Gauffier's .4c#f//f.f Discoucled aTnongthe Daughters oJLycomedes." On the

SelectedReferences:

Curl 1982, pp.I lO,113,

chimney piece at left was a modern Egyptian priest holding

Hope 1807,pp. 26--27; Westnaacott 1824,p. 214--16;

117 and p. 113,fig. 2; Brighton/Manchester 1983, no. 86, repo.;Thornton and Watkin 1987,pp. 163--66,hg. 4 Humbert 1987/1990,vol. ll, no. 300, repr.; Humbert 1989, pp. 110--11,repr.p. 105

I tablet flanked by bronze copies of the Capiroline lions on basesu,ith Nilotic reliefs. with Gauffier's Rf.f/ o// /#f F/lgA/

in/o fgy/7/ (cat. 103)above. Hope's famous white marble bust of Antinous was shown in the Statue Gallery, but a later itccount of the Egyptian Room describedan antique

88

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

Symonds 1957, p. 230 brad p. 227,

flg. 1;Pevsnerand Lang 1956/ 1968,PP.213,214;Watkin 1968, PP.51,93 124,214 18,6g.14;

Wittkower 1975,p. 273,fig. 355;

r 100

ioi Settee and Chair

Egyptian suite. In Clive Wainwright's opinion, the suite

Thomas Hope (1769 1831) Black and gold painted beech,with bronze mounts

was certainly made in London.' Alvar Gonzalez-Palacios has tentatively suggested an Italian manufacture.7

M.P

Settle:61x 167.6 x 66cm

l In 1957they were with H.. Blairman and Son, London; Symonds

Chair: 120 x 72 x 60 cm

1957, pp. 229--30, fig. 15 and 16. They were exhibited several times; London 1972, nos. 1654--1655; Brighton/Manchester 1983, no. 86b

Sydney, Powerhouse Museum

(chair); Washington 1985,no. 525, col. repr.; Berlin 1989,no. 1/78,

Provenance:

repr. (settle); Esserl 1992, no. 286, col. repr. ?

Thomas Hope; by descent, Lord Francis Pelham

3

Hope 1807,pp. 43 44 (description of pl. XLVI). Other casts were made from the same model, for example the pair

4

Sotheby's,London, 20 November 1992, 1ot5 For other suggestions regarding Hope's sources, seeJackson-Stops

Clinton Hope, Deepdene,Docking (sale,Christie's, London, 18 19July 1917,part of lot306); L. Harris: London; bought c. 1920by Sir Alfred Ashbolt,

of' bronze andirons recently on the art market; seesalecatalogue

Hobart, Tasmania; sold separately al auction

in Melbourne,c. 1942.Settee:G. Brown, Melbourne, mid-1960s; M. Nash, London; purchased 1987. Chair: H.R. Mitchell, Sydney, 1950s;Mrs. M. Drummond, Sydney; P. [)rummond; pu rchased 1984.

in Washington 5.

1985, no. 525

For the later armchair, more closelyderived from a design in Denon, see Anonymous

1921, p. 132, fig. 13, and Praz 1969, fig. 39.

6. Essen 1992, no. 286. 7

Gonzalez-Palacios 1976,p. 40.

The suite of two setteesand four armchairsfrom the

SelectedReferences:

Watkin

Egyptian Room survived intact until the Hope sale of1917. A settle with a pair of chairs at Buscot Park, said to have

Hope 1807,pls. 8, 17, 46;

fig. 39, 40; Honour 1969, pp. 210--12,repr.; Watson 1990, pp. 4--5; Watson 1992,pp. 40--43

beenpurchasedby the first Lord Faringdon (1850 1922),

Symonds 1957, p. 230, fig. 15, 16;

Musgrave 1961,p. 52, fig. 21:

1968, pp. 1 15, 21 1, 256,

wasbought perhapsonly after 1958.'The secondsetteearid the remaining armchairs were taken in uraknown circum stancesto Australia, where they were acquired separatelyin recent years by the Powerhouse Museum, Haymarket. As rhe setree in Haymarket lacked the decorative lions, new ones were cast from the one at Buscot Park.

The settees,which Hope illustrated but did not describe,are decoratedat the four cornerswith Capitoline lions; theseappearedin another incarnation on the mantelpiece in the same room. Below the lions are reliefs with kneeling figures, facing one another, derived from reliefs in

the ten)pleat Luxor (Thebes).The sourcesfor the decora-

i;' ' '

tion of the armchairs were listed by Hope: "The crouching

M

priests supporting the elbows zlre copied from an Egyptian

idolin the Vatican;the winged Isis placedin the rallis borrowed front an Egyptian mummy casein the Institute at

Bologna;the Caraopuses are imitated from the one in the

Fig. 96. Egyptian Gate at Tsarskoye Seko,Russia, detail

Built 1827 30 by English architect Adam Menelas, cast-iron plates by Vasily Demuth-Malinovsky

Capitol; and the other ornaments are taken from various monuments at Thebes, TentyrisEDendera], & c."2 The canopic vases reappeared as independent ornaments on a console in the room, as did the block-statue supporting the

armrest, a]so used for the fender in the Boudoir (cat. ]04).; The relief at the centre of the backrest seemsderived from rhe famous "zodiac" at Dendera, now in the Louvre.

Though Hope later designed a chair indeed inspired by Egyptian models, the setter and armchairs for the Egyptian Room echo primarily classical furniture.s The

maker remains unknown. Hope owned a good dealof French furniture made from designs by Percier, and commissioned some of his furnishings in France

the isis clock

(cat. 102)for instance but this wasnot the casefor the

Fig. 97. Statuette Vatican Museum

From \wedgwood to Thomas Hope

89

a

R M

100

19

'rom Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

101

From Wedgwood to Thomas slope

191

102

Clock from the Thomas Hope Hlouse, DuchessStreet, London Thomas Hope (1769 1831) Patinated and gilt bronze, russoantico

typesof finials were used:in the form of either a truracated

50.2 x 29.5 x 19.7 cm

imported into England or mar ufactured there, as some

Brighton, RoyalPavilion Art Gallery and Museum

have movements by British clockmakers: an example at Farnley Hall, Yorkshire, has a dial inscribed Wrf&i Lo//don, probably referring to Thomas Weeks. The most curious of

pyramid or a vase.A good number of theseclockswere

The clock figures twice in Hope'sbook: in plate VIT, in the Flaxman Room, and in plate XllT, in a detail view, flanked by two vasesof bluejohn which have ;\lso survived.

Tna brief statementon the clock, Hope wrote only

that it was "carried by the figure of isis, or the moon,

these. however. is a clock with ;m English movement and a

dial designedfor the Turkish market,decoratedwith Egyptian hieroglyphs. It has a similar figure of Isis but different reliefs on the pilastersand Apis-headedfinials

adorned with her crescent," but the description of the room

borrowed from another version.' The substantial dlffbrences

makes it clear that it confomled with the symbolic decor on

suggestthis may have been a contempo'ary, pirated model

the themeof Night and Day devisedfor Flaxman'sHa/o/a

Includedin lot 283 of the HopeHeirloomssaleof 18 July 1917was a second,larger Egyptian clock, now

and Cf/zAa/ui.In plate Xlll the hieroglyphs on the clock are

clearly visible as is the moon adorning the headof isis. However. these details are absent from all known versions of the clock. In spite of the hieroglyphs, scarabs,and other Egyptian motifs, the design is an ingenious combination of elemellts

from

a plate

in

Piranesi's

Dzz'rrsf

apparentlylost and not illustrated in Hope'sbook: the cara logue described it as "an Empire clock, in black marble case,mounted with Egyptian ornaments of or-molu, and surmounted by a bust 20 in. high.

M.P.

m z/?ie/.e dz

ajar are z rahm/nz (see cat. 17): the isis was adapted from /zaps-bearing

figures,

while

the pilasters

:\nd their

Apis-

headed finials are copied from ornaments and obelisks. It

may be noted that Piranesi's name appears nowhere in

1. Chapman 1985,p. 227, fig. 17, and p. 228, note 25. 2. Ottomeyer and Pr6schel 1986,vol. 1, no. 5.3.2, p. 336, repr. 3. Sold at H16telDrouot, Paris, 26 April 1991,1ot 149, repr 4. Sold at Christie's, London, 18 June 1987,1ot 103, repr.

Hope's text.

While designed by Hope, the clock was of French

manufacture: an identical clock bearsthe inscriptiorl R,4rR/O / Bro//z;er ci Par;f / ewes//z/ //.".z From the number of examples known some ten exist it is evident that the model was very successfularid that variations on the proto

type were produced,with or without lateral pilasters.The

figure of Isis, for instance,wascastdrapedbut with her bosom unveiled, as in this example, or with the bosom covered. as in a clock with the movement signed I,($;nf, /2 P/afe drs rzc/ozr?s, no. 4458.; Equally, it seems that several

192

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences

London 1972,no. 651;London

Hlope 1807,p. 30 and pl. Xlll;

1978,no.282a,repr.; Brighton/Manchester 1983, no. 86d,repr.

Watkin 1968,pp. 112,256, pl. 38;Curl 1982,p. 118; Humbert 1987/1990,vol. ll, no.424,pp.346--48,repr. p.347; Hlumbert 1989, p. 130, col

repr. p.165

P-.{..i }

i'BB+

. t

From \Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

193

103

The Reston the Flight into Egypt LouisGaufher(17621801)

of more recent publications; one wonders if he did riot ask

1792

for advicefrom the Danish archaeologistGiorgio Zoega,

Oil on canvas

the curator of Cardinal Borgia's Egyptian Museum, whose

80x 115cm

portrait Gauffier also pz\intedin 1792.The Holy Family is

Signed and dated lower left: 1.. Gait/Ziff;Rofuac.

shown near an Egyptian building that seems to be a gate, while in the distance,to the right, can be seena temple and pyramids. The angels serving the Christ Child have rather hieratic posesand hairstyles, which were likely intended to be interpreted as Egyptian. Most of the gate behind the

/792 Poitiers, Musee des Beaux-Arts (975.1.1) Provenance:

Thomas Hope, London and Deepdene,Docking; by descentto Lord Francis Pelham Clilaton Hope, Deepdene,

Dorking

Holy Family is covered with largely garbled hieroglyphs taken from an obelisk.

Although their origin is difficult to trace, these

(Hope sale, Christie's,

London, 20 July 1917, 1ot55); purchasedby Dykes.

hieroglyphs bear a resemblanceto thoseor] the obelisk from

Anonymous sale, Versailles, Palais des Congr&s,

Heliopolis, which stands in front of the Pantheon in Rome,

8[)ccember 1974,1ot14]; acquired by the

and thoseon the obelisk from Luxor formerly at the Villa

museum,

Medici, where Gauffier lived, which was removed to

1975.

Florence in 1790.

Very little is known about Hope's connection with Gaufher

A drawn study for the composition,with slight

beyorld the fact that he commissioned several paintings

variations. is in the Museede la Ville, Poitiers, while a small

from him. The two musthavemet in RomewhenHope

oilsketch is in a private collection in Paris.' M.P

was about twenty and close to 3 circle of young artists that

included the Sublet brothers.' Hope probably had met

Gauffier by 1789,when the artist was working on his

l On Hope and Sablet, see Foucart in Paris/Detroit/New York

Or/.zz,zcz/? cz//dC/f op.//ra (seealso cat. 384), and certainly

2.

knew him a year later when Gauffier painted the 7'#f

3.

Gf/?e/osz/y ofz#f

Romcz/7 gomez/ for him, now in Poitiers, as

pel- 1/ Szg. //oppe Z'r//?c ;efe o/a/zdcif.2 in 1790, Gauffier

signed oil sketch dated 1790 is in the Didier Aaron collection, Paris 4.

The painting, now lost, was lot 53 in the Hope sale,20 July 1917,

5.

and was bought by Roe. A drawing is in the Musee des Beaux-Arts, Montpellier. Watkin 1968, p. 44

also

painted for Hope the misnamed Ua/z;zy,in fact an ,4c#z//a Discotieted among the Daughters ofLycomedes, shown at the

The painting, present location unknown, was no. 54 in the Hope sale,Christie's, London, 20 July 1917, and was bought by Kahn. A

confirmed by a drawing for the compositiorainscribed L. GaujPer D. 111 quadra del questa disegno e stato eseguito

1974/75,PP.592-97. Maloney in New York 1989, p. 213, note 5.

6.

The painting, which may have belonged previously to Henry

Sa[or)of ]791and eventua]]y insti\]]ed in the Egyptian

Hope, is with a pendant landscape in the Peterborough City

Room.: This was followed in 1792 by TZf Rei/ 0/2/Ac' F/zgA/

Museum and Art Gallery. The composition (with an obelisk and a sphinx) is alfa known from a drawing once in the Straus collection,

zn/o depp/,

zz/zd

Berlin, and a painting dated 1737,bought by Dawes in 1929at the

Na izzaa, signed i\nd dated 1798 and now also at Poitiers. as having belonged to Hope does not appear to have been

van Diemen sale in Berlin 7 Paris 1974, no. 52, repr., and Hlumbert 1989,p. 231, repr. It may be noted that a drawing by Gauffier in the Mus&eFaire, Montpellier

part of his collection.s Why Hope commissioned a religious subject in an

(no. 55 in the same exhibition catalogue), representsthe Fountain of Narcissus in the Cascine gardens in Florence.

then

//fr/oz

' a/zd

Par;s4

nnd,

finally,

U/ysirs

An OfdzPzzs cz/d /ff S/7A!/zrmentioned in modern literature

(837-1844)of an unidentified fountain in the form of a pyramid

otherwise unbroken seriesof classicalpictures remains a

mystery.It is highly unlikely that he had alreadyplanned an Egyptian Room, but the appropriatelyEgyptian setting of the painting

was, perhaps fortuitously,

connected

to an

earlier work in the Hope collection, a Rfsr o/?/,bf r/Qi/ zn/o

Z=gpp/, also known as 7'#eSpAznJ ', by the [)utch painter Jan vail Huysum.' Gauffier's characteristically refined painting is set in an Egyptianlandscapeupdated in the light

194

From \4zedgwoodto Thomas Hope

Exhibitions:

Selected References:

Brussels 1975, no. 133, repr.;

Watkin1968, pp.44,116

Stockholm 1982,no. 38, repr. Berlin 1989,no. 25, col. repr.

r'

From Wedgv\'ood to Thomas H.ope

195

104

The Boudoir in the Thomas Hope Hlouse,

DuchessStreet, London Thomas Hope (1769 1831)

The I.a/arzzrm or Boudoir in Hope's house was used to

1807

display smallsculptures and curios.

Line engraving

It was an extraordinary room, decorated with bamboo

47 x 30 cm P\. X in HouseholdFurniture alla Into ior Decorati0}2

pilastcrs and a bamboo ceiling from which hung drapery in

Exec-ratedglom Destgtls by I'hotttas Hope , \.ondotx ,

structure, was set against a wall of mirror-glass. On the

1807

steps were displayed vases, tu,o modern castsof a Diana of

Mr. and Mrs. Timothy Clifford

Ephesus, and f\ seventeenth-century bronze of Marcus

the form of a tent. The chimney-piece,a large stepped

Provenance:

Aurelius; while in nicheson either side of a relief with Bacchusand Ariadne were two blue-glazed Egyptian

Purchased from a dealer.

wshablis.

Exhibited in Ottau,a and Vienna

Below,the mantelpiecewas of very pure design, with two simple pylons, an unusual solution and very different from the more fashionable, Piranesian model with Egyptian caryatids. Several examples of the latter type existed

196

From \wedgwood to Thomas ]lope

r' in London, including one designed by George Dance the

Youngeraround 1788 89 for the Duke of Richmond's library at LansdowneHouse.'The two bronze relief figures on the uprights were derived from the Za&z//a/siam (cat. 13). The two Egyptians seated on the fender, identical

to the hgures used on the armchairs in the Egyptian Room, were copied from a block-statue in the Vatican M.P 1. For Dance'sdrawing in Sir John Shane'sMuseum, seeThornton and Dorey 1992, p. 99, fig. 102, col. repr.

Exhibitions: Brighton/Manchester 1983: no. 86a,repr.

SelectedReferences Hope 1807,pl. 10; Watkin 1968

pp.120--21, fig. 17;Thornton and Watkin 1987, pp. 166-76,

6g.8.

105

Left Upright of Chimney-piece in Thomas Hlope's Boudoir Thomas Hope (1769 1831) Before 1804

Oak painted to simulate porphyry Upright: 100.8x 28 x 28 cm

Bronzerelief:37.4x 11.5cm Mr. and Mrs. Timothy Clifford Provenance:

Private collection, Dorset Exhibited in Ottawa and Vienna

This upright is apparently the sole surviving element from the Hope fireplace, dismantled when the houseon Duchess

Street was demolished.The bronze decorationswere presumably manufactured in London by craftsmen such as Alexis Decaix,who worked for Hope and to whom Martin Chapman has attributed a bronze vasenow in the Victoria and Albert Museum.i Identical bronzes, cast from the same

model, appearon an otherwise unidentified bed, in combination with bronzes similar to those designed by Hope for the mummy case in his Egyptian Room.: M.P

1. Chapman 1985,pp. 217--28. 2. Salabert sale, Hotel George V. Paris, Ader-Tajan, 8 June 1993,1ot 125,repr.

Exhibitions: Brighton/Manchester 1983 no. 86c.

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

197

l

t t

I :?£#%";'£b£:1l'bg' 'wp"''

106

=:'''rTi;;-

;i$

Design for an Egyptian Room Sir RobertSmirke(17801867)

Smirke apprenticed briefly with Sir John Soaneand later

c. 1801

23.5 x 38.5 cm

with George Dance (both of whom experimented with Egyptian forms) before leaving in 1801for an extended Grand Tour that lasted until 1805.From the moment he

Watermark:G.Pz4f/80/

reached Paris he was astonished by the style of modern

London, Royal Institute of British Architects, British Architectural Library Drawings Collection

architecture, noting that the "present taste . . . appearseither

(CC12/72. no. 2)

or an extreme profusion of decoration)."' The major part of his tour, however, was devoted to Italy, which he visited in 1801and 1803 04, and to Greece, where he spent two long

Pencil and watercolour on paper

Provenance:

a strange mixture of Egyptian and the simple Grecian style

Gift of Mrs. Dorothy Biggar, great-granddaughter of Sir Robert Smirke, 1938.

periods; these sojourns enormously influenced his later

Exhibited in Paris

among his few essaysin the Egyptian style. There is little doubt that the design was executed in Italy, most probably

architecture.

This fine design and a related pen sketch are Rome, but it is not clear whether it records an interior that

198

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

he copied, or if it is a project he undertook under the influence of Egyptian interiors seen in Rome. He certainly knew the Villa Borghese, of which he made several drawings,

and was familiar with designsby Asprucci.: The manner in which the room is divided into two unequal spaces suggests

that it really existed. The schemeis reminiscent of the decoration of the room in the Palazzo Massimo alle Colonne, where Egyptian caryatids and landscapesare also

combined,but the overalleffect is simpler and more refined. Individual features can be traced to other sources: Ehecaryatids are closer to those in the Salle a Croce Greco

n the Vatican, and the ibises abovethe door are copied from the Egyptian Room in the Villa Borghese. M.P

1.Citedin Crook1972, p.48. 2. Seedrawing no. 11, catalogue no 119 in Richardson 1976,vol. Xlll, p. 75, 1nsc\bed\ Villa Madalna beganfvom !he designsofRaBaelo[. . .] the pa f erected describes al{ that exists fl! pi'event / the re?nainda- is Aspracci's prqeci for fits compfe£iolt f Vi!£a h4adalna/ March 25fh 1804

SelectedReferences: Richardson 1976,vol. XIII. no. 128/2--3,p. 75; Curl 1982,

p.123,pl. 110,p. 122;Humbert 1987/1990,vol.ll.no.304,

pp. 264--65;Hlumbert 1989, p lll,col.repr. p. 109.

From Wedgwood to Thomas Hope

199

4 Demon and the Discovery of Egypt

201

Endow,edwith a pleasant manner, courtier's skills, and the

ability to impressrather than bore peoplewith his erud ricin, Dominique-Vivant Denon, who lived from 1747to 1825,made himselfindispensable from an early age. In

1769,when Denon was only twenty-two, Louis XV appointed him keeper of Madame de Pompadour's collection of medals and hardstones.Next he servedas an attache on diplomatic missions, where he gained his first practical

experiencein the field. Though often unsuccessful, these missions nonetheless showed him how to wind his u,ay

through the twists and turns of delicatenegotiations.After being sent to Russia in 1772, he sojourned in Sweden and Switzerland,

and there spent a good ten years in Italy, where

his inquisitive nature was given full rein. Most notably,he took part in the Abba de Saint-Non's archaeologicalmission in Sicily from 1777to 1778,and began collecting art objects and antiques.

Pig.9s Do?niniqzfe.Vivant Belton

Engravingby Dutertre Biblioth&que Nationale Cabinet des Estampes, Paris

Denon's absenceduring the Revolution resulted in

his being placed on the list of //}z;gifs, and when he returned to Paris in 1793he owed his safetyentirely to Jacques-Louis David's protection. Deraon frequerlted the Parisian salons, and it was there that he met furst Josephine

de Beauharnais and then Napoleon Bonaparte. Despite his

advancedage (Denon was fifty-one at the time), he con vinced Bonaparte to let him join the Egyptian Expedition

ind thus embarkedfrom Toulon on 25 Flor6al Year VI

(14 May 1798) aboard the/u//on.

Reaching Alexandria on 3 July, Denon accompanied General Desaix'sdivision and surprisedsoldiers and scientists alike with his equanimity,

insatiable curiosity, and

remarkable drive. His enthusiasm remained unabated; he

marvelled at everything he came across:"At last Ihave beheldthe portico of Hermopolis. Ttsmassiveruins provided me with my first view of the splendour of Egypt's colossal

architecture. On every stoneof this edifice, I seemto seethe

words Pos/el'zry and E/e/'nz/yerlgraved."' The arrival at Thebes was in itself a great moment in this epic: "This for

taken city, which our imagination can only conjure up through the mists of time, so haunted our imagination that, al the sight of thesescattered ruins, the army came to a halt oats own volition and spontaneously began to applaud as if

occupying the ruins of this capital had been the purpose of'

this glorious enterprise, thus completing the conquest of Egypt. J made a drawing of this first sight, as if fearing that

this imi\ge of Thebes would elude me. And through their good-natured enthusiasm, the soldiers provided their knees as a worktable

and their bodies as protection

from the sun's

;indent rays beating down on a scene lintended

to paint for

my readers,so that they could partake of my emotion in the presenceof' such great objects, and share the spectacleof an

atmospherecharged with the passionof an army of soldiers whose delicate sensibility made me happy to be their com7

panion, proud to be French

After thirteen months in Egypt, Denon returned to France with the first group aboard the A/zzzron, sailing from

202

[)enon and the Discovery of Egypt

J A

Fig. 99. Benjamin Zix Domfmfqzre-VZpazz De#ozz, c. 1809--11

Allegorical portrait (note the Pont-Neuf obelisk, pieces from the S&vres centrepiece, and Napa/ea a fi;s Wbff/a&/e by Moutony) Musee du Louvre, D6partement des Arts Graphiques Paris

Denon and the Discovery of Egypt

203

Egypt on 6 Fructidor Yei\r Vl1 (23August 1799).Immediately

on his arrival back in Paris on 16 October 1799,he set to work classifying his sketches and reviewing his notes, in order to publish his Uoyczge dani Za Bczsif f/ /a Ha /f EgyP/f

pendant les Campagnesdu G6n6lal Bonaparte as soon as

possible. Its imminent appearancehad already been announced, preceded by a full-blown advertising campaign:

the C'ozzrf-zff df /'/kyp/c?, for instance, wcnt to great lengths to whet its readers' appetites:"Citizen Denon has returned

from Upper Egypt, and has brought back a collection of

Fig.100.Pierre Prud'hon

over two hundred drawings.... He made seven trips to the

Dominiqzfe.Vivant Demon Oil on canvas Musee du Louvre, D6partement des Peintures, Paris

ruins of Thebes,ten to Terltyris, four to Edfu ... and as many to Philae.... Citizen Denon has compiled in his collec-

tion everythingthat will serveto inform Europeaboutthe ancient Egyptians, their deities, sacrifices,ceremonies,their

lavish festivalsand the triumphs of their heroes,and their weapons, musical instruments, and furniture."'

Published in 1802, Denon's work was enormously

successfulin France and soon throughout Europe

for

several reasons, the most important being its particularly

appealingsubject.' Combining the accountof a military campaign, which was still topical, with the description of

Mint, and the imperial palaces,aswell ason official celebrations and urban design, he evolved into a kind of quasidictator of the arts. Denon was committed to fulfilling the wishes that

a mysteriousland, the book let the readercomparethis

the emperor

ancient civilization with that of ClassicalGreece.The work

'It is my intention to direct the arts toward subjectsthat

was also admired for the quality of its narrative style,

commemorate the achievements of the last fifteen years. C)vertime he formulated an art policy whose rules he codified, writing to the emperor: "You shall approve only those

equalled by its original presentation. Though imperfect from an archaeological perspective and other standpoints,

expressed to Intendant

G6n6ral [)aru

in 1805;

his vibrant and varied narration often readslike an adventure

monuments that will consecrate and be worthy of your

novel. The importance given the visual documentation, evidencedby the size and quality of the engravings, was an

glory and that will causeforeign nationsto pay homage to your benevolence."'Egypt wasinvolved, and it is not

original concept. Until then, images had generally been

surprising that, at Denon's instigation, influences from the

considered a mere adjunct of the text. Denon made them

an integral part of his discourse,and complementedthem with abundant captions.

One final factor is perhapsthe key to the work's success:Denon espouseda viewpoint that is quite different from that of previous authors, combining "old attitudes' and "new

perceptions."s

He voiced

the questions

and

land of the pharaohsoften appearedin ofhcial art. Parisian morluments and Sdvres ceramics bear tangible signs of his efforts. As well, since Denon was able to procure commissions

from the State,a numberof artistsproposedEgyptianizing subjectsbasedon his drawings, out of political opportunism as much as personal taste.

Denon's role, then, went far beyond promoting the

doubts of his fellow citizens who were torn between the

Egyptian style. He engendered the Napoleonic legend, by

Enlightenment, the Ancien Regime, and the Revolution

seeingto it that every Egypt-inspiredcreation linked the

He wrote exactly what his contemporaries wanted to read,

emperor with his Egyptian Campaign, an associationthat

and concurred perfectly with their way of thinking.

was establishedearly on. The dedication he wrote to

Readers

Bonaparte in Uoyczgfbears this out: "To associatethe glory

who

plunge

into

Homage dczni /a Basie fr /a Ha

/e

fgypze feel that the author is right there, sharing his interests with them. The reader'sastonishmentmirrors the emotional intensity Denon so ably expresses.

of your name with the splendour of the monumentsof Egypt is to combine the grandeur of our century with the mythical eras of history; to rekindle

the ashes of Sesostris

This symbiotic relationship between Denon's writing and his readership also existed in the political arena. Tn ded-

and Mendes,who, like you, were corlqucrors,like you,

icating his book to Bonaparte,and thus associatingthe

you on one of your most memorable expeditions, it will

emperor's name with scientific studies rather than with the

greet my book with keen interest. I have spared no effort in

somewhat negative consequencesof military defeats,

making it worthy of the hero to whom T wish to dedicateit."; Egyptomania thus began to take on different levelsof interpretation, and this was to becomea recurrent phenomenon.

Denon provided him with excellent publicity. As a reward, he was soon appointed director of the Museum Central des

Arts. From then on, his authority gradually extended to

everybranchof the fine arts. Exerting his influenceat the

204

Sdvres porcelain factory, the Gobelin tapestry factory, the

Denon and the Discovery of Egypt

were benefactors. When Europe learns that I accompanied

The former diplomatic attachenever lost sight of rhe role communication played in advancing his career.

r' Without question, Denon was opportunistic. On the one hand, he capitalized on his great exotic adventure in order

to establishand extendhis power; on the other hand, he knew how to make useof the taste ztlreadypresentin Parisian salons for what he had to offer and to impose it on the most influential figure of the age. Upon his return to

Paris, Denon dedicated himself to developing the Egyptian mode in interior design, even requesting Jacob-Desmalter

to make an Egyptian-styleset of furniture for him, comprising a bed and two mahogany armchairs; later, he bought a medal cabinet with pharaonic motifs in silver inlay.9 The

Egyptian style, bolstered by his publication, strongly influenced every realm of art in France and throughout Europe,

where the book enjoyed wide distribution. Thomas Hope, in 1807, and George Smith, in 1808 and 1828, acknowledged the extent to which Denon's book inspired them Today however, we must recognize that Denon's

influence was somewhat less universal than previously

thought. We have bee]atoo apt to believethat everyearly raineteenth-century Egyptianizing

creation was based on

voyage.But this chapter,and the following one dealing with the Empire, will demonstratethat many works presumed to have been inspired by Denon were in fact derived from earlier sources or from preliminary sketches for the Dfscrzp/zo/z de /'/{gy/,/e. Nevertheless, this perception of

Denon as the wellspring of the entire Egyptianizing artistic production of that era gives us an appreciation of his vast readership Even without

Bonaparte's Expedition,

and even

without Denon,Egyptomaniasurelywould haveflourished, but it would have lacked the richness of Denon's symbolism and interpretation, which were to remain two of its defining characteristics.

J.-M.H Denon 1802, vol. 1, p. IX [all quotes from Denon; our trans]ation] 2.

Denon 1802,vol. 1,p. 117. Seealso cat. 108

3.

Quoted by Garland 1803,vol. 11,pp. 173 75, and again in Vann

4.

Despite papal disapproval(seeMaze Sender 1893,p. 212).There were two editions of Denon'swork in London in 1803.two in the

1989,P. 7.

German lands and in Amsterdam in 1803, one in Florence in 1808. etc. (see Goby 1952). 5. 6.

Vann 1989,pp.70--71

7. 8.

Leli&vre 1942,p. 39, quoted in Tulard 1970,p. 224

9.

Dubois 1826;furniture: nos.832 and 833,pp. 189 90 (2nd ed.,

Lelidvre 1942,p. 39,quoted in Tulard 1970,p. 224. Denon 1802,vol. 1, p. 5. pp. 117 18);medal cabinet;no. 835,p. 191(2nd ed.,pp. 118 19).

10 Grandjean 1966,p. 34.

Denon and the Discovery of Egypt

205

107

Medal Cabinet However. it is not a "monolithic lzaoi," but a pylon with a

jacob-Desmalter; silver decoration by Martin-Guillaume

Biennais(

cavetto cornice and winged disks, decoratedwith tori,

1764--1843)

scarabs, and serpents crowned by two Amun feathers and

1809 19 Mahogany, silver inlay, and added silver ornaments 90.2 x 50.2 x 37.5 cm

Marks on the winged disks:

entwined around lotus stems Despite rlumerous studies, little is known about this object. Its history is particularly difhcult to reconstruct.

1. B surmountedwith seatedmonkeywith a ball

Because of its inclusion in the ] 826 sale, it was long believed

[o each side, inside a lozenge (maker's mark); 2. Classical head,P in ;\n oval (mark of1793 94);

[o be among the furniture made at Denon's request and

3. roosterand / in an octagon(Parisassaymark for

based on his sketches.3 But a drawing by Percier (fig. IOI)

in an album from Biennais' workshop showsthis to be

first standardsilver,180919);

untrue.4The enmity betweenPercier and Denon supports

4. helmet in a circle(Paris assaymark for silver,

the possibilitythat Denon did not commissionthe cabinet

180919).

but purchased it later, and was theresore not necessarily the

Marks 1, 3, and 4 are on one wing ofeach disk;

original owner. Furthermore, the decorative elements, espe'

mark 2 is on the other wing ofeach disk.

cially the two different kinds of winged disk, are derived

New York, The MetropolitanMuseumof Art

from several. often earlier, sources, such as Nordens and his

(26.168.77)

reproductions' excluding the scarab,the only element that could have come from [)anon's pub]ication.' Like Fontaine,

Provenance: Sale of the estate of Dominique-Vivant

Percier never troubled himself too greatly oder accuracyin

this i\rea, freely blending ancient sourceswith his own

Denon.

1826.Gift of Collis P.Huntington to The Metropolitan Museumof Art, 1926.

inventions

Exhibited in Paris

while Biennais'm;irk, lust besideit, is from 1793 94, which

The date of the cabinet is no less uncertain.The hallmarks on the vt'lngeddisks indicate the period 1809 19, suggeststhat Biennais reused high-quality ornaments that

The furst description of this exceptional piece of furniture appears in the catalogue of the [)enon sa]e: "A mahogany naedal

cabinet

in the

form

of a monolithic

Egyptian

/zoos

This cabinet has twenty--tw-odrawers on either side, and a door covering them; its three sidesare richly decoratedwith Egyptian symbols, inlaid in silver. Base in veined marble

w-ere made a number of years before. Though Biennais is

known to have done this regularly, Clare dames rejects the theory, proposing instead that an outdated mark was reused by mistake, or that Biennais might already have seen Demon's

sketchesas early as 1799.However, since the drawings used predate Denon's, this hypothesis appears unfounded. The

fact that noneof the designsis from the Z)fic/zP/zo/z df /'Egy/7/ronly servesto corroborate the theory of reused ornaments

The scarabs,whose jointed wings serveas drawer handles, are a striking example of adaptation: their design

is so peculiar that some writers have mistaken them for bees,'thereby "proving" that this medal cabinet was made for Napoleon. These ornaments are also based on inaccu-

rate late eighteenth-century drawings that Biennais had already used at various times in previous medal cabinets,

like one dating from about 1800apparentlymadeat the behest of Eugene de Beauharnais, and iinother delivered to Empress Marie-Louise

in 1812.9

The originality and variety of its decorationmake

this piecean excellent illustration of the taste for things Egyptian at the beginning of the nineteenth century. At the same time, it is the very essenceof Egyptomania: the adap-

tation of antique forms and decorations,in dimensionsas well as materials, to a type of object and function completely Fig. 101.Afeda/C 6; e/

different from those associated with these symbols

Drawing by Charles Percier Musee des Arts D6coratifs

Cabinet des Arts Graphiques, Paris

206

Denon and the Discovery of Egypt

in Antiquity.

J.-M.H

l .;

8

l$

n

g

Denon and the Discovery of Egypt

207

l Information from Danielle O. Kisluk Grosheide,curator at The MetropolitanMuseumof Art, New York.

by all his successors.

9. SeeParis 1969,pp. 105 06, no. 289 and pl. p. 107

2.

See Dubois

3.

SeeDubois 1826,pp. 189 90, nos.832 833(2nd ed., pp. 117--18).

4.

Musee des Arts D6coratifs, Paris, Cabinet des Arts Graphiques

Exhibitions:

(C0 3240[GF9]).

London 1972,no. 1609;New York

1826, p. 191, no. 835 (2nd ed., pp. 1 18 19).

1978,no.19.

5.

SeeNorden 1741/1757/1795.

6.

SeeQuatremdre de Quincy 1785,republished 1803, pl. 6.

7.

See Denon

8.

No great knowledge of entomology is required, however, to dis-

1802, vol. 11, pl. 122, no. 7.

pp. 108--12;Ledoux-Lebard 1965,p. 95 and pl.13b; Grandjean 1966,pp. 30, 34, 95,

pl. 13b;Honour1968, pp.175, SelectedReferences:

Dubois1826, no.835,p. 191

tinguish a coleopteran, or beetle, from a hymenopteran, or (here)

(2nd ed., pp. 118 19);Remington

heelthe wings, legs,and abo\e all shapeof the body are quite different. Despite the crudenessof the modelling here, there can be

p. 126and fig. 5; Eames 1958--59,

108

1926, p. 219; Remington

1927,

206, fig. 99; London 1972, pp. 750--51and pl. 143; New York 1978,fig. 5; Humbert 1989 P.129.

The Temple at Dendera [nner doorway

...[and]

e]evariorl of the

Denon, who accompanied Bonaparte's Expedition, was

portico of the temple at Tentyris'

particularly impressedby the temple at Dendera:"Soon

[)hawing by[)ominique-Vivant Denon (1747 1825); etched by Louis-Pierre Ballard

after, Dendera (Tentyris) taught me that it was not at all in

(1764 1846)

ought to seekthe beautiesof architecture, but that wherever harmony of the parts exists, there lies beauty. The morning brought me to its buildings, the evening wrenched me from

1802

Etching 57x 42cm

208

no doubt. It was Preston Remington who first advancedthis curl ous assertion, maintained

the Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian orders alone that one

them more agitated than satisfied. T had seen a hundred

Plate 39, hg. 3 from Uoyagfda i /a Basie f/ /a Ha £rf EgyPre,vol. IT Paris, Musee de I'Arm6e, Cabinet des Estampes

things, and a thousand more escapedme: I had entered the archivesof the arts and sciencesfor the first time. I had the

(1334BIB)

Egypt. And the twenty trips T have made since to Dendera

Denon and the Discovery of Egypt

presentiment that J would see nothing more beautiful in

QIn R.E3T!!DII)I£RVnII.JEUX

officer of dazzling courage, cultivated intellect, and reined

#

taste, sought me out and said: 'Since lcame to Egypt, disillusioned with everything, I have been sick and melaracholy. Tentyris has cured me: what I saw today made up for all my fatigue. Whatever may becomeof me after this expedition, T shall congratulate myself for the rest of my days for

having undertaken it, becauseof the indelible memories this day has left with me.:

The temple was largely buried in sand at the time Denon's caption to the etching reads: "The part that sur rounds the columns is buried, and I was unable to seethe

Fig. 102. Tep P/e af Demdera

ornamentssince Inever had the time to dig them out.

As reconstructed by Paul Lucas in the early 18th century Bibliothique

I have provided them here, based on those I found on the samearchitectural member at the open temple at Philae."'

Nationale, Cabinet des Estampes, Paris

This accounts fbr the major discreflancies between Denon's

drawing and Cecile'sfor the Z)fic/'zp/lo/df /'Egy/7/e(see have confirmed this belief. The sciencesand the arts united by good taste decorated the temple of Isis, where astrononay,

cat. 147)

morality, and metaphysics are given forms, forms that decorate the ceilings, friezes, stylobates with as much taste and grace

Denon and the entire army, we can more easily understand

as the slender and insignificant arabesquesthat beautify our

first under Denon's inHuence and later through others who played no part in the original expedition.'

boudoirs.'

Seeing the strong impression the temple made on

the monument'sprolonged influence on art (seefig. 102),

Thus perceived by [)enon, the temp]e at [)endera also struck the soldiers with considerable amazement. On

J.-M.H

24 January 1799, "without orders issued or received, each

Denon 1802,vol. 1, p. IX.

officer, each soldier made a detour, hastenedto Tentyris,

Denon1802,vol. 1,p. 116.

and spontaneouslythe army remained there the rest of the

Denon 1802,vol. 11,caption pl. 39. SeeHumbert 1993b.

day. What a dayIHow

happy we are to have braved it allan

order to experience such rapturous delights." Denon's nar-

SelectedReferences:

ration goeson to saythat, "in the evening,Latournerie, an

Humbert 1989, p. 28

109

Egyptian Temple in Place desVictoires Jean-Francois Chalgrin(1739--18 ll )

The decision to build a monument in Paris to the memory

1800

of Desaix and K16ber was made very quickly, by a consular

Pen andink 43.2 x 56.2 cm I nscribed, lower right: Trr}2p/e c#yp/;e/? //fz,/

order dated 19 Frucridor Year Vl11 (6 September 1800), ar

!a place des Victoires,an sujet d'u7zef8teet d'title

lessthan three months after the death of the two generals.Tbe cornerstone was laid in Place des Victoires on 23 September 1800, during a ceremony organized by Lucien Bonaparte,

pt'emi&re pierre en !' hoitneut desg6nfraux snorts Desaix et Ktfber pa Chalgrin, 23 7bre 1800.

Minister of the Interior, and Chalgrin, architect to the

Paris, Musee Carnavalet, Cabinet des Arts Graphiques (D 9186)

The architectural theme was hardly surprising: Desaix and

Provenance:

temple(fig. 103),;giving irs dimensions and structure: about

Acquired at the Vaudoyer sale,Hotel Drouot,

14 metres long by 9 metres wide, it was to comprise sixteen columns enclosing a central space that would house busts of the two generals. The recent acquisition of a drawing of the facade provides a clear idea of the height, until now known

Senate, before a full-size mock-up of an Egyptian temple.: K16ber both took part in Bonaparte's Egyptian Expedition. The Musee Carnavalet has rhe plans for the proposed

Paris, ll April 1986, 1ot 102. Exhibited in Paris

Denon and the Discovery of Egypt

209

,l:£se:>;g::Jt=eilttufes

Recs/e;/ Zes

et sclitptitl'es

fairs ati Corps {€gislatifs. Paris, 181 1

featuring an Egyptian room that ler onto a Gothic chapel on one side and a Tartar tent on the other; various designs

and on one of the twelve ornamental trophies decorating

of sphinxesand mummieswere paintedon the walls,and

uhe pilasters of the Salon de I'Empereur in the legislature,

eight columns decorated with hieroglyphs were placed

where he symbolizes Egypt. In 1811,Bernard Poyet created

arourld the periphery.'' Wallpapers of the times echoed the same sources:one exztmpleis the wallpaper from the draw-

this ingenious vertical composition in which a sphinx, winged disks, and the Apis bull were precariously balanced

ing room of Crowley House,dated 1806,depicting canopic

on top of each other(fig. 146).:' Sphinxes were also a frequent theme in interior decoration, as for example in

lars and sphinxes.'' Other countries soon followed the fashion. In 1808,

the Th66tre des Vari6t6s in Paris.:' Lions' heads,small

Benjamin Latrobe planned to decorate the reading room of

columns, cavetto cornices, and hieroglyphs all belonged to

the Library of Congressin Washington,D.C., in the

the stylistic vocabulary used to transform interior decora

Egyptian fashion,'' and in 1810,Georg Lovesadopted the

stylefor the Ministers'Gl\llery of the Residenzin Kassel.:' During Napoleon's exile on Elba, Ravelli used the engrav-

ngsin the Z)ric/'zP/zo// df /'/Qy/7/efor one of the roomsof the Villa San Martino occupied by the Emperor (fig. 145).: And in Russia, architects continued to design Egyptiarlstyle halls for pitlacesaround Moscow and St. Petersburg

In France. decorative motifs were more clearly differerltiated. Antinous was one of the most popular subjects;

he appel\rs, for example, in the interior grisaille decorations

254

of the Hotel Suchet in Paris,:: where he personifies Africa,

The Return from Egypt

don. works of art, and furniture to suit the tastesof the day

But it was in furniture that the fashionwasmost evident. Tn the late eighteenth century, only isolated Egyptian-style decorative elements had been used, but at the beginning of the nineteenth century, in a major innova-

tion, furniture designedwholly in the Egyptianfashion made its appearance. The collaborative efforts of Percier (fig.

147 and 148), Fontaine,

strikingly

original

and Denon

pieces. A number

resulted

in some

of cabinetmakers

spe'

cialized in furniture of this type. In Paris, Pierre-Benoit

Maroon offered his waresin his "Aux fgyptiens" workshop

and store.His advertising invited customersto view "his selection of distinctive furniture, made of mahogany, richly decorated with bronze fittings based on beautiful forms

crude and heavy."'; Nevertheless, Egyptian-style furniture was appreciated by the majority: the vogue spread quickly and even appearsin paintings, such as Marguerite Gerard's Le//er, and in statuettes, such as Moutony's Napa/fizz Secs/ed

drawn from Etruscan, Egyptian, Greek, and Roman

a/ //zi WordTa&/f. Not only were all typesof furniture

Antiquity.":s Louis Aubry sold "a curious side table deco-

influenced by Egyptomania, but the style was copied virtu

rated with antique-style mouldings and resting on green bronze sphinxes."Z ' in Year VI, Guillaume Benemansup-

ally without interruption until the late nineteenth century.

plied the merchant Collignon with a secretaire,a commode,

Egyptian art and he was not opposed to giving these motifs a kind of ofhcial status, especially when they could enhance his own mystique. This may explain why he was particularly

and a chiffonier of pegged mahogany, decorated with finely

chiselled copper sphinxes with mat gliding, at a cost of 1400livres.27Etienne-Ovide Barreau was famous for his

Napoleon made no secret of his predilectiorl for

Interestedin Isis. Jn 1806,Moitte depicted her on one of

commodes, console tables, secretaires, and desks, decorated

the wingsof the Cour Carrie in the Louvre (fig. 149).;'

with Egyptian terms.:8 Cabinetmakers were increasingly inclined to use large-scale sculpted figures, producing con-

So closely was the deity linked [o the origins of Paris (the

solesand tables supported by Egyptian women wearing

headedby Louis Petit-Radel, studied the basisof the legend and concluded not only that an ancient cult oflsis did exist,

vulture headdresses and robesdecoratedwith a vertical

'Par-/szi"

hypothesis)

that a commission

set up in 1809,

strip of hieroglyphs,:9Egyptian women wearing wigs and fitted tunics,30and Nubian women in loincloths.3i The

but that it wascertainly relatedto the emblematicship of

,4nrznozzifrom Hladrian's Villa was also a common motif in

letters patent on 20 January 1811,arid the Egyptian goddess was depicted on the city's new coat of arms, seated at the

furrliture;

it appears notably in the La M6sangdre series.3:

The great majority of Egyptian-style furniture, however, displayed only one or two decorative elements.

Paris. The lsiac origin of Paris was "officially established" by

prow oran ancient vessel.'s

Asidefrom the Institut d'Egypte'ssolemnprotest

The head, often part of a bust, covered with a striped /zemci

against "this

headdresswas the most widespreadand popular motif. Thousands of armchairs, commodes, and furniture of all

and Gothic style,"" Egyptomania was, on the whole, widely embracedduring the Consulate and the Empire.37The few

kinds

have been decorated with these

criticisms came from the experts. The public, which had

figures, from the Louis XVI period to the present.The genre's heyday during the Empire period was characterized by

little knowledge of ancient civilizations, responded chiefly [o the novel and foreign character of the decoratioras.The sometimes austere aspect of Egyptian art was eclipsed by

all over the world

a proliferation of ornamental heads.They were most frequently made of bronze, occasionallygilded. Somewere

ridiculous

affectation

of Egyptian,

arabesque,

the predominant useof motifs from the New Kingdom,

also sculpted directly into the wood of the furniture's legs or

which were lesshieratic and easier for the untrained eye to

uprights. The size varied as much as the shape, ranging

absorb.Up to the 1820s,Egyptomania continued to draw

from a woman'sheadwith curly hair flowing down the sidesof her face and over her forehead, and wearing a

nfmfi of the simplest form, to a near-perfectcopy of the antique /zrmfi, with every variation in between.

