Egypt A Country Study 0844407291

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area

handbook

series

Egypt a country study

s

Egypt a country study Federal Research Division Library of Congress

Edited by Helen Chapin Metz Research Completed December 1990

On

the cover:

A

Tutankhamen (1347-

representation of

1337 B.C.), pharaoh of the

New Kingdom,

on

his throne

Fifth Edition, First Printing, 1991.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Egypt: a country study

Congress

;

cm. 550-43) p.

pam

;

/

Federal Research Division, Library of

—

5th ed. by Helen Chapin Metz. (Area handbook series, ISSN 1057-5294) (DA

edited

—

Previous ed. has statement of responsibility: Foreign Area edited by Richard F. Nyrop. Studies, the American University "Research completed December 1990." :

Includes bibiliography (pp. 369-391) and index.

ISBN 0-8444-0729-1 II. Library of 1. Egypt. I. Metz, Helen Chapin, 1928Congress. Federal Research Division. III. Series. IV. Series: pam 550-43. .

DA

;

DT46.E32

91-29876

1991

CIP

962— dc20

Headquarters, Department of the 550-43

Army

DA Pam

For

sale

by the Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government Printing Office

Washington, D.C. 20402

Foreword

This volume

one in a continuing

is

series of

books prepared by

the Federal Research Division of the Library of Congress under

—

Country Studies Area Handbook Program sponsored by the Department of the Army. The last page of this book lists the other the

published studies.

Most books

in the series deal with a particular foreign country,

economic, social, and national and examining the interrelationships of those systems and the ways they are shaped by cultural factors. Each study is written by a multidisciplinary team of social describing and analyzing security systems

scientists.

The

and

its political,

institutions,

authors seek to provide a basic understanding of

dynamic rather than a static devoted to the people who make

the observed society, striving for a portrayal. Particular attention

up

the society, their origins,

is

dominant

beliefs

and

values, their

mon interests and the issues on which they are divided,

com-

the nature

and extent of their involvement with national institutions, and their attitudes toward each other and toward their social system and political order.

The books represent the analysis of the authors and should not be construed as an expression of an official United States government position, policy, or decision. The authors have sought to adhere to accepted standards of scholarly objectivity. Corrections, additions, and suggestions for changes from readers will be welcomed

for use in future editions.

Louis R. Mortimer Chief Federal Research Division Library of Congress Washington, D.C. 20540

iii

Acknowledgments

The

authors wish to acknowledge the contributions of the writers

of the 1983 edition of Egypt:

A

Country Study, edited

Nyrop. Their work provided general background volume. F.

The

by Richard

for the present

authors are grateful to individuals in various government

agencies and private institutions

who gave

of their time, research

and expertise in the production of this book. These individuals included Ralph K. Benesch, who oversees the Country Studies Area Handbook program for the Department of the Army. The authors also wish to thank members of the Federal Research materials,

—

who contributed directly to the preparation of the manuscript. These people included Thomas Collelo, the substantive reviewer of all the graphic and textual material; Sandra W. Meditz, who reviewed all drafts and served as liaison with the sponsoring agency; and Martha E. Hopkins and Marilyn Majeska, who managed editing and book production. Also involved in preparing the text were editorial assistants Barbara Edgerton and Izella Watson; Richard Kollodge and Ruth Nieland, who edited chapters; Beverly Wolpert, who performed the prepublication editorial review; and Joan C. Cook, who compiled the index. Linda Peterson of the Library of Congress Composing Unit prepared the camera-ready copy under the supervision Division staff

of Peggy Pixley.

Graphics were prepared by David P. Cabitto, and Timothy L. map drafts. David P. Cabitto and Greenhorne and O'Mara prepared the final maps. Special thanks are owed to Marty Ittner, who prepared the illustrations on the title page of each chapter, and David P. Cabitto, who did the cover art. The authors would like to thank Ly H. Burnham, who assisted with demographic data. Finally, the authors acknowledge the generosity of the many individuals and public and private agencies, especially the Press and Information Bureau of the Arab Republic of Egypt, who allowed their photographs to be used in Merrill reviewed

this study.

