Education in South Korea: Reflections on a Seventy-Year Journey 9811652287, 9789811652288

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Kim Jae-Woong

Education in South Korea Reflections on a Seventy-Year Journey Don-Hee Lee · Sam-Geun Kwak Jae-Woong Kim · Dong-Joon Park Jung-Ho Yang · Myung-Hee Lee

Education in South Korea

Don-Hee Lee · Sam-Geun Kwak · Jae-Woong Kim · Dong-Joon Park · Jung-Ho Yang · Myung-Hee Lee

Education in South Korea Reflections on a Seventy-Year Journey

Don-Hee Lee Seoul, Korea (Republic of )

Sam-Geun Kwak Seoul, Korea (Republic of )

Jae-Woong Kim Seoul, Korea (Republic of )

Dong-Joon Park Seoul, Korea (Republic of )

Jung-Ho Yang Seoul, Korea (Republic of )

Myung-Hee Lee Seoul, Korea (Republic of )

ISBN 978-981-16-5228-8 ISBN 978-981-16-5229-5 https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5229-5

(eBook)

© The Academy of Korean Studies 2022 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are solely and exclusively licensed by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. The publisher, the authors and the editors are safe to assume that the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication. Neither the publisher nor the authors or the editors give a warranty, expressed or implied, with respect to the material contained herein or for any errors or omissions that may have been made. The publisher remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Cover credit: Maram_shutterstock.com This Palgrave Macmillan imprint is published by the registered company Springer Nature Singapore Pte Ltd. The registered company address is: 152 Beach Road, #21-01/04 Gateway East, Singapore 189721, Singapore

Preface

The historical depiction of 70 years of Korean education is not something from a distant past, but part of life that has affected the people living today in one way or another. Its contents are known to some generations because they experienced it in the past, to some because they studied it, and others because they are living through it now. Most people only know as much as they have experienced it, learned about it or are currently undergoing it. However, the ones who have researched education and its history until now have been organizing, describing, and interpreting according to a certain systematic framework while referring to various data directly or indirectly. Of course, the facts that have been organized, described, and interpreted in such framework might have lost some of its vividness or may not tell everything one wants to know depending on the generation. Even so, it is necessary to provide the basic structure and details required to view the reality of today’s institutional education, its genetic origins, and its future direction. Nevertheless, as in all aspects of our lives, it is necessary to recognize that the historical description of life’s features, including education, is

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influenced by the subjective perspectives and opinions of the professional researchers to a considerable extent. Naturally, conscious efforts are needed to ensure the objectivity of the facts, rationality of the composition, and validity of the interpretation; however, there are preferences and choices of each researcher in this process that cannot be completely avoided, when selecting the object of interest, method of investigation, and technique involved in interpretation. This can be the limitations of the researchers, but also the framework of the professional thought process. Hence, the consistency and comprehensiveness in the contents of this co-authored book might not be perfect, and moreover, other opinions may be raised regarding the overall organization and details of this book. The research team appointed a lead researcher to organize the contents and data of each area and supervise discussion and writing. Professor Lee Don-Hee was in charge of the general supervision, the prologue as well as the epilogue, while Professor Lee Myung-Hee was responsible for the education system, Professors Yang Jeong-Ho and Pak Dong-Jun for primary and secondary education, Professor Kim Jae-Woong for higher education, and Professor Kwak Sam-Geun for lifelong education. The contents of each area were written based on collaboration—cooperation of the research team and help from third-party academics. Moreover, when we discussed education, at least in relation to the public education system, we tried to abide by the rule of political neutrality. In reality, it is possible to observe pluralistic ideologies in a sort of political power struggle are observed in the world of education today. Political neutrality sometimes means maintaining an objective or transcendent position, demonstrating an attitude of open acceptance, or efforts of coordinated solution in this tangle of ideologies. The authors of this book exerted their efforts to respond to these demands. We would like to express our sincere gratitude to the Academy of Korean Studies for planning and supporting the publication of this book,

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the relevant scholars who participated in providing advice and encouragement, and the editorial staff that reviewed this book thoroughly up to its completion. On behalf of the group of writers Seoul, Korea (Republic of ) October 2015

Don-Hee Lee

Contents

Prologue 1 Perspective of National Education 2 The State’s Reason for Educating Its People 3 “Liberal and Democratic Basic Order” and National Education Development of Education System in the Republic of Korea 1 Introduction 2 Education System in the State Formation Period: After Liberation of Korea—The Late 1950s 3 Education System During the Industrialization Period: 1960 to Early 1990s 4 Education System in the Information Age: After the Mid-1990s 5 Conclusion References

1 1 3 6 11 11 13 43 79 95 113

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Contents

Development of Primary and Secondary Education in the Republic of Korea 1 Introduction 2 Primary and Secondary Education During the State Formation Period: After the Liberation of Korea from Japanese Rule to Late 1950s 3 Primary and Secondary Education During the Industrialization Period: 1960 to Early 1990s 4 Primary and Secondary Education in the Information Age: Since the Mid-1990s 5 Conclusion References Development of Higher Education in the Republic of Korea 1 Introduction 2 Higher Education in the State Formation Period: After Liberation to the Late 1950s 3 Higher Education During the Industrialization Period: 1960 to Early 1990s 4 Higher Education in Informatization Period: Since the Mid-1990s 5 Conclusion References Development of Lifelong Education in the Republic of Korea 1 Introduction 2 Lifelong Education in the State Formation Period: After Liberation to the Late 1950s 3 Lifelong Education in the Industrialization Period: 1960s to Early 1990s 4 Lifelong Education in the Informatization Period: Since the Mid-1990s 5 Conclusion References

117 117

120 137 155 199 210 217 217 220 240 282 308 311 315 315 318 328 357 388 396

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Epilogue 1 Retrospect 2 Education for Tomorrow References

401 401 409 413

References

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Index

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About the Authors

Don-Hee Lee (李 李敦熙) After graduating from Seoul National University in Education major, Dr. Lee Don-Hee received his Ph.D. Degree in Education of Philosophy from Wayne State University in the U.S. As an Emeritus Professor in Seoul National University, he is also the member of National Academy of Sciences. He used to be the Dean of the Department of Education in Seoul National University, the Director of Korean Educational Development Institute, the Chairman of Korean Educational Research Association, and the Minister of Ministry of Education. His publication includes 『The Introduction of Education Philosophy』, 『The Definition of Education』, 『The Morality of Education Theory』『The Development and Problem of the Department of Korean Education』, etc. Sam-Geun Kwak (郭 郭三根) After graduating from Ewha Womans University in Education major, Dr. Kwak Sam-Geun received his Ph.D. Degree in Adult Relationship major from Michigan State University in the U.S. Currently, he is a Professor of Education Department at Ewha

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About the Authors

Womans University. He was the Chairman of the Korean Woman Lifelong Education Association, the Chief of Education Science Lab, and the managing member of National Institute for lifelong Education. His publication includes 『The Study of Lifelong Education, the department of Education 50years』, 『The Problem of Social Philosophy in Korean Lifelong Education』, 『The Department of Feminist Education』, etc. Jae-Woong Kim (金 金在雄) After graduating from Seoul National University in Education, Dr. Kim Jae-Woong received his Ph.D. Degree in Education Policy Studies from University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign in the U.S. Currently, he is a Professor of Relevant Culture and Education Major at Sogang University. He was the Senior Researcher of Korean Educational Development Institute, the Professor of Korea National Open University, member of the professional committee of Presidential Commission on Education Reform, and the Chairman of Korea Association of Yeolin Education. His publication includes 『Free Education from Policy』, 『The Policy of Homeschool』, 『The New Sights of Public Education in United States』, etc. Dong-Joon Park (朴 朴東俊) After graduating from Chungbuk National University in English Education major, Dr. Park Dong-Joon received his Ph.D. Degree in Education from Seoul National University. Currently, he is a Professor of Moral Philosophy at the Academy of Korean Studies. He was the Chairman of Korean Society for Moral and Ethics Education Association, the member of Korea Institute of Curriculum and Evaluationwho was in charge of textbook examination, the Chairman of Ministry of Education who was in charge of education programs, etc. His main publication includes 『The researches related to Business Ethics and social responsibilities for Company』, 『The Theory of Moral and Ethics Educations』 (coauthorship), etc. Jung-Ho Yang (梁 梁汀鎬) After graduating from Korea University in Education, Dr. Yang Jung-Ho received his Ph.D. degree in Education Policy at University of Wisconsin Madison in the U.S. Currently, he is a

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Professor of Education at Sungkyunkwan University and the Chairman of Deputy Prime Minister of Social Policy. His main publication includes 『 The Study of Ministers of Korean Education Ministry』, 『The Analysis of Entire Tuition Fees of Our Country』, etc. Myung-Hee Lee (李 李明熙) After graduating from Seoul National University in History Education, Dr. Lee Myung-Hee received his Ph.D. degree in Education at University of Tsukuba in Japan. Currently, he is a Professor of History Education at Kongju National University and the Chairman of Korean Modern History Academy. He was the team leader of Korea Curriculum Evaluation Center where the national education standard is decided, the permanent representative of Liberty Education Association, and the Chairman of Korean Social Studies Association. His main publication includes 『The Establishment of government and Country System』, 『The Reformation of Conservation in South Korea』, etc.

List of Figures

Development of Primary and Secondary Education in the Republic of Korea Fig. 1 Fig. 2

Fig. 3 Fig. Fig. Fig. Fig.

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Problems of teacher shortage after the liberation (Source “Chosun Ilbo”, November 29, 1945) Changes in the number of elementary school students immediately after the liberation (Source National Statistical Office, Korea Educational Development Institute [each year]) Education system in accordance with the 1949 Education Law A tent school during the Korean war First Korean language schoolbook after the liberation Policy on the equalization of high schools Parents of students who marked grounded radish juice filed a lawsuit and won in 1964 (Source “Chosun Ilbo”, March 30, 1965, the question regarding the potential ingredients for the traditional Korean taffy on middle school entrance exam in 1964)

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126 127 130 131 140

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Fig. 8 Fig. 9

Fig. 10 Fig. 11 Fig. 12 Fig. 13 Fig. 14 Fig. 15 Fig. 16

Fig. 17

Fig. 18 Fig. 19

Fig. 20

List of Figures

Charter of National Education Picture Book and Leaflet (December 5, 1968) Changes in the number of teachers (Source National Statistical Office, Korea Educational Development Institute [each year]) A comparison of daily tasks of high school teachers and academy instructors Changes in the percentage of underachieving students (Source Ministry of Education [2013]) Status by PISA ranking by year (Source OECD [each year]) Details of May 31 Education Reform Plan Trends of spending on private education based on official statistics How people view students’ ability to live together (Source Ministry of Education, Science and Technology [2012]) Level of satisfaction with character education in schools (Source Ministry of Education, Science and Technology [2012]) NOW Home Portal of Madison City High Schools, Wisconsin, USA (example of detailed information on how student’s grade in social studies is calculated) School Info Website (www.schoolinfo.go.kr) Changes in school-age population and local education subsidy by each year (Source “Chosun Ilbo”, July 14, 2011) Changes in school-age population and correlation with economic growth (Source Re-analyzed yearly data from the Bank of Korea and National Statistical Office)

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Development of Higher Education in the Republic of Korea Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3

Old main building of Seoul National University Banner of 1970 preliminary college entrance examination Changes in the number of students enrolled in higher education institutions (Source Korean Educational Statistics Service of the Korean Educational Development Institute [kess.kedi.re.kr/index])

227 266

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List of Figures

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Development of Lifelong Education in the Republic of Korea Fig. 1 Fig. 2 Fig. 3 Fig. 4

Fig. 5

Second Nationwide Literacy Education, 1955 Third Nationwide Literacy Education (Source 『Kyung Hyang Newspaper』, January 19, 1956) Education to improve living (Source “Kyung Hyang Newspaper”, November 28, 1948) Enlightenment activities by college students for eradicating illiteracy in rural communities (Source National Archives of Korea [1962]) Conference in August 1968, Korea Association for Community Education

320 321 326

330 338

List of Tables

Development of Education System in the Republic of Korea Table 1 Table 2 Table 3

Key educational issues and policies in each period Results of the 2nd five-year plan to expand facilities for compulsory education Changes in the number of middle school students

14 46 58

Development of Primary and Secondary Education in the Republic of Korea Table 1 Table 2 Table 3 Table 4

Number of schools, students, and teachers immediately after the liberation (1945) Elementary education-related indicators (units: EA, persons) Policies and features of curricula under successive governments Number of elementary school subjects and class hours per year under the U.S. Military Government (September 1946)

125 128 132

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List of Tables

Table 5

Standards for class hours for elementary schools under the first curriculum Private Education Policies from the Park Chung-Hee government to the Roh Tae-Woo government Percentage of underachieving students Process of changes of the school steering committee Teacher policy goals and tasks of the Kim Young-Sam government’s education reform plan Teacher policy objectives and tasks of the Kim Dae-Jung government’s education reform plan Percentage of students taking private lessons by school level unit: % Trends in spending on private education Major measures for private education by year and government Number of special-purpose schools by year (National/Public/Private Schools) Changes in high school system by each government Number of schools where temporary teachers took on a homeroom teacher between 2007 and 2011 Features of the May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) and major policies related to educational accountability

Table 6 Table 7 Table 8 Table 9 Table 10 Table 11 Table 12 Table 13 Table 14 Table 15 Table 16 Table 17

135 150 162 167 171 176 180 180 183 189 192 203 207

Development of Higher Education in the Republic of Korea Table 1 Table 2 Table 3

High school graduates, college student enrollment quota, increase in re-takers (1970–1986) Unit: 1,000 Kim Young-Sam government’s higher education reform plan Evolvement of university and college admission method

253 285 290

Development of Lifelong Education in the Republic of Korea Table 1 Table 2 Table 3

Achievement of Nationwide Literacy Education project Evolution of literacy education Illiteracy rate in major surveys on literacy of Korean adults

327 332 334

List of Tables

Table Table Table Table Table

4 5 6 7 8

Table 9 Table Table Table Table Table Table Table Table

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17

Table 18 Table 19

Goals and achievements of Saemaul Education Number of students taking courses at private institutes Number of women’s community centers Centers for lifelong learning at universities Bachelor’s degrees awarded through the Bachelor’s Degree Examination for Self-Education (unit: persons) Characteristics of lifelong education policy in the informatization period Status of lifelong education institutions in 1997 Number of lifelong education institutions Number of lifelong learning programs Number of learners Current status of school style lifelong education facilities Current status of lifelong learning cities Status of lifelong learning city by region Comparison of Saemaul Education and Lifelong Learning City Project Comprehensive plan for the promotion of lifelong learning Participation rate in lifelong education by gender and age group unit: %

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337 340 340 347 349 359 368 371 372 373 374 376 377 379 380 382

Prologue

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Perspective of National Education

The institutional system of the current education was officially launched simultaneously with the establishment of the Republic of Korea in 1948. Education, obviously, was not absent of institution or culture at the time. Korea is known as a nation of long tradition, special passion, and accumulated wisdom, especially where education is concerned. Therefore, it is difficult to limit educational characteristics to a certain period even if the period is set to 70 years after the Liberation to tell the history of education. However, the task of focusing our interest in this period to analyze, evaluate, and reflect on the ideological trend, institutional system, policy direction, changes in the field of education as well as the characteristics of education is very significant. Not only will the achievement of this task help understand the education and people’s lifestyles of the present day, but also provide meaningful data in confirming what was accomplished through education and what tasks remain, in addition to a glimpse into the future for the country and its people. What we take interest in and write about here is “national education in the Republic of Korea”. This does not mean all activities are put into © The Academy of Korean Studies 2022 D-H. Lee et al., Education in South Korea, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5229-5_1

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practice by every citizen in every household as they rear children in this country. Furthermore, it does not include all efforts involved in nurturing and training members required by the government organizations, military, businesses, religious organizations, social communities, and other organizations. Of course, such activities and efforts are part of the national education in broader context. The comprehensive definition of “national education” (or “public education”) is all educational activities that are permitted, supported, supervised, and controlled institutionally by the state. However, in narrower definition, it can be restricted to a school system that carries out universal education for citizens of a certain growth period. The areas of interest dealt with here are not limited to the narrow definition of national education, but a wide range of national education that includes institutions and activities in university and professional vocational education as well as pre-school and adult education implemented in the context of lifelong education. In broader or narrower sense, if an activity is “educational” based on evaluation, it implies that the education is in consistency with the ideologies and values of national education. Any activity or attempt that contradicts or regresses from these ideologies and values is not called “educational”. For instance, we do not call member training by antisocial groups or immoral organizations “educational”. The ideologies and values of national education are expressed officially in terms such as “humanitarian ideal” or “democratic citizen”, but are also shared implicitly within the value consciousness of every citizen in a nation. Whether the ideologies and values are explicit or implicit, they allow a considerable level of open understanding and interpretation because they are expressed in highly abstract language. However, actual educational judgment is determined in accordance with the conscious value standards within the lives of the people. Therefore, national education as a whole has unique value-oriented characteristics overall and is writing history with those characteristics. The following three perspectives have been determined in writing the history of national education that has developed over the past 70 years. First, what are the major challenges and conflicts Korean education went through, and what are its accomplishments and remaining tasks? Second,

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what are the results of the emphasis on the social function of national education? Third, how did we respond to the problems of ideological conflict and practical hindrance? We will divide the 70 years after the Liberation into three periods to examine the history of ROK’s education. First is the “state formation period” from 1945 to 1960. During this period, the Korean education system formed its institutional framework and full-scale efforts were made to form a state through education. Second is the “period of industrialization” from the May 16 coup in 1961–1994. The government intervened actively to reorganize the education system established during the state formation period, and national development through education was the central task throughout these years. Third is after the “May 31 Education Reform” by the Kim Young-Sam government (the “Civilian Government”). This period was when attempts were made to change the education system and welfare improvement through education started to gain attention. This period is also referred to as the “period of informatization” because coping with the swift informatization that proceeded in the environment surrounding daily lives became the motive for reform. This division of periods may be unreasonable depending on the areas of education; however, outlining the overall flow will be helpful in understanding the history of education. The 70 years of education after the Liberation will not be written in chronological order according to the divided periods above, but dealt with in four main areas: general education system, primary and secondary education, higher education, and lifelong education. Also, there will be a prologue and epilogue before and after the four areas.

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The State’s Reason for Educating Its People

As the world entered the nineteenth century, a fundamental change occurred in the organization, scope, and role of schools with the establishment of public education system, especially in the narrow definition of national education. Unlike the few scattered schools that existed in

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the past, an education system with a systematic and hierarchical structure was set up in many locations. Institutions and agencies that were solely responsible for education were created and initiated learning and training required almost exclusively for the diverse occupations in those organizations. This change was a revolution in regard to the concept and form of education. In addition, it showed a great transition in the relationship between school, society, and the state. Education did not only become a popular phenomenon, but was also in a position to decide the basic characteristics of social organizations. Thus, it became impossible to imagine any state that did not have an education system. Then why did the state want to educate its people? Although the timing of the launch of the national education system (or public education system) differs from country to country, the motive various nations had for establishing a national system for universal education can be explained with at least three functions. One is the “protective function” to maintain the fundamental system and characteristics of a nation, the other is the “welfare function” to contribute to enhancing its people’s quality of life, and the last is the “investment function” to reinforce the required manpower in maintaining and developing the country. These three functions naturally cannot be clearly separated from one another. Sometimes, the functional attributes work together, and at times, the distinction of the functional features can be ambiguous. Depending on the primary interest, the same system, policy, or activity can reveal functional characters in a relative manner. First, the protective (守護的) function reminds us of the “protective community” mentioned in Politics by Aristotle. That is, there is a moral foundation of common understanding among its people for a country to exist, and a certain way of life is maintained based on that foundation. In other words, there is this kind of communal consciousness where people gather to live together forming a society and building a nation. The protective function is there to form the knowledge, ability, and attitude—national qualities—required for a citizen to form and maintain a country. Communal interests such as the legislation of necessary rules and authority, attitude and ability to abide by those rules, patriotic sentiment (情操) related to the country’s history and identity, and the duty and commitment to the preservation, defense, and development of one’s

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nation are postulated as educational values. Compulsory education is primarily required from a protective motive. The overall efforts on the various institutional sectors of politics, law, economy, and culture determine what kind of characters a country will have when it is built and how it will be maintained and developed. However, the success and failure of those efforts depend on the qualities and abilities of the people which have been shaped by education. In regard to the protective function of education, we need to review, with historical interest, the educational efforts put in to cultivate the basic qualities and abilities of the people required to build, maintain and improve the “democratic republic” stipulated in the Constitution. This interest is not simply about how the subject of social studies or history has been taught. Even though there are basic common qualities of the people, the special qualities required in various national sectors need to be reviewed analytically or comprehensively to find out what institutions and policies developed them and what conflicts and achievements manifested in the process of national education. Second, the welfare function signifies the nature of nation’s welfarepromotion business to improve the quality of life of the people through education. This means the state plans and manages education to teach its citizens, develop their functions, offer the necessary knowledge they need to acquire, provoke thinking, provide people with the qualities needed to live with others in a group, train them to learn problem-solving methods in various situations, and assist in realizing their values. The original assertion regarding the welfare characteristics of the national education system was made by the so-called utopian socialist philosophers. Naturally, there may be objections to calling the national education system a socialist idea; however, they wanted to leave the social value of education under the management of certain form of nation or community. Some examples are the education system in Thomas More’s Utopia and Robert Owen’s statement of how public moral ideals must be taught under the state’s central control system of the state with the respect for individual diversity. Third, the investment function applies to the planning and management of education as a type of social investment when developing the state into a safer country with growth possibilities and cultivating and

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supplementing manpower that can enhance economic potentials for the nation. That is to say, the state will educate its citizens for the purpose of the nation. The tendency to perceive education as a social investment is a phenomenon that manifested as “knowledge” started to be associated partially with productive activities with the progress of the industrial revolution. Before, receiving education in the traditional sense meant possessing knowledge for personal character building. Especially in the late eighteenth century, the scholars called the “Encyclopédistes” played a critical role in changing the simple experiential skills of the past into an engineered system. The technical schools and Encyclopédistes in those days were merely interested in utilizing knowledge that was already known and did not consider producing new knowledge. Only the knowledge from natural science which developed from the seventeenth century was partially utilized in productive activities. However, after the industrial revolution in the nineteenth century, the trend of using knowledge in the production process began in earnest. This trend turned knowledge into a key factor in production alongside resources, capital, and labor by the twentieth century. The scope and form of work did not remain stagnant at the level of physical activities, but gained characteristics of wide-range application of theoretical principles. The world of education also went through a significant change. Schools and education systems were considered the “managers” of knowledge in their respective society, and education was at least recognized as the surest investment in a knowledge-based society. In the case of the Republic of Korea, we can recall that the investment function of education was associated with economic growth or national development in the 1960s, which is normally categorized as the period of industrialization.

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“Liberal and Democratic Basic Order” and National Education

Whether education is randomly or intentionally implemented, it is a value-oriented activity. If it is an activity within the boundaries of

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the national education system, then it is conducted on the premise of realizing a value system based on the national standards. Due to the nature of national education, voices of political power can be raised to the extent only allowed by the national comprehensive value system. However, regardless of type, political neutrality holds its value within a certain range provided by the pluralistic value system. The functional rules of the state that is called political neutrality are not meaningful to all countries that claim to be a “democratic nation”. A country with pluralistic value system and autonomous value choices is truly a “liberal and democratic nation”. Then is the Republic of Korea a liberal and democratic state? The preamble of the Constitution stipulates the term “liberal and democratic basic order” and this is the declaration of “comprehensive value system” which the Republic of Korea pursues. According to this basis, ROK is generally called a liberal democracy, and “liberal democracy” is occasionally abbreviated as “liberalism”. Yet, some disputants belonging to certain powers strongly resist these assertions and tendencies understood as “liberalism”. The following would be a case in point. When the Ministry of Education, Science, and Technology announced the guidelines for writing textbooks for subjects such as history in 2011, it expressed that “democracy” should be written as “liberal democracy” to clarify its values because it can have various meanings. However, this was not carried out because of opposition, especially, from the socalled leftists. Their argument was that if liberal democracy is reminiscent of “liberalism” and democracy is only understood as liberalism, other meaning, such as the values of “social democracy” or “socialism”, will be excluded which could mislead the people on the constitutional values. As such, there are two distinct camps in Korean society regarding the lines of political ideologies. One camp argues that the Republic of Korea is clearly a “liberal state” as specified in the Constitution; the other camp denies this claim and argues that the expression “democratic republic” is sufficient. The former asserts that a policy with social democratic characteristics can be embraced as long as it does not contradict the “liberal and democratic basic order”, whereas the resistance to “liberalism” in the latter sounds like a voice concerned with the adverse effects of “neoliberalism” in the competitive structure of market economy.

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The true value of “liberal democracy” in the Constitution and its system’s attributes should be examined instead of being obsessed over the self-interpretation or its historical origin to discuss its meaning. As the representative of the Constitution Drafting Committee, Dr. Yu JinOh (叙鎭午), announced when he introduced the constitution to the National Assembly on June 23, 1948, the constitutional characteristics at the time did not coincide with ones of the classical Western liberalists and actually reflected the social management of economic structure advocated by socialism (social democracy) considerably in the principles of production and distribution. The concept of “liberal and democratic basic order” can be interpreted as an expression of will to pursue the values of freedom and equality in a balanced manner while not constrained or rejected by the values of orthodox liberalism or neoliberalism. Since this basic order fundamentally postulates the diversity of values and beliefs, there are institutional sectors, such as education, where the state needs to maintain political neutrality. That is why the value systems of Nazism, communism, and people’s democracy which restrict the values of freedom and equality and institutionally justify the monopoly and dictatorship of power cannot be accepted. It would make the maintenance of the liberal and democratic basic order impossible. Originally, the core principle of liberalism and socialism is about the relation of the state and its people, and the distinction between the characteristics of their policies is actually not clearly pronounced. The freedom of privacy and development of individuality stressed in liberalism are values emphasized by many philosophers categorized as socialists, and the values of social relationships enjoyed by families and communities expressed in socialism are the ones valued by liberalists. If so, does this mean that socialism can exist within the system of liberalism and vice versa? This question can be answered by reviewing whether liberalism with attributes such as exchangeable justice, competenceoriented freedom, and government with minimal functions can coexist with socialism that is characterized by distributive equality, personal (ontological) freedom, and government of socialized economy. Even if people were living in a country that is on the extreme end of liberalism, it will not be unacceptable to live with people who hold

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socialist values as long as their freedom is not violated. At least, there is no reason to exclude alienated and equal characters and communal values from liberal values. However, people living in an extremely inflexible socialist country will find living with people of other values, especially liberal ones, not exactly possible. In particular, if privatization system and competenceoriented distribution policy are partially permitted, realizing the ideals of socialism will be institutionally impossible. In this regard, even somewhat extreme liberalists are open and possess tolerance for diversity as long as the system itself is not threatened. By contrast, it will be difficult for rigid socialists to accept a competitive system that is regarded as the cause of inequality and they will reject and be aggressive toward large and small forces hindering the realization of egalitarian ideals. If “liberal and democratic basic order” is viewed as the comprehensive value system of a nation, the will to fulfill and balance liberty and equality can be understood as the “declarative doctrine”. This, in a manner, is the restructured ideas and institutions of liberal traditions which have been germinated, grown, and transformed. We need to pay attention to how John Dewey pointed out that “liberalism” does not signify a fixed framework of thoughts or rules of conduct, but holds historical relativity in its interpretation of human freedom, individuality, and intelligence. He asserts that the new liberalism makes us contemplate the historical relativity in his book, Liberalism and Social Action (1999). The answer to the question of what kind of individual is an individual and what form of freedom is freedom is different in every time period, and it is the same principle as one individual changing from one’s childhood to adulthood. Strictly speaking, the democracy we have to establish is not about selecting the traditions of liberalism or socialism, nor about realizing a fixed social system that technically maintains balance between the two. Whichever it is, a social structure normally loses its original significance once it takes roots. What is important is not liberalism or socialism in its stationary “structural form”, but that the “procedural rules” which have dominated the ideological background and social institutions have to be democratic. From the perspective of liberal and democratic traditions, “the idea that sovereignty is vested in its people (主權在民)” in

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politics, “the principles of freedom of ownership and market exchange” in economy, and “distributive justice in production value” in society are the primary “ways of life” are considered crucial. However, in education, the practice of procedural rules that pursue rationality, namely “procedural democracy”, is the most important value that should be recognized above all else. In reality, Korean education is highly evaluated internationally in various indexes, regardless of whether it is conducted by a developed or underdeveloped nation. Yet, national education has been mobilized, in actuality, for its instrumental function rather than its intrinsic function. During the 70 years after the Liberation, Korean education moved forward with the practice of democracy as its most critical task from the very beginning; however, it was challenging to achieve significant results. The Republic of Korea first had to overcome the war and poverty, then increase its defense against external invasion, develop human resources as well as discover and nurture talent for specialized fields, and maintain social and political stability. It is true that education onsite had to defer the realization of its natural significance and values had to be deferred many times in the progress of Korean history, and this is the part where systematic review and introspection are required.

Development of Education System in the Republic of Korea

1

Introduction

This chapter deals with the education system in the Republic of Korea over the past 70 years. Education system may be or may not be a familiar term. In this chapter, we intend to identify the education system as a complex structure that includes school system and its operation method at the national level, and educational traditions or educational cultures. The change of education system does not only mean a simple change in relevant laws or institutions, but it means change of the ideology, content, and method of education, and subsequent changes in our behavioral patterns. From a national perspective, the purposes of education can largely be divided into three categories as follows. The first purpose is to form a state by educating the people. Education to serve the first purpose includes the 3Rs (Reading, wRiting, aRithmetic), national consciousness-raising, and democratic civic education for the people through history and geography education, and education to cultivate rational thinking by teaching science and mathematics. The second purpose of education is to promote national development. Education for the purpose of national development includes fostering talents for doing research and development of strategic technologies through universities © The Academy of Korean Studies 2022 D-H. Lee et al., Education in South Korea, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5229-5_2

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and providing vocational and technical education at the level of primary and secondary schools for developing people’s vocational skills. The third purpose is to improve the welfare of the people. Education to serve this purpose includes arts education for the people to help them express their emotions and thoughts, and physical education to help them strengthen their bodies and control over bodies and minds. This chapter will focus on the characteristics of educational system in each period from the perspective of the national education. In this chapter, the past seven decades after the liberation is divided into three periods. The first is the “period of state formation” from 1945 to 1960. During this period, a framework of the ROK’s education system was created and institutionalized, and efforts for state formation through education were made in earnest while safeguarding the nation. The second is the “industrialization period” from May 16 coup in 1961 to Roh Tae-Woo government. During this period, the government actively intervened in education based on the education system established during state formation period the state formation period, and efforts for the national development were made through education. Since the social stability was required for the national development, strengthened government’s intervention in education was accepted, and the government exerted efforts for the development and dissemination of education because the investment aspect of education for economic growth was positively accepted. Lastly, the third is the period since 1995 when the Kim Young-Sam government attempted to change the nation’s education system through the May 31 Education Reform (1995). During this period, the improvement of the people’s welfare through education was vigorously promoted. Emphasis was put on learners as the subject of education, and people began to pay attention to learners’ skills and aptitude. In addition, the learner’s individual point of view was emphasized along with the national point of view in education and other people’s viewpoints began to be introduced. This chapter will delve into the establishment, transition, and prospect of the ROK’s education system. In this chapter, the scope of the education system will be viewed as the organic system of educational ideology, education system and policy, primary and secondary education, higher education, and lifelong education.1 We will also look into the dynamic process of national and social

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development such as the challenges and conflicts, achievements, and tasks we face in this system. Table 1 shows the summary of the key issues and characteristics of the ROK’s education system in each period. It can be said that education in the Republic of Korea over the past 70 years has driven the development of society, economy, and culture through continuous education reform rather than following on the heels of social, economic, and cultural development. Moreover, we can also see that the vigorous development of society, economy, and culture ensued when educational reform in each period was implemented in an appropriate and successful manner. In contrast, the society and the economy lost steam and tended to be stagnated when education reforms were delayed and implemented improperly.

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Education System in the State Formation Period: After Liberation of Korea—The Late 1950s

2.1

Removal of Vestiges of Japanese Colonial Education and Establishment of Democratic Education System2

2.1.1 Democratic Education and Educational Ideology of Hongik Ingan (Humanitarian Ideal) Dr. Oh Chun-Suk was an American-trained educator who participated most actively in establishing educational framework of the Republic of Korea under the U.S. Military Government. And he played a pivotal role in the subcommittee under the Korean Committee on Educational Planning, which was the key organization in educational reform during this period. He was the leading figure in ROK’s education during the state formation period, serving as the chairman of the Korean Federation of Education Associations in 1950, chairman of the Korea Society for the Study of Education in 1955, and Minister of Education under the Chang

Educational system

Classification

Key Issues • Implementation of compulsory education • Eradication of adults illiteracy • Removal of the vestiges of Japanese colonial education • Provision of education on anti-communism and democracy Key Policies • 6-3-3-4 schooling system • Three Ordinances for Autonomy in Education • Enactment of the Education Law 1949 • New Education Movement

State Formation period From the liberation in 1945 to the 1950s Key Issues • Expansion of facilities for compulsory education • National education for national prosperity • Education for economic development • Resolution of overheated private tutoring • Promotion of lifelong education and special education Key Policies • Comprehensive long-term education plan • Promulgation of the Charter of National Education • New community education programs • Abolition of middle school entrance exam and implementation of high school standardization policy • Education Reform (July 30, 1980)

Industrialization period From the 1960s to the early 1990s

Table 1 Key educational issues and policies in each period

Key Issues • Consumer-oriented education • Democratization of education • Alleviation of demands for private tutoring and normalization of public education Key Policies • May 31 Education Reform (1995) • Legalization of the Korean Teachers and Educational Workers’ Union (KTU) • Diversification of schools • EBS SAT lectures

Informatization period From the mid-1990s to the present

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Primary and secondary education

Classification

Key Issues • Establishment of “ the ideology of Hongik Ingan (or humanitarian ideal)” as educational ideology • Establishment of 6-3-3-4 schooling system • Nurturing and securing elementary school teachers • Removal of the vestiges of Japanese colonial education • Expansion of educational opportunities Key Policies • Reorganization of normal schools and promotion of colleges of education • Establishment of temporary teachers training centers • The first national curriculum

State Formation period From the liberation in 1945 to the 1950s Key Issues • Resolution of overheated education • Elimination of differences in educational conditions of public and private education • Improvement of supply and quality of teachers • Resolution of issues relating to unequal opportunities for the admission to high schools Key Policies • Abolition of middle school entrance exam • High school standardization policy • May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) • Ban on private tutoring • Permission to take supplementary classes and classes at private institutes • Establishment of colleges of education • Expansion of communities where standardization policy is enforced

Industrialization period From the 1960s to the early 1990s

(continued)

Key Issues • Resolution of school violence issues • Curbing the demands for private tutoring • Improvement of scholastic ability • Improvement of professionalism of teachers • Diversification of schools Key Policies • Preparation of measures to curb private tutoring • Introduction of after-school programs • Implementation of nationwide scholastic achievement test • Establishment of school steering committee • Introduction of teacher evaluation system and senior teacher system • Designation of autonomous schools

Informatization period From the mid-1990s to the present

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Higher education

Classification

Key Issues • Expansion of educational opportunities • Expansion of autonomy of universities • Recognition of education fever for higher education Key Policies • A plan to establish Seoul National University • Decree on Standards for the Establishment of Universities and Colleges • Establishment of national universities

State Formation period From the liberation in 1945 to the 1950s

Table 1 (continued)

Key Issues • Resolution of issues relating to poorly managed colleges and universities • Qualitative growth of universities • Harmonization of autonomy and control of university (publicness and autonomy of universities) Key Policies • Decree on Reorganization of Schools • Private School Act • Presidential Decree on the Fixed Number of University and College Students • Changes in college admission system • Education Reform (1980) • College graduation quota

Industrialization period From the 1960s to the early 1990s Key Issues • Quantitative and qualitative growth of higher education • Human resource development and improving competitiveness of universities • Fostering research-oriented universities • Strengthening autonomy, competition, and accountability Key Policies • May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) • University autonomy policy: changes in university admissions system and student selection rights • Establishment of universities based on normative system • Institutionalization of university evaluation • Authorization of specialized graduate schools • Implementation of government-funded projects (BK, WCU, NURI) • Restructuring of universities

Informatization period From the mid-1990s to the present

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Lifelong education

Classification

Key Issues • Eradication of illiteracy • Social enlightenment • Improvement of standards of living Key Policies • Creation of Bureau of Adult Education • Institutionalization of citizenship training schools • Enlightenment activities and creation of mini-libraries in rural communities

State Formation period From the liberation in 1945 to the 1950s Key Issues • Development of local communities • Spread of New Community Movement • Expansion of higher education opportunities for adults Key Policies • Establishment of village libraries • Enactment of Social Education Act • Implementation of New community education programs • Establishment of Korea National Open University • Establishment of lifelong education centers at colleges and universities

Industrialization period From the 1960s to the early 1990s Key Issues • Granting equal educational opportunities • Human resources development • Realization of lifelong learning society Key Policies • Enactment of Lifelong Education Act • Enactment of Human Resources Development Act • Establishment of Comprehensive Plan to Promote Lifelong Learning • Lifelong Learning City Project • Comprehensive Plan to Promote Lifelong Learning

Informatization period From the mid-1990s to the present

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Myon government that came to power following the April 19 Revolution in 1960. In regard to the establishment of democracy, which was the task of the times after liberation, he assessed the situation of Korea as follows (Oh Chun-Suk 1964). Not only did Koreans have no proper understanding and belief in democracy, but also they had no training or experience in democratic way of life. So they did not know how to lead a democratic life because they knew nothing of the procedure, method, and process associated with the democratic life. A foreigner who had experienced the life in the Republic of Korea in the 1950s said, “expecting democracy to bloom in Korea is like expecting a rose to bloom in a trash can”. Likewise, Oh Chun-Suk seemed to have the similar thought on the ROK’s democracy at the time. However, not only did he believe ROK could build a new education system, but also he was convinced that building a democratic nation was the task of the people. In particular, he viewed the realization of democracy as a top priority, believing that the realization of democracy was more important than achieving independence. He opposed to any kind of dictatorship and claimed that building a liberal democratic state, which advocates the right and happiness of its people, would be the Korean people’s goal of nation building, a demand of the times, and a national ideal (Oh ChunSuk 1964). We cannot ascertain whether other leaders who participated in the establishment of the Republic of Korea’s education system also viewed building a democratic state as more important task of the times than achieving independence and national unification as Oh Chun-Suk argued. However, they seem to have largely agreed to the realization of democracy as an ideological indicator in reforming old Japanese education system and establishing a new education system. In particular, the democracy they tried to realize gained public support because it was viewed as an alternative to Japanese militarism and, at the same time, an alternative to communism that had taken root in North Korea. The two organizations played a pivotal role in establishing ROK’s education system: one was the Korean Committee on Education, the USAMGIK’s Bureau of Education, and the other was the Korea Education Council, which was responsible for developing new education system and policies. The Korean Committee on Educational Planning defined educational

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ideology with priority, and Paek Nak-Chun is known to have played a central role in adopting Hongik Ingan (humanitarian ideal) as ROK’s educational ideology. He studied Chinese classics in his early childhood and conducted research on Korean studies when he was involved in the Chindan Society. The educational philosophy of the humanitarian ideal was evaluated as a traditional idea of the Korean people that can be accepted globally, and it was viewed that the educational philosophy had something in common with the democratic ideology of the times. Although there was some public criticism over Hongik Ingan as ROK’s educational ideology (Oh Wook-Hwan and Choi Jung-Sil 1993; Kim Han-Jong 2003), it was accepted by the Korean Committee on Educational Planning without much controversy. The educational philosophy and policy determined at that time are as follows (Oh Chun-Suk 1964). Based on the founding principle of Hongik Ingan, the basic ideology of education is to educate patriotic citizens of a democratic nation whose character is flawless. The following educational policies are established to fulfill this ideology: 1. Cultivate character of Korean people equipped with the spirit of national independence and self-respect, international friendship, and cooperation. 2. Emphasize the spirit of living up to one’s faith and work innovation, and show responsibility and mutual assistance rooted in mutual love and respect. 3. Cultivate and promote cultural tradition of Korea and contribute to the mankind by exercising creativity and ingenuity in science and technology. 4. Improve physical conditions and cultivate unwavering spirit of the people. 5. Cultivate well-integrated and pure-minded persons by promoting creativity and art appreciation. The educational ideology is closely related to the identity of the nation and society because the ideology shows the direction of education for modern nation in nurturing its people and serves as a standard of

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educational judgment. As suggested above, the educational ideology of cultivating citizens of the democratic state based on the ideology of Hongik Ingan is the reflection of spirit and will of the times. However, without the proper establishment of the relationship between the founding principle of Hongik Ingan and the educational ideology for fostering citizens of democratic state, the founding principle of Hongik Ingan was perceived as an educational ideology. As a result, the ideology of Hongik Ingan exposed its limits in showing the newly established Republic of Korea the direction of educational activities in its nation building process and serving as an educational ideology to be used as concrete standards in making educational judgment in various conflicts. In other words, the humanitarian ideal served as a symbol that bound our nation together, rather than a concrete educational guideline for building a modern nation by embodying the national identity of a democratic republic. It was, so to speak, a symbol that arouses the sense of national unity as the spiritual and cultural value of our nation. Though the ideology of Hongik Ingan served as an educational guide in overcoming the ideological confrontations and conflicts that occurred in the nation building process, developing democracy, and harmonizing individuals and society, it had its limits in functioning as the standard for making educational judgment in actual educational practices. Though cultivating patriotic citizens of a democratic nation was proposed as the ideology of education, the ideology of Hongik Ingan was perceived as educational ideology for some reason. Therefore, the role of the educational ideology as a standard of educational judgment or the direction of educational practice became blurred.3

2.2

Compulsory Elementary Education and Autonomy in Education

The Korean Committee on Educational Planning proposed the implementation of compulsory education in September 1946, and the USAMGIK’s Bureau of Education was willing to actively review and accept this proposal. The full-scale implementation of compulsory education, however, was not possible due to the budget constraints.