While this type of furniture enjoyedimmense success,enthusiasm for the style was not quite universal,

and somedissenting voicescould be heard: "While Madame R6camier complained softly of the maddening order and regularity the fashion demanded, a chronicler in 1801mockingly described all these new mansions, where

one enters through an antique-style hall covered with Italian marble to find an Egyptian bed in the bedroom and

Etruscancaradelabrain the drawing room." The author of voyage c /a CAczaisfed'H/z/zn (a wealthy and fashionable resi-

dential district of the day) added his own note of mockery and instruction: "Elegance and taste were not to be found in these great sculpted claws and animal heads on the doors

and furniture of our dwellings. Would it not be better to

decorateyour buildings and drawing roomswith what is most pleasing in nature, than to seek in Egypt and among

our barbarian ancestorsconceptions which depart from designand good taste?Your wallpaper and furniture are

blANCO-CATAC.

l+nr Jloittr

Fig. 149. Jean-Guillaume Moitte

Sculptural decoration for the eastwing of the Cour Carrie in the Louvre. Plate 32 from Fr6d6ric de Clarac, Alz/idbZe ifa/pfzrre a f;gz/e ef modemze, Paris, 1841 53, vol. I

The Return from Egypt

255

impulses behind the movement underwent profound

16. T#e Wy////f Dza/ifi, Anne orem;lntle, ed., vo1.3(1940), p 187;cited in Brighton/Manchester 1983, p. 52, no. 105 17. Brighton/Manchester 1983,p. 53, no. 106.

changes.

18.London. Victoria and Albert Museum

sustenancefrom the Empire style, but after this date, the

1.-M.H.

19. Carrott 1978,p. 64, p. 76, note 8 and pl. 97.

20. Brinks 1973,pp. 81--116.

21.Saint-Denis1926,p. 66; Gruyer 1906,pp. 128--29, and pl. facing

Laurens 1987.

128

2. Driault 1940, pp. 122and 128. 3. Hlumbert 1990, pp. 31--37.

22.No. 16, Rue de la Ville-l'Ev6que, Paris 8e; Vacquier,vol. I

4. Francastel 1939, p. 12. 5. Duval 1812, p. 17. 6. Dominique-Vivant Denon, voyagedarts/a Basieer / Hail/r EWP/f,

Paris, 1802; Charles Percier and P.-F.-L. Fontaine, Rfrzfez/ de

Z)Zro/a/;on.f ;/z/gt;ezi/es, Paris,1801 7. Benoit 1897,pp. 126 27. Examplesinclude the work of Jean Nicolas-Louis

Durand,

"professor

of architecture,"

especially his

Recaei! et palau!&tedes edifices de tot£t genre, ancient ef modernes,

Th6ftre desVari6t6s,7, Boulevard Montmartre, Paris2e 25. Salverte 1934--35,p. 207; Ledoux-Lebard 1965, p. 385. 26. Salverte 1934--35,pp. 4--5 27. Salverte,1934--35,p. 16 28. Salverte,1934--35,p.9.

Paris, Year IX, which shows, alongside Greek, Indian, and

29.Avril 1929, p.68.

Turkish temples and tombs, Egyptian temples (pl. 1), tombs, pyramids, and obelisks (pl. 19), Egyptian details from Norden (pl. 64), Egyptian and Etruscan" details, sphinxes, lions, canopic )ars, and

243;and Chailley 1968.Hector Lefuel reportsthat he owned two

30. See sale, Hotel des venuesLoudmer-Poulain, Paris, 25 26 June 1979,P.43,1ot202. 31. Seesale,Galli6ra, Paris, Couturier-Nicolay, 2 December 1970 32. La M6sangire: Co/Zec/!o/z de mead'/es e/ o&7ezi degoz2/,Paris, 1807--31 vol. 1, pl. 37; Brunhammer and Fayet 1965,p. 64, pl. 79; sale,Palais d'Orsay, Paris, Couturier-Nicalay, 15 February 1978,1ot 100 33. Bourgeois1930,p.94

watercolours by Percier, scenery director of the Opera, which had

34. Goulet 1808;Clarac 1841--53,pls. 32 and 33; Hlautecoeur 1924,

been made for I,ff M);z?rcs d'/ni; see Lefuel 1923, Georges/aco&,

pls. 6/2, 7/2,and 13 35. Tisserand 1874 75; Baltrusaitis 1967, pp. 67--68

hieroglyphs(pl.65) 8. On this Mozart opera and its relationship with Freemasonry, see Saint-Foix, vol. V. 1946, especially pp. 137, 151--57,221--28,and

p 146;Lefuel 1925, /aco&-l)fema/Zfr, P-26. 9. Fates de ia iibert4 et entree triomphale des ob3ets de sciences et d'aris

rcfzlfz//zffn /za/zf.'Frog/amma, Paris, Imprimerie de la R6publique,

Thermidor YearVI, in-8', 23 pages. 10. Caillet 1959, pp. 27--57; Durliat 1974, pp. 30--41

36. Vid 1797, p. 74 and Ra/'Parr dz£j ry dz{ 2 z,e/zdlmzairean r//

(Archives de I'Institut), cited in Benoit 1897,pp. 268 69 and note I,P.269 37. Comments such as the criticism by Nicolas Goulet, an admirer of

11. Cited in Brighton/Manchester1983,no. 107,pp. 53--54

the Greeks.who wrote that "since we have invented nothing new

12. 1805; Honour 1955, p. 244; Carrots 1978, p. 116, and note 53,

in architecture for so many centuries, I believe that [Greek archi [ecEure]is the only one that should be adopted and we should leave

PP. 189-90

13.Humbert 1971,pp.21 22; Curl 1982,pp. 153--61; Humbert 1989, PP.6872

to the Egyptians their childhood, to the Tuscanstheir heaviness, and to the Goths their frail delicacy," were the exception to the

14.Circa 1801;London, RIBA (British Architectural Library,

luxe qObservations sar tes embeliisscmens de Park ef sar {es monamens

Drawings Collection) 15. 1805; an interior view is in the Buckinghamshire County Museum

qzz; ' co/zi/7 en/, Paris, 1808,p. 236)

collection;see

256

(1908-37), pl. 13. 23. Poyet 1811, pl. 6 24. Female sphinxes by Cellerier, 1807, decorarirlg the balcony of the

also Seely 1817

The Return from Egypt

PZa/ci.Prom /,4eDescription de I'Egypte One ofNapoLeon's last decisions in Egypt was to create a systematicinventory of antiquities. His decreeof 13 August

Commission remained active, sketching the Great Sphinx and

}799 charged the Commission des Scienceset desArts with the

for reproducing the insmiptions on the famous Rosetta Stone,

task: Thk body consistedofapproximately 50Qcivilians, among

discovered in 1 799 and then conserved at the Institut d'Egypte.

them artkts and scholars, who accompanied the military expedition. I'wo ad hoc committees were createdjor the ptcrpose,con-

The platesthat appearin the Desk \prion are basedon copies

tinuing the moth.beganby thepainter Dominique-Viuant

From this anderta©ng, which Napoleonhadlaunched and KL6berhad tamed into a collaborativepublishing project,

Demon. Risking his life, Demon had decided to accompany

Derail's army, which pursued the rebel Mourad Bey up the

the pyl'amiss and exploring the Sinai. They indented techniques

madefrom sulphur and plaster moulds.

Nite, betweenAugust 1798and daly 1799.On his return to

there emerged after many complications the most monumenra/ mor'k ez,erpa&/ ]#fd, fAf Description de I'Egypte. /r

Cairo, Demon'ssketchesand wafetcolou s arousedconsderabie

consisted of kn folio volumes and two uoLamescontaining 837

enthusiasm. They repealed the unknown splendour of the great

copper engravings; in a!!, there were more than 3000 {!tastrations, someauer a metre {n length. The first Pue ootamesare

templesof Upper Egypt Karnak Phihe, and Dendera.Until then, the pyramids in the vicinity of Cairo had brett the only great monuments known to the expedition. On 16 August, the first committee, consisting ofjour members led by the mathe-

devoted to antiquities; the nex! {tpo describe life and euenis in the coantqfvom the Arab conquest in the seventh century up to

matician Costar.receiz;ed{ts olde s to {eaueCairo. The second

the French occupation; the last three deadwith natula] histoq. Due to the complexity of the project and delaysin the prepare

committee, ofthe same size, L of Turin. But despite

the approximations and inventions, these candelabra are easily recognizable as "Egyptian" objects

demand, especially in view of the fact that it was chosen to decorate the residences of both Prince Schwarzenberg and

J.-J.G.,I.E., and J.-M.H

Prince Eugenede Beauharnais. I n both of these cases,the furnishings were ordered

by high-ranking individuals, one of whom was a member of the imperial

family.

that Caroline and Joachim Mural may have ordered a more elaborate version of the present candelabra

292

l 3.

Bill dated 24 January 1805 (Schwarzenberg collection, \vienna), see Ottomeyer and Pr6schel 1986, vol. 1,p. 337. Driault 1927,pl. 39. Wittelsbacher Ausgleichs6ond,Munich

It thus seems reasonable to assume

an object very

2. 4.

much in keeping with the fashion of their era and milieu, as well as with their own extravagant taste. The position in which the Nubian figure is kneeling is common to many of the Egyptianizing brorlzes produced

Archives Diplomatiques du Ministdre des Affaires Etrang&res

5. 6.

(seriesC 407) Dumonthier [1911], pl. 41 The part of the entry that was written by Jean JacquesGautier and

during the Empire period, though there's nothing Egyptian about it.' She wears a long loincloth. its high waistband rising

8.

lean Est&ve ends here. 7. 9.

Humbert 1989,p. 171 Ottomeyer and Pr6schel 1986, p. 337.

to Justunder her breasts,and her head is coveredby a wig

Seethe Egyptian chimney-pieceof Prince Eugenede Beauharnais (Collection Maciet, Biblioth&que du Musee des Arts D6coratifs,

with tight curls and a vulture headdress. Her braceleted.

143/14), as drawn by the architect Bataille; seealso cat. 163

The Return from Egypt

171

Two Seated Egyptians Artist and maker unknown c. 1805--10 Gilt bronze; patinated

28x 26cm

and gilt bronze base

Paris, Musee Marmottan (695 and 695 bis)

A side view of a figure in a similar position an Egyptian woman holding her head in her hands is featured on the basesof a pair of candelabra created by Feuchdre (cat. 170). But no such pose has ever been observed in antique depictions, nor does it appear in either he Description

Provenance: Paul Marmottan collection.

Little is known aboutthesetwo bronzefigures,which may have been intended as desk ornaments.The women are in a most unusual pose:seatedon the ground with their hands

resting on their legs,which are extendedin front and slightly bent at the knee.

de I'Egypte

OI I)anon's

Voyage.

The anonymous artist who designed this pair clearly setout to change the relationship betweenthe viewer

and the object:unlike other Egyptianizing piecesfrom the early nineteenth century, this one focuseson the figure and relegatedthe Egyptian elements to the background. It is an

early exampleof the kind of integration that made"the Egyptian

fashion"

so successful in subsequent decades.

Their clothing is equally original: barely visible

J.-M.H

waistbands and hems are the sole indication that they are wearing skin-tight

loincloths.

Bracelets accentuate each

upperarm, and their headgearconsistsof a wig with large curls and an almost stylized vulture headdressmadeof long, wide feathers.

Exhibitions;

SelectedReferences

Paris 1938,no. 630, p. 1881 Munich 1972,no. 22.

Lefuel1934, no. 121--122;Jullian 1961,P.130,6g.18

The Return from Egypt

293

172

Jug Jean-Baptiste Locr6 porcelain factory, Paris;

manufacturedby Russinger-Pouyat c. ]805--10

Hard-paste porcelain, polychrome, hand-painted and gilded at reduced temperature 31.5 x 17 cm wide

Blue mark on baseunder enamel: two intersecting arrows

Neuilly, Michel Bloit collection Provenance Sold at Hotel Drouot, Paris, 23 November 1990

Founded by Jean-BaptisteLocr6 on 14July 1773,this porcelain factory still operating under the name "Porcelaine de Paris" was one of the most important in Paris in the early

nineteenthcentury.Locr6 retired in 1787,and the firm was managed by Laurent Russinger until1810, and then by the

Pouyat brothers until1820(their

father Francois had boughtout thehrm in 1799). Production at the factory was regular, the style homogeneous, but able to adapt to changes in taste. This lug from

the early

1800s was doubtless

designed

with

a

view to the current trend. Displayed below the spout is Napoleon's head, framed by a /zernfi,a not surprising theme

given the well-establishedassociationbetweenthe Napoleonic legend and the Egyptian Campaign.

The scenedepictsan antique landscapein the style of Hubert Robert, with ruins, contemporary figures, and a

pyramid resemblingthe Tomb of Cestius,set againstan Italian countryside. Other models featured simpler designs.

No effort hasbeenmadeto representEgyptianAntiquity, except for the reference [o the style of the late eighteenth century

J.-M.H 1. A similarjug, decorated with roses, reproduced in Bloit 1988, p. 16

Fig. t80.Jwg Hard-paste porcelain Manufacture Dane, c. 1810 Musee National de C6ramique, S&vres

294

The Return from Egypt

173

Cup and Saucer Nast porcelain factory, Paris c. 1810

Hard-paste porcelain Cup: 6.2 x 6 cm (diam.) Saucer: 12.7 cm (diam.)

Inscriptions: ai/ Rueil-Malmaison,MuseeNational desChateaux de Malmaison et Bois-Pr6au (MM 40.47.2926 and 2927) Provenance: Gift of Mme Edmond Moreau.

from their Egyptian origins as to be hardly recognizablel

others are pure inventions resembling esoteric, or even cabalistic,symbols.Also surprising is the way in which the

Egyptian winged scarabpushing the sun along hasbeen

metamorphosed into a wingedfigure,:bringingto mind Ahura Mazda, god of the Achaemenids. Such distortions clearly demonstrate the misconceptionsabout Egyptian art that persisted for years after the Egyptian Expedition, and all the confusion that resulted.

It was not unusual for Nast to use Egyptian-style motifs. In the sameperiod he produced a jug whosehandle,

at its upper connectingpoint, was decoratedwith a pharoah's head and nfmri.s

In the early 1780s,JeanN6pomucdneHermann Nast founded the factory that bore his name and becameone of Paris' major pottery workshops during the Empire '. Nast

J.-M.H. After Nast's death in 1817,his sonssucceededhim until the factorv's

assembled the best artists available; his originality lay in his

closure in 1835; Paris 1983, p. 45.

useof chrome green, and his relief decorations produced by rouletting.

An examplemay befound in the MuseeMass6nain Nice (Fournet

Piranesi exhibited a similar confusion in his Cammz z (cat. IG.21) 1987, P. 114)

This cup and saucerare ornamentedwith gold pseudo-hieroglyphs painted on a beige and brown ground.

Blue winged figuresalso form part of the decoration.Its most interesting feature is the degree to which the Egyptian characters have been transformed. Some are so far removed

SelectedReferences: Plinval de Guillebon 1972 P.276.

The Return from Egypt

295

E

l

174

Cup and Saucer K6nigliche Porzellanmanufaktur,

Berlin

c. 17901800

backwards, and with rectangular cartouches placed horizontally. All are obviously copied from archaic sources,

Overglaze painting

of which Bernard de Montfaucon'swork seemsthe most

Cup:6 x 8 cm

likely. Human figures are notably absent here. This type of

Saucer: 13 cm (diam.)

ornamentation,although quite rare for Berlin Royal

Mark in the form of a sceptre; stamp: l?;

Porcelain, neverthelessdemonstrates the factory's wide

hand-engraved inscription: ////; painter's number,

variety of styles.

in purple paint:5

The cup and saucershow an overwhelming resemblance to the trays and large services produced at Sdvres from 1806 on, yet predate them by nearly a decade

Berlin. Staatliche Museen Preussischer

Kulturbesitz, Kunstgewcrbemuseum(86,868)

Contemporary with small servicesproduced in Vienna, Provenance:

Gift of Mrs. Hedwig Moser in 1886.

Meissen, or Naples, this is a perfect example of the Egyptian fashion introduced to Prussia by Frederick William ll at the end of the eighteenth century.

This

cup is unusual

in that its traditional

J.-M.H

/z/r07/ shape and

antique smooth" style has been combined with a Greek-

style handle and an Egypt-inspired frieze. The cup and

saucerwere certainly not part of a set,being conceived instead as collector's items according to the English fashion

ofthe day. The deep blue glaze and the fine gold bands serve

to highlight the yellow frieze, which is ornamentedwith inaccurate hieroglyphs that are sometimeseven written

296

The Return from Egypt

Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences

Berlin 1963,no.125,pl.24;

Wellensiek 1983,pp. 132--33 Syndram 1990.

Berlin 1989,no.1/114,p.443, pl. 525.

P' 175

"Tete-i-tate" Coffee Service Anton Grassi(1 755--1807),Kaiserliche

Provenance:

Manufaktur, Vienna c. 1800 Porcelain

Given to Charles Schulmeister by the Kaiserliche Manufaktur in 1886;gift of Mgr. Muller-Simonis

Tray: 41.5 x 33 x 3 cm

In 1792, Anton Grasso, the artistic director of the Vienna

Coffeepot

factory, travelled around Italy to display his latest creations.

with lid: 18 x 9 cm (diam.)

Creamer with lid: 12 x 13.5cm (diam.) Spoon: 16 x 4.5 cm Oval sugar bowl with lid: 9 x l0.5 x 6 cm Two cups: 8.3 x 9 cm (diam.)

On this trip he presentedthe Queen of Naples with "one of the new sets of breakfast coffee cups and saucers for two, decoratedwith hieroglyphs and other Egyptian motifs."'

Two saucers: 2.4 x 13.5 cm (diam.)

common in the early nineteenth century; the porcelain

Strasbourg,

Musee des Arts D6coratifs

(6434.a

This kind of ornamentationwasalreadyquite .f)

factories in Naples and Meissenhad been producing Egyptian-style coffee services for several years. But this Vienneseservice stands out by virtue of the originality of its shapes and decorations.

The Return from Egypt

297

Fig. 181. Another version of the set showing the same tray decoration

Privatecollection,London Elg. '183.Breakfast-sellevi/iceofPrince Pali von'(rarttemberg Decoration by Karl Heinrich Kiichelbecker and Toberer, 1813 Wiirttembergisches

Landesmuseum, SchloJ3Ludwigsburg,

Stuttgart

about 1802.Those who used the service were almost certainly

unaware that the original purpose of canopic jars was to

hold the entrails of the deceased;otherwisethey would probably have been reluctant to serve coffee from them.

The explosion of knowledge about ancient Egypt that occurred at the beginning of the nineteenth century undoubtedly hastenedthe demise of this early model of F\ B. \ 82. }P'Fete-i-tate" Ca#ee Service

Egyptian coffee service.

Kaiserliche Manufaktur, Vienna, between 1799 and 1802

1.-M.H

Jiirgen Settgast,Berlin

The coffeepot is in the form of a large canopic jar

1. Folnesics and Braun 1907,p. 126. 2. Botti and Romanelli1951, no. 200

with a handle, protruding hands, and a head whose top

3. Stuttgart 1987,nos. 3.18 and 3.19, p. 489(Stuttgart, Wtlrttem-

concealsa pouring lip. The headgear,a combinationof rzfmeiand three-part wig, falls in supple, vertical folds.

bergischesLandesmuseum, Schlof3Ludwigsburg) 4. Stuttgart1987,p.489. 5. For a service in the collection of Jurgen Settgast, see Berlin 1989,

Sincethe Wedgwood inkwell that featuresa similar headdress(cat. 315) was not created untillater in the nineteenth

na. 1/111,pp. 46 and 441; Humbert 1989,p. 160.For an identical servicein the OsterreichischesMuseum fur Angewarldte Kunst in

century, it could not have served as the inspiration for this

Vienna, seeWitt-D6rring1989, p.63.

design.Furthermore, the lotus flower found on this jar does

not appearon the Wedgwoodinkwell, a clear indication that the coffeepot was not basedon Montfaucon's canopic vase, but rather on a very similar jar now in the Vatican collections.:

SelectedReferences Hlaug 1924,p. 19.

Another version of this set also includes a smaller, less elaborate jar with a p/emfi displaying the traditional

horizontal stripes (hg. 183).' The handle on the lid of the sugar bowl is in the form of a sphinx, and a crocodile serves as the handle on the creamer lid. Two cups, a pair of sugar

176

Teapot

tongs, and a tray complete the set.

The ornamentation varies a great deal from one version to another. Whereas the gold and blue set shown

here is quite simple, others incorporate Egyptian motifs, ranging from medallions surrounded by very loose inter-

Steitz-Steingut factory, Kassel c. 1790 Red faience

14.6x 13cm

pretations of hieroglyphic symbols' to meticulously executed

Kassel, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen,

setsdepicting Egyptian scenesand including bands of

Landesmuseum

Hessisches

(1918/529)

hieroglyphs (fig. 182).S

This smallcoffee serviceprovedto bea great success and remained continuously

298

The Return from Egypt

in production

until

This highly imaginative teapot was probably inspired by the pottery of JosiahWedgwood at Etruria.

A contemporary black faience coffeepot, also from

Simon Heinrich Steitz's factory at Kasseland basedon a

George ll of England and brothers-in-law of Gustavus llt of Sweden, the patron of Desprez- At the beginning of the

canopic jar, suggests,as noted by Dirk Syndram, that the

nineteenthcentury,a room in the Residenzat Kasselwas

forms and materials,namely rossoantico and black basalt, were basedon English precedents.'A silver-gilt wine jug in

decoratedwith Egyptian motifs, while the Landgrave

rhe form of a canopic jar, by Jacques-LouisC16ment,

ment

marked J;1' B:'q;'

S&vrcs

4

1'

Fig. 224. lppolito Rosellini Egyptian Vase Plate LIX

from .r 7Ua#ame f; de//'Eg;//o

e de/£a Na6£2z,1834, vol. ll

226

Design for the Decoration of ''Egyptian Vase A", with Antoine-Gabriel Willermet (1783 after 1848)

can be found in rhe DeicrzPrzoz/ de /'Egy/7/c,' but the work

1838

was actually copied from a drawing exhibited by Champollion

Black chalk and gouache

and published shortly thereafter;' it was unique becauseof

30.7x 21cm

its entirely different shape,framed by two elegantibex

S&vres.Archives de la Manufacture Natiorlale

heads

(D $ 8 1838 no. 6)

Vases "A", "B", and "C" comprise an Egyptian seriesthat is somewhat uneven but full of charm. The only

Exhibited in Ottawa and Vienna

unifying factor is their Thebansource,inspectedand

Created in 1831,at the sametime as Egyptian vases"B" and :C", this model is much lessoriginal than vase"B" (cat. 224).

authenticatedby Champollion.' J.-M.n. Seevarious versions produced with simplified decoration in Ducrot

First issuedwith a border of gold rosettesasits only ornamentation,' it lent itself to a variety of' decorations.This version,

dated 1838, displays coloured chains of lotus flowers.; The source of the third vasein the series,known as vase"C", also with gadroons and without painted decoration,

366

The Developmentof ParallelReadings

1993, pp. 130--31, no. 78, p. 221, no. 166. 2

Seevasesin the collection of the Grand Trianon (T 121 c)

3

.Descr@/;o/zZe /'.Z:gyp/e, 1809,.A, vol. 111,pl. 66, nos. 2, 3, 4

4

Rosellini 1834,vol. 11,pl. LVlll; Champollion 1835/1845, vol. ll,

pl.CLXVlll

5. Ducrot

1993, p. 281, no. 221

A painter, a specialist in stained glass, and a pioneer in the

6. Seecat.224.

Exhibitions: Paris 1949,no. 335; Autun 1988. no.55.

field of photography, JulesZiegler's most enduring claim to fame was as a ceramic artist.' H.owever, his career in this SelectedReferences:

field wasshort-lived:he practisedthe art of ceramicsonly

Humbert1989, p. 181,Ducrot

from 1838to 1843in his factory at Voisinlieu, in the Beauvais, 3 region whose clay had been highly vaunted by Bernard

1993,P.130.

Palissy. Ziegler followed in the tradition of this great artist, and

revived the manufactu re of salt-glazed pottery, greatly prized

in RenaissanceEurope, but out of favour for its rough finish 227

Vase with Us,4zz&/A

and uneven tones, which clashed with the aestheticcanonsof Me industrial age. His work was a complete success.By 1845,

Jules Claude Ziegler (1804 1856)

it had the rare distinction of being included in Brongniart and R locteux's DescriptionM6thodiqueda Music Cframique:

Manufacture de Voisinlieu

Building on the quality of the material and the know-how

c. 1841 42

of the artisan, he raised the craft of ceramics [o new heights.

Salt-glazed stoneware

The range of shapesand decorationshe used, although very

35 x 15 cm (diam.)

personal, drew

Private collection

from

numerous

foreign

sources, which

he

combined in an astonishing synthesis

The Developmentof ParallelReadings

367

as\ May

Osiris-Djedhol'

justified,

bot?2 0.f Renpetne/er,

be

ittutninated. The same figurine was used to decorate a series of

similarly-inspired vases.One of them, madein 1841,bears the dedicatiora : ,4 A/o zi;ear ,4cfz//f Sf//z?frf, appe;i ring below

the artist's on a large escutcheon(fig. 226).; A family tradi-

tion links the object's manufacture to the ercctioil of the Luxor obelisk on 25 August 1836in Place de la Concorde

Marguerite Cofhnier inventoried four other versionsof the

#)'''l

same object '' with variations in colour,'' the shape of the

handles, the escutcheons,and the treatment of the scarabs. In the same vein of inspiration is an unsigned, salt-glazed snuff box in a private collection. Fig. 225. U£# &f; Egyptian faience of the Spite Period

Fig. 226. Jules Ziegler

Used as a model by Jules Ziegler

Private collection

1.Ennis1991, p.535 2. Brongniart and Riocreux,1845,M., pl. 48

'Alhambra '' Vase, 1841

3. See, for example, Ziegler

4. Peltier1992, card258D.

Musee du Louvre, D6partement des Antiquit6s Eg} ptiennes (E 3969)

1850, pls. 1--3, 4c, 5, 8, 9b, I I

5. Stela dating from the reign of' Trojan; Brooklyn 1989. 6g.P.114. 6. Ernoult:Gandouet

Manufactured around 1841and identifiable by the originality of style and material, this vaseis part of a series basedon a variety of models. Like other artists of the time,

particularly his friend Th6ophile Gautier, Ziegler became fascinated with the Orient. The handles bespeak the influ-

ence of Islamic art; he often borrowed the arabesquefrom

this tradition,' perhapsherefront an objectfrom Granada, a famousfifteenth-century vase"from Alhambra."' The mouth is decorated with six lions' heads, a motif used in

22

1969, pp. 150--52

7. Aubert and Aubert 1974,pl. 63.

8. Humbert 1989,repr. p. 180,p. 166. 9. Cofhnier 1978,p. 104 10. Cofhnier 1978, pp. 104--07,2001. 11. Ziegler 1850, pl. 13 SelectedReferences:

Cof6nier1978, p. 108,fig. 15 (for a very similar vase with

/842 in escutcheon);Peltier 1993 PP.66-75.

both Classical and Egyptian Antiquity. Egyptian themes dominate the rest of the decoration. evident in two similar

headsworked in relief on either side of the neck.Shown frontally, the faceis framed by a wig fashionedin a style reminiscent of works from the Roman era;5an imaginary coiffure

like a very stylized

//foci

decorated

with

vulture

228

Canopic Vase

wings completesthe whole. Around the baseof the neck, two large Egyptian

scarabs and eight heart-shaped escutcheons

create an unusual necklace. Other scarabs,interpreted in the artist's naturalistic style, are seededaround the body of the vase,an arrangement he favoured. Finally, six funerary

figurines or uiAaZ'/ziholding their attributes (the hoe arid

Josiah Wedgwood and Sons c. 1865 Jasperware 25.5 x 12.7 cm

Philadelphia,Charlotte and David Zeitlin

che basket) decorate the base of the vessel, each separated

from the nextby an Egyptianizingmotif of two falcons

Ornaments in the form of canopic jars were among the very

with a stylized papyrus between them. The hgurines were cast from an original, using a technique often employed by

first Egyptian-stylecreationsby the workshopsof Josiah

Jules Ziegler.' Six copies of the ;\ncient model were repro

duced; the original was probably nn "Egyptian faience' z#iAcz&/z, a type common to the Spite period (approximately

672 525B.C.).' The Louvre acquiredseveralsuchstatuettes

368

Wedgwood, made about 1771.' The model on display is derived from a second generation of canopic vasesthat were originally created around 1805 with many changes from those of the previous century.: While the general shape remains the same, the

n 1864from Consul Delaporte (fig. 225). Basedon current nformation, we are unable to determine whether the artist

/zfrl?fi is much larger, drawing attention to the head instead

had accessto this collection or whether he used another

array of colour combinations unique to Wedgwood products,

mass-producedobject as his model. Despite the dis

is rlo longer decoratedwith painted figures inspired by

rortlons created by the casting process, wc can decipher rhe inscription engraved on the front, which translates

Bernard de Montfaucon, but with "hieroglyphs" created by

The Developmentof ParallelReadings

of squashingit; the body of the vase,offered in the vast

the firm early in the nineteenth century.'

Unlike most of the first-generation- canopic lars,

which were in one piece, this vaseis also unique in its resemblanceto Egyptian jars: it opensinto two sections with the head forming the "lid," thus giving the object a practicalfunction in addition to its aestheticappeal.' J.-M.H 1. Cat. 91.

2. Allen 1962,p. 86;London 1972,no. 1861,pp. 891--92; Allen 1981 p. 53; Reilly 1989,vol. 11,fig. C. 64 left; Berlin 1989,no. 1/107. P.439.

3. Seecat.95

4. Other examplesare in the Victoria and Albert Museum,London and in the Dwight and Lucille BeesonCollection, Birmingham Museum of Art, Alabama. This canopic vase was reissued by Wedgwood in 1978as part oats EWP/zamCo//fc/zo

Selected References

Reilly 1989,vol. ll, fig. C. 64 left.

229

Fabric Printed with a Mixture of Egyptian Motifs and Flowers Manufacture Thierry-Mieg et Cie (Mulhouse et Dornach) c. 1865

Cotton, wood-block printed in relief, 13colours 91.5 x 83.5 cm

Mulhouse, Musee de I'Impression sur fltoffes (S.1058 P.45/46) Provenance:

Formerly in the Homer-Grosjean collections, donated to the Soci6t6 Industrielle de Mulhouse

Bearsan inscription in the book: /byp/zr df Thierry

(MICE) dart Le Ti6tre de L'atz passe a dt)

seruir de type.

The Thierry-Mieg hrm datesback to the early 1800s.At the time when it produced this design, it employed more

than 1100workers, 800 of them hand printers,i and had

thoroughly masteredthe processof tnechanicalprinting: having acquire(I its first 4-cnlnur I)ringing pressin 1852,an 8-colour press in 1860, and a 16-colour press in 1868.:

The firm had also obtained many technical patents,

notably for a processof resist printing on cotton fabric

(1858).At the same time, constant introduction of new designsenabledthe firm to market fabrics that kept up with changes in fashion).'

The Developmentof ParallelReadings

369

''$ '\.

4

@ \

\

Z

l

®

Fig. 227. Fabric with Egyptian motifs, i864 Printed by Steinbach, Koechlin et Cie,

Mulhouse Musee de I'Impression sttf Etoffes, Mulhouse

370

The Development of Parallel Readings

l

Accordingto a notationpreservedwith the fabric, this multicoloured design, a combination of irises, lotuses,

palms, sphinxes, and columns adorned with pseudoEgyptian gods of uncertain origin, seems to be adapted

from one printed the previous year, in 1864,by the Steinbach, Koechlin et Cie factory in Mulhouse (fig. 227).' Indeed, the design of the earlier fabric is very similar, focus-

ing not on the sphinx but on two modelsof wingeddisks, and leaving ample space for numerous pseudo-hieroglyphs and cabalistic symbols.

J.-M.H. Histoire docamentaitede !'industrie de Mathoaseet de sesChoi.onsaa X7X- i;?cZe,Mulhouse, 1902, vol. 1,p. 454. 2..Histoire docamentaire, p. '\5A. 3. Designers in the period 1860 70; Bernard Landwerlin, Frangois-

Xavier Brogly, Ch. Lef6bure (//zi/Diff dor mf zaire,P-455) 4. Reference in the same collection: S. 284 p. 79. This firm, founded

around 1768,"has always beena leader in rhe field of printing, as much far the novelty of its highly tasteful creations asfor the inven

dive contributions of its chemist-collaborators.... Distinguished designers attached [o the printing house (in the years 1860 80)

Grosrenaud, Bonner,Hermann, and Haurez." rHffroz'rfz/Ofamfn-

z";«',P.426.)

230

Egyptian Fantasy in a Floral Setting Wagner,printed by Gillou, Paris c. 1860 70 Wallpaper, block printed, 10 colours, varnished

109x 50cm

Paris, Bibliothdque Forney (PP 239) Amid lush vegetation somewhat reminiscent of a plate from UoyagcPz//orfsgne by Cassas,' a variety of images remem-

beredand adapted from Egyptian art mingle together It comes as no small surprise to seehere, nearly a hundred and fifty years after its publication, the canopic jar sketched in Rome by Bernard de Montfaucon and so often reproduced since then in three dimensions, particularly by Wedgwood(cat. 91and 92); the only change is the fanciful owl, its wings spread, under the two /ae cobras

At either end of the wallpaper is an arrangement (shown here) combining a composite column, a sphinx on a base decorated with sketchy pseudo-hieroglyphs, and an

obelisk,derivedfrom the Luxor ol)tlisk which hasgraced chePlacede la Concorde in Paris since 183(-

The assorted elements seem t-- be unrelated Carefully positioned, as though for an e\llibition, with an

)bvious attempt to fill a foregrutincl ;lnd background on various planes,they servean essentiallydecorative function

But the openings in the greenery that appearhere and there acrossthe panels lead the eye to discover the various

The Developmentof ParallelReadings

371

antiquities; they break with the tradition of pictorial excess common to wallpapers of that period, and invite the viewer

library and was apt to pride hin)self on his learning; as with

to escapeinto a world of daydreams.

consulted the Classicsfor this one and attempted to follow their indications.i

J.-M.H.

the other paintings and accordingto his own statement,he

If Strabo, Herodotus, and Diodorus were helpful 1. Cassas 1799--1800.

)I. 1, pl. 74: L'0&dAgae de Za A4a/czl.Ze.

In setting the scene,Dunham has shown that Martin must also have consulted more modern sources,notably the travels

Exhibitions:

Selected References:

Paris1984,no.109.

Teyttac, No1ot, and Vivien

of Cassasarid the Dcicr@/zo df /'fgyprf, and that his connection with John Soane,who shared his feeling for the 1981

p. 140;Paris1984,repr.p. 65.

sublime, may have influenced the architectural cast of his paintings.ZInterestingly, Martin later becamethe first curator

of John Shane'smuseum, while Martin's son-in-law, the Egyptologist Joseph BorlomiJr., became the second curator.

This quintessentially Romantic painting from the Boston Museum was in the exhibition in London that inaugurated the galleries of the Society of British Artists in 1824; Lhefollowing year,it was again shown in London, this time at the British Institution. A small, partly varnished watercolour repeating essentiallythe samecompositionand signed 231

The Seventh Plagueof Egypt John Martin 1823

and dated 1823is in the Laing Art Gallery at Newcastleupon-Tyne. A painting of unknown provenance attributed

to Martin, unquestionablyof the Fifth Plaguebut with a

(1789--1854)

Oil on canvas

completely different Egyptian architecture and a large cast of figures, was on the art market some years ago.; in later

144.8 x 213.3cm

years Martin returned to the Egyptian plagues for his

Signed and dated at lower left: /. A/afro/ /823

Boston, Boston Museum of Fine Arts, Francis Welch Fund (60.1 157)

///zfi//a/ions

/o / e B;&/e of 1831 35, and for the subjects

of

two splendid, independent large mezzotints of 1836.'One

of these, T#c Z)rcz/Aof/,bc Fzri/ Born, dedicated to King

Louis-Philippe of France, is on the theme of the Tenth Plague and is one of Martin's rare attempts at depicting an

Provenance: Purchased in 1825for £500 by John George

Lambton, later Lord Durham, Lambton Castle; by descent, Lambton family (Lambton sale,

Anderson & Garland, at Lambton Castle, 18 April

Egyptian interior. The second mezzotint, 7'fe Dci/royzng

,4/zge/ a different episodefrom the samestory shows a vast Egyptian city on the banks of the Nile before the cataclysm.

1932, 1ot48, sold for £15); Colnaghi, London; purchased 1960.

Balston 1954,p.267. 2. Dunham

Exhibited in Ottawa and Vienna

The subject of the painting is taken from Exodus IX:23, the versescited by Turner in connection with his P{H/XP/agile (#' fgy/7/ (cat. 87), which Martin

4. Dustin Weekes in Williamstown, Mass./ Oberlin, Ohio 1986, nos.45--46

probably knew from the

engraving in the Lifer S/ad/cram.Although the subject

Exhibitions:

Balston 1954,pp. 77--79,275;

may be the same, Martin's epic treatment raisesit to a spectac ular level on which colossal architecture and atmospheric

London 1824.no. 22;London

effects conspire to re-create rhe catastrophic, "terrible sublime '

no. 422; Gateshead 1929; Boston

mood characteristic of his biblical depictions. While the

1961;Detroit/I'hiladelphia 1968, no. 153,repr.;13oston1972, io. 100,repr.

artist was aloe;tdy famous for his Fa// of Baby/o/z(1819)and

Bf/ A/ c/ik Fe£zi/(1821),in which he had reconstructed Babyl

,lii;tn

;irchitccrtirt

', 7Ar .Sc'z,e//A P/agar

was his first

attempt at an Egyptian subject. Martin owned a good

372

1961,.pczss;m.

3. Sale, Christie's, London, 22 Novel-nber 1985, 1ot 92, repr., and Humbert 1989,repr. p. 240.

The Developmentof ParallelReadings

1825, no. 119; Manchester

1857,

Dunham 1961, p. 3; Rosenblum 1968, p. 86, repo.p. 88; Biro 1968

pp. 127,129,col. repr.;Green 1971?,pp. 245,249,col.repr.; 4/?// a/ Rrpor/ /960, Boston,

I')aO,pp. 58 59;Johnstone1974, pp. 16, 66, repr.; Feaver 1975,

quIP/-tPH

P pf''rpnr-pc

'

Pendered 1924, pp.11011,181

pp. 65--67, 70,91,204;Murphy 1985,p.177,repr.

The Development of Parallel Readings

373

232

The Departure of the Israelites David Roberts (1796 1864)

Edinburgh and London, known to have included Egyptian

1829

sets.3 S

Oil on canvas

The supremelytheatrical effectsof the painting,

137.2x 182.9cm

which anticipatedby a century Hollywood's mostelaborate

Signed and dated at lower left, on the stone

historical productions, were soon recognized. In January

balustrade in theforeground: Z).ROPER.rS / /829

1833the reopenedBritish Diorama exhibited an enlarged

Birmingham, Birmingham City Museum and

version of the picture, four times the size of standard diora-

Art Gallery

mas, as "the first

illustration

of Scriptural

History

ever

painted on so grand a scale."' The following month, at Provenance:

Covent Garden, The Israelitesin Egypt; or, The Passageof tile

Paintedfor Lord Northwick, 1829(Northwick

Rfd Sfa, an oratorio

sale,Christie's, London, 12 May 1838, 1ot79); purchased by Sir Robert Peel (Peel sale,

and Personation" [szc]with music by Rossiniand Handel

Robinson & Fisher, London,

"consisting

of Sacred Music, Scenery,

was performed on a setderived from Danby's picture.s

10 May 1900, 1ot 264)

M.P

purchasedby Renton: R.F.Wahl collection, 1908. Anonymous gift, 1932.

1. Quoted in London 1986,p. 112.A drawn study Forthe painting of

To the regretof Lord Northwick, this picture the artist's first attempt at a historical composition was not shown at the Royal Academy; however, when it was seen in 1829at the Suffolk Street Gallery it drew inevitable comparisons with John Martin's grand treatment of biblical themes.The

subject may have been suggestedto Roberts by Francis Danby's epic seascape,T#e Z)f/zz,fryof /sur/ ozf/ of Z:gyP/,

which had been exhibited at the Royal Academy in 1825.

1827is in the British Museum. 2. "There are rather a lot of pyramids, grouped behind same building

and they seemto have a steeper,sharperangle than they should...."; quoted in Sim 1984,p. 48.

3. An engraving of 1824adapted from one of his stagedesigns, A Roma7z/rf I,andicapc?zn z f S & rb of A4rmpAli, is reproduced in

Pieter van der Merwe's essay"Roberts and the Theatre" in London

1986,P.32,6g.24. 4. Hyde in London 1988,no. 107. 5. Meisel 1983, pp. 170--71

Roberts himself remarked simply that he chosethe subject

more as a Vehich]e [ilc] for introducing

That Grand

although simple style of architecture the Egyptian and from

which the other Three Greek orders have unquestionaly lfzc] sprung

than from the object by which the Picture is

called."i

That this may well have beenthe caseis suggested both by his intense interest in Egypt, which he visited at last

only ten yearslater, and by a contemporarydrawing for a diffe rent biblical subject,aaron Z)e/;z'erz/2g / f A4fiiagr /o lic

E/Jeri of/trac/ (Williamson Art Gallery and Museum, Birkenhead), also set in a grandiose Egyptian setting. The

emphasison architecture, partly derived from Denon but larger than anything built in ancient Egypt, and the extraordinary use of spaceleading to a sea of pyramids: can be attributed to the artist's previous work as a stagedesigner in

374

The Developmentof ParallelReadings

Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences:

London 1829,no. 7; Edinburgh

The Religious Soaoenir, Chrktmas,

1830,no. 51; London 1908,

New 'fear'sand Birth Da' Present,

no. 14;Birmingham/Edinburgh 1980 81,no. 15,repr.; Brighton/

Philadelphia, 1834, repr. p- 220

Manchester

1983, no. 283;

London 1986,no. 114;London 1988,no. 107,repr.

(engraving by Smilie); Ballantine 1866, pp. 33--34; London

1908,

pp. 22, 130;Guiterman 1978,p. 4 Clayton 1982,p. 177; Bernard 1983,col.repr. pp.70--71; Bendiner 1983,p. 73; Sim 1984, pp. 47--48; London 1986, pp. 76, 92, 112, repr. p. 72; Hlumbert 1987/1990. vol. 1, no. 13; Berlin

1989,col. repr. fig. 59 on p. 55; Hlumbert 1989, pp. 238, 318, note 33

The Developmentof ParallelReadings

375

233

Cambyses and Psammenites Adrien Guignet (1 816 1854) 1841

Oil on canvas

placed in perspective against the invaders' superficial arid fleeting moment of victory.

The static, stilted disposition of the figures and

114 x 21 1 cm

their stiff postures, so contrary to Guignet's usual style,

Signed at lower left: ,4drze/?Gazgzzf/;Egyptianizing frame decorated with a winged disk Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des Peintures (5255)

reflect the distance he wished to create betweenhimself and the great historical composition. He further heightens this

emotional moment in what today would be termed a 'freeze-frame image," by bathing it in a play of light that

mixesthe reddishglow of the blown sandswith a dense Provenance: Purchased at the Paris Salon of 1841

blue sky streaked with a few clouds.

Apart from the setting,archaeological illustration seemssecondary: the pharaoh's vague crown, his daughter's

Guignet standsoutside the mainstreamof the artistic fashion

and trendsof his time. An infrequent participant in the

vulture headdress,and a follower's necklaceare quite inconspicuous. The pile of assortedobjectstaken from the

worker who, through sheerdetermination, acquired ar]

comb whose entrance can be seen on the right are clear evidence of the painter's efforts to re-create a plausible ancient

impressive knowledge of history; apart from the Gauls, one

Egypt. Amidst this arbitrary collection, we can seea statue,

of his specialties, he was particularly interested in archaeology.

a sarcophagus, and a canopic jar, all obviously copied from origins\ls in the Louvre.

Salons, he was first and foremost a tireless self-taught

Among the earliest "archaeological painters" of the nineteenth century, he was attracted by Egypt and, curiously,

This painting clearly belongsto a new genre, as

choseto representa late episodewhen two civilizations collided, a subject that stands in stark contrast to the various

Th6ophile Gautier pointed out in 1869,hfteen yearsafter

Cleopatras,Ramseses, and biblical scenes."In the early

artist Alma-Tadema of Egyptians of the Eighteenth

months of the reign of Psammenites,' Cambyses, King of

Dyraastyhave attracted a great deal of admiration and not

Persia, invaded Egypt and took control of Memphis, the

without reason,while poor Guignet hasbeentotally

kingdom's capital. Psammenites was dragged in fitters to a knoll outside the city, where he was chained to a post. The conqueror forced his daughter to walk past him carrying a pitcher of water as a sign of erlslavemenr,followed by the daughters and sonsof the highest nobles in the land, to see

neglected.His painting of Cambysesthe conqueror of

the painter's death: "Recently, paintings by the Belgian

Psammenites is a most remarkable work whose archaeo

logical interest in no way detractsfrom the movement,the effect, or the originality."'

J.-M.H

what effect this scenewould produceon the vanquished king. In this picture, Cambysesis arriving at the siteaccompanied by his chief Persian lords as the pharaoh'sdaughter

passesby; but Psammenites, impassive,eyescast downward, contains his anguish, showing no outward sign of emotion.