Contents

Page

Foreword

iii

Acknowledgments

v

Preface

xiii

Country Profile

XV

Introduction

Chapter

1.

xxiii

Historical Setting

1

Mary Ann Fay

ANCIENT EGYPT The Predynastic Period and

5

the First

and

Second Dynasties, 6000-2686 B.C The Old Kingdom, Middle Kingdom, and Second Intermediate Period, 2686 to 1552 B.C Pyramid Building in the Old and Middle Kingdoms The New Kingdom and Third Intermediate Period, 1552-664 B.C Art and Architecture in the New Kingdom The Cult of the Sun God and Akhenaten's Monotheism The Late Period, 664-323 B.C

5

8

9 10 11

12 12

PTOLEMAIC, ROMAN, AND BYZANTINE EGYPT, 332 B.C.-A.D. 642

13

The Alexandrian Conquest The Ptolemaic Period

13

14

Egypt under Rome and Byzantium, 30 B.C.-A.D. 640

15

MEDIEVAL EGYPT

18

The Arab Conquest, 639-41 The Tulinids, Ikhshidids, Fatimids,

18

and Ayyubids, 868-1260

21

The Mamluks, 1250-1517

23

EGYPT UNDER THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE MODERN EGYPT The Neo-Mamluk Beylicate, 1760-98 The French Invasion and Occupation, 1798-1801

24 25 25 ...

26

vii

Muhammad

Ali,

1805-48

Abbas Hilmi I, Social Change in

28

1848-54 and Said, 1854-63

31

the Nineteenth Century

32

FROM AUTONOMY TO OCCUPATION: TAWFIQ, AND THE URABI REVOLT

ISMAIL, 35

Khedive Ismail, 1863-79

35

From

37

Intervention to Occupation, 1876-82

FROM OCCUPATION TO NOMINAL INDEPENDENCE, 1882-1923

42

The Occupiers Economy and Society under Occupation

42 43

Egypt under the Protectorate and the 1919 Revolution

46

THE ERA OF LIBERAL CONSTITUTIONALISM AND PARTY POLITICS

49

The Rise and Decline of the Wafd, 1924-39 Egypt During the War, 1939-45

49

On

53

the Threshold of Revolution, 1945-52

The Revolution and

52

the Early Years of the

New Government, 1952-56 Egypt and the Arab World Nasser and Arab Socialism Egypt, the Arabs, and Israel

67

The War with

68

Israel,

56 65

66

1967

THE AFTERMATH OF THE WAR

69

Internal Relations

69

External Relations

71

Nasser's Legacy

74

Sadat Takes Over, 1970-73

76

October 1973 War Political Developments, 1971-78

80

Egypt's

New

77

82

Direction

Peace with Israel

The Aftermath

of

83

Camp

David and the 85

Assassination of Sadat

MUBARAK AND THE MIDDLE WAY Chapter

2.

The Society and

Its

86

Environment

91

Eric Hooglund

GEOGRAPHY

95

Natural Regions

96

Climate

viii

95

Physical Size and Borders

102

POPULATION

104

Population Control Policies

104

Major

105

Cities

Emigration

108

Minorities

110

SOCIAL ORGANIZATION Urban

113

114

Society

Rural Society

119

FAMILY AND KINSHIP

124

Importance of Kinship Attitudes

124

Women of Women

Toward

Changing Status

127

130

RELIGION

130

Islam

130

Coptic Church

140

Other Religious Minorities

143

EDUCATION HEALTH AND WELFARE Chapter

3.

143

148

The Economy

155 Sharif

S.

STRUCTURE, GROWTH, AND DEVELOPMENT OF THE ECONOMY

Elmusa

158

Infrastructure

160

Transportation

160

Communications

165

THE ROLE OF GOVERNMENT

165

Mubarak's Gradualism? Development Planning Pricing and Subsidy Exchange Rates

167

168 169 170

Public Finance

171

Banking, Credit, and Inflation

173

LABOR

175

Employment Wages

AGRICULTURE

175

178 179

The Food Gap Land Ownership and Reform Land Reclamation and Loss

180

Pricing Policy

186

Cropping Patterns, Production, and Yield Technology

188

182

184

193

IX

ENERGY, MINING, AND MANUFACTURING

197

Energy Mining Manufacturing

197

200 200

FOREIGN TRADE

207

Exports

208

Imports

208

Trade Partners

209

BALANCE OF PAYMENTS AND MAIN SOURCES OF FOREIGN EXCHANGE

210

Petroleum

210

Suez Canal

211

Remittances

212

Tourism

214

Current Account Balance

216

Capital Account and Capital Grants

216

Direct Foreign Investment

217

Loans

218

DEBT AND RESTRUCTURING Chapter

4.

220

Government and

Politics

Raymond A.