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Therefore, the USAMGIK’s Bureau of Education vigorously worked for the spread of primary education instead. As a result, the number of children enrolled in elementary schools, which was about 1.6 million at the time of liberation, increased to about 2.28 million in September 1947. Meanwhile, the American advisors of the U.S. Military Government played a leading role in promoting “autonomy in education”. As part of measures to promote autonomy in education, the following were proposed: creating a department of education in each province and having a school affairs section in each county implement education under the responsibility of local governments. On August 12, 1948, the following three Ordinances were issued to promote autonomy in education: Ordinance No. 216 (establishment of school districts in each county); Ordinance No. 217 (establishment of school boards in counties and cities); and Ordinance No. 218 (establishment of a new system of fiscal support for public schools). In his paper, Chung TaiSoo argued these three Ordinances for Autonomy in Education were the gift from the USAMGIK. However, the educational autonomy system was not further developed. Interior Ministry officials and some politicians campaigned for the abolition of educational autonomy system, and the efforts for educational autonomy were eventually suspended by the May 16 coup. Though the education autonomy system had been implemented at the municipal and provincial level before it was revived by the enactment of the Local Education Autonomy Law in 1991, the system has not been stabilized up until today.

2.3

Establishment of 6-3-3-4 Schooling System and Unification of Primary and Secondary Education

The 6-3-3-4 schooling system, which was adopted under the U.S. Military Government, has been maintained consistently for the past 70 years since the liberation. According to Oh Chun-Suk, the 6-3-3-4 schooling system was proposed by Kim Sung-Soo at a meeting held shortly after the liberation and supported by others who attended the meeting including Oh Chun-Suk. Based on the belief that the new system could serve

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the purpose of democratic education, Oh Chun-Suk supported the new system. He said, “If the conventional educational system was to separately educate the ruling class and the subordinated class, the new system would give equal educational opportunity to all the Korean people. It is a system in which people can have the equal opportunity to receive education regardless of their status, lineage, wealth, race, religion and gender” (Oh Chun-Suk 1964). In particular, he emphasized that the division of the secondary education into three years of middle school and three years of high school allowed flexibility to turn secondary schools into six-year schools or to divide them into lower and upper secondary schools. Though the 33 secondary schooling system had the flexibility to accommodate the demands for vocational education, while at the same time enhancing the primary and secondary education, but it has resulted in the unification of primary and secondary education. The reorganization of secondary schooling system into the 3-3 was meant to strengthen the secondary education and institutionalize vocational education (Lee Kwang-Ho 1991). In this process, however, a unified and standardized educational system was established so that special-purpose schools for students with special gifts and talents as well as special schools for leaders of the society and the wealthy were not considered. In other words, no special schools for the privileged such as prestigious families, high-ranking officials, or the wealthy were recognized, nor special-purpose schools for students with special gifts and talents in the arts or sciences were considered. Only the primary and secondary education system was established, and students were admitted to the school of a higher level based on their academic records. As a result, people began to recognize the schools admitting students with good grades as prestigious schools, and graduating from those prestigious high schools was regarded as a means to elevate social status. In addition, a system was established with the first three years of general education and another three years of college preparatory education or vocational education. Consequently, social mobility of people through education could become possible and social integration was strengthened. However, the system also resulted in the overheated competition of entrance exams.

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Although special-purpose high schools were later partially accepted, it seems that these schools failed to serve their original purposes because of the uniformed student selection system which was wholly based on student’s academic record.

2.4

Establishment of Higher Education System Focused on Universities

The establishment of the Seoul National University marked one of the most important milestones in Korea’s education under the U.S. Military Government. As a result, not only was a new model of higher education established and presented, but also the quantitative growth of higher education ensued. There were seven national and public institutions of higher education in Seoul at the time Korea was liberated from Japan: Gyeongseong University, Gyeongseong College of Education, Gyeongseong Law College, Gyeongseong Medical College, Gyeongseong Higher Technical School, Gyeongseong Higher Commercial School, Suwon Agriculture College, and Gyeongseong Mining College. Following the Japanese people’s return to their homeland after the liberation of Korea, these schools had to hire Korean professors to fill the vacancies, but it was impossible to recruit a number of competent faculty members at once. In such a situation, it was considered necessary to integrate those education institutions to ensure optimal utilization of human resources as it was the most reasonable way to address the shortage of professors. However, the general public could not make such a comprehensive judgment. Oh Chun-Suk described the complex situation of the time as follows (Oh Chun-Suk 1964, p. 420). Though it is true that the leftists led the movement against the establishment of the Seoul National University, it would be a hasty conclusion to think the movement was instigated by those leftists. There was a good reason for the objection of sensible professors and students, not the communist elements. The thing is that the Ministry of Education made an arbitrary decision on the establishment of the Seoul National University without consulting with the concerned parties. Considering the fact that the Korean people lack the experience in communal life,

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it would be best not to integrate existing colleges but to develop them independently. After a yearlong controversy over the plan to establish the Seoul National University, SNU was established on August 27, 1946, and it became a model for all other major universities. As other private universities were established based on the model of the Seoul National University, a higher education system focused on universities was established.4 With regard to higher education, another noteworthy aspect was its rapid expansion under the U.S. Military Government. When Korea was liberated from Japan, there were a total of 7,819 Koreans enrolled in 19 institutions of higher education, including one national university and 18 vocational schools. For three years under the U.S. Military Government, most of the vocational schools were promoted to four-year universities. First, specialized public colleges and Gyeongseong University were integrated into the Seoul National University. Most of the existing private vocational schools were upgraded to four-year universities, some of which were developed into comprehensive universities, and the establishment of other four-year universities ensued.5 Consequently, nearly 20,000 students were enrolled in 31 institutions of higher educations including Seoul National University (SNU) and three private universities as of December 1947. Those 31 institutions of higher education included 3 national universities, 4 provincial, and 23 private universities. There were 4 universities, 22 four-year universities (including three 6year college of medicine), and 5 junior colleges (2–3 year colleges) when classified by the type of education institutions (Lee Kwang-Ho 1991). Afterward, most of the four-year universities were turned into comprehensive universities, and the opportunities for higher education, which had been open only to a small number of people under the Japanese colonial rule, were expanded and the general public could have opportunity for higher education.

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New Education Movement

A new educational ideology was adopted and the 6-3-3-4 schooling system was established during the educational reform implemented under the U.S. Military Government. Furthermore, education opportunities were significantly expanded with the provision of compulsory education. Meanwhile, educational autonomy was implemented based on the recommendations of advisors of the U.S. Military Government. While creating an institutional framework, efforts were also made to enhance the education of Korean language and national history, increase the number of science and mathematics classes, and introduce the social studies as a core subject for teaching democratic ideals to students. In addition, new types of teaching methods such as group discussions and problem-based learning were introduced and taught by American teachers at in-service teacher training centers (Lee Myung-Hee 2003). The series of changes in education were called “new education” at that time, and the “new education movement ” was actively promoted. Oh Chun-Suk claimed legitimacy of the “new educational movement ” which was initiated by the Ministry of Education and relevant educators in order to abolish traditional education and establish a new education based on democratic ideals (Oh Chun-Suk 1964). It was our firm conviction that it would be impossible to build a new nation with old education. Therefore, we believed building a new society would only be possible with new education. We called the education opposed to old education and required to build a new society the “new education”. The new education that Oh Chun-Suk referred to was not the totalitarian and uniform education, but “liberal education” or “democratic education” which respects the rights and personality of individual students and promotes their holistic development. However, as people had no experience with democracy, the biggest challenge faced by the new educational movement was the lack of people’s understanding of democracy and capacity to reflect democratic principles into the curriculum.

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As a result of the New Educational Movement, American-style democratic education was disseminated in a top-down manner, which ironically led to a top-down approach in educational administration. Though democratic education was pursued, it remained a mere imitation of ideology or form of the democratic education. However, it is meaningful that serious attempts were made to push ahead with democratic education. Moreover, the democratic education was pursued as an ideology refusing totalitarian education.

2.6

Enactment of the Education Law 1949 and Establishment of Compulsory Education System

In the three years following liberation of Korea in 1945, modern education system was introduced to the nation, and laws were enacted in the early years after the establishment of the ROK government (Gong Byung-Ho 2001). In other words, the policies and institutions that had been conceived and attempted during the three-year period under the U.S. Military Government were mostly enacted following the establishment of the government in 1948. The constitutional provisions on education laid the foundation for making education policies and systems into law (Enactment of the Education Law 1949) in the early years following the establishment of the government (Lee Myung-Hee 2014).

2.7

Article 16 of the Constitution

The constitutional provision on education is based on Article 6 of the Charter of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea established in April 1919 in Shanghai. Article 6 states that “the people of the Republic of Korea have the duty to receive education, serve in the military, and pay taxes”, defining education as one of the duties of the people (Jeong Jong-Sub 2002). Defining education as one of the duties of the Korean people is in line with Cho So-Ang’s Principle of Three Equalities, in which the duty to receive education is prioritized over duties to pay tax and serve in the military.

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What is noticeable is that education is defined as a duty, not the right of the people. Many Korean independence activists thought that Korea lost its sovereignty to Japan because the general public did not receive modern education properly, and that it was important for all citizens to receive modern education to restore national sovereignty (Hwang SeungHeum 2011). Of course, the “duty” here includes the duty of the state, which was translated into compulsory education provided by the state. The provision on education in the Charter of the Provisional Government of the Korea, after many discussions, became the basis of Article 16 of the Constitution, which specified that “All citizens shall have an equal right to receive an education. At least elementary education shall be compulsory and free of charge. All educational institutions are under the supervision of the State and educational system shall be established by law”. The above provision seems to be very simple, but its framework remained unchanged even after nine constitutional amendments. Only the following two provisions were added to provisions on education in the 1948 Constitution: independence, professionalism, and political impartiality of education and the autonomy of university shall be guaranteed. The State shall promote lifelong education. In short, the educational ideology of the 1948 Constitution has continued until today (Lee Myung-Hee 2014).

2.8

Enactment and Significance of the Education Law 1949

The new educational policies and institutions which had been implemented under the U.S. Military Government were enacted following the establishment of the ROK government in 1948. As stated above, under the U.S. Military Government, new educational ideology and objectives were already developed, new schooling system was implemented, compulsory education system was seriously reviewed, and attempts were made for local education autonomy. Moreover, during the same period, new university system was established. Efforts were also made to seek new contents and methods of education for a new era based on American educational model. Those who were

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involved in these fundamental educational reforms and development of a new educational system did not think the rule of the U.S Military Government would last long. They believed the new Korean government would soon be established, and policies and institutions, which had been implemented under the U.S Military Government, should be made into law (Lee Myung-Hee 2014). Therefore, the establishment of the ROK government became the starting point for the enactment of the 1949 Education Law, and the Act was put into practice without delay. A new direction and framework for education in the Republic of Korea was codified in the 1948 Constitution. The work to legalize systematized educational practices began in order to implement them in accordance with the rule of law. Ahn Ho-Sang, the first Minister of Education and the high-ranking officials of the Ministry of Education, began drafting the education law, and lawmaker Lee Jae-Hak made a draft of the law based on the legislative research and review of five education law drafting committee members (Baek Nak-Jun, Oh Chun-Suk, Yoo Jin-Oh, Jang E-Wook, and Hyun Sang-Yoon) and five lawmakers including Park Hee-Byung. The draft of the education law submitted to the Education and Culture Committee in September 1949 was finally passed on November 30, 1949. The summary of the Education Law 1949 is as follows (Education Committee of the National Assembly 1994). – Articles 1 through 4 set forth the basic direction and objectives of education. – Article 5 specifies that education cannot be used for political purpose. – Article 8 stipulates that elementary education should be compulsory education. – Article 9 stipulates that special measures such as nighttime, seasonal, part-time, and other special education should be provided so that people in their employment can also study. – Articles 19, 33, 46, and 57 specify the establishment of the district, municipal, provincial, and central education committees as deliberative bodies to ensure autonomy in education.

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– Articles 97, 104, and 108 stipulate that the schooling system should be composed of 6 years of elementary school, 4 years of middle school, 3 years of high school, and 4 years of university. – Article 127 specifies the establishment of technical schools and higher technical schools established to cultivate people with professional knowledge and skills. – Article 165 stipulates that the district, municipal, provincial education committees shall be organized within 30 days after the formation of respective local council. – Article 174 stipulates that any existing laws and ordinances conflicting with the provisions of the Education Law should be abolished. As stated above, the Education Law 1949 specified educational ideology and purpose, schooling system, compulsory elementary education, political neutrality and autonomy in education, local education autonomy, emphasis on vocational education, measures for the people in employment and the disabled, equal treatment of public and private schools, and the security of teacher’s status. The Education Law 1949 was indeed the basic law on education specifying all important matters concerning education in general, and its framework has largely remained unchanged for 48 years until the new education laws comprising of Framework Act on Education, the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, and Higher Education Act were enacted in December 1997.6 Therefore, it can be said that the Education Law 1949 is the foundation of the education system of the Republic of Korea today (Lee Myung-Hee 2014). The ideologies of the nation’s founding fathers, who valued education, were widely reflected in the Education Law 1949. The values that the founding fathers tried to incorporate into the Education Law were as follows: education is the right of the people; the education is aimed at fostering people’s ability to lead autonomous lives; the value of private education institutions is recognized; adult (those in their employment) education should be separated from the school education; the state should implement compulsory education and provide equal educational opportunities for its people; and highachieving students should be able to receive education no matter whether they are from poor families; and the state should place importance on

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science and vocational education. The provisions of the Constitution on education were incorporated in the Education Law 1949 and the framework for education was established. As such, the Education Law has remained largely intact for 48 years, and its main contents have remained unchanged (Lee Myung-Hee 2014).

2.9

Compulsory Education and Education to Eradicate Illiteracy

The implementation of compulsory education was a long-cherished desire of the Korean people. From the early enlightenment period, provision of compulsory education was discussed by people who advocated enlightenment, including Kim Ok-Kyun, Park Yeong-Hyo, Yu Gil-Jun, Park Eun-Sik, and a proposal for compulsory education was submitted by the Korean Self-Strengthening Society. In addition, the group of people who led patriotic enlightenment movement in the 1900s carried out a campaign for compulsory education. Built upon this effort, the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea defined education as one of the fundamental duties of the people in its Charter. As such, compulsory education was continuously discussed and emphasized over a long period of time. Though the proposal for compulsory education was submitted under the rule of the U.S. Military Government, it was not enacted nor implemented until the ROK government was established. The compulsory education system was finally enacted into law and was about to be implemented, but its implementation was delayed due to the outbreak of the Korean War in 1950. Compulsory education was promoted in earnest with the implementation of the “Six-Year Compulsory Education Plan (1954–1959)” which was drafted after the signing of the armistice agreement in 1953. The plan was aimed at raising the enrollment rate of primary schoolage children to 96% by 1959 and increasing number of teachers, facilities, and financial resources necessary for increasing the enrollment rate in six years. The school enrollment rate, however, reached 96.13% in 1959, exceeding the original target of 96%. Though the target was attained earlier than expected, the number of teachers and facilities for

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compulsory education was still insufficient. Thus, from 1962 to 1971, two successive “Five-year Plan to Expand Facilities for Compulsory Education” were implemented, and financial resources necessary for the facilities expansion were successfully secured. As a result, the Republic of Korea achieved an education revolution by accomplishing the goal of providing full-scale compulsory education in less than 20 years. By the time Korea was liberated from Japan in 1945, 78% of Korean adults were illiterate, so the most urgently needed task in education was the eradication of illiteracy. Accordingly, the Ministry of Education announced the “Five-year Plan for Eradicating Illiteracy on April 25, 1950, after the enactment of the Education Law. However, this plan was not implemented until 1954 due to the outbreak of the Korean War. The “Five-year Plan for Eradicating Illiteracy” was implemented during the period from 1954 to 1958 in cooperation with other ministries such as the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Ministry of National Defense. The Ministry of Education was responsible for education, the Ministry of Home Affairs encouraged people to participate in education, and the Ministry of Defense was in charge of educating illiterate military personnel (The National Archives of Korea, Five-year Plan for Eradicating Illiteracy). According to the government, illiteracy rate in Korea, which stood at 78% in 1945, fell to 4.1% in 1958 (A total of 560,000 out of 13.71 million Koreans aged 12 years or older).7

2.10

Achievement of Education Revolution

With regard to education during the state formation period, it seems that the government accomplished the goals of providing compulsory education and eradicating illiteracy of its people to some extent by the end of the 1950s. In other words, as a result of the “Six-Year Compulsory Education Plan (1954–1959)” and the “Five-year Plan for Eradicating Illiteracy (1954–1958)”, school-age children were able to receive compulsory elementary education, and Koreans who had not received education could receive literacy education. As a result, the vast majority of Koreans could read and write Korean alphabet in the late 1950s. Compulsory education is usually implemented in the last

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phase of the modern state formation process. As for advanced nations in the west, compulsory education system was not established until the mid-nineteenth century.8 Compulsory education, in those nations, was implemented after civil revolutions and the industrial revolution.9 The advanced nations built the modern state through revolutions in the order of political revolution, industrial revolution, and education revolution (provision of compulsory education). However, Korea failed to make a political revolution in the enlightenment period and was colonized by Japan before making an attempt to conduct industrial revolution as well as educational revolution. Soon after the government of the Republic of Korea was established after the restoration of Korea’s national sovereignty, the government commenced an education revolution. As a result of literacy education along with compulsory education promoted by the government, Korea succeeded in the education revolution by achieving its goals in the late 1950s. Built upon the achievements of the education revolution, the Republic of Korea succeeded in the industrial revolution in the 1960s and 1970s and political revolution in 1987, thereby completing the process of a modern state-building process.

2.11

Characteristics and Historical Significance of Korea’s Democratic Education During the State Formation Period

2.11.1 Establishment of Democratic Education System The end of World War II in August 1945 was the historic event that countries like Germany, Italy, and Japan trying to dominate the world by combining nationalism and imperialism succumb to the allied forces and the U.S. advocating liberal democracy and global cooperation. For Russia, which had strengthened its power by pursuing communist imperialism under Stalin following the communization after the Bolshevik Revolution, the end of World War II was also the historic event for Russia to become a part of the newly shaped post-war global order. When the world order was reorganized after World War II, Korea was divided into South and North, and each attempted to build a nation

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and a new education system. While North Korea pushed ahead with a nation building and establishing an education system at the direction of the Soviet Union, South Korea voluntarily pursued the nation building and establishment of education system by our own choice and efforts. In South Korea, the main actors in establishing the education system were the Korean people. The U.S. Military Government did not have any specific plan about what education system they wanted to build in the South. Even after the military occupation, the U.S. Military Government chose people who would make a system favorable to the U.S. and delegated them to build a new educational system (Lee Myung-Hee 2014). Therefore, during the period of U.S. Military Government, Koreans who seized the opportunity to build a modern state and Americans who were trying to build a new international order could interact each other. Koreans made an attempt to introduce the 6-3-3-4 schooling system and compulsory education system, and Americans strongly recommended to introduce local education autonomy, which was being implemented in the U.S. based on the educational ideology of liberalism and democracy. It is not easy to apply a system of a country with a different political, socioeconomic, and historical background. In Korea, however, the U.S.’s democratic education system could take root because the Koreans had the capacity to run the system themselves. Most of the fathers of Korea’s modern education chosen by the U.S. Military Government were intellectual elites who had studied abroad, opposed to communist totalitarianism, and oriented toward liberal democracy. These intellectuals were well acquainted with the international situation as well as Korea’s political and socioeconomic conditions. They also had a firm belief and vision of what the future of Korea should look like. For example, Oh Chun-Suk who played an important role in the process of establishing a new education system in Korea believed that building education system for liberal democracy in Korea was as important as independence and national unification (Lee Myung-Hee 2014). It is also necessary to consider the fact that Korea tried to build a new democratic education system with direct assistance of the U.S. Not only did the U.S. emerge as

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one of the most advanced nations in the world, but it was also preparing to lead the world based on the principle of mutual cooperation. The U.S. believed that even the most backward people and nation in the world should be granted the right to pioneer their own destiny, and that Koreans who were under Japanese colonial rule should also enjoy such rights. In that sense, Koreans were lucky to have the opportunity to model after the best system of the U.S. with their strong interest and support (Lee Myung-Hee 2014).

2.12

Democratic Education in the State Formation Period

Education provided under the Japanese colonial rule was a modern education in its form, but the contents of education could not be considered modern, and the educational ideology was detrimental to our nation. Also, during this period, collective physical activity and uniform education methods were emphasized. In short, the education at that time was modern in its form, but it had a strong totalitarian character in its content, method, and educational ideology. After liberation from the Japanese rule, a new education system based on “Americanstyle democratic education” was pursued during the period under the U.S. Military Government. In reality, however, the content and methods of the education failed to meet the ideology and goals of the democratic education. What is noteworthy here is that Koreans were given the opportunity to seek and try new education systems that can determine the nation’s future. In this process, the U.S. Military Government acted as a guardian and a supporter of Korea’s endeavor for building its own education system (Lee Myung-Hee 2014). Building a new education system under the U.S. Military Government was the process of laying a foundation for future-oriented modern education at the national level. The U.S. Military Government proposed Koreans not to follow or maintain the Japanese colonial education and

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not to accept communist education. However, these two proposals were not something that restricted freedom of South Koreans at that time. Rather, the proposals were what Koreans wanted. Therefore, we were able to push ahead with building a new education system and actively cooperate with the U.S. Military Government in this process (Lee Myung-Hee 2014). The establishment of a new education system during this period was the first attempt to accept and apply a modern education system, which was already firmly established in the West, also in Korea at the national level. Not only was there a lack of knowledge of modernity in Korea during the enlightenment period, but also the attempt for the acceptance and application of modern education could not be properly made. During the Japanese colonial period, even if the Korean people accumulated knowledge of modernity to some extent, the opportunity to apply it was fundamentally restricted. Korea was able to provide modern education nationwide for the first time in history during the U.S. Military Government. In this process, Korean intellectuals including Oh Chun-Suk played an important role. The education system, which was newly introduced under the U.S. Military Government and made into law following the establishment of the ROK government, was oriented toward the realization of ideology of democratic education based on the compulsory education system that the Korean people had hoped for since the early enlightenment period. In particular, general education based on the ideology of liberal democracy with 6-3-3-4 schooling system was expanded rapidly. Though local educational autonomy, which was considered another pillar of liberal democratic education, was promoted and implemented to some extent, the implementation of local educational autonomy was eventually stopped after the May 16 coup in 1961. Along with the fact that the new education movement was a mere imitation of the ideology or form of democratic education in terms of its contents and methods, the suspended implementation of local education autonomy exposed the limitations of democratic education system at that time. In short, democratic education showed strong ideological characteristics which rejected totalitarian education of imperialist Japan and communist education, and the process and procedure of education were not fully democratic.

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Achievement and Challenges of Korea’s Education in the State Formation Period

As discussed above, attempts were made to shift from totalitarian education system under the Japanese rule to modern democratic education system in terms of content and method of education as well as institutional and legal aspects of the education. The education system, which was newly introduced under the U.S. Military Government and made into law following the establishment of the ROK government, is characterized by the followings. First, national education to promote national unity began in earnest under the U.S. Military Government. In other words, Korean language and history education were provided for all Koreans during this period. In modern school education, history and culture education is an institutional device for promoting national unity. Although the U.S. Military Government established in Korea was occupation forces, they supported Koreans for Korean language and history education. As a result, national education was provided for the first time in Korean history, and Koreans were able to read and write Korean language through compulsory and adult education by the end of the 1950s. Second, the transition from colonial education to a modern education was achieved. Under the colonial rule, majority of people had no access to education, and only a few received elementary education to be trained as low-level worker or junior managers. And some of them could go on to school of higher level in the country, and only a few of the ruling classes received higher education in the colonist’s homeland or foreign countries. This colony education system was completely replaced by the new 6-3-3-4 schooling system. With the introduction of new schooling system, Koreans were free to establish secondary and higher education institutions. In particular, the active contribution of private schools in secondary and tertiary education resulted in an explosive increase of educational opportunities in the Republic of Korea and the increased burden of beneficiaries of education. Less attention was paid to pre-school education because providing compulsory education for school-aged children and literacy education for adult was more urgent than pre-school education. As a result, early

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childhood education was not generally provided, but it was offered only to a small number of children at the private sector level in accordance with the “beneficiary-pays principle”. Third, as nurturing the citizens of the modern state was most urgently needed task for the newly established republic, compulsory education system to foster those citizens was most actively promoted. At the same time, the expansion of educational opportunities for the public was strongly required. Therefore, the establishment of compulsory education system was a top priority for the Republic of Korea in its state formation period, and priority was given to expanding compulsory education when allocating the national budget. As a result, more than 96% of school-aged children who were subject to compulsory education were enrolled in schools in less than 10 years after the establishment of the ROK government. In the developed countries, compulsory education was implemented in the last phase of modern state-building process in the mid-nineteenth century after political and industrial revolutions. However, in Korea, as soon as the nation was liberated from the Japanese colonial rule, compulsory education was proposed by Koreans and positively reviewed by the U.S. Military Government. After the establishment of the ROK government, provision of compulsory education was made into law. Though its implementation was delayed due to the Korean War, compulsory education was successfully established after six years of efforts from 1954. In doing so, the Republic of Korea set the precedent as a nation where educational revolution (compulsory education) preceded industrial revolution (industrialization) and political revolution (democratization). Fourth, democratization of education was accomplished through the implementation of primary and secondary education as a general education, without recognizing special schools for the children of the privileged or special-purpose schools for students with outstanding talents in specific academic fields. In other words, the school education system established in the state formation period was completely integrated into general education. All students were given equal educational opportunities based on their ability according to universal standards. Even though they were from the privileged families or have special talents in a particular field, such as arts, sports, or even in science, their distinct characteristics were not

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recognized. All students had to enter schools selected or accredited in accordance with universal standards. There existed no private schools that respect characteristics of individual student, such as the ones like private boarding schools in Europe and the U.S. Special schools for the children of the privileged were not recognized in Korea because the royal family and the privileged such as aristocrats collapsed during the Japanese colonial rule. There were no prestigious schools in Korea like boarding schools in European countries and the U.S., but there were top-tier schools selecting students based on the entrance exam. It was because Hyanggyo (government-run Confucian school) and Seowon (privately run Confucian academy) of the Joseon Dynasty were not succeeded during the Japanese colonial period. This characteristic of Korean education is in stark contrast to that of North Korea, where special schools for high-ranking officials of the Worker’s Party or bereaved families of revolutionaries and specialpurpose schools for educating talented students were acknowledged (Han Jong-Ha et al. 1994). In addition, as competition for entering top-tier schools intensified in the process of quantitative growth of education, education in Korea focused on universal knowledge. Fifth, lifelong education was considered “social education” which was provided for out-of-school adults, and the “social education” was mainly focused on literacy education. Since the most urgent educational task at that time was eradication of illiteracy, the lifelong education for adults was also implemented with a focus on literacy education. Occupational skills for adults were taught in the private sector rather than in the public sector. Therefore, the vocational and technical education at schools and the vocational and technical education as the social education were separately implemented. Thus, it was difficult to provide school education in conjunction with lifelong education. As a result, vocational education at school was focused on abstract theoretical education associated with career education rather than job-oriented education. While school education was under the exclusive jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education, the Ministry of Home Affairs and the Ministry of National Defense actively participated in social education. In other

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words, the social education for adults was provided by the Ministry of Home Affairs and the social education for military personnel by the Ministry of National Defense. As a result, the Ministry of Education did not regard the out-of-school education as important, which continued from the state formation period to the industrialization period. Sixth, totalitarian educational ideology was replaced by democratic educational ideology. Educational ideology, contents, and methods of education were overhauled in line with democratic ideology. In other words, based on the founding principle of Hongik Ingan, the new educational ideology of “cultivating patriotic citizens of a democratic nation” was presented, replacing Japanese totalitarian education. After decolonization in Korea, the foundation of anti-communist system was also established. The leaders who were involved in building a new education system in the Republic of Korea focused on the institutionalization of democratic education, based on the recognition that realizing democratic education was as important as independence or national unification. In addition, direction for the new education was clearly set through a new education movement for democratic education. In Korea, this new educational ideology and methodology were led by the central education authorities. Democratic education as well as educational administration was led by education officials at the central education authorities in accordance with the principle of separation of politics and education. In addition, local education administration agencies were separated and independent from general administration agencies, and education administration was conducted at the directions of the central education authorities. Meanwhile, education authorities had strong influence on school education because schools could not implement the new democratic education ideology and educational methods autonomously. Another point that should be noted with regard to the educational philosophy is that Hongik Ingan was accepted as an educational ideology. Despite the fact that cultivating patriotic citizens of a democratic nation was proposed as the ideology of education, the ideology of Hongik Ingan was perceived as the educational ideology for some reason.

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Therefore, the role of the educational ideology as a standard of educational judgment or the direction of educational practice became blurred. Instead, the ideology of Hongik Ingan was recognized as the ideology symbolizing the unification of the Korean people. The democratic education system, which was introduced under the U.S. Military Government and made into law following the establishment of the ROK government, was a transition in education with achievements and challenges as stated above.

2.13.1 Historical Significance of Democratic Education System Educational reformers in state formation period aimed at transition from Japanese totalitarian education to democratic education. The democratic education they pursued was the education for the development and happiness of individuals, aimed at providing equal educational opportunities to individuals according to their ability, and guaranteeing them the right to receive education as a citizen. In particular, the single track 63-3-4 schooling system was recognized as a democratic education system, resulting in the spread of the consciousness of equality in education and removal of Japanese colonial education. During the Japanese colonial period, period of secondary education was not fixed ranging from 3 to 5 years, and the types of schools were diverse such as middle school, high school, vocational school, and girl’s high school. However, the introduction of this new system not only simplified secondary education into junior and senior high schools, but also allowed anyone to choose school according to their abilities. In conclusion, the introduction of the U.S.style 6-3-3-4 schooling system resulted in a rapid, quantitative growth of education in the Republic of Korea, which in turn served as the driving force behind Korea’s transformation into a major education powerhouse today. Equalization of educational opportunities and dissemination of education, promoted under the banner of democracy, also brought about two political and social changes. The popularization of democratic education made the people to recognize liberal democracy as a universal value. As

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a result, the Republic of Korea, despite the challenges of communists, was able to form the basis for defending the nation and secure the public support. In other words, the new education system formed the basis for preventing the communization of the Republic of Korea and realizing democracy on the Korean Peninsula. The establishment of the Republic of Korea itself was challenged by communists as demonstrated by the Yeosu–Suncheon rebellion and the April 3 Jeju Uprising. Even after the establishment of the Republic of Korea, the nation was an important target in Stalin’s strategy to communize the entire world. As a result, the Republic of Korea experienced a terrible war soon after its establishment and continued to face constant threats and tribulations. Moreover, there were no central forces to defend the nation. Despite these circumstances, however, we could defend our nation because of education. The establishment and dissemination of school education contributed to safeguarding the Republic of Korea from communist aggression. The democratic education at schools helped people to realize the justification for protecting the Republic of Korea from communist forces during the Korean War. The democratic education at schools was the most important tool to help the Korean people to realize that the Republic of Korea was a liberal democracy. The democratic education, which was different from Japanese totalitarian education or communist education of North Korea, gave people hope. Land reform was carried out in 1949, and the majority of farmers could own their farmland, and the implementation of compulsory education transformed Korea into a society where all children could attend school. This is considered sufficient to be a source of trust and hope for the new nation. In addition, democratic education contributed to the stabilization of the Korean society despite persistent instigation and ideological offensive by North Korea which continued after the Korean War. In particular, the introduction of 6-3-3-4 schooling system led to the equalization and expansion of educational opportunities. The democratic education, which was expanded and reproduced by the 6-3-3-4 system, contributed to the protection and stability of the Republic of Korea.

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Moreover, equal educational opportunity was recognized as equal opportunity according to individual’s ability, and education became a channel for upward social mobility based on relatively fair and reasonable evaluation method.10 Educational opportunities in the Korean society were further expanded, which in turn led to the establishment of system for equal opportunities according to individual’s ability. As a result, people could realize upward social mobility through school education. As the so-called rags-to-riches stories of people increased, the spread of education was further promoted, which in turn made a greater contribution to the national integration. In other words, this virtuous cycle created by education laid the foundation for human resources and social integration necessary for the economic growth and democratization of the Republic of Korea.11 Though Korea could expand educational opportunities by introducing the 6-3-3-4 schooling system and compulsory elementary education, the local education autonomy recommended by Americans was not established yet. The vestiges of Japanese education, which Koreans had to remove first, were educational discrimination against Koreans, in other words, deprivation of opportunities to receive education. Shaking off the shackles of Japanese education meant the expansion of educational opportunity for Koreans. Democratic education actually resulted in the expansion of educational opportunities for Koreans, and equal educational opportunities based on individual’s ability. There was, however, relatively less interest in securing autonomy and political neutrality of education through local education autonomy recommended by Americans. Though local education autonomy was enacted and once implemented, the implementation has been virtually suspended due to the problems arisen in the process of implementation. And this still remains an important challenges of Korea’s education to date.

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Education System During the Industrialization Period: 1960 to Early 1990s

Built on the democratic education system established during the state formation period, education for the national development was implemented during the industrialization period through active intervention and promotion of the government. Therefore, the government played a central role in education reform, and nationalism was reflected in the contents of education. Education policy was focused on national security and industrialization.

3.1

Strengthened Government’s Intervention in Education

3.1.1 Strengthening Education for National Development The Military Junta led by Park Chung-Hee aimed at “modernization of the fatherland” and emphasized education reform as an indispensable element for Korea’s modernization. Subcommittee on Educational Affairs and Society under the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction presented five human characters as an educational goal—nurturing independent, cooperative, reasonable, strenuous, and healthy person. In fact, changes in educational ideology were promoted. The military junta emphasized the education prioritizing the nation over individuals. Accordingly, the following four educational policies were implemented (Korea Education Research Institute 1974). First, anti-communism and security education for preventing indirect aggression were conducted. Moreover, the government rejected pro-communist thought and neutralism and strengthened anti-communist education through coursework and special lectures, etc. Second, moral education and nationwide new life movement was promoted. The government also emphasized mental education to safeguard liberal democracy.

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Third, the government strengthened education for manufacturing technology and science technology, and vocational education to overcome poverty. In addition, local education was promoted for the development of local communities and local community culture, and school facilities were open to local community residents. Fourth, the government put an emphasis on the creation of national culture for cultural innovation. To this end, cultural policy to strengthen international cultural exchanges was promoted. In addition, the government began working to amend the law to improve the quality of education. On September 1, 1961, the Education Law, the Public Educational Officials Act , and the Special Act on Education were enacted and promulgated. As a result, the retirement age of teachers was adjusted from 65 to 60, but competent professors could remain employed in college as honorary professors even after retirement. In addition, research achievement of a faculty candidate was evaluated for recruitment or promotion. In particular, student who completed four-year universities (including college of education) and passed the bachelor’s degree exam was awarded a bachelor’s degree pursuant to the Special Act on Education (Act No. 708, September 1, 1961). In December 1961, normal schools were promoted to a two-year college of education, and the number of colleges was adjusted to one in each province. In addition, the Private School Act, which revised the appointment procedures for faculty member, dismissal of teachers, and appointment standards for board of directors of school foundation, was enacted and promulgated on June 26, 1963, for the management and control of private schools. The 1960s was the era of modernization. The modernization during this period is understood in four aspects. Politically, it is understood as the establishment of democracy; economically, the promotion of industrialization; socially, the establishment of an open society; and culturally, the cultivation of national culture. During this period, national development plans were systematically implemented, and education was recognized as a means of national development (Korea Education Research Institute 1974). As a result, the concept of “education drives planned changes in human behavior” was

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emphasized in school education of all levels, and the role of the state as the main actor of education was highlighted. As a result, the liberal education that emphasized individual growth and development, self-realization, and pursuit of happiness of individual declined. Instead, nationalistic education emphasizing social ethics was generalized.