The composition draws attention away from the

1. Ankhkaenre Psammetichuslll, last pharaoh of the Twenty-sixth D) nasty(SallePeriod; he reigned from 526 525B.C.). 2. Catalogue of the Salon of1841, quoted in Bullion 1878,p. 29 3. Steatite statue long thought to be of Semenkhere, but in fact repro

sendingAmenhotep IV, now in the Louvre (Napoleon111,831),see cat. 234

4. Quoted in Bullitt

1878,p. 3

central i\ction by combining the bulk of the agitated elephar)ts

and the inert mass of the Egyptian colossus3silhouetted on

Exhibitions: Paris 1841,no. 945;

SelectedReferences:

a backdrop of pyramids and an obelisk; this is balanced by

the haughtydisdain of the pharaohand his daughterand

Autun/Annecy

the contrasting coarsenessof the pillagers heaping up their

Berlin 1989, no. 1/178.

and Roquebert, vol. 111,p. 296; Hlumbert 1989,p. 259; De Meulenaere 1992,pp. 96--97

spoils. The enduring quality of Egyptii\n civilization is

376

The Developmentof ParallelReadings

1978, no. 7

Laveissi&re 1978, p. 21; Compin

#

Z

Fig. 228. Adrien Guignet Egyptian Statute

Drawing Musee Robin, Autun

I'he D( :lopment of Parallel

]in

Among the 4000works sold to the Louvre by the British Consul Henry Salt in 1826, this royal statue served as Guignet's

inspirationfor his Cam&yief(cat.233).A comparisonof the

painting and its model showsthe extent to which the painter, far from creating an interpretive image of the

pharaoh, retained the original elementsof the work, including its rare material (a yellow gypsum mixed with quartz) and its distinctive style.

The statuedatesfrom the Amarna period which, probably under the influence of Akhenaten himself, witnessedan artistic revolution that brought togetherthe expressionof feeling, a love of nature, and a freedomof style sometimes leaning toward caricature. Here, the repre-

sentation remains conventional. The sovereign is seated, shown in a stiff frontal pose with the royal accoutrements:

striped nemff headdress with a cobra coiled on the fore-

head; a Area sceptre-crook and a./Zane// m; and a finely pleated loincloth. Reflecting the transformation of society

then under way, the interpretation, however, is distinctly innovative. The elongated face, jutting slightly forward, has

a pensivelook createdby the treatment of the eyeswith their heavy eyelids. The prominent chin, fleshy curved mouth, stretched and generously pierced earlobes,and slen-

der neck found in portraitsof other membersof rhe royal family are characteristicof Amarna art. The body itself, portrayed at rest, with drooping shoulders and back slightly rounded, is somewhat androgynous, showing full breasts,

broad hips, and a prominent stomachmarked with a fan-

shapednavel.Could this figure representAkhenaten,the king "drunk on god," whose reign witnessed the emergence of a cult to the sun god Aton? Or some obscure successor,as has sometimes been suggested? Without a base the usual

locationfor inscriptions and with its lower sectionlargely restored. the statue came to the Louvre unnamed. But we do

know that the pharaoh was not representedalone. Behind the statue, the remains of an arm around the sovereign's back is

all that survivesof a femalepresence,perhapsthat of Nefertiti, often shown beside her husband, Akhenaten.

c.z pl. 45;Wit 1950,no.12--13;Wolf

Exhibitions: Paris/Tokyo

1991, no. 19.

1957,p. 455 ff., fig. 421;Vandier, vo1. 111,1958, P. 636, PI. CX (2);

234

SelectedReferences:

Aldred1961, 2nded.,pp.79,83,

Champollion 1827,55, no. I l;

pl. 126, 139; Lange 1967, pl. 186;

Clarac 1851,vol. V. p. 298,

Aldred 1973,p. 48 ff., pl. 29,

deign of Amenhotep IV-Akhenaten

no. 2549C; Masp6ro in Rayer 1884,

p. 63 fE, p. 66; Muller 1988,vol. IV.

(c. 1:37961B.C.)

vol. 1, pp. 1--4, pl. 7; Bissing 1911:

pp. 143--44;Paris/Tokyo, p. 67.

I)haraoh Akhenaten

CYFsum mixed with quartz

64k 17.2x 35cm

Paris, Mus&e du Louvre, [)6partement des

Antiquit6sEgyptiennes (N 831) Provenance:

SaltCollection;purchased in 1826

378

The Development of Parallel Readings

The Development of Parallel Readings

379

235

JosephInterpreting Pharaoh'sDream approximating the ancient Egyptian style of art, imitating

Adrien Guignet (1816--1854) 1845 Oil on canvas

the stiffnessof its poses,its dull colours,the absence of

130.5 x 199cm Signed at lower left: 4drzc'/zGazgnfr; dated at lower right: /845 Rouen, Musee des Beaux-Arts (D. 848.1)

ceiling

distorted

by a "wide-angle"

focus.

The

"stage

set '

appearance is further augmented by the symmetry of the whole and by the platform that takes up the entire width of Ehe foreground. In this painting, the architecture has an importance of the first order becauseit setsthe scene;if it were eliminated

Provenance: Purchased by the State in 1848;deposited

in the museum, 1848. Imagination is one of Adrien Guignet's greatest strengths.

and the costumeswith their colours kept, making only a

He has the extremely rare gift of dreaming up a setting, an

few minor changesto the headdresses, the paintingcould

era, an effect, of seeing them with the mind's eye and ren-

lust as easily be Greco-Roman, Etruscan, Byzantirle, or

dering them as if they were actually there before him.'

medieval. However, despite the advice of Prisse d'Averlnes,'

And

the setting gives only an "impression of Egypt," copying

yet, on the

subject

of /oseP

//zrfrPrfrzng

PAczrao'4's

I)ream, Th6ophile Gautier was lessgerlerouswith his

clements that for the most part bear no relation to scientific

praise: he regretted that Guignet had not "cast the sun's life-giving rayson this learned resurrection,"criticized "his figures [which] are nothing more than a dark outline filled in with dull colour," and concluded that "to be so wrong

accuracy.While the zodiac from [)endera (fig. 230),though

Lakesa great deal of feeling and talent.":

There are no lyrical flights of fancy,no emphatic gestures,and almost no expressionon the facesin this painting. The figures are rigidly posed,and though someof

the portraits are detailed, they are overwhelmedby the

curiously

placed and quite

incompletely

rendered,

adds a

touch of authenticity that is emphasized by the figures covering the walls, what are we to make of the lines of fanciful hieroglyphs, rhe double cartouches,the pharaoh'sthrone, or even the structure of this excessivelycomplicated building? Nevertheless, it is evident that Guignet consulted the Z)cicrzP/zo/z dc' /'/#yp/e,s

which

could have suggested a

more accuratesetting for his work had he been so inspired

imposing architectural setting. Was this deliberatearchaism.

For the period, the decoration he portrays is plausible

used earlier in Ca/n&ysfi .z/zdPiczmme/z//ff(cat. 233) and in

enough and can be passedover without any particular comment.

suchcontrast to his other works, a way of more closely

Fig. 229. Adrien Guignet Fear EgyPtiaTZPriests: SandyforJosepb Drawing; Musee Rolin, Autun

Fig. 230.The Zodiac from Dendera Museedu Louvre,

D6partement desAntiquit6s Eg}ptiennes (D 38)

380

contourmgr The resulting flatness, despite the vanishing point highlighted to an extreme, is striking, giving the impression of a stageset with an impractically exaggeratedslope' and a

The Development of Parallel Readings

It is the sceneitself which createsan imbalance,arising

M

from de lack of proportion betweenthe palaceand the figures. As in Cam&ysrr,the archaeology seemsto stifle the scene,to freezeit in an instant devoid of meaning.

was unable to persuade his friend Hippolyte Michaud to accompany him to Egypt; Laveissidre 1978,p. 14 5

In the years that followed, Guignet continued to

paint Egyptian-style subjects,though perhapson a less

In/o Egy/z/, and in 1853, he I)chart ii iicw Final/2g ri/ ,t/ci.f.. I .)r

Dampierre.' Biblical sul)lcctshad dtninitely replacedthe

Open papyrifnrm capitals and decoration of the upper shaft of the columns: I)ortico of the great temple at Philae (,4/?//g//fi, \-ol. I, pl. 18); lower shaft of the columns:templeof Edna(.4?z/zgzrz/4, vol. I,

pl. 83); Hathoric capitals:column from the portico at Dendera (.4?z/zqzi;/fJ, vol. IV, pl. 12); zodiac: great temple at Dendera

ambitious scale: in 1846, TZe Fz zdzngofA/pics and /oiq#

Explaining His Dreams to His Brothers; in \ 8q8, The Flight

.\

(.4rz/zgzzz/6, vol.IV. PI.21) 6.

The first two are thought to be lost; the third, marred with bitumen,

is in the collection of the Museed'Angouleme; the fourth, un finished, is untraced (see Autun 1978, pp. 14 15)

foray into the Egyptii\niz.ing historlcilgenre 1]. made with =ambyses.

J.-M.H. l 2 3.

4.

Gautier, quoted in Thuillier 1978,p. 9. Quoted in Laveissiire 1978,p. 26. Usually a maximum of15%(slope of rhe Stageof EheOpera of the BathsofCaracalla in Rome) Guignet met d'Avennes towards 1844on his return from Egypt; the

Egyptologist offered him a position but Guignet decline(I,since he

Exhibitions: Paris 1845,no. 794; Paris 1968, no. 145; Autun/Annecy 1978, no. 14.

Selected References:

Bulliot 1879,pp. 48--51 Laveissidre 1978, p. 25; Humbert 1989,p. 237; De Meulenaere 1992,P. 113

The Development of Parallel Readings

381

236

The Questioner of the Sphinx Elihu Vedder (1836 1923)

Oil on canvas

Though the setting is North African, the sphinx in the painting bears no relationship to the Sphinx of Giza and was probably painted from an Egyptian head that Vedder

91.5x 106.7cm

could have seenin a book or studied during the time he

Signed and dated at lower right:

spent in Paris and Italy from 1856 until 1860. It has also

1863

Etiha redder/ 1863

been tentatively suggested that the large collection of

Boston, Boston Museum of Fine Arts (06.2430)

Egyptianantiquities exhibitedin New York in January

Provenance:

York Historical Societymay haveprovideda sourceof

Purchasedfrom the artist by Martin Brimmer,

inspiration.' in 1890,during a trip to Egypt, Vedder finally

Boston, between 1863 and 1865; bequest of Mrs. Martin Brimmer to the Boston Museum

had the opportunity to seethe original, and to depict it in at

1853and sold in 1859 60 by Dr. Henry Abbott to the New

leastone painting.

M.P

of Fine Arts.

Exhibited in Ottawa and Vienna. Vedder's reputation as the foremost American painter of allegories was almost immediately established with this

1. Quoted in Reich 1974, p. 40

2. H.onour 1989, p.229. 3. Washington1984,no. 97;the Abbott collectionconsistedof some 1121 pieces. In 1937 it went to the Brooklyn Museum; Wilson 1964,

PP.35,39,213.

work. Though ostensiblyrelatedto the myth of Oedipus, the subject is an unexpected variation on the theme, reversing

rhe relationship between man and sphinx. Its most novel

aspectis the literal representation of a metaphysical issue a man's search for answers and his failure, like that of his

predecessors,to find them. The ruins of a temple consumed by time and sand and the skeletal remains of past question-

ers testify to an ancient quest over which the enduring

SelectedReferences

New York

Tbckerman 1870, p. 451; Bishop

1863, no. 173

(TZc?SP£z7zx);Boston 1868,

sphinx has presided since time immemorial. Early critics

no. 286; Pittsburgh

have assumed that the painting was connected with Ralph Waldo Emerson's famous poem TZe Sp#znr, first published

Hartford 1933,no. 75; Jacksonville 1966,no.7; New York 1970,col. repr.; Los Angeles 1974,no. 70, repr.; Glens Falls 1975; Washington 1978, no. 28; Washington/ Brooklyn 1979.no. 50: Des Moines/ Philadelphia 1980-81, no. 49;

in 7'fe Dza/ in january 1841and frequently reprinted afterwards. Vedder, however, explained in a letter of 7 September 1884that "my idea in the sphinx was the hap-

lessness of man before the immutable laws of nature."i in recent years, Hugh Honour has proposed that Vedder's choice of a black man as the protagonist for his compositioll

was intended to reflect the plight of blacks in America.: A second, later version of the subject painted in 1875, now

Washington

1901, no. 13;

1984, no. 97.

1880, p. 53; Robinson 1885, p- 122; Radford 1899,p. 102; Vedder 1910,p. 460, repr. p. 229;

Bryant1917,pp.74--76,fig.42;

SobyandMiller 1943,p. 29; Richardson1956,p. 352;Jarves 1960,p.200;Soda1963, pp 187 88,191,fig. 3;Boston 1969,vol.I,p.275,no.991 vol.ll,fig. 403;Soda1970, pp. 38, 40, 283; Reich 1974,

p. 40 41,fig. 1;Demish1977, pp 194 95,fig. 540;Ratcliff 1979

in the Worcester Art Museum, contains a different figure --

pp. 86,91;Pierce1980,pp.55--76; Hlumbert1987/1990, vol. ll,

an old, bearded man. A third version mentioned by Vedder

pp. 576, no. 742; Wittkower

in his autobiography remains untraced. In 1879 80, Vedder

returned to the theme of the sphinx in an altogether differ-

382

Exhibitions;

1989, p. 143, fig. 8--23 (wrongly suggesting that the painting

was

ent, highly syn)bolist guise, in TAf SpAznr(g'rAf SfaiAorf

painted after a trip to Egypt); Honour 1989,vol. IV.

(Fine Arts Museum

PP. 229-32, ng. 144.

of San Francisco).

The Developmentof ParallelReadings

:%%!\©i.;

..

The Development of Parallel Readings

i"''

.'

n

,!.

383

.®a

k

r

384

Thad

velopment of Para

:l R

237

The Egyptian Sacrifice of aVirgin to the Nile Federico Farufhni (1831 1869) 1865

Oil on canvas 125 x 245 cm Signed and dated at lower right: FRiAr/ /865

Rome, Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna (1148) Provenance:

LucianoBizzari;purchased 1886 Exhibited in Paris

Considered by Faruffini's early biographers as his master

piece,this painting held a tnajor if unhappy position in his life. Where exhibited in Milan in 1865it was condemnedby

conservative critics, causing the artist to move to Paris where he took a studio at number 62 Rue de I'Ouest. A photograph of the painting by E.L. Thiboust Jeune et Cie

has rightly led Anna Finocchi to supposethat Faruffini took it with him to France.i Indeed, after he obtaineda medal at the Paris Salon of 1866, he exhibited TZr Z?gyp/za7z

Sacrg;ceof z Uzrgz/o r,be]Vz/eat the Salonof 1867.This time, critical successappeared within reach and Faruffini's own etching after the composition was issued by Cadart in [wo publications.: On his return to Italy, however, the hostility of the critics remained unchanged, and his suicide at Eheageof thirty-eight made him oneof the most tragic figures

in nineteenth-centuryItalian Rrt.

The subject of the picture wasdescribedby the artist in a text appendedto the painting at the time of its exhibition in 1865:"It was the habit of the Egyptians to sac

rifice everyyear a virgin to the river Nile, the fertilizer of their fields, appeasingthe origin of evil with a human victim.

To this he added that he had "tried to reconstructthe funeral ceremony,pointirlgto the Egyptianritual of lustral water, the sacred music, rhe anxiety of the crowd, and rhe sorrow of the parents and of the victim's lover, who throws himself in the river when the cadaver reappearson rhe surface of the water."s

There is nothing in Farufhni's surviving papersto indicate why he chosethe subject, describedin literature but seldom treated in painting.

The picture also appearsto have been the first attempt in Italy to depict an Egyptian genre scene,pavmg Lhe way for such productions as Giulio Viotti's enormous /dy// .z/ 7'Ae6ff of 1872 (Galleria Sabauda, Turin). Farufhni

was doubtless aware of the successof Alma-Tadema's Pai/;mfi ; H7zczc'n/ /!gyp/ at the Salon of 1864,but his composition was almost certainly inspired by a different work, Pz\ul Delaroche's

famous Yoa/2g A/ar/yr.

A series of studies

for the figures in 7'Ac? Z8y/,/ia//Szzcrgice in the Galleria

The Development of Parallel Readings

385

Nazionale d'Arte Moderna in Rome revealshow carefully

Faruffini prepared himself.' Even more revealing is a preparatory sheetof sketchesof Egyptian motifs in a private

collectionin Milan, which showsFaruffini researched the painting with the help of the first volume of the Dficrz/)/io/z df /'Egyp/e: the landscapein the drawing follows Dutertre's /s/eofPfz/ae, while the figure at the far left, the two figures far right, and the kneeling servant centre are copied from various reliefs from the temple at Philae.s M.P 1. In Spoleto 1985,no.88.

2. The etching, showing the subject in reverseand lacking the main figure,

is inscribed:

Par/ic? inpcfrzc?z/re d'zi?a /a8/fa

rrPr4erz/aaf/

/f

Sacri$ce Egyptian d'ane uierge au Ni{ / Saioll de {867 f F. Farz4j3ini Pin

ff. It was issuedin Cadart and Luquet, n.d., lst collection,and Ea r:#ofzci A/oder/zfi, 1867, vol. V. pl. 281.

3. Cited by Finocchi in Spoleto 1985,no. 88 4. In the Galleria Nazionale d'Arte Moderna in Rome; Spoleto 1985, nos. 64--87,repr.

5. The landscapeappearson pl. 3; the figure far leff, the two figures far right, and the kneeling servant centre appear, respectively, on

pl. 10,fig. 3, pl. 11,fig. 3, and pl. 12,fig. 2

Exhibitions: Milan 1865,no. 255; Paris 1867,

SelectedReferences

no. 5?3 tSacri$ce at{ Ni! de [a

HzfrgeEfyp/zfn/zf); Rome 1883,

Lucid 1900,pp.93,102; Colasanti1923, pp. 19,31;Sapori

no. 29; Milan 1900. no. 163;

1923,p. 50, repr. p. 44; Somar6

Milan 1923,no. 11,repr.p. 19;

1928,pp. 177,179;Ojetti1929, pp.35,62-63,88;Bardi 1934,

Berlin 1968,no. 41, repr.; Como 1954,no.21;Spoleto 1985,no.88, repr.; Milan 1988.

Mongeri

1865; Rovani 1865;

p vi, fig. 9; Colombo 1939,p. 3; Bucarelli

1973, pp. 28--29, repr.

p. 188;Geminiani, Laccarini, and Macchi, n.d.(1984), pp. 86-88, 141; Milan 1988, p. 150, repr. P. 174.

238

Israel in Egypt Sir Edward John Poynter(1836 1867 Oil on canvas 137.2 x 317.5 cm

]919)

Sign)ed withmonogram anddated: /8 X7P67 London, Guildhall Art Gallery, City of London (1014) Provenance:

John Hawkshaw; by inheritance, J.C. Hawkshaw before 1894; Sir George A. Touche, Bart.; bequest 192] Exhibited in Paris

According to Cosmo Monckhouse, presumablyinformed by Poynter, it was in 1862at the Longhorn sketching club that the "design of rhe famous /naf/ zn fWP/ first occurred

386

The Development

of ' Parallel Readings

:1

!,,'''':

'/

'. . .' "

b'

R

i'r

VA.: £: -H'il

r

H

:t'w

to him.... At one of these evenings the subject was 'Work '

The sensation created by the painting, due as much

and Mr. Poynter's sketch was so much admired that he

to its size as to its attempt at historical correctness,was

determined to elaborate it into a picture."' Indeed, a water-

expressed by Gleeson White: "When

colour signedand dated 1862showsthe composition alreadylargely worked out, but with suf6cient variations to indicate how much it was transformed before becoming an

oil painting.ZWhether the original compositionwasas spontaneously generated as has been supposed is far less certain and must be reconsidered in the light of Boime's observation

that it is partly derived from TZf Sa£7aga/zo/?of

this painting hung on

the walls of the Royal Academy in 1867,it took the cultured public by storm. So new a version of an ancient theme. read

in the light of modern Egyptology,madethe story of the Captivity of the Jews appeal with the force of a recently discovered fact."s The subject, taken from Exodus 1:7 11,6was

found disagreeablealthough, as noted by JamesThompson, no connection was made with modern work on the Suez

ffe Romczniby Charles Gleyre, Poynter's teacher,and

Canal.' if. in retrospect,the painting followed in the tradi-

reflects Gleyre's obsession with Egyptian culture.3 As noted

tion of earlier biblical productions by Martin and Roberts,it

by Patrick Conner, by 1867 when Poynter completed and

was the novelty of the approachwhich startled most.

exhibited /lrczr/ zn Egyp/, he had already exhibited two

reflected by the critic who wrote: "We believe it to be the

Egyptian genre pieces, in 1864 and 1866, and supplied several

most complete illustration hitherto afforded by any painter,

biblical designswith an Egyptian setting for Da/zze/\

lifustlated Bible q

British or foreign, of a principle of modern art which opens

up sourcesof interest unthought of by the 'old masters

The Development of Parallel Readings

387

That principle is the union of archaeologywith art; mealltng by this the representation of an historical event not conven-

Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences:

London 1867,no. 434;London

Anonymous 1868, repr.

1871,'no. 415;(Paris, Universal

tionally,but astruthfully as possible,with the ald of the

Exposition, 1878?);London,

(engravingbyW.S.Thomas); Colvin 1870,pp. 1--2;DafForne

knowledge amassed by modern critical research, by travel, museums. or otherwise."' The knowledge amassed by research in this case

Guildhall, 1894; London 1951,

1877, p. 18; Hamerton

no. 434; London 1968, no. 345;

PP.12 13; Monckhouse 1899, pp.235,244--47,repr.on p.245;

hasbeenanalyzedby Conner, who hasidentified the remarkable assembly of monuments and buildings of dif-

ferent periods and sites depicted in the painting: the Great

Pyramid in the left background,two templesfrom Philae

London

1975, no. 2i

Brighton/Manchester

1877,

Gleeson White1909; Denvir

1983,

no. 343; London 1984,no. 34; Dublin/Liverpoo11988, no. 56, repr.; Berlin 1989, no. 1/174, col. repr. fig. 61

closeby, the temple of Setil at Qurna behind the principal

1952,p.167,repr.;Spalding 1978 P. 65, figs. 52--54; Maas 1978,

col. repr. p. 186; Clayton 1982: p. 181, repr.; Sewell 1983,p. 18;

Conner1985, pp.112--20 (with early bibliographical references);

lion. the somewhat transformed pylon gateways of the temple

Knight1986, p.236;Humbert

of Edfu to the right, and the obeliskof Heliopolisin front

1989,pp.240,288,repr.

of the gateway.9The large figures of Amenhotep ITI flank-

PP. 268--269; Coignard

1993,

p. 68,col.repr.

ing the gateway,originally from Thebes,and the much enlarged red granite lion at the centre of the composition, unsuitably multiplied in the alley oflions visible beyond the

gateway,were basedon a pair in the British Museum brought from Egypt in 1835 by Lord Prudhoe. Again, as

shown by Conner, the choice of a lion rather than a sphinx as the focus of the painting was dotibrless connected to the fame of a work which had already inspired an alley of lions at the Crystal Palace."

The multitude of figures in the composition

239

Young Egyptian Joseph-Laurent-Daniel Bouvier(1 841 1901) 1869

Oil on canvas

include, at the centre beyond the main group of slaves,a

230 x 93 cm

processionwith the ark of Reand, to the left behind the lion, the pharaoh and a princesscarried in a palanquin. Early sourceshave mentionedthat, after the picture was

Grenoble, Musee des Beaux-Arts(MG

In this vertical composition, a format favoured by Bouvier,

exhibited, Pointer increased the number of figures at the

the pairater portrays an Egyptian who has little connection

suggestion of Sir John Hawkshaw, the famous engineer

with the ancient reality: rhe nemfsand loincloth are inter-

who eventually bought it. An engra\ing by W.L. Thomas

pretations,and the elementsat the bottom of the canvas

made from the painting before it was removed from the Royal Academy confirms that several figures were added, including some in the processionbehind the lion and in the

(olivetti grapes, Barbary figs, red peppers, and amphora) are

background near the gateway.''

Lhe wall which serves as a backdrop.

M.P.

2514)

more reminiscent of Sicily or even Greece than Egypt. The

single unobtrusive architectural reminder is the batter of

The posebringsto mind a "bearerof offerings,"in particular Denon's drawing that was reproduced as part of

Monckhouse 1897, f). 708. Sale. Sothebv's, London, 19 October 1989, 1ot 421, col. repr.

Boime in Winterthur/Lausanne 1974--75,pl. 114, establishing the connection with Gle)-re; and ///usfl a/fd Lo/zdozr Near (25 January 4. Conner 1985, p. 113. 5. White 1909. 6. "And the children of Israel were fruitful, and increased abundant-

aS&vres centrepiece in biscuitporcelain(cat.117),although it is impossible to determine whether this simile\rity was ntentional or coincidental. However, the frontal position, Lhe well-defined musculature, and the hint of a mustache

on the overly life-like model eraseany archaeologicalcharacter from this image

without detracting, however, from

its genuinely evocative power.

ly, and multiplied.... Therefore [the EgypLians]did set over them

1. ivi.rx

taskmasters to afflict themwith their burdens.And they built for Pharaoh treasure cities....' 7. Thompson in Dublin/Liverpool 1988,p. 130. 8. /// J/la/fd I.ando/7Arrwf (25 January 1868)9. Conner

1985, PP. 1 13--14

10. Conner 1985, p. 116-17 11. The engraving was published

in the ///wi/icz/ed Lo/zdo/z Nea'J

(25 January 1868).

388

1. Lf P/i/zrfmps. Paris Salorl of 1870;also the Eq/fzz,oqff exhibition at the Musee des Arts D6coratifs, Paris 1973

The Development of Parallel Readings

Exhibitions: Paris 1869,no.311

The Developmentof ParallelReadings

389

7 Egypt at the Opera

390

Z

l

@ f

/ ,z

(

&

391

From the seventeenthto the mid-eighteenth century, Egypt

)ust publ ished Z)zz,r?if /mcz//le/-ed'ado?nary z cammznz ( 1769),

with its auraof mysteryheldstrangelylittle appealfor

and the author's poetic visions, clearly influenced by

French playwrights and composers.A glance at the librettos of the Acad6mie Royale de Musique is enough to convince

mythology and blending monuments and motifs of diff br-

us. Vague references to Egypt are found in the titles of such works as Lully's /szii or Rameau's heroic ballet Lfi Ffi/fi df

Egyptian were arousing passioni\nd controversy.

L'Hymenet de t'Amour ou LesDiettx d'EgypteJ in wh\ch

infatuation with Egypt began to be echoedin architecture,

J61yotte played Osiris, but these served as mere pretexts for

sculpture, literature, and other forms of artistic expression. French revolutionaries looked to Egypt as a symbol. Tn the first act of I,czRda zo/zda /0 ao r,' performed al the Opera in 1794,the audience viewed the Fountain of Regeneration,

court celebrations,and virtually no visual documentation of sets or costumes is extant.

Drawings of "savages," whimsically conceived Indians, Turks, "Am6riquains," Persians, "darling little

ent civilizations Ancient Greek, Roman,Etruscan,and

As the eighteenth century cameto a close,

portraying

"Nature

squeezing

her fertile

breasts, from

coloured children," the Chinese(in whom Boquet' took

which gush two springs of clear water." The fountain

p:\rticular interest), and everyEthiopians were to be found

evoked by the authors had actually been built in the Place de la Bastille for the celebrations of10 August 1793.David had designed the fountain in the form of an Egyptian statue representing Isis.' Jean-Marcel Humbert has observedthat

in abundance.Pictures of Egyptians, however, were still quite rare. Jean B6rain's superb drawing is the only repre-

sentationof an Egyptian to be found in the library of the Opera de Paris. And to what extent is she really Egyptian? The long, scalloped dressshown from the front and back is no different from those worry by the hlghborn ladies at the court of Louis XIV. For want of any specifically Egyptian characteristic, it is the position of the hands, and the fact

the revolutionaries looked to ancient Egypt as a source of nourishment for the ideals of the Enlightenment: Justice,

Knowledge, and Wisdom.'

How could 7'Af Mag;c F/a/e, with irs proven masonic origin,'' f ail to entice the directors of the Opera

that the face is seenin profile, that bring an antique

Using fragments of incidental music he had composedin

bas-relief to mind.4

his youth for Baron Tobias Philipp von Gebler'splay

Egyptian flavour for the first time. The action was set in

7'Aa/moi, Kz/zg o/ Egyp/, Mozart and his librettist Schikanederused an Egyptian setting of the sort that the

Memphis. The three-act lyric tragedy Ncp#//s (a contrac-

Freemasonscherished, to recount the journey of initiation

tion of the namesof two Egyptiandeities,Neith i\nd Ptah),

leading Pamina and Tamino to the Light after they have

In 1789,theOperastageda work with a thoroughly

conaposedby Jean-BaptisteLemoyne, is truly a strange mix.

In the preface,Hoffman, the librettist, explainedthat Thomas Corneille's tragedy Ca/ 7z/z.z was the inspiration for

this work, and that he took the liberty of transportinghis subjectto Egypt "to bring new cultural traditions and costumes to the Opera." He consulted the works of Herodotus

and Diodorus for a detailed description of the sites that Pierre-Adrien

Paris (architect

of the Th6ftre

des Menus-

Plaisirs) used as a basis for the stage designs. Over twenty years before Berton's I.'E/:#an/ p?odikire, audiences attending

Nfp,4// beheld tombs dug into the rock, a sphinx-lined

averlueleading from the templeof Osiris to the porticoof the palace,and in the distance,the Nile and the silhouette of a pyramid.

A few Egyptian-styledesignsfor setsand props (fig. 231and 232), one of which was definitely created for Nep#/4 are part of the remarkable collection of drawings by

Paris that the designer bequeathed to his native city of Besangon.6

Paris was well-prepared for the task of creating

sceneryharking back to ancientEgypt. After completing his studies in architecture, he lived in Rome from 1769 to

1774.Like many others, notably Charles de Wailly and Michel-Ange Challe, his immediate predecessorsas design-

392

er for the Cabinet du Roi, Paris was fascinatedwith the

Fig. 231. Pierre-Adrien Paris

city's archaeological treasuresthat included Egyptian relics

Design for an Egyptian lamp in the temple of Osiris, for Nepbf/

brought there during the Roman conquests. Piranesi had

Bibliothique Municipale, Besangon (Album 483, pl. 8 1)

Egypt at the Opera

Q

'

-

'

--t

-

+T

Fig. 232. Pierre-Adrien Paris Egyptian Grand Temple, stage design for Nep#/Z Biblioth&que Municipale, Besangon (Album 483, pl. 147)

vanquished the Powers of the Night. Ten years after Mozart's work premiered in Vienna, the Opera produced Z.ei A/ysr?rfi d'/szk,'' a rather amazing parody of TZe Magic

F/z/zradaptedby Lachnith and Morel de Ch6deville (brother-

in-law of Baronde La Fert6,former intendantof the Th6ftre desMenus-Plaisirs).The pressviolently attacked Lachnith's

"homicidal"

endeavour:

"It's

the Colossus

of

Rhodesknocked to the ground, whosedebris, scattered over the sand, is gazed on with admiration by the wayfarer."': The presspraised Degotti's sets,however, for their great beauty and striking effect" and noted the "meticulously exact" costumes.';

The useof Egyptian-stylesetsfor TZf A4agzc F/ /r prevailed throughout the nineteenth century,both abroad (Schinkel's sets for the Berlin Opera are a striking

example '')

and in Paris, through the work of such designers as Edouard Desp16chinand Philippe Chaperon.'SThis stage tradition was even extended to works that had nothing to do with Egypt but which dealt with the duality oflife and death. Chaperon, for example, desigraedthe cavern for Gounod's Fails/ (Act TV) in the form of an "Egyptian crypt: (see cat. 271).i6

As a result of Napoleon's Egyptian Campaign, the land of the pharaohs assumed a prominent place in the history

of the Acad6mie

Imp6riale

de Musique.

Lef

4f7zowrx

d'Antoine et de Clgopatre"' and llJE?ifant prodigtte ' pele produced one after the other. Like Lf Tr;om/7Af de 7}ayan, these

[wo works were intended to be played before the emperor.

Setscreated by lsabey, "Designer for the Cabinet and Theatre of His Majesty the Emperor and King," and approved by the chamberlain, Combe de R6musat, could

Egypt at the Opera

393

T.I

't#$.'

.!

PI..XXlx

IBS.\)I }} ol:l

&..\..I.fl«o'qW

.a®

Sl;lTE

Fig. 233. Paul Lormier Squire of the King of Egypt, costume design for I.'l1lz$a/zf P/ aZzgzze

Bibliothaque Nationale,D6partement de la Musique,

l:l'

}'lX

I)t'

sF:('oli)

Ti\lll.}:.\l

'

Fig. 234. Jean-Francois Champollion Plate XXllX from iWo/zz/me/s de /'EgyP/e ef de Za Nz/&/e, 1835 45, vol. ll Musee du Louvre, Biblioth&que Central des Mus6es Nationaux, Paris

Bibliothique-Nlus6e de I'Opera, Paris (D. 2 16/16)

not afford 10 be blatantly and ridiculously inexact.'' The long march of the priestsand the sacredbull Apis towards

and precisedown to the last detail, but the sceneryfor Act

the pcristyleof the templeof Vulcan is remarkablefor its

Hippolyte Lecomte's costumes (see cat. 261 264) display a remarkably fancifulapproach.

authenticity and powerfully graphic effect.;' lsi\bey consulted

first-hand

ITT,depicting the portico of the temple of isis, along with

During the July Monarchy, the Opera'sSalle Le

accounts such as Vivant

Dewar's VoyageJars la Basieet h Haute Egyptependantles

Peletier was totally giver) over to romantic ballets and re

cczmp.zgnrs d# Gfn/ra/ Bonaparrf, published in 1802, also the

creationsof history in rhe grand opera genre,popularized

Dfscrzprzo// de /'Egy/}/f,

appeared in 1809. In the painting workshop of the Opera,

by Meyerbeer, Ha16vy, and Auber, and any themes related to Antiquity were temporarily dropped from the repertoire.::

lsabey had the opportunity to meet Jean-Constantin

The Cirque Olympique came to the fore: with its equestrian

Protain, who had actually worked in Egypt as an architect

shows,extras, and scenerygeared to historicaldrama, the company did its part to forge and strengthen the

the first volume

of which

had just

for the Commission des Scienceset des Arts. When Protain returned from Egypt, he asked the First Consul to appoint

Napoleonic legend.

After 1848,the trend turned to works that

hornchief' of stagedesignat the Opera,claiming that his travels had "made him better qualified for the position. A/oi?c, adapted by Rossini for the Opera in 1827, after the fallof the Empire, met with great success. Although Cic6ri's Egyptianizing setshave not beenpreserved.

attempted to capture local colour

we know them by way ofAuguste Caron's lavish reproduc-

rant times. Egypt is a land about whose pastglories many

tions (seecat. 258 260) made at the request of Vicomte de la

artists feel nostalgic a sentiment expressedin n deeply personal manner by Gustave Flaubert: "Egyptl Egyptl Your

Rochefoucauld. The set for Act ll is surprisingly realistic

RQ4

Egypt at the Opera

eras

or the flavour of other

in their settings. The romanticists, for example, had

a predilection

for the Middle

Ages and the Renaissance.

But this quest was extended to distant countries aswelles dis

great unmoving gods have their shoulders blanched by bird-droppings, and the wind passingover the desert rolls

the temple of Vulcan. The temple of Isis in Act TTI was a

rhe ashes of your deadl"Z '

Marietta conveyed his enthusiasm to Draneht Bey in Cairo: 'l'll answer for the sets, which will be truly splendid and highly accurate replicas of the temples of Upper Egypt.";:

The Opera repertoire included a few revivals, among

replica of the temple at Philae. Writing from Paris,

them Rossini's Moike, but it was the premiere of Auber's L'E/:#an/ prodzgaf that won the unar)imous enthusiasm of the press. Th6ophilc Gautier singled out Charles-Antoine Cambon's scenery (see cat. 265) designed for the act that

himself to basics, especially where costumes were concerned.

was set in Memphis:"Capitals in the form of women's

He knew that nothing was more difhcult than the task of

headswatch with slanted eyes;sphinxes bare their enigmatic

bringing thesegranite statuesto life, clothing them, making

claws; towering obelisks and stelae are bedecked with symbolic inscriptions. Allis menaceand mystery in this

them move find sing." The costumedesignsattributed [o Marietta aremodelsof simplicity (seecat. 273 274)." When ,4zdawas performed nine yearslater on the

frightful splendour....":'

The costumesdesignedby Paul Lormier (seecat. 266 270)were carefully researchedin the Louvre and in

Auguste Marietta was gifted with a keen senseof the

absurd,but he also knew how to exerciserestraint and confine

Paris Opera Garnier stage,:scostume designer Eugdnc Lacoste

various libraries. "Imagine the Musee Charles X and the

was not as reserved. Accomplished in all aspectsof historical re-creation, Lacoste yielded to the temptation to display

Egyptian room in the Louvre brought to life," wrote

every minute detail of his newly acquired knowledge of'

Gautier, who bestowed his era's highest accolade on the overall effect, "Tt's very beautiful and quite accurate.":5

ancient Egypt. We can retrace his researchin a valuable lit-

Lormier's

sources are easily recognizable. Some

tle notebook of preliminary sketches (see cat. 278).:' Studies of

sandals, headdresses,patterns for garments, and ornamental

costumeswere inspired by the bas-relief taken from the tomb of Setil and brought to the Louvre by Champollion.:'

motifs, as well as colour indications, are sprinkled throughout. Meticulously noted in the margin are the namesof the

Similarly, the charming little "squire of the King of Egypt '

Egyptologists that Lacoste consulted: Eugene R6villout,

(nig.233)pulling on a horse'sreins:' was faithfully copied from a plate in Champo]]ion'sLci ]Wo/?me/zzs df /'/8yp/e ez

Beauregard, and most notably, Masp&ro, whom he often met at the Louvre and to whom he submitted his projects.

df /a Nzz&;e(fig. 234).:' Lormier's drawings are remarkably fresh and poetic despite their scrupulous attention to detail. Carlos Fischer unfairly considered them to be the "work of a mere historian."z9 With

the staging

of .4/da came the first

serious

The level of archaeological researchattained by Lacoste has never been surpassedat the Op&ra. Tt was not without pitfalls, however: there was the risk of endlessrepetition and stereotyping, and monotony had to be avoided. For these re-creations were being produced without benefit

attempt to draw upon Egypt's archaeological treasures in

of that vital inner spirit, without the guidance of a master's

order to revive the country's glorious past. Commissioned

hand,without the enthusiasmof the kind that motivated

for the festivities surrounding the opening of the Suez Canal in 1869and the inauguration of the Cairo Opera

the artisans who worked under Mariette.

House, this work took on the character of a national opera;

it became a symbol." .4zdawas created under quite exceptional circumstances. At the request

of the Khedive

(or Viceroy)

of

Egypt, who wanted "an opera that was entirely antique and Egyptian in character," Auguste Mariette, then director of the Ancient Egyptian Museum in Bulaq, wrote the scenario

In the years to follow, the Opera became a prisoner of routine, lapsing into conformity, sometimes even absurdity. Some of Henri de Montaut's costumes for ,'lido succumbed to this fate (see cat. 296).

For quite sometime, the Opera remainedimpervious to the design innovations of Gordon Craig, Max Reinhardt,or Adolphe Appia, and ignored rhe accomplish-

mcnts of Antoine and Lugn6-Poe,who aimed at greater

and supervised the production. No one was better equipped

simplicity and stylization. Not until the great explosionof lice

[o carry out the task than this brilliant Egyptologist, who staged"a rigorously exact production wherein local colour

and colour of the Ballets Rushesand the appointment of Jacques

was strictly retained.";:

traditions of this great institution firaally shaken.3'

Rouch6 as director of the Opera in 1914were the sacrosanct

Within a few months,Mariettecompileda wealth

Set design was evolving, as was rhe portrayal of

of documentation collected from costumesdepicted on the bas-reliefs,in the tombs, and on the stelaeof Upper Egypt.

Egypt on stage. No longer obliged to create authentic

He copied various accessoriesand articles of jewellery in

interpret according to their personalvision. Re-creation gave way to evocationof the symbolicor poetic: witness

the Bulaq museum's collection, and asked Parisian designers to do the costumes and sets, because these artists were

reproductions, painters of scenery could now transpose and

reputed to be the best in their field and historically accurate.

Cleopatra emerging from her golden sarcophagus,slowly unwinding the veils and wrappings Chatbound her like a

Collaborating with Lavastre and Desp16chin,as well as

mummy, as the Parisian public looked on, dumbfounded."

Rube and Chaperon, he proposed that a reconstruction of

N.W

the Ramesseumof Thebes be used for the set depicting

Egypt at the Opera

1. Performed in Saint-Germain-en Laye on 5 January 1677,and at the Opera in August of the same year

2. Ballet first producedat Versailleson 15March 1747,and then at the Opera on 25 November 1748 3. Louis-Rend Boquet (1717 1814),French painter and stagedesigner, created costumes for Noverre's Lff F?lff c-izzoisfi (1754) and deco-

rateda gallery and ballroom for [heJ?rf rAznoireat Versaillesin 1771

4. Bibliothdque de I'Opera, D. 216 (Xll)

5. Lyric tragedy performed nn 15December1789.Libretto published in Paris. 1790.

6. This collection is kept in the Bibliothdque Municipale, Paris. The stage designs for the court theatre and Opera productions ;ire thered in tome V. cole 483. See,in particular, nos. 81, 147,and 257

7. Sami-ru/or/zdf (revolutionary theatre production) by G. Bouquier and Ph. Moline, performed on 5 April 1794. 8. Seethe engraving by I.S. Helman after Charles Monnet. 9. Humbert 1989, p. 41. 10. Chailley 1968 11. 7#f A4aglcF/ /f was first performed in Vienna, 30 September

1791,and opened in Paris under the title Lfi JWy/?rfi d'/fzr 12.The criticism was written in referenceto an 1821revival,in the 1821). This version was per '

formed until 1827. 13. The ,4/ma/lara pour /'an X (Courcier), p. 184. There is no visual

documentation on this production, but it is known that in order to

20. In the libretto, the set for Act ll is described as follows: ''The stage

depicts a public square in the city of Memphis- Egyptian luxury

abounds. and the marvels of architecture shine from every monument" (Paris, 1812). 21. Archives Nationales, AJ 13/63and /64

22.Wild 1977, PP.45363. 23. Gustave Flaubert,

7#f

Tempra/;o?z of Saznr ,4/?/bony, Kitty

Mrosovsky (trans.), London:Secker & Warburg,1980, p. 184 24. Z.a Prriic? (Paris), 9 December 1850

25. 1,a P esse(Paris), 9 December 1850 26. Bibliotheque de I'Opera, D. 216/16,pls. 127, 130 27. Bibliothdque de I'Opera, D. 216/16,pl. 120

28.Publishedin 1835under the direction of J.-P Champollionand lppolito Rosellini. Sketched from a painting in the temple at Abu Simbel 29. Fischer 1931,p. 222.

30. After a long delay,.4zdafinally h;\d its premiere on 24 December 1871, two years after the opening of the Cairo Opera House

31. Biblioth&quede I'Opera, Finds Nuitter (I.a.s.M;iriette, nos.3 5, 1976, pp. 229--56.

32.Letter from Mariette to Draneht Bey (see cat. 305--306,note I), dated 28 September 1871,cited in Abdoun 1971,p- 83. Seealso Humbert

1991, pp. 485--95; Chappaz

1991a, pp. 83--87

33.Seeletter from Mariette to Draneht Bey,15 July 1870,cited in Abdoun 1971,p. 4

economize, certain elements of the sets were re-used in L'E71#anf

34. Bibliothdque de I'Opera, R6s. 861

prodzguf in 1812 (Archives Nationales, AJ 13/93).

35..4;da'sParis opening at the Opera Garnier was on 22 March 1880

14. Curl 1982, pp. 135--39

15. SeeChaperon's sketches in particular, D. 345 (1),pls. 9/2 and 18/1, as well as Desp16chin's sketches (Esq. 8) at the Bibliothdque de I'Opera 16. Bibliothique

de I'Opera, D. 345 (11), pl. 42.

17.Historical ballet by Jean-Pierre Aumer, music by Rudolphe Kreutzer, performed on 8 March 1808.

396

Berton, performed on 28 April1812. 19. Bibliothique de I'Op&ra, Esq. 19 (18--20)

mai ruin 1870). See also Hulbert

20 August 1801 /ou/'na/ dcs ,FA#dfrrs (I February

18.Ballet pantomimeby Pierre Garden,music by Hlenri Montan-

Egypt at the Opera

Some of the stage designers who had worked on [he Cairo produc Lion created the scenery for the Paris staging

36. Biblioth&que de I'Opera, D. 216/31(11) 37. Rouch6 1924

38.The ballet C/ford/rf is an adaptation of E'gzPf/J4fyf]Vaf#z, composed by Anton Areilsky. Staged by the Ballets Rushes,with

sets and costumesdesigned by Leon Bakst, it opened at the Th6ftre du Chftelet in Paris in 1909,and played at the Opera the following year.

B

240

Crypt under a Pyramid Stage design for /..czA/or/c?dz C'/f0/7czrrnby

Sebasriano Nasolini,Bologna,1797 Pelagio Palagi (1775--1818) 1797?

24 April

1792, the opera was successful both in Italy and

abroad:it wassung in Berlin, Madrid, Lisbon, London, and Paris, where it opened on I [)ecember 1813 in the presence

of Napoleon. It might be added that in 1794Nasolini pro

Pen and black ink with watercolour on paper

duced in Florence a secondopera on an Egyptian theme,

Bologna, Biblioteca Comunale dell'Archiginnasio,

Sfioi/n, Re d'Egz//o,a reprise of a theme treated by Terradellas in 1751and, even earlier, in Haste's Sesoi/rcz/fof 1726.