227 Hinnebusch, Jr.

THE DOMINANT EXECUTIVE AND THE POWER ELITE

230

The Presidency The President and the Power Elite The Prime Minister, the Council of

230 232 Ministers,

and the Policy-making Process

The Road

236

Power: Recruitment and Composition

to

237

of the Elite Elite Ideology Politics

among

241

244

Elites

The Bureaucracy and Local Government

Policy Implementation

251

253

THE SUBORDINATE BRANCHES: THE REGIME AND ITS CONSTITUENCY

254 255

Parliament

The The

Judiciary, Civil Rights, and the Rule of Political

Interest

Law

Role of the Media

Groups

CONTROLLING THE MASS POLITICAL ARENA The ''Dominant Party" System x

.

.

.

258 260 262

265 267

The Limits

of Incorporation:

The Rise

of Political

Islam and the Continuing Role of Repression

FOREIGN POLICY

279

The Determinants The Development

279

of Foreign Policy

Foreign Policy Decision

Chapter

Making

281

of Foreign Policy

282

National Security

5.

291

Jean R.

MILITARY HERITAGE The Egyptian Military First Arab-Israeli

in

World War

II

War

of Attrition and the October 1973

SECURITY CONCERNS AND STRATEGIC PERSPECTIVES THE MILITARY IN NATIONAL LIFE THE ARMED FORCES

Tartter

294 295 296

The 1956 War The June 1967 War

War

275

296 297

War

299

302 303 305

Army

306

Air Force

311

Navy

313

Air Defense Force

315

Training and Education

316

Conscription and Reserves

319

Conditions of Service

320

Defense Spending

322

Military Justice

324

Uniforms and Insignia

325

ARMED FORCES PRODUCTION

325

Production of Civilian Goods

325

Defense Industry

328

FOREIGN MILITARY ASSISTANCE INTERNAL SECURITY Muslim Extremism Leftist

Organizations

331

334 334 336

Police

337

Intelligence Services

341

CRIME AND PUNISHMENT The

Judicial System

342

Incidence of Crime

342 344

Drug

346

Trafficking

The Penal System

347

xi

Appendix. Tables

351

Bibliography

369

Glossary

393

Index

397

List 1

of Figures

Administrative Divisions of Egypt, 1990

2 Ancient

Egypt

3 Natural

Regions

xxii

6

98

4 Estimated Population Distribution by

Age and

Sex,

1986

106

5

Transportation System, 1990

162

6

The

234

Presidency, 1990

7 Principal Military Installations in the Sinai Peninsula,

1989

298

8 Organization of National Defense, 1989 9 Military

xii

Ranks and

Insignia, 1990

309 326

Preface

This edition of Egypt:

A

Country Study replaces the previous edi-

tion published in 1983. Like

its

predecessor, the present

book

at-

tempts to treat in a compact and objective manner the dominant historical, social, economic, political, and national security aspects of contemporary Egypt. Sources of information included scholarly books, journals, and monographs; official reports and documents of governments and international organizations; and foreign and

domestic newspapers and periodicals. Relatively up-to-date economic data were available from several sources, but the sources were not always in agreement. Chapter bibliographies appear at the end of the book; brief comments on some of the more valuable sources for further reading appear at the conclusion of each chapter. Measurements are given in the metric system; a conversion table

who

is

provided to

are unfamiliar with the metric system (see table

assist those 1,

Appen-

Landholdings, however, are presented infeddans, a unit of measure that remains in general use although Egypt officially uses the metric system. One feddan equals 1.038 acres. The Glossary provides brief definitions of terms, such as feddan, that may be undix).

familiar to the general reader.

The information detailed

available on ancient and modern Egypt is and voluminous. Limitations of space and time, however,

precluded the presentation of anything more than a short survey. The transliteration of Arabic words and phrases posed a particular problem. For many of the words such as Muhammad, Muslim, Quran, and shaykh the authors followed a modified version of the system adopted by the United States Board on Geographic

—

—

Names and

the

Permanent Committee on Geographic Names

British Official Use,

known

as the

BGN/PCGN system;

for

the modifi-

and hyphens. In numerous instances, however, the names of persons or places are so well known by another spelling that to have used the BGN/PCGN system may have created confusion. For example, the reader will find Cairo rather than Al Qahirah, Giza rather than Al Jizah, Suez rather than As Suways, and Gamal Abdul Nasser rather than Jamal Abd an Nasr. For some place-names, two transcation entails the omission of all diacritical markings

literations

have been provided (see

fig.

1).

xiii

Country

Profile

Country Formal Name: Arab Republic

of Egypt.