3.2

Expansion of Compulsory Education Facilities and Establishment of Comprehensive Long-Term Education Plan

Though Korea’s enrollment rate in elementary schools in 1959 exceeded 96%, which was similar to that of developed countries, the education facilities were not enough to support compulsory education. To address this issue, two successive “Five-year Plan to Expand Facilities for Compulsory Education” was implemented from 1962 to 1971. A total budget of KRW 9 billion was invested under the first “Fiveyear Plan to Expand Facilities for Compulsory Education” (1962–1966). As a result, 18,000 classrooms were newly built and 4,700 old classrooms were renovated. The second Five-year Plan (1967–1971) was aimed at addressing insufficient school facility issue, rebuilding old school facilities, and securing finances necessary for compulsory education. At that time, oversized schools and overcrowded classrooms were a serious problem. Under the plan, however, a total of 811 primary schools and 35,000 classrooms were newly built, and 13,000 classrooms were renovated. As a result, the lack of classrooms was solved to some extent, and double-shift classes were eliminated considerably (Korean Educational Research Institute 1974). Meanwhile, a plan to limit the number of students per teacher at 60 was also established and implemented. Accordingly, the total number of teachers increased significantly to 101,000 in 1971 from 610,600 in 1960. In 1970, schools could secure statutory number of teachers. In 1971, textbooks were distributed free of charge to 4.62 million students including children in islands and remote rural areas. Table 2

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Table 2 Results of the 2nd five-year plan to expand facilities for compulsory education Classification

1967

1968

1969

1970

1971

Total

Newly built schools Newly built classrooms Renovated classrooms Toilet Night duty room Drinking water fountain School housing Land purchase for school (3,300 m2 ) Amount (KRW million)

144 6,458 3,068 624 108 471

183 6,739 904 1,779

152

30 60 272

209 7,263 1,863 1,189 201 254 148 336

151 7,658 1,983 1,254 405 521 507 224

124 7,196 5,130 1,177 202 206 300 429

811 35,314 12,921 5,623 916 1,482 1,015 1,413

6,271

8,318

11,830

17,205

21,354

64,978

Source Ministry of Education (1989)

shows the results of 2nd five-year plan to expand facilities for compulsory education. The 15th World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession (WCOTP) held in Seoul in 1966 served as an opportunity to highlight the necessity of comprehensive long-term education plan. On November 30, 1968, regulations on the Council for Comprehensive Long-term Education Plan were enacted in accordance with the Presidential Decree No. 3651, and the council was formed in the following year with 50 representatives from different sectors. To ensure that education contributes to national development, education policies were comprehensively planned for over a 15-year period through the long-term education planning. In this plan, ten basic principles for education were determined. The plan was a multi-dimensional encompassing ten education categories (primary, secondary, higher, vocational, teacher preparation, pre-school, overseas, special, out-of-school, and unification education) and six areas including educational programs for student and teachers, educational facilities, education administration, and finances, etc. (Korea Education Research Institute 1974). In line with the 3rd Five-Year Economic Development Plan, the year 1986 was determined as the target year of the plan. The plan proposed the directions for educational development and reform in a comprehensive manner based on the analysis of the current status and problems of education in Korea through assessment of prospects and trends of national development in all fields including economy, population,

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manpower, society, culture, science, technology, politics, and administration. However, the plan was not realized. However, the effort is considered meaningful as it aimed at more reasonable implementation of educational programs based on the recognition that education is the driving force behind national development.

3.3

Promulgation of the Charter of National Education and Strengthened Security Education

On December 5, 1968, the Charter of National Education was promulgated. The Charter proposed the ideology of education and specified the goals of education in detail. The goal outlined in the Charter was to nurture workers who can contribute to the national development and global peace. In addition, the Charter was expected to serve as a philosophy for the people to self-educate themselves by establishing ethics and a set of norms in their life. Also, “national restoration”,12 including the modernization of the economy and the promotion of the national culture, was suggested as the goal toward which the education of the Republic of Korea should be oriented. At the 11th National Educators’ Conference held in Daegu on March 24, 1972, then President Park Chung-Hee advocated autonomous education based on the ideology of the Charter of National Education. President Park emphasized, “Although education made a great contribution to our society, we must reflect on the fact that our education lacked independence so far. Therefore, we need to squarely recognize our present situation, stop blindly emulating education system of other countries, establish proper national ideology, and educate our people based on the national ideology. Proper national ideology can be established when we have right historical view” (Korea Education Research Institute 1974). Accordingly, in May 1972, the Ministry of Education introduced a measure to strengthen Korean history education by introducing the Korean history as a new subject worth 30 points in the preliminary college entrance examination. On July 5, 1972, the Committee for

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Strengthening Korean History Education developed a new plan to introduce Korean history in a new primary and secondary school curriculum and to make Korean history class as a required course for college students. Accordingly, in the elementary school curriculum promulgated on February 14, 1973, the national history for 5th and 6th graders was separated from social studies as an independent subject in the middle school curriculum revised on August 31 of the same year. Especially, in the 1970s, the international situation surrounding the Korean peninsula changed drastically. With the peaceful coexistence of the U.S. and the Soviet Union, the international situation underwent a rapid change. On December 6, 1971, the government declared a state of emergency and presented a direction for uniting the people as a whole in order to overcome the crisis. On December 8, 1971, the Ministry of Education announced the basic policy of education as follows (Korea Education Research Institute 1974). First, security education system should be improved and strengthened in all areas of school education. Second, all the staff and students of schools should be united as a whole to establish a consistent school order and maintain academic atmosphere with resolution and determination. Third, we should play a leading role in overcoming the state of national emergency and establishing new values for accomplishing the historical mission of national restoration. Prior to the “October Restoration” in 1972, an all-out effort was already being made in the field of education. The policy directions proposed by the Ministry of Education for strengthening the security education system were as follows (Korea Education Research Institute 1974). First, improve and strengthen the security education system in all areas of school education. Second, establish patriotism based on anti-communist and democratic spirit without being agitated by international situation, and strive for nurturing the spirits of self-help, self-reliance, and independence. Third, ensure that high school military drill, shooting training, march training, and first-aid nursing education are thoroughly implemented in order to heighten the people’s sense of duty for national defense.

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Fourth, strengthen air defense training and chemical, biological and radioactive (CBR) training, and maintain and reinforce necessary facilities, and improve maintenance and utilization of equipment. Fifth, strengthen anti-communist education in the areas that are close to communist North and vulnerable areas and carry out emergency drills thoroughly. As mentioned above, there was already a move to strengthen security education before the October Restoration.

3.3.1 Promotion of Saemaul Education The government initiated the Saemaul Movement or the New Community Movement in November 1970. The Saemaul Movement was a movement to build a new society and was not irrelevant to education. The Saemaul education was initiated on March 17, 1972, at the Presidential Instruction of President Park Chung-Hee. At a meeting attended by the members of the State Council, provincial governors, and municipal and provincial superintendents, President Park announced the Presidential Instruction focused on the two-track policy of developing agriculture and industry, providing support for the Saemaul movement, promoting practical education which directly affects production, and raising people’s consciousness for national salvation in times of crisis. This was a historic starting point of Saemaul education. President Park Chung-Hee emphasized that the dual-track policy for the development of agriculture and industry would be important for Korea’s economic development, and that farmers’ commitment to a better life would be more important than the government’s investment in agricultural development. As part of efforts for the implementation of the Presidential Instruction, some 8,000 educators gathered at the 11th National Educators’ Conference held in Daegu on March 24– 25, 1972, pledged to participate actively in the Saemaul Movement and committed themselves to participate in the effort for national prosperity and restoration. In accordance with the ideology of the Charter of National Education, the Saemaul education was aimed at educating

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students and residents in rural areas, and the policy of Saemaul education is stated as follows (Korea Education Research Institute 1974). First, manage curriculum based on survey of rural communities with focus on problem-solving of fundamental issues in rural communities. (Curriculum) Second, diversify instructions by utilizing all available manpower, material, and cultural resources of the rural communities. (Instructions) Third, provide guidance for students in an organized and systematic manner to cultivate diligent, self-helping, and cooperative attitudes and create rational, efficient, and productive lifestyle. (Student guidance) Fourth, schools should provide various educational opportunities for preschoolers, out-of-school children, and adults who do not attend school in rural communities. (Adult education) Fifth, schools should participate in the development of the local community by carrying out planned voluntary activities. (Volunteer) Sixth, schools should play an exemplary role in boosting incomes in rural communities through the promotion of rural communities and scientific production technology. (Production education) Seventh, schools should open its facilities as a center for rural community development. (Opening school facilities to the public) Eighth, schools should promote educational and cultural activities in the rural communities and play a leading role in this process. (Playing a leading role in cultural activities) As stated above, the Saemaul education initiated by the government was aimed not only at educating students but also at the entire nation, and it was a lifelong education in its nature as the education focused on cultivating Saemaul spirit among the people who would be responsible for the regional development regardless of their profession, gender, age, class, region, and religion. In particular, the Saemaul education was targeted at nurturing people who are experienced in local development. And emphasis was put on the ideology of the Charter of National Education, the Saemaul spirit, education on production and security, and cooperation between academia and industry. And while the Saemaul education at school was a long-term education, the Saemaul education for people in the communities was generally a short-term education

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(1–7 days). Though a variety of educational methods were used, presentation on best practice and group discussion were adopted in general (Dictionary of Pedagogy Terms 1995).

3.4

Education Reform for Industrialization

The human capital theory and neoclassical economics assume that education is a very effective tool for industrialization. This is because education provides skills required for the industrialization and ensures those skills are effectively utilized. According to the human capital theory, these skills are mainly formed through market mechanisms with a highly market-oriented educational system and a training system, in which the role of the state is to ensure that these systems are implemented in an effective manner and respond to market demands (Andy Green 2013). In Korea, however, the labor force and technology required for industrialization and economic growth were provided by the government rather than through market mechanisms.

3.5

Industry-Academia Cooperation System and Promotion of Science and Technology Education

Since the 1960s, it has been highlighted that knowledge and technology, which contribute to the improvement of labor productivity in the process of economic development, are the results of education, and that educated human resources and technological innovation are essential factors for economic development. Thus, efforts were made to link education and economic development closely. In order to establish the education system for economic development, the government first promoted industry-academia cooperation. The Industrial Education Promotion Act, which was enacted in 1963, the promulgation of the regulations for the operation of Industry Technology Institute (1966) and the Industrial Technology Promotion Act (1967), all contributed to raising new awareness on the close ties between the industry and academia.

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In 1968, President Park Chung-Hee instructed to “achieve technological innovation and economic development through industry-academia cooperation”. In the same year, a joint meeting between the Ministry of Education and the Federation of Korean Industries was held to promote industry-academia cooperation. In particular, in the long-term comprehensive plan formulated from 1969 to 1970, the promotion of industry-academia cooperation was included as an education policy task (Korea Education Research Institute 1974). In the 1970s, a series of measures for strengthening industry-academia cooperation was institutionalized in schools of all levels. The government’s agricultural policies and the key industries for agricultural development were reflected in education at agricultural high schools as much as possible. For example, 12 schools were designated as pilot agricultural high schools to select specific tasks for rural development, research and experiment those tasks, and distribute the results to the local community. In addition, farmers’ schools were installed and operated in these agricultural high schools so that agricultural high school and college students could receive on-the-job training at farmhouses. On-the-job training at technical high schools was made into law, and some businesses were designated as on-the-job training providers, while the operation of technical high schools affiliated to businesses were encouraged. In addition, the linkage between businesses and industrial and technical schools in local community was strengthened by encouraging the operation of technical high schools befitting the characteristics of local community. The linkage between schools and businesses was further strengthened by requiring technical high school and technical college students to obtain required technical qualification certificate for graduation from schools. Furthermore, the government implemented a policy to shorten military service period or exempt those who have a specific technical qualification certificate from military service for nurturing skilled technical workers in a short period of time, which clearly shows how committed the government was to technical education. As part of efforts to establish an education system for economic development, the government also set the goal to promote science and technology education.

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In 1967, the Science Education Bureau was newly created with the Ministry of Education and the Science Education Promotion Act was enacted. Moreover, special allowances were awarded to practical course teachers in 1968, and the Decree on Standards for Experimental Equipment for Vocational Schools and Universities was enacted in 1970. Budget for vocational education was increased dramatically from 1971, the final year of the 5th Five-Year Economic Development Plan. A total of nearly KRW2.8 billion was invested in vocational education, including 1.32 million won in general account, KRW1.37 billion in special account for economic development, and KRW65 million in industrialization in special accounting for the management of reparation fund. In 1972, a total of KRW 3.56 billion was allocated in vocational education, increased by KRW 796 million compared to 1971 (Korea Education Research Institute 1974). Under the Third FiveYear Economic Development Plan, special emphasis was placed on the training of technical engineers who were needed most among science and technology manpower. In particular, the authorities focused on vocational training to supply specialists such as machine tool specialists and metalworkers in relation to the policy to foster heavy and chemical industries. What was distinctive about the vocational education in Korea was that it was mainly promoted as a part of upper secondary education and higher education. In short, vocational education was promoted in the form of school education, not in the form of social education. On January 12, 1973, President Park Chung-Hee declared the policy to promote heavy and chemical industries at the new year’s press conference and announced that the government would exert all its efforts for the development of heavy chemical industry going forward. Moreover, the government launched the so-called Scientification of All Nation Movement to encourage every Korean to learn skills. President Park Chung-Hee said, “Without developing science and technology, we cannot expect the development of the heavy and chemical industries, and achieving all economic goals is possible when all citizens participate in the development of science and technology nationwide” (Korea Education Research Institute 1974).

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President Park emphasized that science and technology were the very ways and means of developing the heavy and chemical industries and achieving the economic goal of USD10 billion in exports and per capita income of USD1,000 in the early 1980s. Therefore, he tried to provide science and technology education through schools. To support this initiative, the government fostered technical high schools and established the Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST).

3.6

Abolition of Middle School Exam and Implementation of High School Standardization Policy13

The middle school entrance examination system went through seven changes, once every three years during the period from 1945 to 1968. Despite several changes in the middle school entrance examination system, such as recruitment of students by each school in the early days after the liberation, joint examination system during the Korean War, and joint and separate administration of entrance exam, the so-called entrance examination hell in Korea still continued. In addition, there continued to be chronic problems, such as growth failure of children, elementary school education focused on exam preparation, overheated private tutoring, gaps between schools, and economic burden on households due to heated competition in entrance examination. Therefore, the government announced a reform plan of introducing the lottery system in admission to middle school on July 15, 1968. The Ministry of Education came up with a fundamental reform plan to abolish the middle school entrance examination in Seoul starting from the 1969 school year. With the abolition of middle school entrance examination, a school district system was introduced, and students were assigned to high school based on the lottery system. Moreover, 14 prestigious middle schools were closed and converted to high schools. In 1970, the system was additionally implemented in nine major cities including Busan, Daegu, and Gwangju and was implemented nationwide from 1971. The entrance exam reform (1968) was considered as a measure to address the so-called entrance examination hell and overheated private

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tutoring issues for students and parents, and the system has remained almost unchanged up until today. Introduction of the system resulted in improved physical development of elementary school children, normalization of curriculum, and the alleviation of problems with regard to re-takers in middle schools, and the financial burden of parents. In addition, the standardization of middle schools seems to have contributed to enhanced equity in education and social integration. However, the rich and the privileged who wanted quality education for their children considering individual characteristics sought private tutoring, and the private tutoring functioned as nothing but a tool to improve students’ grades. The high school entrance examination continued to be administered jointly and separately until 1973 even after the abolition of middle school entrance examination in 1969. In 1972, graduates from classes of 1969–1971, who had been admitted to middle schools without exam, advanced to high school. Allowing students to go to high school within a district without examination was the most controversial issue at the time. This system was criticized not only for being contrary to the concept of equity in education as well as equal opportunity of education, but for widening gaps between schools. Moreover, students from other provinces were admitted to high schools in Seoul as they were allowed to advance to high schools in other provinces. As a result, the capacity of high schools in Seoul became insufficient to accommodate increasing influx of students from other provinces. Above all, education focused on entrance exam preparation and the entrance examination hell phenomenon of elementary schools was shifted to middle schools. In addition, students focused more on classes at private institutes or extracurricular activities than school classes. Under this situation, quality education with balanced emphasis on knowledge, virtue, and health would become more difficult, and the tendency of parents to focus solely on knowledge-based education for entrance examination would be strengthened. On February 28, 1973, the Ministry of Education announced plans to improve high school entrance examination system. The plans were as follows: academic high schools select successful applicants through selection test and assign them to school by each school district; vocational high schools and night high schools select students based on their selection test results, but

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the successful applicants are not allowed to apply for academic high school; schools are allowed to select student athletes not exceeding 3% of the total number of students; students are allowed to apply for specialpurpose high schools regardless of their city, province, or school district. Those who fail to be admitted to the special high school are assigned to the second-tier high school via lottery. Cities that introduced the assignment of students via lottery based on the joint examination test results increased to 20 cities in 1980, starting with Seoul and Busan in 1974 and followed by Daegu, Gwangju, and Incheon in 1975; Daejeon, Jeonju, Masan, Cheongju, Suwon, Chuncheon, and Jeju in 1975; and Seongnam, Wonju, Cheonan, Iri, Mokpo, and Andong in 1980. However, in the late 1980s, it was argued that education should be implemented based on the wishes of the people rather than the government’s uniform control over school’s student selection rights and the student’s choice of school. Each city was allowed to choose whether they maintain or abandon high school standardization policy. As a result, cities like Mokpo, Gunsan, and Ansan abandoned high school standardization policy in 1990, followed by Chuncheon, Wonju and Iri in 1991, and Cheonan in 1995. Implementation of the high school standardization policy led to increased capacity of high schools and the number of high school students, which, in turn, resulted in an increased demand for university education. As a result, competition in high school entrance exam shifted to college entrance exam. In short, secondary school enrollment rates rose as a result of students’ admission to middle schools without exam and the high school standardization policy. Increased students enrollment in middle and high schools facilitated the supply of manpower required in the process of industrialization, thereby contributing to the industrialization and economic development of the Republic of Korea. However, on the other hand, competition for entrance examination also appeared in college entrance examination, and quality education with balanced emphasis on knowledge, virtue, and health disappeared from primary and secondary education.

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Low-Cost Education Structure and Principle of Beneficiary-Pays Principle

Inevitably, the expansion of education entails an increase in education finances, and securing financial resources for education becomes harder for the government. For a newly established republic, it was not easy to secure sufficient financial resources for education from the beginning. Therefore, in accordance with the “principle of beneficiaries pay the costs of education”, tuition fees, admission fees, donations, and various types of fees were collected and used for securing financial resources for education. The principle of “beneficiaries pay the cost of education” raises various issues as the beneficiaries of the education were not limited to students or parents. In particular, students who cannot afford to pay education expenses even though they have abilities and willingness to study are deprived of educational opportunities (Korea Education Research Institute 1974). Despite the “principle of beneficiaries pay the costs of education”, the demand for education increased rapidly due to strong fervor for education. As for the government, it was also difficult to raise financial resources to establish schools, not to mention the operating cost of schools. Therefore, the government encouraged the private sector to establish private schools. As a result, much of the public education relied on private schools in the course of the development of education. In addition, students’ contribution covered much of the public education finances. As shown in Tables 3 and 4, private schools accounted for a large part in Korea’s education. In 1965, private schools accounted for 44.4% of middle school students and 50.7% of high school students. In 2005, the proportion of private middle school students dropped sharply to 18.9%, but the number of private high school students remained almost unchanged at 49.3%. Traditionally, the private sector and parents have been responsible for significant part of financial resources required for the quantitative and qualitative growth of education. The enormous budget required for the establishment of schools was covered by the private sector, and a large part of the operating expenses for public schools was borne by parents. In 1968, admission fees and tuition fees borne by parents

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Table 3 Changes in the number of middle school students Year

Total

Public schools

Private schools

1965 1970 1980 1990 2000 2005

751,341 1,318,808 2,471,997 2,275,751 1,860,539 2,010,704

418,059 677,518 1,513,894 1,625,344 1,449,031 1,630,512

333,282 641,290 958,103 650,407 411,508 380,192

(55.6) (51.4) (61.2) (71.4) (77.9) (81.1)

(44.4) (48.6) (38.8) (28.6) (22.1) (18.9)

Note Figures in parentheses are the ratio of the number of public schools to private schools Source Kang Sung-Kook et al. (2005)

accounted for 57.5% of the MOE’s ordinary budget for education. However, percentage of expenses borne by parents for the operation of public schools gradually decreased. In 1980, fees such as admission fees and tuition fees accounted for 19.4% of the MOE’s ordinary budget for education. This trend is likely to be further accelerated in the future.

3.8

Higher Education Reform

After the May 16 coup, the government sought to improve and strengthen its control over universities. From 1963, the government involved in creating and controlling universities at the same time. In 1966, a plan to create an academic atmosphere for professors as well as students was implemented. To this end, academic research fund was granted to university professors. Meanwhile, in June 1968, the government decided to implement a comprehensive plan for the establishment of Seoul National University. Based on this plan, in March 1970, the government decided to build Seoul National University at the foot of Gwanak Mountain and held a groundbreaking ceremony for SNU in April 1971. In October 1968, the government announced its plan to implement preliminary college entrance examination to improve the quality of higher education and universities. In accordance with the plan, the first preliminary college entrance examination was conducted for students entering university in 1969. At the same time, in order to reinforce and

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enhance the liberal arts education of universities, establishment of model liberal arts curriculum began in December 1969. In accordance with the economic development plan, the number of personnel working for special areas in universities increased. In December 1969, the government announced a plan to adjust the maximum number of students in accordance with the national workforce planning. The Ministry of Education designated the year 1972 as the Year of Higher Education Reform and selected 10 pilot universities for collecting opinions from all walks of life to establish reform plans based on those opinions. In the pilot universities, the number of credits was reduced from 160 to 140, and flexibility in the system and operation of universities increased by introducing plural majors and minor, and recruitment of students by department (Kim Jong-Chul 1999). The higher education reform based on this reform plan were mainly aimed at establishing the ideology and function of institutions of higher education that can contribute to the development of nation and community; providing support for developing colleges and universities, while strengthening regulations for under-performing ones; establishing a system that can complement the functions of the institutions of higher education and strengthening cooperation between the industry and academia; and enhancing local characterization of universities and the government’s priority areas.

3.9

Seeking Korean Education Model

The Korean Educational Development Institute (KEDI) was officially launched on August 30, 1972. The establishment of the KEDI was aimed at establishing a new Korean educational order suitable for the tradition and reality of Korea at a time when Korean-style democracy and national education were emphasized. At the opening ceremony of the KEDI, Minister of Education, Min Gwan-Sik pointed out the following three challenges facing education of Korea (Korea Education Research Institute 1974). First, the need to rediscover and re-recognize the value of our nation’s brilliant national culture through the Koreanization of education and to re-examine Korean society’s demands for the times to highlight desirable

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characters of Koreans. Second, the need to plan and practice our education to be directly linked to the social development of Korea through socialization of education. The importance of education is emphasized as a key to opening the door to modernization and as leverage to enhance social productivity and efficiency. Third, the core principle of democracy is that preserving culture and developing society is impossible without self-realization of each citizen. In other words, the purpose of establishing the Korea Educational Development Institute was to establish a Korean education model and to promote the development and democratization of the society through education. Of course, the democratization here means the development of individuals’ potential rather than individual human rights, freedom of speech, and democratic political system. Based on the above-stated objectives, the Korea Educational Development Institute focused on developing innovative education system to solve all the problems faced by Korean education and conduct comprehensive and scientific research on content and methods of education, and becoming a world-class research institute.14 The Korean Educational Development Institute has been responsible for pioneering research and development in the course of development of education in Korea and served as a cradle for those research and business areas to develop as an independent research institute.

3.10

Education Reform Plan (1980) and Restructuring of Education System

3.10.1 Promotion of Education Reform Plan (1980) The Republic of Korea planned and implemented educational reform as one of the national agendas in the 1980s. That is, the nation tried to establish an institutional framework by reinforcing constitutional provisions on education for the development of education, while attempting to solve education issues the nation was facing through Education Reform (1980). In addition, quantitative growth as well as qualitative development in education was pursued through the expansion of

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educational opportunities and the improvement of educational conditions. The Special Committee for National Security Measures announced the Education Reform Plan (1980) including measures to normalize school education and resolve the feverish private tutoring issue and other measures to resolve pending issues on July 30, 1980. Among others, the policy concerning college entrance examination was the biggest part of the reform plan. Existing college admissions system, which was composed of “preliminary college entrance exam” hosted by the government and “main examination” hosted by each college, was replaced by a new system. According to the new system, students were selected based on their scores achieved in the College Entrance Test hosted by the government plus high school grades. What was ultimately sought was to abolish the College Entrance Test and reflect high school records only for college admission by gradually increasing the proportion of high school records. The government also announced to implement the graduation quota system in which increased number of students are admitted to colleges and only fixed number of students are eligible for graduation. The college admission reform under the Education Reform Plan (1980), however, was not carried out as initially planned. It was ended up giving a lot more weight to the College Entrance Test scores than high school records. Though the main examination of each college, which was considered the culprit of feverish private tutoring and fierce competition in entrance examination, was abolished, the college admission system was replaced by the one focused on College Entrance Test rather than high school records. Suppose that the following is executed as originally planned: elementary school admission by each school district, middle school assignment by lottery with no examination, and high school assignment by lottery by joint entrance examination in cities and in provinces college entrance by high school records (130% of the graduation quota) and college graduation by graduation quota. If this had been the case, the consistent school entrance system would have been established and Korean people’s strong fervor for education could have been accommodated. Furthermore, students could have entered university based on their high school records only by studying hard at school. Not only that, the “school education-centered education system” could have been established since students would have to

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study hard after entering the university in order to graduate. In addition, it would have been possible to establish Korean-style education system as a model. However, the college entrance examination, the last step of school entrance, ended up being the College Entrance Test-centered entrance examination, rather than the high school records-centered entrance examination. As a result, the issues with excessive competition for entrance exams in the preceding phases were not addressed. Rather, the competition became even more intense at the stage of college admission. Objective knowledge-centered competition became intensified. Consequently, competition in entrance examination was not relieved by Education Reform (1980). Entire primary and secondary education became focused on the College Entrance Test. Since the liberation in 1945, education in the Republic of Korea continued its quantitative growth, and Korean people’s strong fervor for education and participation was the driving force behind the quantitative growth. The Korean government enacted the Education Act in 1949 and legalized compulsory education. Not only did the government carry out the 6-year plan for the full implementation of compulsory elementary education, but also it dealt with the demand for middle school education and fierce competition for middle school entrance at the same time by abolishing middle school examination in 1968. Furthermore, the government promoted the expansion of high school education by implementing high school standardization policy in 1974 and relieved competition for high school entrance to some extent. Up to this stage, Korean people’s strong fervor for education was well accommodated and school education was also developed. At the last stage of college entrance, however, the issue with regard to fierce competition for entrance exams remained unaddressed. Schools’ educational activities and students’ learning activities were limited to knowledge-based multiple choice test. Consequently, it resulted in the standardization of the entire education. However, the college entrance policy under Education Reform Plan (1980) yielded the desired results. The growing number of re-takers was decreased, while the influx of local high school students into big cities slowed down. What’s more, reform for higher education was carried out. As part of the reform, the number of pilot universities was increased, and local university development policies were implemented. Korea National

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Open University was established and the years required for college of education were extended. Due to the abolition of main entrance exam hosted by each college, however, each college’s right to select students and its autonomy were significantly restricted. As students could decide the college they want to attend only after their examination results became available, the so-called wait-and-see tendency became prevalent. Another adverse effect was concentration of students on specific colleges or majors because rank of each college and major became distinct based on the College Entrance Test scores.

3.10.2 Establishment of the Foundation for Lifelong Education Education tends to be considered as regular school education in the Republic of Korea. Accordingly, out-of-school educational activities are classified as home education and social education. Since the people’s interest in education was concentrated on school education, the government did not pay much attention to developing policies for social education or home education. The Social Education Act was enacted in December 1982, almost 30 years after the establishment of such Act in Japan and Taiwan in 1949 and 1953, respectively (Lee Hee-Su 2010). Public interest in social education was heightened in the 1980s, and it was associated with the Constitution of the 5th Republic promulgated on October 27, 1980. The constitutional provision on obligatory lifelong education was newly established for the first time in our constitutional history in paragraph 5 of Article 29 of the 5th Republic Constitution. The provision specifies that “The nation shall promote lifelong education”. As stipulated in Paragraph 6, “In relation to school education, the educational system, including lifelong education, and its management issues shall be made into law”, it was specified that the principle of law shall be applied to lifelong education. Since then, policies and regulations which became a foundation for lifelong education were actively promoted. Social education was defined as “all forms of organized educational activities for lifelong education except for school education” in the

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Social Education Act enacted in 1982. The followings fall under the category of social education: education conducted at private training schools, social education by use of libraries, social education through UNESCO activities, social education through scout activities, social education by enhancement of Korea Youth Association, social education by air and correspondence education, social education through study abroad, overseas Korean education, secondment of researchers, and others. However, social education should not be limited to education other than school education. It can be referred to as lifelong education after school education. Early childhood education can also be placed under the category of social education. At any rate, Korean people’s interest in social education or lifelong education grew, and its foundation was laid in earnest under the Chun Doo-Hwan government. The Chun government pushed ahead with various policies to expand educational opportunities for workers. Industry-affiliated schools and special classes were promoted thanks to strong supports of the government and industries.16 Enterprises with more than 1,000 workers established and ran industry-affiliated schools so as to provide middle school or high school courses for their workers. Special evening classes were created at middle and high schools near workplace for working youths, and they could complete middle school courses. As for the middle schools, the number of students continued to fall from 2,375 in 1983, 723 in 1985, and 360 in 1987 even though students tended to enter regular middle school. However, in the case of high school, the number of students gradually increased to 28,413 in 1983, 33,604 in 1985, and 44,104 in 1987. When it comes to operating expenses, institutions for lifelong education such as industry-affiliated schools are generally financed by public funds not in accordance with the “beneficiary-pays principle”. It is also notable that no standardized examination or competition is required in their entrance procedures. Another major characteristic of the nation’s lifelong education is that the broadcasting media is actively utilized for the provision of lifelong education. A great deal of progress was made in the 1980s. According to the Decree on Standards for the Establishment of Korea National Correspondence College (Presidential Decree No. 6106), Korea National Open University was launched as Seoul

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National University’s junior college course in March 1972. The university was reorganized as 5-year bachelor course in 1981. In 1982, it was separated from Seoul National University and run as an independent national university. Since then, it underwent significant development. As Korea National Open University was successfully operated, its affiliated high school founded in 1974 was even further revitalized. Broadcasting received attention as the most effective way to achieve the desired educational goals for all regions and all walks of life at lower cost, and with less facilities and equipment. Furthermore, educational broadcasting received a favorable evaluation as means to reduce the cultural gap among regions and sense of incompatibility among people from all walks of life. The beginning of educational broadcasting was Radio School which was produced by KBS Busan Broadcasting Station and went on air for 15 minutes every day from June 1951. In March 1963, Radio School program was broadcasted (produced by Central Audiovisual Education Institute). A full-scale educational broadcasting system was established by the Korean Educational Development Institute in 1974. Forced media consolidation at the end of 1980 and the launch of public broadcasting in February 1981 served as a momentum for the development of educational broadcasting. The existing Korean Broadcasting System (KBS) became KBS 1TV, taking responsibility as the mainstay and DongYang TV, the then commercial TV, was integrated into KBS as of December 1, 1980, and reorganized into KBS 2TV. And KBS 3 TV was newly established in order to continuously take charge of general educational programs for lifelong education. With this, KBS 3TV (UHF channel) and FM instructional radio were secured as an education-dedicated network. Dual system was adopted in producing educational programs: the Korean Educational Development Institute took charge of production of educational programs, and KBS took charge of social education and general education. The Korean Educational Development Institute produced programs for toddlers, elementary, middle, and high school students as well as programs for teacher training and education for parents. On the other hand, KBS produced and broadcasted lifelong education programs for adults such as language classes, farming & fishing, and entertainment programs. In March 1982, Ding-Dong-Dang Kindergarten, a program for toddlers, was

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launched, and this program has been broadcast for longest period of time up until today. Since then, the educational broadcasting, which belonged to the Korean Educational Development Institute, was separated from KBS and Educational Broadcasting System (EBS) and was independently established (December 27, 1990). Open universities, one of major foundations for the nation’s lifelong education, were also launched under the Chun Doo-Hwan government. As an alternative to the standardized and rigid forms of existing universities, open universities were first established in the U.K. in 1969. Open universities were launched aimed at providing educational opportunities to those who missed an opportunity for college education, dropped out of college, or want to learn specialized knowledge and new skills after graduating from college so as to realize equality of educational opportunities and lifelong education. Open universities focused on natural science and engineering track while the open university focused on liberal arts and social sciences track. The then Ministry of Education designated Kyonggi Institute of Technology as a pilot open university in October 1981. In December 1981, the basis for establishment of the open university was added to the Education Act and Kyonggi open university of technology was founded in March, 1982. Open university entrance requirements included more than one year of work experience as well as general academic backgrounds. As its name “open university” indicates, the door should have been open to everybody given the objective of its establishment. But there was an entrance quota due to the insufficient school facilities and faculty. Lifelong education not only expanded the existing concept of education, but also acted as an ideology to promote educational reform. It is expected that its importance and status will become more and more heightened. Although the term, lifelong education, has been generally used by UNESCO, it has taken root as social education, or out-ofschool education, in Korea. The Social Education Act enacted in 1982 was revised as the Lifelong Education Act in the 1990s by the civilian government.

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Continuous Promotion of National Moral Education

Under the slogan of the “establishment of democratic and welfare nation”, our education in the 1980s focused on national moral education, basic education, science and technology education, and wholeperson education. Especially, national moral education was emphasized as it aimed at education of political ideas, education of social ethics, and invigoration of the Saemaul education. Education of political ideas was divided into democratic citizenship training and anti-communism and security education. The democratic citizenship training focused on training of daily living for the promotion of public order and constructive participation required for community life. The anti-communism and security education concentrated on delivery of information, recognition of superiority of democracy, sense of community responsibility, instilling patriotism required for the survival and development of the nation. In addition to that, general ethical education was considered important. It was about cultivation of one’s strong willpower to overcome adversity, fostering positive values, and creative succession and internalization of the national spirit and wisdom incorporated into our unique culture and tradition. Above all, desire to pioneer a new life, a will to be independent, cultivation of spirit to serve the nation, familiarization of frugal mind to deal with resource exhaustion, and improvement of one’s diet were also emphasized. In order to promote national moral education, further efforts were made to systemize educational contents for each school and class. Emphasis was placed on the cultivation of order and cooperative spirit at kindergartens; respect for parents, and instilling patriotism at elementary schools; enhancing self-reliance, and sense of responsibility at middle and high school; and criticism of communism at university. National moral education was divided into various categories of unification and security education, national ethics education, economic education, Saemaul education, and education for social purification. In order to nurture national qualities and build up a sense of unity, it was stressed to develop life habits and refine public emotion through educational activities. With the issue of history textbook distortion by

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Japan in 1982 serving as a momentum, Korean spirit rectification project was promoted as part of Korea’s national moral education. In order to promote national education in a more efficient manner, the government developed and provided various education materials. It also carried out reorganization of textbooks for each school and moral education, national ethics, Korean history and social studies as top priorities so as to systematize national moral education.

3.12

Promotion of Compulsory Middle School Education and Special Education

The lottery system instead of the written examination in admission to middle schools was implemented nationwide in 1971. Accordingly, the middle school enrollment rate increased significantly and the foundation for compulsory middle school education was laid out. In the 1980s, overcrowded classrooms were relieved and oversized schools were divided into separate schools. Double-shift classes almost disappeared as well. The legal basis for implementation of compulsory middle school education was prepared as the Education Act was revised in August 1984. It was decided to implement compulsory middle school education starting with the middle schools located in remote regions such as islands and the backwoods in February 1985. In 1985, compulsory middle school education was provided for 62,000 of middle school newcomers who lived in islands and the backwoods with the financial support of KRW 6.5 billion. Its target areas were expanded in 1986 and 249,000 middle school students living in islands and the backwoods enjoyed the exemption of entrance fee and tuition. Further expansion of such benefit was decided in 1991, and compulsory middle school education was provided for middle school newcomers of county areas in 1992 and all middle school students in county areas in 1994. Though the plan to expand compulsory middle school education to cities in 1995 and entire nation in 1997 was established, the promotion of compulsory middle school education was suspended for a while in the face of the opposition of the Ministry of Finance and Economy, which claimed that the compulsory education only added

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financial burden, while failing to help expand educational opportunities. However, compulsory middle school education was applied to middle school newcomers nationwide from 2002, expanded to secondyear students in 2003, and to third-year students in 2004. With rapid economic growth and improvement of standard of living in the 1970s, education for the mentally disabled started to draw political attention. However, the government’s interest and investment in special education for the mentally disabled was negligent, compared to general education for non-disabled children. Enactment of the Act on the Promotion of Education for the Handicapped in 1977 marked a milestone in the development of special education. Before the Act was enacted, policies for special schools and classes specified in the Education Act were not properly implemented. With the enactment of the Act, it was decided to provide personnel expenses for special school teachers, expenses for educational resources, teaching materials, textbooks and teaching facilities and operating expenses for public vocational training agencies and libraries for the blind to both public and private schools. Curriculums of schools for the blind, the deaf, the physically handicapped, and the mentally challenged and special classes (mental retardation) were established in 1983. Development and dissemination of teacher’s manuals in 1984 and 1985 marked a new era in the qualitative development of special education. In particular, as public and private special schools and classes were newly and additionally established during the period of the 6th Five-year Economic and Social Development Plan which started from 1987, all the severely handicapped could enter special schools and about 40% of the lightly handicapped who were in attendance in schools for the non-disabled could be accommodated and educated at special classes of those schools.