Gabinetto dei Disegni Fonda Pelagic Palagi (281)

1797 with a ballet, Pao/o f Hzrgz/zza, also surprisingly

24.6 3 34.4 cm

I.a A/or/f dz C/coPcz/rcz was staged in Bologna in

Provenance:

presentedin an Egyptian setting. Palagi, then aged twentytwo, is credited in the libretto with contributing to the stage

Don Palagi, 1860.

design. His interest in Egyptian forms was sharedby his

Exhibited in Ottawa

friend Antonio Basoli, and in the 1790sboth are known to have studied etchings by Piranesi and Tesi. Palagi was also familiar with Caylus' Rrcz£fz/ d'a/?/zgaz/4 ( yp/zr/znfi and

As noted by Deanna Lenzi in the 1979exhibition catalogue,

Montfaucon's Z,'H///zgaz// fxp/zgKJe, as well as with the

the design is connectedwith SebastianoNasolini's lyric

engraved caprzcrzby Desprez and Hubert Robert.' The pre-

tragedy La Amor/fdz C'/rope/ru. First performed in Trieste on

sentdesign is largely indebted to Piranesi,although the idea

Egypt at the Opera

397

of a circular hall, a typically Bolognesedevice,is likely derived

1. For Pa]agi's .lrchitecLura] projects and stage designs. see Matteucci

n Turin 1976-77, pp. 105--75,and nos. 96-98, and 110. A sheet of

from Teri. Corltrary to Pi\lags'slater, simpler Egyptian projects, the design reflects a desire to use a large repertory of decorative forms, including the female sphinxes characteristic of the eighteenth century.

Palagi played a pre-eminent role in the promotion of historical revivals in Italy in the early nineteenth century. His enduring interest in Egypt took a more concrete form in later life: in 1831he purchasedone of the four collections

Palagi's copies from Moiltfaucon is reproduced on p 373 of [he samesource

2. Nizzoli formed his Egyptian collectionsprimaril)- between1818 and 1828.H.is first collection was purchasedby the Emperor of Austria in 1820;the second(now in Florence) u'as bought by the

Grand Duke of Tuscanyin 1824;the fourth, acquiredby Marquis Tommaso Malaspina, is now in Pavia.

3. For Palagi'sactivity as a collector,seeCurto and Fiora, in Turin 1976--77,pp. 369 76 and pp. 377 404. For Palagi's interest in rhe Antique,

of antiquitiesformed by GiuseppeNizzoli,: the Austrian

consulin Egypt. Palagiwent on to buy other Egyptian works from Nizzoli, as well as antiquitiesformerly in the Mused Naniin Vellice. His collection is now largely in the Egyptian Museum in Bologna.:

241

see Roncuzzi Roversi-Monaco

1989, pp. 205--26

Exhibitions: Bologna 1979,no.309,fig.267

NA T)

Antony and Cleopatra disk ;md

Two costume designs for C/foPczr7a by Joseph Weigland Luigi Romanelli, Giacomo Pregliasco( 1759--1828) 1808

Milan,

1808

the one incongruous

note

a loincloth (worn in

ancient Egypt only by men). The enchanting pagesholding her train also wore Egyptian costumes In addition to costumes, Pregliasco desigraed for

Pen and black ink with watercolour on paper 14.7x 35.2 cm (album, 28 x 43 x 3 cm)

C/eo/za//aan extraordinary Egyptian military chariot of Piranesian inspiration.' Subsequently, in 1819 in Turin, he

C:leopatta Regina d'Egitto La Sig" Sessi/ C)peta prima

had the opportunity to re-interpret this unusualidea in real life, when he designedfor Miirie-Christine of Savoya cere-

La Cleopatra lle! R'. Teatro alla Scala 1 11CanlauaLe

monial Egyptian carriagein the form of a templeof Isis,

dell' 1808 / Tn" da Ptegltasco R' Diss" e del Teatro

now at the Qulrinal Palacein Rome.' To Pregliasco is further attributed a monumental Egyptianizing decorative pro)ect

I nscri ptior] : at bottom,

A/circ'.4/zro/zzo Szg. A/a/z/ccz

Turin. Biblioteca Civics Centrale, Raccolte

Drammatiche (ms222,f.13)

for a masonicceremony,now in the MuseoCivico in Turin M.P

Provenance:

Gift of ContessaFlaminia Ricardi di Negro, 1903.

l

Scala, Milan (4140, Coll. Scen. 2502) has been connected with Act ll

Exhibited in Paris and Ottawa.

of the opera; l\4zzieoTezz/z-a/e a//a Sccz/zz, 1975no. 2426, p. 632, nlg. 1183. For Landriani's Egyptian sets for C'fia f i/z Egi//o, see Vide Ferrero 1983, pls. X--Xll Mercedes Vide Ferrero, who has speculated on this concern for authenticity, concludes that it was a feature specific to designers in

Trained in Turin, Pregliascomoved in 1806to Milan where he was active as a designer until1816. Among his first projects was a design with Egyptian decorations for the ballet cantata Z,',4rrzz,o !/z ]Wz/cz/zodeg/z spas; performed

A draw,ing by Landriani in the collection of the Museo Teatrale alla

Turin; Vide Ferrero 1983,p. 59.For suchbiographical information on Pregliascoas exists, seeBaudi di Vest-ne1968,and Turin 1980, vol. 111,pp. 1476--77;for Pregliasco'stastefor the exotic, seeWinter

at La Scala

in 1806in honour of the newly-married viceroy, Eugene de

Beauharnais. His next project concerned designs for the opera C/eoPczr/rz by the Viennese composer Joseph Weigl, furst performed at La Scala or] 19 January 1807, with stage sets by Paolo Landriani.' The most memorable aspect of the

1974, P.221

3 Reproduced in Vide Ferrero1983,vol. 11,PI.XXVI 4 )

Pettenati1980, pp.243--47, with bibliography Turin 1980,vol. 11,no. 931, repr.

performs\nce was not the music or the otherwise conven-

tional libretto, but Pregliasco'scostumeswhich, though fanciful, were the most ambitious :\ttempts at verisimilitude to date anywhere.ZMarianna Sessias Cleopatra was given

an Egyptian headdress,a tunic decoratedwith a winged

RQR

Egypt at the Opera

Exhibitions: Turin 1980,no. 910 (the album, but showing a different Turin 1991

design);

Selected References:

Vide Ferrero1983,p. 58 pl. XXV. col.repr.

K:l.£'

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Egypt at the Opera

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Egypt at the Opera

242

Public Square in Alexandria Stage design for Act 111of Lfi Hmowrs d'.4/z/o;ne e/

It should come as no surprise, then, to find lsabey

df C/ti)p#zreby Jean-Pierre Aumer, Paris, 1808

mounting a fashionableproduction that drew on his con-

Jean-Baptiste lsabey (1 767 1855)

siderabletalent for organizing spaceand staging.2His

1808

design shows an odd mixture of styles, and betrays a limited

Ink and sepia

knowledge of ancient Egypt, which, however, appeared

34.1x 48.2cm

adequate for a ballet whose subject matter alone was sufh-

Dated on verso:/808; other manuscript annotations' Paris, Bibliothdque Nationale, D6partement de la Musique: Bibliothdque-Musee de I'Opera (Esq. 19/

cient to ensure its success.

lsabey20)

\. The cost ofpainting this sceney wi!! amount io joa thousand and eightyfrancs, {he price agreed upon by MessiearsMalls and Desroches

Surviving numerous changesof regime, Jean-Baptiste lsabey was portrait painter and miniaturist to the Empress

and later to the kings of France, but held other posts as well. During the First Empire, he organized festivities at

J.-M.H.

anz/ it/f

/sa&fy.... In a different

hand; Scfac'ry aPProx,d, Paris, /azi

3Qthday ofAagus{ 1808, by he First Chambwhin.

S\Shed'. R6mazat.

2. A historical ballet in three acts by Jean-Pierre Aumer; music by

Rudolphe Kreutzer. First performed at the Opera's Salle Montansier, 8 March 1808.

the Tuileries, Saint-Cloud, and Malmaison, and was designer for ceremonies, as well as director of stage design at the Opera.

SelectedReferences

Wild 1987, PP.33 34

24s-244 A Public Square in Memphis Twostagedesignsfor Act 11,tableauI of Z,'f/:#a/zrprodzgz/eby Pierre Gardel, Paris, 1812 Jean-Baptiste lsabey( 1767--1855) 1812

Ink andsepia Cat. 243: 34 x 45.5 cm Cat. 244: 33 x 47 cm

1. A ballet pantomime in three acts by Pierre Gardel; musical arrangementsby Henri Montan-Berton (with borrowings from M6hul, Paer, Haydn, Viotti, Paesiello); sets by Jean-Baptiste lsabey; costumesby Francois-Guillaume M6nageot. First performed at the Opera's Salle Montansier, 28 April 1812. 2. In French plays and operas of the period, a /ab/fcza was a subdivision of an act that entailed a set change. Tableaux could be further

divided into scenes.SeeWild 1987,pp. 86 88; despitethe useof

Paris, Bibiothdque Nationale, D6partement de la Musique: Biblioth&que-Musee de I'Op&ra (Esq. 19/

existing scenery,the Combede R6musatcomplained to the director

about the high cost of the production(Archives Nationales, AJ i3/93).

lsabey 14 and 15)

This ballet pantomime takes place in Memphis and Gessen

(Goshen),in front of the peristyleof the templeof Vulcan, closeto the Nile.' in addition to these imposing settings by lsabey,the Opera re-used parts of old stagesets,borrowing

Exhibitions:

Selected References

Boulogne/Billancourt1990,

Wild 1987, PP.86 88

nos.271--72.

from I,.zit/or/ d'adam for Acts I and 11,and from Lci Wy / rfs d'/sh for Act 11, tableau I.;

lsabey'sfirst set, re-creating a public square in Memphis, resemblesan architectural caprice: pyramids, temples,obelisks, and columns are placed haphazardly; the effect of disarray is enhanced by an odd arrangement of

Hathor-headedcolumns,Apis bulls, and rams.The second set features four spectacular temple pylons. These sketches

attest to a marked improvement in lsabey's work. No longer slavishly copying antique models, here lsabey has produced much mort authentic scenery than he did some-

four years earlier (seecat. 242). In this particular case,he undoubtedly consulted the Z)fimzPrzo/zdf /'fgyp/f.

J.-M.H.

Fig. 235 . Jean-Baptiste lsabey A Public Square in Memphis, stage design for L'E7€4am/

prodigal Engraving byL6ger

Biblioth6que Nationale, D6partement de la Musique, Biblioth6que-Musee de I'Opera, Paris

Egypt at the Opera

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Egypt at the Opera

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Egypt at the Opera

403

TheMagic Flute Mozart's opera, which pemi&red in Vienna on 30 September 1791,

spectacular scenery, and the originality

rejects the inteLtectuatconcernsof an entire eta. Not only does It deal with the searchfor an exotic and distant Absolute. but

:ned by ttouet stageeffects. Witnessthis description of a setfor

also with ari esoteric, philosophical quest

golden Leaves.Otzeither side, nine pyramids with a seat in front ofeach. The Largestpyramid is in the middle. CLot+dsbetween Lhepyramids. In the centre, a transpareTttpyramid decorated

one that

Freemasonry espousedjor its own purposes.For in the battle between Good and Evil, it is Salastro, the Egyptian high priest,

who personi$esGood, alla it is under the guidaTtceand protection oflsis and Osiris that the tapers,Tamino and Patina, $nd the Truth. C)neof the many sourcesfor the opera, S€thos (1731) by the Abba Terrasson,impired other work including a tragedy [n verse written

in ]739 by Alexandre Tantzeuot. Rameau's

of these sets was height-

rAc prf mz?rf of The Magic Flute; ",4 graz,f ofPa/m frees ipz/a

with hieroglyphs. A templeof the San in all its brilliant splendour. The Egyptian priests are hoLding$owers.": in Viennain

1791, in Paris in 1801 (where the adaptation entitled l-es )Risk

es d' Isis was staged), and in Ln7tdon in 1811, a decidedly

iLltlstratiue approach seemsto kaye been adopted, with the set becoming a sort of uistlal counterpoint to the Ttotion ofEgypt

ojPeraba//c?tLa Naissance d'Osiris r/75/), /Vramcz/z/zkOpera 3s\r\s (Dresden, 1781), and Baron Doll Geller's heroic drama

Dismalimpressionofa tmtyjatitastical realm morestrikng than the

Thamos,King of Egypt if/ zomzllzc&yA/ozzzr/zn.r773,form

ron/mt of opma.Zo f#f cozy.The Magic Flute con/z fi ro cai/

part ofa single theatricalcycLe. I'he setsjor thesedit/else productions draw atta common

lts spell on artists such as Marc Chagall arid David Hockney, who, in highly di#erent styles, bade sought to expressthen

world.'

uisuat uocabuLarTinspired by Egyptoma?tiaand esotericism. rhe sceneryrejects an attempt to impart a strangeand won-

vision ofMozart's magical 1. Salt asaitk 1969, ?P. 51--58.

=lrous c#ect

2. Quoted in Balsa' saifis 1969, P. 5{

an aspiration shared at the time by those with

I tastefor ornamental structures in their "Anglo-Chinese" gardens. Extensit/e ase was made ofsituations likely to require

3. A4orenz

/952,

Hf#}

2,' L'Avant-Sane

J .M.H.

Opera,

/zo. /

Chai!!ey 1983.

%.

.t

@

404

as a

sourcefor the Enlightenment. Schinke! was the erst to creak the

Egypt at the Opera

gK'

r/a

ila?y

/976),'

246

24s 249The MlagicFlute Five stagedesignsfor the opera by Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart, Berlin. 1816

G.F.Thiele and L.W. Wittich, after Karl Friedrich Schinkel (1781--1841)

Paris, Biblioth&que Nationale, D6partement de la Musique: Biblioth&que-Musee de I'Opera (Sc.Est FIQte enchant6e, Opera 13.730, pls. 6, 7, 8, 10, 11)

Aquatint

Cat. 246 249 exhibited in Paris; cat. 245 249 in

1819

Ottawa and Vienna.

Cat. 245: Act 1, scene 15: Z?/z/xa/?ce/o /#e Rrcz/m of the Queen ofthe Night

34.5 x 49.5 cm

Schinkel, who had shown an interest in architecture from a

young age, beganto paint during his stay in Italy, Sicily,

Cat. 246: Act 11,scene 7: Sa?ai/rokga/df// 34.5 x 48.5 cm

and Paris (1803

Cat. 247: Act 11,scene 20: /n/error of/'bf mrzzlio/film 35 x 51.5 cm

Schinkel easily moved from painting theselarge backdrops to creating scenery for the stage, which he embarked upon

Cat. 248: Act TI, scene 28: S/agri /o / f Tr mp/e of/'for

in 1815when the Royal Opera House of Berlin commissioned him to design a productiora of .rAe /WagzcF/w/e.i

35cm x 51.5cm Cat. 249: Act 11,scene 30: 7'#e Zr mp/f of//be S /

35cmx 52cm

05). Once back in Germany,

he devoted

himself to painting, mainly dioramas and panoramas.

Well-trained for the task, he manipulated volumesand colours with a master's hand, and went on to createa entirely new vision of this outstanding opera.

Egypt at the Opera

405

Ei tl!\ a.i:i::W--H

Before Schinkel, the sceneryfor 7'Ac ' A/agzfF/a/f had been essentially traditional,: wavering between simplistic

fairy-tale illustrations and attempts at archaeologicalrealism. Schinkel, however, used Piranesi'sdrawings to createa

highly personal,larger-than-life vision of a world filled

with mystery.This production with its starlit sky, its sphinx bathed in nocturnallight in rhe middle of an island,

its sumptuous palace with colonnades and sphinx-lined

avenues wasthe forerunnerof all stageand film extravaganzas. A style was born, and countless imitations followed.3

J.-M.H. Berliner K6nigliches Schauspiel-Opernhaus,1816.Whereas presentday performances of the opera might have only thirteen scenes,the Berlin 1816 production contained dozensof scenes. 2. Curl 1982,pp. 135--36.

3. For example, Simon Quaglio(Munich, 1818),Norbert Bittner (Vienna, 1818),and Friedrich Christian Beuther (Kassel,1821)

Curl 1982, pp. 140--42 SelectedReferences: London 1972, pp. 947--49;

Zadow1980; Milan1985; Berlin 1989,no. 1/169;London 1991

406

Egypt at the Opera

48

Egypt at the Opera

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z$Z4&}.iii\.i ''J

}$««G

249

408

Egypt at the Opera

' \$i

Ss=

2s0.2sl

Papageno and Sarastro Two costume designs for TZe A/agzc F/u/f by

WolfgangAmadeusMozart,Milan,1816 Filippo Pistrucci(active] 1816

806-1822)

feathers, and a pyramid-shaped birdcage, is likely the most

charming invention for any Papagenoin the history of opera. Sarastro's costume is more hybrid and, as befits the

part, lesswhimsical, with hieroglyphs and masonic symbols

Hand-coloured engraving

on the robe and mantle. No doubt the TZr A/agzcF/ /e can

Cat. 250: 14 x 20 cm Cat. 251: 13 x 17 cm

be given some of the credit for the fact that the symbolism associated with hieroglyphs soon made an entrance into the

P\ales tram Fastsdet Regis Teatro aLb Scaladi 7\4zZaao,farc. I. Milan, Museo Teatrale alla Scala

ballroom. A f:door-lengthapron decorated with hieroglyphic devices, to be worn as a lady magician's fancy dress, appears

as plate 7 in Georges-Jacques Gating's series of fashion plates 7}nz,ri/zisemr/z/f of about 1820.

MercedesVide Ferrero hasaptly drawn attentionto Pistrucci's designsfor TZf A/agar F/a/r, performed in 1816at La Scala in Milan, with stage sets in the Egyptian style by Gaspare

Gagliari and Giovanni Pedroni.I if the setswere not as

M.P

l For Gagliari and Pedroni's designs,seeVide Ferrero 1983 Pls.XXXI,XXXll.

inspired asSchinkel's projects of the previous year for Berlin,

Pistrucci's costumes, most of which were reproduced as

SelectedReferences

engravings, were remarkably ingenious. Pistrucci's

VideFerrero1983, pp.87,166

Papageno, with an Egyptian headdress, a costume made of

PI. XXXIV, col. repr.

€

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Egypt at the Opera

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252 253

Courtyard of the Temple and Tem ple ofthe Sun Two stage designs for 7'Ae A4agzrF'/#ff bl-

The last of a long line of stagedesigners,SimonQuaglio

Wolfgang Amztdeus Mozart, Munich, 1818 Simon Quaglio (1795 1878)

began painting architecturalscenery for the court theatre in

1818

ebrate the opening of the Nationaltheater on 27 November

Ink and watercolour

1818,gave him an opportunity to abandonthe standard classicalst)le in favour of designsfeaturing a mixture of

Cat. 252: 34.7 x 45.9 cm Cat. 253: 34.5 x 49.4 cm

Mtmich,Deutsches Thearermuseum(Slg. Q. 532A

Munich in 1814. His sets for 7Af A/czgzcF/#/f, staged to cel-

archaeology and fantasy which were very clearly influenced

by Schinkel J.-M.H

and 534 A.) Exhibited in Paris SelectedReferences: Niehaus 1956;Hlumbert 1989 pp.285 and 289.

4

Egypt at the Opera

X:PnX'b/#f?,H}BR;Mt

4

Egypt at the Opera

411

2s4-257 The MlagicFlute Four costume designsfor the operaby Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart Marcel Multzer (1866 1937)

In his drawings

for TZe ivaglc F/ /e, the graceful

gestures,refined treatment of accessories, and discerning selection of symbols (Pamina is holding a feather, Maas's ideogram), create a unique universe. The simple costumes

c. 1908 Penandink on paper 32.5 x 25 cm

worn by Paminaand the three children contrastdramati-

Paris, Bibliothique

Queen of the Night.

cally with the lavish garments designed for Sarastroand the

Nationale, D6partement de

Even without

scenery, these costumes

la Musique: Biblioth&que-Musee de I'Opera

succeedin transporting 7'#f A4agicF/ re to a bygoneera;

(D. 216, 0.C. 1909, pls. 2, 3, 5, 19)

they are a striking exampleof the how Egyptomania was incorporated into the art of the period. 1.-M.H.

Although he never worked for the Opera, Marcel Multzer

left behindquitea numberof costume designs,manyof which were created in collaboration with Charles B6tout. These served every successful turn-of-the-century

stage

SelectedReferences

Wild 1987, PP.86 88

production, both classic and exotic, including Fazfi/, Z.,ei //zlg enozi, Z,ofengrf/z, a nd Z.'HWricaz/ze. Multzer's highly

individual style readily lent itself to the widest variety of eras and settings.

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Egypt at the Opera

413

2ss 260 Morse Caron's waterco]ours for ]Woikf are well-executed

Three stagedesignsfor Acts 1,11,and lllof the opera by Giuseppe Balocchiand Etienne de Jouy, music

and colourful, but they reveal the artist's lack of experience.

by Gioacchino Rossini,Paris, 1827

The sketchfor the colonnadein Act 11,copiedfrom the

Auguste Caron

Z)fic/z/z/zo/z df /'fgyp/e (a volume was in the Opera's possession), has scarcely the character or the depth required by stagedesign. It is nothing more than a straightforward and

1827

Watercolour on paper Cat. 258: 25.2 x 36.5 cm Cat. 259: 24.8 x 35 cm Cat. 260: 24.5 x 36.9 cm

depicted by Lep&re (seecat. 149).' Moreover, the large room

Signed and dated in pencil: Ca/o/z, /827

increasing the authenticity of the setting. Like many other

Paris, Bibliothdque Nationale, [)6partement de la Musique: Bibliothdque-Musee de I'Opera ([). 300,

had been used for previous stagings: the figure kneeling on

Pls. 1, 2, 3)

flat reproductionof the interior of the templeat Philaeas in Act 111is filled with statuesthat clutter the stagewithout productions of the period, this one relied on scenerythat rhe left and the thermae on the right were originally created by lsabey for Gardel's Z.'E'/Z#an/p/odzgzze (seefig. 235).

Cat. 260 exhibited in Paris; cat. 258--260in Ottawa and Vienna.

F'erstperformed iii Naples in 1818,a new production ')t'

J.-M.H Z)escrzP/;0/7de /'/:lglyP/e, 1809--28, .4n/;gw;/4, vol. 1, pl. 18

Rossini's opera opened in Paris at the Salle Lc Peletier on

26 March 1827,with setsby Pierre-Luc-CharlesCic6ri, a senior designer at the Opera from 1816to 1848.Cic6ri was assistedby Auguste Caron, who worked on the sceneryon three separate occasions in 1826/27, making a raumber of preliminary sketches.

414

Egypt at the Opera

SelectedReferences

Wild 1987, P.182

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='=:'

+

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l

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Egypt at the Opera

415

261

.264 Am6nophis, Osiride, Pharaon,andSinaTde Four costume designs for A/Dikeby Giuseppe-Luigi

Balocchi and etienne de Jouy, music by Gioacchino

Rossini,Paris Opera,1827 Hippolyte Lecomte (1781 1857) 1827

Watercolour

22x 16cm Part[y signed and dated: ///e Z. ]827; inscription: Arretepar LeConseild'administl'anon,le 6fZwier

#h-«

dp'&,Z;£ . -......J

/827 Paris, Bibliothique

Nationale, D6partement de

la Musique: Biblioth&que-Museede I'Opera (D. 216/8, pls. 2 1, 22, 24, 27) Cat. 263--264 exhibited in Paris; cat. 261--264 in

Ottawa and Vienna. Between April 1825 and October 1831, Hippolyte Lecomte

designed a large number of costumes for the Opera. The charactershe created were quite credible for the time, and

displayeda degreeof historic accuracy;the military headdressworn by Am6nophis is an example. The costumesfor Osiride, the high priest of Isis, and for the Pharaon and his

n

wife, SinaTde,are unusuallyauthenticfor the period in which they were produced,when the only readily available source of information was the Z)fiat/zon

de /'fgyP/r.

J.-M.H.

--#7@

a ae«-' "y

SelectedReferences

Wild 1987, P.182.

./p'bZm0£

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Egypt at the Opera

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265

L'Enfant prodigue Stage design for Act TI of the opera by Eugene

wings. Capitals in the form of' women's heads watch with

Scribe,music by Daniel-Francois-Esprit Auber,

slanted eyes;sphinxes bare their enigmatic claws; towering obelisks and stelaeare bedecked with symbolic inscriptions.

Paris Opera, 1850 Charles-Antoine Cambon(1802--1875) 1850

All is menaceand mystery in this frightful splendour, which is illuminated by the relentless sun reflected by the

Brown pastel with white highlights on buff paper 43.2 x 58.5 cm

granite slabsof the terraces....The crowd gathered on the

Paris, Bibliothaque Nationale, D6partement de la Musique: Bibliothdque-Musee de I'Opera (Esq. 19/

the feast of the Apis bull."2

Carbon 36)

stepsand slopesis watching the processionin celebration of

A student of Cic6ri, Cambon worked for the Opera from

This productionof Scribe'sI.'Eagan/prodzlgnr, which

1833 until

his death in 1875. The present set

createsan impression of great depth and is quite bold in its

was as much of an extravaganza as Gardel's ballet panto-

multi-leveled design. Here Cambon has succeededin using repetition to achieve a spectacular effect, but archaeological precision was clearly of no concern to him.

mime of the same name.' Th6ophile Gautier offered this

J.-M.H

premiered at the Opera's Salle Le Peletier on 6 December 1850,

description:

"fact

]]] serves as the inspiration

for magnifi-

cent scenery.The temple of Isis, possessingall the immensity and timelessnessof Egyptian architecture, towers over

the right side of the stage.Coloured hieroglyphscircle columns as immense as towers, which form an immobile procession.On the pediments, the sparrowhawk spreadsits

1. Seecat.243--244. 2. 1.a Preffe (Paris), 9 Decenaber 1850, quoted in Wild 1987, p. 89 [our translations

SelectedReferences

Wild 1987, P.89.

Egypt at the Opera

417

%"4h:'J~"''

26a--270 L'llnfant prodigue Five costume designs for the opera by Eugene

Scribe,music by Daniel-Francois-Esprit Auber, Paris Opera, 1950

'1

Paul Lormier (1813 1895) 1849 50 Graphite, ink, watercolour and gouache Cat. 2G6'.King ofEgypt'slam-beater

g

28.5x 19.5cm

Cat. 267: Pr;es/eis

23.5x 15cm Cat. 268. War headdressoffhe ings ofEgypt

23.5x 15cm

Cat. 'Z69: Ethiopian czrchers, extras

21.5x 18cm

l

Cat. 270: Ens /zi

22.5x 19cm Partly signed and dated: /849 or /850

Paris, Biblioth&que Nationale, D6partement de la Musique: Bibliothdque-Mus&ede I'Opera (D. 216/16, pls. 121, 130, 132, 134, 137)

Cat. 266 267 exhibited in Paris; cat. 266 270in

Ottawa and Vienna. Paul Lormier created costumes for the Opera from 1832 to

1887,and stands out as one of the institution's major designers. Not content

to be director

of ' this section alone,

he took on the additional post of chief of the costume workshopin

1855.

Mariette's role in the production of.4zda hasalways been considered revolutionary because of the accuracy arid

;hfi.«a

authenticity of the costumes. Tt is therefore surprising lo

discover that fully twenty years before Mariette, Paul Lormier consulted the most up-to-date and authoritative

266

source then available, Champollion's Lri A/o/z manzi de I'Egypte et de La Nubie (Rg. 236 .23q).t

$i I =, 1. .,11.?' 1£g11 1;4..

His meticulousness did not escapethe noticeof Th&ophile Gautier who, in his account of the production,

praisedLormier's effarts: "Imagine the MuseeCharlesX and the Egyptian room in the Louvre brought to life. The costumesare actually basedor] tracings of mummy cases,

,4

and information was gathered from writings or] papyrus,

deciphered by the Champollions of the Opera. It's very beautiful and quite accurate.

J.-M.H 1. Champollion, 1835--45 2. 1,a Prfnf (Paris), 9 December 1850,quoted in Wild 1987, p. 89 SelectedReferences

Wild 1987, PP.89-90.

Fig. 236. Jean-Francois Champollion

Fan-bearerof the King of Egypt Plate XXVll

from Afa z/metz/sZe /'EgJP/e ef de /a Nzz&/e, 1835-{5,

vol.I Museedu Louvre, Bibliothaque Centraledes Mus6esNationaux, Paris

418

Egypt at the Opera

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Fig. 239. Jean-Francois Champollion

269

Paintingscopied from the tomb of Ramsesll Plate CCLXlll

from Monuments de /'EgJPfe e/

de /.z Nzz&;e. 1835 45, vol. lll Musee du Louvre,

Bibliothaque

Mus6esNationaux, Paris

420

Egypt at the Opera

Centrale

des

271

The Cavern Stage design for Act IV. tableau 2 of Fans/ by

JulesBarbier and Michel Carre, music by Charles Gounod, Paris Op&ra, 1858

designed this set. The volumes are handled with expertise, and the set succeedsin creating the proper atmosphere even

Philippe-Marie Chaperon(1823 1906) 1858

before lighting or actors come to animate it. Having

Charcoal, gouache highlights, collage 16.8 x 22.9 cm Old inscription

A former student of Riesener and Cic6ri, Philippe Chaperonhad clearly masteredhis craft by the time he

become an associateof Auguste-Alfred

on mat: 7'#d?rre /y/zqKf

Paris, Bibliothdque

Nationale,

[)6partemenr

Rube in 1862,

Chaperonworked for the Opera from 1864to the early de

la Musique: Bibliothdque-Musee de I'Opera (D. 345 [11],p]. 42)

1900s,contributing to nearly 60 productionsand designing over 150sets.During the sameperiod, he also worked for the Theatre-Francais, the Odeon, the Chatelet, and the Porte-Saint-Martin.

J.-M.H Exhibited in Ottawa and Vienna

1. It was not added until1869, at the requestof the Acad6mie This Egyptian-style set design for the cavern scene(Act IV.

tableau2) is rather surprising. Recentproductions had

Imp6riale de Musique, for the performance at the Opera's Salle Le Peletier.

causedaudiencesto forget that back when the opera was first performed and before ma/p }gzk/zczr#/ was added to the score' it already included a ballet with an enchanted atmosphere in which Faust is welcomed by Cleopatra and the Nubian women.

SelectedReferences Wild 1993

Egypt at the Opera

421

272

Entrance to the Temple of Isis of isis. His set includes traditional yet varied representa-

Maquette for Act 111of /Woikfby Giuseppe'Luigi Balocchiand frierlne de Jouy, music by Gioacchino

tions of the architecturalstyleone would expectto hnd in

Rossini. Paris Opera, 1863 Edouard Desp16chin(1802 1871) 1863

ancient Egypt. for Desp16chin's ev n mo,e spectacular . scenery . . .,

Ink, graphite, and watercolour

shore. Sometimes stage extravaganzas demanded even

66 x 82 x 65 cm

Paris, Bibliothaque Natio1lale, D6partement de

Act IV showsthe parting of the Red Sea,which engulfs Pharz\nhand his army as the Israeliteslook on from the more from set designers than lust architectural caprices-

J.-M.H

la Musique: Bibliothdque-Musee de I'Opera (Maq. A 168)

1. He continued to design setsfor the Opera until his death in 1871

For the revival of Rossini'sA/Dikeat the Salle Le Peletier on 23 [)ecember 1863,the Opera decided to mount an entirely

new production. Edouard Desplechin, who had been designing setsfor the Opera since 1833,'was askedto create the sceneryfor Act 111,depicting the entrance [o the temple

422

Egypt at the Opera

SelectedReferences

Wild 1987, P.183

)f

atl the operas with

an Eg'jptian

theme,

htda

has the

dktinction of being the ottly one that wascoTtceiued in the bnd ofthe pharaohs by an Egyptologist. The idea jor an opera "com-

posedand performed in a uniquely Egyptian style": waserst proposedby the Egyptian Khediue,Ismail Pasha,who wa7ited to commksion an originalwork.for the neculyconsttacted Cairo OperaHouse, to celebs'atethe opening of the St4ezCanal. Plans for this opera, dating back. to Late 1869, would kaye come to

nothingifAugaste Marietta (fig. 240),one of theforetnost EgyPtologists af the da'. had Trot been the dritiingfoTce behind

iii;i8iiili1875

the production. Marietta wrote the scenario, designed the

Fig. 240. Augusta

costumes and sets, and even directed.

Photograph by F61ix Nadal

Dt4ring hkjrst trip to Egypt in 1850,Marietta quickly made a name .for himself by discos/faring the Serapeum at

Paris, CNMHIS

Saqqara. Given the honors n title ofBe y and appointed to over-

seeresearch into Egyptian Antiquity in 1858, he jotcnded the Ancient Egyptian Museum in Buhq (which fomis the basisof

The maestro, who had already refused the Khediue's bequeston two preuioas occasions,was enthralled by this synod sk af the opera. Thus, the Egyptologist had overcome the most

the present-day Cairo Museum), and in 1867 exhibited the

diJPcult hurdle

collection's best pieces in Paris. Numerous writers katie

Although the crucial role Marietta played in the conception of

dismissed the possibility that Marietta was responsible jor the creation ofhxda simply becausehe was a renotutted scholar and

P,.tdais Flowgenerally acknowledged,the equally important contributions he made at each stageof the opera'sproduction

becausehe htmselfl'arely ntenttoned hts tnuoLuement.z Actually, no one was better quaLi#edjor the task,giuetl his artistic, intel lectual, and scienti$c prowess. A former art teacher, Marietta

ers with aLt of the archaeological and historical injormatiotl

had designedsetsand costumesin his youth, and had written

cont/incing Verdi to take o?i the project.

mt£st not be overlooked: he provided the costume atta set design-

they vequived,alla throughout the construction of the setshe

strateda flair lfor three dimensionalform and a senseof

tien$ed the authenticity ofeuery detail in the scenery.There is no doubt tlzat Auguste Marietta was chie$T responsiblejor the successof h\da in Cairo, the eby initiating a resurgence of

the spectacular by designing the temple for the 1867 Paris

Egypmmania {n the theatre.

shah stories, nouek, a?td occasions! pieces.; He had also demon-

Universal Exposition.' Among Marietta's many sourcesofinspiration were the classier! authors Herodotus and Heliodorus, Metastasio and Racine. Bat abode all, it was his cotttact with hieroglyphic texts

aftd excavatedartifacts, not to mention the impact ofEgypt Ltsetf,where he lived uintxally in the shadowofthe pyramids,that

ctllowedhim to write a believablestory infused with the heady atmosphere of a rena,a kc12edAtttiquity.S ALI of these elements played a part in the creatiot2 Of the detailed scenario Du Lode delivered to Verdi on 14 May 1870.e

}.-M.H. }. Seefetterfvam Marietfe to Drabeht Bey. !9 July !870, cited in Abdoun 1971,P.5. 2. Fagan }977, P. 55; Mettzer }978, pp. 5{b5}; HambeK 1985a,pp. 101 04.

3. Ht4mben!984a,pp. }7 19;Hamper! 1985a,pp. }01 02.

4. Seecat. 214-215. 5. lambert 1993a,pp.8-15. 6. Hummer!1976, pp. 229 =56.Camille Da Lode wasdirector of the Park OP&'a Comique at the time.

273-274 The King andAn Extra Two costume designsfor the 1871premiere in

Provenance:

Cairo of,4zda, by Auguste Marietta and Antonio Ghislanzoni, music by Giuseppe Verdi

Two drawings from a setof twenty-four. Gift of Alfred Mariette, son of Auguste Marietta

Auguste Marietta (1 821 1881) and Jules Marre

8 July 1925.

1871

Watercolour 31 x 24 cm

Paris, Biblioth&que Nationale, [)6partement de la Musique: Bibliothdque-Musee de I'Opera (R6s.861)

Mariette's role in designing the costumesfor .4zdahas often been underestimated if not contested outright, as has his

overall contribution to the production. But if he himself often underplayedhis participation in public, he neverthe-

Egypt at the Opera

423

through studying the ancient costumes discovered in the temples and adapting them to rhe demands of the modern stage, is a delicate task. A king may be quite majestic in

LCiV\PAR.5 ES,

ry '+..R«

granite with a huge crown on his head, but when we

V

cy(xs'='}.., i.+'

g. F.....-- Jq x'X

#

endow him with flesh and blood, and have him walk and

sing, it may get awkward and embarrassing.We must be wary of one thing . . . provoking laughter."'

!{.

One of his fears was that certain singerswould balk at having to shave off their beards and moustaches

o''#««.' /«

'Can you picture Naudin

c'%/«"".

dressed as a pharaoh with a goatee

like the Emperor Napo16onITT'"5 or "Go to the Bulaq museum and try to imagine putting this appendageon one of our statues. You'll

see the result."6

On his trips to Paris to supervise the production of sets and costumes, Mariette

gave advice to the seamstresses,

who were unused to Egyptian art and hard-pressed to meet

his demands. He noted: "Dealing with this new question of costumes, lencountered difficulties Ihadn't expected. This is serious business, for we mustn't lapse into caricature, but

on the other hand, we must remain as Egyptian as possible That's why even today I have to grope about, redo things,

}£.

;:F

J

try and try again. That's why I buy cheapfabrics, and for better or worse, I fashion the costumes as a seamstress would

P

"$

Far from being exact copies of Paul Lormier's

j' /

work,' Mariette's drawings are a satisfying re-creation of

q

ancientEgyptian attire. Although the Egyptologiststrove for authenticity, thesedesigns manage to retain the particu-

lar allure of theatre costumesof that period, due essentially

.!====...::!;-;e '

$ 6, 4;!) 4.

274

to the abundant use of fabric and trim.

J.-M.H 1. Letter from Mariette to Draneht Bey, dated Paris, 8 August 1870, cited in Abdoun 1971, p. 12. 2. Letter dated Bulaq, 4 March 1872,cited in Abdoun 1971,p. 115

less alluded to it in his correspondence, in such statements

as,"I drew the costumesmyself."' in a letter to [)raneht Bey, Mariette describes specific aspects of his work and the task assigned to painter

Jules Marie:

"There

remams one

last note. after that of Mr. Parvis, for me to submit to you

It's a note from Mr. Marry, the Paris artist who put the finishing coucheson m)- costumedesigns.But Mr. Marie hasn't sent it to me yet, and as soon as I receive it, T'll send it on to yOu.

This memorandum confirms that all the preliminary costume drawings were indeed done by Marlette and touched up by Marre, which explains the stylistic \-i\nations in draughtsmanship and colour. Two setsof drawings have been preserved: one at the Bibliothdque de I'Opera and the other at the Bibliotheque Nationale.3

3. The sketchesin the Bibliothdque Nationale are signed "Jules Marre.'' Seealso Corteggiani1990, pp. 243--45.

4. Letter from Mariette to Draneht Bey, dated Paris, 15 July 1870, cited in Abdoun 1971,p. 4

5. Abdoun1971, p.4 6. Letter from Mariette to Draneht Bey, dated Paris, 30 August 1871,

cited in Abdoun 1971,p. 75. Mariette's fears were justified: the beards and moustaches,w-hick rhe singers refitted to sha\e off, were ridiculed by the critics on opening night 7. Letter from Marietta to Draneht Bey, dated Paris, 8 August 1870, cited in Abdoun 1971, p. 12. The seamstressresponsible for the cos-

tumes was Delphine Baron, 112 Rue Richelieu and 21Boul Montmartre, Paris. She often complained about delays of all kinds,

and pointed out that "the drawings were only finished yesterday

(letter from D. Baron to Draneht Bey,datedParis, 15 September 1871, cited in Abdoun 1971, p. 80). [All excerpts from Mariette's [etters: our trans]ation.] 8. See cat. 266--270.

Marietta was not too worried about the setsbut was very apprehensive about the costumes: "It's not so diffi-

cult to make imaginary Egyptians like thosewe usually see

at the theatre.and if that wereallthat's needed,r wouldn't get the least bit involved. But finding the prope' balarlce,

424

Egypt at the Opera

SelectedReferences: Abdoun 1971, pls. 16-39 ,4;da ;/zCa;ro 1982; Parma 1983

Rot.

(.

2.'.4.d

4

E

G

' :...z 273

Egypt at the Opera

425

\

1.

&

t

27s 277

Ai(ia Three stagedesignsfor the premierein Cairo of

Cat. 276: Act 11,tableau 2: E'#/ a zcf /o TZe&eJ

,4zdcz,24 December

Philippe-MarieChaperon(1823 1906)and

Edouard Desp16chin Charcoitl, watercolour, gouache,and white high-

Edouard Desp16chin(1802 1871)

lights on buff paper

1871

1871

48.5 x 63 cm

Paris, Bibllothique Nationale, D6partement de la

Signed, 1.1.:Drip//c

Musique: Bibliotheque-Musee de I'Opera

(Esq. Desp16chin 36)

Cat. 275: Act 1, tableau

Cat.277: ActIV.tableau I: /n/fl/o/ofrAfTe mP/r (y'

1: Co/o/zpzade OPe/zing om/o

r.: ,4}dcz

tbe anterior

Valca I (bacQdrop}

Philippe-Marie Chaperon Graphite, ink, watercolour,white highlights in

Philippe-Marie Chaperon Graphite, charcoal. ink, watercolour, and white highlights

gouache

17.7x 22.3cm

Signed arid dated, 1.1.: P . C aPr/o /87/

(o. 345/4[n])

50x 65cm Inscriptions:

7'#(g/re

tab eau, 187}

(Maq. A 379)

426

zn; other inscriptions,

Egypt at the Opera

d

Cczzre r 4idaJ /L/ rzrre, /'-

Auguste Mariette had dehnitc ideas concerning the setsfor

his" opera.Adopting the sameapproachas at the 1867 Paris Universal Exposition, he strove to make the scenery both accurateand spectacular.But he met with difhculty, as

transcribed the Egyptologist's wishes by means of their stagecraft. This was undoubtedly a challenge, since every

scenecontained a number of sets with many large parts,

he had with the costumes: "I found these artists very adept

making construction extremely involved: "There will be a lot to do in Egypt to assemblethe frames, etc. The setsare

at making highly imaginative Egyptian architecture, but

very complicatedand the job of putting all that in order

that's not what we need. And lust as I drew the costumes myself, now I'm making the models for the sets myself."' Mariette took charge of everything, solvedall the problems,

notes.'''

especially those posed by the crypt scene in the last act.

Marietta's primary concern was to remain as faithful as possible to archaeological models. The set designers

fully understoodwhat he wanted Chaperon,for example, was clearly inspired by the /)firrz uon de /'ZkyP/eZfor his drawing of the temple in Act I

and they admirably

will be tough. I've been given all the necessaryplans and

Mariette had every reasonto be satisfiedwith the efforts of his set designers: "l'll answer for the sets,which will be truly splendid and highly accurate replicas of the temples of Upper Egypt. These gentlemen have given their all, and they have really outdone themselves.4in conclusion. I believe this will be a masterpiecethat will do great honour to your directorship.

Egypt at the Oper.

8

Mariette's remarkable zeal in the field of Egyptology

1. Letter from Mariette to Draneht Bey, dated Paris, 8 August 1870,

contributed greatly to the successof the production: the audiencefound themselvestransportedto the land of the

2. .4/z/zeal/6, vol. 111,pl. 42: Thebes, Karnak 3. Letter from Mariette to Draneht Bey, dated Paris, 28 September

pharaohs.Before their very eyeswere landmarks, points of

comparison a mediocreproduction would only haveconfused them. The result was clearly proportionate [o the

citedin Abdoun1971, p. 12 1871, cited in Abdoun

1971, p. 83

4. The designers Desp16chin and Lax autre painted the backdrops fbr

Acts ll and 111;Rube and Chaperon executedthose fnr Acts I and

effort. It was a complete success,and the quality of the sets and costumeswas unanimously acclaimed.As Draneht Bey

5. Letter from Mariette to Draneht Bey, dated Paris, 28 September

put it, "Never in any theatre have we seen such a magnify

6. Letter from Draneht Bey to Mr. Tinti, dated Cairo, 29 December

cent production, so beautiful and scrupulously accurate,

1871, citedin Abdoun1971, p.83. 1871, cited in Abdoun 1971, p. 104. [Mariette excerpts: our trans]ation.]

thanks to the whole-hearted support ofMr. Mariette Bey."'

J.-M.H

Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences

Boulogne/Billancourt 1990,

,4;da ;# Ca;ro 1982; Parma 1983

no.64.

Humbert1989, p.291;Wild 1993.

428

Egypt at the Opera

27s Aida Studies for costume maquettes for the performance

ofHzda at the Opera de Paris (SalleGarnier), 22 March 1880 Pierre-Eugene Lacoste(1818--1908) 1878-80

Graphite and watercolour 35 x 23.5 cm Paris, Bibliothdque Nationale, D6partement de la Musique: Bibliothdque-Musee de I'Opera

(D. 2i6/Si [iil, pi. 21) By the time Eugene Lacoste' was put in charge of costumes

for the Opera's'4zZa,Mariette was too ill to play an instru-

mental role in the production. But the principles he had

espousedlessthan ten years earlier were not forgotten: archaeology had found its place on the Paris opera scene. This sketchbook displays Lacoste's extensive research, espe-

cially at the Louvre; his drawing of Sebekhotep111can be seenon page 14, and numerous other statueson subsequent pages. Not satisfied with merely sketching the Louvre's basreliefs and statues, Lacoste also perused several publications

on the subject.He quotes Champollion on pages4, 7, and

17, and Wilkinson on page 11, having consulted their works at the library of the MuseeEgyptien.Lacosteeven sought advice from a number of Egyptologists. He jotted down on page 12, "Mr. Eugene R&villout, Assistant Curator

of the MuseeEgyptien at the Louvre very pleasantand helpful," and "See at the residenceof Mr. Beauregard,eminent Egyptologist, 55 Rue des St Peres," as well as "see Mr.

Masp6roat the Collage de France." He showedone of them

a drawing "by Mariette Bey,they say.[)readful, nothing Egyptian. Rejected,due to misinformation." (Clearly, the drawing of an object resemblinga bowl fitted over a head, which he copied on page 13,could not have beendone by Mariette.) Lacoste met Masp6ro at the Louvre on 16 January 1880, and showed him some drawings. He noted on page 19, "Cut

of Egyptian

undergarments

... approved

by

M. Masp6ro." And on page 28, "suspenders, armoured neckpieces: drawings approved by Masp6ro " The next pageis filled with drawings by Masp6rohimself.