Short Form: Egypt.

Term

for Citizens: Egyptians.

Capital: Cairo.

Geography Size: Approximately

1

million square kilometers.

Topography: Four major

and Delta, where Western Desert; Eastern Desert;

regions: Nile Valley

about 99 percent of population

lives;

and Sinai Peninsula. Climate: Except for modest amounts of rainfall along Mediterranean coast, precipitation ranges from minimal to nonexistent. Mild

xv

winters

(November

to April)

and hot summers (May

to October).

Society Population: Estimated at more than 52.5 million in mid- 1990, mostly concentrated along banks of Nile River. Annual growth rate estimated at 2.6 percent.

Education and Literacy: Education compulsory

for basic nine-

year cycle but attendance not enforced; approximately 16 percent of school-age children did not attend. Literacy approximately 45 percent in 1990.

Health and Welfare: Ministry of Health provided health care variety of public medical

facilities.

at

Urban-rural distribution of health

cities. Average nutrition compared favorably with most middle- and low-income countries. Average life expectancy at birth fifty-nine years for men and sixty

care generally biased in favor of larger

years for

women

in 1989.

Language: Arabic. Ethnic Groups: Egyptians, beduins, Greeks, Nubians, Armenians, and Berbers. Religion: Almost 90 percent Sunni Muslims, 8.5 percent Coptic Christians, 1.5 percent other Christians.

Economy Gross Domestic Product (GDP): US$45.08 per capita in 1988. mid-1980s.

Economy experienced

billion, or

US$867

sluggish growth after

Agriculture: Single largest source of employment; contributed 15 percent of GDP in 1987. Major crops by area planted (in descending order): clover for livestock feed, corn, wheat, vegetables, rice, cotton, and fruit. Heavily dependent on food imports. Some reforms in pricing

implemented

in 1980s.

Industry: Contributed 34 percent of GDP in 1987. Share of manufacturing in GDP 12 percent; sector stagnated in 1980s. Manufacturing produced mainly consumer goods but also some basic industries such as iron and steel, aluminum, and cement. Manufacturing dominated by public sector; consensus that sector needed reform. Oil share of GDP fell considerably with crash of oil prices in late 1985. Oil production averaged 42.7 tons per year between 1984 and 1988. Gas acquiring added importance in 1980s.

xvi

Exports: US$4.8 billion in 1988, of which oil was US$3.1 billion. Textiles US$458 million and other manufacturing US$810 million. Cotton (major export before late 1970s) US$310 million. Exports stagnated in 1980s.

Imports: US$10.6 billion, of which intermediate goods US$3.7 goods US$3 billion, consumer goods US$2 billion,

billion, capital

and food and agriculture US$1.7 rapidly in first half of 1980s and

billion.

Trade

deficit

increased

stabilized in second half.

Debt: Civilian US$35

billion in 1988 (forecast); military US$10.8 Negotiations with International Monetary Fund continuing in early 1990 on debt rescheduling and economic restructuring. billion.

Currency: Egyptian pound (£E) consists of 100 piasters. In early 1990, worth between US$1 .00 and US$1 .50 depending on applicable exchange rate. Fiscal Year: Since July

1,

1980, July

1

through June 30.

Transportation and Communications Railroads: More than 4,800 kilometers of track, 950 kilometers of which double-tracked. Bulk of system standard gauge (1.435 meters), but 347 kilometers narrow gauge (0.75 meter). Twentyfive -kilometer suburban transit link between Cairo and industrial suburb of Hulwan electrified. Southern part of Cairo Metro opened 1987; northeast line opened 1989. Ferry at Aswan connects Egyptian Railways to Sudanese system.

Roads: More than 49,000 kilometers, of which about 15,000

kilo-

meters paved, 2,500 kilometers gravel, 31,500 kilometers earthen.

Inland Waterways: About 3,500 kilometers, consisting mainly of Nile River and several canals in Delta.

Suez Canal: About 160 kilometers for international shipping between Red and Mediterranean seas. Reopened in 1975. Capable of handling ships of 150,000 deadweight tons laden and 16 meters draft. In 1987 17,541 ships transited canal with 257,000 tons of cargo, earning Egypt US$1.22 billion.

main port. Port Said and Suez other two large Phosphates shipped from Bur Safajah on the Red Sea. Port near Alexandria remained under construction in 1990.

Ports: Alexandria ports.