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Improvement of Institution and Complimentary Policies

3.13.1 Institutional Improvement After the inauguration of the Roh Tae-Woo government, the Central Council for Education was established and operated as an advisory body for the Minister of Education while the Presidential Commission on Education was established as an educational policy consultative body for the President. The Presidential Commission on Education established in February 1989 made six suggestions on educational policies to the President in four years until February 1993. The organization aimed at establishing the education system by which Korean educational problems at hand could be resolved, and the needs of time could be satisfied. To this end, the government set up the principles to offer solutions to educational problems by reviewing the root causes of problems and to cooperate closely among Ministries by mobilizing capabilities and wisdom of not only education specialists, but also experts from all walks of life. In addition, the total number of 34 policy tasks including the educational policies to be reported to the President and tasks requiring national consensus, and tasks requiring the government-wide cooperation were studied and deliberated. The results of such deliberation were reported to the President twice a year, and an individual report for each research subject was prepared and published at the same time. And the organization finalized its activities by preparing and submitting the final report, titled 『A Choice Made by Korean Education of the 21st Century』. The major policy tasks studied and deliberated on by the Presidential Commission on Education included: bachelor degree examination for the self-educated, improvement of high school standardization policy, enhancement of vocational education at elementary, middle and high schools, improvement of university entrance examination system, promotion of private schools, education in preparation for reunification of the two Koreas, cultivation of national morality, realization of education and welfare, education in preparation for globalization, securing financial resources for education, appropriate assignment of institutions of higher education, and public survey on education.

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The educational reform carried out by the Roh Tae-Woo government paved the way to the conversion of the college entrance examination system to the College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) system. It also contributed to the establishment of bachelor’s degree examination for the self-educated, establishment of education-dedicated broadcasting system, and policies of special account for the improvement of educational environment. In addition, a suggestion was made to secure 5% of GNP as an education budget before the year 2000. Especially, it is noticeable that legal and institutional reforms were conducted so as to push ahead with consistent educational reform regardless of changes of governments and political change. To sum up, the establishment of regular educational reform advisory bodies and their discussions were aimed at education system change through May 31 Education Reform (1995) under the Kim Young-Sam government afterward.

3.13.2 Modification of High School Standardization Policy Private schools played a role in the quantitative growth of education in the Republic of Korea. Admission to middle schools without written examination and high school standardization policy would have not been realized without active involvement of private schools. In those days, the enthusiasm for education in Korea was so high that the government’s finances alone were not sufficient to accommodate it. Under such circumstances, private schools worked out to increase educational opportunities, and their involvement was a prerequisite for policy implementation. The total number of private middle school students was 145,266 in 1954, accounting for 34.57% of the total number of middle school students. Such ratio gradually increased and reached peak in 1969, one year after middle school entrance without written examination was implemented in Seoul and Busan. Back then, the total number of middle school students in Korea was 1,147,408, and the number of private middle school students was 575,030, accounting for 50.12% of the total number of middle school students (Korean Educational Development Institute 1994). It is needless to say that the ratio of private high school

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students was a lot higher. Expectations for and roles of private schools changed after the democratization movement in 1987. The people’s strong fervor for education was manifested as the demand for a better or diversified education as well as the desire for expanded educational opportunities. Even then, middle school entrance without written examination and the high school standardization policy which had been maintained were not significantly changed. There was a limit in improving the quality of public and private school education since a huge budget was required. Private school policies were reviewed, and special schools played a supplementary role. High schools for the arts were there for a long time as one type of special high schools and they were separately operated even during the days when high school standardization policy was implemented. The first departure from high school standardization policy was the creation of science high schools. Science schools are special schools established to foster competent students in the field of science at the state level. With the first establishment of Gyeonggi Science High School in 1983, establishment of other science high schools followed in Daejeon, Gwangju, and Jinju in 1984. From 1987, science high schools were authorized as special high schools and were established in other cities and provinces. However, the people’s desire for a better education was not satisfied with science high schools alone. They wanted to have a better education in humanities and social science, too. The desire for special high schools in humanities and social science was embodied in foreign language high schools. As two foreign language high schools were approved to be established in Seoul in 1983, they started to recruit students from 1984. Soon after, foreign language high schools were established and operated in outside of Seoul mostly by private foundations. As foreign language high schools were approved as special high schools from 1992, a total of 34 foreign language high schools were established nationwide. Four international high schools with similar characteristics were also founded. A new high school system was built as science high schools followed by foreign language high schools were established nationwide. These schools had their own distinguished curriculums and student selection criteria. High schools were no longer standardized as they were in the 1970s.

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As such, the Roh Tae-Woo government adjusted the high school standardization policy and promoted policies to improve educational autonomy while maintaining control over private schools. The government revised the Private School Act in 1990 so that the chairman of an educational foundation could hold the position of the chairman of another educational foundation. It became also possible to lease properties of educational foundation without permission, and no permission from the competent office of education was required to appoint a head teacher as well. They were allowed to report to the competent authorities after the appointment. Even when the violation of regulations or accounting irregularity by head teacher was revealed, the competent education authorities would not directly dismiss him/her. Cancelation of his/her appointment would be conducted by a person who had the power to appoint and dismiss. Along with such autonomy policies, the government increased its financial support for private schools. However, private schools were not completely different from public schools when it comes to the curriculum.

3.14

Contribution of Education to Economic Growth in the Industrialization Period

As compulsory elementary education was established in the Republic of Korea in the late 1950s, it became possible to provide high-quality cheap workforce required in promoting the nation’s light industry-centered industrialization in the 1960s. Furthermore, it was possible to cultivate people of talent required for the promotion of heavy chemical industry in the 1970s by implementing policies for middle school admission with no written examination and cultivation of vocational high schools in the 1960s. Nurturing highly qualified professionals through the high school standardization policy in 1974 and the university graduation quota in the early 1980s contributed to the development of bureaucracy of conglomerates and establishment of the basis for fostering human resources to promote knowledge and information-based industries after the 1990s.

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Gradual Expansion of Educational Opportunities in Line with Industrialization Strategies

Expansion of educational opportunities was contemporaneous with the implementation of various educational policies and industrialization in the Republic of Korea. It seems that the government did not implement the policy to gradually expand educational opportunities with the intention to meet the demands of industries resulted from economic growth. It appears that the government tried to deal with the people’s surging demand for education. However, as a result, it was an appropriate action to cope with Korea’s economic growth (Kim Young-Hwa 2010). If the government had made its investment in middle and high school education, rather than elementary school education in the 1960s, the status of our economic growth would have been totally different. Although South American countries’ average level of education was higher than that of the Republic of Korea, they failed in their economic development. Their investment in education was not concentrated on elementary school education. Their investment was directed into various levels of education. As they accumulated excessive human resources whose quality was higher than that of their economic growth, serious imbalance in supply and demand of manpower occurred. On the other hand, Korea’s expansion of educational opportunities and quantitative growth of education started with the full implementation of compulsory elementary school education in the late 1950s, followed by the expansion of middle school education in the 1960s and the 1970s, and the expansion of high school education in the 1980s. In 1957, our elementary school enrollment rate exceeded 90%. Middle school enrollment rate exceeded 90% in 1979 and high school enrollment ratio in 1985. Higher education started to grow rapidly from the 1980s and became generalized as more than 50% of high school graduates entered university in 1995. As such, opportunities for elementary, middle, and higher education were gradually expanded. Such gradual and upward expansion of educational opportunities appropriately met the demand for human resources required for each stage of economic development.

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Korea’s labor-intensive and export-oriented economy in the 1960s and the 1970s was supported by the full-scale implementation of compulsory elementary education in the 1950s. Admission to middle schools without written examination in the 1960s and the promotion of vocational high schools in the 1970s contributed to fostering human resources required for the development of nation’s heavy chemical industries in the 1970s and the 1980s. Since the 1980s and the 1990s, the advent of information and knowledge-based society was possible as the required manpower was cultivated through the high school standardization policy in the 1970s and the expansion of opportunities for higher education in the 1980s. Education contributed to social integration because expansion of educational opportunities was translated into the development of human resources at the national level and increased income at the individual level.

3.16

Expansion of Vocational and Technical Education

Various policies to promote vocational high schools were implemented in the 1970s as follows: expanding vocational high schools, specializing technical high schools, enhancing experimental and practical education, establishing a system for industry-academia cooperation, establishing criteria for the assessment of practical skills of vocational school students, requiring vocational school students to take technical qualification examination, cultivating teachers’ teaching ability and practical skills, giving preferential treatment to vocational school graduates who enter university and study similar subjects, and expanding scholarship opportunities for vocational school students. As a result, the number of vocational high school students significantly increased and excellent students were secured. Consequently, such policies contributed to the development of Korea’s heavy chemical industries. The number of vocational high schools increased by 124 or 24.5% for 10 years from 1970 to 1980. The number of students grew at the annual average rate of 10.5%. As significant expansion took place in the late 1970s, the ratio of vocational high school students against the total number of high school students increased from

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42.3% in 1975 to 45% in 1980. And the ratio of technical high school students increased from 25.0% in 1970 to 26.4% in 1980. Other than regular technical high schools, the government established public vocational training institutions and implemented various regulations such as the Act on Special Measures for Vocational Training (1974) and Framework Act on Vocational Training (1976) to enhance in-house job training so that skilled workers could be immediately provided. The total number of students hit a record high when it reached 310,000 during the period of the Third Five-Year Economic Development Plan and 495,000 during the Fourth Five-Year Economic Development Plan. Consequently, it seems that the government’s policies for the promotion of vocational high schools and job training contributed to Korea’s heavy chemical industry-centered industrialization in the 1970s.

3.17

Emulating Technological Development Strategies and Bold Investment in Research and Development

During the period of industrialization, the nation’s technical development strategy was characterized as emulation of technical development strategy of other countries (Kim Young-Hwa 2010). This strategy involved dependence on foreign technologies required for the nation’s industrial development and acquisition of source technologies in the following orders: imitation → introduction of technology → collaboration so as to minimize risk of failure as well as time and cost. Although this strategy depended on external technologies through imitation, acquisition of technology and collaboration, its final target was to have the nation’s own technical capabilities through the self-learning process to digest and improve the technologies acquired in some form. Meanwhile, the government established the statutory and regulatory base for the advancement of science and technology such as the Foreign Investment Promotion Act, the Electronics Industry Promotion Act, the Science and Technology Promotion Act, the Technology Development Promotion Act, the National Technical Qualifications Act, the Special Research Institute Promotion Act, the Korea Science and Engineering Foundation

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Act, and others from the late 1960s. On such institutional frameworks, various science and technology research institutes including Korea Institute of Science and Technology were established. In order to invigorate research and development activities of industries in the 1980s, the government prepared various schemes, and companies expanded their research centers in line with such schemes as well as the government’s support for research and development. In addition, the ratio of research and development investment against GNP significantly increased. It was only 0.58% in 1980, but rose significantly to 1.48% in 1985, 1.88% in 1990 and 2.61% in 1994. There was a significant increase in the number of research manpower since the 1980s. It considerably grew from 4.8 persons per 10,000 in 1980 to 10.1 persons in 1985, 16.4 in 1990 and 26.4 in 1994. As research and development activities of industries remarkably increased, the investment made by industries against the total research and development expenses grew from 28.9% in 1975 to 38.4% in 1980 and to 72.8% in 1995 (Kim Young-Hwa 2010). Universities contributed to the technical development by providing R&D manpower required for government-funded research institutes and industrial institutes. For instance, in response to the government’s statutory measures for the development of science and technology, the electronics field at universities was rapidly grown. With 1965 as the base year, the number of students registered at the Department of Electronic Engineering increased by 94.7 times at 4-year universities in 1985 and by 424.8 times at graduate schools. Compared to the total increase of institutions of higher education during the same period, it is remarkable how fast the field of electronics expanded.

3.18

Supply of College Graduates and Efficient Bureaucracy Management

The Republic of Korea pushed ahead with large conglomerate-centered industrialization based on the government’s active involvement. Consequently, bureaucracy developed both in the government and enterprises. In its essence, there was a great deal of demand for employed managers.

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That is, the importance of family-oriented capitalism reduced while decisions made by those employed managers became more and more important. Although company owners strictly controlled their organizations and the final decision was made by them, the structure where the employed managers made decisions in most of business processes such as production, research & development, and sales under the bureaucratic system was established (Kim Young-Hwa 2010). Since Korea implemented the large conglomerate-centered industrialization strategy, bureaucracy developed in enterprises, and there was a huge demand for employed managers. Sufficient supply of college graduates contributed to satisfying such demand. Most of managers and engineers were college graduates and received higher education. The ratio of highly educated people among tech workers was 70.7% in 1980 and 72.5% in 1985, and the managers’ ratio was 60.6 and 57.6%, respectively. The ratio of highly educated people among architects and engineers was 62.7% in 1980 and 62.6% in 1985. When it comes to office workers, 67.3 and 59.9% were highly educated people (Kim Yoon-Tai 1991). Expansion of higher education from the early 1980s provided sufficient managers, contributing to efficient management of bureaucracy in both public and private sectors. After the 1980s, the higher education expansion policy was implemented in line with the nation’s industrialization strategy based on large conglomerates as well as the government’s involvement in economy. The nation’s educational revolution (achievement of compulsory education) was accomplished in the Republic of Korea in the 1950s, followed by the industrial revolution (industrialization under the Park Chung-Hee government) in the 1960–1970s and the political revolution (democratization in 1987) in the late 1980s. The order of Korea’s educational revolution, industrial revolution, and political revolution is in contrast to the order of the Western world’s political revolution (the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution, the French Revolution), industrial revolution, and educational revolution. That is, the Republic of Korea has provided a new model that industrialization and democratization can be achieved through the spread of education. Furthermore, Korean education relatively succeeded in achieving social integration during the period of state formation and industrialization. That is, education was

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the most important gateway to social mobility and played an important role in social integration. Korea’s education pursued conversion from totalitarian education to democratic education. Back then, the cause of democratic education was for the nation and its ideologies, but it was, in reality, the education for development and happiness of each individual, aiming at equalization of educational opportunities based on one’s capability and guarantee of the right to receive education. Equal opportunities and supply of education under such banner of democracy brought about important consequences in the society. That is, not only did education seek a foothold for social unification required for the nation’s economic growth and democratization, but also it provided necessary human resources.

4

Education System in the Information Age: After the Mid-1990s

Korean education in the twenty-first century faces internal and external challenges. Economically, the Republic of Korea was tasked with fostering human resources that will transform the nation into a knowledge-based economy. Politically, Korea is also tasked with establishing a form of national education as a sovereign state with the capacity to cope with North Korea while maintaining the Korean identity. Socially, it has to solve issues such as low birthrate, aging society, and social polarization in the process of transforming into a knowledgebased society. In short, Korea is seeking a paradigm shift in education. This transition began in earnest in the mid-1990s and is still ongoing. In this chapter, we will look at the challenges brought up during this process, the conflicts surrounding them, the achievements until now and the remaining tasks in this process of change.

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May 31 Education Reform and the Attempt to Change the Educational System17

The Kim Young-Sam government established a presidential education reform commission and announced the First Reform Plan on May 31, 1995, and three more afterward. These four reform plans are commonly called the “May 31 Education Reform (1995)”. These reform plans were not only inherited by the Kim Dae-Jung administration, but also partially accepted by the Roh Moo-Hyun government, and continued to have a powerful influence over the Lee Myung-Bak and Park Geun-Hye governments. The First Education Reform Plan of May 31, 1995, presented 48 tasks for different fields. First, it introduced a “learning bank system” and “part-time registration system”, increased opportunities to transfer schools, and implemented a minimum course credit requirement system to build an open education society as well as a lifelong learning society. Second, the plan suggested 11 tasks for diversification and specialization of universities, proposed an autonomous school community for elementary and secondary education, and introduced creativity and personality education. Additionally, it proposed university entrance system reform, evaluation of education providers, primary and secondary education that respects the diversity of learners, and increasing educational budget up to 5% of Gross National Product (GNP) to realize a lifelong learning society. The Second Reform Plan was released on February 9, 1996, and focused on building a new vocational education system. This included: expanding specialized high schools, intensifying vocational high school education, strengthening vocational education in junior colleges and open colleges, introducing graduate school system for vocational specialties, establishing a vocational competency development center, and restructuring the legal system by amending the Framework Act on Education, Elementary and Secondary Education Act, and Higher Education Act. The Third Reform Plan presented on August 20, 1996, concentrated on reforming the educational administration system and setting up an education information system. The prior part promoted improved

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autonomy and responsibility of private schools, enhanced local education autonomy, accreditation of teacher training institutions, better system for qualifying and hiring teachers, and field research funding. The latter part proposed operation of high-tech schools and cyber universities for the twenty-first century, introduction of information technology utilization, and setting up a comprehensive school information management system. The Fourth Reform Plan announced on June 2, 1997, includes upgraded civic education, system to foster experts on North Korea and reunification, expanding autonomy of unit schools and reducing teachers’ work burdens, open system for school education, support for excellence, and localization of higher education, starting the school year in September, establishing a public pre-school system, and measures to reduce private education expenses. In other words, May 31 Education Reform (1995), as described above, can be summed up as the restructuring of Korean education, and its characteristics and significance can be surmised through the history of Korean education reform. First of all, the three years of the U.S. Military Government was when the framework of education was established with the goal of constructing a new nation. This was a period of nationalization, liberalization, equalization, democratization, and claiming rights which can also be summarized as the modernization of education. In 1949, the Rhee Syng-Man government enacted the Education Law which included the educational ideology of Hongik Ingan, the 6-3-3-4 schooling system, and an education system based on liberal democracy. The Park Chung-Hee regime established an education system to support the economic development by strengthening science technology and vocational education, and promoting Saemaul education. In addition, the Park Chung-Hee government institutionalized industryaffiliated schools for industrial workers, vitalized air and correspondence education, subdivided university majors, established government-funded study abroad programs, and vigorously promoted experiments and practical training in education. The Chun Doo-Hwan government pursued a reform to correct the adverse effects of the existing education system and this included prohibition of excessive private tutoring, eradication of corruption in private schools, and transition to a graduation quota system. Moreover, President Chun reinforced relatively neglected areas

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by inserting provisions on lifelong learning in the Constitution and legislating the Act on the Promotion of Education for the Handicapped and the Early Childhood Education Promotion Act. The Kim Young-Sam government, on the other hand, moved forward with the May 31 Education Reform (1995) by reorganizing the educational system from a supplier-centered and government-led education system to a consumer-centered system based on market principles. This restructuring can also be observed as a reform to redefine the direction of Korean education in preparation of the approaching twentyfirst century. It was 1955 when the Decree on Standards for the Establishment of Universities and Colleges was first established. The Republic of Korea had 19 institutions of higher education in 1945, which increased to 42 during the U.S. Military Government period and then rapidly multiplied to 72 in 1955. Accordingly, the Decree on Standards for the Establishment of Universities and Colleges was promulgated as a presidential decree to ensure the quality of college education. In a new nation, establishing universities that nurture talents to lead the country is a national task, and it is commonplace to encourage the establishment of these universities. Ironically, however, Korea legislated a law to limit the number of colleges because the establishment of universities increased significantly. This restraint remained in place to enhance the quality of university education until the implementation of normative system for university establishment in 1996. The announcement of University Establishment and Operation Regulations (July 26, 1996) included the normative system for university establishment as its key component and this changed the existing policies completely. To foster people with diverse qualities and abilities that were required globally, the Kim Young-Sam government liberalized the establishment of specialized universities as part of the May 31 Education Reform. More specifically, the standards (facilities, equipment, teachers, budget, etc.) for establishing schools and universities were diversified according to the different purposes and characteristics, and it was possible to establish a school once certain criteria were satisfied. Above all, school charters were freely decided, submitted, and subjected to evaluation for its implementation. In the past, establishing

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a university was difficult because the authorities could strengthen the requirements and the rights to establishment was considered some form of privilege. Furthermore, the conditions for establishing small-scale, specialized universities were more complicated. As a result, establishing only comprehensive universities that provided everything like department store was encouraged. However, with the normative system, the establishment of a university was allowed when the minimum requirements were fulfilled and university establishments could not be controlled by the administrative discretion of the Minister of Education. One thing we need to take note here is that the reformers foresaw the enrollment quota not being met in the near future and numerous new universities being established under the normative system. With its application, there were 80 new universities and the university quota was over 70,000 by 2005; 63 out of 80 universities, equivalent to 78.8%, did not meet their admission quota. As shown by these numbers, the proponents thought some side effects of the normative system were inevitable to diversify and specialize the universities and improve their quality of education. The government took active measures to enhance the quality of university education soon after and this is called the university accreditation system. The government appointed the Korean Council for University Education (KCUE) as the university accreditation institution and KCUE presented the university accreditation proposal in November 2010. The proposal states the university accreditation system “assesses whether the minimum requirements to guarantee the quality of education are satisfied for the overall university operation” according to the “autonomous quality management and demand of accountability reinforcement corresponding to the expansion of higher education autonomy”. KCUE created 6 evaluation categories, 17 evaluation areas (subdivision of the six evaluation categories), and 55 evaluation criteria for university accreditation. The six major evaluation categories are: (1) educational objectives and development plans, (2) university members, (3) education, (4) education facilities, (5) university finance and management, and (6) community service. From the 55 evaluation criteria, there are six required evaluation criteria—(1) 61% for full-time faculty, (2)

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100% for number of facilities, (3) 95% for new student enrollment rate, (4) 70% for retention rate, (5) 100% for ratio of educational expenditures to tuition, and (6) ratio of scholarship to tuition. When all these 6 key evaluation criteria and 6 evaluation categories are satisfied, the university receives full accreditation and is required to repeat this process every five years. Like this, the government established a new quality management system for university education by executing the university accreditation system with the normative system for university establishment. In short, Korea completed the transition in policy, from restraining university establishment to evaluating after a liberal university establishment.

4.2

Enactment of the Framework Act on Education and Restructuring of Education

The Framework Act on Education was newly enacted on December 13, 1997, replacing the previous Education Law 1949 (law no. 86) enforced for 48 years. It consists of three chapters, including the general provisions, and prescribes the rights and duties of citizens, the obligations of the state and local governments on education as well as the educational system and fundamental matters for its operation. Although the Framework Act inherited almost all of its educational ideology from the 1949 Education Law, it newly regulated the entire education system from a learner-centered perspective. In other words, the Framework Act on Education has two major parts and they stipulate the educational rights of the people and the obligations of the state and local governments to promote education. In accordance with the people’s right to learn, the Framework Act specifies that “every citizen shall have a right to learn throughout life and to receive education according to his or her abilities and aptitudes”. It also states that “no citizen shall be treated with discrimination in education for reasons of sex, religion, faith, race, social standing, economic status or physical conditions, etc.” regarding equal opportunity of education.

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Above all, Chapter III of the Framework Act on Education clearly stipulates the obligations of the state and local governments to promote education. The articles in the Act specify 20 items: (1) promotion of equal education of male and female, (2) establishment of learning ethics, (3) cultivation of healthy sex consciousness, (4) prevention of safety accidents, (5) special education for the handicapped, (6) special education for gifted children, (7) early childhood education, (8) vocational education, (9) science and technology education, (10) physical education at schools, (11) informatization of education, (12) computerization of affairs of schools and educational organizations, (13) principles of protection of student information, (14) promotion of science and culture, (15) fostering private schools, (16) assessment and certification system, (17) opening of information related to education, (18) promotion of health and welfare, (19) scholarships, and (20) globalized education. The Framework Act on Education can be understood as a new arrangement of basic ideas about education approximately 50 years after the foundation of the Republic of Korea. Special attention must be given to the emphasis of education as a basic right rather than a duty, and how it provides the state and local governments with obligations to promote various types of education. The people’s right to education is stressed to the point where it can possibly be called “education populism”, while there are only obligations for the state and local governments. Most importantly, it does not stipulate the qualities of a citizen to live in the Republic of Korea or as part of the community, nor does it specify how a person needs to work or what duties one must hold as a citizen. After the 1997 financial crisis, a new challenge was brought up in the education sector. To secure national competitiveness in the midst of globalization and to change into a knowledge-based economy, the challenge was to establish an education system for human resource development for learning achievements and developing people’s competence. In response to this challenge, the Republic of Korea set up tasks to create a lifelong learning system and education system for human resource development. The Kim Dae-Jung government elevated the status of Ministry of Education in 2002 to deputy-prime-minister level as the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development that oversees the national development of human resources. The Ministry of

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Education and Human Resources Development prioritized the reform of higher education. This meant universities had to have international competitiveness with increased research capacity to operate educational programs that met social demands by enhancing the relevance of university education. At the same time, they had the task of establishing a human resource development system fostering people who would lead innovation in the region. Research funds were increased drastically to support university researches; with projects like BK21 (Brain Korea for the twenty-first century) and NURI (New University for Regional Innovation), a support system was built for local universities so that they could be the hub of regional innovation to foster talents through research and education. In addition, the Lifelong Education Act was enacted in 1999 to create a lifelong learning system. The Lifelong Education Act was legislated in accordance with the Constitution and the Framework Act on Education that prescribe the promotion of lifelong education as a national obligation. The Act stipulates four ideals of lifelong education: (1) equal opportunity for lifelong education, (2) learners’ willing participation and voluntary study, (3) no propaganda of political or personal prejudice, and (4) accreditation of relevant qualification and educational attainment for completing a certain lifelong education course. It also states that the state and local governments shall provide all people with opportunities to participate in lifelong education by establishing lifelong educational institutions, cultivating lifelong education teachers, developing lifelong education programs, and providing subsidies for lifelong educational institutions. The Lifelong Education Act not only specifies what the Minister of Education and municipal and provincial superintendents of an offices of education must do, but also recommends any operator of a place of business with a place larger than a certain size establish and operate an in-house college-type lifelong educational establishment. After the establishment obtains authorization from the Minister of Education, the graduates of these establishments would be recognized as having educational attainment and degrees equal to those who graduated a junior college or a university. Moreover, allowing people to conduct lifelong education using information and communications media to establish and operate distant

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college-type lifelong educational establishments with the authorization from the Minister of Education demonstrates how the government is promoting citizen participation in lifelong education. If the twentieth century was called the age of school education, the twenty-first century is the age of lifelong education. And in this new period of time, there will be more educational institutions for adults while schools and universities provide more educational programs for residents and ordinary citizens. In particular, we need to pay attention to the fact that the air and correspondence education has been developed from early on from a lifelong education perspective. Recently, cyber universities that provide distance education are in operation. Air and correspondence education is important because of its institutional flexibility regarding education and schools and will continue to grow in the future. As the development of IT boosts the widespread use of distance education method, air and correspondence education will mark a milestone in Korean education. Since the late 1990s, the information sector gained attention as the new growth engine and information and communications technology (ICT) reached a significant level. Efforts to actively incorporate ICT into education have increased since the Kim Dae-Jung government. The government carried out projects to support the informatization of school education and promoted extensive use of ICT in school operation and the process of teaching and learning. Details of the informatization support included (1) setting up the National Education Information System (NEIS), (2) launching Korean Education Research Information Service (KERIS), (3) establishing an educational research information center for each office of education in every city and Do, (4) expanding informatization support facilities for classrooms, and (5) setting up an e-learning system of the Educational Broadcasting System (EBS). KERIS, in particular, was established under the Ministry of Education and developed EDUNET to support teaching and learning at school levels. EDUNET is a comprehensive educational information service system that collects, saves, and utilizes teaching and learning data using ICT. Since it is connected to all the educational research information centers attached to all offices of education, teachers can use ICT information

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freely in their classrooms and students can receive necessary learning materials from the system. Furthermore, researchers can find information they need for academic research through KERIS which provides access to global information networks with major academic materials. Almost all schools in Korea are equipped with a computer system that connects to the Internet and have a beam projector in each classroom. The greatest change in education after the promotion of education informatization policy is that teachers used ICT to teach in their classrooms every day. In addition to ICT usage in teaching, students used software in their learning process and even developed some software themselves. The fact that students themselves not only used software but also developed them is considered to have groundbreaking educational value. Educational broadcasting programs became widely used in the teaching and learning process of elementary, middle, and high schools. Every time the issue of private education expenses was raised, the government adopted the policy of providing educational broadcasting programs nationwide through EBS. This goes back as far as 1980 and 1995, when private tutoring became a social issue. Since a system was invented to connect broadcasting and the Internet in 2003, education utilized ICT in a proactive manner. The private education institutions in the private sector were more active in incorporating the Internet to their educational programs to develop and operate e-learning systems for teaching and learning. The so-called three-no policy refers to forbidding universities from accepting donations for student admissions, managing their own admission exams, and ranking students based on their high school grading. It was introduced during the Kim Dae-Jung government and reinforced while President Roh Moo-Hyun was in office. The Roh Moo-Hyun government absolutely prohibited donations for student admissions and student ranking based on their high school grading from an ideological stance and strictly banned any possibility of universities managing separate admission exams because it would aggravate competition for college entrance and increase the private education market.

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Instead, President Roh reduced the weight of the College Scholastic Ability Test while increasing the reflection of academic record and introduced the admission officer system that reinforces college entrance with student record which was later put into practice by President Lee MyungBak. The logic behind raising the importance of academic records was that it would create an environment where the importance of school education would be emphasized, leading to the normalization of public education and cut back on private education. However, the actual result was the exact opposite. Students had to receive private tutoring to improve their academic records as well as their scores on the College Scholastic Ability Test. They even took private lessons for their talent and aptitude written in the student records, forming the so-called triangle of death as a consequence. The policymakers believe the fundamental problem of Korean education lies in the competition for university entrance, and to ultimately resolve this issue, the university ranking must be mitigated and universities need to be specialized and diversified. This can be realized by incorporating the diverse abilities and aptitudes of the students to the university entrance exam. Some people criticize this stance, but all the previous administrations have followed this path since the 2000s and there has not been any big change yet.

4.3

Legalization of the Korean Teachers and Educational Workers’ Union and Revision of the Private School Act

The active involvement of teachers and citizens in education can be said to be desirable for educational development. Yet, it was not easy for teachers to actively participate in educational administration even though Korea claimed to support democratic education since its foundation. The organization of educational workers was controlled, especially after the April 19 Revolution in 1960, when the teachers’ movement erupted temporarily. However, teachers participated very actively in democratization and even led democracy in certain aspects. Following the Declaration of Democratic Education on May 10, 1986, the National

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Association of Teachers (NAT) was formed in June 1987 amidst the democratic movement for democratic education. The NAT, now known as the Korean Teachers and Educational Workers’ Union (KTU), received great response from the public for campaigns to eradicate private school corruption and bribery. In 1989, the NAT founded the KTU despite opposition from the Korean government. At the time, the Roh Tae-Woo government took a negative stance on cham-gyo-yuk (meaning real/true education) pursued by the KTU and arrested 107 KTU members and dismissed more than 1,500 of them. It was an unprecedented tragedy in education, but the union grew to have over 15,000 members and supported by over 30,000 teachers. From 1990 to 1993, the KTU fought to reinstate dismissed teachers and accomplished reinstatement for most of the teachers in March 1994 under the Kim Young-Sam government. When Kim Dae-Jung became president in February 1998, the government decided to officially recognize the KTU through the Tripartite Commission of Labor, Management, and Government. The National Assembly passed the law on establishing and operating a labor union of teachers in January 1999 and the KTU finally received recognition in July of the same year, 10 years after its foundation. The KTU has a specialized teachers’ coalition of school subjects nationwide under its umbrella (13 subjects in total—Korean, English, history, social studies, social ethics, art, home economics, Chinese characters, geography, physical education, science, music, and technology). In addition, the union issues KTU Newspaper every other week and has media such as Korean Education Monthly and Cham Education Criticism that continue the discourse on education. The KTU holds a convention about cham-gyo-yuk (meaning true education) every January to present all the results of research and practice executed in the field by its members. After the official recognition of the KTU, the union struggled to revise laws related to education. As a result, the KTU contributed in the legal and institutional aspects of transforming and developing Korean education, such as the enactment of the Early Childhood Education Act and amendment of the Private School Act and the education law for the disabled. On the other hand, there is also criticism about how the KTU brought about educational division with active participation in political

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movements, such as protesting against the Iraq War, FTA and educational openness, teacher evaluation, the U.S. Army Base in Pyeongtaek, the U.S. naval base in Gangjeong Village in Jeju, performance-based incentive system, and so on. In the beginning of its launch, the KTU promoted new traits of education under the banner of true education and democratic education. However, it also showed a self-righteous side by blocking the government from operating the NEIS due to issues of students’ personal information leakage, and opposing the school education improvement projects involving evaluations of teachers, schools, level-based learning, and national academic achievements. The active participation of teachers in education that followed the legalization of the KTU can be seen as achievements, but it also brought about division of education community by legitimizing a union that held both democratic and pro-North Korean (or anti-establishment) characteristics. Furthermore, the KTU members themselves portrayed the ideal teacher to be an activist who does not mind struggle or conflict for justice rather than being a model citizen of democracy. In particular, legalizing and providing support for the KTU, the organization of teachers who educate youth that will lead the future of the country and society created many problems because there was no filtering process or device for any biased education activities in the view of nation and education.. The Roh Moo-Hyun government pursued the four key reformist bills to reform the “four problematic laws” which are the National Security Law, Private School Act, the Truth Commission on the Past Acts, and other acts governing the media. The Uri Party had won the majority in the National Assembly despite the headwinds of impeachment in 2004, and proceeded with the reform in the first regular session of the 17th National Assembly. The opposing Grand National Party at the time called this the “four major laws dividing the public opinion” and resisted vigorously, but consequently, compromises between the ruling party and the opposition party were made surrounding the four reformist bills. The amendment of the Private School Act stipulates a system for opentype directors and public-service auditors by committees of professors, teachers, parents, and students to select 1/3 of the directors and 1 of 2

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auditors of a school juristic person; increase in fixed number of directors from 7 or more to 9 or more; decrease in ratio of directors who have kinship with each other from 1/3 to 1/4; prohibition of the chief director from concurrently holding office; obligation of consultation by the school operating committee or the university deliberation committee for budget of school accounts. In response, the private school foundation cried that it was an infringement of autonomy and independence of private schools and fought for the invalidation of the Private School Act with the Grand National Party in 2005. The Uri Party and the Grand National Party eventually agreed to revise the amendment and passed the revised act in July 2007. However, this ended up only mitigating some regulations of the 2004 Private School Act. Private schools played an enormous role in the history of Korean education. First, the contribution of private schools during the time of quantitative growth is evident to everyone, but there was bigger expectation when it came to the qualitative development of education. Yet, the private schools could not properly get rid of unclear practices in operation from the authoritarianism period, which only reinforced the negative image of private schools. The private school policies in the 2000s leaned toward control and supervision rather than autonomy and promotion and this violated the principles of “fostering private schools” in the Framework Act on Education. The role of private schools is very important to strengthen every learner’s excellence in the twenty-first century. That is why we need to set a new direction for private school policies.

4.4

Countermeasures for Private Education and the Crisis of Public Education

Although the Roh Moo-Hyun government inherited the Kim Dae-Jung government’s legacy, the policies on education were very different. President Kim Dae-Jung tried to change traditional policies focused on restraining and controlling education to develop policies and enhance autonomy. President Roh Moo-Hyun concentrated on resolving educational gaps and proceeded with innovating education and developing

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new alternatives in an active manner. President Lee Myung-Bak, on the other hand, aimed to substantially boost the quality of education through pragmatism of autonomy and competition. Despite these differences, the same policy was consistently promoted for private education, the greatest issue since the 2000s. The Roh Moo-Hyun government was the most zealous about private education measures out of all the previous governments. The Roh Moo-Hyun government implemented education policies to enhance public education stability and strengthen educational welfare to realize educational equality by ensuring equal opportunity to education. Consequently, the policies were focused more on communitarianism rather than liberalism, equality rather than excellence, public interest rather than personal interest, public participation rather than professionalism, rather decentralized power than centralized power, and cooperation rather than competition. Hence, the government deemed private education went against this policy direction the most and emphasized “reduction of private education expenditure” as one of the top education policies. The gist of this measure was to absorb private education into the public education system in the short term and to improve school education and reform the sociocultural climate in the long run. The plan was to replace private tutoring at high school level with SAT programs on EBS for college entrance exam and substitute private tutoring for elementary and middle school students with multi-level afterschool learning. And the succeeding administration of President Lee MyungBak continued with these policies. The Roh Moo-Hyun government was not the first to provide SAT programs through EBS; measures had already been implemented as “TV High School at Home” in the 1980s to cut back private education expenses (Park So-Young 2008). However, the Roh Moo-Hyun government announced it would actually raise the ratio of EBS SAT questions in the college entrance exam to 70% in order to make EBS SAT programs a real solution in reducing private education expenses. This policy was implemented early on by the Lee Myung-Bak government. The afterschool programs initiated by the Roh Moo-Hyun government were also a measure to absorb the demand of private education into

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the public education system. Of course, afterschool programs already existed since the 1980s; however, the intent of the Roh Moo-Hyun government was not only to decrease private education expenditures, but also to lessen the educational gap between regions and classes as part of educational welfare. The policy’s active promotion was continued by the Lee Myung-Bak government and substantial results were even visible. However, the policy of absorbing private education into the public education system had a quintessential problem. Although EBS SAT programs and afterschool programs were stressed as short-term measures to reduce private education, they contradicted the long-term measures to improve school education. EBS SAT programs and afterschool programs were, in fact, not only weakening but also threatening school education. For example, high school students studied watching EBS SAT programs or other educational programs instead of concentrating in class and reading textbooks. Some school teachers focused more on afterschool programs and not on regular classes, and in some cases, the line between regular classes and afterschool classes became blurred. As a result, the distinction between formal education and education after school became ambiguous which created a fundamental problem of not having a clear direction for its solution. In addition, people lost sight of another part of public education with the recent interest in education policy fixed on and limited to reducing private education expenses, resolving educational gap, and providing equal opportunity to education—education for fostering the central force of the nation. That is, educational interest in the future generations and their qualities to be the leading power of the country and the society diminished. Moreover, despite the fervor for education, true “elite education” that cultivate high morals, generous tolerance, good lifestyle, and excellent leadership disappeared. In short, downward standardization of education was realized.