To createa vivid image of the ancient Egyptians, he met the

Lacoste was not satished with literary sources alone; exposure to actualartifacts and meetings with

in the theatre, where until then

specialistswere essential to the researchof late nineteenth-

experts on their own ground. This was a new development Cairo .'lido

with the exception of the

books had been the oraly source of information.

cerltury painters of Antiquity. Like Alma-Tadema, Lacoste's

J.-M.H

goal was to go beyond mere plausibility and replication.

1. A student of Cambon and Cognier, primarily interested in land

scape,architectural and genre painting, Eugene Lacosteexhibited

at the Salonfrom 1839to 1907.He was a designerat the Opera from 1876 to 1885

SelectedReferences: ,4fda ;# Ca;ro 1982; Parma

1983

Wild 1987,P.26.

Egypt at the Opera

429

279 2s7

Ai(la Nine costume designs for the Paris opening of

,4zdcz at the Opera de Paris (Salle Garnier), 22 March 1880 Pierre-Eugene Lacoste(1818 1908)

187980 Ink, watercolour, and gouache 26 x 18 to 22 cm Cat. 279: ,4mzzcrzk

Cat. 280: Wa//for Cat. 281 : PAa7ao'b Cat.

282:

Mari'zor

mz/#

f ZJzg

Cat. 283: J+alP P/ayer Cal. 284: /)a7zce}

Cat. 285:Dancer Cat. 286: PAcz7aoA Cat. 287: PAa7aof

Signed and dated October 1879to February 1880 (73 designs in all) Paris, Bibliothdque Nations\le, [)6partement de

la Musique: Biblioth&que-Musee de I'Opera (D. 216/31E]], pls. 2, 9, 32, 33, 36, 47, 50,63, 64)

Cat. 282and 284 exhibited in Paris; cat. 279 287 in Ottawa and Vienna 279

Comparing thesedrawings to thoseof Mariette, we observe that Lacoste, a seasoned costume designer, was better able

to merge his archaeological concerns with the realities of' rhe human form. The best example is plate 47 (seecat. 284)

in which the tight fitting tunic with winglike flaps,based on originalantique the dancer's body.

models, moulds to the graceful lines of

Costume details, headgear, jewellery, and sandals

were meticulously studied and were often the subject of related drawings in the margins. Note the skill with which the play of transparent fabrics is handled, and the discern-

B

ing useof animalhides. Authenticity is often lacking

N

however. Numerous details indicate that the artist got carried away by his enthusiasm: the pharaoh's double beard; the warriors' helmets, breastplates, and weapons that were more Roman than Egyptian Mariette's costumes had been based on his archaeo-

logical research.But Lacoste was able to incorporate the results of his painstaking stud) of Egyptian art into his designsmore effectively than the famousEgyptologist, by highlighting the human firm. J.-M.H

Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences

Boulogne/Billancourt 1990,

.4;da ;n Ca;zo 1982; Parma 1983

.nc

4R

Wild 1987, p.25;Humbert 1989, P. 292.

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Egypt at the Opera

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Egypt at the Opera

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Egypt at the Opera

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288-29s Six Piecesof Costume Jewellery

for Aida

©

[)esigner and artisan unknown c. 1876 Stamped and cut-out metal, decorated with paste and coloured

stones simulating

precious stones;

motifs mountedon fine metal screening Cat. 288: Ornamental motif

20 x 15 cm Cat. 289: Pectoral collar 30 cm (dram.) x 7 cm wide

Cat. 290: Diadem 28.5 x 18 cm (diam.)

Cat. 291: Bracelet decorated with scarabs 4.5 x 8 cm (diam.)

Cat. 292: Bracelet decorated with hieroglyphs 4.5 x 5.5 cm (diam.)

Cat. 293: Belt strap

53 x 10cm Paris, Bibliothdque Nationale, D&partementde la Musique: Biblioth&que-Museede I'Opera (Bl-70,

Bl-69, Bl-206, B1-32,B1-33,Bl-285)

434

Egypt at the Opera

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Egypt at the Opera

In 1870,when work began on the sets and costumesfor

4zdaat the Cairo Opera House, its managing director, Draneht Bey,commissioned Parisian craftsmen for the project. He selected Paris becauseof its international reputatiorl

for fancy jewellery, as well as fashion; and this way, Mariette could inspect the progressand quality of the work on his trips to Paris. At first glance, these pieces may appear somewhat unusual, but we must bear in mind that they were intended

The relatively simple forms replicate Egyptian jewellery, headgear,and garments: a diadem with out stretched wings, a pectoral collar, and a belt strap. Closer nspection also reveals fine decorative details: imitation hieroglyphs

on the necklace, scarabs on the ornamental

motif and the bracelet, an Anubis on the diadem, and flow ers. Great care went into these details, which could not be seen by most of the audience but which rlo doubt served to inspire the actors as they performed their roles

[o be seen from a distance. Their function was to highlight

J.-M.H

costumes through colour contrast, and to create a play

of light. This explains the importance of coloured stones in the design. The jewellery was not signed, but as there were no major changesin either the style or the production techniques of such objects between 1870and 1876, it is probable

mat they came from the same studios as those used for the original Cairo production (fig. 241).' Moreover, if we com-

4;da opened at the Cairo Opera House, 24 December 1871 Jews.llery and weapon? by Leblanc Granger (Abdoun 1971, PP. V

and 106;photographof costumejewellery pl. 11).Anothersupplier is mentioned in a letter dated I June 1873:"M. Merest Petit has sent us the pearls and Stones"(Abdoult

1971, P. 126)

4}2a;n Ca;ro 1982,P. 188, fig. 8, and p. 192, fig. 17.

pare the jewellery worn by fmilie Ambre between 1876

and ]879 (fig. 242)with TeresaStolz'sJewelsin 1872.z we find that they are virtually identical.As the costumesfor rhe Milan production closely resembled the ones used in

Cairo, we can deducethat the Jewellerymust have been very similar as well.

Fig. 241. Jeu ellery for Amneris of4£fZz, 187]

worn for the

in Cairo

Exhibitions Paris 1981

Fig. 242. 1fmilie Ambre in the role of Aida at the Th6irre Italien, Paris,c. 1879 Lithograph by Alfred Lemoine after a Photograph by Mulder

Egypt at the Opera

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294 Aida Stage design for Act IV, tableau 2 of,4zda at the Opera de Paris Philippe-Marie Chaperon(1 823 1906)

Chaperon, Rube, and Lavastre had worked with Marietta

1901

design with minute variations, the artist has incorporated the

Ink, watercolour, gouache and collage 34.5 x 38.2 cm

Egyptological principles of monumentality and clarity. The

Signed and dated, 1.1.: P#. C#aperon/9C)/.H 2a

duction, with its distorted perspective.The archaeologically

Paris, Bibliothique

faithful reconstruction satisfied the opera-goer's desire [o be

Nationale, D6partement de

on the Cairo production

In this sketch,which is in fact a replicaof the 1880

set'sarrangementis very similar to that of the Cairo pro-

la Musique: Bibliothdque-Musee de I'Opera

transported to another time and place. In contrast to a

(D. 345/5[n])

panorama painting with its infinite perspective, this theatre set offered a deliberately artful, three-dimensional vision

Six set designers worked on the production of ,4zdczstaged

of ancient Egypt which combined careful researchwith

at the Opera on 22 March1880: Emile Doran(Act I,

popular imagery.

J.-M.H

rabl. 1), Auguste Rube and Philippe Chaperon (Act 1, tabl.

2; Act IV, tabl. 2), Jean-BaptisteLilvastre(Act 11,tabl. land

Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences

2), Joseph Ch6ret(Act

Boulogne/Billancourt 1990, no.65

Wild 1987, P.25.

Tll), and Antoine

Lavastre and

EugeneCarpezat(ActIV, tabl. 1). Threeof them

438

Egypt at the Opera

295

Entrance to the City of Thebes Maquette for the set for Act 11,tableau 2 of,aida at the Opera de Paris

Jean-BaptisteLavastre 1879 80

backdrop that allowed for a see-through effect reminiscent of the archaeologicalpainter Rochegrosse,and striking contrasts of light and dark onstage. But Lavastre added an

abundanceof flamboyant greenery, which was closer in

Ink, watercolour and gouache on cardboard

spirit to a Universal Exposition than to reality, suggesting

66 x 82 x 65 cm

that the limits of the genre had quickly beenreached.

Paris, Bibiothdque Nationale, D6partement de la Musique: Biblioth&que-Musee de I'Opera

J.-M.H

(Maq. 128)

Jean-Baptiste Lavastre had worked on the Cairo production ofHzda with his associateDesp16chin. The influence of

Exhibitions:

that production is evident here in the sphinx-lined avenue

SelectedReferences

Boulogne/Billancourt1990, no.66.

Wild 1987, P.25

(belovedby Mariette), the Hathor-headed column, the

Egypt at the Opera

439

296

First Costumefor Amneris Costumedesign(from a seriesof12) fbrlzdcz Henry de Montauk (c. 1825 18')0)

c. 187980

Gntphite, watercolour and gouache Signed:

F/f/z/y df /Wo //a

/

47.5 x 30.5 cm Paris, Biblioth&que Nationale,[)6partement

de

la Musique: Biblioth&que-Mus&ede I'Opera

Fig. 243. Henry de Montaut

(D. 156,pl. 2)

An Egyptian at her dressing-table Designs for .A;dZa,plate I I

Biblioth&que Nationale, D6partement de la Musique,

P ro\ enance:

Album given by Edmond Dollfus to A.E. Vaucorbeil, who bequeathedit to the

Bibliothdque-Musee Paris

de I'Opera,

Bibliothiqtte de I'Opera, 1881 Exhibited in Paris

In various publications of recent years,the seriesfrom which this sketch is taken has been identified as being for the Cairo production of Hzdcz.The attribution was given [o

Henry de Montauk,with mention madethat Marietta served in an advisory capacity. These claims are basedon a

handwritten note on the furst folio of the collection,which reads,"These drawings are true to the ones made for the

Fig. 244. Henry de Montauk

first performance of .4zdain Cairo by Henry de Montauk

Egyptianinterior

under the supervisionof MarietreBey."But a mereglance

Designs for A;da, plate 12

at theseplates, particularly at the more outlandish ones such

Biblioth&que Nationale,

]s the priestessof Vulcan or the entrance of the warriors,

1)6partement de la Musique,

should be enough to convince anyone that this travesty

Biblioth&que-Musee de I'Opera: Paris

could not have beenapproved by Mariette.

Excellent researchby Jean-Luc Chappaz' nnd Nicole Wild hasnow establishedthat thesedrawings were,

in fact, wholly unrelatedto the Cairo production.For despite a show of Egyptological know'ledge (often inaccu

Egypt, his ostensiblelearning, and his publications might

rate) and referencesto Lepsius and the Bulaq museum.

have recommended him. Fortunately, Montaut was dis-

thesecompositions are a sorry mixture of error and fantasy.

qualified by his very conceptionof ancientEgypt vastly

Amneris'

costume is the best example: "fn addition

to three enormous kerchiefs, she wears a golden psc#f/z/

different from Mariette'sx-iew,which was still indelibly printed on the minds of those staging the 1880production

whose shaft is too low, a superb vulture-shaped bodice, a 1.-M.H

fan, and a mirror suspendedfrom her belt by a small chains The date of these drawings is uncertain. Jean-Luc

Chappaz has noted Henry de Montauk'sgenerous use of hieroglyphs,' which may be consideredhis signature, in two genre paintings from the same collection(hg. 243 and 244),

Chappaz 1991a,p. 84; Chappaz 1991b,pp. 11--18. Chappaz 1991b,p. 13. Chappaz 1991b,pp. 14--15.

Namely, pls. ll and 12. They are in the style popularized by the

archaeological painters Edwin Long, Alma-Tadema, and

on a round box and on the rim of a washbasin.4

Rochegrosse, and are directly inspired by Henry de N'lontaut'swell-

More intriguing are the two cartouches in the margin beside Amneris' costume giving the name of Rosh;\ Bloch,

receiveddraw,ings published in 14ePtzr';.f;en/?e under the title

who performed the role at the Opera in 1880.They are

'ftudes sur la toilette." However, they possessnone of the requisites of true costume maquettes

evidence that the drawings were executed at a later date,

likely at aboutthe sametime as the Parisproduction.Did

Henry de Montauk,who never worked for the Opera, perhaps intend to submit his costume designs? His trips to

44o

Egypt at the Opera

SelectedReferences 4;da ;/zCa;zo 1982 Parma 1983

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Dancer, Radames, and Amneris Three costume designsfor an unidentified

Marcel Multzer has created a universeof lightnessand

production ofHzda

transparency in his costumes for .4lc&z,as he did for TZe A4agzc

Marcel Multzer (1866 1937) c. 1920 Watercolour

30 x 23 cm

F'/z£rf(cat. 254 257), and has reinterpreted rhe Egyptian elements in the Art Deco style. Moreover, all referencesto ancient Egypt have been eliminated from the costumes for the dancers and extras, leaving only a few vague suggestions in the print of the fabrics, which made the costumes for the leading roles stand out all the more. J.-M.H.

Cat. 299: ,4mnerzlf 33.5 x 26 cm

Selected References:

Paris, Bibliothdque Nationale, D6partement de

,4/dcz;# Ca iro 1982; Parma 1983

la Musique: Biblioth&que-Mus&e de I'Opera

Wild 1987, P. 26.

Cat. 297: Z)cznrff

26x 18.5cm Cat. 298: Radames

(Fonda Muelle 1, pls. 25, 28, 31)

Cat. 298 exhibited in Paris; cat. 297 299 in Ottawa and Vienna.

442

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Aida Costume design for an unidentified production

The fitted Egyptian robe with crisscrossed, winglike flapsis

of,4zda

Maurice de Becque

reinterpreted in the Art Deco style, and the feather motif is replaced by geometric designs. The form of the props and

c. 1925

the sets(lotus flowers,columns)and the choiceof colours

Watercolour

are also typical of the period. Once again, they demonstrate

33x 24.5cm Paris, Bibliothdque Nationale, D6partement de la Musique: Biblioth&que-Museede I'Opera

the possibilities of mixing styles,as the artists did so extensively.

J.-M.H

(FindsMuelle1,pl. 35) Selected References ,4;da ;n Ca;ro

1982; Parma

Wild 1987, P.26.

444

Egypt at the Opera

1983

301

Aida Costume design for an unidentified production

of,4z'da

Artist unknown c. 1920

Watercolour 34 x 25 cm

Not content to design, yet again, the usual hated robe with crisscrossed,winglike flaps, reinterpreted in the style of the 1920s,this unidentified designer had his model assumethe posetraditionally attributed to ancient Egyptians. J.-M.H.

Paris, Bibliothdque Nationale, [)6partement de

SelectedReferences=

la Musique: Bibliothdque-Musee de I'Opera

,4zZa;# Ca;ro 1982; Parma 1983

(FondsMuelle 1,pl. 33)

Wild 1987, P.26.

Egypt at the Opera

445

302 Amneris Costume design for an uniderltified production

reinterpreted here in the Art Deco style. The complexity of

of.4zda, Act 11, scene I

che headdress, which harmoniously

Max R6e

is clearly seenin a profile sketch in the margin. The tunic is

1924

extended by a matching train. The flail has become ar] inte-

Watercolour and gouache,highlights in gold paint 34 x 25 cm

gral part of the costume, complemented by jewellery and a sun disk. This composition, which is set against a black

Signed and dared, I.r.

pyramid, goes well beyond a simple costume sketch

frames the whole face,

Paris, Biblioth&que Nationale, D6partement de la Musique: Bibliothdque-Music

1.-M.H

dc I'Op&ra

(Fonds Muelle 1,pl. 37) ,4;da;/zCzz;ro 1982, p.198;

shaped headdress, flail

Parma 1983;Wild 1987,p. 26

these standard elements in the

stylistic vocabulary of Egyptomania have been skilfully

H.cl..

446

SelectedReferences

Fined tunic with crisscrossed, winglike flaps,vulture-

Egypt at the Opera

Humbert 1989, p. 293.

303

C16opftre Stagedesign for rhe ballet C/laps/rf,' Paris, 1909

Leon Bakst (1866 1924)

Despite the imperatives of ballet, which relegate scenery to the periphery of the stage, Bakst succeeded in

1909

creating a striking evocation of ancient Egypt, brightened by warm colours that produced a daring contrast with the

Watercolour 51 x 77 cm

costumes

Paris, Musee des Arts D&coratifs, D6partement des Arts Graphiques (29.829)

J.-M.H 1. C/gQ)pd/re, dressrehearsalopen to the public, at the Th6ftre du

Provenance:

Chate[et, Paris, ]8 Mny 1909,with the premiere on 2 June 1909

Gift of J.-B. Chantrel1, 1939.

Music by Arensky, Taneev, Rimsky-Korsakov, Glinka, Mussorgsky,

Glazunov, and Tcherepnin; choreography by Michel Fokine; sets and costumesby Leon Bakst.

Set designer Leon Bakst, a long-time

friend of Sergei

2. In the 1919London revival of [he production, Tchernichova

I)iaghilev, was among the group that followed Diaghilev

danced the role of Cleopatra in a costume designed by Sonia

from Russia to Paris and thus came to work with the

Delaunay

Ballets Russes during its first season in 1909. Anna Pavlova.

Karsavina, and Nijinsky, with Ida Rubinstein as a stunning blue-haired Cleopatra, were in the cast of this production.:

Egypt at the Opera

447

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449

The world spotlight focusedonce more on Egypt when the Suez Canal opened in 1869. The event aroused new interest

in Egyptomania, and strengthened the already closeties it fostered between the country of its origin and those who studied it. The creation of the opera '4zda, which occurred

around the same time, is perhaps the best example of this conjunction of the efforts of artists and archaeologists,which

from now on could be taken completely for granted. The

scholarly contribution of Egyptology was to enrich all spheresof art more than ever before.

As in the past, however, some fields of endeavour deliberately avoided this osmosis.The original creations of independent artists remained untouched, and so did a host of simplified, mass-produceditems the accessories of daily life such as jewellery, bibelots, furniture, and furnishings. The result of industrial production methods and commercial distribution, theseitems thus becameaccessibleto an entirely new kind of amateur. In spite of this inevitable development, some mag-

nificent achievementscontinued to maintain Egyptomania at its previous high level. Egyptianizing structures are still to be found all acrossEurope (hg. 245). In Spain, for examFig. 245.The ostrich pavilion at the

ple, the architect Jos&Vilaseca y Casanovas often incorpor '

Berlin Zoo, by H.einrich Kayser and

abed Egyprianizing

Karl von Grossheim, 1899

designed the house of the antique dealer Bruno Cuadros in

elements into his work. In the 1880s, he

Barcelonaand that of the industrialist Augustin Pujol in

Lloret de Mar. The latter building featuredan entirely Egyptian exterior and much use of polychrome decor in the

interior.i At Wissant,in northern France,the painters Virginie Demont-Bretonand Adrien Demint had an Egyptian manor built between 1889and 1911,which they

WISSANT rP..db-C.) -- Lo Typhonium

Fig. 246. The Typhonium, home of the painters Virginie Demons-Breton and Adrien Demont, at Wissant, Pas-de-Calais,France The original building was constructed, 1889--91;the extension and the pylon were added, 1909--11; postcard, private collection

450

Confirmations of Permanence

on whose threshold the painter of mummies deftly brushes

thosecharactersfrom which our century had wrestedtheir secret."; The other, in enamelled brick, and signed by Joseph Blanc, depicts a historical scene:"Ramses the Great, standing

in his chariot, amid a large retinue, appears in all his glory.

Two of the greatpyramidsof Giza, thosebuilt by Cheops and Kephren, form the backdrop of this tableau of Egyptian

art, completed by the temple, obelisk, and sphinx."9The Palais du G&nie Civil, which has since disappeared, also displayed a frieze devoted to modes of transportation;'' it

repeatedthe popular theme of a sphinx towed aloragon a chariot with solid wheels, which made its first appearance on the western facadeof the Arc de Triomphe at the Place

de I'ftoile in Paris.

As in the first half of the century,museumswere frequently decoratedin the Egyptian style in an increasingly spectacular manner

and a variety of reconstructions

could be found in their galleries: columns, painted murals, cavetto cornices, and starry skies

veritable "stage sets" for

the display of original works were intended to give the visitor an idea of ancient Egyptian architecture. In Florence,

for example,the Egyptiancollections,culled mainly from Fig. 247. Monument to Chabas erected in 1899 at Chalon-sur-Sa6ne, France

the Rosellini archaeological excavations, were transported

to the Palazzodella Crocettain 1880:"The main hall is decoratedin perfect taste,in an architectural style worthy

named the Typhonium (fig. 246) a further impressive

of the Egyptian models drawn upon by its learned curator, Mr. Schiaparelli."'' Likewise, the entranceand the Egyptian

testimony to the ongoing influence of Egyptian architecture in artistic circles.: Not far from Brussels,the gateway to the park of an estateconsistedof an Egyptian pylon in brick.' At the turn of the century, artists were also striving to integrate Egyptian art even more completely with Art

galleries of the Pushkin Museum of Fine Arts in Moscow

Nouveau.A design by Helbig and Haiger for a masonic

stained-glass window

lodge in Munich shows,

in its unrestrained polychrome

decoration, how easily Egyptomania adapted to new stylistic trends in Western art.' in Strasbourg, Adolf Zilly decorated

were decoratedat the turn of the century with paintings (starry skies, winged vultures), architectural elemer)ts (doors with cornices and winged disks, bell-shaped and

papyrus-shaped columns) and even an Egyptianizing (eight ram's heads surrounded by

multicolourcd lotus flowers). The Egyptian pavilions at the Universal

Expositions,

particularly

those of 1878 and 1900

(seefig. 248), were decorated in the samedidactic spirit.

the facadeof an Art Nouveau building from top to bottom

The Freemasons and the Rosicrucians built meeting

with a Nilotic composition depicting the pharaohand his

roomsin their temples,the exteriorsof which were some

wife duck-hunting among the papyrus,accompanied by a

LimesEgyptian in flavour, while the interiors were even

winged goddess.sEgyptian figures appearedon modern

more so- in the last quarter of the nineteenth century, some exceptional structures were erected in Belgium, such as the

buildings in London,' while the Temple of Human Law, a masonic lodge of entirely Egyptian inspiration, was built in

lodges of "The United

Friends

of Trade and Perseverance:

Paris in 1912. In addition to the usual cavetto cornice and

in Antwerp, "The Philanthropic Friends" and "The True

palm-shaped columns with lotiform bases, the building included more original elements such as a balustrade com-

Z)eicrzP/zonde /'.1%yp/e,Lepsius, and Prisse d'Avennes were

posed ofczn4#s and dyed pillars.

abun(lantly

At the same time, more traditional forms of decoratlt )n continued to be incorporated in alltypes of architecture (fig. 247), giving proof once again, if any proof were needed,

of the unlimited adaptability of ancient Egyptian art. The Grand Palais in Paris, constructed for the 1900Universal Exposition, was given two friezes. One, in enamelled mosaic

by Louis Fournier, representsthe art of Egypt: "Then

Friendsof Union and ProgressUnited" in Brussels.i2 The copied in these buildings,

whcrt

gigantic

scale

vied with polychrome decoration in what were reputed in

their time to be the most beautiful masonictempleson the continent. The Chapter Room of the Supreme Grand Royal Arch Chapter of Scotland (cat. 304), in Edinburgh, is yet another example of such interiors carefully concealedfrom the eyesof the uninitiated.

However, the ongoing vacillation betweena kind

comesanother colossus,the Egyptian sphinx, borne on a

of humanistic vision, the simple if somewhattheatrical

chariot, behind which towers the portico of a temple of Isis,

exotic setting, versus archaeology is best seenin the decoratior]

Confirmations of Permanence

451

T

he had the u,alls of a room in his home at Caprino Bergamasco

M

painted in an Egyptian style: the upper part of the hreplace was decorated as a pylon and bore a representation of' rhe goddessHathor and false hieroglyphs, while papyrus and '''''''-=';':::E

composite columns all round re-created the atmosphere of

! +

the opera.'' it should, however, be noted that examples such asthis became increasingly rare in subsequent years

F'or Egyptology had becomea recognizedscience and published works on decoration, which

as in earlier

[)eriods offered numerous Egyptian-style models, now scrupulously reflected the latest archaeological discoveries For example, the curious dining room plans published by Barley in 1878 derived directly from the wall ornamentation of tombs and mai/zZ'af, something that would have been

q

scarcely conceivable a feu, decades earlier. On the walls, in

the antique manner, are shown the basic elementsof meals,

in particular \arious birds and animals, carried by bearers of offerings. Floral compositions with papyrus, and papyri-

form columns. round out the decoration. The furniture, also copied from originals, formed the indispensable com

B .R.B ii I .,

plement to the decor. Barley was a typical designer of the

Victorian period. In 1883,he published a new work which IP41LClilt

contained additionaldesigns influenced by Egypt.''

I'lilhRULEiLI .l;

I'xi-.t!)

CK

lvrlurr

i)i:

In 1884, drawing on both Barley's creations and /;.i.'.iJ.

IJli'r=li

'.

rt /I

OBcjl.

lc

/ori.='

Jl- IJ I'il.. J.. .vJXJcZ'otf rX' n ./.'.ls'.i.l+-

/yi)nil'jc'lift'.

Coil(i .Ir.I

Chose of Holman Hunt, the firm of Liberty and Co. Riled

ii f

fXh it

!it+. ic {kjjtrc

applications with the Patent Office for several models of

stoolscopieddirectly from Egyptian prototypesin the Fig. 248. The Pa/a;s de /'EgJPfe at the 1900Universal Exposition, Paris Marcel Dourgnon, architect

British Museum. One of the models, called the "Thebes Stool" (cat. 31 1), becameextremely popular and was pro-

Drawing by G. Galen, from I,'Expos//;a/z de Pafff 1900, Paris, 1900,

ducedin quantity up to the beginningof World War I

vol.lll,P.I

These industrially produced objects are a striking example of the increasing democratization of Egyptomania.

of f)rivate houses.In the 1890s,the Gonzaga family had one of rhe rooms of their palace in Mantua decorated by Fabio room was a mix of China, Persia, Babylon, Greece, and

century Here not copied exclusively from antique originals and even began to move coward decisively original forms, liberated from the all too often repeated themes of the First

Egypt; it included representations of gods, pharaohs, a

Empire. The public benches cast in 1874 for the Victoria

Fabbi. Painted entirely in an Orientalist exotic style, the

frieze depicting various figures, n squatting scribe, a winged

Embankment in London, their sides decoratedwith

disk, and musicians.'' A rather similar spirit guided the

winged female sphinxes, are a good example of this devel-

decoration of Chauncey Mitchell Depew's library in New

opment.:' As for interior

York, in 1899.The ceiling of this vast,cluttered, and pon-

created sofas with

derously furnished room was decorated with a frieze repro '

decoratedwith papyrus,:' asdid Edward Godwin in a similar

sending religious processions and scenes from daily life; the

genre.:: Dresser became enthralled with Egypt after reading

fireplace featured two headswearing a version of' the //f/}zri and, above, a large composition consisting of an Egyptian

Owen Jones's G/am/na/(#'O/./zamfn/ (1856),and for a long

bust in a medallion, alsowearing a /?f/nfi, on top of two winged sphinxes.'s Likewise, when the archaeologist

Palace in London and the British Museum before actuall)

Theodore Reinach had his villa Kerylos .it l;cnulieu sur-

( )tllci . .iii ' )nymous artists strove, like Dresser, to give common

Mler decorated, from 1902 to 1908,'' ht ' added Egyptian

objects b.)rh an aesthetic and ar] archaeological aspect: a

motifs to the basic, essentially, Greek, (Ircor and extended

\eranda *-itl in ceramic, in the shape of a seated Egyptian

hem to rhe furniture, u,hich include.I. for example, a r?emei-u,t;Bring sphinx at the foot of a pi- it.tale and a

woman(c.it. 312),revealsboth the freeddit)f ntlal)lotion

Antonio Ghislanzoni's decorativeintentions were quite

different

w,hen, after

furniture, Christopher

Dresser

af i friezes and cast-iron armchairs

time he frequented the Egyptian Court at the Crystal tra\Filing

to Egypt

in the 1890s to expand his research

acllic\cd by craftsmen after centuries of I Hvl)t')m;mia bind

the quality of representation.:iAmong the masterpieces of

Grccu-Egyptian" throne.

452

Howe\-er,furniture designsat the turn of the

the triumphant

Confirmations of Permanence

success of .4idcz,

the period was a mirrored wardrobe from the 1880s,now in

the Victoria and Albert Museum.Madeof oak and pine

and divided into three vertical sections, most of the

Egyptian decorative elements in this piece including hieroglyphs,

cartouches, papyrus-shaped columns, and

jardinieres, bowls, and inr)umerable porcelain bells,moulded glass, engraved glass, pottery, silver, and so on.j '

funeral scerles were carefully reproduced and harmo-

The trend in statuary,which followed the road openedby the "archileological painters" of' the mid-

niously blended in a rather light-hearted way.:'

nineteenth century, was toward re-creilting the models of

New types of Egyptian drawing room furniture, often designed without much concern for accuracy,also

Antiquity. While allowing sphinxesto continuetheir

appeared in this era. In one of them,:s polychrome decora-

brilliant career,sculptorsmainly devisedoriginal figures intendedto bring ancientEgypt back to life, in their own

tion ;\nd fabrics combined to create an appearance of exoticisill, to which composite columns, winged scarabs,

way. Cord\er's PI'iestess of Isis Playing the Harp is an excel-

itnd lotus Rowers added the raecessary archaeologicaltouch. However, whereas in this example ancient Egypt was once

enamel, exhibited at the Salon of 1874, is a life-sized standing

;againawkwardly copied rather than actually re-created,

headdress, necklace, jewellery, and sandals. The baseof' her

someof the furniture achieved a romantic theatricality, very far removed from the coldlless of the early part of the century.

instrument is decoratedwith the head of a lionessrepre-

One such set, manufactured in Italy, contained a sofa in black lacquered wood, its back topped by a musician play ng a Horus-headed harp covered with false hieroglyphs; the armrests rested on Egyptian heads,and a mirror and console in the same style were decorated with sphinxes

lent example of this tendency. This bronze with cloisonn6

figure of a female harpist, in Antique dress a vulture

senting the goddessSekhmet, taken directly from tomb paintings.;' Around 1900,emile-Louis Picault wasspecializing in rhe same kind of works, producing queens and

Even more original were the chest decoratedwith imaginary views of Thebes and, above all, the monumental bed featuring pillars with cavetto cornicesat its four cornersand a tall pyramid for a headboard.:' Several pianos (seecat. 308) were also decorated in the Egyptian style at that time. [)ecorative art objects were also adapted to a more

intimate decor. In particular, table lamps were now favoured over the large cast-iron c;tndelabra; here, too, there was a return to the sphinx motif and the introduction of'a new decorative theme

the scarab. The Muller brothers

n Franceand Tiffany in the United Statestransformed table lamps into mysterious dim lights of glass tinted in

amber and mauve.:' Art Nouveau, which blended so

\

©

harmoniously with Egyptian art, found an ideal meansof

:P

expression)in the jardinieres of Emile Ga116(cat. 318). But mere were also exceptional pieces such as the silver and enamel desk set from around 1875 by Boucheron for rhe Khedive Ismail Pasha:9 whose makers preferred to retain

$

a close link with archaeology.

Tiffany, Burmantofts, and Johnsonspecializedin marketing sombre and massive mantelpiece sets,and in doing so maintained

consciously or otherwise

rhe rela

tionshlp establishedat the end of the eighteenthcentury between the symbols of eternity

and duration

associated

with ancient Egypt and the measurementof time by Egyptianizlng clocks. This no doubt explains the long standing successof productions of this type. Throughout the entire secondhalf'of the nineteenth ceratury,the number

of everydayobjects in Egyptian style grew, particularly in England. It was a sign that the fashion, sustained by archaeological discoveries and the course of current e\ends related

[o Egypt, had begun to spread to the public at large. Artists remained unflaggingly interested in the traditional themes

of' Egyptomania,which they transposedinto the most varied objects: vases (fig. 249), plates, paperweights,

Fig. 249. "Rhodes" vase in Sdvres

porcelain,1874 Musee National de C6ramique, Sivres

Confi rmations of Permanence

453

Fig. 250. 1fmile-Louis Picault Qz/ee/zand P#al'so#, c. 1900, patinated and gilt bronze

Fig. 251. Emile-Louis Picault Pr;es/essand Pr;ei/, c. 1880, patinated bronze

Galerie Sabban, Paris

Sold at Sotheby's,London, 25 September 1992

pharaohs

(see fig. 250), Egyptians,

priestesses and priests

(fig. 251) in bronzes of various sizes. His figures, often standing in a somewhat ungainly manner with the weight on one hip, were dressed in the fashion of contemporary theatre costumes, in rather long loincloths, overly ornate /zfmf.r headdresses, complicated

pleats, and masses of detail,

jewellery and accessories.;:Here, somewhat as in painting, can be found the prototypes of the characters that Cecil B. [)e Mille, for examp]e, wou]d show on the screensomefifty yearslater. In the late nineteenth century, however, h;\rpists were the most preferred theme. Tn 1893,Coudray created a bronze statuette the popularity of which is demonstratedby the

454

number

of

names

bestowed

on

it:

Tafoifr.

EgyP/£cz7z

Strasser,Gaston Leroux, and Coudray" excelledin this highly specializedgenre. Among other Egyptian themes attractive to sculptors, the cat holds a special place, an example being the one created by Theodore Deck in the 1880s. Copied directly from the cats of the Saite period, this

:Deck blue" feline is also a reminder of a colour commonly used by the Egyptians."

Of a diff'brentnaturewereassimilations into con-

temporary art, such as the /szi carved by Georges Lacombe in 1895 (cat. 342). "At the time, the cult of Isis was one par-

ticular manifestation of theosophy,of the great esoteric occult tradition,

then undergoing

a complete renaissance,

which itroused the enthusiasm of the Nabis."" Egypt's

Harpzi/, Przr.r/fsr Pfayzng /Ar }larp." Caste executed ;\ life sized

influence on Modigliani was far more profound: in 1911,

bronze depicting a similar sceneof a harpist seatedon a rock playing a pseudo-Egyptianinstrument. The basewas decoratedwith a small sceneof daily life in ancient Egypt,

the artist becamecaptivated by the country, visiting various museumsand drawing portraits of his friends as Egyptians

including a harpist and lotus decoration.:' And finally,

actually inspired more by ancient Egypt than by the art of

Barrias depicted his harpist in a squatting position, clothed only in the characteristic vulture headdress.'s In contrast to these "serious" works, there were

black Africa.30

continued to widen, and reconstituted scenesfrom Antiquity

also pleasant, whimsical creations blending Oriental themes and archaeology, in which "Egyptians" actually pseudo

proliferated, basedon various models. Lecomte du Notiy,

As Edith Bales has shown, his so-called "negro period" was

In painting, the path opened notably by Alma\-Tadema

for example. drew on the Roma/zdf /a momzefor several of

gypsies in flowing cloaks adorned with medals and //rmfi

his canvases: 7'#f Bfarfri

headdresses were shown seated on the head of a sphinx or atop a column capital, or else playing an ancient instrument.

/{zs .ficzrem (1885 86), and PAczl'oa,q's SadneSS(1901).'o in

Confirmations of Permanence

ofBad T/dzngr (fig. 252), /?zzmlcJ//z

1877,Frederick Bridgman, who had tra\elled in Egypt

around 1873, exhibited TZc' Funera/ of/Af A4 mmy (fig. 253), [o universal acclaim. The canvas was a veritable catalogue of the cast and accessoriesrequired on a funeral barge dur-

ing the burial ceremony. Among his other paintings were

7'fr P,baraoAICap/zz,cs and 7'#f Ba// H/,zi.4tEdwin Long joined Alma-Tadema in the quality of his compositionand

his style: of his eleven Egyptian canvases, 7'ff Godsand TZr;r A/a4frs of 1878 (cat. 335), is a very detailed depiction

of theinterior of a workshopwith craftsmen. Long also paintedtwo more intimate sceneswith the samemeticulous cate: Lnue's Labour's Lost and Alethe, Priestessoflsis, as well as more spectacular scenes such as H?z/!gyp/zaa Peas/, in

which, drawing on a passagein Herodotus, he portrays slaves serving beer to guests in jugs topped by a wooden representation of a mummy; and TZc Cram/zof/zff/z@ca/zon, a subject that especially inspired him he described at

length its historical and sociological basis(at least to the

Fig. 252. Jules-Jean-Antoine Lecomte du Hotly

extent of current knowledge) in the catalogue of the Royal

7'be Bea ers afBad Tz'i##gs, 1872, oil on canvas

Academy.The composition not only skilfully transposedthe

French National Collection, on loan to the Department

scene described, but also conveys its importance relative to

the survival of the dead man's soul, with all its political and social implications.'2 in the same vein, Edward J. Poynter

of Cultural Affairs, Tunis Drawing by Albert Duvivier, engraved by E. Thomas, Z,e7Wamde ;/7as/tle 18 May 1872

Sentinel, O#crings to Isis, and Feeding the

who adopted the manner, if not its exact forms. Paul

Sacred /anc'i.4; Georges Rochegrosse brought accurate

Gauguin, for example, never concealed the fact that his

archaeologicaldetail to the treatment of lighter subjects,in

ZcA/a/eze(The Market) had beeninspired by an Eighteenth

which the warm Egyptian light playedon translucentrobes and multicolored hangings,and on the white skin of beau-

dynastypainting from Thebeson display in the British

tiful, scantily clad native girls. The biblical scenes,the Finding of Mosesin particular, togetherwith Cleopatra,

poraries"in the Egyptianstyle"" (fig. 255).Alfons Mucho

paxnte& Eglptiatl

Museum.'7Bart Anthony Van der Leck drew his contem

werethe other essentialsourcesof inspiration for this

blended the Art Nouveau style with the Egyptian rigour that had already inspired him on his arrival in Paris;'9and

specialized genre.

Matisse, Derain, Picasso, S6rusier, and Van Dongen were

Between 1870 and 1920,many painters tried to follow in the footsteps of Alma-Tadema, but their canvases were too often bland and even simplistic. Just as the military painters of the same period incessantly repeated the theme of the soldier posing with his weapon, in a host of small paintings, Bouvier, Lagye, Makart, Faldi, Coomans,

all indebted to Egyptian art at one time or another in their careers.5'After them, some artists continued to paint in the Egyptian style, concentrating, like Soutter, on the dream-

like aspectof this civilization,s' or, like Moindre, painting ;under the influence of Moses."S2

Swain, Smith, Collier, Roubille, Waterhouse, Tytgat, Bakalowicz, and many others simply painted portraits of Egyptian women in various poses,accompaniedby one or

two other figures.There is not one spark of life in these paintings, which, insofar as they have any merit at all, are

purely decorative." Other painters, such as Zamor and Boutet de Monvei, attempted reconstructions of Egyptian interiors, but very few followed their illustrious predecessors

in trying to re-create real historical scenesin theatrical settings,

as Mucha did in his first works in Paris,4S or as Bakalowicz did in his Fiomagf /o /;k of 1928,displaying a curious survival

of an outmodedstyle." However, while the solework or perhapsthe few works they paintedin the Egyptianstyle celebrated an occasional felicitous encounter with Antiquity, they seemedat timesto be nothingbut stylistic exercises.

The pictorial art of the ancient Egyptians themselves also left its mark in a more subtle fashion on other painters,

Fig. 253. Frederick Bridgman T#e Fz/ era/ af/#e Af mmJ/, 1876, oil on canvas

Private collection

Confirmations of Permanence

455

In any case,the spectacular re-creations that matty painters achievedin the last third of the nineteenth century called irresistibl\ for the movement and sotmd that the cinema

was to contribute in the yearsthat followed. Tn reviving the same themes at a time when pictorial re-creations were on

the wane, hlm lent Egyptomania a new meansof expres' dionand thus revived the public's interest

At the closeof the nineteenthcentury,it became virtually a gox-erning principle to incorporate Eg) ptomania into the style of the period. In previous centuries, Egyptomania

had been blended with the Classical, Neo-Gothic, and Empire styles, but it had never before been so intimately bound up with a style as it was with Art Nouveau and the

variousinns\alive trends of the ei\rly twentieth century The hct that this development becamemore pronounced in subsequent periods, particularly in Art Deco and contem

porary art, shows clearly how Egyptomania. sustained by

rhe processof democratization that began al mid-centur)finds the meansto sur\ ive and ensure its permanence J.-M.H

Fig, 254. Gustav Klimt

TbeFlitF }tult, \9Q8 t)9 Osterreichisches Museum, Vienna

Fig. 255. Bart Van der Leck

FBe U//s;c;a/zs,1915 Rijksmuseum Kr611er-Miiller, Otterlo

456

Confirmations of Permanence

1. Bletter 1977;Beauth6acand Bouchart 1985,p. 181. 2. Bourrut Lacouture 1989, pp. 277--96. 3. Quaegebeur 1988,p. 66.

Z)a/zie if a /almao rz' er SPAznx,alternatively titled Z.'lkyp/zc?/?/ze or

4. Beauth6ac andBouchart 1985, p. 167.

c;/cafe and .Z%p/ e /ze /'/z,ezz/a;/;sale, Hotel des Vented,

even .4;Za, c. 1880--1900;

5. No. 10, Rue du G6n6ral-Rapp(1906); Hornstein-Rabinovitch 1981, no.36,PP.350--54.

6. For example,at the intersection of Pall Mall, Haymarket, and Cockspur Street. 7. No. 5, Rue Jules-Breton, Paris 13'.

8.L'Expos;rio?z df Para r/900), severalauthors, Paris 1900,vol. ll,

example,

.Lzz Graze//e de /'.f/6/c/

Rambouillet, Faure-Rey,22March 1987,lots 123and 124. 37 Maury1969, pp.35-60. 38 Musee d'Orsay: Ansieau 1983, pp. 287--95 39 Akhmatova 1973,cited in Balas 1981, pp. 87--94 40 Humbert 1989,pp. 252--54. 4:

42

pp. 185 86 [our trans]ation]. 9. /&zd.,p. 186[our trans]ation].

Humbert1989, p.255. Humbert1989, pp.25556.

43 Margaux 1905;Bell 1906. 44 Hlumbert 1989,p. 259. 45 La Fi!!e da Pharaon, Darts i€ desert, Lotus* Alnenhotep (\ B89 9ab, see

lO./b;d.,P.20. 1. Berend1882,p. VII. 2. M & f, (A/o?z mrlz/flz e 2 f..z/zdszAappfn), no. 3 (May June 1984),

Paris 1980,pp. 32--33.

issue devoted to these two lodges, with articles by Petra Maclot,

46 Humbert 1989,p. 259

EugeneWarmenbol, and Marcel M. Celis. 13.By Peter Henderson (78 Queen Street); Baz/dz'ag brews (26 July 1901),p. 105, cited in Brighton/Manchester 14. See sale catalogue, Fz7za/e, Milan,

47. 48.

8 November

1986 (separate issue

containing a full colour reproduction of the "Stanza").

1892(Kunstmuseum, Basel),seeDorival1951

In particular in the period 1914--16;among others, I,f C#az,Lff Mzfizf;ens, ,4ra&fs, La Tempe/f (Ril ksmuseum Kr611er-Miiller, C)tterlo, Netherlands)

1983, no. 206; see also

no.227;Humbert1989, p. 117.

49 Z,ePa/e/', 1899; Paris 1980. note 77. nos. 98--1 15. 50 Dagen 1984,pp. 289--302;seealso the "pharaonic"

15. Co/z/zczAscznrf dff .4ffi, no. 355 (September 1981), p. 48.

16.Le Targat 1984,pp. 20-2. 17. .4;da; Ca;ro 1982, fig. 22, p. 89.

51

18.Drawing published in Z?z/z/dang News (26 June 1878),cited in Brighton/Manchester 1983,no. 205; in 1883Batley published

52

A Seriesof Studies for])omestic

see, for

DroKor, no. 42 (28 November 1986), p. 86; Coudray: ./oaeaiedf

paintings of

Van Dongen (Mus&edes Beaux-Arts Jules Ch6ret, Nice). P#araon and Arrw Yore (between 1924 and 1930); Th6voz 1974;

Th6voz1979, p. 101 Lr Tamp/f az,ec /e SP znr c/ /ef py/2zmzdff, 1940 57; Dubuffet

1965,

pp. IO1--18;Th6voz 1979,p. 103.

Fal'niltfre and Decoration ', re pro-

duced in Humbert 1989,p. 115 19. One copy of the ancient original BM 2472 in the British Museum is

n the Victoria and Albert Museum (circ. 439--1965); Gilbert 1971, p. 741 and Brighton/Manchester

1983, nos. 221 A and 222 to 224

20. Curl 1982, pl. 1984, p. 188; Brighton/Manchester 1983, no. 211, P. 102

21. One of the sofasis in the Victoria and Albert Museum (reproduced n Curl 1982, pl. 180, p. 185); seealso Brighton/Manchester 1983, no. 233; and Collins

in Camden 1979.

22. Brighton/Manchester 1983,nos. 212 and 213. 23. Circa 1880, Fine Arts Society, London (see Brighton/Manchester 1983,no. 239). 24. Circ. no. 90-1966 (Cur] 1982, p]. ]82, p. 186). 25. Sale, Champin-Lombrail,

Enghien, 28 October 1979, 1ot 136

26. Sale catalogue, .F;/zczr/e,Milan, 8 November 1986, lots 31--35 and

39;seealsoHumbert1989, pp.14041 27. Humbert 1989, pp. 177--78.

28.Sale,Hotel Drouot, Paris,Laurin-Guilloux, 21March 1980, lot 174; H.6tel Drouot, Paris, Cornette de Saint-Cyr, 29 April 1983, lot 75; see also Loring 1979, p. 12 29. Sale, Christie's. Geneva, 12, 13 and 15 November 1984, 1ot 410 30. Brighton/Manchester 254 255, 267-268

31. Durand-Revillon

1983, nos. 228--233, 236-238, 240--242, 245,

1982, pp. 181--98;see also sale, H16tel Drouot,

Paris,Millon, 20 May 1980,1ot215 32. As "Personnage6gyptien," in sale,H.6telDrouot, Paris,CouturierNicolay, 17 June 1986, 1ot 193; as Z.f G/a/zdPAcz/aon,or P7'Frrfe/ f/ffi z/o/z'z,fi, in sale, Champin-Lombrail, Enghien, 16 October 1983, 1ot 187, and Z,czGzzze//ede /'.H(5/e/

P/ gr7'esse por/aa/ dei i/a/

Df'omo/, no. lO (8 March 1985), p. 27 33. Marie-Alexandre-l-ucien

Coudray,

see, for example, Z,a Gaff/zf

df

/'/{6/f/ Drop/o/, no. 42 (28 November 1986),p. 99.