About 1,400 kilometers for domestic crude products plus about 600 kilometers for natural gas. Pipelines:

oil

and

refined

xvn

Airports: Sixty- six airfields but only Cairo and Alexandria handled international traffic.

Telecommunications: Well developed radio and ties;

shortage of telephones.

Numerous

television facili-

international

communica-

tions links.

Government and

Politics

Government: Constitution of 1971

delegates majority of

power

to

— lower People's Assembly and upper Consultative Council, created in 1980 from the old Central Committee of the Arab Socialist Union — and judipresident,

who dominates two-chamber legislature

ciary, although

each constitutionally independent. President pospower to appoint and dismiss officials,

sesses virtually unrestricted

including vice president or vice presidents, prime minister and members of Council of Ministers, military officers, and governors of the twenty- six administrative subdivisions

known as

governorates.

Husni Mubarak (1981- ), former military Gamal Abdul Nasser (1954-70) and Anwar as Sadat (1970-81). Nasser was leader and Sadat member of Free Officers' group that overthrew monarchy in 1952 Revolution. President dominated National Democratic Party formed in 1977. Opposition composed of number of secular and religious parties in legislature, of which Muslim Brotherhood was the chief, and some nonparliamentary Islamic extremist groups. Politics: President officer, as

were

his predecessors:

International Organizations: Member of United Nations and its specialized agencies; Organization of African Unity; and Nonaligned Movement. Founding member of League of Arab States (Arab League), headquartered in Cairo until after Egypt signed peace treaty with Israel in March 1979. Arab League expelled Egypt and moved headquarters out of country. In 1990 Arab League headquarters returned to Cairo.

National Security

Armed

Forces (1989): Total personnel on active duty 445,000, including draftees mostly serving for three years. Reserves totaled about 300,000. Component services: army of 320,000 (estimated

180,000 conscripts), navy of 20,000 including 2,000 Coast Guard (10,000 conscripts), and air force of 30,000 (10,000 conscripts). Air Defense Force separate service of 80,000 (50,000 conscripts).

Major Tactical Military Units (1988): Army: visions, six

xvm

mechanized infantry

divisions,

four armored ditwo infantry divisions,

four independent infantry brigades, three mechanized brigades, one armored brigade, two air mobile brigades, one paratroop brigade, Republican Guard armored brigade, two heavy mortar brigades, fourteen artillery brigades, two surface-to-surface missile (SSM) regiments, and seven commando groups.

Navy: Twelve submarines, one destroyer

(training), five frigates,

twenty-five fast-attack craft (missile), eighteen fast-attack craft (torpedo), minesweepers,

and landing

ships.

Air Force: About 440 combat aircraft and 72 armed helicopters; force organized into one bomber squadron, ten fighter- ground attack squadrons, thirteen fighter squadrons, two reconnaissance squadrons, and fifteen helicopter squadrons, plus electronic monitoring, early warning, transport, and training aircraft. Air Defense Force organized into more than 230 battalions of antiaircraft guns and SAMs. Military Equipment (1989): Tanks and armored personnel vemix of older Soviet and newer United States models. Other major equipment included Soviet artillery and mortars; Soviet, French, United States, and British antitank rockets and missiles; and mostly Soviet tactical air defense weapons. Egypt planned to coproduce with United States 540 Abrams M1A1 tanks beginning in 1991. Air force fighters included F-16s and F-4s from United States and Mirage 2000s from France, backed by large number of older Soviet designs. Most fighting ships of Soviet or Chinese origin, although fleet included two modern frigates built in Spain and six British missile boats. Air Defense Force had more than 600 Soviet SA-2 and SA-3 SAMs plus 108 improved Hawk SAMs from United States. hicles a

Defense Budget: Authoritative data not available although minister of defense claimed spending £E2.4 billion or 10 percent of total government outlays in 1989. Other sources believed defense expenditures twice as high as claimed, even excluding US$1.3 billion in military aid from United States, aid from Saudi Arabia, and income from other sources such as foreign sales of domestic defense industry.

—

Internal Security Forces: Principal security agencies national police force of more than about 122,000 members and Central Security Forces, a paramilitary body of about 300,000, mosdy conscripts, which augmented regular police in guarding buildings and strategic sites

cies

and controlling demonstrations. Several other government agenhad own law enforcement bodies. General Directorate for State xix

main intelligence organization monitoring suspected subversive and opposition groups and suppressing Islamic extremists. Security Investigations

xx

i

istrat ve Divisions of i

ORATES

Egypt

GOVERNORATE CAPITALS

>rnorates r

o (Al Qahirah)