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Conclusion

5.1

Characteristics of the Korean Education System

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What are the characteristics of the current Korean education system compared with global standards and North Korea? The author expresses subjective opinions of the characteristics in the education system rather than demonstrating them academically. How we acknowledge and define the existing education system in the Republic of Korea is very important in discussing the education system after reunification. However, instead of taking the approach of scholarly argument, it would be better to start an active discussion of subjective opinions and come to an agreement. This would be a more realistic approach because the establishment and operation of a system related to education or any other fields is not a topic for academic demonstration, but a subject of consensus between members of the community. Hence, the author summarizes the characteristics of the Korean education system as follows. First, the Korean society has a system in which any citizen can receive any amount of education from pre-school to graduate school if they are willing. This means Korean society provides guarantee for maximum educational opportunities. According to the recent survey on the “Newcomer Mothers” of multicultural families, the greatest advantage of living in Korea was that “Korea is a good place to educate children”. Korea has a social structure that allows its children to study according to their circumstances and ability if they are willing, no matter how poor a child is. This may have resulted from Korea’s experience with drastic educational discrimination under the Japanese colonial rule and its efforts to ensure opportunities to all people in the process of developing education after the foundation of the Republic of Korea. However, the disparity in education is becoming more evident these days, and the disparity starts from pre-school education. Second, elementary and secondary education in the Republic of Korea is very standardized and has focused on education for university entrance exam. That is, all schools are standardized according to school level

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and school type, with almost no distinction between private and public schools. Only some of the special-purpose high schools are different, but even they are standardized per type. To graduate a school level, about 30 students are grouped together and they complete the same hours of education during the same education period, studying the same contents regardless of individual ability. Students in a school level end up being the same age. These outcomes of standardization created a system that required private education to develop an individual’s aptitude and characteristics. In other words, the public education system does not provide service that fulfills the educational needs of individual students. As a result, the educational system was accompanied by inevitable spread of private education as the society matured and advanced and educational demand for nurturing individual skills and aptitudes increased.18 The focus of elementary and secondary education also moved to university entrance exams. From elementary school to high school, the education system of entering schools of higher level according to “objective” evaluation was strongly rooted in the Korean school education. A single ladder system of 6-3-3-4 was introduced after the liberation and the consciousness of educational equality spread among the people. Anyone could get into a school of higher level if students passed the entrance exam, and with high marks, it was possible to enter top-tier schools that guaranteed success. People were able to climb the social ladder through school education, and as a result, there were many ragsto-riches stories. Consequently, the proportion of entrance exams in school education grew and the importance of impartial entrance exam management gradually increased. Naturally, objective evaluation that selected students fairly at a low cost took root not only in the entrance exam but also in other parts of everyday education. This distorted school education as a tool to pass an entrance exam rather than being an actual education. Third, the state’s intervention in education expanded from compulsory education and public education to higher education and private education. The founding fathers of the Republic of Korea stipulated the free compulsory education in the first Constitution. Considering Korea’s financial status at the time, the country was in no condition to provide compulsory elementary education for free. Nonetheless, the

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educational leaders embraced people’s desire for compulsory education and moved forward without major issues. Since then, the Korean government implemented secondary education without difficulty, and fostered talents needed by the country through higher education. The backdrop of this success was the fervor Koreans have for education, but the state also played a leading role. The state-led quantitative growth and development of education increased confidence in the nation’s educational responsibility and provided the state with strong intervening powers. As a result, the state supervised and managed not only compulsory education, which is the obligation of the state, but also higher education and private education. In particular, private schools played an active part in expanding educational opportunities in secondary education and higher education due to the financial constraints Korea experienced after its foundation. However, instead of promoting autonomy, private schools had to operate like public schools and were strictly controlled by the state. Just as Korea’s industrialization from the 1960s to 1970s was driven by the government, the state drove education forward and the tradition of strong government intervention established itself in higher education and private schools as well. Even after democratization, the role of the state or local governments did not diminish. Their influence is, in fact, expanding with the education welfare policy. The swiftly increasing social demand for free school lunch and care service is directed toward the government even today. Fourth, education is strongly focused on schools and communities. This goes hand in hand with the tendency to strongly demand national obligation for education, but the perception that education is conducted together in school established firmly, compared to education being conducted individually or privately. In addition, school education and out-of-school education was clearly distinguished from early on, forming an educational culture that perceived all formal education and systematic education were conducted in school. Hence, social education conducted out of school was equated with lifelong education or lifelong learning for a long time. Moreover, although private education made advancements outside of school, it still has strong traits of supplementing collective education conducted in schools.

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Consequently, the belief that systematic education could be conducted in a civil or function-oriented society was relatively weak, and there were even strong tendencies to handle even vocational education in schools. Fifth, the Korean education administration is centralized and operated from a “one-nation” perspective. Autonomy of local education was introduced under the U.S. Military Government, but it did not take root; it was brought back in the 1990s and has been in operation. However, even now, local education autonomy is still not established properly and education is implemented under centralized control. The economic sector has already built a system of international specialization and nations have organized their economies centered on the sectors they have competitive edge, increasing global interdependence and continuing growth and development. In comparison, the education sector is stuck in the “one-nation” mold, fostering manpower and conducting vocational education by itself. This is not a unique characteristic of Korean education. Developed countries show this kind of exclusion as well, but this trait is much stronger in Korea. Because the Republic of Korea achieved economic growth through open economy and internationalism, the economic sector is almost completely open. Yet, it maintains closed systems in education and other service sectors. This incongruity between economy and education aggravates the mismatch between nurturing manpower and hiring, which has been analyzed as the structural cause of high youth unemployment. In recent years, foreign educational institutions have established themselves in Jeju Island and Songdo, Incheon—special international education zones in Korea. However, the government strictly controls domestic educational institutions from going overseas. The aforementioned Korean education system contributed to the success and development of the Republic of Korea, but since the twentyfirst century, it is pointed out as a crucial factor causing social stagnation. That is to say, education is being diagnosed not as a positive factor, but a negative factor in Korean society.19 Therefore, the education system of Korea should be reassessed to separate the elements that should be passed on and developed from the ones that needs to be reformed. If the country is aiming for a universal nation after reunification, the issues of Korean education should be diagnosed

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from a more universal and global perspective and reform measures should be sought accordingly. In other words, when the two Koreas are reunited, North Korean education must be reformed, but principles need to be established to restructure South Korean education as well.

5.2

The Achievement of Korean Education

Education has become the touchstone of Korean success. With the establishment of the government, the Republic of Korea set the direction of education toward democracy, by first proceeding with the quantitative development of education, and then diversification and autonomy of education. During this process, Koreans were able to accept the idea of liberal democracy as a universal value and develop Korea to what it is today. Based on this, we can summarize the contribution of education to Korea’s development as follows. First, education defended the Republic of Korea. From its beginning, the Republic of Korea was in a situation where it was difficult to protect itself.20 Internally, the communist forces denied the very existence of the Republic of Korea, and externally, the nation became an important target of the communist strategy by North Korea and the Soviet Union. Consequently, Korea experienced a tragic war soon after its foundation and went through constant threats and tribulations. It was crucial for the nation to find a way to defend itself. Vietnam is a good example of failing to prevent communization despite the tremendous amount of aid it received from the U.S. Yet, the people of the Republic of Korea were able to defend their nation. If one asks how this was possible, the answer would be the “dissemination of education”. Education for democracy was continuously implemented through school education, whether it was instilling anti-communist ideology from higher-ups or internalization of the democratic values. This “education for democracy” rapidly expanded and reproduced through the quantitative growth of education with the dissemination of school education. As a result, liberal democracy was

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accepted as a universal value, which led to increased support for democracy and anti-communism. And thus, education defended the Republic of Korea. Second, education supplied elites who could establish and lead the Republic of Korea. There are a number of factors required to form and develop a country, and one of them is securing the appropriate number of elites to “build a nation”. Fortunately, a comprehensive university system was established under the U.S. Military Government. The comprehensive university system was the very first education system established in Korea, and this was before the compulsory education system was legislated in 1949. Compulsory education was fully implemented by 1959, indicating that the comprehensive university system existed before the compulsory education system. Therefore, elites who could build and lead the new nation were cultivated within Korea through the comprehensive university system. This all happened right after Korea’s independence, and the comprehensive university system established itself as an education system that fostered a small number of elites. Furthermore, while higher education was continuously suppressed for some time, highly qualified human resources that were required by the nation were provided through study abroad programs. This is how the confusion and conflicts that could have been caused by an oversupply of elites were avoided. Third, industrialization and democratization were bolstered by education. After the foundation of Korea, compulsory education system was rapidly realized, and secondary education and vocational education developed in accordance with the process of industrialization and economic development. In other words, by establishing compulsory elementary education in the late 1950s, the Republic of Korea was able to provide cheap and high-quality labor needed to promote industrialization centered on light industry in 1960s. In addition, the policy for middle school exam exemption and the policy to nurture vocational high schools in the 1960s made it possible to cultivate the talents needed to foster the heavy chemical industry in 1970. Also, the 1974 high school standardization policy and university graduation quota in the early 1980s cultivated highly qualified talents that formed the foundation of democratization and contributed

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to the human resource infrastructure in knowledge and information industry since the 1990s. As a result, the Republic of Korea went through the educational revolution of 1950 (achievement of compulsory education), followed by the industrial revolution of the 1960s and 1970s (industrialization of the Park Chung-Hee government), and this industrial revolution preceded the political revolution of the late 1980s (achievement of democratization in 1987). The order in which Korean revolutions proceeded is the complete opposite of that of Western society—political revolution (the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution, the French Revolution), industrial revolution (establishment of the great industry of machinery), and educational revolution (establishment of compulsory education system). In short, industrialization occurred after the establishment of compulsory education; it was followed by democratization, and then informatization and globalization. Fourth, Korean education contributed to the social integration during the state formation and industrialization periods. Education became the most important channel for social mobility and through such education, social integration was achieved. Soon after Korea’s liberation, education shifted from totalitarian education to democratic education. At the time, education of the special class was denied and education for democracy was a pretext for the nation and ideology, however, in reality, it was for the individual’s development and happiness. It aimed for equal education opportunity according to individual’s ability and guaranteed the right to receive education. Equal opportunities and dissemination of education with such democratic values resulted in important consequences in the society. As equal education opportunity became positively accepted as equal opportunity based on ability, and as comparatively fair and reasonable education evaluation methods were set, education became the channel for social mobility. This led to Korean society to continue its rapid expansion of educational opportunities and establish the structure for equal opportunity based on abilities. This, in turn, opened a path to go up in the social hierarchy through school education and thus making people immerse themselves in education. The stories of rags to riches promoted the

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spread of education even further. While this contributed to the nation’s integration, it also created a side effect of so-called overheated education. To summarize, the establishment and expansion of this virtuous cycle in education provided the foundation of social integration and human resources needed for economic growth and democratization. In short, the new education after the liberation contributed to Korea’s social integration and stability.

5.3

Challenges and Prospects of Korean Education

Although Korean education was the foundation of success and greatly contributed in establishing and developing the nation, the features and structures developed through the process gradually became its own shackles as time passed. By the 1990s, the problems of Korean education are completely exposed, and this results in a structural transformation called the May 31 Educational Reform. However, the actual results of the reform were disappointing compared to the actions taken. The fact that people want to continue with education reform today is proof that education reforms over the past 20 years were not enough. At present, there are a myriad of problems in education. The following summarizes these issues and contemplates over the corresponding tasks. First, the education system became uniform. Most schools in Korea follow a uniform educational system with little difference in public and private administrations, except for the few special-purpose schools. This is not irrelevant to the generalization that education should be the responsibility of the state, not the parents. It is because the idea that the state should lead school education and burden its costs has taken root in Korea. Accordingly, citizens have requested the state to implement the same education in all schools, and in turn, the state provided a standardized education for all in the name of equality. This caused education to be identical in public and private schools nationwide. In a time where diversity translates to competitiveness, it is crucial to recognize this uniformity as a fundamental and serious issue in education. While President Lee Myung-Bak was in office, he decisively pursued diversification of schools and specialization of vocational high schools. In

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the midst of all this, alternative schools started to appear since the 1990s and attempted to provide distinctive education based on the autonomy and creativity of the private sector, but have not been successful yet. Future education should be guided by the government, parents, and the private sector and all parties should take responsibility for its results. This will enable us to develop diverse education in an age where diversity is required. Above all, it is time to fundamentally review private school policies in order to develop diverse and specialized education by respecting their autonomy. Second, there is insufficient civic education in school education. The education for cultivating “civic qualities”, which is also the essence of public education, is no longer emphasized although those are attributes required for people to live together as citizens. The Framework Act on Education enacted in the late 1990s does not include the obligation of the state and local governments to implement civic education, and even the teachers failed to become model citizens for their students. Until now, school education had focused on fostering talents who could contribute to industrialization or educating people aiming for selfdevelopment and righteousness, and was unable to establish education for nurturing democratic citizens. Korean education has not been able to establish education that fosters democratic citizens who participate in their community with abilities to solve issues democratically when they arise. As a result, the destruction of law and order is sometimes perceived as a virtue, and it is difficult to find civic spirits when social conflict and disintegration occurs in people’s daily lives. Even teachers, who should be models for democratic citizens, play a role in creating and promoting conflict and pursuing their own interests. They are losing their enthusiasm and sense of duty as teachers and showing strong tendencies of withdrawing into their own personal worlds. In order to reduce social costs as a society continues to develop, it is necessary to create a culture where general social problems are sensibly solved by its own community through voluntary participation of its citizens. Resolving social problems by voluntary participation is required to move toward an advanced society and should be supported by education. In order to live a harmonious life in the future, it is necessary to foster

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such civic qualities in education at a national level. The teaching community should be set an example for democratic citizenship and the very first principle of public education should be verified from the aspect of civic education. Without these efforts, it is very likely the numerous issues we face in the future will incur high social costs and end up preventing us from moving forward. Third, there is no education that nurture the central forces of this nation. In Korea, the capability to cultivate elites with high moral grounds, magnanimity, good lifestyle, and leadership has disappeared due to the fixed and closed perception over equal opportunity of education, despite the fervor for education. In other words, “downward” standardization of education was realized. Even the children of the upper socioeconomic class were unable to receive the education matching their status. Although only a minority of the upper class may indulge in the vulgar and bossy culture (gabjil in Korean) as seen in the “nut rage” incident,21 it is not an exaggeration to say that such consciousness and culture are formed in this group. In England’s Eton College, for example, there is a monument to commemorate Etonians who have served and were killed in action during World War II. This confirms the school education the alumni received nurtured them to be individuals who have mind to protect their nation and society safe with great leadership. In that respect, Korea does not have any schools that cultivate such students. There is no school that nurtures leaders, Nobel-prize winners, or world-class scholars. This is a fundamental problem that is directly related to the basic foundation of our education. Like the proverb, “as is the king, so are the subjects”, our culture has always required the upper social class to hold high morals. In such culture, the adverse effect of moral degradation of the upper class is amplified. The role of elected leaders in today’s society has become more important since democratization and local autonomy systems have been implemented. Therefore, it is necessary to foster the central forces of a nation centered around people working in the public sector (civil servants and teachers) and elected officials. Those who want to pursue a career in public office should go through education programs at an

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early stage in life to cultivate strict morals and public leadership and these education programs should be available in his/her society. In short, an education system that fosters the central forces centered on public service should be established in order to cultivate public elites who can lead Korean society after unification. Fourth, the lack of concrete educational ideology has continued on for too long in a society based on liberal democracy and market economy. The education ideology of cultivating citizens of a democratic nation under the teaching of humanitarianism reflected the spirit and the will of the times of enactment. While the educational ideology of Hongik Ingan has some commonalities with democracy, it has its limits in cultivating free and independent individuals, a fundamental “unit” in a liberal democracy. Individuals ultimately aim to “live and work for the benefit of society” in a free democracy, but pursuing their own happiness by establishing their independence and freedom is the underlying emphasis. In educational ideology, the deficit of individualism creates major problems. By going straight to fostering “the ideology of Hongik Ingan” or “citizenship” without the emphasis on the establishment of a free individual in education, it was difficult to actively prevent an individual from becoming a means to education rather than the purpose of education. This not only de-emphasized the respect and consideration of an individual in the educational process, but also created possibilities to ignore the uniqueness and dignity of an individual in various social settings. As a result, an individual’s dignity and freedom, the core values of liberal democracy, were neglected in educational fields as well as social life. In addition, the lack of individualism made it difficult to criticize education divided into “education that conforms to a system” and “education that participates in changing the world” or “education for the oppressor” and “education for the oppressed”. That is, the value of education was doubted for not being able to establish the equation of “individual perfection = independent individual = free individual”. In short, it was not possible to eradicate criticisms that dictators and/or the ruling class use education as a means to defend their vested interests. As a result, educational ideology rejected conformation to present structure and dictatorship and was easily swayed by the instigation aiming for “education for a new world of equality and justice”.

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This is why educational ideology needs to be re-established. As we are tasked with national and constitutional reunification, we should be able present a new educational ideology that reunites South and North Koreans as one and strives to construct a new society. It is necessary to establish a new educational ideology in which the people of the unified Korea can mature free democracy in their daily lives and bring individuals, society, and the world together as one. Fifth, education succeeded in bolstering industrialization and informatization but was unsuccessful in supporting democratization, globalization, and development. Until now, Korea succeeded in catching up with developed countries in areas of education and others to some extent. In particular, it achieved great success in the field of industrialization as well as information technology. As a result, the economy and science technology have reached the level of advanced nations, and Korea is leading the knowledge information industry and informatization of society. Korean society and education are ranked as number one in terms of distribution and utilization of the Internet. This is the result of the government taking initiative in informatization of education. However, in terms of democratization and globalization, its success has only reached midway. Korean education was successful in teaching the justifications of democracy and that is how democratization was achieved. But because it wasn’t successful in developing a mature education for democracy, Korea is paying a high price for social conflicts and its people have a low level of happiness. Although the principle of democratization is asserted and respected, it is still lacking in solving national and social problems according to democratic rules. The democratic culture in which we recognize, interact, and compromise with one another is very new. We can say that Korean education has somewhat succeeded in internationalization and globalization by looking at the increasing number of foreign visitors and workers. However, globalization still has a long way to go because Korean society has not created any of its own global standards and takes a passive stance in accepting others. Globalization of Korean education continues to face many challenges as there are very few Korean leaders in the global society, even fewer global talents that were educated in Korea. Above all, the fact that there are a great number of

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people opposed to globalization within Korean society and are cultivated through Korean education tells us how much work we have cut out for ourselves. The Republic of Korea has succeeded in advancement and being a member state of the OECD and G20 proves this point. In terms of education, it has achieved high recognition in the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) and has one of the highest higher education completion rate in the world; these facts demonstrate that Korea has advanced successfully. However, the fact that Korea has not received a national recognition or secured its position in the global society is a problem. In addition, having an overwhelmingly high number of Koreans go abroad to receive good education, compared to foreign students seeking Korea, means there is a lot room for improvement. Sixth, social mismatch is intensified by education. As quantitative growth was achieved in education, many people were able to complete higher education. This was accelerated in the competitive structure of highly educated society. As a result, there were fewer interest in the so-called 3D (dirty, dangerous, and demanding) jobs and not enough technicians who have trained in their art for a many years. At the same time, there was suddenly more and more people who were unable to utilize their education in their social lives. In other words, education was downgrading both life satisfaction and quality of life. While education was hope itself in the 1950s and 1960s, it became a burden in the 2000s. Even with education, people couldn’t find suitable jobs, and thus, had no hope. It is partly because the education system itself did not prepare for the future, but rather brought upon social illness and lowered the quality of life. It would be almost impossible for people to resolve this problem when they are no longer interested in demanding jobs or learning difficult techniques and cannot attain jobs matching their education. But at the same time, this problem cannot be neglected. The more difficult the problem is, the more we should go back to the basics and follow the principles. The basics of education are the spirit of learning the necessities of life and solving the problems we face, which means to respect the spirit of

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learning. One of the best ways to become a free and independent individual is to study in accordance with this spirit of learning. This could lead to more people learning challenging skills to better the world and more people working in “3D” jobs themselves rather than expecting others to do it for them. Moreover, it is also necessary to view education problems with the big picture. As society globalizes and economy operates under the international division of labor system, education also needs to establish a system of international division in a global perspective. Not having a job even with an education may be caused by the issue of education being solely operated at a “one-nation” level, while economy and jobs are at a global level. Finally, social gaps are being reproduced by education. Today, unlike the state formation period and industrialization period, Korea’s education has long been known to cause social gaps than promoting social unity. Therefore, current education needs to be fundamentally reviewed. Here, it is important to take note that the social gap through education begins in the early childhood stages. In other words, Korea needs to actively seek ways to establish the foundation of social integration through education by establishing compulsory education system for early childhood in the future. This means a serious review is required to examine the issue of incorporating early childhood education into the public education system. In addition to the previously mentioned issues, there are more problems and tasks that need to be solved in Korean education. One of the best ways to solve them is to clarify them. That way, we can find the root cause of the problems as well as the solutions. Reunification could be a good opportunity to solve educational problems in the future. It would provide the opportunity to self-examine the problems, and at the same time, reform education. Therefore, the educational world needs to think of reunification as a turning point and pursue “educational revolution”. The very first educational revolution that shaped the foundation of Korean education occurred after liberation and was carried out until the early 1950s. As we face reunification, it is necessary to refer to the time when the Republic of Korea was first established. We need to consult the experiences of the state formation period where the Constitution was created to form the basic framework

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of politics, build our army, and construct all social institution including the framework for education. Taking reunification as an opportunity, the Constitution should be newly revised and politics reformed. With the “revolution of reunification”, all systems in society should be innovated and new education laws should be developed to revolutionize education and lay new groundwork for a unified Korea. Education is indeed the very infrastructure of a nation and society.

Notes 1. A Study on the『Integration of Educational System between South and North Korea』 was conducted in 1994 by the Korean Educational Development Institute as part of the Comprehensive Study on Educational Measures for Unification (I). This study compares five categories of the educational system of the two Koreas as follows: (i) basic structure of the education system, (ii) pre-school education system, (iii) school education system, (iv) adult education system, and (v) educational administration system. In this chapter, while maintaining the basic framework for analyzing education system, education ideology is added as an element of education system, school education is divided into primary & secondary education and higher education, and educational administration system is identified as education system and policy. 2. This section is written based on Lee Myung-Hee “Establishment and Characteristics of the Korean Educational System, The Establishment of the Korean Government and its National System”, National Museum of Korean Contemporary History, 2014. 3. The ideology of Hongik Ingan can be misunderstood as Korea’s educational philosophy as Article 2 (Principle of Education) of the Framework Act on Education enacted in 1997 stipulates as follows: “The purpose of education is to enable every citizen to lead a life worthy of human and to contribute to the development of a democratic country and realization of an ideal of human co-prosperity by

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ensuring cultivation of character, development of abilities for independent life and necessary qualities as a democratic citizen under the humanitarian ideal”. In November 1945, the Korean Committee on Educational Planning proposed a plan to establish a comprehensive national university to the USAMGIK’s Bureau of Education, and the “Act on the Establishment of Seoul National University” was promulgated on August 27, 1946. The Seoul National University opened in October 1946 with nine colleges and one graduate school. Three private universities, Korea University, Yonsei University, and Ewha Womans University, were established as comprehensive universities along with the establishment of Seoul National University in August 1946. Of the provisions of the Education Law 1949, no major changes have been made other than the regulations on local education autonomy. The illiteracy rates announced by other organizations vary: 22.1% (Central Education Research Institute 1959), 27.9% (Economic Planning Board 1960), and 13.7% (Ministry of Interior 1959). Though the first law on compulsory education was enacted in Prussia in 1763, it was not implemented. Compulsory education was first implemented in England in 1860, followed by France and Germany in 1872, and Japan in 1885. The Glorious Revolution in England (1688), the American Revolution (1776), and the French Revolution (1789), the three most important civil revolutions in the world history, took place from the late seventeenth to the late eighteenth centuries. The industrial revolution began in England in the mid-eighteenth century and spread to France and the U.S. in the first half of the nineteenth century, and Germany in the second half of the nineteenth century. Though effort to improve educational evaluation method was not made in earnest during the early republic period, ability-based admission system was established through gradual improvement of the evaluation method. As a result, Korea became a society where upward social mobility through education can be possible.

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11. Andy Green, the author of Education and State Formation: Europe, East Asia and the USA, emphasized the need for social integration in economic growth as follows: “In the early stages of economic growth, it was required to provide socially adaptive, motivated, and trained workers, who will work hard with support for improving the national economy …….. All these essentials for economic growth are based on social foundations. Not only did education provided the technology for economic growth, but it also promoted values and attitudes to solidify these social foundations”. He emphasized the need for building social foundations through education. As for Korea, the democratic education system under the U.S. Military Government and immediately after the establishment of the ROK government functioned not only as a social foundation for economic growth but also as a social foundation for protecting the nation from the communist forces. 12. Though it is common to write “民族重興” to Mean “national Restoration”, “中興” was used instead. The Chinese character “中” means “to fit for” and “to match”. Therefore, it is understood that the reason for using “中興” instead of “重興” was to express the will for the modernization of the economy and the promotion of the national culture befitting the Korean people. 13. This part was revised and rewritten based on the article authored by Lee Myung-Hee published in “The 70 Key Events that Changed the Republic of Korea” jointly organized by the Korean Society of Modern History and the Monthly Chosun Magazine (A supplement to the Monthly Chosun, January 2015). 14. The Korean Educational Development Institute is the parent organization of various educational institutions and research institutes such as the Korea Educational Broadcasting System, the Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation, the Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training, and the Korean Education Research Information Service. In addition, KEDI has also been evaluated and recognized as an excellent educational research institution by overseas organizations. For example, the KEDI was selected as the world’s top 10 educational research institutions by Encyclopædia Britannica UK Ltd. in 1978, and it won the Comenius Award from

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UNESCO and Czech Republic’s Ministry of Education in 1994, and the Asian Education Award from UNESCO Bangkok Office in 1997. The idea of reflecting high school records only for college admission can be considered as the admission system following the abolishment of middle school examination in 1968 and the assignment of students via lottery based on the joint examination test results in 1974. Industry-affiliated schools and special classes were introduced following the revision of the Education Law in 1976. They were actively promoted under the Chun Doo-Hwan government. This part was revised and rewritten based on the article authored by Lee Myung-Hee published in “The 70 Key Events that Changed the Republic of Korea” jointly organized by the Korean Society of Modern History and the Monthly Chosun Magazine (A supplement to the Monthly Chosun, January 2015). Standardized education maximizes efficiency in operations. It also has the advantage of providing a relatively high-quality education to many people at lower cost. In other words, it offered many advantages in the industrial age characterized by mass production of a few items. However, in the age of digitalization and informatization where every individual has to establish his/her own identity and demonstrate aptitude and creativity, standardized education alone could not meet the needs of people. Therefore, private education was needed because the characteristics and educational needs of individual students could not be met by standardized school education. According to professor Oh Woo-Hwan, despite the fact that education has contributed dramatically to the development of Korean society by providing momentum for economic growth and tools for social mobility, it has resulted in various problems in recent years, such as academic inflation, obsession with educational backgrounds, adolescent alienation, and dilemma of highly educated women, etc. He concludes the once-lauded school education has become the cause of problems.

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20. A report titled “Prospects for Survival of the Republic of Korea” by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) on October 28, 1948, states: “The Republic of Korea, inaugurated on 15 August 1945 under UN observation, is faced with numerous pressing problems in the political, military, and economic spheres. Its prospect for survival may be considered favorable as long as it can continue to receive large-scale aid from the US….. Following the withdrawal of the US occupation forces the Republic of Korea will be faced with the aggression from the Soviet puppet “Democratic People’s Republic of Korea”….. As long as the present Soviet policy in the Far East continues unchanged, it must be assumed that the USSR will not be satisfied with its present hold on North Korea and will exert continuing efforts to establish eventual control over all Korea”. www.foia.cia.gov/sites/default/files/document_con versions/89801/DOC_0000258357.pdf. 21. The nut rage incident, also referred to as nutgate, occurred on December 5, 2014, when Korean Air Vice President Cho HyunAh, the daughter of Korean Air chairman, having been dissatisfied with the way a flight attendant served her nuts on the plane, ordered the flight attendant off the plane and taxi back to the airport’s gate before takeoff.

References Andy Green (2013), Education and State Formation: Europe, East Asia and USA, London: Palgrave Macmillan. Education Committee of the National Assembly (1994), A Study on the Changes of the Education Act, National Assembly of the Republic of Korea. Gong Byung-Ho (2001), Development and Evaluation of Education Act— Transition from Education Law to Framework Act on Education and Relevant Laws, The Korean Journal of History of Education, Vol. 23(II). Han Jong-Ha, Kang Moo-Seob, Choi Young-Pyo, Lee Yoon-Sik, Park JaeYoon, Yoo Hyun-Sook, Park Young-Sook, Hong Young-Ran, and Hwang

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Kyu-Ho (1994), Comprehensive Study on Educational Measures to Prepare for Unification, Korean Educational Development Institute Hwang Seung-Heum (2011), A Study on the Establishment Process of the 16th Article Education Clause of the Constitution of 1948, Law Review Vol. 23 (II). Kim Han-Jong (2003), People’s Genealogy and Their Ideological Characters in Educational Circle in the Era of Korea’s State Building, History Education Vol. 88, Korean History Education Society. Kim Jong-Chul (1999), A Study on the Popularization of Higher Education in Korea and Changes in Policy Response, NAS Collection of Dissertations and Theses Vol. 38, National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Korea. Kim Yoon-Tae (1991), The Actual Condition and Evaluation of Manpower Supply and Demand in Korea in the Process of Industrialization, Korean Educational Development Institute Kim Young-Hwa (2010), Contribution of Education to Industrialization and Economic Growth, Lee Jong-Jae et al., 60 Years of Education in Korea, Seoul National University Press. Korea Education Research Institute (1974), History of Education in Korea (1945–1973), Korea Education Research Institute at Chung-Ang University. Korean Educational Development Institute (1994), Educational Indicators in Korea. Lee Hee-Su (2010), Institutionalization Process and Challenges of Lifelong Education System, Lee Jong-Jae et al., 60 Years of Education in Korea, Seoul National University Press. Lee Kwang-Ho (1991), A Study on the Structural Characteristics of the Reorganization of Korean Educational System: 1945–1955, Doctoral thesis Yonsei University. Lee Myung-Hee (2003), “The Character of Social Studies’ Curriculum in the Era of Korea’s State Building”, Journal of History Education Vol. 88, Korean History Education Society. Lee Myung-Hee (2014), Formation and Characteristics of the Education System in Korea, Kim Yong-Jik, Establishment of the Korean Government and the National System, National Museum of Korean Contemporary History. Ministry of Education (1989), Financial Management in Education, Ministry of Education. Oh Ook-Whan and Choi Jung-Sil (1993), Education in Korea under the US Military Government, Jisik Publications.

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Oh Chun-Suk (1964), The New Korean History of Education. Seoul , Hyundai Education Publishing. Park So-Young (2008), Policy Evaluation on Private Tutoring Countermeasures: After-School Program and EBS KSAT Teaching, The Korean Society for the Study of Educational Administration Vol. 26(I).

Development of Primary and Secondary Education in the Republic of Korea

1

Introduction

The miracles of education in the Republic of Korea for the past 70 years after the national liberation can be regarded as a remarkable achievement that is unprecedented all over the world. Given that the year 2015 marks the 70th anniversary of liberation, it is particularly meaningful to look back on the changes in our society and education over the past seven decades. In terms of population, the number of population in the Republic of Korea has increased 2.5 times from 20.17 million in 1949 to 50.42 million in 2014. In 1953, the ROK’s GDP per capita was mere USD 66 dollars. The Republic of Korea’s economic growth is often dubbed “the Miracle on the Han River”. Continued implementation of the five-year economic development plans under the Park Chung-Hee government laid a foundation for Korea’s economic takeoff and growth. As a result, the Republic of Korea has developed into the world’s 13th largest economy (Lee Hye-Young et al. 1998). This chapter is written based on Yang Jung-Ho (2004, 2006a, 2006b, 2013), Seo Jung-Hwa et al. (2014), and Park Dong-Joon (1998, 2005). © The Academy of Korean Studies 2022 D-H. Lee et al., Education in South Korea, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5229-5_3

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Up until now, the Korean society has undergone major changes in its economy, politics, and culture over the past 70 years, and the nation’s education has also been influenced by various changes during this period. Today, all countries in the world are committed to strengthening their educational competitiveness on the belief that cultivating talents is the key to their national competitiveness. Above all, they hope their schools can nurture excellent talents who have the creativity and self-development capability necessary for the knowledge and information-based society of the twenty-first century. Over the past 70 years since the liberation, the Republic of Korea has made efforts to expand primary and secondary education for its people. In recent years, focus has been shifted from expanding primary and secondary education to strengthening educational competitiveness. Various global development indicators show that there is no other country in the world that has developed as rapidly as the Republic of Korea. As a result of the nation’s efforts to create a public education system suitable for the Korean people since the liberation in 1945, the Republic of Korea’s educational competitiveness has become one of the strongest in the world in terms of qualitative as well as quantitative growth of education. Especially, as education competitiveness is recognized as a key driving force behind national development, education reform has gained more attention. Since the liberation, successive governments have pursued education reform policies for the expansion of various forms of primary and secondary education and qualitative enhancement of education. The two of the most influential educational reforms to date were the implementation and expansion of compulsory education during the Park Chung-Hee government, and the Education Reform Plan (1995) announced during the Kim Young-Sam government. In particular, the Education Reform Plan (1995) was the education reform plan for establishing a new education system to take the lead in globalization and information age and suggested direction of reform for a variety of educational issues including the ones with regard to university education (Education Reform Commission 1995).

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Though there have been efforts to meet the demands of the general public for the primary and secondary education as well as attempts to induce changes at schools following the announcement of various educational policies and educational reform plans, it seems more appropriate that the school reform is still underway. Although the government and various stakeholders have been successful in attracting attention to strengthening educational capacity of schools, not only have there been insufficient countermeasures for the improvement of educational capacity of schools, but a clear consensus has not been reached on school education among various school-related special interest groups. Moreover, as the polarization among social classes increased, the general belief in the social mobility through education or the so-called rags-to-riches story is gradually weakening. There is a growing distrust in school education, and serious social problems seem likely to arise in the future if these problems are left unattended. The various education issues that have been surfaced these days cannot be addressed by the efforts of schools alone. Therefore, it is urgently needed to seek a solution to the education issues through joint efforts of various interest groups including the government which understand the practical challenges faced by schools. Instead of seeking solutions by a specific group or a public institution, it is necessary that various school-related groups work together to revive public education based on the perception that they are part of the community that requires participation and cooperation of each stakeholder (Yang Jung-Ho 2009; Yang Jung-Ho et al. 2010; EBS production team 2011a, 2011b). In the process of expanding primary and secondary education since the establishment of the Republic of Korea, Korea has experienced various challenges and conflicts, accomplishments and tasks in educational development and educational policy implementation. In general, in terms of the roles and functions of primary and secondary education, it can be classified into three: education for nation building, national development, and national welfare.

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In particular, in terms of educational development and economic growth, the two developmental drives of the Republic of Korea, it can also be classified into four periods: economic collapse and recovery (1945–1960), export-oriented high growth (1961–1979), restructuring and stable growth of the economy (1980–1997), and transition to the knowledge-based economy (1998–present) (Lee Jong-Jae et al. 2010; Cha et al. 1997). Considering the educational development since the liberation, it seems more appropriate to explain the Republic of Korea’s primary and secondary education by three different periods: the periods of state formation, industrialization, and informatization (Korea Education Research Institute 1974; The Committee on the Sixty-year History of the Korean Economy 2011; Green 2013). It is true that changes in the Republic of Korea’s early childhood, elementary, and middle school education since the liberation are the results of the nation’s education revolution and remarkable achievements that are unprecedented in the world. However, there are still lots of educational challenges that need to be addressed to prepare for the future society (Park Se-Il et al. 2002; Ahn Byung-Young and Ha Yeon-Seob 2015; Lee Ju-Ho et al. 2011).

2

Primary and Secondary Education During the State Formation Period: After the Liberation of Korea from Japanese Rule to Late 1950s

1. Efforts to improve education system after the liberation After the liberation, efforts were made to eradicate the vestiges of the 35-year Japanese colonial rule throughout the entire society including politics, economy, and education. Despite individual differences in political ideology, people’s expectations for the launch of a new democratic republic were high. Though there were many difficulties encountered in

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the process of nation building such as national division of Korea, ideological turmoil, conflict, and food shortage, all-out efforts were made to lay the foundation of education in Korea. In the field of education, after the liberation of Korea from Japanese colonial rule in 1945, various efforts were made to overcome the vestiges of colonial education. The schools that had been closed immediately after the liberation resumed classes one after another starting with the public elementary school (September 24, 1945) and continued their classes (Ministry of Education 1988; Lee Hye-Young et al. 1998). As schools resumed their classes, efforts were made to clean up the remnants of Japanese colonial education. In particular, educational activities and policies based on the principles of “new education” and “the ideology of Hongik Ingan (humanitarian ideal)” were implemented in order to establish the foundation of national education. In this process, the United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) played a significant role. In 1945, the USAMGIK established the Education and Management Bureau as a department dedicated to educational affairs, which was later promoted to the Ministry of Education on March 29, 1946 (USAMGIK Ordinance No. 164) with Yu Eok-Gyeom appointed as the first Minister of Education and Oh Chun-Suk as Deputy Minister of Education. Americans and Koreans were appointed as heads of divisions under the Ministry of Education to cooperate with each other. During this period, the education policy was not implemented by independent efforts of the Korean people, but rather it was influenced by the will of the USAMGIK and the policy decisions of a small number of related educational officials (Sohn In-Soo 1994a). Therefore, after the official establishment of the ROK government on August 15, 1948, efforts were made to establish basic structure of a new national education system, which laid the groundwork for today’s national education system.

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Developments of Education in 1945

August 16: The first academic conference after liberation was held in Seoul. August 17: Temporarily shut down of schools were decided until the deployment of the allied troops in the Republic of Korea. September 11: USFK Commander appointed Captain Lockard as the administrator of education; Korean Language Society—Korean language classes were held on a large scale to promote Korean language education. September 16: USAMGIK organized the Korean Committee on Education. September 20: Korean children were accommodated by Japanese elementary schools. September 22: Kim Sung-Soo became the advisor to USAMGIK’s administrator of education. September 24: Elementary schools in Seoul were opened simultaneously. September 30: Curriculum timetable for secondary schools was announced. October 15: Letter of appointment for 400 elementary school teachers in Seoul was issued. October 17: Two semesters a year were decided with September being the beginning of a new school year. November 23: Nine subcommittees for the Korean Committee on Educational Planning were established. November 28: Major Eliot of the School Affairs Bureau of the USAMGIK announced a policy on compulsory education. December 5: New schooling system(6-6-4) was decided by the Council for Education. December 16: Elementary and middle school textbooks “First step in Korean” and “Korean elementary school textbook” were distributed. December 17: The Council for Education decided two semesters a year with fall semester being the beginning of a new school year. December 21: New Education Guidelines were announced.