34.Circa 1900;sale, Hotel Drouot, Paris, Millon-Jutheau, 27 November 1980,1ot 120 35. Circa 1900; sale, H16tel Drouot, Paris, Boisgirard-Hleeckeren, 7 December 1983,1ot 107, p. 20 36. Strasser:.f/a7pk/e zzaO#h/;/;, 1880, see sale, H.6tel Drouot, Paris,

Cornette de Saint-Cyr, 22 June 1986,1ot95; Gaston Leroux:

Confirmations of Permanence

457

Mn U

i /

458

Confirmations of Permanence

304

Chapter Room of the Supreme Grand Royal Arch Chapter of Scotland Robert F. Sherar 1901

Pencil and water colour 94 x 68.6 cm

buildings, such as the lodges of "The United Friends of Trade and Perseverance" in Antwerp, "The Philanthropic

Friends" and "The True Friends of Union and Progress United" in Brussels.' Such sources as the Z)eicrzP/zon de

Signed and dated: Ro&/. F S,bf/czz. Z)e//. /90/

/'/Qyp/e, Lepsius, and Prisse d'Avennes were abundantly

Edinburgh, Supreme Grand Royal Arch Chapter ofScotland

copied in these buildings, in which the gigantic scale vied

with the polychrome decoration. Egyptian-style rooms of

this typewere built all around the world, and many arestill

In the late nineteenth century, the Freemasonsand the

in existence today.

Rosicrucianscontinued to build temples with Egyptianizing

J.-M.H.

interiors. A perfect example of this trend is the Chapter

Roomof the SupremeGrand RoyaIArch Chapterof Scotland,built in 1900 01 by the architect Peter Henderson (1849 1912)at 78 QueenStreet, in Edinburgh. The decorative scheme,which is entirely in the Egyptian style, is intended

to representthe story of Isis and Osiris,' taken from the Zioo4of/#e Dead; the chairs, designed by the architect himself) are also in Egyptian style.:

In rhe last quarter of the nineteenthcentury, Belgium witnessed the construction of equally remarkable

1. BK//dang A/cmK (26 July 1901), p. 105, cited in Brighton/Manchester

1983.no.206. '}. ']bi,d. . no.'2:Z].

3. M & Z, (]Vo/z mf7z/f/z en Lz/zdsc#appfaJ, no. 3 (May June 1984)

issuedevoted to these two lodges,with articles by Petra Maclot, Eugene Warmenbol, and Marcel-M. Celis.

Exhibitions: Brighton/Manchester 1983, no.206.

SelectedReferences Humbert 1989,p. 117., col. repr.

sos.s06 Table and Mirror French

c. 1867 70 Carved, gilt, and polychrome wood; Belgian black

marble Cat. 305: 84 x 176 x 105 cm

Cat.306:152.5x 116cm Private collection

were used by the ancient Egyptians,but not in the same proportions or distribution. In the mirror frame, which is given the form of a pylon, the stylized and coloured motifs are complemented by the freezes "filled" with hieroglyphs and figures packed together indiscriminately and, of course, with no regard for syntax.

The whole is representative of a new trend in Egyptian-style furniture which, starting around 1865,

This table waspart of a suite of Egyptian-stylefurniture

increasingly incorporated original forms and colours not

commissioned in Paris around 1868by the Khedive Ismail

previously used in this context.: The trend has something in common with the tendency to decorate large receptions in an increasingly theatrical fashion. J.-M.H.

6or his Gezireh Palace in Cairo, where he was to receive the

Empress Eug6nie on the occasion of the opening of the SuezCanal on 17 November 1869.

Most of the furniture wasdeliveredon time, with the exceptionof a table and mirror; thesetwo pieceshad still not beencompletedwhen the War of 1870broke out and therefore, like the setsand costumesfor ,4zda.could not

be movedfrom Paris. Consignedto a warehouseand forgotten, in the early twentieth century the pieceswere given

to the descendantsof Draneht Bey, who had negotiated

their manufacture.I

The decorativeschemeplays on an alternation of colours, gold, blue, and red, set off against the white back-

ground of the table and the brown faces.All thesetones

Draneht Bey (9 March 1815 4 February 1894)was originally the pharmacist to Mehemet Ali. A former student of Dr. Th&nard, he subsequentlyadopted the anagram of his teacher'sname ashis own He was director of the Egyptian railways, then managing director of the Cairo Opera Hlouse,and supervised the opera's construction,

organizingin the off.seasonthe performanceof R&o/f//o that inauguratedthe opera house(I November 1869)and the premiere of ,4zda (24 December

1871)

See,for example,the Italian Neo-Egyptian drawing room furniture reproduced in Humbert 1989, p. 140

Confirmations of Permanence

459

£ x:+! '.! \

460

Confirmations of Permanence

307

JosephArrives in Egypt Just Becquet (1829 1907)

c. 1878,re6nished, c. 1904 Marble

108x 60x 91 cm Signed and inscribed on the seat,at right: A r. RUDE /JOSEPH /ARRIVE EN EGVPTE / !L SINGE / ETDANS SA DOULEUR / PRESSENT SES/ HA USES DEST]N£ES /

JUSTBECQUET Besangon,Museedes Beaux-Arts et d'Arch6ologie

(0. 921.2.1) Provenance: Purchased by the State for 5000 francs, 1904;

assignedto the Museedu Luxembourg, 1909 (Lux 341); transferred to the Musee du Louvre (R.F 3885), then allocated to the Musee d'Orsay deposited with the Musee de Besangon, 1921

A very popular theme in the second half of the nineteenth century, the Story of Joseph generated a notable body of

biblical illustrations notably OwenJones'seriesof colou red lithogra phs 7'#e //zi/OO ' of/oicp#

z?zd/Jzi Bre/#rc'/z

of 1865 and Alexandre Bide's F/zi/ozrfde/oiqA published in 1877 but almost no sculpture. Becquet'splaster model for the present work exhibited at the Salon of 1878 (no. 4046) is

one of the rare exceptions and may have beensuggestedby one of Buda's engravings.

The model, described as a "little

statue" and now lost, still existed in 1908 when Becquet's native city, Besangon,proposed to purchaseit together with [wo other works.

In 1904,Becquetexhibited the life-size marble of /oscPA (now in Besangon) dedicated to his teacher, Rude

The moment was perhaps not very well chosen,as Rodin's 7'Azn4fr was in the same exhibition; nevertheless, Becquet

receiveda medal of honour and the work was purchasedby the State. IfAndr6

Chaumeix saw in the sculpture "a simple

nobility, due entirely to the mystery that this youth bears

within,"i and L6onceB&n&dite,the director of the Luxembourg Museum, admired it enough to acquire it for

his museum, reviews were not all favourable: Maurice

Minist&re des Beaux-Arts by the artist's sister,Anne Hutin, for permission [o reproduce the /oirpf. A similar, though

apparently not identical, smallbronze was on the art market, unidentified, in 1990.+

Hamel thought the work weak and, curiously, Paul Leroi

implied that the artist had receivedhelp from Rude. He wrote: "There is no doubt that ./o.ffpAzn Egyp/ is the better piece, stir this is so because nf a very skilful collaboration in

the I)ast; tt)r this marble cannot exactly be called recent. lost'ph has stayed unfinished since that time, and it would be ll perfect work if the L\tremely defective head had not, at

the last mgmt'nt, been finished without any collaboration at all, a fact that explains the deplorable contrast it makes with the rest of the body.'

A small bronze issued by Barbedienne' is probably connected with the request made in December 1909to the

M.R 1. Chaumeix 1904,p. 169 [our trans]atioii] 2. Leroi1904, p. 484]our trans]ation] 3. 48 X 41 X 24 cm

4. Seesale,Sotheby's,London, lO 13 June 1988,.1ot66W, repr., and

30 March 1990,1ot242,repr. Exhibitions:

Hamel 1904, pp. 78, 84; B6n6dite

')08,pl.44;Estignard 191 1

Paris, Salon of 1904. no. 2654: Besailgon1990. SelectedReferences: B6n6dite 1904,p. 434; Chaumeix 1904,p. 169;Leroi1904, p. 484;

I'ingeot, Le Normand-Romain and Margerie 1986,p. 266; Besangon1990,p. 214, fig. 12; Gavignet 1992,pp. 34, 65.

Confirmations

of Perms nence

461

308

Detail of the Decoration of a Grand Piano Erard 1893

Mahogany, gilt bronze, and cloisonn6 enamel

96.3 x 44 x 25 cm Brighton, Royal Pavilion, Art Gallery and Museums (R. 69983)

This piano was built in Paris for the London firm ofErard This fact suggeststhat it was privately commissioned.Two

Egyptians, by an anonymous sculptor, adorn each of the

piano'sthree legs. Both figures wear somewhatstylized /zemfi headdresses and hold

e4czior crook-sceptres in

opposing hands. The rest of the costume (loincloth and jewellery) is a brilliant stylistic exercisenot intended to copy actualarchaeological detail.

The overall decorationof the piano consistsof a frieze of lotuses;an ibex with the solar disk on its head adorns the baseof an asymmetrical pedal board, suggesting an ancient musical instrument whose strings are represented by the pedal bars; the other bronze ornaments (the irises at the corners) are not treated in Egyptian style

J.-M.H flrard Piano no. 69 983. Extracts from the company records Grand piano no. 3A, Egypti;In style with marquetry and bronzes. Legs representing carved figures with enamelled ornaments. Entry date: December 1893; exit date: 2 January 1894. This grand piano

wasshippedto Messrs.S. and P. Erard in London" (Archives Erard).

Exhibitions:

London 1894;Brighton/ Manchester 1983, no. 225

462

Confirmations of Permanence

309

Mantelpiece Set: Clock and Two Vases c. 1879 Bronze Clock: 55.8 x 45.7 x 16.5 cm

were retailed in most of the Western world. and were often

Vases: 47x 17.8x 13.3cm

two obelisks the most popular of the models in The MetropolitanMuseumof Art, New York, for instance,was retailedby Tiffany and Co.' (fig. 256);a related setin the

markedwith the nameof the retailer.A mantelpiece set composed of a clock (with Arab numerals on the dial) and

The movement is signed on the clockface: E. Point, 113 rae Oberkampfa Paris

Toronto, collection of Joeyand Toby Tancnbaum Provenance:

Sale,Hotel Drouot, N6ret-Minet, 8 November 1985, 1ot 74, repr.

The origins of this type of mantelpieceset are to be fotlnd

in early ninenteenth-century designsby Vulliamy of

Fig. 256.Louis C. Tiffany Inc

London.

Afa /e/pfere Se/, bronze

Enormously

popular

from the 1860s to the 1880s,

setsof this type were manufactured in a variety of combinations: with

obelisks, /aBBe, urns, or busts. Evidence

suggests

that they were almost alwaysmanufactured in France but

The Metropolitan Museum

of Art, New York Purchase,Edgar J. Kaufman Charitable Foundation

Confirmations of Permanence

463

High Museum in Atlanta is inscribed on the clock face: Tilden. Thurber & Co., Providence. This exceptional mantelpiece set created for the

Khedive Ismail of Egypt, a great amateur of Neo-Egyptian

decoration, is outstanding by any standard.:The clock, with Arab numerals on the face, consists of a pylon flanked

by two pyramidal structuresending in a finial and covered with etched Egyptian figures derived from Denon. Similar hgures appearon the body of the two vases,while the bases

of both the clock and the vasesare decoratedwith a lotus motif.

the style arguesin favour of the earlier date: an equally large but simpler set by the bronze-founder G. Servant, consistingof a clock surmounted by a winged sphinx and matching busts of Isis and Ramses by Emile Hebert

obtaineda gold medalat the Expositionof 1867.Servant, who also participated in the Exposition of 1878 and had a

foundry at 137Rue Vieille-du-Temple, specializedin setsof this type.

M.P

An identical set is in the Wilcox Hlousein Meriden, Connecticut.

For a silver desk set commissioned by the Khedive from

The winged sphinx above the clock was manifestly cast in several examples: an identical bronze was used for

Boucheron, seeHumbert1989, repr.on pp 184,185

another Egyptian Reviva[ c]ock.: in ]985, the set was said to

1989,1ot 165, repr

Seethe mantelpiece set in the sale,Sotheby's,London, 2 November

have been commissioned by the French government as a

gift to the Khedive on the occasionof his visit to the Universal Exposition of 1878.As it was finished only in 1879, the set was never delivered. More recently it has been suggested that the gift was destined for the Khedive's much

publicized visit to the Universal Exposition of 1867 The

absenceof documentationleavesthe issueunresolved,but

310

SelectedReferences: Gazette de t' h6tet Dtouot, n.o. \6

(18October1985), p.27,repr.; Humbert 1987/1990,vol. ll no. 709; Humbert 1989, p. 182, repr.

Bonaparte Entering Cairo Jean-Leon G6r6me (1824 1904)

1897 1903 Gilt bronze, patinated bronze, wood

Bronze: 41x 36 cm; overall height: 109cm Incised on right front of equestrian statue base

/.L. G£r6mr;foundry mark on left front of base:

.

Szo/Fo/zdfar Park; Dedicatory plaque: (Weir a M. Maxlme Duval au bom de la Soci6t6 G6n6lale par la direction, les chefs de service du siege central, les

cflefs dessaccursales de Paris et de Province et Leurs

prittcipaax collaborateurs'

Toronto, collection of Joeyand Toby Tanenbaum

bpCfaction du giinCral ltonapitttc cn rent"nlr.\nt. au milieu .I

B\g. 2 51. Tbe Astotlisbment of Genera! Bo+zaParte on Etlcoantering, in tbe h\iddle af tbe Desert, a Colossal Statue n/Nal)otfon I

An anonymous pastiche of the painting by Jean-Leon G6r6me

Provenance:

Purchasedon the New York art market in 1985;

originally in the Harding Museum,Chicago. Exhibited in Ottawa and Vienna At the Paris Salon of 1897, G6r6me exhibited his bronze of Bo/zaParfc?En/erz 2g Cairo (21 July 1798). which wns immedi:

ately purchasedby the State.2This work. originally lilac'nded merely as a pleasing portrayal of a viclurious general, has

taken on an entirely different dimension in its presentversion. The horseman is boldly combined with an Egyptian temple, somewhat as if it were meant to be the scale model

464

Confirmations of Permanence

3b:

R

Fig. 258. Jean-Lion G6r6me, OeZz)zzs,i886, oil on canvas Hearst San Simeon State Historical Monument, California

Campaign was in popular culture (seefig. 257). It expresses Ehe importance that the collective unconscious attached

retrospectively to this meeting between two giants, the

civilization of ancient Egypt and the future emperor Napoleon.sProfoundly marked by his travels in Egypt, G6r6me made no mistake in choosing the encounter between Bonaparte and the Sphinx of Giza as the subject of

his 0' :P#' (fig. 258).' 1.-M.H Maxime Duval(1840

1912), assistant manager of the "Soci6t6

G6n6rale," was appointed director on 10 March 1903, after thirty

yearsof service[o the bank. On 13 March, as a token of their esteem,his colleaguestook up a collection to provide him with a souvenirof his appointment. I wish to thank Mr. Benoit Mariotte, Archives et H.istoire de la Soci6t6G6n6rale. for his researchon this s«bject. ?

Anonymous, Erp/;ccz/;o/zf&'f oaz'zzzges..., Paris, 1897, p. 285, no. 2987 (Salon; national

collections

inv.

RF 1382); Vesoul

1981, no. 189

(inv. 1178, S6nat); Ackerman 1986b, p. 86, fig. 12 3

See the example of this bronze in the Musee Bertrand, Chateauroux, surrounded by a grill topped with lotus and papyrus (inv.4889)

4

On

the

wa\\s\

Menoa,

Bertha!!et,

Fourier/Lannes,

LaTTe'y,

Mal-at/Ktgber, Denoa, Re'ynier/Desaix, Mange, Bal'agar' d'Hitliers\ on the {lteze\ Gaza, }affafLe Mont Thabor, Aboukir/Aiexa?lorie. Les P'ylamides/Le Caine, E! Arise 5

Humbert 1990a,pp.31--37.

6

Paris, Salon of 1886, no. 1042

SelectedReferences: Ackerman 1986a,no. S38/B4

311

Egyptian Stool, called ''Thebes Stool" London, Liberty and Co. c. 1884

of somehypotheticalmausoleum.This was not the 6lrst

Mahogany, decorated turned legs, leather seat

time that Egyptianizing additions were made to the statuette,'

36 cm high x 44 cm wide London, Victoria and Albert Museum

but the others had never been so substantial or so tall, or contained such a profusion of symbolic narrative elements.

(circ.439 1965)

A woodenEgyptiankiosk madeof slx compositecolumns decorated with capitals and winged disks in gilt bronze housesa winged victory, also in bronze, dominating a small

Liberty's Furnishing and Decorating Studio was founded in 1883by Leonard Wyburd, who immediately had the idea

scribe who is supposedly writing a panegyric to the conqueror.

to copy antique originals from the British Museumand

The names of the future emperor's associatesare inscribed on the walls between the columns, as those of his victories

make them widely available. This was the origin of two

had been on the base of the statuette.4

The wealth of detail did not obscurethe statuette's

Egyptian stools, one with three legs, the other a more elabo-

rate four-legged model, reproducing the stool in the British Museum ' (cat. 205).

messageat the time: lust one century after the Egyptian

The design was registered with the Patent Office

Campaign, this ambitious composition showed lust how strong the link was between the person of Bonaparte and ancient Egypt, and how solidly entrenched the Egyptian

in 1884ar)d began appearing in the Liberty cataloguesthe

same year. The stool could be ordered in walnut, mahogany, or oak, with a seat of leitther or rosewood slats;;

Confirmations of Permanence

465

Veranda Seat with Egyptian Figure

312

Manufactured by Brown-Westhead, Moore and Co., Shelton, England c. 1880

Earthenware with cream, light blue, light green

and dark blue glazes 57 x 42 cm Incised on base: TC'. Brompz

Westhead. Moore& Co. Collection of Prince Sadruddin Agf\ Khan Provenance: Fine Art Society, London

The Shelton factory, founded by Job Ridgway in 1802, began to produce high-quality ceramics around 1875 in

addition to the usualkitchenware. The manufacturers mark on the base Indicates ;\ period from 1862to 1904,' but

the style suggeststhe piece should be dated from the late nineteenth century.

The design of this seated young woman, whose l\n Egyptian-style cushion was optional. A model with a back was also available.3

This stool is somewhat related to Holman Hunt's Egyptian chair of almost thirty years earlier(cat.

204),

although it is impossible to say whether the idea for this adaptation came directly from that source. It should nonethelessbe noted that the Hunt chair, reproducedby

arms crossedover her raised kneesserveto support the seat, derives from the ancient Egyptian pseudo-block-statue,but the body's contours and costume are much more distinctly delineated in this instance. The lotuses and w/afzli cobras lend an even more Egyptian character to the front.

This item wasavailableeither all in white, or highlighted in one or more colou rs.

Millais in one ofhis pictures, was well-krlown at the time.

However,the Liberty stool wasalsolinked to the Egyptian trend that spread through England after the opening of the Suez Canal. In 1873, Christopher

Dresser '

showed how well designed the form of Egyptian chairs

was; and one of his students, J. Moyer Smith, reproduced

the antique seatsin the British Museum.SThe Egyptian

J.-M.H.

Le No eau Dan(heft, Manuel de la porcelaineetu'op6enne,Frlbouig. 1973, PP. 419-20.

Exhibitions Brighton/Manchester 1983 no.239.

table created by Edward William Godwin in 1876,' which

exemplifiedthe sametype of designas the stool and was sold in large numbers, also did much to sustain the fashion

for this kind of objectin Victorian England J.-M.H.

313

Pilgrim Flask

BM2472. 2. Brighton/Manchester

1983, no. 220

3. This chair is attributed to Liberty (William Morris Gallery, WalLhamsLow, London); Brighton/M.Inchesrer 1983, no. 222 and Ottilinger 1989, pp. 76-84. 4. Dresser 1873,fig. 23, cited in Ha16n 1990,p. 68 5. "Ancient Egyptian Furniture," .Ba;/d;ng /VetPI, 17 December 1875, cited by Stayton, in Yonkers 1990, p. 9

466

josiah Wedgwood and Sons

c. 1877 78 Earthenware with incised slip decoration with

gilded highlights Marks: WEDGFr00Z) 4 and indistinct date-letters,

probablyJ7RFfor 1877

6. Now in the Victoria and Albert Museum,London.

29 cm high London, British Museum, Department of Medieval

SelectedReferences: Gilbert 1971,p. 741; Stephen Ashley on furniture in Calloway 1992,PP.76-77.

and Later Antiquities(1983, ll 4.2)

Confirmations of Permanence

Exhibited in Paris and Vienna

Confirmations of Permanence

467

Confirmations of Permanence

Cat.313(back)

Fig.2S9. Vase Designed by Christopher Dresser, c. 1870 Minton Museum, Royal Doulton Company:

Stoke-on-Trent

One side of this decorative vase features ;m Egyptian head

This \ ase is a typical example of the periodic levi\ als

vaguely reminiscent of the one on a plate displayed at the

of Egyptian styling in Wedgwood production; moreover,

1867Universal Exposition (cat. 217), while the other side depicts a scarab. The designs are treated in tones of cream,

the firm did not hesitate to reissue its older models (see cat. 315)

J.-M.H

red-brown, and black, with gilt highlights. Each motif is surrounded by an "isis" border of flowers and lotus buds; this frieze was created by Christopher

Dresser ' around

1875.when he was working for a neighbouring factory and competitor Minton, where he put forward quite similar designs (see flg. 259).: The

foot and the odd cube-shaped

neck are also decorated with scarabsand lotus blossoms The attribution

of the decoration

to Albert

Tofu; is

basedprimarily on a plaquesignedby him, which also

1. Christopher Dresser (1834 1904)had desigEleda plate for Owen Jones' G;a/nma; cf O/namco/ (Lorldon 1856),and in 1862, had pub

listed TAf ,4//cfDrfo/aziuf Dc'zg/z,thenestof hisfour workson rhe subject, in which he echoed Owen Jonesin arguing for rhe life ol Egyptian art in interior decoration and furniture 2. Reilly 1989, p. 96. 3. Rudoe 1991, pp. 121--22.

4. Reilly1989, p. 163,fig. 5. Daw,son 1984

depictsan Egyptian woman in profile.' However, there is so much difference in style and in the treatment of the model that it is impossible to consider the two piecesas rhe work of the sameartist. Taft's piece is hieratic in style and faithful to the Egyptian spirit, and his composition is perfectly centred;

while the Pilgrim Flask is characterizedby imagination, adaptation to the current mode, and a headdressflattened againstthe edge of the frieze. Consequently, I believe that the previous attribution of this Pilgrim Flask to Frederick Rheadsshould not be entirely ruled out.

468

Confirmations of Permanence

Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences:

Paris 1878.

7'4e Soczf/y o/'H/zj... , 1879,

p. 90; Dawson 1984,pp. 143--44 fig. 105; Reilly 1989, vol. ll, p. 97; Rudoe 1991,no. 309, pp.121--22 and 162--63

314

Wall Plaque Josiah Wedgwood and Sons; decorated by Thomas Allen (1831--1915) 1878

Cream-coloured ceramic, painted 38.5 cm (diam.)

Marks: signed 7: ,4//fn. /878 on the front; impressedon the back: }t'Z?Z)Glr00Z). with date-letters G/7F for 1877and the lerte, l? London, British Museum, Department of Medieval and Later Antiquities(1983, 6--2.1) Exhibited in Paris and Vienna.

quite similar to the onesChristopher Dresserusuallv designed.

ThomasAllen worked for Minton for many years beforejoining the Wedgwoodfactory in 1875.He became its artistic director in 1878, and his works were exhibited on

several occasions,notably at the Universal Exposition of 1878in Paris. His composition, particularly in such aspects as the vacant gaze of the Egyptian woman, is reminiscent of some of Edwin Long's figures; like Long, Allen embellished

the scenewith a touch of fashionableeroticism, but this alone would scarcelybe enough to sustain our interest if the overall piece were not enhanced by the vivid colours that add so much to its appeal.

In front of a papyrus-decorated hanging is a young woman

J.-M.H

in a sort of /zfmri headdress;clothed only in a skirt she standson one foot and holds aWa&f//um in one hand as she juggles three oranges with the other. In the background, we

seethe head and hindquarters of a sphinx burkd deep in

the greenery.The "Isis" border surrounding the sceneis

SelectedReferences: Dawson 1984,pp. 142--43, col. PI. 15 b; Reilly 1989, vol. ll.

P. 97; Rudoe 1991,no. 310. PP.122,164

Confirmations of Permanence

469

315

Inkstand Josiah Wedgwood and Sons c. 1875 Glazed faience

12.7x 31 x l0.7 cm

Impressed: }rfDGlr00D; mark:X/035painted in red The nozzle on the crocodile's head and the lids of the two pots are missing Barlaston, Wedgwood Museum(9002)

From 1775on, the Wedgwoodand Bentleyfirm acquired a solid reputation as makers of inkstands. While the factory

continually modified rhe components,in each new model we find more or lessthe same pols, rearranged in a variety of settings This Egyptian-style inkstand has a boat as its base. The prow is decorated with a griffin's head and the stern with the head of a crocodile. Two pots, one for sand and the

other for qui[[ pens,flank a small canopic]ar.which is the inkpot, decorated with the usual winged disks and other ornamentation typical of Wedgwood. This canopic ]ar, first produced around 1805, is remarkable for rhe design of its

/?fmf.f;insteadof having the usual horizontal stripeson ns

earlier "canopic moulds" (seecat. 92) and may perhapsbe

derivedfrom the canopiccoffeepot createdby the Vienna porcelainfactory in 1792(cat.175).

The inkstandis a re-issueof a modelthat was

alreadyvery popular at the beginning of the nineteenth centurv. when it was made in black basalt with russoantics decorations'

(fig.

260) or in creamware.:

The one shown

here. with its brilliantly coloured glaze in turquoise, dark

blue, yellow, and dark orange, is a good reflection of the mode of the times. The decoration repeats Wedgwood's usual ornamental

grammar

(winged

disks, lotus

flowers?

papyrusplants, and false hieroglyphs). In fact, a renewed

interestin the tastefor things Egyptianwas sp'rked in 1875.after the Khedive sold sharesin the SuezCanal to

England.'J.-M.H. 1. Allen 1962, PP. 65--88; Allen 1981, PP.42--71; Reilly 1989, vol. ll P.445 (c. 1805)

2. Reilly 1989, \ol. 11, P. 490(c. 1810). 3. Reilly1989, vol.11,P.96. SelectedReferences

Reilly 1989,vol. 11,P. 387

sides. the headdress falls in vertical folds. This combination

of three-part wlg and /zfmei is the sameone copied.by Montfaucon from the Vi]]a Albans canopic ]ar (seecat. 9])

Fig.

It had previouslybeenusedby Wedgwoodonly in the

Josiah Wedgwood and Sons, c. 1805

260.

I

s/.zpzd

Black basalt and russoantics Wedgwood Museum, Barlaston

3iG-3i7 Recumbent Manufacture

Lion

and Z.A,4zz&/z

de Sdvres

c. 1886

GeorgesVogt ' and Charles Lauth ' to produce a paste, which would beartheir name,that wascapableof holding

Soft-pasteporcelain(moulded lion) UsAa&/z:10cm high; lion: 15.5cm long

denser colours such as Canton enamels; this occurred shortly before the development of the "new porcelain.

Sdvres, Musee National de C6ramique (MNC 12 994 and 12 996)

The date at which the Museum acquired thesetwo copiesgives us no indication of the period of manufacture According to analyses by Francoise Treppoz at the Sivres factory,' the pastesthat were used contained large amounts

Provenar)ce:

Former collection of factory; transferred to the museum,

1906.

of quartz and cristobalite ("glasspaste").The technique allowed the turquoise blue to hold, but it necessitated a material that was not very malleable and was difficult to

The themes treated in thesetwo piecesare neither new nor

work: researchwould continuein the ensuingyearsin an

original.To find, at the end of the nineteenthcentury,yet

attempt to improve its composition. The absenceof lead in the glazed shows that these pieces cannot be the work of Salvetat; consequently, the examination of the paste and

another reproduction of the Egyptian lions in Rome known

as the "lions of the Cordonata" here in the form ofa paperweight may seem surprising, considering that

its glaze allows us to postulate a date of manufacture of

sphinxesor amulets might well hitve madefor much more evocative works. The present object demonstrates the

about1886.

enduring popularity of the lions dating way back to the

l

J.-M.H

time when Wedgwood first created more realistic versions

L. 10.The pieceof pipe protruding from the lion's mouth confirms

in black basalt.'Clearly, the lions, which had always been considered eminently representative of ancient Egypt, were

still regarded very much in this way as rhe nineteenth century drew to a close. The zfiAzz&/z is the re})reduction of an equally popular ancient form.: The real interest of theseworks lies in their colour.

that it was copied from one nf [he lions of the Cordonata in Rome, which were transformed 2

3. 4.

which was an attempt to come as close as possibleto the celebrated Egyptian blue. From the beginning of the century,

artists had been fascinated by this colour (seecat. 140). In the 1880s,Theodore Deck succeededin producing a striking

the Sivres factory had also kept up its researchin this field,

and while Brongniart mentions that none of their ex-

into a fountain

in 1588.

Seefor example the funerary figure ofHor-teb dating front the end of the Late Period (self-enamelling paste);Musee d'Art et d'Histoire,

Geneva(MF 1513) Humbert 1989,p. 220. Brongniart 1887(reprinted with notes and additions by Salvetat), Book ll,p.771

5. 6.

Chief chemist(active1846-80) Chief chemist,then technicaldirector (1891 1909)

7.

Administrator of the museum and the factory (1879 87).

8.

In October 1993.I w,ishto thank FrancoiseTreppoz and Antoine

blue that was named after him and which he used on a small Egyptian-style cat,Jamong other works. Meanwhile,

Allen 1981, p. 48; Reilly 1989, vol. 1, p. 462 and vol. 11, Appendix

d'Albis for their researchand the expensive information they have provicieci 9.

With the exception of an identical mi#aat/, registered under the same classification mark but of a satiny grey colour

periments was successful,' his successors,among them

SelectedReferences

Alphonse-Louis Salverat,scontinued the quest. But it took

Bult& 1981,pl. XXlll, b

Confirmations of Permanence

47

318

Jardiniere This jardiniere, by no meansthe only exampleof Egyptomania

emile Gal16(1846 1904)

in Gal16's work ' (see fig. 261 263), is a fusion of rhe canons

Model created in 1881

of Egyptian

23x 46.5x l0.5cm Ceramic. insectsand floral motifs in barbotine, glazed polychrome decoration beneath transparent glazep.dld hlacli und.r .he base:f. Ga/// / E' + G / d(#oi/; old label under the base:E. Ga//J / Aranry

Paris,Mus&e d'Orsay(OA0 603)

reinterpretation

and

this, the rendering of ancient Egypt that appe'rs here calls for some explanation

Vultu,es, falcons, and cobras were the three most

frequently utilized animals in the repertoire,after the famous freezesdrawn by Denon and popularized by Egyptomania. They are usually shown in profile and the birds

havetheir wingsextendedin front in a crossed positionso

Provenance:

Purchasedat the Art Nouveau sale,Hotel Rameau, Versai[[es, ] 8 October

art, their.Pn-de-s;ac/e

reation, and the artist's own unique style. Becauseof

1981, 1ot 55.

Fig. 261. emile Gal16

Jardiniet'e with Eg)ptian Bird Museede I'Ecole de Nancy

Confirmations of Permanence

that both wings arefully visible. The vulture can alwaysbe recognized by its characteristic neck; the falcon by its beak

Fig. 262. Emile GaJ16 Eg)I)tiatz Jarditiiere with PaPJrns, c Musee de I'.Ecole de Nancy

Fig. 263. Emile GaJ16 1881

[.arie Eg)ptian Jawliniete with imus Figures Musee de I'.Ecole de Nancy

Fig. 264. Uraezzsdepicted according to the canons of Egyptian design:

the female cobra is in profile, with the distended throat shown frontally

spontaneously created this curious contraction of several

figures. Given the frequent misreadingsof Egyptology

throughout the centuries, lwould incline to the first hypothesis. The side ornamentation

features lotus blossoms

and, curiously, a common, non-Egyptian scarab' with its and puffed-up crop; while the cobra is representedin the form of the arafns, the female cobra in a fury, as can be seen

under another Gal16bowl (cat. 319). The latter almost seemsto provide the solution to the puzzle posedby our

outer wings spread to reveal Egyptian vulture wings rather than the inner membranous insect wings. This composition

is anotherexampleof the integration of Egyptianart into Gal16'swork, and the harmonious alliance of the two.

jardiniere: if the animal had beendepicted in simple profile, we would not notice the distinctive feature of the distended

J.-M.H

throat; according to the rules of Egyptian design, the serpent

is representedin profile and the distendedthroat shown

Althoughwork of this kind seemto havebeenlimited to theperiod

frontally (see fig. 264). For the designers of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries who copied thesefigures, the distinc-

Huston, Ponton, and Charpentier 1984,p. 119,no. 108;Thi6baut in

tion was a difhcult one, and the falcon and the cobra were

quickly confused.This is the origin, in inept reproductions, of falcons with pointed nosesand cobraswith beaks. In the present instance, the composition is equally strange and mixed-up. The creature is undeniably a cobra, becausethe shape of the tail is well delineated, albeit with scalesresembling a rattlesnake's.But the head is obviously that of a bird, although not a falcon, for it lacks the curved beak; the wings, which meet symmetrically in front, are a Gal16innovation ol] Egyptian models. We can thus speculate as to whether, despite all of Gal16'snotesand studies of scientific works,: he might have beenmisled by an inaccurate source,or whether he himself

1880 84, with new editions in 1889,and Further exhibitions in 1900 Paris 1985--86, p. 113; see also Munich 1980, nos. 155--157 and 191.

Other Egyptianizing pieceswould appear under the Gal16name around 1925. Philippe Thi6baut in Paris 1985 86, pp. 112 13 cites the then recent work by Prisse d'Avennes

(17zi/oz'rede /'4r/ {gyp/z'en d'apr ; /rl

monzzmfnZT, Paris, 1878);but it has been shown conclusively that for

many years the oldest reference works, including 18th-century

ones,continued to be consulted by artists who were unable to discern in which areas Egyptology was making advances On Gal16's fondness for scarabs, see cat. 319

Exhibitions: Paris 1985--86,no. 32

SelectedReferences Thi6baut in Paris 1983, no. 41 1, pp. 98--99; Thi6baut

1993,P.98.

3i9 Bowl Emile Gal16 (1846 1904) c. 1884

Ceramic, barbotine, in-glaze polychrome decoration

beneath transparent glaze, gold highlights 13.6 x 17.6 x 13 cm

side, an Egyptian head in a vulture headdress, on the other, a scarab. This insect and its representation by the Egyptians

always fascinatedGal16,and he reproduced it in other compositions. He once voiced his admiration in a speech:"We do not know the name of the splendid artist-philosopher,

Signature embossedon the underside:Ga//r /

sculptor,royal goldsmith, priest, or decorator who, having

Feat r Nancy / D4pos6/ EG, in a cartouche Paris, private collection

stopped to contemplate the handiwork of a grubby insect,

the dung beetle,as it kneaded a ball of dung to bury it in

Marcel Tessiercollection, sale,H.6tel Drouot, Paris,

the warm Libyan sand and lay its eggs there, was moved tu religious awe. He was the Horstto perceive, beyond mere appearances,the reflection therein of an august image, and

16 June 1978, 1ot 51; sale, Hotel Drouot, Paris,

to invent

28 June 1982, 1ot 125.

and very ancient precognition, one might sn), ul rhe shape of our own planet; here indeed is a syml)t)I that is .artistic,

Provenance:

that

mystical

jewel,

zfe iczcrfd

scczrcza ... a strange

With a tortured shapethat has nothing Egyptian about it, this bowl is remarkable for its complex ornamentation

cosmographic, religious, and prescient."' We note, however,

combining clusters of coins with medallions bearing

scarabdiffers from its ancestorsin its colouring(mauve,

Egyptianizing designs

green,blue, and brown) and particularly in its many gold-

and for its tmusual base.

Each of the two principal sidesdisplaysa large

motif in relief inscribedwithin a serratedcircle:on one

Chatalthough it is clearly inspired by ancient Egyl)t, this

embellished details, which are of course a far cry from the ancient stylization.

Confirmations of Permanence

473

Fig. 265. 1fmile Gal16 Egyptian Jarditzie .e u:ith A\edaltions,c. \ 8$\ Musee de I'.Ecole de Nancy

Each of the two sides of the bowl bears two medallions, one on top of the other, whoseornamentation is worked in relief. Viewing them from top to bottom, on one side we see a vulture, wings lowered, flying toward the left,

and a headwith a vulture headdress looking to the right. On the other side is a vulture, wings lowered, flying toward

rhe right, and

unexpectedly

a winged Assyrian bull.

Two of thesemedallions,the vulture flying to the left and the head, were re-used by Gal16 on a handled cup.;

Surprisingly,in addition to the usualsignatures, Lhe base is decorated u,ith a wlczemiwith crossed wings,

Fig..266. Detail of the signature, on the bottom of the bowl (cat. 3 19)

whose tail bears a strange resemblance to a tentacle covered

with suckers;this curious,hidden figure seemsalmost to provide a clue to the ridd]e of the ]881jardinidre(cat. 318). Ga116den went so far as to inscribe his signature "E + G" within a double-banded onl) rhe closing bi\nds.'

pharaonic cartouche that lacks

The varied colours, predominantly a rangeof blues

\rl.I blue-greys,RFtt'nhancedby the generoususeof gold

flmile Gal16, acceptance speech, Acad6mie de Stanislav, 17 May 1900, entitled Lf I)/for iym&o/zq e (Gall& 1900, p. 6; Gall& 1908 p 214),cited by Thi&baut in Paris 1985 86, p. 123 [aur trans]ation]. Other scarabs decorate a jardiniere (see fig. 261) in the Musee de I'Ecole de Nancy at Nancy; Hudson, Parton, and Charpentier 1984 p. 119, no. 107.

highlighting. None of this is very Egyptian, especiallysince

Munich 1980,no. 155

the motifs, more particularly thosethat havebeendrawn on

An identical signatureis found on the baseof the jardiniere

the Egyptian heads, are essentially of Japaneseinspiration:

mentioned in footnote 2 above

mis bowl is thus an excellent exampleof the stylistic hybrids that were common at the time.

r.-M.H

474

L

Confirmations of Permanence

Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences

Paris 1985--86, no. 41

Thi6baut

1993, p. 99

Finger Bowl

320

Silber and Fleming, Lor)don

number 5055 in one of these catalogues(fig. 267),:which

c. 1882

Wendy Evans: datesto circa 1882from referencesto medals

Etched glass

won at international expositions;the servicehad already

7.3x 12.5cm Cambridge, The Fitzwilliam

Museum

(C.3-1976, K 5285)

disappeared from the general catalogue by 1885.

Even though the sphinx used as the basisof the ornamentation has nothing in common with thosedesigned

in 1880by GeorgeJ. Vulliamy to flank Cleopatra'sNeedle

Provenance: Purchased on the London art market.

This finger bowl, decoratedwith four stylized sphinxes facing each other in pairs and separatedby bouquetsof

(theAlexandrianobeliskerectedin Londonin 1878),this set of glassware was obviously a direct result of the wave of

Egyptomania that swept over London with the arrival of Ehe new

monument.

J.-M.H.

lotuses, was part of a set of Egyptian-style glassesmarketed

by the firm of Silber and Fleming.

Ten of thesecataloguesare availablefor consultation in the librarv

The company, which specialized in the wholesale

of the Victoria and Albert Museum, at)d another, devoted to silver-

and import-export of household articles, also manufactured combined gas and oil lamps. It was founded in 1856 by Albert Marcius Silber, who soon went into partnership with

ware, is in the Guildhall Library, London

another merchant, Noble Hutchinson Fleming. By 1860,

express my special gratitude for providing me with most of the n£iterial and referencesused to prep;tre this entry.

they were already established as wholesalers at 56 1/2 Wood

rZf Sz/&fr and F/f/ming G/aSJa/zd CAzna Bode, p. 124 (reprinted in

1990by Wordsworth Editions Ltd)

Curator at the Museum of London, to whom I would like to

Street in London. Their businessquickly flourished and they set up Paris outlets, in the Rue de Parades in 1872 and

rhe Rue de Chabrol in 1883.The latter outlet closedin 1890, and in 1900 the firm was bought by Faudel, Phillips

andSons.

Exhibitions: Cambridge

SelectedReferences: 1978, no. 316;

Brighton/Manchester

no.241

1983,

Cambridge 1978, p. 121 Humbert 1989,p. 187

Silber and Fleming published extensive,specialized catalogues

for retailers.i

The Egyptian

service appears as

.a Fig.267.Egyptian Service

:n:l iik :

ltk

:: :ltl"l:zfZ ';:. Confirmations of Permanence

475

321

Jug Stephen Smith (1822 1890) 1873

Silver gilt

22.9x 20.3cm Hallmark for London 1873;maker'smark of Stephen Smith; stamped: GOZ.DSA//7'/1S

ALLIANCE LIMITED CORNH}LL LONDON London, Victoria and Albert Museum (M. 36 1972) Provenance Purchasedin

1972

Smith, the grandson of Benjamin Smith(see cat. 18]),

continuedin the London family hrm until it was soldin 1886.Compared to the earlier work, this very simple lug published by Simon Jervis in the catalogueof the 1974exhibition in Ottawa, offers an interesting contrast in concepts ofdesign

The body of the jug was most probablyderived from the reproductionof an Egyptianvasewith a spout, examples of which were published by Denon and in the Z)firrz/)/zo/z d'/;gypre.' The decoration, with a winged disk

and the serpentsof Re,is contained within two mouldings The jug has a close counterpart in a silver jug by

the firm Thomas Bradbury and Sons Ltd. of Sheffield, in the Fitzwilliam Museum, Cambridge.; The latter lacks the

Egyptian decoration but, interestingly, also has a London hallmark for 1873.3The connection between the two is not clear but it seems Stephen Smith & Son supplied silver to retailers and may have been retailers themselves for items from other manufacturers. A Bradbury child's can marked London 1874 and engraved S/ePAf// Sm//A & So// was sold in 1980.4

M.P 1. Dfsrrzp/zo/z d'f#ypzf, \-ol. [ 11,p]. 66. no. 5.

2. M. 1

1976.

3. F;/z&p;//&/n A/a.ream, Ca/n&/';dge..., Cambridge,n.d.,p. 10,pl. IX 4. Culme 1987, vol. 1, p. 424, citing a sale catalogue, Sotheby's Belgravia, I May 1980,1ot 56.

Exhibitions Ottawa 1974,no. 81, repr

476

Confirmations of Permanence

322

Scarab Brooch Edwin William Streeter 1870

Gold 4.4 cm (diam.)

Stampedon the back:Z?.}HS./8r/ London, British Museum, Department of Medieval

andLater Antiquities Hull Grundy

Gift (no. 949)

Provenance:

Hull Grundygift Exhibited in Paris and Vienna

A winged scarabcarrying the sun'sdisk skyward is the central motif of this brooch, a good example of the "archaeological" style initiated by Castellanl (seecat. 219). Produced from a

gold sheetby the stamping method, the beetlecloselyfol-

lows Egyptian models representingthe god Khepri, the

stylized frieze of leavesand plants in filigree Less well-known

than his contemporaries, J. Broaden,

Carlo Giuliano, Robert Phillips, and T. and J. Briggs, who p'oduced works of Egyptian inspiration in England, Edwin

William Streeteralsoseemsto be the authorof an

personificationof the rising sun (cat. 365).The motif. com-

Egyptianizing set of jewellery, also in stampedgold,

mon in pharaonic art, could easily have been copied from

consisting of a brooch and earrings.

paintings on a sarcophagusor perhaps from a funerary

c.z

papyrus in the British Museum.

While the 1862exhibition in London of the treasure

1. H.inks 1975,pl. 65 d

of QueersAh-hotep played a decisiverole in searingthe fashion for Egyptlanizing jewellery, this type of jewel, its technique, and the way the decorative schemeis conceived.

have nothing in common with ancient examples.The

Exhibitions: Brighton/Manchester 1983, no.265.

machine-worked decoration, spread concentrically around

Conner in Brighton/Manchester 1983, p. 113,no. 265; fait and Gere

1983,pl. 23; Gere, Rudoe, Tait, and Wilson 1984, no. 949, p. 145

the scarab,alternatescircles of twisted gold wire and a

323

Selected References:

Egyptian-style Parure Emile Philippe 1878

Exhibited in Paris at the 1878Universal Exposition, this set

atteststo the vitality of the Egyptianizing trend, which

Gold-plated silver; enamels; red and green jasper; beige stone

becameevident in jewellery from the middle of the cen.fury

Necklace: 22 cm (max. diam.)

play upon a profusion of Egyptian motifs centring on two

Brooch: 6.8 x 5.1 cm

Earrings:4.7x 1.8cm Bracelet: 3.8 x 18 cm Ma rk on the clasp: PAz/zppe c ParzfdlpoJ/ Paris, Musee des Arts D6coratifs(D 21) Provenance:

Shown at the Universal Exposition, Paris, 1878;

gift of EmilePhilippe,1878.

inwards. The present necklace,brooch, bracelet, and earrings main

themes: the scarab -- which

had already been in use

for decades and a more recently introduced element, the

cartouche, which generally enclosed the name of the pharaoh. Without faithfully reproducing the forms of Egyptian jewellery, the artist has tried to retain their spirit,

particularly in the necklace,which is vaguelyreminiscentof the broad nsfw/b collar whose multiple strands sometimes included elaborately shaped beads. The necklace of Queen

Ah-hotep, discovered by Marietre and exhibited in 1862in London and in 1867 in Paris, is a good example of this type.

Confirmations of Permanence

477

Meryenmut, repeat an element of the necklace, set off b) tu Qall hhs The central motif of the brooch is a scarab.It rests on a basket, its bright scarlet standing out in sharp contrast

againsta gold setting trimmed with stylized foliage.It is flanked by two winged cobraswearing crowns of Hathor and accompaniedby a profusion of diverse symbols: two acai

sceptres,and a solar disk oddly inhabited by a bee rising above the horizon, between two mountains. Fig. 268. T#e N;#e Baa/s

Friezeof captivesportraying the lands dominated by the King of Egypt, reproduced on the base of a colossalstatueof Amenhotep lll Musee du Louvre, D6par cement des Antiquit6s Egypriennes, Paris

Our piece alternates modern scarabs

hieroglyphs on their backs

with false

and royal cartouchesflanked

either by z//afui cobras or by ostrich feathers. It constitutes a

veritableBookd'z,forKlngr (2/'/4iig6h6dltl.S4'imming Girl Middle of Eighteenth Dynasty (c. 1425 1379B.C.)

collar with a floral design. The childlike face, eyeshighlighted

Carob wood 34 x 7 cm

with black paint, is topped by a wig of radiating locks. This graceful work illustrates the feminine ideal of the reign of

Paris, Musee du Louvre, D6partement des

Amenhotep 111,an ideal of adolescentbeauty.The discreet eroticism is accentuatedby the emphasison the hair, the

Antiquit6sEgyptiennes (N 1704)

amorous symbolism of which is confirmed by New Provenance:

Kingdom texts and representations.

Purchase at the Gastard sale, 1834.

Exhibited in Paris.

In her extendedarms, a slender young swimmer holds a

containerin the shapeof a royal cartouche,engravedwith three fish each with a lotus in its mouth. The girl is wearing

only jewellery: a belt decoratedwith beadsand a broad

c.z

1. Zivie 1988, p. 191, no. 34

Exhibitions: Cleveland/Fort Worth 1992--93 Paris 1993.

SelectedReferences:

Vandierd'Abbadie 1972, p. 13; Cleveland/Fort Worth 1992--93. p 333, fig. XI.5; Paris 1993,p. 293

Tutankhamun and Art Deco

545

Cosmetic Spoon, ''Young Girl Picking Lotuses"

375

I Eighteenth Dynasty, probably the Reign of \ ,;=:==i:.'ifi &.'hbO:iii2' B C.) \

r '

/ /

their

long stemsemerging from the wavy surfaceof a marsh

Wood

With a senseof movement quite exceptional in Egyptian

20 x 5.5 cm

art, the sculptor: has captured the girlat the precise

Paris, Musee du Louvre,

D6partement

\

r xl

The young girl is seen in profile, gathering lotuses

; iil:;'£;i,IT.li..:'(&

17su

des

moment when she bends to grasp the stems in both hands,

her left foot llfLing slightly off the ground. Her gracefulsil houette stands out against a cluster of lotlis leaves, flowers,

Provenance: Salt collection; acquired in 1826.

and buds whose hnely chiselled details were once bright enid by inlays of coloured paste.The samedelicacy of treat

ment is accorded the human figure, wearing a sashtied Exhibited in Ottawa

loosely around her brief skirt. Her face is childlike, with a

short noseand large almond-shapedeyes,the braided tresses

of her wig flow down on either side.The lightnessof this bucolic sceneis accentuatedby the openwork, and contrasts with the bulkier form of the upper part of the object. The oval bowl of the spoon resemblesan avocadoand rests on a cluster of lotus flowers. The overall shape suggests the

silhouette of the .zn4f, the hieroglyph for "lift."' The small

holecut in the lower part of the receptacle held the tenon on which the cover, now lost, once turned

The image of the girl or young woman in the

marshgoesback to the most ancient times and survived into the New Kingdom and Late periods.From the time of the pyramids,

the decorations

in funeral

chapels

or maizczZ"zi

frequently portrayed the deceasedwoman, female relatives, or domain personifications engagedin gathering papyrlis or

returning from the marshesladen with flowers or water-

fowl.' Only a very small numberof thesesceneshavebeen

definitely linked to the rite of "shakingthe papyrus"in honour of the goddess Harbor.

c.z

Compare withhieroglyph M 16,in Gardiner1969, p. 545 Kozloff in Cleveland/Fort Worth 1992--93,p. 353, no. 80. Gardiner

1969, hieroglyph

S 34, p. 546.

Harpur 1987. Ziegler 1979, p. 37.

Exhibitions: Cleveland/Fort Worth 1992--93 Paris 1993.

SelectedReferences Vandier d'Abbadie 1972,p. 17; Seipel 1975,pp. 375--76,fig. 372b Boston/Baltimore

1982--83,

p 208, no. 3; Cleveland/

FortWorth1992--93, p.353, no. 80; Paris 1993,p. 310.

546

Tutankhamun and Art Deco

376

Perfume Bottle for ''Chypre '' by Bichara Baccarat, Bureau de Style 1913 Moulded

and matted crystal (stopper)

clear cut

crystal with bevelled sides (body)

15x 5.2 cm (diam. at base) Trademark on bottom edge Paris,Cristalleries de Baccarat In 1913,the Baccarat glassware firm began producing various

typesof bottles decoratedwith the headsof pharaohsfor rhe Bichara company These were distinguished by their resemblanceto the features of Mr. Bichara himself.i The bottles confirm the ongoing popularity of Egyptian themes

in the years preceding the discovery of the tomb of Tutankhamun. J.-M.H. Baccarat, Pacons de i)arfam , \ 986, p. 84.

236 and p. 129, nos. 448

and 451 SelectedReferences Baccala{, Pacotis de pa fan

1986(reprinted 1993).

8

+

Fig. 313. Bichara perfume bottle, 1913

Working drawings Baccarat,Archives de la Compagnie des Cristalleries

Fig. 3 14. Cristalleries de Baccarat Bichara perfume bottle, 1913

Fig. 3 15. Bichara perfume bottle, 1920

Musee du Flacon a Parfum, La Rochelle

Baccarat, Archives de la Compagnie

Working drawings des Cristalleries

Tutankhamun and Art Deco

547

377

Perfume Bottle for "Le Secret du sphinx '' by Ramses Baccarat, Bureau de Style 1917

Moulded and matted crystal (stopper); blown moulded, cut, and engraved crystal (body) l0.5 x 5.2 cm (dram.)

Paris, Cristalleries de Baccarat

Louis de Bertalot, a Greek who had emigrated from Egypt, settled in France at the end of World War I. In Paris he founded Monne perfumes. The name waschanged to Ramses

shortly thereafter, and the label existed for three or four years

In 1917, Ramses used the canopic jar theme for a fragrance marketed as "Le Secretdu Sphinx."' Egyptian-style

bottles were popular from 1913to 1927.Jn 1927,Delettrez even produced a sphinx-shaped bottle for the "Parfumerie du

Monde E16gant"label.' J.-M.H

.'+iAV

l

B

r. &..:

RFJX.S:S

Banca}at, Pacons de patfam 1986,no.323 Banca}a!, $acons de pa da«} 1986,p.172,no.631

SelectedReferences: Baccarat, $aCOTiS de tlayfam

1986(reprinted 1993)

r

#

AMBRE otNUBIE

iKn.mara l=r'-J

Fig. 3 16. Advertisements

for Ramses perfumes,

Private collection, Paris

548

Tutankhamun and Art Deco

1919--20

Fig. 317. Ramsesperfume

Fig. 3 18. Delettrez

bottle, 1917

Working drawing

bottle, 1927 Working drawing

Baccarat. Archives de la Compagnie des Cristalleries

Baccarat, Archives de la Compagnie des Cristalleries

perfume

378

Perfume Bottle for ''Un Rove sur le Nil" by Ramses / Monne Baccarat.Bureau de Style 1919

Clear and matted crystal 12.5 x 6.5 cm (dram.)

Inscriptions: wheel-engraved at the bottom, Pa7famsde Manne Un Rapesar te Ni!--Paris/ Z,eCa;rf; under the base,Bczcc'ezra/ ]9/9

Paris,J.-M. Martin-Hattemberg The body of this bottle representsa pharaoh'shead with the standard features, nemff and false beard. The stopper is in

the shapeof two Maasostrich feathers.In 1920and 1921, the same bottle

was used for "Ramses

IV"

perfume,

sold

under the Ramseslabel. A stylized version used in 1919for Lotus sacr6" perfume already reveals Art Deco lines.

J.-M.H SelectedReferences: Baccara , $acons de pa?fum

1986 (reprinted 1993)

Fig. 319. Ramses/Monne

Fig. 320. Ramses /Monne

perfume bottle, 1919 Working drawing

perfume bottle, 1919

Baccarat, Archives de la Compagnie des Cristalleries

Baccarat, Archives de la Compagnie des Cristalleries

"Lotus sacr6

Working drawing

Tutankhamun and Art Deco

549

379

Bichara Perfume Bottle and Box Cristalleries de Saint Louis

That some of the signs were perfectly replicated

1928

was certainly a superfluous touch, for node of the fashion-

Acid-etched crystal(bottle); cardboard(box) Bottle: 20 cm high; base:7.5 x 7.5 cm

able ladies using the bottle was ever likely to check the

Box: 25 cm high; base: 9.8 x 9.8 cm

air of authenticity and distinction in keeping with the

La Tour de Peilz, Switzerland, GS Art et Collections SA

perfume's prestige.

symbols for accuracy. It did however lend the product an

J.-M.H

For producers ofluxury items, keeping up with the fashion is essential for survival. The Bichara perfume company

Seethe identical items in Loring 1979,p. 121;Ingold 1986,hg. 160

Humbert1989, p. 192

cameout with a numberof Egyptian-stylebottles(cat.376), including one in the shapeof an Egyptian obelisk. The idea was not new; packaging based on this form had been produced in England by Eugene Rimmel in 1878,the year the obelisk

from

Alexandria,

known

as "Cleopatra's

Needle,'

was erected in London. But in the Bichara model, not only Lhe box but the bottle itself was decorated with engraved,

gilt hieroglyphs The bottle is an admittedly incomplete and imperfect copy of the obelisk from Luxor on the Place de la Concorde in Paris. Amid hieroglyphic formulas that have been truncated

and madeincomprehensiblecan be seen,in the top part only, the Horus name, rhe first in the royal titulary sequence

and, here and there, cartouches enclosing the third and fourth names(king of Upper and Lower Egypt,User-Maitre, Setep-n-Re; son of the Sun, Re-Menu, Mery-amen) Fig. 321. Rejected design for a perfume bottle, undated Saint-Louis, Archives de la Compagnie des Cristalleries

'a..#.;;;?"

"::si=b+

Fig.322. Finaldesign Saint-Louis, Archives de la Compagnie des

Cristalleries

55o

Tutankhamun and Art Deco

Fig.323.Working

Fig. 324. Working

drawing, 7 February 1928

dram ing, 16 March 1928

Saint-Louis, Archives de la Compagnie des Cristalleries

Saint-Louis, Archives de la Compagnie des

Cristalleries

hh

T-l

W

M

\

U

nB

J

E

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\\

R

b

r

X

Tutankhamun and Art Deco

551

10 Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

553

Of the great female figures from the Egypt of the pharaohs, only two have secured a permanent place in the Western

mind; Isis, the universal goddess, and Cleopatra, the

absolutemonarch.Around the historical personof Cleopatra, who was as much a part of the Roman and Hellenistic civilizations asshe was of the Egyptian, a singular

accordance with a very ancient Egyptian custom she mar-

ried in succession two of her half-brothers,who were much

and enduring myth has been forged. This myth combines

younger than herself, and then succeededher father,

the bestand the worst traits, and tells us of passionand suicide,war and pleasure,wealth and cruelty,power and

accidentaldeath of the other heirs apparent.Fratricidal

divinity. Her many faceshave haunted the imagination of artists. They have been kept alive in paintings, drawings, and sculptures, as well as in music, opera, and ballet. In our own time. films. cartoons, and advertising have staked their claim to the subject.The Cleopatra myth, sustainedby novels,

Ptolemy Auletes, as sole ruler, following the more or less strife was common enough at the time, and when Cleopatra was twenty-one years old she, like her father before her, had to turn to the Romans in order to secureher kingdom. In this way she came to meet and to seduceCaesar,then a man in his fifties whose prowess with women was leg-

to it. And it shedslight on the contrastingwaysin which

endary. Was she secretly carried up to him in a carpet, to trick the guards? Plutarch's version of the story is not wholly

the West has viewed Egyptian civilization.

improbable. The couple's idyll was brief

drama, and poetry, both stimulates Egyptomania and attests

Was Cleopatra really an Egyptian? it is surely paradoxical that the Egypt of the pharaohs should be incarnated in the last of the heirs of Alexander, a Greek queen reigning in the cosmopolitan city of Alexandria in the first

century B.C. The fact must be faced:until the nineteenth century the most famous of all rhe sovereignswho ruled

stayed lessthan nine months in Egypt

the dictator

but their cruise on

the Nile caught the imagination of their contempor'r'cs (see fig. 325).' Then the queen visited Caesar in Rome,

where she remained until he was assassinatedin 44 B.C.

Meanwhile. Caesarhad had a statue of her erectedin a Roman temple in the Forum Julium, and she gave birth to

over Egypt was for Europeans neither Sesostris nor

her first son, Caesarion, who seemsto have been the

Amenhotep nor even Ramses,but Cleopatra. Hcr long line

offspring of their love.

of predecessors did not truly emergefrom historicalobscurity until 1822when hieroglyphs were first deciphered. This sounds astonishing, but only becausewe tend to forget

that we are the inheritors of Roman civilization, and Rome

sawCleopatra as the embodiment of Egypt at a critical moment when it could have gained dominion over the entire Mediterraneanworld. The opponentsof the new world order championedby Mark Antony and Cleopatra have passedon to us their image of the sovereign, an image that has undergone several metamorphoses since its genesis.

Who wasthe real Cleopatra?The besthistorians still are unable to tell us.i We will probably never really

know her, for the fragmentarysourcesfrom Antiquity, which are hard to interpret and frequently postdateher reign, are for the most part propaganda. They give us the

official version of Cleopatra's vanquisher, the Roman

Octavian. who becameemperor under the name of Augustus. The queen is depicted for us by Dio Cassius: Lucan, and Plutarch, just as she is by Virgil, Horace, and Propertius,: as an enemy of Rome, a dissolute foreigner, the ruler of an Oriental empire, and greatest anomaly of all in a society that scorned the female sex a woman wielding absolute power. One might have at least expected Caesar to

give Cleopatra a favourable mention in his writings: he is

surprisingly laconic. A critical study of the sources,how-

Having lost her protector,Cleopatra returned to Egypt where, in association with Caesarion, she governed one of the most powerful kingdoms in the ancient world. It is said that she was highly popular, for she spoke Egyptian,

observedthe religious rites of the pharaohs,' and appearsto

havehad a greaterattachmentto the country than any of her foreign predecessors.One may wonder whether, amidst

the turmoil of the civil wars that followed Caesar'sdeath, shehad any inkling that her life was to depend on two men who, after parcelling up the Roman world between them, were to engage each other in mortal combat ' Octavian, still

I youth, was Caesar'sheir and nephew, and he retained the West. Mark Antonv, a lover ofGreek culture and a fine sol-

dier. had receivedthe East. With five provinces under his rule, extending from Greece to Syria, Mark Antony formed

allianceswith the countrieson his borders.An imminent offensive against the Parthian realm made Egyptian sup-

port vitally important, so Antony, seekingto ensurethat there would be contributions of money and equipment, summoned Cleopatra to Tarsus, at the mouth of the River

Cydnus in southern Turkey. Self-interest seemsto have beenthe primary motive for this mythic encounter,which certainly wasnot the first; Antony had fought in Egypt and had been close to Caesar in Rome. For her part, Cleopatra

hopedfor a bargain that would extend the boundariesof

a careerno lessextraordinary than the destiny that artists

her kingdom; all she securedwas the elimination of her politicalenemies. The only trace of these negotiations

have fabricated for her. But before we savour the richness

retained by legend is their luxurious setting and the sudden

of their vi\nations on a theme, we will attempt to illuminate

passionthat flared up betweenthe new Dionysosand the

ever, provides a number of reference points to help explain

Ehemodel.

554

Cleopatra was born in 70 B.C., the seventh princess

to bear this name. She was the last descendantof the Macedonianline that establisheditself in Egypt after the country had beenconqueredby Alexander the Great. In

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

new Isis. Ancient authors dwell at length on the voluptuous

W

£

a

2

Fig. 325. Henri Picou, C/eaPafrrztGa//e], 1875 Engraving by Gauthier Musee Goupil, Bordeaux(90.1.2.520)

winter the lovers spent together in Alexandria, but it is often forgotten that in the spring Antony went off on a campaign and then returned to Rome, leaving Cleopatra alone for three and a half years. She did not stay alone for

feeling that defeat would come in a few months. Cleopatra tried to escapeto India by the Red Searoute; though forced to give up this plan, she remained confident. But Octavian, who was heading for Egypt, rejected all peaceovertures:

long: in the autumn of the year 40 shegavebirth to

money, the withdrawal of Antony from politics, Cleopatra's

Antony's twins and named them Alexander and Cleopatra.

abdicationin favour of her sons.Was the queenalready thinking of suicideat that time? Did shego so far as to

Their

father,

now widowed,

did not come back to

Cleopatra, but in a gesture of reconciliation he married the lovely Octavia, the sister of his rival Octavian.

time in Antioch; he wasstill looking for suppliesfor his

study the different ways of ending one's life, by trying out poisons on condemned prisoners? Such tales appear to be mere malicious fictions concocted in Rome by her enemies; not even Octavian endorsed them.s When he entered her

armies. Thus, in 37 B.C., the queen obtained what she had

capital, Cleopatra shut herself up in her mausoleum with

desiredin Tarsus:the revival of the empire of the early

her treasure.The tragic outcomeis well known. Antony, in

Ptolemies, with the annexation of extensive territories in rhe Levant and Asia Minor. Henceforth her fate was bound

despair at hearing a false report of Cleopatra's death, mor-

A few years later Antony met Cleopatra again, this

inextricablyto Antony's.In 34 B.C.,after his triumph over the Parthians,a crowd assembledin the splendid gymnasiumat Alexandria was witnessto a decisivepolitical

tally wounded himself with his sword. He wascarried in to the queen and died in her arms. Cleopatra was brought back to her palaceby force. Did she then meet Octavian and attempt to negotiate? This seemsto be a piece of pure

event. Seated on a golden throne, Antony, accompanied by

propaganda intended to demonstrate the leniency of

Cleopatraand Caesarion,confirmed their three children as

Octavian.' There was every reasonto kill Cleopatra: the

sovereignsin the territories assignedto them: the Parthian

lure of the treasure of the Ptolemies, the dangerous charis-

Empire was bestowed on Alexander, also called Helios (the sun); Cyrenaica on his sister, Cleopatra Selene (the moon);

ma of the monarch. But it was important for Octavian not to take responsibility for her death. He let her know that

and Macedoniaon Ptolemy Philadelphus,still an infant in

his departurewasimminent. The "Queen of Kings" and

his cradle. The queen, robed as isis, receivedthe title

her children being marched in chains through the streets

;Queenof Kings" and Caesarion,her associate, wasnamed King of Kings.'

of Rome, mere performers in Octavian's triumphal proces-

these

sion the prospect was unbearable [o Cleopatra. Poison was preferable. On this point the ancient accounts are

Donationsof Alexandria," which launcheda new world order, and the battle of Actium, at which the fleet of

highly contradictory. Only one generation away from these events, Strabo is not sure whether she used a poisoned

Octavian routed Antony and Cleopatra'sships.They both

ointment or snake venom.7 The second version has become

retreated to Alexandria, abandonedby their allies and

part of her legend, sustained by Plutarch's splendid

Barely

three

years

elapsed

between

Cleopatra or the Seductionsof the East

555

a/zdC/foparla there were to be many versions of.4/z/o/zyand

of C/rope/Prz on the Western stage.None of them can be deemed a masterpiece, but some were very successful and

madehistory in their day; an example is C//opd/rf by Victorian Sardou, in which Sarah Bernhardt played the title role in 1890 (see fig. 326). Like the ancient version of the story, each of these literary creations provided material for

Ehevisual arts, creating a composite image that is trans

formed as the centuries go by. As a symbol of dazzling beauty, she has frequently served as an excuse for unveiling

the charmsof the female body. The ancientsourcesare, however, far from unanimous on the subject of Cleopatra's beauty: rhe coins she had struck with her image display an

angular profile, and Plutarch confirms that her principal attraction was the charm of her conversation.i4The few Egyptian reliefs in which she is portrayed are very much

idealized,and not one of the Hellenistic statuesthat are supposedto represent her is inscribed with her name Nevertheless,since Roman times, popular imagination has ranked Cleopatra with other fatally beautiful seductresses, Fig. 326. Georges Clairin Sarah BeTwbardt in tbe Role ofCleoPatra

such as Helen of Troy. Shakespeare's play made Cleopatra one of the

Anonymous engraving after the painting in the Paris Salonof1893

favourite heroines of the artists of the seventeenthand

Published in I.T//zrsf/.ar;o , 29 April 1893, P. ll

eighteenth centuries. Painters, particularly in Northern

rendering of the sceneand indirectly confirmed by Octaxian, who stated that, on hearing of the suicide, he disp;\ached snake charmers to the queen, ordering them to suck the poison from the wound.' They arrived too late.

The ancient sourcesof this story are rich and complex,but they never assignthe primary role to Cleopatra. For example, in Plutarch's narrative,9 which is by far the most detailed, Cleopatra occupiesoralya subordi-

nateposition.The subjectis the life of Mark Antony,and the queen appears only in the second half to lead him to his

which the receptionroom did not boasta tapestryor fresco

portraying Cleopatra. Bronzeeffigies of the Egyptian queen could be admired at Versailles and at Hampton Court. Her reproduction appearedeven on milk i,ugsand

snuffboxesl'5 Following a well-establishedtradition, the eighteenth century did not associatethe queen with the mysteriousEast, but displayed a blond, fleshy Cleopatra,

ruin. Some eviderlce suggests that the legend of a great female ruler was circulating even in ancient times: we are

the answer to the dreams of European men. The sovereign

told that Zenobia,who reignedover Palmyrain the third

curls and display of ribbons and jewels, is dressed in accor-

century of our era, liked to compare herself with

dance with

Cleopatra;'' later on, the memory of Cleopatra remained

revealmostof a milk-white bosom,a traditionalfeaturein

alive in Coptic Egypt.'' But the myth concoctedby rhe

scenesof seduction. Classical Antiquity provides the inspi-

adherentsof Augustus was much too enticing to be forgotten by the modern world. The queen was commandeeredonto

ration for the figures paintedby Mengs,''Gauffier,'9or

centre stage. While our purpose here is to give an overview

a discreet chignon and are draped in a flowing tunic, more appropriate to the trials Cleopatra suffered after Antony's

of Cleopatra's image in the visual arts, we cannot entirely ignore her prof'use appearancein literature.'2 An entire lit-

paintedby Tiepolo'' or Natoire,'' with her halo of golden contemporary

taste: her sumptuous

dresses

Angelica Kauffmann (seefig. 327),:'who wear their hair in

demise.The death of Cleopatrais usually a pretext for a

erary tradition, stretching from late Antiquity to the

nude study, in which the serpent, coiled on the victim's

Renaissance, depicted the fabulously beautiful

seductress,

breast, enhances her curvacious form as she ecstatically

the sybaritic ruler of an exotic land, who killed herselfin a bizarre fashion, by a snakebite.'' Plutarch's rlarrative, trans laced from Greek by JacquesAmyot in 1559,becamewidely

abandons herself to death's longed-for ernbracc(see fig. 328).:

known in Europe and inspired many authors. But it remained for Shakespeare, at the beginning of the seven-

on an ancient iconography of' which Michelangelo made splendid use,:: and which may derive from an antique

teenth century, to give the legend the dimensions of a drama

statue in Hladrian's Villa at Tivoli.23

of mad, splendid passioninexorably sweeping the lovers to

The dri\ma of Cleopatra'ssuicide doesnot leave much scopefor an Egyptianizing decor.Certainly the

their

556

Italy and the Netherlands,seizedon a themethat offered spectacularscenes,complete with a few erotic moments justified by History. There were few wealthy homesin

destruction.

After

Shakespeare's

magnificent

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

H/?/o/?y

This latter theme, which convicts with historic sources if she had been bitten, it would have been in the arm

draws

Fig. 328. Mazzoni Death ofCteopatva Oil on canvas Bayerische Staatsgemaldesammlungen, Munich

Fig. 327. Angelica Kaul'oman Cleopatra at Antonys Tomb, \llO Oil on canvas

Fig. 329. Jean-Baptiste Regnault C/Papa/rs, end of 18th century Oil on canvas

BurghleyHouse,Courtauld Institute, London

Private collection

serpent provided a touch of exoticism. It also suggested

pleading her causeto the Roman proudly poised on his

comparisons with other heroines, such as Eve in the Garden

chair oppositeher (seecat. 384).As we examineMengs

of Eden or ancient fertility goddesses. But sometimesthe reptile's role is simply that of the innocent accessory,a

preparatorysketchesfor Cleopatraon her kneesor in a

bracelet or a decorative item, as in Jean-Baptiste Regnault's

more dignified posture, we find one of the first indications of archaeologicalresearch.The fancy furnishings have been

painting from the end of the eighteenth century (fig. 329);:'

replacedby antique imitations, and the room takes on an

here the serpent is beside a rose, while a Cleopatra of

Egyptian character, with a canopic vase,a medallion inspiredby a Ptolemaiccoin, and hieroglyphson a pillar. The veil worn by one of the female attendantsis transformed into something vaguely resemblinga /zf/?zfi.A

Hellenistic appearancebends over towards the viewer with her lips parted, revealing a generous bosom.

This period shows a special liking for improbable

scenesin which the queen, weak and often humiliated, appearsas a supplicant. As Lucy Hughes-Halley has observed, this has to be seen as a reflection of the feminine

idealthat obsessed the men of the time, with its hint of sadism.:sThere was a very marked tastefor weak women:

canvason the same subject painted by Gaufher in 1788pre-

serltsan even richer Egyptian-style decor: Antinous figures and mummies occupying the wall niches, the chair with a

sphinx, kneeling Egyptians, and a frieze of hieroglyphs along the bed (seecat. 385).

novel,ZO

As love sceneswere the third element in the

who, as she descendsfrom her throne, stumblesso that

Cleopatra legend, the meeting of the queen and Antony

Antony may have an opportunity to show his strength.

continued to be a favourite subject.Artists seizedon the

Eighteenth-century painters delighted in depicting a frail, mourning queen, tenderly bending over Antony's corpseor

arrival of the royal barge at Tarsus and the banquet episode

adorning his tomb with flowers. Following in Guercino's footsteps,many artists painted the undoubtedly fictional

that flattered the pride of their patrons. The frescoesof the Labia Palace, executed by Tiepolo for wealthy Venetian merchants, grandly illustrate the victory of love over war,

we need only

think

of the Cleopatra

in Fielding's

visit of Octavian [o Cleopatra. A picture by Anton Raphael Mengs shows a mournful queen lying prostrate on a sofa,

to create a spectacle of pleasure on a scale of magnificence

and their ostentatious display of riches reflects, as in a

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

557

Fig. 330.Hans Makart, C/papa/ra,c. 1875 Oil on canvas Staatsgalerie Stuttgart

mirror. the wealth of the owner: velvets and brocades, glittering gold plate, mythic pearl.The decor,inspiredby Veronese, is that of a great Venetian mansion, but the servants,

black or in Turkish costume,add an exoticnote, and a fanciful pyramid discreetly suggestsEgypt. In various works on the same subject, Tiepolo makes an obvious effort to paint a truly Egyptian setting. The samepyramid reappears on a canvas now in Moscow, but a painting preserved in Melbourne introduces other Egyptian-style elements, bor-

rowed from both the antique and the modern \-ocabulary.

Two statuesof Isis and Serapis allegoriesof Antony ;\nd Cleopatra are copied from a volume of engravings of antiquities,;' and sphinxes are added in order to "set the scene in Egypt"(if we can trust Algarotti's correspondence).:*The sphinxesadorn the queen'schair, a fountain, ;\nd a cup

all of which

would

have enchanted

Marie

Antoinette. About ten yearsearlier Natoire had usedthe lion of the Cordonatato add an Egyptianflavour to the lovers' encounter; transformed into a fountain, the lion is perched on a //aoi inscribed with pseudo-hieroglyphs. This

lively sceneoffers a strange medley: a purple toga and a warrior's helmet for Antony, a long robe for the sovereign,

with a medievalcrown placedon her blond hair, while she shades her pearly complexion with a parasol and the memes

of her female musicians waves up and down in the breeze.;9

It might have been expected that Napoleon's Egyptian Expedition and rapid advancesin Egyptologyat rhe beginning of the nineteenth century would have helped to resurrect the historical Cleopatra. It was not to be. The

Hellenistic queen was placed either in the setting of a

pharaonicEgypt shenever knew, or in an Orient of the Middle Ages, inspired by the .dIaZ'zczPZ W1le#ri.Whereas eighteenth-century artists seem to have been unconcerned

558

by the fact that Cleopatra was a foreigner, the beginning of

Fig. 331. John Collier, Dea/# af C/eaPafra, 1890

the nineteenth century witnessed the flowering of a taste for

Oil on canvas

Lheexotic, of which the Egyptian queen becamea symbol.

Oldham Art Gallery, Oldham

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

Sheincarnated the Other, the Woman, and at the same time, the Oriental: a fusion of the ancient and the modern The combined spell of a land considered mysterious and of a remote past fuelled a desire for escape,and into this desire

the artists projected their fantasies.Travel to the East by writers and artists among them G6r6me did nothing to break the spell. Romanticism and the rising tide of imperialism changed the West's attitude to the East. Cleopatra became the subject of spectacular pictures whose charm was

enhanced by their exotic setting (seefig. 330). The entirely European magnificence of Tiepolo's paintings was replaced by displays of the wealth of an imaginary East. The decor is often pharaonic, basedon scholarly publications or museum exhibits, and sometimes embellished with meticulously correct

hieroglyphic inscriptions. Although the modelsoften remain identifiable, the usesthey are put to are highly fanciful. A templeservesthe queenas a palace,and it is ornamented with reliefs and sacred texts. The temple is

surrounded by pylons, obelisks, and monstrousdeities, which are hardly compatible with her private life, from which, however,the artists choosethe most improbable

Fig. 332. Hans Makart, Dea/ib afC/napa/ra, 1875

episodesas subjects. All the riches of the Orient and Africa

youthful body (seecat. 387). William Elly scandalized his

are spread before her: pearls, damasks, mullins, gold, ivory, ebony, ostrich feathers, leopard skins ... even a tiger skin to whisk us off to Arial The sovereign can still be recognized by her vulture headdress, derived from pharaonic models; sometimes she wears a diadem over her hair, which is now

contemporariesby symbolizing the encounter at Tarsus

ebony black

adorned with a garland of rosesl:' From this mythical East, Cleopatra also borrows

the colour, too, of the inevitable serpent.

Otherwise, the queen and her servants are draped picturesquelyin clothes that cheerfully mix imitations of the

Oil on canvas

Staatliche Kunstsammlungen

Kassel

with a bevy of nude female attendants alighting from the

ship in which the queen is languishing.:: Alma-Tadema presents a languid monarch, clad in a feline skin and scorn

ing to cast her eyeson Antony, who appearson a ship

languor and cruelty. In I.rs Przncfiifi by poet and play

Antique with accessories that conjure up the souk or the

wright Theodore de Banville, she emergesas a melancholy,

harem. Veils arc transparent and posessuggestive.The

venomousbeauty, radiating that morbid eroticism which

death of the queen becomesan excusefor scenescharacter-

Gustave Moreau interpreted so magnihcently (see cat. 391).

ized by a somewhat dubious eroticism. Despite their

Pushkin's C/Jopd/rf from 1825 had symbolized a violence

pharaonic setting, Collier's renderings (see fig. 331), and Rixens' even more so (see cat. 389), would be appropriate

and cruelty that her lovers thought sublime. Sheis the absoluteincarnation of the myth of Cleopatra as/emma

for a harem. The dramatic Z)ea/# o/'C/eoPZ/fa by Hans

Bard/e,which can be traced back to Roman Antiquity: "She

Makart (flg. 332);' strikes an entirely different note: the

was so beautiful that many men paid with their lives for a night spent with her," wrote SextusAurellus Victor in the

milk-white body of the dying queen, laden with jewels like an odalisque, is modelled by a theatrical lighting that leaves

fourth centuryof our era.Throughout the centuryliterary

her two black femaleattendantsin shadow.While sculptors tended to be more moderate in their interpretations, by

works appear which match his words. The heroine of Unf

1780 Clodion had already modelled a Z)yz/zgC/f opa//a.'

as consumed by world-weariness; she finds distraction in

The figure createdin 1847by Ducommun du Lode lounges

trying out poisonsand drawing to herself,for one night,

half-naked on cushions ornamented with hieroglyphs, gazing pensively at the serpent (cat. 386). The subject was treated

handsome youths whose execution she orders at daybreak. When the curtain rises on Massenet'sopera, the heroine is seensurrounded by her victims.;' in jean Cantel's novel she

again in 1858by the American sculptor William Wetmore Story, who added a definitely Egyptian /zrmri to the Neo-

classical draperies that left Cleopatra's breasts largely exposed. In a work by Fr6miet (now lost), the queen leans

backin a seatwith lions' feet, twisting her hair and wearing nothing but her bracelets.This eroticism seemslesssurpris-

ing when it appearsin works basedon episodesin her love

ife. G6r6me'sC'/eopzz/ra, executedfor the Marquise de PaTva,unveils to an astounded Caesar the charms of her

Nnz/ df C/d0/7d/rf(1894) is portrayed by Th6ophile Gautier

casually reclines, ready to hand over her latest conquest to

her black torturers.3sThis image of Cleopatra was lust beginning to make its way into films when World War r ended her career

and the careers of most otherlemmes

ja/a/ri. For once,it would seem,reality prevailedover fantasy.

In its day, however, the subject had inspired numerous artists who, with varying skill, depicted

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

559

Fig. 333. IsaacBroome Cteapatra,I.snG New Jersey State Museum, Trenton

E

Fig.334.Francois Fanniire C/eaPafra, 1902 Coup Carrie, Musee du Louvre

Fig. 335. Demetre H. Chiparus

C/napa/f'a I'9amg;mg, c. 1925,bronze Private collection

Cleopatra in the guise of the dangerously attractive woman. Good examples are Cabanel's well-known painting showing

(see cat. 388); somewhat later, Isaac Broome produced remarkable polychrome busts of her (fig. 333); Fanni&rc

her testing her poisons (cat. 390), or Arcangioli's sculpture

placed her in the Coup Carrie at the Louvre, where she is the symbol of eternal Egypt (see fig. 334)."

C/f0/7cz/ra, in which the slightly vulgar posture and the blond curls recall the vamps of the silent screen.3'

560

In the Tutankhamun years,a new Cleopatra arrives on the scene; this child-woman

undoubtedly owes

She is always the sovereign, recognizable by her vulture headdress,draped in the stately antique manner or frequently naked to the waist, her eyesremote and scornful.

cz/zdC'/fopcz/rcz.38Reacting

This is how many sculptors have imagined her: in 1868,

Romantics, Shaw presented an adolescent flirt, frivolous

Henry Weekesset a tiny crown of Hathor on her head

and capricious. Shaw's heroine was rediscovered by the

Cleopatra or the Seductionsof the East

much to Bernard Shaw's turn-of-the-century play C'arsar against the excesses of the

postwar

society

of the

1920s and '30s, who found

her

effrontery and humour very appealing.Delightful statuettes by Chiparus show her in a short dress,with an

urchin haircut, stretchedout on a divan framed with sphinxes

the only

real

Egyptianizing

feature

(see

1. For a full bibliography, seeGrant 1972 and Brooklyn 1988 89.

2. Grant1972, p.201. 3. Suetonius, I)lz,z'm/w/im, 52;Appian,Czp/ mars,11,90. 4. She completely acceptedher assimilation to Isis-H.athor and devotedspecialattention to the shrinesof Upper Egypt (Dendera Armani).

nig. 335).Once the traditional arts had turned away from

5.Grant1972, p.227.

the subject it was taken over by modern forms of expression: by the cinema in 1932,when Claudette Colbert portrayed a modern Cleopatra, mischievous and amoral; by the adver-

8.Suetonius, .4agws/ai, 17,4

tising industry, which saw in Cleopatra the ideal prop for the promotion of beauty products; and even by night clubs,

where the sovereign made her entrance glittering with rhinestones,mounted on an elephant. These metamorphoses are proof that Cleopatra's image has been, from the very beginning, of such richness

Chat it has seemed universally transposable. Of all the aspects that reoccur in these successive adaptations, the

most fascinating is undoubtedly her assimilation to the

6. Yarn 1934, p. 110. 7. Strabo, XVl1, 296.

9. P/a/axr&3.L;z,eK, vol. IX: Antony. All English citations taken from

the Loeb Classical Library edition, Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1914--26.

10.Grant1972, p.233. 11.Grant1972, p.233 12.The modern reference work on this subject is Lucy HughesHallet,

CZeopa/xa. .fJf/or;es.

.Dreams anZ .Dh/or/ oni, London,

1990.

All our referencesare from the edition publishedby Vintage, 1991 13. Hlughes-Hlallet 1991,p. 88. 14.P/24/arc.4t.L;z,es,Loeb ed., vol. IX: Antony, IXXVII.2, pp. 195--97. 15. H.ughes-Halley 1991,p. 203

pharaoniccivilization. Putting asidethe profusion of

16.Circa 1743:sketch in Paris, Musee Cognacq-Jay; paintings in Melbourne, National Gallery of Victoria, and at Arkhangelskoye

Egyptian or Egyptian-style accessoriesthat surround her, we may ask if this Cleopatra-figure still has the power to

17. Executed in 1756; painting in Names, Musee des Beaux-Arts

inspire dreams. The years may have chipped away some of

her mystery,but the lady can still provide a dream fit for our contemporary society,linking humour and beauty with a taste for the excessiveand fantastic, which is the abiding

hallmark of Egypt.

c.z

in Russia,National Museum sketch in Rouen, Musee des Beaux-Arts.

18. Circa 1759;paintings in Augsburg, Stidtische Kunstsammlungen

(formerly the Czernin collection),and at Stourhead;for the numerous

sketches, see cat. 384.

19.Executed in 1789;painting in Edinburgh, National Gallery of Scotland

20. Hlughes-Hallet 1991, pl. 13

21. This is how she is portrayed by Pietro Ricci or Guido Red. See also Hughes-llallet 1991,pls. 11 and 12 22. Florence, Casa Buonarroti(2 F) 23. Grenier 1989b,pp. 10-16 24. Hlughes-Hlallet 1991,pl. 32 25. Hughes-Hlallet 1991,pp. 208-09. 26. Fielding 1757/1928. 27. Mafnei1731--32, cited in Melbourne 1955, p. 132.

28.Melbourne 1955, p. 132 29. Painted in 1756.Names,Musee des Beaux Arts. no. 1421

30. Executed in 1875;Kassel, Staatliche Kunstsammlungen, Neue Galerie

31. Humbert

1989, p. 210, note 58.

32. Hlughes-Hallet 1991, p. 300, pl. 16. 33. Hughes-Hallet 1991, pl. 33. 34. According to the booklet by Louis Payen, published in 1915 35. Cantel 1914. 36. Humbert

1989, p. 21 1, note 64

37. Completed by Ferdinand Faivre in 1902; Humbert 1989, repr P.205.

38. Shaw 1898

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

561

380

F'6)l4:aaic Queen or Goddess Edfu, F;anco-Pol ish A rchaeological Expedition. 1939 Pto14maic Era (3rd

lst century B.C.)

Lim;&stdhe

8.5x 12cm Parts,Musee du Louvre, D6partement des

A.nbcuit6sEgyptiennes(E 16603)

b

As no inscriptions have been found, we shitll neverknow the identity of the personwho is immortalized in a stateof

ideal youthfulnessin this model intended for the useof sculptors. The piece was found, together with other models

and a sketch of a stela, in what seemsto have been an

Descriptiot} de {'Eg)t)te,

artist's studio. The figure is undoubtedly that of a queen or goddess: the young woman wears the vulture headdress

Musee du Louvre, Bibliothaque Centrale des Mus6es Nationaux, Paris

reserved for female deities and sovereigns. The headdress

A,vol.V

Fig. 337 and 338. Dendera

Details, plate 16 from the Descrip+iolt

cte !'Egypte,

restson a long wig divided in three sections,with interlock-

A,vol.IV

ing curls that suggestthe calyxesof flowers. The lady wears a tight sheath, with a pattern that imitates the plumage of a bird. At her waist can be seen the roots of the two vulture

Museedu Louvre, Biblioth&que Centraledes

wings (emblemsof divinity or royally) that were wrapped

around her hips. The strapsof her dressboldly leaveher

562

Fig.336. Plate 73, fig. 14 from the

Cleopatra or the Seductionsof the East

Mus6es Nationaux, Paris

P' voluptuous bosom bare, while a fringed shawl covers her

left shoulder. Her attire is set off with jewels: armlllae adorn the upper arms, and the hand-worked pearlsof her sumptuous ase4#necklace are arranged as floral motifs lotuses, marguerites, and petals. The precise workmanship

of the headdressand the meticulous detail of the costume ;ire skilfully contrasted with the treatment of the exquisitely

sensitive face, modelled in large rounded surfaces;its sweet expression is enhanced by the smiling mouth and the full curve of the chin. The rounded forms of the body emerge clearly from the background in layered relief. We have here one of the most accomplished examples

of Ptolemaicart, in which a new sensualityhasbeenadded

to the interpretationof ancient themes,adaptingthem to contemporary taste. This can be seen from the touches on

the shawl and the way the curls in the wig are handled. Is this, as has long been held, a mixed art that expressesthe

Hellenistic ideal while still preserving,after thousandsof years, Egyptian conventions and themes? A different view

hasrecentlybeenput forward, which would seethis art as the autonomous result of artistic currents already discernible in the most ancient epochs.' But many reliefs from Ptolemaic Egypt do not have the gracefulnessof this example and the features often lapse into pufhness.

We can clearly seefrom the coins struck in her image that Cleopatra Vll's everyday appearancewas entire-

ly Hellenistic;but, like all the Ptolemaicqueens, shewas also depicted in the religious scenescarved on temple walls,

thus perpetuating the traditions of the pharaohs.We have few reliefs that portray her as the sovereign. The best preservedare on a facadeat Dendera,2and show her dressedas a queen or an Egyptian goddess,making an offering in the company of her son and co-ruler Caesarion, who wears the insignia of the pharaohs. Modern artists have chosen to rep-

381

.&rpent

j3rac81et

lst century B.C. lst century A.D. ?

resent her in this fashion, which was already exotic in the time of the Ptolemies (see cat. 390). From the nineteenth

Solidgold

century onwards major published works, beginning with

snake's head: 1.6 x 1.25 cm

the DricrzP/zo

Paris, Mus&e du Louvre, D6partement des Antiquit6s ligyptiennes(E 27198)

df /'.E8pp/f

(fig. 336 338), popularized

this

way of representing women, abundant examples of which

Bracelet: 9.8 cm (diam.),

5.5 mm (av. thickness);

can be found in Ptolemaic temple reliefs

c.z

Provenance: Collection Parcq, bequeathed to museum, 1978

1. Bianchi 1989,pp. 55--80.

2. Porter and Moss 1939,vol. IV. p. 79; reproduced in Bianchi 1989, P.56.

The serpentmotif. very much in fashion in the jewellery of Ptolemaic and Roman Egypt, is a relatively late phenomenon: a romantic tradition associatesit with the death of Cleopatra. The Egyptians became interested in vipers at a

Exhibitions: Recklinghausen 1964,no. 64: repr.; Paris 1981,no. 324.

SelectedReferences: DesrochesNoblecourt 1939.

Zr//E£#b#, vol.111, p. 119, pls. XI, 8, and Xll, 1; Desroches-

Noblecourt 1946, p. 178,pl.LX; Desroches-Noblecourt 1961 p. 73, fig. 88; Drioton and

very early date, worshipping them as imagesof deities, dreading their bite, and classifying them in veritable ophiological treatises.' For thousands of years, however, the only

snake reproduced by Egyptian goldsmiths was the cobra urczfui. Neighbouring

countries selected other snakes to

ornamentbracelets;examplescan be found in Urartu in the

Du Bourguet, 1965, p.369,

ninth century B.C.: Greece already had them in the

fig. 91; Paris 1981,p. 299.