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The period from the liberation of Korea in 1945 to the 1950s was a period of state-building and selection of political system. In particular, the foundations for educational ideology and compulsory education were laid down with the establishment of the ROK government (Green 2013). The spirit of Hongik Ingan was adopted as the Republic of Korea’s educational ideology at the first subcommittee meeting of the Korean Committee on Educational Planning. At that time, the council members were Ahn Jae-Hong (chairman), Ha Kyung-Duk, Baek Nak-Joon, Kim Hwal-Ran, and Hong Jeong-Sik. The philosophy of humanitarian ideal was first presented as a concrete ideology for democratic and nationalistic education. Afterward, it became the educational ideology of the Republic of Korea (Sohn In-Soo 1994a; Oh Chun-Suk 1964). Based on the founding principle of humanitarianism, the basic ideology of education is to educate patriotic citizens of a democratic nation whose character is flawless. The following educational policies are established to fulfill this ideology: 1. Cultivate character of Korean people equipped with the spirit of national independence and self-respect, international friendship, and cooperation. 2. Emphasize the spirit of living up to one’s faith and work innovation, and show responsibility and mutual assistance rooted in love and respect. 3. Cultivate and promote cultural tradition of Korea and contribute to the mankind by exercising creativity and ingenuity in science and technology. 4. Improve physical conditions and cultivate unwavering spirit of the people. 5. Cultivate well-integrated and pure-minded persons by promoting creativity and appreciation of art. We can see that Hongik Ingan as education ideology of Korea is based on the nation’s founding principle and focuses on fostering human resources for building a democratic nation.

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2. Implementation of Compulsory Education and Establishment of 63-3-4 Schooling System After the liberation of Korea, primary and secondary education was not implemented by today’s standard. Far from implementing primary and secondary education, teachers who could actually teach students were also very scarce at that time. In particular, shortage of teachers arose as an important issue at that time because most of the teachers before the liberation were Japanese teachers (Korean National Commission for UNESCO 2014a; Korea National University of Education, Compilation Committee for 100-year history of Korean Education 2011). Although the first compulsory education plan was announced by the USAMGIK’s Bureau of Education on February 21, 1946 to expand the equal educational opportunities for the Korean people, a full-scale compulsory education was not implemented due to the lack of education budget. However, if it were not for such early efforts, today’s school enrollment rate of 100% would have been nearly impossible to attain. The number of elementary school students, schools, and teachers, immediately after the liberation in 1945 show that the educational infrastructure was seriously lacking. Immediately after the liberation in 1945, various organizations and institutions made efforts to clean up the vestiges of the colonial education. In particular, the Chindan Society collaborated with the Korean Language Society to compile national history textbooks and put efforts to educate teachers (Ministry of Education 1988; Oh Chun-Suk 1964). However, as the U.S. Military Government was involved in education policy, Korea’s educational policy was implemented mainly by the USAMGIK’s Bureau of Education. During the early days after the liberation, temporary teachers’ training centers were operated to educate urgently needed history teachers (Table 1 and Figs. 1, 2, and 3). In the early years after the liberation, 6-4-2-4 schooling system was planned in accordance with the Education Law, but it was not actually implemented.

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Table 1 Number of schools, students, and teachers immediately after the liberation (1945)

Total Kindergartens Elementary schools Secondary schools (Middle/High schools) Higher education

Number of schools

Number of students

Number of teachers

3,183 165 2,834 165

1,471,949 13,534 1,366,024 84,572

24,923 485 19,729 3,219

19

7,819

1,490

Note Kim Jong-Chul (1965, p. 41)

Fig. 1 Problems of teacher shortage after the liberation (Source “Chosun Ilbo”, November 29, 1945)

With the revision of the Education Law in March 1951, the foundation for the current 6-3-3-4 schooling system for the elementary and secondary schools was laid (Lee Jong-Gak 1997; Lee Jong-Jae et al. 2010).

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(Unit : Person) Elementary School

Middle School

High School

Fig. 2 Changes in the number of elementary school students immediately after the liberation (Source National Statistical Office, Korea Educational Development Institute [each year])

According to this education system, kindergartens are classified as preschool education institutions, elementary schools as elementary education institutions, middle schools and high schools as secondary education institutions, junior colleges, colleges, and universities as higher education institutions, and elementary teacher training institutions and college of education as teacher education institutions.

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Establishment of Teacher Training System in the Early Years After the Liberation

The Ewha Kindergarten Training School established in 1914 was the first teacher training institution in Korea. In 1952, Ewha Womans University’s Department of Early Child Education was officially integrated into the College of Education. However, it was the elementary school teachers who were actually needed after the liberation. As nearly 40% of teachers were Japanese before liberation, teachers were seriously lacking in Korea. The U.S. Military Government reorganized 10 existing

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Age

Graduate School

Colle

University

ge of Educa

Junior

tion

College

High School

Scho

High

ol of

Technical

Educa

School

tion

Technical

Middle School

School

Higher Civic School

Civic School

Elementary School

Elementary School

Fig. 3 Education system in accordance with the 1949 Education Law

teacher training institutions and had those institutions nurture elementary school teachers in order to solve the teacher shortage problem. As a result, a total of 8 normal schools were established in 1946 including Gyeonggi, Kaesung, Busan, Chungju, Gangneung, Gunsan, Mokpo, and Suncheon normal schools followed by Andong normal school in 1947 and Gongju normal school in 1951 (Ko Jeon 2002). The most important task for the establishment and implementation of education policy after the liberation of Korea was to train and secure elementary school teachers. In other words, the teacher policy mainly focused on training and supply of teachers. Shortage of elementary school teachers was foreseen when the majority of Japanese teachers

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returned to Japan after the liberation. As primary and secondary education expanded, demand for education continued to increase sharply due to the increase in educational population. Since the teachers training institutions for elementary schools and secondary schools are strictly separated in Korea, teachers training policies can largely be divided into education policies for elementary school teachers and secondary school teachers. First, teachers training policy for elementary school teachers is as follows. As shown in Table 2, the number of schools and students increased sharply after the liberation, but the number of teachers did not, which forced the government to focus on the training and supply of elementary school teachers. In order to address the shortage of elementary school teachers, the U.S. Military Government reorganized ten existing normal schools and designated them as training institutions for elementary school teachers. After that, a total of eight teacher training institutions including six schools in 1946, one school in 1947, and one school in 1951 were subsequently added to the existing ten colleges of education to nurture teachers. Nevertheless, the number of teachers who were trained at the colleges of education was not enough to meet the increasing demand for teachers as Korea’s educational population rapidly increased. Short courses such as temporary teacher training centers and courses were expanded to meet the increasing demand for teachers. Later, all the temporary teacher training centers were abolished in 1958 when the demand for teachers Table 2 Elementary education-related indicators (units: EA, persons)

Year 1945 1950 1955 1960 1965

Number of schools

Number of students

Number of classes

Number of students per class

3,037 3,942 4,205 4,496

1,372,883 2,658,420 2,949,436 3,621,269

25,315

54.2

47,020

62.7

Number of teachers

Number of students per teacher

13,064 47,248 47,020 61,749

150.1 56.3 62.7 58.6

Note Korea Educational Development Institute (each year), Statistical Yearbook of Education

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was satisfied to some extent. By this time, the groundwork was laid for training elementary school teachers at colleges of education, professional teacher training institutions. On the whole, though the government introduced a policy to address the teacher shortage, the policy was proved to be an ad hoc measure which subsequently had a negative effect on the quality of teachers.

2.3

Establishment of Curriculum for Primary and Secondary Education

The first curriculum for primary and secondary education (1954–1963) was established at the government level for the first time following the establishment of syllabus-based curriculum (1945–1954) under the U.S. Military Government immediately after the liberation. The second curriculum (1963–1973) was revised and used during the Third Republic which was inaugurated after the May 16 Military Coup. The third curriculum (1973–1981) was amended during the period of the Fourth Republic after the October Restoration. The fourth curriculum (1981–1987) was revised during the Fifth Republic; and the fifth curriculum (1987–1992) during the Sixth Republic. The sixth curriculum (1992–1997) was transformed into a decentralized curriculum. The seventh curriculum (1997–2007) and the 2007 revision (2007–2009) became well known as the selective curriculum. The 2009 revised curriculum (2009–) introduced creative hands-on activities and intensive course completion program (National Curriculum Information Center Website, Ministry of Education 1986; Park Seung-Bae 2007) (Fig. 4 and Table 3). For the sake of promoting morality, sense of community, democracy, creativity, etc., in line with changing environment of the international community, Kim Young-Sam government established the sixth curriculum in 1992. In 1997, the Kim Dae-Jung government came up with the seventh curriculum with the aim to nurture autonomous and creative Koreans who will lead the age of globalization and information in the twenty-first century. The 2007 revision and the 2009 revision

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Fig. 4 A tent school during the Korean war

were introduced during the Roh Moo-Hyun government and the Lee Myung-Bak government, respectively. The 2015 curriculum which integrates liberal arts and sciences will be implemented under the Park Geun-Hye government. We can see that the curriculum has been continuously revised under different governments (Fig. 5). Table 3 summarizes changes in curriculum from the U.S. Military Government up to the present. When we look at the kinds and ranges of subjects in our curriculum taught by schools, as the detailed components of the national curriculum, they are different depending on each period. To examine the contents of the curriculum in the initial period, we will look into the syllabus-based curriculum and the first curriculum. First of all, syllabus-based curriculum (September 1945–July 1955) was introduced under the U.S. Military Government and during the wartime period until the announcement of the Education Ministry Ordinance No. 4 detailing curriculum subjects and annual completion hours. As a whole, considerable changes were made to the curriculum, reflecting the situation in the early years after the liberation. The curriculum proposed by the U.S. Military Government in November 1946 is shown in Table 4.

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Fig. 5 First Korean language schoolbook after the liberation

Students were taught about 30 hours per week during the period of U.S. Military Government. Major subjects included Korean language, social studies, natural science, arithmetic, health, music, fine arts, and housekeeping. After the Korean War, the total class hours were reduced to 20 hours. Moral education or civic education which was taught two hours per week in the early days after the liberation was replaced by social studies which combined civic education, history, and geography. During the period in which the 1st curriculum was implemented, Education Ministry’s Decree on Standards for Curriculum Hours for Elementary, Middle, High Schools, and Normal schools was enacted, and it was enforced at all schools as of April 20, 1954. Under the first curriculum, two-hour extracurricular activities as well as eight subjects including Korean language, arithmetic, social studies, nature study, health, music, fine arts, and practical course were taught at elementary schools (Korea National University of Education, Compilation Committee for 100-year history of Korean Education 2011) (Table 5). One of the distinguishing characteristics of the curriculum during this period is the emphasis on anti-communism and moral education. In elementary schools, at least 35 hours allocated to social studies had

3rd curriculum (1973–1981)

2nd curriculum (1963–1973)

1st curriculum (1954–1963)

Syllabus-based curriculum (1948–1954)

U.S Military Government (1945–1948)

• Japanese-style curriculum was adopted as a temporary measure • Korean textbooks “First step in Korean” and “Korean language textbook” were produced by the U.S. Military Government’s education authority and the Korean Committee on Education • Based on the educational ideology of Hongik Ingan, the so-called 6–3–3–4 schooling system (system in which students spend six years in elementary school, three years in middle school, three years in high school, and four years in university) was introduced, emulating the example of U.S. education system • The constitution was enacted: “All citizens shall have an equal right to receive education corresponding to their abilities, and at least elementary education shall be compulsory and free of charge” • The Ministry of Education established syllabus-based curriculum in accordance with Article 155 of the Education Law, but its implementation was suspended due to the Korean War • Decree on standards for curriculum hours for elementary, middle, high schools, and normal schools was enacted and promulgated • Life-centered curriculum (e.g.: Spread of teaching methods such as learning focused on problem-solving • Common curriculum was adopted for middle and high schools • Life-centered, experience-centered education • Vocational or industrial education as well as science and technology education were strengthened to develop national economy in a short period of time and improve production technology • Anti-communism and moral education classes were introduced in elementary and middle schools • Foreign language and vocational subject, which were elective courses, were changed to compulsory courses • General high schools and vocational high schools were separated • In the case of general high schools, curriculum was divided into four different curriculum tracks, namely “science”, “liberal arts”, “arts”, “vocational” from the second grade • Chinese character lessons were no longer included in Korean lessons (The Charter of National Education was announced on December 5, 1968. Government policy for the exclusive use of Korean alphabet) • Ideology of curriculum: Academic-oriented education • Concentrated more on cultivating technical professionals to accelerate modernization

Features and description of curricula

Table 3 Policies and features of curricula under successive governments

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• Number of subjects and class hours per week were reduced • Pilot implementation of integrated education for 1st and 2nd graders—textbooks were compiled into three categories: moral education, Korean, social studies; physical education, music, fine arts; and arithmetic and nature study • Middle school: Integration of Chinese character lessons and Korean lessons, history and social studies • High school: Integration of history and social studies • Integrated education for lower grades of elementary schools was implemented in earnest • “We are the first graders” was additionally included in the curriculum to help first graders adapt to school life • One subject with multiple choice of textbooks • Centralized curriculum was transformed into decentralized curriculum • Elementary school was renamed to primary school • English class was introduced to primary schools (first applied to the third graders in 1997) • Education reform plan (May 31 1995)—compulsory courses were reduced, and elective courses were expanded. Each school could choose textbooks • Selective curriculum was introduced • Curriculum was divided into common basic curriculum (regular course, discretionary activities, and special activities) and selective curriculum • Class by student’s level • Occasional revision system was introduced (phased application from 2009) • Scope of autonomy to develop and implement curriculum was expanded • New science textbook for 3rd and 4th graders was introduced. Number of class hours for primary school’s English class was increased • Government designated textbooks (Korean, moral education, and history) were changed to authorized and approved textbooks • Creative hands-on activities, intensive course completion program, grade groups, and subject groups were introduced • Class hours for creative hands-on activities, which combined extracurricular activities and creative discretionary activities, were increased by an average of one to two hours per week • Intensive course completion program: the total number of courses that need to be completed per each semester became reducible

Note Park Seung-Bae (2007) and Chun Se (2013), Rewritten by referring to the information posted on the National Curriculum Information Center Website

2009 revision (2009–)

2007 revision (2007–2009)

7th curriculum (1997–2007)

6th curriculum (1992–1997)

5th curriculum (1987–1992)

4th curriculum (1981–1987)

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Table 4 Number of elementary school subjects and class hours per year under the U.S. Military Government (September 1946) Subject

1st grade

2nd grade

3rd grade

4th grade

Korean Social studies

360 160

360 160

360 160

360 160

Natural science Arithmetic Health Music Fine arts

160 200 80 160

160 200 80 160

200 200 80 160

160 200 200 80 160

1,120 (28)

1,120 (28)

1,200 (30)

1,360 (34)

Housekeeping Total

5th grade

6th grade

320 Male 240 Female 200 160 200 200 80 Male 160 Female 120 Female 80 1,360 (34)

320 Male 240 Female 200 160 200 200 80 Male 160 Female 120 Female 80 1,360 (34)

to be spent on anti-communism and moral education. In 1957, six government-designated textbooks of “Primary Ethics”, teachers’ manual, and “Guidelines for teaching primary ethics” were published (Ministry of Education 1986). Moral education was emphasized during this period because moral corruption was widely observed due to social turmoil after the liberation and the Korean War. Moreover, it was needed more than ever to promote anti-communist ideas.

2.4

Achievements and Challenges of Primary and Secondary Education During the State Formation Period

Education played an important role during the state formation period after the liberation. However, it was not an easy task to build a new nation, with the vestiges of Japanese colonial rule still remaining. In particular, laying the foundations for primary and secondary education was the process as tough as making something out of nothing. Immediately after the liberation, all schools were closed and classes were not open until September 1945. Establishing a new educational philosophy was the most important task for this period, and during which Hongik Ingan was adopted for the first time as the basic philosophy of our education. Based on the founding principles of Korea, the educational ideology aimed to nurture

Total number of class hours per year

Extracurricular activities Total

Practical course

Fine arts

Music

Health

Nature study

Social studies

5–2% (50–20 min.) 100 % (960 min.) 840 hours (24)

25–30% (240–290 min.) 10–15% (100–140 min.) 10–15% (100–140 min.) 10–8% (100–80 min.) 18–12% (170–120 min.) 12–10% (120–100 min.) 10–8% (100–80 min.)

Korean

Arithmetic

1st grade

Subject

5–2% (50–20 min.) 100% (1,000 min.) 875 hours (25)

25–30% (250–300 min.) 10–15% (100–150 min.) 10–15% (100–150 min.) 10–8% (100–80 min.) 15–10% (150–120 min.) 15–10% (150–100 min.) 10–8% (100–80 min.)

2nd grade

5–8% (50–80 min.) 100% (1,080 min.) 945 hours (27)

27–20% (290–220 min.) 12–15% (130–160 min.) 15–12% (160–130 min.) 10–15% (110–160 min.) 15–10% (160–110 min.) 8–10% (190–110 min.) 8–10% (90–110 min.)

3rd grade 20–23% (220–260 min.) 15–10% (170–110 min.) 15–12% (170–130 min.) 13–10% (140–110 min.) 10–12% (110–130 min.) 8–5% (90–60 min.) 7–10% (80–110 min.) 7–10% (80–110 min.) 5–8% (60–100 min.) 100% (1,120 min.) 980 hours (28)

4th grade

Table 5 Standards for class hours for elementary schools under the first curriculum 20–18% (240–220 min.) 15–10% (180–120 min.) 15–12% (180–140 min.) 10–15% (120–180 min.) 10–12% (120–140 min.) 8–5% (100–60 min.) 10–8% (120–100 min.) 7–10% (80–110 min.) 5–10% (60–120 min.) 100% (1,200 min.) 1,050 hours (30)

5th grade

20–18% (250–220 min.) 15–10% (190–120 min.) 15–12% (190–150 min.) 10–15% (120–190 min.) 10–12% (120–150 min.) 8–5% (100–60 min.) 10–8% (120–100 min.) 7–10% (90–130 min.) 5–10% (60–120 min.) 100% (1,240 min.) 1,085 hours (31)

6th grade

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new talents with the ideals of democracy and nationalism. The educational philosophy is considered to have set the direction for the Republic of Korea’s primary and secondary education during the state formation period. Although there was a controversy about the meaning of the humanitarian ideal, it is clear that the primary and secondary education has been rooted in Hongik Ingan up until today. Though detailed implementation plan for compulsory education was prepared to expand primary and secondary education after liberation, proper compulsory education was not implemented due to lack of budget. However, it can be said that the foundation for the rapid expansion of primary and secondary education was laid out during this period. Along with the provision of compulsory education, equally important was the reorganization of education system into the 6-3-3-4 schooling system. The new education system paved the way for private schools established by private school foundation to become an important axis of primary and secondary education in Korea along with the governmentled public schools, even without being limited by the government’s budget strain. In 1945, as soon as Korea was liberated from Japan’s colonial rule, Japanese teachers who had composed about 40% of teachers in Korea returned to Japan, resulting in shortage of teachers in Korea. The teacher shortage problem continued for a while, without enough teachers available to teach students even when schools reopened. Therefore, temporary teacher training centers had to be set up in order to meet the demand for teachers. Despite these efforts, however, temporary teacher training centers were not enough to meet the demand for teachers. Moreover, maintaining and managing the quality of teachers naturally became a problem as educating teachers at these temporary teachers training centers was indeed a temporary and short-term measure. If school facilities, education system, and training teachers are institutional issues, what directly affects students is textbooks and curriculum. The curriculum, which was first established immediately after the liberation, has been revised many times since then. In recent years, it has been made possible to be revised at any time.

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Though Japanese education system had once been adopted as a temporary measure under the U.S. Military Government, Korea’s first textbooks were later published and distributed, and educational goals and detailed plans for curriculum were also prepared in this period. In particular, life-centered and experience-oriented curriculum was established, influenced by the U.S. education system. In the case of elementary schools, emphasis was put on Korean language, social studies, and arithmetic. The primary and secondary education in this period laid the foundation for Korea’s education, which later paved the way for rapid development of primary and secondary education in the age of industrialization and informatization. Though there were political and ideological confrontations after the liberation and difficult times following the Korean War, the people’s will and aspiration for education were higher than ever during this 15-year period.

3

Primary and Secondary Education During the Industrialization Period: 1960 to Early 1990s

3.1

Excessive Competition for the Middle School Entrance Exam and Introduction of Standardized Education

The education standardization policy was first implemented in middle schools. Implementing standardization of high schools became the most controversial issue. Especially, as the educational problems caused by overheated competition in high school entrance examination resulted in other social and economic problems, the high school standardization policy was implemented to solve these problems. As a result of rapid population growth after the liberation and the implementation of compulsory primary education, the enrollment rate in elementary schools reached 100% in 1970 (Ministry of Education 1998; Special

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Briefing Team 2007). This rapid increase in school enrollment in elementary schools led to an increase in demand for middle school education, which in turn caused overheated competition in middle school entrance exam. The strong protest at the Seoul Education Committee by the parents of examinees whose points were subtracted for incorrectly answering to the wrong nature study question of middle school entrance exam was a good example of how overheated middle school entrance exam was. This incident led to the abolishment of middle school entrance examination (Son In-Soo 1994b). In order to solve various problems arisen from middle school entrance examination, the exam was abolished in 1969 and students were admitted to middle school without entrance exam. The admission without entrance exam paved the way for solving various educational and social problems caused by the middle school entrance examination. However, the increase in students eligible for admission to high school as a result of compulsory primary school education and the introduction of lottery system in admission to middle school resulted in new problems in high school entrance examination. In other words, due to the increase in the demand of middle school students for the admission to high schools, the overheated competition among elementary school students was repeated in middle school students. As a result, various side effects occurred: physical growth and mental development of middle school students were inhibited due to excessive burden of study to prepare for high school entrance examination; emotional tension and anxiety of the middle school students were increased due to obsession with high school admission; and the operation of regular school curriculum was crippled due to focus on entrance exam-oriented and memorization-oriented education. In addition, excessive competition promoted selfishness, and the gap between schools and regions was further expanded (Ministry of Education 1973). These problems led to people’s distrust in school education and excessive spending on private tutoring, leading to socioeconomic problems such as a sudden increase in the number of students choosing to study one more year to enter a prestigious high school or transferring to schools in metropolitan areas.

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As the issue surrounding high school entrance exam became serious, the Ministry of Education established the “Research Council for Admission System” in December 1972. In the following year, the Ministry of Education announced a lottery system in admission to general high school by school district (Dong-A Ilbo, February 28, 1973; Ministry of Education 1973). This system is the so-called high school standardization policy. The basic direction of the high school standardization policy was as follows. First, to promote the normalization of middle school education by relieving burdens of study for middle school seniors. Second, to achieve complete standardization of high schools including students, teachers, and facilities. Third, to promote science and vocational education through institutional and administrative measures. Fourth, to promote balanced development of education through fostering local schools. Fifth, to reduce education expense burden of households by eliminating the need to prepare for entrance examination. Sixth, to curb concentration of students in large cities and stabilize the rural economy (Ministry of Education 1973). The standardization policy was aimed at realizing equal opportunity in education and equality of education by reforming high school entrance system and standardizing the conditions of education. The high school standardization policy, which was established by the Ministry of Education based on the entrance examination reform plan proposed by the Research Council for Admission System, was first enforced in Seoul and Busan in 1974. In the initial stage of enforcement of the standardization policy, middle school students transferred to the areas where standardization policy was not yet enforced, prestigious high schools opposed to the policy, and problems arose from different educational conditions of schools. However, the standardization policy was additionally enforced in Daegu, Incheon, and Gwangju (Ministry of Education 1998; Korea Education Research Institute 1974) (Fig. 6). However, with the further implementation of the standardization policy, issues such as persistent inequality of educational conditions among private high schools, difficulty in teaching and life guidance for students due to differences among students, and inequality in high school admission opportunities between standardized area and its

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Fig. 6 Policy on the equalization of high schools

surrounding area were arisen. The Korea Foundation for the Promotion of Private School and the private middle and high school principals’ council even argued that the new entrance examination system should be completely abolished (Yoon Jung-IL et al. 2002, 2003, 2008).

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Due to these problems, the originally planned nationwide enforcement of the standardization policy remained pending. However, enforcement of the policy was resumed and further expanded after the Korean Educational Development Institute announced positive results on the standardization policy. In 1979, it was further enforced in seven cities including Daejeon, Jeonju, Masan, Cheongju, Suwon, Chuncheon, and Jeju. In 1980, it was additionally enforced in eight cities including Seongnam, Wonju, Cheonan, Gunsan, Iri, Mokpo, Andong, and Jinju. As Changwon city was separated from Masan, the total number of cities which enforced the standardization policy increased to 21 cities by 1981.

3.2

Expansion of Education and Rising Demand for Education

In the past, members of various educational communities including teachers, students, parents, and others showed full confidence in schools. In recent years, however, as the general public’s level of education has improved and their involvement in school education has become more active, the demands of members of educational communities including parents have been increasing. In particular, population who have completed four years of college or more are gradually increasing in our demographic structure, and parents with university or higher education are also rapidly increasing. In other words, the proportion of people with college or higher education is around 25%, and university admission rate of high school graduates remains around 80%. This can be seen that rapid increase in the school-age population is the result of the expansion of compulsory education implemented along with the economic development plan in the 1960s. In order to improve the conditions for compulsory education, the Park Chung-Hee government established and implemented a large-scale investment plan for education facility such as building or renovating classrooms twice during the period from 1962 to 1971. As a result, serious classroom shortage began to be solved, and the foundation for cultivating human resources was laid.

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The miraculous economic growth and the expansion of educational opportunities so far is closely associated with the intensive investment in compulsory education by the Park Chung-Hee government (Lee JongJae et al. 2010; The Committee on the Sixty-year History of the Korean Economy 2011; Green 2013; Korea National University of Education, Compilation Committee for 100-year history of Korean Education 2011). As educational opportunities expanded, parents’ interest in their children’s education also increased. The belief that children should go to prestigious schools in order to succeed in society was beginning to spread rapidly among parents. For example, the case of multiple correct answers in the entrance exam to middle school on December 7, 1964 shows how seriously overheated parents’ enthusiasm for their children was. Therefore, educational policymakers need to face up to Korea’s unique realities in which parents’ enthusiasm for education for their children naturally grows. As the comparison of parents’ enthusiasm for their children’s education in the 1960s and 2000s shows, parents’ interest in children’s education and demand for changes in school education are gradually increasing (Lee Jong-Gak 1997, 2003; Joo Sam-Hwan 2015) (Figs. 7 and 8). Example of enthusiasm for education among parents 1960s. – In middle school entrance examination, there was a question about potential ingredient that can be used to make taffy in place of barley malt. Parents of students who marked grounded radish juice protested that grounded radish juice could also be used to make taffy. – A father of aspiring high schooler encouraged his son to study hard, telling him that going to high school would mean a better job and better social treatment, so he told his son that we would support his son any and every possible way to help his son to go to high school.

– There was a joke about “Three Moms” living in different neighborhoods in Seoul. If a child complains it is hard to study, a mom living in Daechi-dong, which is called the “Mecca of private tutoring” in Korea, will tell her kid to change to another institute. A mom in East Ichon-dong will say that now is the time to study abroad. And a mom

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Fig. 7 Parents of students who marked grounded radish juice filed a lawsuit and won in 1964 (Source “Chosun Ilbo”, March 30, 1965, the question regarding the potential ingredients for the traditional Korean taffy on middle school entrance exam in 1964)

living in Apgujeong-dong will tell her kid that there is no need to worry because buildings around her house are all her children’s. – A mom who quit her job as a pharmacist and is busy with supporting her kid, scheduling private lessons, collecting educational information, and attending a briefing session on admission requirements for her kid, says that the ability of a child depends on the ability of her mother. There is increasing number of mothers who say that they do not regret for quitting their job to support their kids for their better future. * Yang Jung-Ho (2013, p. 9). As the demand for education increased, the Park Chung-Hee government established the Charter of National Education in 1968 to inform the public of the importance of education (Ministry of Education 1988; Education Newspaper 1999). The Charter of National Education was

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Fig. 8 Charter of National Education Picture Book and Leaflet (December 5, 1968)

introduced at various government-led events and seminars including the proclamation ceremony of the Charter of National Education, teaching materials, albums, and notebooks, informing all citizens of the policy direction of national education. As a result, it has become a philosophy of life emphasizing the basic knowledge and attitude that the people should have. The ideology of the Charter of National Education was concretely reflected in the Third Curriculum. The Third Curriculum was basically aimed at promoting the sense of national sovereignty, inheriting traditional culture and creating the national culture, developing individuals, and harmonizing individual development with the prosperity of a nation (Ministry of Education 1986). In the Third Curriculum, moral education was adopted as part of school curriculum in 1973. The inclusion of anti-communism and moral education in the curriculum allowed the moral education to be provided at schools in an academic and systematic manner.

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The moral education was included as a formal subject in school curriculum out of necessity to establish national values, transform the way anti-communism education was implemented, and ensure systematic implementation of the anti-communism education (Huh Kang et al. 2000). The moral education in this period is characterized by division of the moral education into five categories (manners, personal life, social life, national life, and anti-communist life) so that anti-communism education could be separately provided. In the case of middle schools, 116 items of virtue in the five categories were taught (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology 2008).

3.3

Establishing a Stable Teacher Training System

From the Park Chung-Hee government to the Roh, Tae-Woo government, many policies were proposed in relation to the training of teachers. However, it can be seen that teacher policy was mainly focused on securing, training, and meeting the demand for teachers as the number of students increased. Though it is important to propose teacher training policy from a long-term perspective, too many teacher training policies such as establishment of teacher training institutions and operation of short-term courses were introduced without an effective teacher supply and demand planning (Ko Jeon 2002; Korean Educational Development Institute 2005; Korean Society of the Politics of Education 2014; University News Network 2003). These teachers’ policies led to excessive supply or shortage of teachers. As the saying goes “The quality of an education system cannot exceed the quality of its teachers”, enhancing qualities and professionalism of teachers is important in the teacher policy. However, only few legislations related to the improvement of the qualities and professionalism of the teachers were proposed, and they have not been actually implemented. Although elementary teachers were absolutely lacking in the post-liberation and U.S. military times, the required number of teachers was not recruited because strict education and qualification standards were imposed on teachers (Fig. 9).

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(Unit:Person)

Elementary School

Middle School

High School

Fig. 9 Changes in the number of teachers (Source National Statistical Office, Korea Educational Development Institute [each year])

In the 1960s, the Park Chung-Hee government enacted “Special Act on Education” (September 1, 1961), abolishing the existing 18 teachers colleges and establishing 10 colleges of education nationwide. The teachers colleges, elementary school teachers training institutions, were changed to a two-year college of education. By the mid-1970s, elementary school teachers were trained in 16 colleges of education. However, the number of colleges of education was later reduced to 11, leaving one college of education in each province due to oversupply of teachers. There was a serious shortage of secondary school teachers considering the number of schools and students. Thus, secondary school teachers had to be trained over a short period of time at provisional teacher training centers such as secondary school teacher training centers and departments of secondary school teacher education at universities. In the 1950s, however, the secondary school teacher training was separately done: middle school teachers were trained at a two-year colleges of education and high school teachers were trained at four-year universities of education (Sohn In-Soo 1994a, 1994b). Another measure introduced to ensure stable supply of secondary school teachers was to create teaching & teacher education courses at general universities.

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Particularly, in 1963, graduate schools of education were established with the aim to nurture excellent secondary school teachers. In general, the teacher training system in the 1970s was operated in a manner similar to the teacher training policy in the 1960s, and provisional teacher policies were still implemented to meet the demand for teachers. The reform proposal of the Presidential Committee on Educational Reform established by the Chun Doo-Hwan government shows the teacher policy in the 1980s. The Presidential Committee on Educational Reform (March 10, 1985–December 12, 1985) announced 10 educational reform proposals including the proposal for “securing the best teachers”. More specifically, the committee proposed legislative measures for the dramatic improvement of the treatment of teachers such as reduction in teaching hours per week, characterization and specialization of teachers training, and the introduction of senior teacher system (Yoon Jung-Ilet al. 2008; Korean Society of the Politics of Education 2014). In this period, unlike the previous teacher policy, policies considering qualitative aspect of teacher training rather than simply meeting the demand for teachers were proposed, and efforts were made to improve the professionalism in teacher training by upgrading colleges of education to four-year universities of education. In the late 1980s, the Roh Tae-Woo government introduced comprehensive measures for primary and secondary school teachers and proposed a policy for the development of a teaching community. Detailed plans for primary and secondary school teachers included enhancement of the professionalism of teacher education curriculum, improvement of teacher certification system and teacher recruitment examination, promotion of training for in-service teachers, improvement of personnel system for teachers, and enhancement of teachers’ welfare. Policy for the development of a teaching community included the following proposals: democratization of educational administration, establishment of laboratories by each subject at schools, increase of subject-specific classes at elementary schools, further implementation of multiple curriculum and giving preference to those who completed multiple curriculum when they are newly appointed, and introduction of trainee teacher system to improve professionalism of teachers.

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Complete Ban on Private Tutoring (July 30, 1980) and Increase in Demand for Private Tutoring

From the end of the Korean War until the early 1990s, the issue of private tutoring has emerged in earnest in Korea. In particular, the Park Chung Hee government implemented a policy to resolve the overheated private tutoring by overhauling middle school or high school entrance examination system. The complete ban on private tutoring imposed during the Chun Doo-Hwan government is considered the strictest policy on private tutoring. The Roh Tae-Woo government basically maintained the policy on banning private tutoring, however, a policy that partially allowed private tutoring was implemented according to the Supreme Court’s ruling for respect for the rights to learning in 1986. Overall, the policy on private tutoring in the time of industrialization was promoted to address social problems caused by overheated private tutoring, such as social inequality and disharmony, rather than solving educational problems in a fundamental manner. Policies such as the complete ban on private tutoring have gained broad support from the public, but the policies revealed limitation as they were not a fundamental solution to the private tutoring issue. In the 1960s, the Park Chung-Hee government did not specifically ban on private tutoring or take mitigation measures. However, entrance examination system was established and implemented in order to address private tutoring issue that arose due to the demand for entering the secondary schools. The school standardization policy that has been maintained until today is the representative private education policy of the Park Chung-Hee government. As the private tutoring to prepare for the admission to middle and high schools was expanded during this time, efforts were made to solve the issues associated with private tutoring by changing the entrance examination system. The policy on private tutoring of the Park Chung-Hee government can be classified into two: the implementation of measures against private tutoring for middle school entrance examination and high school entrance examination (Woo Chun-Sik 2004; Lee Jong-Jae 2010; Han Joon-Sang 2005). First of all, as a result of universal compulsory education in the late 1950s, a narrow bottleneck created at the entry

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point to high school became more serious during the Park Chung-Hee government (Table 6). For this reason, private tutoring was not just a personal matter but a social illness. Especially, as upper-class children could have access to private tutoring, there was a high possibility that problems could arise from gaps in spending on private tutoring among social groups. This phenomenon was further worsened in the late 1960s. As the compulsory education for elementary school expanded, competition for admission to middle school became more intense, and private tutoring became more overheated throughout the entire society. As this problem was further aggravated, the Park government introduced a revolutionary system of changing the middle school entrance examination system. The so-called middle school admission without examination policy, or middle school standardization policy (July 15, 1968) introduced at the time is considered a very meaningful system in Korea’s educational history as it laid the foundation for primary and secondary education. Although this policy had a short-term effect on curbing overheated private tutoring and relieving burden of middle school entrance exam for elementary school students, it caused another problem of overheated competition in high school entrance examination in the long-term perspective (Special Briefing Team 2007). As the burden of middle school entrance examinations was eased, the number of middle school students increased sharply. Due to the rapid increase in the number of middle school students, competition for high school entrance examination was expected to be more intensified than before. As a result of middle school standardization policy, entering a prestigious middle school became no longer meaningful, and entering a prestigious high school was regarded as a means to elevate social status. The competition for middle school entrance examination was naturally shifted to the competition for admission to high school. The problems of overheated private tutoring and holdovers to enter prestigious high schools reached to a serious level. Park Chung-Hee government tried to alleviate the burdens of private tutoring by introducing a high school standardization policy or a high school admission without examination policy similar to the middle school standardization policy, in which students would apply to schools

The Chun, Doo-Hwan government

The Park Chung-Hee government

Government

Modification and supplementation of the existing ban on private education

Implementation of measures against private tutoring for entrance exam Ban on private tutoring

Timing and details of education policy

August 12, 1983: Students with poor academic performance (bottom 5%) were allowed to take supplementary lessons

August 7, 1980: Implementation of guidelines for crackdown on private tutoring, complete prohibition of private tutoring, allowing practical lessons for arts and physical education majors August 27, 1980: Restrictions on private tutoring on teaching materials used at schools April 13, 1981: Prohibition of sales of home-study materials, test papers, and recorded video tapes July 14, 1981: Arts and physical education majors, technology and engineering majors were allowed to take classes at private institutes only for speech academy and flower arrangement etc. /College students were allowed to take lessons at accredited language institutes and institutes for qualification examinations

July 30, 1980: Complete ban on private tutoring in accordance with “normalization of education and measures to address overheated private tutoring”

July 15, 1968: Implementation of middle school admission without examination February 28, 1973: Implementation of high school standardization policy

Table 6 Private Education Policies from the Park Chung-Hee government to the Roh Tae-Woo government

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Modification and supplementation of the existing ban on private tutoring

July 22, 1991: Elementary, middle and high school students were allowed to take classes at private institutes during summer vacation

January 6, 1984: High school seniors were allowed to take lessons at private foreign language institutes during winter vacation April 10, 1984: Only elementary, middle, and high school students were allowed to take lessons at private institutes for a certain period of time June 16, 1989: College students were allowed to tutor elementary and middle school students

Note Above table was reorganized referring to Kim Chul et al. (2007, p. 191)

The Roh, Tae-Woo government

Government

Timing and details of education policy

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by school district and be assigned to a school by lottery. The high school standardization policy was gradually implemented in other regions starting from Seoul, and as a result, private tutoring for high school students tended to decrease. The high school standardization policy helped normalize middle school curriculum, promote mental and physical development of middle school students, and resulted in positive changes such as alleviation of overheated private tutoring for high school entrance examination (Yoon Jung-Il et al. 2003; Lee Jong-Jae 2010). However, as expanded admission to middle schools increased competition for high school entrance examination, a vicious cycle of increased competition for college entrance examination was repeated due to expanded admission to high schools. The new military government which took power in early 1980s proposed a private tutoring policy that was completely different from the previously proposed ones. It went beyond merely alleviating the demand for private tutoring. On July 30, 1980, the Chun, Doo-Hwan government imposed a complete ban on private tutoring in accordance with the so-called normalization of education and measures to address overheated private tutoring. The Special Committee for National Security Measures announced a reform plan on the prohibition of private tutoring through the so-called July 30 Education Reform Policy to normalize school education and alleviate overheated private tutoring on the ground that “excessive cost of private tutoring for entrance examination would threaten the household economy”. The most important part of this reform plan was the complete ban on private tutoring and abolition of supplementary classes (Ministry of Education 1998; Park Nam-Ki 2003; Yang Jung-Ho 2004). It was the arrival of a new type of private education policy which imposes a ban on private tutoring. The policy of curbing private education through ban on private tutoring was greatly welcomed by the media and the society, but it began to expose limitations because the policy could not completely prevent the demand for private tutoring. Not only was it difficult to meet the educational demand of ordinary parents and students, but some upper-class students began to receive expensive private tutoring secretly. The private education policy implemented by the Roh Tae-Woo government was not

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as proactive as the policy implemented by the Chun Doo-Hwan government. However, the Roh Tae-Woo government allowed private tutoring to some extent while maintaining a major policy direction of banning private tutoring. For example, college students were allowed to tutor elementary and middle school students, and elementary; middle and high school students were allowed to take classes at private institutes during summer vacation.