Geometric period.; Starting in the fourth century A.D.,'

Cleopatra or the Seductionsof the East

563

a craze for snakes developed throughout the Mediterranean

pared with the description of the fcXzi cczrzn.z/zli that appears

world, and they becameone of the principal sourcesof

in a treatise on ophiology from the Egyptian Late Period.

inspiration for Hellenistic goldsmiths. The natural plasticity

A similar bracelet in the British Museum collection can be

of thesereptilespermitted a wide rangeof variationand

used to suggest a date, but it should be remembered that

was ideal for adaptation to all kinds of jewellery. On spiral-

this type of bracelet, like much ancient jewellery, was

shapedrings, bracelets,armillae, or finely worked

frequently copied.

c.z

roundlets, the reptile winds sinuously or coils up ready to attack. Sometimes it is given two heads that face each other. Its venomous beauty is often enhanced by engraved patterns

that re-create the glitter of scalesor loosely delineate anatomical details. The scaleson the head are especially

1. Sauneron 1989 2. Maxwell-Hyslop 1971,p. 205 3. Bianchi 1989, p. 202, no. 96.

4. Higgins1961, p. 172

emphasized: their form suggests a flower, and can be com-

i$Ftique Hleadof Cleopatra tlnknown

O ll B.C

wearing the diadem of the H.cllenistic sovereignsor together

provenance

with the profile of Mark Antony(fig. 340).Noneof the

Marble 28 cm high

sixty issuesof coins recordedfor this reign showsthe queen wearing pharaonic insignia. While not all of them are of

Berlin, Staatliche Museen Preussischer

portrait standard,they do reveal physicaltraits that

Kulturbesitz, Antikensammlung

undoubtedly match the real face of Cleopatra. The hooked nose and the curved lower lip resemblethose of her father,

(Pergamonmuseum)

(1976.10)

Ptolemy Auletes "Dionysus," and recall the featuresof Exhibited in Paris

Ptolemy I Sober,the founder of the dynasty. The truth may

Apart from the highly idealized relief at Dendera showing Cleopatra in Egyptian costume accompanied by her elder son Caesarion (fig. 339), coins are the only ancient representations of the queen with inscriptions that enable us to identify

her. Typically, they display a female profile, either alone

be unkind, but these coins revive the image of a young woman who was no dazzling beauty, thus confirming Plutarch's description: "For her beauty, as we are told, was in itself not altogether incomparable, nor such as to strike those who saw her; but converse with her had an irresistible charm, and her presence, combined with the persuasiveness

Fig. 340. Denarius with the image of Mark Antony Silver coin, struck in 34 B.C British Museum,London

Fig. 339. C/papa/ra 4 zd Caeiarfa#z

asIsis and Hort+s Dendera,detail from the great temple of Hathor

564

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

Fig. 341. Head of C/napa/ra,

Fig. 342. C/eaPafra

in stone British Museum,London

Cherchell Museum, Algeria.

Marble head found at Cherchell

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

565

of her discourseand the character which wassomehow

wide-open eyesand fully rounded faceof rhe young woman

diffused about her behaviour towards others, had some-

portrayed here creitte a classicalimage of ideal beauty, tempered by such realistic details as the slightly convex line

thing stimulating about it.

However,more flattering portraits of the queen have been bequeathed by Antiquity (see nig. 341), among them this magnificent sculpture, which is believed to repro' sent her on the basisof similarities with the coin seriesand a more austere head preserved in the Vatican.: Like another

ofthe nose.

c.z 1. P/u/circ,4k .L;z/a,Loeb ed., vol. IX: Antony, XXVII.2, pp. 195--97

2. Kyrieleis1975,185I Nl; Bianchi1989,pp. 184--85, no.76.

headfound at Cherchell in Algeria (fig. 342)this work, too, has sometimes been thought to be a portrait of the daughter

of Cleopatra and Antony, Cleopatra Selene,Queen of Mauretania. The sovereign wears the broad Hellenistic

and Hornbostel 1982, no. 49;

SelectedReferences: Johansen 1978,pp.61

62 and

fig. 10;Grimm 1979, p. 131;

Fittschen 1983,p. 168;Maehler 1983,pp. 95--96; Krug 1984,

diadem around her hair, coiffed in the usual ribbed style; the

Heilmeyer 1979,pp. 6--7;

p. 199;Megow1985, p.465;

flowing treatment of her curls is noteworthy.The large,

Vierneisel1980; Altenmtiller

Bianchi 1989, pp. 187--88,no.

383

Cleopatra's Banquet Giambattista

Mark Antony and the senator Lucius Plancus;in a few

Tiepolo( 1696--1770)

1742 43

secondsshe will dissolve it and drink the contents of the

C)non canvas 69 x 50.5 cm Paris, Musee Cognacq-Jay(J. 104)

goblet, thereby winning the wager, vt-hich was to spend

Exhibited in Paris

consisting of a palace with colonnades opening onto a background of classical architecture and cypress trees. A blond

more than ten million sestercesat a single banquets

Veroneseprovidesthe inspiration for the figures, which contrastbut do not clashwith the antiquesetting,

The familiar subject of the banquet is taken from an episodein the life of Cleopatra as related by Pliny the Elder;' it has inspired nanny artists.: According to the story,

the sovereign, bent on dazzling Antony when she met him in Tarsus, gave the costliest feast in history, during which she had a pearl dissolved in a goblet of vinegar. Although the sceneis totally improbable, it offers a masterly symbol-

ization of opulenceand love. The pearl

from ancient

Cleopatra, surrounded by turbaned courtiers and black servants. and decked out in moire and lace, faces Lucius

Plancus. a senator costumed as a potentate of \aguely

Oriental aspect.Antony gazesat her; he is garbedin the uniform of a Romangeneral,a purple toga and a plumed helmet. Algarotti, who commissioned rhe painting, has offered an explanation for the sumptuously anachronistic costumes.which are offset by the faithful rendering of the

adds its own erotic touch to

antique monuments.' it was probably his advice that lcd

rhe sumptuous fabrics, savoury dishes, and precious tableware; the effect is a glorification of consummate anstocrattc

the artist to modify the architectural herring and add an Egyptian-style decor, which can be admired in the

times an attribute of Venus

luxury.

I'iepolo, too, succumbedto the charms of this subject,and he undertook to render it in works of great

diversity,suchasthe well-known frescoesin the Labia Palace,or the large painting now in Melbourne (fig. 343). The canvas in the Musee Cognacq-Jay is a preliminary ' version

of the Melbourne painting, and its spontaneityis striking.

a f

B

Comparison of these works reveals how far the image of

Cleopatrahad shifted from its ancient models in the first

©'£

half of the eighteerlth century, when the great archaeological

collections were being formed. The Melbourne picture reveals that Tiepolo possesseda knowledge of Egyptology;

his contemporariescompared his learning to that of Raphael and Poussin.3

The artist has captured the moment at which the sovereign displays a fabulous pearl to the fascinated gaze of

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

Fig. 343. Giambattista Tiepolo, C/eap /r 's Ba/zq/re/, 1743-44

Oil on canvas

National Gallery of Victoria, Melbourne

P'

Melbourne painting: statuesof isis and Serapis(copied

SelectedReferences

pp.33 and 133,note 134;

from antique models), the divine couple who are the counterpart to the lovers;ssphinxes, introduced "to set the scene

Molmenti 1909,p. 206; Sack 1910,pp.96 and 214,467, pl. 82; Molmenti 1911, p.

Levey 1965, pp. 10 and 17,

in Egypt," adorn a fountain, the armrestsof a chair, and a dish of fruit astonishing testimony to an Egyptomania Chatlends its subtle charm to this seriesof admirable works.

199; Feuillet

1925, p. 68;

Alexandre 1926, p. 52; Seymour de Ricci 1929a,

Pliny, AZa/uxa/.f/h/OW, Book IX. 2

Pigler statesthat although the dumber of "Banquets" doesnot reach the impressive total of the "Deaths of Cleopatra," he hasbeen able to count no lessthan 60 of them (Pigler 1974, 11,pp. 396-98).

3

See the works of Count Algarotti,

4

Melbourne 1955, p. 132.

5

Maf6ei1731 32, cited in Melbourne 1955,p. 132.

Exhibitions: Paris 1952,no. 12;Venice 1969. no. 176; Paris 1971,no. 237; Rotterdam/Braunschweig 1983-84.

1772, pp. 35--36.

Pallucchini and Piovene 1968,no.115 a,pl.p.109;

Burollet1968,p.33,no.190;

no.104;Jonas 1930,no.104, repr. facing p. 36; Fry 1933, pp. 132 and 133,pl. 11;Val16e 1948,p. 63; Paris 1952, pl. 20; Levey 1955,pp. 193--203;

Cabanne 1969,p. 76 and repr. p. 78; Venice 1969, pl.on p.380 and detail p. 381; Rosenberg in Paris 1971,no. 237; Vivian 1971, pp. 40 and 160; Bonicatti 1971,pp.25 and 26,fig.2;

Haskell

Cailleux1971, p. 100,note

p. 10; Seymour de Ricci 1929b,

c.z.

note32;Knox 1965, p.390;

1958, pp. 212--13

and 215, fig. 35; Knox 1960, p 18; Hof'f 1961,pp. 125--28; Crespelle 1961,p. 306 and repr. p. 300; Cabanne 1961,

15; Burollet 1972, p. 3241

no. 162;Burollet 1973,p. 3 and pl. on p. 5; Knox 1974, pp. 385--86,no. 4; Vidal

p. 115;Morassi1962,p. 39, fig. 310;Pallucchini1962,

p. 1377;Burollet 1980,

p. 108;Haskell 1963,pp.

pp.192--96,no.94,biblio.

352-54, pl. 61,fig.A;

graphy; Bonnefny,Pallucchini

Morassi 1964, pp. 103 and

andLe Foil 1990, repr.

216,fig. 80; Levey 1964,

p.110, no. 160 a

1979, p. 4; Burollet

1979,

Cleopatra or the Seductionsof the East

567

384

Augustus and Cleopatra Anton Raphael Mengs(1728 1759

cause:"After a few daysCaesarhimself cameto talk with

1779)

her and give her comfort. She was lying on a meanpallet-

Oil on canvas

bed, clad only in her tunic, but sprang up as he entered and

59.5x 45cm

threw herself at his feet; her hair and facewere in terrible

Augsburg, Stiidtische Kunstsammlungen, Deutsche Barockgalerie im Schaezlerpalais (12634)

disarray, her voice trembled, and her eyeswere sunken." it

wasnot this incident that the artist had first chosenas his subject, but the sequel, in which Cleopatra recovered her

Provenance:

famous charm and began once more to hope: "After Caesar

Count Karl von Callenberg, Dresden, 1784; Count Czernin, Vienna, 1936;purchasedon the

had bidden her to lie down and had seatedhimself near her,

art market in 1986.

necessity and fear of Antony."'

Exhibited in Paris and Vienna

Despite the classicismof the composition, which brings to mind ancient funerary banquetsand a A/offs by

she began a sort of justihcation of her course, ascribing it to

Poussin,Sthe [wo figures strike animated posesthat reflect It was most probably in 1758that Henry Hoare commis

rhe tension of a bitter dialogue. Octavian/Augustus sits

sioncd from Mengs a canvas depicting Augustus and Cleopatra, to embellish his splendid country houseat

stiffly, with a severe expression, facing an eloquent

Stourhead, where it would complement a painting by Maratti. Severalversions of the work are known, and the

Caesar,whose statue dominates the scene.Her two female

presentpainting differs substantially from the one

the traitor Seleucus emerges from the shadows, carrying the

approved by the client, which has the sovereign kneeling at

papyri that denouncethe trickery of his mistress.This

her conqueror's feet in an attitude taken from Guercino

work, which had a considerableinfluence on French Neo-

(fig. 344).' According to Steffi R6ttgen, our work must be

classical painting, is of twofold interest. It is based partly

identified as the mode//ofor a first version, which was

on Greco-Roman models, which the artist probably had

undoubtedly rejected by the client's agentsfor reasonsthat

before his eyes:the funerary banquet reliefs in the Villa

emerge only dimly from the artist's correspondence.: These letters also reveal how concerned Mengs was to interpret the

Albani for the composition;those in the Galleria

ancient sources faithfully, a concern that must have been

the Villa Borghese,with the addition of the apple symboliz

f ostered by his active acquaintance with Winckelmann,

ing the Juliangens(or clan), for the imageof the dictator.'

attendants,Iras and Charmian, stand at her bedside,while

Giustiniani for the tripod table; a statue of Caesar adorning

who arrived in Rome in 1755.The episode,taken from

Moreover, along with Piranesi's decor for the C'f©? dcg/i

Plutarch's narrative, was popularized al the beginning of

/ng/eiz, this canvasconstitutes one of the very earliest examples

the eighteenth century by Charles Rollin.' Tt tells of the dra-

of Egyptomania in eighteenth-century Rome. The artist has

matic encounter between the captive Cleopatra and the

drawn on a variety of sourceswith the deliberateaim of

future Augustus, in which she is said to have pleaded her

reconstituting an Egyptian interior: engravings,collectors'

Fig. 344. Guercino Cleopatra helm'eAntony, t640 Oil on canvas Museo Capitolino, Rome

568

Cleopatra who may be invoking the protection of Julius

Cleopatra or the Seductions of' the East

Fig. 345. Anton Raphael Mengs A.agnstas and Cleopatra, c. \lS9

Fig. 346. Anton Raphael Mengs August s a d Cleopatra, \'lGQ 6\

Preparatorydrawing for the painting

Oil on canvas, for Henry Hoare

at Stourhead House

at Stourhead House

Museum Boymans-van-Beunigen

Stourhead National Trust

F'

Cleopatra or the Seductions of' the East

569

pieces,or contemporary archaeologicalhnds. Examples are

l

the medallionimitating a Ptolemaiccoin,' which pro)ects from a small pylon ornamented with falsehieroglyphs.A casket standing on a low table is decorated with fanciful royal cartouches. A small niche cut into the spacebetween

two pilasterswith Ionic capitalscontainsa statuewhich, when compared with the painting at Stourhead, turns out to be a "Canopic Osiris."* The artist has also bestowed par-

ticular care on the person of Seleucus,whose attitude,

shavenhead,and flowing tunic recallthe wall paintingsof lsiac scenesat Herculaneum, which were published in 1760.9The striped headdressof a serving woman suggests

the /zemcs of the pharaohs.The sketchesthat precededthe Stourhead painting similarly reveala knowledge of Egyptian art; the setting includes an Antinous figure and a

lion's-headseat,which were replacedin the final version by a colonnade,at the client's request.'' in examining

1760 61, Stourhead; f'or most recent colour reproduction and com mentary, seeR6ttgen in Hampstead 1993, fig. 19, pp. 26-27, no. 48,

p.143,pl.24 andp.26. 2. R6ttgen 1977, p. 149; R6ttgen in Hampstead 1993, p. 148, no. 52 3. Rollin, 1730-38; Rollin, 1738--41; Walch 1967,pp. 123 26 4.

English translations for both quotes taken from P/zi/czrf#kI.zpfs Loeb ed., vol. IX: Antony, LIXXXlll.I, pp. 321--23;and vol. IX: Antony, LXXXl11.2, p. 323

5. Blunt1966,p.14 6. For these references, see R6ttgen 1977, pp. 148--56. 7. R6ttgen 1977, p. 154, no. 30. 8. The canopic vasein the Stourhead painting comes from

Hadrian's Villa and, together with its base,is now in the Vatican Museum 9. Antichiti di Ercolano 1760, pl. LX 10 R6ttgen in Hlampstead 1993,p. 116, no. 34. 1 1 R6ttgen in Hlampstead 1993,p. 26 12 In addition to the research done by Tiepolo (seecat. 383), a draw.ng by Jacques-Francois Martin dating from 1750 displays the same kind oflearning,

see Dusseldorf 1990, p. 178, no. 73, note 4.

this questfor Antiquity, which goeswellbeyond mere copying, we might try to detect certain influences at work. Winckelmann has been suggested as one possible influence

he and Mengswere friends or Piranesi,with whom the painter had artistic and intellectual affinities.'' Although Mengs was not the first to use Egyptian elements,': the fact

SelectedReferences: Christoffel 1918, p. 142;

p. 178, no. 73; R6ttgen in

remains that several years before Piranesi's Cammznz,one of

Gerstenberg 1929, p.21;Madrid

pp. 26-27, no. 48, p. 143

the greatest artists of the time affirmed a taste for archaeology that gave pride of place to Egypt.

1929, p. 4; Wilczek

c.z

385

Hampstead1993,fig. 19,

1936, p. 56,

no. 285; Saabye 1977, pp. 12--38 and fig. 1; R6ttgen 1977,

pp. 148 56;Diisseldorf 1990,

Cleopatra and Octavian Louis Gaufher (1762 1801)

The painting is mentioned from 1787on in the correspon-

1788

dence of the count with M6nageot, the director of the

Oil on canvas

83.8x 112.5cm

French Academy in Rome, who suggestedthis commission and perhapsthe theme as well.: it may be noted that, in her

Edinburgh, National Gallery of Scotland(2526)

younger days, Madame d'Angiviller had played Cleopatra

on stageat Versailles,before Louis XV. The subjectwas Provenance: Commissioned

describedby M6nageot as "the moment at which Cleopatra, by the Count d'Angiviller,

1787;

after Antony's death, is visited by CaesarOctavian and is

Collection Vernier, 1900;sale,Galerie Charpentier,

still seeking to seduce him." it is derived from Charles

Paris, 15 June 1954, 1ot 64, repr.(as David,

Rollin's //zs/ozrf romaznr, where the episodein which

CL6opattedepart Octaveapr&sla batatlle d' Actium )\ purchased 1991 with assistancefrom the National

Cleopatra shows the busts of Caesar to Octavian, the future

Arts Collection Fund.

in part indebted to its celebrated predecessorby Mengs

Augustus, is also found.' The composition appears at least (cat. 383), which was inspired by the same text.

Exhibited in Paris and Ottawa

570

Gaufher's C/c?opa/la was completed in 1788and was exhibited in Rome with considerable success;according to

Although the commissioning of this picture is documented,

M6nageot, the artist even received sonncts from admirers.'

its subsequenthistory is obscure.At an unknown date it was falsely signed L. Daz,zd;the inscribed date /788 was

The work wasdeliveredto D'Angiviller in the sameyear,

certainly correct and possibly genuine. Only recently identi fled, the work is known to have been painted in Rome as a

Rome for Paris, fully intending to exhibit the picture at the

pendant for the reduction of David's Bf/zsarzaiowned by

ofAugustus and CLeopcLtra after the Battle ofActium , a\ong,

EheCombed'Angiviller, the director of Public Buildings.

with

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

and twelve months later, on 28 April 1789,Gauffler left Salon. It is listed as no. 347 in the Salon catalogue, A4ff/z/zg his large 4/fxa/zdfr

zr?d /

Afi/zo/z (no. 345), now lost,

r'

b

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

571

which he had lust finished,and 7'#eAcer/zng of/aco&zz/zd / f

was Charles Percier, Gauffier's contemporary in Rome

Z)anna/eri (:/'La&an

who later became one of Hope's chief mentors

cz/ /,be We// (no. 346), which is in the

Louvre. The fact that these paintings were entered in the supplement to the catalogue and hung, as a critic of the

David's painting, now in the Louvre (3694),was sold sometime

period remarked, without benefit of a label or catalogue

between August 1790 and April 1791 (the month he emigrated

number indicates that they were receivedvery late.SAs

from France). It was acquired by the State in 1794.Schnapperin

reviews consistently discussed only Gauffler's .4/fxandfr and

./acoa,while his C/eopcz/rcz is not mentioned at all, it is highly

Paris 1989. no. 51 2

Crozet 1944, pp. 102--03.At the 1785 Salon, M6nageot exhibited a painting entitled C/gaps//'e fe/zdazzz so/zde/zz;er'4ommcz.ge zzw/ombeczzz d',4n/oznf (now in Angers).

probablethat this picture was not loanedby D'Angiviller and was therefore never shown at the Salon. The painting,

M.P

3.

For Rollin as a source of inspiration, seeWelch 1967, pp. 123--26,

date was likely seen in Paris on its arrival in 1788.That

4.

andWatch1968, pp.20 27 Marmottan 1926, p. 286.

this may have beenthe caseis intimated by works submitted

5.

Anonymous 1798,p. 28, regarding 4/fxander:"This painting, like

however

the most "Egyptian"

historical composition to

those preceding it, is by an unknown artist and has no number.

6or the Prix de Rome in 1789, notably /osep# Rfcognzzfd &y

Hzi Brof#eri (cat. 71) by Girodet (Paris, Ecole Nationale

6

The study is now in a French private collection. When it wasstill in

the Gustave Aubry collection in 1928,it was identified as by

Sup6rieure des Beaux-Arts), which includes related elements. A small oil study for the composition with variations

Gaufher but with a different title, Nero cznd4gnPpzna.Later, this

in the figures and the setting shows that Gauffier staged the

in the Larache sale, New York, American Art Association,

narrative

21 March

with

care: the furniture

in the finished

work

is

more deliberately Egyptian, as is the vault in the left background.' The headbands of Cleopatra's attendants and,

more evidently, her day-bed are decorated with fanciful

hieroglyphs, recognizably derived from the obelisk of Thutmosis 111at the Lateran. The throne with Egyptian winged sphinxes on which Octavian sits was adapted from

a seatadornedwith Greek sphinxesformerly in Rome and

attribution was lost, and it figured as,4/z/07zy and C'/foia/ra by David 1929, 1ot 24, repr. It reappeared

as Za/mcz e/ mzzdemohe//e

Georgeda i Brz/anzrzzi Incl, w,ith a new attribution to Jean-Baptiste Mallet, in two Paris sales:Hotel Drouot, 23 February 1968,1ot55, repr., and Hotel George V. 3 December 1981,1ot69, repr 7 Hope'sseats,which were part of the furniture in his picture gallery, are illustrated

in his .f/oaie,4o/Z Fa/. 2;/z/ e a/zd /n/er;or .Deco/cz/;o/z,

1807,pl. XIX, fig. 6 and 7. For f'urthersimilaritiesbetweenfurniture painted by Gaufher (in a picture owned by [he Hope family) and furniture

in Hlope's house, see Watkin 1968, p. 200.

now in the Louvre. Interestingly, Gauffler's throne was copied exactly by Thomas Hope for four seatsin his London

house.The connection between Hope and Gauffler, which

is documented from about 1790onwards, is discussed elsewhere

(see cat. 103), but this curious

analogy

requires

further clarification.' The link, indeed the common source,

386

Exhibitions: Rome 1788; Paris, Salon of1789:

no.347. SelectedReferences: Marmottan 1926,pp. 283 and

286;Crozet 1944,pp. 102--03 and 108;Anonymous1991,n.p.,col. repr.;Anonymous1992a, fig. X, p. 564;Clifford 1992,pp.67 and 74, detail repr. cover.

Cleopatra Henri Ducommun du Lode, called Daniel

(1804 1884)

Three versions of the Death of Cleopatra have been left to us by the sculptor Ducommun du Lode, illustrating a passage

1852 53

in Plutarch's narrative. In order to elude the watch

Bronze

Octavian was keeping over her, the queen used a stratagem 'And there came a man from the country carrying a basket;

1.05x 1.80m Marseille,MuseedesBeaux-Arts(S.8)

and when the guards asked him what he was bringing there, he opened the basket, took away the leaves, and

Provenance:

showed them that the dish inside was full of figs.... It is said

Commissioned by the State, 10 July 1852;rejected

that the asp was brought with those figs and leavesand lay

at the 1853Salon becausethe original marble had

hidden beneaththem, for thus Cleopatrahad given orders that the reptile might fastenitself upon her body without

beenexhibited there in 1847;Universal Exposition. Paris, 1855(no. 4297);placed in the Tuileries(?); transferred to the Marseille museum, 1855.

her being aware of it. But when she took away someof the

figs and saw it, she said: 'There it is, you see,'and baring her arm she held it out for the bite.

Exhibited in Paris

In 1844, the artist submitted a preliminary plaster

model to the Salon(no. 2185),which can no longer be

572

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

r'

located. In 1847, a large marble on the same subject was

cushions, a pensive Cleopatra ponders the serpent that winds

exhibited at the Salon (no. 2060),and then offered by the artist in 1849to the City of Nantes.:After that our bronze,

itself around her wrist like a bracelet. The Neo-Classical

which was shown in the Universal Exposition of 1855,may have stood for some time in the garden of the Tuileries.'

ideal has inspired the highly studied pose,the curled hair, and the drapery revealing the opulence of the body. The diadem, the armilla, and the finely worked sandalsconjure

Critics passedharshjudgement on this monumentalwork,

up an Orient of the imagination, while the band of false

which is not without charm. G. Planche wrote of the marble

hieroglyphs, the frieze of lotus and papyrus,and the

at Nantes: "This is assuredly not the remarkable personage

winged solar disks adorning the royal couch are borrowed from pharaonic Egypt.

whose ardent passionand tragic end have been recounted

c.z

for us by Plutarch. Mr. Daniel's C/fopa/ra seemsto be engagedin complacent self-contemplation and to be admir-

ing the supple and elegant form with which nature has endowed her; it could be said she is thanking heaven for

treating her so generously.And yet sheis far from beauti-

1. P/zd/arc.4t Z,;z,es,Loeb ed., vol. IX: Antony,

LXXXVI,

pp. 327--29

2. Inv. 1781;Nantes 1982,no. 9. 3. Bresc and Pingeot 1986.

4. Cited in Nantes 1913,p. 587 [our trans]ation].

ful."' Certainly the queen's countenance reflects neither the

terror nor the noble courage which one might have hoped

to discerntherelStretched languidly on embroidered

SelectedReferences: Brescand Pingeot 1986,p. 176, no. 141

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

573

indoors to Caesar.Tt was by this device of Cleopatra's, it is said, that Caesar was furst captivated, for she showed herself

to be a bold coquette, and succumbing to the charm of fur then intercourse with her, he reconciled her to her brother on the basis of a joint share with him in the royal power.

x.{

No historical document confirms this romantic version of the encounter between Caesarand Cleopatra, but it con tinues to excite the imagination. Long before the subject was appropriated by the cinema, painters had found in it a

.!}

sourceof inspiration. One of the most perfectly executed paintings on the subject was done, at Prosper M6rim6e's suggestion,by Jean-Leon G6r6me (seefig. 347).;The unusual size of the canvas is explained by its proposed location; it was designed to separate two rooms in the mansion built

for the Marquisede Pillva (known as La Palva)on the Champs-Elysees.What could be a more fitting adornment for the residenceof one of the period's most famous cour texans than this mythical

scene of seduction :

The exhibition of the painting at the Salon of1866 stirred up a flurry of conflicting opinions. Some critics were harsh: "Cleopatra

emerges from

her wrappings

in front of

Caesar, who does not appear to be greatly enchanted by

what is beingshowrlto him. Neither are we. The work is devoid of composition, style, feeling, and colour.... The subject is somewhat indecent, but mothers can be reassured

The author hasexecutedthe work in sucha way that small boysand girls will not notice anything at all."' Maxime du Citmp, on the other hand, considered that "this Cleopatra is

far superior to these questionable figures of Phryne, or

387

theseskimpy Louis XVI hgures. The queen is ... charming and chaste,despite being halfnude arid revealing her young breasts."s Recently discovered sketches' one in oil ' and [wo on paper show Caesarhastily stepping forward to help the queen rise from the floor. In the painting theseroles are

Cleopatra and Caesar

reversed: Cleopatr;\ emerges regally from a sumptuous Jean-L&on G6r8me (1824 1904)

1865?

Graphite and charcoal on paper

17.5x 13cm

Vesoul, Musee Georges Garret (986.3.1) Provenance:

Acquired by museum, 1985 Exhibited in Paris

Did this episode in which the eighteen-year-old queen, driven from her palace by her brother's intrigues, resolves

[o persuade Caesar to restore her to her throne

spring

from Plutarch's imagination? There is something spicy about his narrative: "So Cleopatra, taking only Apollodorus

the Sicilian from among her friends,embarkedin a little skiff and landed at the palace when it was already getting dark, and as it was impossible to escape notice otherwise, she stretched herself at full length inside a bed-sack, while Apollodorus tied rhe bed-sack up with a cord ar)d carried it

574

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

Fig. 347, Jean-Leon G6r6rne Cleopatra and Caesar, 1866 Oil on canvas Private collection, U.S.A.

r Persiancarpet to facea conqueror who is pinned to his seat by amazement; the secretaries,to whom he has been dictating

his Comma zarzcf,stand there transfixed. It is curious that the setting, which Strahan ' says represents the palace of the Ptolemies in Alexandria, is also reversed. Moreover, it gradually

becomes more and more Egyptian. With each succeeding

sketch, the Greek motifs disappear, especially the marble

statue in the centre of the first composition,and the columned hall is transformed into a sanctuary with painted

walls and scenessculpted in relief; this is an almost exact copy of a plate in the Z)eicrzP/ionde /'fgyp/r showing the temple at Deir el Medineh.w Where the queen is concerned, G6r6me distances himself further from the antique models.

While the delicately hooked nose and the chignon are drawn from Ptolemaic coins, the corselet is borrowed from the accoutrementsof mummies of the Third Intermediate Period, and the insubstantial split skirt is purely fanciful; so

is the headdress of the queen'sNubian slave,Apollodorus, which is a cross between a pharaonic memesand a Bedouin

veils Thus we find elements from the pharaohs, from

Greece,Rome,Africa, and the Orient, combinedto form the decor of an imaginary Egypt for a Cleopatra who is performing one of her principal roles

that of the seductress.

c.z 1. A sketch ofCleopatra's face is dated 1865;Vesoul 1981,no. 72.

2. P/ /alc-#kZ.;z,fs,Loeb ed.,vol. Vll: Caesar,XLIX.1 2, p. 559 3. CJfoPa/ru a/zd Cafiaf, oil on canvas, dated 1866 and signed, now in a

private collection in the United States(1.83 X 1.29m) 4. Anonymous, Paris, Sa]on of 1866 [our trans]ation] 5. Cited by Gui]]emin in Vesou] 1981, p. 74 [our trans]ation] 6. Ackermann 1986a, p. 218, no. 159 B.

7. Vesoul 1981(986.3.1);sale Paul Prout6, "Domenico" collection, 1980.1ot89.

8. Strahan 1879--82, vol. 11, pp. 1 12--14 9. Dfscrl non de /'fWP/f, A, vol. 11,pl. 37. Exhibitions: Vesoul 1981,no. 74

388

SelectedReferences Vesoul 1991,p. 38, no. 38

Cleopatra Henry Weekes (1807--1877) 1868

Marble Statue: 101.2 x 29.2 x 38.2 cm

Base:47 x 28 x 28 cm (not included in exhibition) Signed and dated on base,at left: .f/. Wce4fi. R.A. Sc / 1868. Hull, Ferens Art Gallery, Hull City Museums and Art Galleries (S.lO) Provenance: Purchased by M. Simpson (for £700) and donated to a Red Cross sale, Christie's, London, 1915 18;

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

575

purchasedby Sir JeremiahColeman, Bt., for the

herself with her right arm. Her costume and accessoriesare

Rt. Hon. Thomas Robinson Ferens; gift of

only partially Egyptian, but on her head is the vulture

T.R. Ferens, c. 1925.

crown worn by goddessesand queens (seecat. 379), already

a standard accessorsin British and American sculpture of

Chiefly a sculptor of portraits and monuments,Weekes

the 1860s;it figures, for instance,in the bustof 1868by

executed a few historical and allegorical subjects, including

JamesHenry Hazeltine.:it may be notedthat following the

his Sarda?za/,cz/zii (1861)for the EgyptianHall at Mansion House, London, and the group }ror4 for the Albert

construction of the Egyptian Court at the Crystal Palace in

Memorial. C/eopcz/}a, one of four works shown by him at the Royal Academy in 1869,passedrelatively unnoticed,

attempt greater historical accuracyin the i\rts. The first effort

being overshadowed by the monument of Queen Victoria chat Weekes made for Calcutta. The subject, derived from

Sir J. Wilkinson Gardiner termed "that complicated machinery

Shakespeare'sHnrony czndC/ropcz/ra, represents Cleopatra's

lavish performanceof Edward Fitzball's "grand Egyptian drama" Nz/ocrzi at the [)ruby Lane Theatre in London,

suicide scenein Act 5, the moment when she addressesthe asp: "Come, thou mortal wretch, / With thy sharp teeth this

1854there was a movement in the United Kingdom to to re-createconvincingly on stage what the Egyptologist

that weavesfor us so true a tapestryof the Past" wasthe

in 1855.3

knot intrinsicate / Oflife at once untie: poor venomous fool, / Be angry, and dispatch." The use of Shakespeare as a

M.P

source is rather unusual, given the fact that his play had little successon the stage until later in the nineteenth century.

While Plutarch's account of the Egyptian queen remained the main source for artists for the better part of the eigh-

1. Altick 1985,pp. 319--21 2. In the Newark Museum, Newark, N.J.; Gerdts 1963,pp. 92, 122 3. Wilkinson 1856,p. 88.

teenth century and early nineteenth century, the story of Antony and Cleopatra was, as Richard Altick has observed,

known to the stagemainly through Dryden'splay .4//

Exhibitions:

to, L«,e .

London

Weekes' Cleopatra is shown lust as she is about to place the asp to her breast. She stands unmoved, but covering

389

1869, no. 1283;

Brighton/Manchester no. 273; Hull

1983,

SelectedReferences: Weekes 1880, repr.; Hull 1989 P. 8.

1989, no. 2

The Death of Cleopatra Jean-Andre Rixens (1846 1924)

standing on an altar with an Egyptian cornice. Undoubtedly

1874

the artist drew his inspiration from the rich collectionof

Oil on canvas

small bronzes in the Louvre, from which he has inadver-

1.95x 2.86m

tently reproduced a typically modern basein yellow stone.

Toulouse, Musee des Augustine (Ro 239)

On the right, brilliantly colouredmotifs standout on an embroidered hanging: winged scarabsand a large

The Death of Cleopatra,a subjectfrequentlydepictedby

vulture with wings spread,copied from a jewel also on display

nineteenth-century painters, also occasioned theatrical set-

tings in which the artist sought to bring a pharaonicsetting

at the Louvre (seecat. 213). When it comesto the furniture, however, the reconstruction goes astray, which is under-

to life, combining his skills asscenepainter, property manager,

standable:it wasonly after the furniture in Tutarlkhamun's

and costume designed Plutarch's romanticized narrative

Lomb was discovered that copies could be widely circulated

supplies the theme, which is rendered with an almost

Disdaining the modelsoffered in paintings and reliefs,

scrupulous fidelity.

Rixens has imagined for the bed and the low table, a sump' tuous set in gold, of novel design. It features a few Greek

The sceneis set in the mausoleum, piled high with the treasuresof the Ptolemies, where the queen had taken

decor, borrowed from a book by Prissy d'Avennes.' A frieze

structedan imaginary monument, for which the decorhas Ramessidekings to the Late Period. The walls in the back-

of lotusesand rosettes,a winged disk, and a large falcon keep watch at the head of the bed; while at the foot lies the basketof Rigsbrought by a peasantwho, as the story

ground have dadoesornamented with a frieze of aquatic

goes,eluded the vigilance of Octavian's guards and thus

plants and are covered with painted scenesmarked off by hieroglyphic inscriptions. Tn the half-light, a large statue of

allowed the asp to enter secretly.While the feline skin might well have adorned a pharaonicinterior, the thick woollen carpetcomesas a surprise; it transportsus to a

beendrawn from sourcesdating all the way from the

the goddess Isis suckling the infant Horus can be discerned,

576

palmettesand volumes addedto a strongly Egyptianizing

refuge. As no eyewitness accounts exist, the artist has recon-

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

different world

the Orient of the nineteenth century.

This is certainly the world to which the three figures belong: the queen with her faithful attendant

Plurarch except the jewels, are almost unrestrainedly erotic.

Charmian, and her hairdresser Iris. The sceneis partly true to Plutarch's narrative: "When they opened the doors they

The pallid victim, portrayed in a provocative attitude, is not the Queen of Egypt, she is the courtesan whose poisonous charms captivated the two conquerors of her time, Caesar and Mark Antony. The work is an expressionof a taste than

found Cleopatralying dead upon a goldencouch,arrayed

was formed as the nineteenth century unfolded. Even

in royalstate.And of her two women,the one calledIras

today, this image arouses old phantasms arid enjoys a

was dying at her feet, while Charmian, already tottering

certain popularity: it recently figured in the set for an Americanfilm, 7#f P#a/z/om of/Af Opf/cz

and heavy-headed,was trying to arrange the diadem which

c.z

encircled the queen's brow."z Certainly Charmian's pose, with her facein profile and her shouldersturned frontally, recalls the conventions of pharaonic art. But the transparent gauzesand the silks that adorn the bodiesof the lightly clad young women, the pleated veils, and the gilded damask on

1. Prissed'Avennes 1847. 2. P/zi/arf#t Lzz,CK, Loeb ed., vol. IX: Antony, LXXXV.3

4, pp. 327--29

which the sovereignrestswould flt very well in a harem scene.The exposedbody of the attendantand that of her

Exhibitions:

SelectedReferences

sovereign, who retains nothing of the costumedescribedby

Paris 1874, no. 1575

Hlumbert

1989, repr. p. 246

Cleooatra or the Seductionsof the East

577

39o

Cleopatra Testing Poisonson Condemned Prisoners Alexandre Cabanel (1823 1889) 1887

unspeakable agony, gazing vacantly at the woman who poured him the fatal dose.His silver goblet has rolled away

Oil on canvas

ontheground.

1.65x 2.90m

Today this sceneprovokes smiles rather than shud-

Antwerp, Koninklijk Museum voor Schone

ders, but it is still possible to appreciate the interplay

Kunsten (1505)

betweenfeminine softnessand ferocity, which is matched by the contrast between the light fabrics and the coatsof the

Almost completely disrobed, the queenlolls on a divarl coveredwith a feline skin. At her feet, a faithful leopard

wild beasts.We can also give credit to the artist's real efforts

keeps guard like a sphinx. She swings a bouquet of lotus flowers carelesslyto and fro, with a bulky air. Behind her a

polychrome decoration, and rhe back of the dais that sup-

serving woman wavesa fan, leaning forward in a studied

Dfscrzp/zo/z de /'Egypre' (the temple at Philae can be recognized as the source of the intercolumniations, while the door is from the temple at Edfu). These elements are used

poseto enjoy the spectacle.One of the condemned men has

just died and is being carried off. The second writhes in

578

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

at historical reconstruction. The colonnades,with their rich

ports papyrus-shapedcolumns are taken from platesin the

to createa pharaonic setting that is rounded out by certain

This/rmmf

details in the costumes: the sovereign's vulture

appearance in romantic literature; her career continued until World War 1. She is the Cleopatra of the nineteenthcentury writers and poets: Alexander Pushkin, Delphine de

headdress

and her sandalsand jewels are very directly derived from sources used in the 1880s. But the transparent gauzes,

/a/cz/e variant

of Cleopatra

made an early

scarvesand long veils, together with the luxuriant vegetation, draw us towards a more familiar version of the exotic.

Girardin, JoseMaria de H6r6dia, Victorien Sardou,and

For, this casually cruel Cleopatra, who takes pleasure

was performed in 1908by the Ballets Russel, resemblesthe

in the death throes of her victims, is not the Cleopatra of

the ancient texts. Certainly, assassinationwas common

heroine of our painting like a sister: she staves off boredom with a spectacle in which gladiators face tigers, and she also

enough at the Ptolemaic court; and Plutarch, in his life of

rakes pleasure in poisoning slaves.'

Jean Cantel. Th6ophile Gautier's Cleopatra, whose story

c.z

Antony, devotesa whole section to the experimentsthe queen is supposed to have engaged in after her defeat at Actium, in search of the most painless way ofdying.: if this

anecdoteis true, then Cleopatra is motivated here by a lively and purely technical interest, trying out various poisons on condemned men before testing the venom of serpents.

Another image of Cleopatra was formed in the nineteenth century, one that linked historical recollections

to the kind of mythical Eastfound in the TZoai.zndandO/zr /V©A/i, a highly popular publication. The queen now incar-

natesan Oriental style of despotism,as the absolute

1. 1ntercolumniations: Philae, seeZ)ffcrzb/zo df /'!hpp/f, A, vol. I pl. 16; Door: Edfu, elevation of the portico of the great temple of

Edfu, Apollinopolis Magna,seeZ)eicrzp/zon de /'fgyp/f, A, vol. I, pl. 53 2. P/w/arc.4?.L;z,eK, Loeb ed., vol. IX: Antony, LXX1.4, pp. 301--03 3. On Jules Massenet, see Hughes-Halley

1991, note 110; Payen 1915,

P.53 4. "You who watch with a smile on your lips while the slavesyou have poisoned, convulsed with agony, beat their heels and their heads against your lovely pavements of mosaic and porphyry" (Gautier 1894,P.46).

monarch jaded and spent from desires that are appeased even before they are expressed.Her capricious, arrogantly

carelesscruelty hasa certain tinge of voluptuousness: the

Exhibitions: Paris, Salon of 1887;Paris 1973.

Paris,Salonof 1887, p.34, no. 406; Paris 1974, p. 44 (on

victims, who are very young men, are often consenting.

Cabanel); New York 1975(Kupka)

Come," murmurs Massenet'sCleopatra, "I am divine

pl. 18;Antwerp 1977,p. 86,

death, the enchantress."' Sublime cruelty, shiver of delights

391

SelectedReferences

no. 1505; New York

1982, fig. 95

Cleopatra Gustave Moreau(18261898)

female. This was a dominant theme in Moreau's work of

c. 1887

the 1880s and 1890s. Besides the watercolour shown here.

Watercolour highlighted with gouache and edged

there are two small oil paintings at the Musee Gustave

with black

Moreau in Paris,s and a C/e0/7azrcz o/z z,beNz/f.6

40 x 25 cm

Intending to kill herself, the dethroned monarch

Paris, Musee du Louvre,

[)6partement

des Arts

Graphiques(RF 27900)

hasfled to one of the terracesof the palace.A broadopening, hung with shimmering curtains, frames an imaginary

architecturebathedin bluish moonlight: on the left, a Provenance:

receding line of pylons, colonnades, and obelisks suggests

Collection of Matthieu Mavrocordato; gift of

sometemple near Thebes,while on the far right, a sphinx

M. Mavrocordato,

and two pyramids provide a referenceto the plateauof

1935.

Giza. Tall red ibises,dear to the artist, are usedto heighten Exhibited in Paris

Gustave Moreau's notebooks tell us that in 1860 the artist

the Egyptian character of the scene,further emphasized by additional details such as the dark muzzle of a lion inspired by the statuesof the Cordonata, the pink lotus that rhe sov-

was planning to work on Egyptian subjects,including an

ereign is holding, and the royal cobra jutting up on her

/:gyP/;a

forehead.

Gzr/ Fefdzng /a;lfi.i

Other works, such as 7'#f

raLtures and the Pigeons: ot Moses Exposed on the Banks ofthe

Lost in reverie, Cleopatra's gaze is remote. We see

Nf/f (fig. 348),' borrow extensively from pharaonic monu-

her noble profile as she turns away from the fatal serpent;

ments and may be basedon the lithographs of David

almost imperceptible, it lies curled on the left armrest of her

Roberts.' However, the subject of his seriesof paintings of Cleopatra is not so much Egypt as the fascinatirlg, remote

emerald-studded throne. The exotic hangings, the greaves enriched with precious stones,and the filmy drapery taken

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

579

P H

.R

\

h

Fig. 348. Gustave Moreau MosesExposedon tbe Ba?lks of tbe Nile c. 1860, detail

Fogg Art Museum, Cambridge, Mass.

from ClassicalAntiquity, her hairstyle and jewels as rich

Musee Gustave Moreau, Paris; cited in Loyrette 1988, p. 97, no. l;

asthey are imaginative

compare with Moma7zm;/A a Pzn4 /&zs, in Mathieu

form the setting for the legendary

beauty of the Queen of Egypt, her fabulous pearl on her finger.

The work doesnot achievethe intensity of Moreau's Dczz/zd,7but its subtle

chromatics

enable it to express the

dark melancholyof this last oriental night, and seemsto echo Shakespeare'simmortal lines: "Finish, good lady, the bright day is done, / And we z\re for the dark."*

c.z

2.

Mathieu 1976,no. 231, end of1881

3. Mathieu 1976, no. 172, 1878 4. Roberts. 1846---50 5.

Paris1974,nos.659 and 741

6

Mathieu 1976,no. 355.oil on canvas,c. 1887

7

Mathieu 1976,p. 132. Iran speaks these words to the queen in Shakespeare's.4zzzonya d C/fora/}a, Act V. scenell

8

Exhibitions: Paris 1961,no. 116; Tokyo

1964--65, no. 110;Vienna 1976--77. no.41

580

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

1976, no. 407,

.894.

SelectedReferences Mathieu 1976,no. 351, pls. on p. 169and p. 153;Vienna 1976--77 P.94

r' 392

Cleopatra Emmanuel Fr6miet(1824--1910) Date unknown Bronze 6.5 x 8.5 x 0.3 cm Signed on the obverse, in the lower left corner of

rhe scene:Z?.Fr m;e/; inscribed on the right edge: bronze 167 Dijon, Musee des Beaux-Arts (1885) Provenance:

Gift of Albert Joliet,May 1907,includedwith a group of medals.

While little enoughis known about the coinsand medals executed by Fr6miet, there is total obscurity regarding the date and circumstances of production of this C'/fora/7a; the

wax reliefs on a slate plaque used as models are in the Musee d'Orsay(RF 3207 and RF 3208). It should be viewed, perhaps, in relation to a statuette by the same artist

(fig. 349),produced by Sdvresin porcelain from 1904to 1910, depicting the sovereign in her last momcnts. One side of the relief shows a bust of the Queen of Egypt; her delicate profile

is framed by a vulture's plumage in the style of the pharaohs (seecat. 380). From the necklace adorning the lower portion

of the plaquette are hung the three flies discoveredby Marietta in the treasure of Queen Ah-hotep, which were shown in Paris in 1867, during the Universal Exposition.

The other decorative elements are more puzzling: in the right-hand

corner two scarabs and an udya/ eye suggest

hieroglyphicwriting, while the monogramA.C. (Antony and Cleopatra?) servesas a perch for two pigeons (?), possibly symbolizing the passionthat led the two lovers to their dooms On the obverse the queen is enthroned on an elephant and bearsthe insignia other rule: sceptre,tamed lion, and a great serpent that she tramples underfoot. Two servants

with shaven heads, also riding an elephant, follow her waving fans to allay the heat of the sun. The three figures

and their accessoriesare derived from scenesof the New Kingdom, and the elephants a rarity in pharaonic art were actually used in the armies of the Ptolemies. Although Lhe scene does not refer to any precise event in Cleopatra's

life, it is not totally improbable,and it offers Fr6miet an excuseto show off his talent for sculpting animals. The theme may have been suggestedto him by his friend G6r6me,

who greatly admired pharaonic Egypt and executed a famous painting inspired by the sovereign(cat. 387)

Exhibitions:

c.z

Selected References:

Paris 1967,no. 462; Dijon/Grenoble

Biez 1910, p. 283; Lami 1916,

1988.

p. 416; Faure-Fr6miet 1934, p. 147; Chevillot

P. 147.

1988, no. 142,

Fig. 349. Gustave Fr6miet, C/eaPafrz Plaster statuette produced by Sdvres

from 1904to 1910

Archives de la Manufacture de S&vres

Cleopatra or the Seductions of the East

581

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