3.5

Achievement and Challenges of Primary and Secondary Education

If the state formation period was the period when the state was built, then the time of industrialization was the period during which Korea experienced economic development and economic growth. Likewise, the field of education also has undergone a rapid growth during this period. Based on the perception that human resources would play an important role in economic growth, the Park Chung-Hee government spent significant amount of its budget for the full implementation of compulsory elementary education. As a result of these efforts, the government made a remarkable achievement of reaching 100% enrollment in elementary schools in the early 1970s. Although the expansion of opportunities for primary and secondary education brought positive results, there was also an adverse effect due to increased competition for the admission to prestigious schools. The protest by parents of students who marked grounded radish juice in the middle school entrance examination in the early 60s shows how overly involved parents were in the education of their children. It can be said today’s private education craze and intensifying competition can be seen as a result of the expansion of educational opportunities in those days. The policies of middle school admission without examination and high school standardization policy, the two most revolutionary education policies in the history of education in Korea, were established in 1960 and have been implemented since then. The increase in the number of elementary school students naturally led to more intense competition for middle school education; admission to middle school

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without examination inevitably induced competition among students in high school entrance examination; and the high school standardization policy promoted competition among students for university entrance examination. Nevertheless, it holds significant meaning for our economy because we have been able to cultivate the necessary manpower in the industrial sector through the increase of school-age population and the emphasis on vocational education. If the government did not make the right decision or implement a policy to expand educational opportunities, it is highly likely that the Republic of Korea would not have become such an economic and educational powerhouse as it is today. Expanding and operating teacher training institutions since the Park Chung-Hee government was an appropriate measure to meet the growing demand for education by ensuring stable supply of teachers. The separate operation of teacher training institutions for primary and secondary school teachers, and having the graduate schools of education train teachers were the necessary measures to ensure stable supply of teachers. The comprehensive teacher training policy established by the Roh Tae-Woo government’s and efforts for the stable growth of the teaching community laid an important foundation for qualitative growth as well as the quantitative growth of education. Unfortunately, after the inaugural general meeting of the Korean Teachers’ and Educational Workers’ Union (KTU) held on May 22, 1989, the Ministry of Education considered the teachers’ unions as an illegal entity and dismissed all the union members. The Chun DooHwan government, which took power in the 1980s, pursued a private education policy that was different from the policies that had been previously implemented. It did not focus on alleviating the demand for private tutoring. The education reform policy announced on July 30, 1980 imposed a complete ban on private tutoring. However, as expensive and secret private tutoring became prevalent among some upper–class families, the military government further ramped up crackdown on private tutoring. Despite the government’s efforts for cracking down on private tutoring, secret tutoring was still prevalent. Private tutoring fees were raised as a danger pay was added to the tutoring fees for avoiding the crackdown, and various forms of private tutoring such as “tutoring in a car” and “late night tutoring” emerged. Since then, private tutoring

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has not disappeared, rather the ban on private tutoring has been eased, making it highly likely for private education to grow explosively and became a burden on Korean society. Primary and secondary education during the industrialization period was, in its nature, an education aimed at national development, and the establishment and implementation of compulsory elementary education system laid a foundation for training the manpower necessary for industrialization. The high school standardization policy implemented in 1974 led to the accumulation of high-quality human resources, which served as a foundation for securing necessary human resources who have led the Republic of Korea’s rapid industrial growth and the knowledge and information-based industry since the 1990s.

4

Primary and Secondary Education in the Information Age: Since the Mid-1990s

Increased demand for strengthening the competitiveness of public education. Although the educational demands of various interest groups in school system have steadily increased over time since the mid-1990s, new educational conflicts have been surfaced as the existing education system failed to meet various needs of members of each interest group. For example, conflict between teachers’ organization and civic organization surrounding the expansion of information disclosure, the so-called National Education Information System (NEIS) issue, was caused; disagreement has worsened due to the differing interests among the members of each educational community on the evaluation of teachers, open recruitment system for principals, and the student’s human rights ordinance (Yoon Jung-Il et al. 2003, 2008; Korean Society of the Politics of Education 2014). In particular, as the problem of school violence has become more serious, parents and students express strong distrust in the handling of school violence by teachers or principals as they think the principals and teachers are reluctant to deal with school violence and

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tend to conceal or play down school violence. Schools and teachers, on the other hand, are in conflict with parents and students because they think parents and students are demanding too much from the schools in the reality that teachers’ right to teach or teachers’ authority is falling. In this process, problems arose from school are handled by the police or the prosecutor, and the court, not by the school. Examples of distrust in school’s handling of school violence. A middle school teacher: “If a committee to deal with school violence issues is formally established, the office of education will subtract the score in the school evaluation”, In the field, the teacher in charge either gives warning to the students who are involved in school violence or having them do volunteer work”. A committee member: “The wife of police officer or attorney attended the committee”, and “If the committee does not function properly, the committee is nothing but a rubber stamp for the principal”. A parent of a victim of school violence: “I was told punishing the student who committed school violence is at the principal’s discretion, and the student cannot be punished as the lawsuit is underway”, “If I file a petition, it would cause troubles at the school”. A principal: “Disclosing school violence will undermine school’s reputation”.

* Rewritten based on the article of “The Segye Times”, March 7, 2007. In the future, it will be important to seek ways to help diverse educational communities solve the pending issues of unit schools rather than being involved in repeated conflicts and confrontations with each other. Also, establishing cooperative relationship between the educational communities will help develop school education. In addition, each school needs to make more efforts to recover the fallen trust in school by developing ability to solve various educational issues that arise in schools. School administration in the Republic of Korea still has the typical problems of bureaucracy in which all education-related administrative works are

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handled in the form of documents, or the like. Therefore, the teachers often cannot concentrate on improving the quality of education due to this kind of problem. This situation is evidently shown in the debate that the Deputy Prime Minister and Minister of Education and Human Resources Lee Sang-Joo held during his visit to an elementary school in Seoul 10 years ago. Although the government has issued various policies every year to reduce administrative work-related workload of elementary, middle, and high school teachers, the teachers still complained. A teacher said, “It is often the case that preparation for class or even the class itself is neglected because of administrative works”. The Minister went on to say that teachers may have to stop classes and handle official correspondence if they are urgently requested to submit documentation. It is confusing what the duty of teacher is. * Dong-A Ilbo, March 10, 2002. This practice still exists today, and the level of improvement in the administrative work procedures felt by teachers is still not satisfactory. In fact, a school receives thousands of official documents per year, and dozens of documents are sent out by the school every day, which raises concerns that the increase in administrative work at schools would naturally undermine the quality of education. A study comparing daily tasks of high school teachers and academy instructors as of May 16, 2011 shows that school teachers felt that the time needed to study and develop teaching materials decreased rather than increased due to the expansion of admission officer system, and the introduction of comprehensive support system for creative hands-on activities and the next-generation NEIS. On the other hand, the academy instructors spent little time on the administrative work, and they were assisted by administrative assistants for the management and preparation for classes (Kim Yang-Boon and Kim Mi-Suk 2002). In such a situation, there will be limitations in strengthening the competitiveness of public education. It is necessary to ensure that teachers secure as much time as possible to concentrate on class preparation. Governments have been making intensive efforts to expand education focused on fostering creativity and character in

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students to enhance the competitiveness of public education, and are continuing to invest in nurturing creative and talented human resources (Fig. 10). “Dong-A Ilbo”, “Thirty minutes for class preparation, six hours for administrative work. Teachers are busy handling with administrative works”, A10, May 17, 2011. The core task of elementary and middle school education is to foster creative talents through public education. Recently, it appears that the competitiveness of public education has been improved. However, it is necessary to further strengthen the competitiveness of public education through more active innovation at schools as the people’s satisfaction with public education still remains relatively low. Although the government has introduced the 2009 revised curriculum, a free semester system, a subject-based classroom system, and promoted the autonomy of school in designing curriculum and creative hands-on activities in order to create a creative classroom environment that encourages students’ enjoyment of learning, it may take time for such systems to take root in schools (Sung Tae-Je et al. 2013; Lee Joo-Ho et al. 2011). For example, since the subject-based classroom system was introduced to 647 schools in 2009, the number of schools which adopted the subject-based classroom system increased to 806 in 2010 and 1,400 in 2011. The free semester system which will be implemented first in middle schools will be further expanded to 1,500 schools in 2015 after pilot implementation at 42 schools, before the system is fully introduced to all schools in 2016. And instruction and evaluation system for basic learning were prepared to ensure that all students have a certain level of basic scholastic ability. For example, the nationwide academic achievement evaluation was carried out, and teaching–learning materials were disseminated to help students to cultivate basic academic abilities, diversification of education methods was attempted through teacher trainings (Fig. 11). In addition, efforts have been continuously made to lower the percentage of underachieving students by conducting the nationwide academic achievement evaluation at all schools. In fact, the percentage of underachieving students has decreased each year, which shows that such efforts are producing positive results. Table 7 shows the percentage of underachieving students by school level, subject, and year. Although

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Fig. 11 Changes in the percentage of underachieving students (Source Ministry of Education [2013])

there are differences in the percentage of underachieving students by school level, subject, and year, we can see that the percentage of those students has continuously decreased. As a result of various efforts at the government level, South Korean students maintained the highest level of achievement in the Program for International Student Assessment of the OECD (PISA) and showed drastic increase in the International Institute for Management Development (IMD) indicators, which are indicators of international competitiveness in elementary and secondary education (Seo Jung-Hwan and Jung Il-Hwan et al. 2008, 2013; Korean Society of the Politics of Education 2014). Recently, the Republic of Korea’s educational competitiveness, which had remained in the mid-30s for three years, moved up to the top 20, according to the IMD World Competitiveness. In PISA 2009, the Republic of Korea maintained high level among OECD countries. As shown in Fig. 12, the Republic of Korea has continuously ranked high in PISA international comparisons since 2000 (Table 7).

4.1

The Education Reform Plan (1995) and Promotion of School Steering Committee

The Kim Young-Sam government’s Education Reform Plan (1995) presented unprecedented policies by today’s standard. As soon as President Kim Young-Sam was inaugurated, he announced new policies

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Reading

Mathem

Science

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Problem-solving

Fig. 12 Status by PISA ranking by year (Source OECD [each year])

in politics, economy, and society, and his new policies received overwhelming public support. For this reason, there were high expectations in educational circles that the educational reform will be done properly this time. Contrary to such high expectations, however, the educational reform of President Kim Young-Sam who pledged to put special emphasis on education actually took more than a year for preparing the detailed reform plans. The government established the Education Reform Commission in the early days of Kim, Young-Sam presidency. All the details of the actual education reform plan were based on this committee’s proposals. The education reform plan of the Kim YoungSam government was announced on May 31, 1995, thus is referred to as the May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995). This reform plan focused on achieving the vision of creating “Edutopia” befitting a new era ( Korean Society of the Politics of Education 2014). The May 31 Education Reform (1995) was based on a revolutionary paradigm that basically aimed at diversifying and specializing education by departing from traditional and uniformed past education style, transforming school and teacher-centered education into the education centered on education consumer such as students and parents, and strengthening school-based education that emphasizes accountability and autonomy of schools. The detailed reform plans proposed by the Education Reform Commission

No survey was conducted at elementary schools No survey was conducted at elementary schools

2013

0.8

0.9

2.0

1.3

1.0

1.4

6.5 6.0 6.1 4.4 7.4 5.8 8.9 4.6 3.2

3.3

3.4

2.1

1.3

9.2 5.2 3.5 3.6 4.9 3.6 6.2 5 3.9

English

5.7

5.2

3.5

4.0

7.7 11.5 8.7 3.6 6.9 7.2 12.9 10.9 6.1

Math

1.3

2.9

2.1

2.0

10.4 8.7 6.4 4.0 4.3 5.7 5.3 2,3 4.0

Korean

5.9

2.8

2.6

3.6

9.1 6.6 5.0 2.7 4.9 3.2 5.9 3.7 3.7

English

High school (1st or 2nd graders)

Note Korea Institute of Curriculum and Evaluation, press release: each year

2013

0.5

1.0

2012

0.7

0.6

2011

7.3 3.7 2.1 1.3 1.2 1.2 1.5 1.3 1.2

Korean

1.5 2.7 2.3 2.5 2.9 2.2 3.0 1.8 2.1

4.4 2.5 4.0 3.7 3.8 3.5 2.5 2.3 1.2

Math

Korean

2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

English

Middle school (3rd graders)

Elementary school (6th graders)

Table 7 Percentage of underachieving students

5.4

4.5

4.3

4.4

13.1 10.0 9.3 8.2 10.4 7.1 8.8 6.1 4.3

Math

Whole investigation (High school 2nd graders)

Sampling survey Sampling survey Sampling survey Sampling survey Sampling survey Sampling survey Whole investigation Whole investigation Whole investigation (High school 2nd graders) Whole investigation (High school 2nd graders) Whole investigation (High school 2nd graders) Whole investigation (High school 2nd graders)

Remarks

162 D.-H. Lee et al.

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include nine action plans: (i) establishment of foundation for open education and lifelong learning; (ii) diversification and specialization of universities; (iii) establishment of school community for autonomous management of primary and secondary education; (iv) development of curriculum that cultivates character and creativity of students; (v) introduction of a college entrance system that alleviates the educational burden of the people; (vi) implementation of an elementary and middle school education that respects students’ diverse personalities; (vii) to establish a system for evaluating and supporting educational providers; (viii) to foster decent and competent teachers; and (ix) to secure 5% of GNP to education by 1998 (Education Reform Commission 1995, 1996; AhnByung-Young and Ha Yeon-Seob 2015). The Education Reform Commission also published various other educational reform plans over the years. The educational policies contained in the May 31 Education Reform Plan have had a considerable impact on the overall education policy so far. It has been over 20 years since the school steering committee, which was proposed in the May 31 Education Reform Plan, launched, and there have been several changes in the committee system itself. In addition, there is still conflicting opinions regarding the establishment of the school steering committee (Fig. 13). But one thing is clear that the school steering committees are now established and in operation in virtually all public and private schools. It can be said that the school steering committee has been a seemingly successful institution. The importance of the school steering committee is likely to increase even further in the future (Kim Sung-Yeol 2001, 2004; Park Jong-Phil 2004). The school steering committee, which is currently in operation in all schools, was proposed to change the existing school management structure in the process of presenting educational reform plans to prepare for the twenty-first century. In other words, the purpose of establishing the school steering committee was to enable the autonomous management of each school and to provide creative education befitting school conditions. The basic purposes of establishing the school steering committee, which was proposed by the Education Reform Commission in 1995, are as follows.

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Common Goals

• To establish a foundation for open education, lifelong learning society • To secure 5% of GNP to education (by 1998) • To establish a system for evaluating and supporting educational providers

Primary and

• To establish school community for autonomous management of primary and secondary education • To develop curriculum that cultivates character and creativity of students

Secondary

• To implement an elementary and middle school education that respects

Education

students’ diverse personalities

College Education

• To foster decent and competent teachers • To introduce a college entrance system that alleviates the educational burden of the people • To diversify and specialize universities

Fig. 13 Details of May 31 Education Reform Plan

Proposal of the Education Reform Commission for the establishment of school steering committee. 8. School community-centered education • To establish a school community-oriented education system to promote development of school development by teachers, parents, and local residents • To establish an educational administration system that can support the school community-oriented education system in an effective manner. – The Direction and Tasks of Educational Reform for New Korea. The 1st briefing materials for the president, September 5, 1994. • To establish “school community” for autonomous management of elementary and secondary education. At present, primary and secondary schools lack autonomy in their management, and the autonomous management of each school is not realized due to the lack of participation of parents in school administration. It is urgently needed to establish a “school community” in

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which faculty, parents, and community members voluntarily take part in the management of school in order to realize citizens autonomy in education and maximize the effect of school education by expanding autonomy of each school. The school steering committee should be organized and operated in each school to promote the education autonomy of each school, and to implement diverse education befitting the actual condition and characteristics of the community. Implement pilot “teacher and principal invitational program” at some schools as part of institutional frameworks that enable the school community to improve the school by inviting educators (principals and teachers) the community wants. – Education Reform Plan to establish a new education system to lead the age of globalization and information, 2nd briefing materials for the president, May 31, 1995. * Education Reform Commission (1996, pp. 23, 87). The school steering committee can be regarded as a system for establishing a school management structure that enables each school member to participate in the management of school. Though schools are basically educational institutions in which a variety of members participate, the members of school community including parents, faculty, and community members could not participate directly in the management of school as the school principal was responsible for the management of school and making school management-related decisions before the establishment of the school steering committee. By establishing the school steering committee, all members of the school could participate jointly in the management of school operation, departing from the principal-centered school management. On the one side, the operation of the school steering committee contributed to democratizing the school management process, increasing transparency of the management of school, improving efficiency of school education, strengthening accountability of the members of school, and enabling the school principal and members of school to jointly deliberate and decide the matters related to the management of school (Kim

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Sung-Yeol 2006). On the other side, however, there was also downside to the establishment of the committee including: conflicts of interest among the members of school, failing to reflect differences in interest in school steering committees by each school, identity confusion of school steering committee, lack of expertise of school steering committee, lack of representability of school members, and side effects caused by granting the committee the rights to elect a new superintendent and the members of the board of education (Kim Jang-Joong 2004; Jung Soo-Hyun and Park Sang-Wan 2005). In order to solve the problems exposed in the process of operating the school steering committee, the system has been revised and supplemented several times so that the school steering committee could take root as it is today. Table 8 shows the process of changes of the school steering committee. However, there is still controversy over whether the school steering committee has been successful. In the future, we will have to solve the problem through continuous improvement.

4.2

Improving the Quality of Teachers in Preparation for the New Era

On May 31, 1995, the Kim, Young-Sam government proposed teacher policies aiming at nurturing decent and competent teachers, such as reforming teacher training system, promotion and remuneration system, creating research environment and efficient working conditions for teachers as part of the “Education Reform Plan for the Establishment of the New Education System” (Ko Jeon 2002). May 31 Education Reform Plan–Education Reform Plan for the Establishment of the New Education System. Public perception of teaching profession is eroding due to the surge in the number of prospective teachers and lack of expertise, and working conditions and treatment for teachers are insufficient, which makes it difficult to attract excellent manpower to teaching profession. It is urgent to reform teacher training and personnel system to nurture and attract competent teachers who will teach the future leaders, and to ensure

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Table 8 Process of changes of the school steering committee Date

Major Developments

May 31, 1995

• The Education Reform Committee recommended the establishment and operation of the school steering committee as part of the May 31 Educational Reform Plan • Created a legal basis for the school steering committee in the Local Education Autonomy Act • Launched pilot operation of the school steering committee: 355 schools (177 elementary schools, 117 middle schools, and 61 high schools) • Revised the Enforcement Decree of the Local Education Autonomy Act – Ordered national and public schools to establish the school steering committee (the schools in cites by April 30, 1996, and schools in the towns and villages by April 30, 1998) • Changed the legal basis for the establishment of the school steering committee by enacting the Elementary and Secondary Education Act – Since the school steering committee is an independent organization of each school, the legal basis for the committee was changed from the Local Education Autonomy Act to the Elementary and Secondary Education Act – Made the establishment of the school steering committee mandatory for all national and public primary, secondary, special schools. Let private schools establish the school steering committee autonomously • Specified details such as the composition and operation of the school steering committee in the Enforcement Decree of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act • Revised the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (Enforced on March 1, 2000) – Made the establishment of the school steering committee mandatory in private schools (the school steering committees is a review committee for national and public schools, and required advisory body for private schools) • Revised the Enforcement Decree of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (Enforced on March 1, 2000) – Classified the fixed number of the school steering committee members into three levels based on the number of students – Matters related to the school steering committee for private schools

August 4, 1995 1995s semester

February 22, 1996

December 13, 1997

February 24, 1998

August 31, 1999

February 28, 2000

(continued)

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Table 8 (continued) Date

Major Developments

August 26, 2002

• Revised the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (Enforced on August 26, 2002) – Specified reasons for disqualification of school committee members in law

Note Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education (2004, p. 3)

teachers concentrate on educational activities with strong sense of pride and duty. In order to increase the professional qualities of teachers and secure excellent teachers, we will need to further specialize the education of teachers and promote teacher training. In addition, we will improve the treatment of teachers by introducing maximum teaching hours per week. It is also necessary to improve teachers’ working conditions in a gradual manner and establish a competency-based personnel system. * Education Reform Commission (1995, p. 112). Firstly, as reform plans related to the training of teachers, reforming curriculum of teacher training institutions, and improving teacher recruitment system were proposed. Secondly, as teacher training reform plans, plans such as having teachers trained at regular intervals and allowing teachers to choose training institutions were proposed. Thirdly, followings were proposed as plans for improving the competency-based promotion and compensation system: the competency-based promotion system under which competent teachers can get preferential treatment, differential compensation system depending on the difficulty of task. Lastly, as reform plans related to improving working environment, plans proposed include: introducing special research teacher system, expanding laboratory by subject or grade, introducing office automation system at teachers’ room, flexible work hour system, and early retirement system for principals. In the second education reform plan subsequently announced following the May 31 Education Reform

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Plan (1995), teacher policies were not included, and the flexible operation of a teacher system was proposed as a reform plan for elementary and middle school education curriculum (Education Reform Commission 1996). The third education reform plan focused on three tasks of reform that have been mentioned but have not been finalized. One of them was teacher policies. In this reform plans, teacher policies including training and welfare of teachers were widely discussed. The details of the reform plan included introducing accreditation system for teacher training institutions, shifting policy for the supply of secondary school teachers, reforming teacher training at colleges of education, upgrading teacher training institutions from university courses to graduate schools, and seeking teacher training system. Institutional reform plans to improve validity and discriminative capacity of teacher recruitment examination were also proposed. In terms of openness and diversification of teaching professions, the following plans were proposed: diversifying contracted teachers, increasing and diversifying private teachers working exclusively for the offices of education such as itinerant teachers, and improving teacher certification system. For the improvement of professionalism and quality of in-service teachers, the following plans were proposed: introducing research fund and research support system for teachers, establishing special teacher training course, introducing a system for the exchange of primary and secondary school teachers with teacher training institutions, improving teacher qualification and recruitment method, increasing the number of vice principals and improving their expertise. Lastly, the followings were proposed as part of a teacher welfare system reform plan: expanding the functions of organization related to teachers’ welfare, promoting teachers’ welfare at the municipal and provincial offices of education level, and building a support system to prevent safety accidents at schools (Korean Educational Development Institute Future Education Planning Committee 2011). In the fourth reform plan, no policies directly related to teachers were proposed, except for the plans to support teachers for strengthening

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democratic civic education capacity, to expand autonomy of each school, reduce workload of teachers as ways to innovate primary and secondary education and to improve higher education system. Table 9 summarizes the goals and tasks of the teacher policy in the May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) mentioned above, namely the education reform plan of the Kim Young-Sam government. As shown in Table 9, the Kim Young-Sam government’s teacher policies were different from teacher policies of the preceding governments. The May 31 Education Reform Plan(1995) aimed at building a new education system that enables everyone to receive the education he or she wants at any time and at any place, and to develop the aptitude and ability of the individual as much as possible. The new education system basically focused on the pursuit of consumer-oriented education, diversification and specialization of education, autonomous and accountable education management, open education and quality education (Table 9). As the teacher policy aimed at establishing the new education system proposed in the May 31 Education Reform Plan(1995), the competencybased teacher policy different from previous teacher policies were proposed, such as competency-based promotion system or compensation system depending on the tasks of teacher. Moreover, the teacher policy was meaningful as it contributed to proliferating autonomous management of schools and resolving the personnel congestion through pilot operation of the principal tenure system and the teacher and principal invitation program. However, the Kim Young-Sam government’s May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) focused on consumer-centered education, so the policy proposals for teachers and teaching staff were relatively insufficient. Particularly, sensitive matters for teachers, such as teacher training and promotion, were not sufficiently discussed, which is considered to be a limitation of the teacher policy of the May 31 Education Reform Plan. In the late 1990s, the education community went through unprecedented layoffs of teachers due to the Asian Financial Crisis. The Kim Dae-Jung government did not pursue a restructuring policy such as a policy that shortened the retirement age of teachers from the beginning.

To reform elementary and middle curriculum

2nd Education Reform Plan (February 9, 1996) 3rd Education Reform Plan (August 20, 1996)

To reform teacher policies for developing a teaching community

To nurture decent and competent teachers

1st Education Reform Plan (May 31, 1995)

Policy goals

(continued)

A. Reforming teacher training system • Reforming curriculum of teacher training institutions • Improving teacher recruitment system • Strengthening teacher training • Allowing teachers to choose training institutions B. Improving the competency-based - promotion and compensation system • Establishing a competency-based promotion system • Introducing a differential compensation system depending on the difficulty and amount of task C. Improving working and research environment for teachers • Introducing special research teacher system • Expanding laboratory by subject or grade • Introducing office automation system at teachers’ room • Introducing flexible work hour system • Implementing early retirement system for principals • Flexible operation of a teacher system

Detailed tasks

Table 9 Teacher policy goals and tasks of the Kim Young-Sam government’s education reform plan

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4th Education Reform Plan (June 2, 1997)

To innovate primary and secondary schools, and improve higher education system

To support teachers for strengthening democratic civic education capacity

Policy goals

Table 9 (continued) • Increasing domestic and overseas training and experience opportunities for teachers • Strengthening democratic civic education in teacher training courses • Supporting teachers for studying and developing teaching materials for democratic civic education • Expanding autonomy of each school and reducing workload of teachers

Detailed tasks

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In October 1998, the Kim Dae-Jung government announced the Education Vision 2002. The “Education Vision 2002” was an overall education policy on elementary and secondary education, among which policies related to teachers were proposed. With the goal of improving professionalism and accountability of teachers, the Education Vision 2002 proposed the following plans: improvement and flexible operation of teachers’ personnel system such as improving a principal tenure system and introducing a differential compensation system, expansion of teacher training opportunities and improvement of teacher training method, proposals for strengthening teachers’ teaching activities, continuous implementation of subject research contest for innovating classes, specialization of departmental system, strengthening incentive system for high-performing teachers, enactment of the Public Officials Service Regulations, and suggestion to change Teacher’s Day to the end of February (Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development 2003; Korea National University of Education, Compilation Committee for 100-year history of Korean Education 2011). The teaching community was disturbed by the implementation of a series of policies including the enactment and revision of the Public Education Officials Act, regulating the retirement age of teachers from 65 to 62 on January 29, 1999, legalization of teachers’ union, and introduction of performance-based incentive system. Accordingly, policies aimed at changing the atmosphere and raise the morale of the teachers were proposed. One of the policies was the “Comprehensive Measures to Develop Teaching Profession” (July 26, 2001). A total of 32 tasks in 10 fields were proposed in the Comprehensive Measures to Develop Teaching Profession. The measures can be broadly divided into plans to promote teachers’ morale and to enhance the professionalism of teachers. As for the plans to promote teachers’ morale, six tasks were proposed including: creating a climate for promoting respect for teachers, reducing teachers’ workload, improving treatment for teachers, improving teachers welfare and benefits, expanding participation of teachers in policy processes, and creating an educational community. Thirteen implementation plans included creating a climate promoting respect for teachers, increasing the fixed

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number of teachers, increasing teacher pay, etc. As for improving professionalism of teachers, following plans were proposed: training highperforming teachers, strengthening teacher training, successful implementation of the 7th curriculum, expanding the opportunities for social experience, flexible training leave system, and strengthening new teacher training. In addition, there were 10 tasks such as introduction of senior teacher system, reorganization of teachers training and qualification system. These tasks were classified as implementation tasks after review. In addition, the measures to raise the morale and pride of teachers and enhance professionalism of teachers in line with the knowledge-based society included the followings: prevention of increase in private education expenses and school violence, and enhancing the morale of teachers, which aimed at raising the morale and pride of teachers. For raising morale and pride of teachers, following measures were proposed: creating a climate that promotes respect for teachers, expanding opportunities for teachers’ participation, increasing the number of assistants to reduce workload of teachers, and continuing to improve the working conditions and treatment for teachers. In order to enhance the professionalism of teachers well suited for the knowledge-based society, measures such as improving teacher training and teacher recruitment examination system, and developing teacher training program were proposed. In addition, plans to develop colleges of education (2002) were proposed to improve teacher training institutions. The main details of the plan included developing and operating teacher education programs necessary for the knowledge-based society, securing excellent teachers and teaching staff, expanding teachers’ training opportunities, promoting teacher training institutes for lifelong learning of teachers, selecting and training qualified students with teaching aptitude, and securing modern facilities and equipment suitable for teacher training. Table 10 shows the summary of the above-mentioned objectives and tasks of Kim Dae-Jung government’s teacher policy. The Kim Dae-Jung government focused mainly on the implementation of the education reform measures established by the previous government (Ko Jeon 2002). In particular, the Kim Dae-Jung government focused on implementing detailed teacher policies rather than the reform plan emphasized by the Kim Young-Sam government. Though the Kim

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Young - Sam government’s education reform tended to take a top-down approach, this was not considered by the Kim Dae-Jung government and the government implemented policies such as lowering the retirement age of teachers and permitting multiple organizations of teachers. As a result, problems such as collapse of teachers’ morale and shortage of teachers arose in the teaching society (Ju Sam-hwan 2015). The Kim Dae-Jung government implemented various policies to solve such problems and to raise teachers’ morale. In particular, the teacher policy was aimed at creating a climate of respecting for teachers, and enhancing professionalism of teachers through improving the treatment and status of teachers. In addition to this, comprehensive plans such as teacher training, promotion, and improvement of treatment of teachers were prepared. The “Comprehensive Measure to Develop the Teaching Profession” was proposed to raise morale of teachers, although it was abolished later due to the opposition of teachers’ groups. Then presidential candidate Roh Moo-Hyun proposed teacher policies including diversification of principal recruitment system, and streamlining teacher’s job grading and promotion system as his presidential pledges. First, the Presidential Transition Committee (February 2003) proposed to establish a competency-based promotion system and diversify principal recruitment system such as principal invitation program. In 2005, the Roh Moo-Hyun government developed a plan to reform teacher training and promotion policies based on the policies mentioned above. The plan was mainly about training of excellent teachers and the transition to the competency-based promotion system. In addition to this, in 2004, the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development implemented measures to improve public education such as performance-based incentive system, trial implementation of teacher evaluation system, and the expansion of principal invitation program. The Presidential Committee on Education Innovation established a special committee for the improvement of teacher policy under the committee. In 2006, the special committee proposed the “Measures to improve teacher policy for the enhancement of educational capacity”.

To improve professionalism and accountability of teachers

To build a teaching community that gives sense of pride and rewarding to teachers

To strengthen and diversify primary and secondary education

Five-year plan for educational development (1999)

Educational policy report for building educational community in knowledgebased society (July 11, 2000)

Teacher policy objectives

Education Vision 2002: Creation of New School Culture (1998)

Classification

• Improvement and flexible operation of teacher personnel system • Expansion of teacher training opportunities and improvement of teacher training method • Promotion of teachers’ training activities • Continuous implementation of subject research contest for innovating classes • Specialization of departmental system • Strengthening incentive system for high-performing teachers • Enacting the Public Officials Service Regulations, and suggestion to change Teacher’s Day to the end of February • Establishment of a system to train excellent teachers • Establishment of a flexible and open teacher recruitment system • Effective management of teaching career and tasks • Establishment of competency and performance-based personnel and compensation systems • Establishment of a system to ensure lifelong learning of teachers • 23 projects in six areas, including improvement of teachers’ rights and professionalism A. Stabilization of teachers’ group and alleviation of workload of teachers • Improvement of teachers’ morale • Alleviation of workload through computerization of administrative works • Increasing the number of assistants for teachers

Detailed tasks of teacher policy

Table 10 Teacher policy objectives and tasks of the Kim Dae-Jung government’s education reform plan

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To improve teachers morale and professionalism

To establish a support system for primary and secondary education To reform teacher training system

Teacher policy objectives

Note Shin Hyun-Suk (2010, p. 56)

Comprehensive Measure to Develop the Teaching Profession (July 26, 2001)

Classification

A. Introduction of professional graduate school of education (a tentative name) B. Operation of professional graduate schools of education C. Institutional supplementation following the introduction of professional graduate school of education D. Expansion of exchange and interaction between primary school teacher training institutions and secondary school teacher training institutions • Expansion of exchange between colleges of education and universities • Integration of colleges of education with universities A. Improvement of teachers’ morale • 6 tasks (1) Creation of a climate for respecting teachers (2) Alleviation of workload (3) Improvement of treatment of teachers (4) Promotion of welfare of teachers (5) Expansion of teachers’ participation in policy development process (6) Creation of education communities • 13 implementation tasks (Creating a climate for respecting teachers, increasing the number of teachers etc.) B. Improvement of teachers’ professionalism • 4 tasks (1) Training excellent teachers

A. Expansion of support for teachers’ information literacy • Improvement of teacher training • Informatization of teacher training institutions • Operation of Support Team for Informatization of Teachers (a tentative name)

Detailed tasks of teacher policy

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The improvement measures set three goals, including training highquality teachers, promoting competency-based teacher promotion and principal recruitment systems, and improving teachers’ ability to teach (Presidential Committee on Education Innovation 2005, 2008). In order to train excellent teachers, following measures were proposed: improving qualitative excellence in teacher training, improving efficiency of teacher training system, and enhancing suitability of teacher recruitment system. To establish competency-based teacher promotion and principal recruitment systems, following measures were proposed: creating a climate for a competency-based promotion system, introducing open principal recruitment system, and strengthening accountability of principals and vice principals. Lastly, in order to enhance the improving teachers’ ability to teach, followings were proposed: strengthening training to improve professionalism of teachers including enhancement of job training, expanding various training courses reflecting the demands of the educational arena, and establishing quality management system for teacher training institutions. The vision of the future education for the realization of the learning society and strategic reform plan (2007) set four main objectives: increasing flexibility of teacher qualification system, enhancing suitability of teacher training curriculum, introducing accreditation system for teacher training institutions, and reforming teacher training system. In order to enhance field suitability of teacher training curriculum, the following implementation tasks were proposed: expanding recruitment opportunities for various professionals, strengthening superintendent’s authority to manage teacher quota in order to meet the community-specific demand for teachers, increasing recruitment of teachers by each school, and securing various professional manpower to support learning. To strengthen the professionalism and accountability of teachers, the following tasks were proposed: strengthening mentoring for new teachers, introducing a senior teacher system, encouraging teachers to develop teaching method, introducing teacher qualification renewal system, and expanding teacher evaluation system. In order to improve the morale of teachers and improve working conditions, the following tasks were proposed: optimizing teachers’ workload, expanding and

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diversifying opportunities for teacher’s to develop expertise, introducing study leave system for high-performing teachers, and introducing flexible work hours. The Roh, Moo-Hyun government proposed more detailed and diverse policies while maintaining the previous government’s education philosophy. As for teacher training, the government introduced and implemented evaluation system for teacher training courses and institutions to secure high-quality teachers, and introduced and implemented systems such as open principal recruitment system to establish a competency-based teacher promotion system. It is considered meaningful that the government implemented measures to improve professionalism of teachers, such as improving teacher training system, introducing the senior teacher system, and implementing pilot evaluation for teachers. However, there were limitations to the policy as well: although there were active discussions on teacher recruitment, the discussions were not translated into policy; national teachers’ qualification standards were lacking; and some systems, such as performance-based incentive system for teachers, were not implemented as originally intended.

4.3

An Explosive Growth of Private Tutoring

Since the 1990s, the percentage of elementary, middle, and high school students taking private lessons has remained high at around 70 to 80%. The number of students taking private lessons has increased sharply due to the gradual easing of ban on private education since 1990 and the constitutional ruling on the ban on private tutors on April 27, 2000—the Constitutional Court ruled ban on private tutoring unconstitutional (Tables 11 and 12). The growth of private education is closely related to the parents’ mistrust in public education, which is described by the collapse of schools and classrooms that began in the late 1990s. According to a survey conducted by the Korean Educational Development Institute in 2002, 70.3% of students and 59.6% of parents think that taking lessons at private institutes is more effective in improving grades than schools (Kim Yang-Boon and Kim Mi-Sook 2002). The trends of private

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Table 11 Percentage of students taking private lessons by school level unit: % School level

1997

1999

KOSEFE KEDI Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development Elementary 81.2 72.9 70.1 school Middle 55.3 56.0 62.8 school High 27.2 32.0 47.2 school

2000

2001 2003

KEDI Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development 73.5 70.7

KEDI KEDI

70.5 83.1

50.7 59.5

63.9 75.3

39.8 35.6

48.3 56.4

Note Korean Educational Development Institute (November 27, 2003)

Table 12 Trends in spending on private education 1998

2001

2003

Current price

KRW12.2 trillion

KRW10.6 trillion

Constant price

KRW12.6 trillion

KRW11 trillion

Number of students

8.2 million

7.8 million

KRE13.6 trillion KRW13.6 trillion 7.8 million

Note Korean Educational Development Institute (November 27, 2003)

education since 1995 show that private tutoring has become prevalent in recent years. In 1997, 56% of middle school students and 32% of high school students took private lessons; however, in 2003, the percentage of students taking private lessons increased sharply to 75.3% and 56.4%, respectively. As more and more students are taking private tutoring, spending on private education has increased every year. In 2003, spending on private education totaled KRW13.6 trillion, accounting for 2.3% of GDP and 55% of the annual education budget. * Ministry of Education, Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, Korea Educational Development Institute (each year).

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As of 2003, private education expenditure, in constant price, increased by 8.6% compared to 1998 and by 23.6% compared to 2001. The bigger problem is that not only has the percentage of total household expenditures on private education increased, but the polarization of private education spending by class and region has become more serious. The spending on private education which has increased since 2000s already exceeded KRW20 trillion. According to the official statistics from the Ministry of Education, private education expenditure stood at KRW20 trillion. However, it seems that the actual spending on private education is expected to reach KRW30 trillion. The spending on private education, which rose sharply during the Roh, Moo-Hyun presidency, seems to have peaked at KRW20 trillion won. Compared to early 1980s, private education expenditure increased about 70 times. This is a dramatic increase, which is unprecedented in any other countries. Given that the Republic of Korea’s annual education budget is about KRW50 trillion, half of the total budget is spent on private education. Moreover, the private education expenditure shown in Fig. 14 is calculated only for the private education expenditure of primary and secondary school students. In some cases, only the spending on private education outside the school is calculated; therefore, the total spending on private education by each household is likely to be much higher. Lee

Myung-

bak Roh Moohyun

Private Education Expenses

Kim Dae-jung

(Unit : a

Kim Youngsam

hundred million won)

Roh Tae-woo

Park Jeonghee

Chun Doohwan

Fig. 14 Trends of spending on private education based on official statistics

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Private education has become part of our everyday life. According to the statistics showing the private education expenditure by neighborhood in the mid-2000s, by the time when private education expanded, the average annual private education expenditure per students in Gangnam district in Seoul was KRW4.87 million, and the students in the Seoul Metropolitan area spent 3.58 million won on private education annually. And the students in towns and villages spent the least amount of money at KRW2.03 million (Korea Educational Development Institute, November 19, 2003). Students living in Gangnam district spend almost 2.35 times more on private education than students in towns and villages, indicating that there is a considerable gap between the regions in terms of spending on private education. The disparity in private education expenditure between the regions is likely to lead to differences in educational attainment among students. The participation in private tutoring by middle and high school students is not just a phenomenon in the Republic of Korea, but a global phenomenon that is happening all over the world including Asia, the U.S., and Europe. Of course, there may be differences in the level of private education and perception on private education among parents and students in each country, but the problem of private education is becoming more serious in Confucian Asian countries, which are known to have higher educational fever than any other parts of the world. In particular, Singapore, Republic of Korea, Hong Kong, and Japan ranked 1st, 2nd, 3rd, and 4th, respectively, in the TIMSS (The Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study) 1999 mathematics achievement. Participation rate in private tutoring in these countries hovers around 40–50%. Therefore, the high academic achievement of Asian countries including the Republic of Korea is closely related to the expansion of private tutoring and the entrance examination system for further or higher education (Table 13). In order to solve the problem of spending on private education, the government proposed various countermeasures against private education expenditure. Private education policies can be divided into period when private education was prohibited and when ban on private education was lifted.

Revision and supplementation of measures to ban private education

Description of private education policy August 4, 1995 December 29, 1996 July31, 1997 August 25, 1997

Announcement date The Kim, Young-Sam government

Government

Table 13 Major measures for private education by year and government

(continued)

• Allowed primary and secondary school students to take classes at private institutes during the semester • Allowed undergraduate students to give private tutoring to elementary and middle school students • Prepared measures against illegal tutoring (promoted extracurricular activities at schools, expanded level-based classes) • Announced measures to curb overheating of private tutoring and reduce spending on private tutoring • Broadcast educational television programs via satellite

Major measures for private education

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Full allowance of private education

Description of private education policy

Table 13 (continued)

The Kim, Dae-Jung government

The Roh, Moo-Hyun government

January 16, 2004 February 17, 2004 March 20, 2007

Government

August 12, 1998 April 27, 2000 April 7, 2001 Juy 8, 2001

Announcement date

• Announced phase-out of self-study of supplementary classes after school • Fully allowed students to take private lessons (Constitutional court ruling on the private institute) • Revised the Act on the Establishment and Operation of Private Teaching Institutes to the Act on the Establishment and Operation of Private Teaching Institutes and Extracurricular Lessons • Implemented a reporting system for private tutors • Prohibited late night teaching and boarding school-type private institutes • Announced comprehensive measures to reduce private education expenditure • Announced measures to reduce dependence on private education

Major measures for private education

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October 28, 2008 June 3, 2009 May 18, 2011 February 17, 2012

Implementation of presidential pledge to cut household spending on private education by half

The Lee, Myung-Bak government

Government • Announced measures to reduce private tutoring expenditure • Announced measures to reduce spending on private education by improving the competitiveness of public education • Announced measures to create a virtuous circle of strengthening public education and reducing private education • Announced 2012 Measures to Reduce Private Education Expenditure

Major measures for private education

Note Special Briefing Team (2007), Rewritten by referring to what was presented by Park Jung-Soo (2006)

Announcement date

Description of private education policy

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The July 30 education reform measures implemented in the 1980s were the strongest private education policies among private education policies implemented by successive governments, which completely banned private education. The policy was implemented because of the enormous burdens on the general public due to private education. As a result of this measure, the private tutoring expenditure remained at a marginal level for a while compared to the current level, so there were virtually no statistics on private education during this period (Nam Ki-Gon 2007). On April 27, 2000, the Constitutional Court issued a ruling that the law limiting the educational choice of an individual is excessive, although the ban on private tutoring could be justified for normalizing school education, minimizing discrimination against private education, and preventing unusual investment in education. Since then, the spending on private education has increased sharply (Woo Chun-Sik 2004; Lee, Jong-Jae, 2010). In 2014, a total of KRW20 trillion was spent on private education, which shows us what should be the focus of government’s policy on private education. Given the continuous increase of private education, we cannot conclude that the government’s various policies to prohibit, suppress, and reduce private education have proven effective. Starting with the July 30 Education Reform introduced in 1980, various policies, such as the comprehensive measures to reduce private education expenditure in 2004, and measures to reduce spending on private education through strengthening the public education of the Lee Myung-Bak government, focused on curbing private education and restricting the operation of private institutes. However, the effect of the private education policy that students actually felt was not greater than expected (Kim Hee-Sam 2010). Nevertheless, it can be said that the decline in the percentage of participation in private education and spending on private education over the past five year is, to some extent, the results of the Lee Myung-Bak government’s efforts to reduce private education, including policies to ease admission to special-purpose high schools.

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High School Diversification

Most high schools have been operated in a similar fashion since the high school standardization policy was implemented. As a result, criticism arose that the types of high schools are too uniform. Recently, efforts have been actively pursed to diversify the types of high schools that have been operated in similar forms so far. Especially, this transition effort was made more strongly under the government emphasizing the autonomy and diversity of schools (Lee Joo-Ho et al. 2011). The establishment of special-purpose high schools such as the Science High School and the International High School was proposed as a measure to diversify high schools. In 1983, Gyeonggi Science High School, the first science high school, opened its doors as a solution to the standardized high school education and the deterioration of quality of education as a result of the standardization of high schools. In 1984, Daejeon Science High School, Jeonnam Science High School, and Gyeongnam Science High School were established. At present, at least one Science High School is established in each city and province. Today, there are diversified forms of high schools such as gifted & talented schools, international schools, and autonomous private high schools. Table 14 shows the number of special-purpose high schools established since 1984. In recent years, the number of autonomous schools such as autonomous private and public high schools, which can flexibly implement curriculums to some extent, and special-purpose high schools are increasing. There are an average of 10 autonomous public high schools in each region. With the implementation of high school standardization policy, the demand for standardized education on the one hand and the demand for various forms of school education on the other hand have been continuously increasing. The changes in the high school system from the Kim, Young-Sam government to the Lee Myung-Bak government show the demands for diversification of high schools over the period. The high school education system under the Lee Myung-Bak government can be classified into various forms depending on the type and operation method of high schools. Although the policies related to the diversification of high schools were significantly increased under the Lee Myung-Bak government, the high school diversification

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policy was first discussed in the Kim Young-Sam government’s May 31 Education Reform Plan as educational options of students and parents. Previously, the focus was on the diversification of high school types such as establishing special-purpose high schools. However, diversification of high schools proposed in the May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) focused on the diversification of education and strengthening autonomy and accountability of each school in its operation. In particular, strengthening autonomy of each school was pursued based on the view that the school system at that time was too uniform. In other words, instead of controlling and regulating schools by the central government, the autonomy of the school was given to its management so that each school could proactively pursue change to meet the demand of education consumers. In the May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995), the autonomy and responsibility of the private school was suggested as one of the urgent tasks that need to be implemented, and the establishment of autonomous private high schools was proposed. Controversy over the establishment of the autonomous private high schools continued for quite a while as this proposal ran counter to the high school standardization policy. However, pilot implementation of autonomous high schools began in 2002 under the Kim Dae-Jung government. The requirement for the pilot school was not to take a written entrance examination to select students while guaranteeing the school’s right to student selection, and the ratio of the tuition fee to endowment should be 8 to 2 or more, and the student’s contribution should be less than 3 times that of general high schools in the same area. The schools designated as the pilot schools since 2002 were the Korean Minjok Leadership Academy, Gwangyang Jecheol High School , Pohang Jecheol High School, Haeundae High School, Hyundai Chungun High School, and Sangsan High School. The Lee Myung-Bak government was most active in promoting high school diversification policy. Since the Lee, Myung-Bak government’s education policy focused on autonomy, responsibility, choice, competition, and diversity, the government actively pursued diversification of schools

4/0 4/0 4/0 4/0 5/0 7/0 7/0 9/0 11/0 13/0 15/0 15/0 15/0 15/0 15/0

Year

1984 1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Gifted Science High School

0/2 0/4 0/4 0/4 0/5 0/5 0/7 0/7 1/10 1/10 2/12 3/12 4/12 5/13 5/13

Foreign Language High School

1/0

International High School

Note Website of each special-purpose high school

Science High School

계

1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012

Year 16/0 16/0 16/0 15/0 16/0 16/0 17/0 18/0 19/0 20/0 19/0 18/0 19/0 20/0 20

Science High School

1/0 1/0 1/0 1/0 1/0 1/0 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 4/0 4

Gifted Science High School

Table 14 Number of special-purpose schools by year (National/Public/Private Schools)

5/13 5/13 5/13 5/14 5/14 6/16 8/17 11/18 11/18 12/18 12/18 14/19 14/18 14/17 31

Foreign Language High School 1/0 1/0 1/0 1/0 1/0 1/0 1/0 1/1 1/1 3/1 3/1 3/1 5/1 5/1 6

International High School Development of Primary and Secondary …

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as much as possible. In particular, through the High School Diversification 300 Project, the Lee government pursued the policy to establish 300 diverse high schools student can choose. Out of the 300 diverse high schools, 150 of them were boarding public high schools designated for rural areas, small and medium-sized cities, underdeveloped part in large cities, and 50 schools were classified as specialized schools or Meister High Schools. In order to ensure autonomy of private schools, 100 private high schools were changed to autonomous private high schools. High school diversification reflects international trends that emphasize choices of students and parents, and is highly likely to continue. However, it is necessary to encourage to establish more high schools with distinctive characteristics through diversification of programs and curriculums in high school rather than diversification of types of high schools.

4.5

Strengthening of Character Education

The term “character education”, which had occasionally appeared in the media since 1993, suddenly increased after May 19, 1994 when Park, Han-Sang killed his parents. Park Han-Sang who had been studying in the U.S. returned Korea and killed his parents, who had been running an herbal shop, for money. This immoral crime sent a great shockwave to the Korean society. At the time, the media denounced the education community claiming that improper education at the school was to blame for the crime. The Ministry of Education hastily announced various measures to strengthen the character education at school, one of which was “Study Free Day” which was later renamed to “Schoolbag Free Day”. He was the eldest son of Mr. Park Soon-Tae who had returned from the U.S. and grotesquely murdered his parents who were the owner of an herbal shop. I wonder if there is another such miserable tragedy. Nowadays, people often say, “How come this happened” and “We are no stranger… … we are each other’s enemy”, which is a reflection of the unstable social conditions in which unexpected incidents, which shock the people, are ceaselessly happening. But this immoral crime was not

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the result of a conflict between the generations or unstable social condition, rather it was the ignorance of ethics and the character education, which makes this incident more tragic. Therefore, all of us should systematically strengthen the education system and the neglected character education together. A child kills his parents because of money. We need to do something to prevent the repeat of such a horrific crime. * The Korea Times, May 27, 1994. The parental murder of Park Han-Sang was considered a crime committed by a reprobate son, but it served as an opportunity to strengthen the character education as the voices denouncing the absence of ethics education in the high school curriculum increased. As a result, the term “character education” first appeared officially in the document prepared by the Ministry of Education. On May 31, 1995, the Education Reform Commission announced the May 31 Education Reform Bill and proposed that education to promote character and creativity should be strengthened to solve social and educational problems caused due to detrimental influences of materialism, commercial media, and harmful environment (Educational Reform Commission 1995). It is noteworthy that the Commission proposed systematic character education be implemented by each school level, the knowledge-centered ethics and moral education be replaced by the practice-oriented education, and all the activities of the students be written in the comprehensive student record and used as reference for student selection (Table 15).

4.6

May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) for Strengthening Practice-Oriented Character Education

Implementation of character education by each level of school: We will implement character education (such as morality, sociality, and emotional education) that is systemized in accordance with the

The Kim, Dae-Jung government (1998–2003)

The Kim, Young-Sam government (1993–1998)

Government

Diversification of high school types • High school establishment based on normative system – September 23, 1997: Enacted regulations for establishing and operating schools under high schools • Designated International High School as a special-purpose high school (February 22, 1996)—March 1998 The first international high school opened its door • Introduced a specialized high school (September 23, 1997) – March 1998: one vocational school and six alternative schools were established • Expanded authority of municipal and provincial superintendents to designate and announce special-purpose high schools (March 2, 2001) • Expanded authority of municipal and provincial superintendents to designate and announce specialized high schools (October 20, 2001)—7 schools in 1998—1 schools in 2003 • Increased the number of specialized schools for alternative education (6 schools in 1998—17 schools in 2003) • Established the Gifted Education Promotion Act (Jan. 28, 2000) and Busan Science High School (March 3, 2003)

Changes in high school-related policies

Table 15 Changes in high school system by each government

• Increased autonomous schools – Pilot implementation of 14 autonomous schools in March 1999 – 31 additional autonomous schools in 2000 – Additional 5 integrated high schools in farming and fishing villages in March 2001 – Additionally included autonomous private high schools as schools subject to designation in 2002 • Pilot implementation of autonomous private high school October 22, 2001: Designated 5 pilot schools—May 2002: Designated 1 additional autonomous private school —3 schools in 2002 and 3 schools in 2003—pilot implementation—Feburary 2006 (3 years)

Autonomy in high school operation • Proposed the establishment of autonomous private high schools – May 31 Education Reform Plan in 1995—Postponed the establishment of the autonomous private high schools to after 2000 • Established legal basis for the introduction of autonomous schools – Article 61 (December 13, 1997) of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act and Article 105 (1998, 24 February) of the Enforcement Decree of the Act

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• Increased specialized vocational high schools – Expanded major entities supporting specialized high schools (municipal and provincial offices of education— local government, industry, central government)—48 schools in 2002—30 schools in 2007 • Recognized alternative schools as miscellaneous schools—March 24, 2005 Revised the Elementary and Secondary Education Act • Reduced the authority of the Superintendent to designate special-purpose high schools (have them consult with the Minister of Education in advance)—Revised the Elementary and Secondary Education Act in May 2007 • Directive for Designation and Operation of Special Purpose High Schools (No. 182, July 29, 2010) Self-directed learning based examination from 2011 • December 10, 2009: Prepared improvement plan for foreign language high school system • June 29, 2010 Changed the objective of foreign language high school: Nurturing students gifted in foreign languages—cultivating students who are fluent in foreign languages • July 29, 2010: Decided to evaluate special-purpose high school every five year and determine the re-designation based on the evaluation results • Reorganized system for special-purpose high schools and specialized high schools (June 29, 2010) • Established Meister High Schools (October 2008) as part of High School Diversification 300 Project—operated 28 Meister High Schools and designated 38 schools in 2012

The Roh, Moo-Hyun government (2003–2008)

Note Kim Sung-Yeol and Kim Hoon-Ho (2013, p. 5)

The Lee, Myung-Bak government (2008–2013)

Changes in high school-related policies

Government

• Increased the designation of autonomous schools—277 schools in 2008 3,122 schools in 2011 • Introduced autonomous private high schools (March 27, 2009)—operation of 25 schools in 2009—26 schools were additionally designated as autonomous schools in 2010 (6 autonomous private high schools) 51 private schools are designated and in operation as of 2012 • Pilot implementation of autonomous public schools (March 2010–) August 22, 2012 116 schools are in operation • Introduced boarding high schools (August 26, 2008) 150 schools are designated as boarding high schools as of January 2013

• Extended pilot implementation of autonomous private high schools until February 2009 • Pilot implementation of open autonomous school March 2007–February 2011 (4 years): 4 schools March 2008–February 2011 (3 years): 6 schools

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development level of the students and integrate the character education into the regular curriculum. – Improvement of method of character education: Instead of knowledge-centered ethics and moral education, we will seek internalization of ethical principles of democratic citizen through dialogue, discussion, counseling, and voluntary activities. Also, we will seek to create moral atmosphere in schools by implementing ethics and moral education in all subjects. – Expanded reflection of youth training activities and voluntary activities in a “comprehensive student record”: We will promote group training activities for the youth by increasing camps and training centers and provide the youth with various practical learning experiences that promote cooperative problem-solving by developing group play program. We will require schools to record and manage the contents and participation time of a student’s individual or group training activity, volunteer activity participated outside or within the school in the “comprehensive student record” and to reflect it in the evaluation for admission to higher school. – Strengthening character education in early childhood education: We will require early childhood education institutes to implement practice-oriented education such as education on etiquette, public order, and cleanliness to cultivate good habits for children, and strengthen education for parent on correct child education methods so that the character education is carried out in connection with education at home. Strengthening connectivity with education at home: We will strengthen training on parental role, character education for their children, understanding children’s school life, information on education and counseling in educational and training programs of various social

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organizations and corporations, and continuously promote the importance of character education at home through the media. In particular, we will have educational broadcasting and cable TV develop and distribute systematic education programs for parents and home education programs. – Enhancement of educational functions of the media: We will encourage the production of programs that will help foster emotional cultivation for the youth, actively support promotional programs for improving harmful environment for the youth and preventing the youth delinquency (smoking, drug abuse, etc.). In addition, we will also prepare legal and institutional grounds to protect the youth from harmful environments such as contents with sexually explicit, violent, and criminal nature that have an absolute impact on youth character education. * Education Reform Commission (1995), Education Reform Plan to establish a new education system to lead the age of globalization and information, pp. 92–95. The moral education became the part of the common basic national education curriculum in order to achieve the goal of developing sound character and creativity of the people, which was, more specifically, the educational goal of the 7th curriculum (1997–2007). The 1st and 2nd graders of elementary school were taught “Desirable Life”, and 3rd graders of elementary school through 1st graders of high school were taught moral education. The moral subject is basically a core part of character education and democratic civic education, and it is a subject that focuses on the formation of a virtuous character. Recently, the character education gained more public attention when a middle school student in Daegu committed suicide in December 2011 after being bullied by other students. Many youth suicides followed, and in 2012, policies to strengthen character education began to be actively discussed. Shortterm and long-term character education policies were included in the

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Comprehensive Measures to Eliminate School Violence (Joint Ministerial Measures 2012) announced by the Ministry of Education in 2012. Subsequently, curriculum related to character education was revised. A comprehensive survey conducted by the government on character education in 2012 showed that 51% of the general public felt that there was a problem with students’ character and that character would become more important issue in the future. The survey showed the general public questioned about the appropriateness of character education at that time. Accordingly, only 46.3% of students, 35.8% of parents, and 19.7% of teachers were positive about the level of education with regard to trust and cooperation, and interpersonal competence, which are the ability needed to live together with others. Most of the school community members viewed that students lacked capacity to live together with others. In addition, only 60.8% of the students, 53.7% of the parents, and 31.9% of the teachers were satisfied with the character education in schools. In particular, teachers’ low level of satisfaction in character education showed that they were concerned about character education in schools. In 2015, as a result of continued interest of the Park, Geun-Hye government and cooperation with the National Assembly, the Character Education Promotion Act, the legal basis for character education, was enacted on July 21, 2015. Now that the legal basis for character education is established, a systematic research and development of curriculum for character education is likely to be performed in future (Figs. 15 and 16).

Students

Parents Teachers

Very poor

Poor

Good

Very good

Fig. 15 How people view students’ ability to live together (Source Ministry of Education, Science and Technology [2012])

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Students

Parents

Teachers

Very low

Low

High

Very High

Fig. 16 Level of satisfaction with character education in schools (Source Ministry of Education, Science and Technology [2012])

4.7

Achievement and Challenges of Primary and Secondary Education during the Informatization Period

It is generally considered that the Korean society has been stabilized and its democracy has been established and consolidated since the industrialization period during which the Republic of Korea’s economy grew rapidly. Especially during the informatization period, primary and secondary education focused on the national welfare was promoted. Various educational reform measures have been proposed to the extent that the paradigm of education policy is changed after the May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) which is still affecting the field of education. The May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) covered broader topics and details than those of previous educational reform plans. In particular, it emphasized the change of the education field and proposed a revolutionary paradigm aimed at diversified and specialized education. As for primary and secondary education, the reform plan focused on the establishment of school community, curriculum emphasizing students’ character and creativity, and primary and secondary education that respects the diversity of learners. Although there were some criticisms that the educational reform was pursued following the logic of market, it is necessary to give the May 31 Education Reform Plan full credit for making extraordinary and various attempts for education

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reform. With the expansion of educational opportunities and diversification of members of education community, the demand for school education has further increased. Parents and students also responded sensitively to the problem of school violence, criticism grew over the weakening competitiveness of public education, and voices emphasizing school accountability were also raised. People also paid attention to indices such as PISA and TIMSS, which are the indicators of education competitiveness. All of these interests would have been burdensome for teachers and school administrators. As the May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) was implemented in earnest, people paid attention to the qualitative improvement of education in addition to its quantitative growth. In order to cultivate competent teachers, strategic approaches were also taken to improve the quality of new teachers such as improving teacher training system, reorganizing compensation system to the competency-based system, and reforming working environment in schools. However, in this process, the entire teaching community underwent tumultuous period because of the policy to lower the retirement age of teachers. Although various policies have been proposed to increase the morale of teachers, it is still not easy to overcome the aftermath of the restructuring of teacher community. Meanwhile, the Kim Dae-Jung government legitimized teachers’ union in 1998, and since then the Korean Teachers and Educational Workers’ Union (KTU) along with the Korea Federation of Teacher’s Associations have been playing an important role in various educational policies implemented by the government. One of the biggest problems in the 2000s was the explosive growth of spending on private education. On April 27, 2000, as the constitutional court ruled banning private tutoring unconstitutional, private tutoring continued to grow explosively. In particular, spending on private education during the Roh Moo-Hyun presidency surged and the annual private education expenditure exceeded KRW20 trillion. Today parents are voicing concerns that the current spending on private tutoring has well exceeded KRW30 trillion, not 20 trillion won. As the private tutoring expenditure continued to increase, various measures for curbing private tutoring have been

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taken, but in fact, the effects of the policies felt by students and parents do not seem to be significant. One of the characteristics of education policy during the informatization period was the diversification of high schools and strengthening of character education. In addition to the demand for guaranteeing parents and students’ rights to educational choices that was contained in May 31 Education Reform Plan, there has been a growing demand for character education as well. In 2015, the National Assembly passed the Character Education Promotion Act, and with the passage of the Act, the education community is likely to be more actively engaged in discussion about character education. Primary and secondary education during the informatization period underwent qualitative development as well as quantitative growth. Moreover, various demands of the society were reflected in education during the same period. Also during the informatization period, significant education reform proposals like the May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995), which still affects education policies of today, were proposed. Although the primary and secondary education in those days focused on the welfare of the people, the problem of reduction in the schoolage population due to low fertility rate has emerged. The primary and secondary education system is now at the crossroads. Whether to make another leap forward through fundamental improvement of education, or to experience difficulties due to improper preparation depends on the implementation of education reform from now on (Fig. 20). Now is the time for the education community to think deeply about the future of our education.

5

Conclusion

The miracle of the Republic of Korea’s education for the past 70 years after liberation is defined not just by elementary school enrollment rate of 100%. Such achievement was made possible because of change through education and passion for learning. Like Nietzsche’s “the will to power”, The Republic of Korea’s education for the past 70 years can be

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described as the result of “the will to education” and “the will to learning”. And the will of the general public, government officials, teachers, students, and parents in qualitative development as well as quantitative growth of education has been very strong. In particular, we overcame the difficulties during the state formation period, experienced the national development in the industrialization period, and now our education has been developed to consider the people’s welfare. Until now, Korea’s education has focused on education and learning, as is clearly shown in the “busy and fast growing Korean society”. It is a fragmentary point of view that the government’s well-developed institutions or educational conditions led to the Republic of Korea’s educational achievement as it is today. Rather, it seems more appropriate to think that today’s educational achievement was made possible thanks to the people’s strong commitment to education and learning along with the government’s education policy. It is true that education over the past 70 years has made a miraculous achievement including the expansion of primary and secondary education and national growth and social development in the broader context. However, considering the increasing demands of students, parents, and teachers who want our school education to take a step forward beyond spread of primary and secondary education, it can be said Korean education is faced with considerable challenges. Now, school education needs to be changed to meet the diverse needs of members of society. If primary and secondary education is satisfied with the status quo and is implemented simply in the same way that has been implemented so far, the general public is not likely to have as much trust and expectations in our education as they did in the 1950s and 1960s when our education grew rapidly in terms of both its quantity and quality. Although numerous educational reforms and new educational policies have been implemented, students, parents, teachers, and educational officials are still not satisfied with school education. In the future, continuous efforts need to be made to achieve qualitative growth instead of quantitative growth of education and a second educational miracle. Parents are increasingly complaining about public education because they feel that the public education alone is not enough for their children’s education.

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As the education market does not properly reflect the needs of education consumers, the demand for education has shifted to new areas such as private tutoring. Therefore, in order to solve these problems, it is necessary to understand why parents are not satisfied with public education. The mismatch between parents’ demand and the supply of public education can be attributable to the fact that public education fails to satisfy the needs of parents who want their children to go to good colleges. Whereas public education aims to provide whole-rounded education, parents are focused on improving academic performance of their children or admission to college. Therefore, there is a fundamental difference in how parents and education institutions perceive the raison d’être of schools. In particular, in Korea, the government emphasized the personality aspect of holistic growth as the objectives of the public educational institutions more than studying itself. Therefore, there could possibly be a lot of confusion about the objectives of educational institutions even for teachers and education administrators. In the U.S., as clearly stated in the No Child Left Behind (NCLB), primary purpose of schooling is to ensure students meet at least the lowest academic standards. The UK’s Vision 2020 also focuses on how learning can be done better in schools and emphasizes that the school should continue to work to this end. It is therefore necessary for us to reach a clear consensus on the fundamental role of schools so that parents can trust the schools, and it is also necessary to make clear that primary purpose of education should be students’ learning. This will help restore confidence in schools. In view of the educational history of Korea, it is important to ensure that educational communities around schools determine what missions should be completed, various members of those communities actively participate, and cooperative relationships are built for the development of community in order to build a harmonious community that can have a substantial impact on schools. First, in order to accomplish the goal of “reviving schools” or “creating good schools”, it is necessary to ensure that the government and each school accurately diagnose the current situation and share the goal among the members of each educational community. It should no longer be a mere slogan as in the past, but stakeholders related to each school should share the difficulties they feel themselves

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in educational realities and form a consensus that they should no longer neglect the problems in school education. Each member of educational community should realize that developing school education is the issue related to their children, their livelihood, and a welfare for preparing for the age of centenarians. Based on this perception, it is important to actively participate in “reviving schools” and “creating good schools” in order to build communities in which we can live together rather than standing on the sidelines. All members of educational communities, including principals and teachers, students, parents, the offices of education, local public institutions, civic organizations, and the government, should actively participate in the development of school education and strive to make substantial results. Parents, communities, the offices of education, and the government should work together to monitor the educational needs of each educational community on an ongoing basis. It is also necessary to maintain close cooperative relationships among educational communities in order to achieve the ultimate goal of “reviving schools” instead of being in conflict or confrontation over existing educational issues with other educational communities. Not only will this partnership be able to help us respond actively to the needs of school members, but it will ultimately have a positive impact on students and, more broadly, local residents. Second, in order to ensure school education is implemented in a proper manner, it is necessary to create conditions for schools to be operated properly. The most urgent issue facing us today is to create a favorable working environment for teachers who have the greatest influence on students. It is important to nurture excellent teachers, provide various incentives to the excellent teachers, and create conditions for teachers to focus only on studying the subject they teach for quality teaching. In principle, there should be no qualitative difference among teachers placed in schools, but the reality is that new teachers who are not experienced are often placed in schools in relatively inferior areas because there are school districts and schools where the teachers prefer, and the proportion of temporary teachers taking charge of a class in place of regular teachers who avoid taking on a homeroom teacher role is increasing rapidly, which needs to be improved (Table 16).

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Table 16 Number of schools where temporary teachers took on a homeroom teacher between 2007 and 2011 School Level

2007 A B B/A

2008 A B B/A

2009 A B B/A

2010 A B B/A

2011 A B B/A

Elementary school

5,951 669 11% 2,988 1,081 36% 1,418 360 25% 10,357 2,110 20%

6,037 862 14% 3,045 1,236 41% 1,456 446 31% 10,538 2,544 24%

6,094 1,141 19% 3,085 1,444 47% 1,498 543 36% 10,677 3,128 29%

6,133 789 13% 3,116 1,326 43% 1,521 593 39% 10,770 2,708 25%

6,201 1,855 30% 3,170 1,817 57% 1,554 834 54% 10,925 4,506 41%

General middle school

General high school

Total

Note A: Number of schools; B: Number of temporary teachers taking on a homeroom teacher role; B/A: Proportion of schools where temporary teachers take on a homeroom teacher role Source Korean Educational Development Institute (each year)

If the problem of qualitative difference of teachers is not corrected, it will not be possible to equalize actual educational conditions, and it is highly likely that education gap between regions and classes will remain. To improve educational conditions, it is important to secure education budget and establish a systematic educational support system to create synergistic effects among various educational support projects. In addition, it is necessary to prepare measures to reinvest savings in private tutoring expenditure, which is saved by absorbing it into public education. Third, it is necessary to disclose educational information in a transparent manner so that all the people who are interested in school education can access to it, including various information related to primary and secondary schools, and universities. This will enable us to regain lost trust of members of schools and the general public and convince them that everything related to schools is done in a transparent and fair manner. It is necessary to restore the relationship between schools and communities, and schools and parents by disclosing information to the general public ranging from the general information about primary and secondary schools to the specific program (Fig. 17).

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Fig. 17 NOW Home Portal of Madison City High Schools, Wisconsin, USA (example of detailed information on how student’s grade in social studies is calculated)

In particular, it is necessary to emphasize that the purpose of schooling is to focus on students’ learning and to guarantee the necessary basic academic ability of students. To this end, it is necessary to consider introducing the system that allows parents to check how classes are implemented on-line, where necessary (Fig. 18).

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Fig. 18 School Info Website (www.schoolinfo.go.kr)

In order to improve the current practice of relying on specific private education providers to access information about entrance exams for special purpose high schools or universities, it is necessary to disclose all education-related information and to open a school information Website if necessary. It is important to make sure that educational guidance and student counseling that meets the individual characteristics of students are available from elementary schools, and that the results of such counseling are communicated to the person in charge when the student enters a school of higher level so that the school can obtain sufficient information about the student. This will also help parents to better understand their children by being informed of these counseling results (Fig. 19).

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Population(Age 6~17)

Financial grants for local education Trillion won

Total Trillion won

High school students Middle school

Unit: 10 thousand

students Elementary school students

Data : National Statistical Office

Data : Ministry of Economy and Finance

Fig. 19 Changes in school-age population and local education subsidy by each year (Source “Chosun Ilbo”, July 14, 2011)

In the Republic of Korea, education policies emphasizing accountability in education have been continuously proposed. In particular, Table 17 shows the main policies related to education accountability in the May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995). Since then, various efforts have been made to strengthen accountability in public education to enhance competitiveness of public education such as disclosing information on schools through School Info Website. In order to strengthen the accountability in public education, various educational policies need to be established and enforced. Fourth, the government’s local education subsidy takes up a large part in local education finances. Current local education subsidy is fixed at 20.27% of domestic tax and is automatically allocated to each municipal and provincial office of education. Despite the fact that the number of elementary and middle school students has decreased by 1 million in 2011 compared to 2001 due to low fertility, local education subsidy has increased every year and doubled to KRW35.3 trillion. If the number of students gradually decreases to 4.52 million by 2030, it is necessary to discuss the long-term direction for how to administer the local education subsidy. Since most of the local education subsidy is being spent on uncontrollable expenses such as personnel expenses, operating expenses, and facility expenses, it is necessary to seek ways to flexibly operate the local education subsidy in consideration of the decrease in the number of

Detailed policies related to education accountability

Strengthening accountability for education

New education system

1st (May 31, 1995)

Measures

(continued)

Learner-centered education, diversification of education, operation of schools based on autonomy and accountability, education in harmony with freedom and equality, informatization of education, and establishment of “New Education System” to lead the future society through quality education To ensure publicness and transparency of school operation through evaluation of the process and results of the school operation, and enable education consumers to judge the quality of education To establish a system to evaluate and support educational providers (1) Establishing deregulation committee • Minimizing regulations on the establishment and operation of school, implementation of curriculum, selection of students, etc. Ensuring creative involvement and active participation of education officials Improving education quality (2) Establishing an organization solely responsible for curriculum and evaluation (Establishing a tentatively named “Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation”) • Developing and evaluating national curriculum • Management of College Scholastic Ability Test • Evaluating school operation and students’ academic achievement—Improving accountability of educational institutions by disclosing evaluation results—Supporting government to strengthen linkage between evaluation results and financial support • Providing a variety of credible information on assessment results to help students and parents choose their school and career ➂ Requiring primary, secondary schools, and colleges to disclose information on their budget and accounts settlement results

Features

Objectives

Building a society for open education and lifelong learning

Vision

Table 17 Features of the May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) and major policies related to educational accountability

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Building a society for open education and lifelong learning (1) Establishing a system for opening up a school education • Having each teacher to conduct at least one open class per each semester • Encouraging class selection when assigning class—Making pre-announcement of specialized programs for each class—Enabling students and parents to select desired class ➁ Improving autonomy and responsibility of private schools • Ensure publicness and transparency of operation of private schools—Establishing a private school dispute mediation committee—Disclosing information on budget and settlement of accounts • Rationalizing operation system for private primary and secondary schools—Implementing public-service programs for the underprivileged • Ensuring autonomy of school operation and providing government’s financial assistance to the maximum extent • Establishing a comprehensive support system for private schools—Increasing tax, financial and financial support for private schools—Establishing a system for supporting private schools in connection with evaluation results of private schools

Vision

3rd (August 20, 1996)

Note Education Reform Commission (1995, 1996)

New education system

Table 17 (continued)

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students over the longer-term. In addition, as a certain percentage of the current domestic tax is allocated to local education subsidy, the size of the subsidy is affected by economic fluctuations and it is difficult to secure stable local education finances during economic recessions. Therefore, it is necessary to improve the system for rational management of educational financing structure to secure stable long-term education finances. As with the current structure of local education finances, we may consider increasing the rate of subsidy which is currently liked uniformly to domestic tax by a certain rate, and invest excess subsidy in early childhood education or higher education, or grant government subsidies in case of shortages. However, this requires revision of related law and the consent of the National Assembly, and controversy may arise in the process of actual implementation. However, it is necessary to review the decline of the school-age population and the rationalization of education financing from the perspective of long-term operation of national education finances. Lastly, in order to actively respond to economic situations and global changes, it is necessary to establish the National Future Education Council, a strategic organization to promote overall education reform including primary and middle school education. As future talent training is a national strategy encompassing issues such as low fertility, childcare, education, employment, welfare, and life after retirement, it is important to design it in a comprehensive and detailed manner. It is necessary to continue education reform to encourage lifelong learning of the general public or their will to education by establishing the National Future Education Council (Park Se-il 2015; Ahn Byung-Young 2015). In the future, economy and education are likely to grow together in 20-year cycle, as when elementary school-age population surged. However, from 1970, when the school-age population started to decline, economic growth slowed down after one generation. It is necessary to anticipate the effects of low growth, low fertility and aging on education in advance, and to actively prepare countermeasures against those risks from now on. It is also necessary to prepare against future

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Rapid increase of elementary school students

Rapid decrease of elementary school students = economic

Predict value of

= economic expansion(about 20 years)

contraction(about 30 years)

economic growth rate

Number of elementary school

Global

Accumulated

students

financial

economic growth

crisis

rate

(2008) IMF (1997)

Oil shock (1979) Oil shock (1973)

Fig. 20 Changes in school-age population and correlation with economic growth (Source Re-analyzed yearly data from the Bank of Korea and National Statistical Office)

economic slowdown. When we looked at the changes in our education in commemoration of the 70th anniversary of the liberation of Korea, we have found that there has been no systematic analysis of important education data for the past 70 years or our education community does not have sufficient education-related data. In the future, it is important to lay a foundation for educational reform and change through the establishment of the National Future Education Council to study our education over the past 70 years in a more systematic manner, and continue to monitor the changes in education for the next 30 and 100 years.

References Ahn Byung-Young (2015), May 31 Education Reform: Retrospect and Prospect, Proceedings of Conference on May 31 Education Reform and Future Direction of Education in Korea.

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Lee Myung-Hee (2014), Formation and Characteristics of the Education System in Korea, Kim Yong-Jik, Establishment of the Korean Government and the National System, National Museum of Korean Contemporary History. Ministry of Education (1973), High School Entrance Examination Reform Plan and Its Enforcement Plan, Ministry of Education Monthly Bulletin, p. 40, pp.53–59. Ministry of Education (1988), 40 Years of Education in the Republic of Korea, Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education (1986), General Curriculum: 1946–1981, Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education (1998), 50 Years of Education: 1948–1998, Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development (2003), Ministry of Education & Human Resources Development, Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development. Ministry of Education, National Institute for Lifelong Education (2013), 2013 White Paper on Lifelong Education, National Institute for Lifelong Education. Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (2008), Middle School Curriculum Guide (II): Korean, Moral Education, Social Studies, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. Moon Myung-Ho (1986), Graduation Quota Policy Should be Abolished , Shindonga March 1986. Oh Hyuk-Jin and Huh Jun (2011), A Study on the Meaning of National Literacy Campaign in the 1950s in the Perspective of History of Social Education, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 17(IV), pp. 265–291. Oh Chun-Suk (1964), The New Korean History of Education. Seoul , Hyundai Education Publishing. Oh Hyuk-Jin and Kim Mi-Hyang (2010), A Study on the Trend and Outcome of the Historical Study of Adult Education in Korea, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 16(4), pp. 191–221. Park Dong-Joon (1998), Political and Economic Approach to Moral & Ethics Education, Korean Society for Moral & Ethics Education, Introduction to Moral & Ethics Education, Kyoyookbook. Park Dong-Joon (2005), Humanistic Occupational Ethics for Building a Knowledge-Information-Based Society, The Academy of Korean Studies, Humanism and Knowledge-Information-Based Society, Jimmundang. Park Jong-Phil (2004), School-based Management: Theory and Practice, Wonmisa. Park Nam-Ki (2003), Education War Theory, Jangmi Publishing.

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Education Act, The SNU Journal of Education Research Vol. 10(1), pp. 89– 117. Yang Jung-Ho (2004), High School Equalization Policy and Academic Achievement: Empirical Evidence?, Korean Journal of Sociology of Education Vol. 14(II), pp. 151–174. Yang Jung-Ho (2006a), What Are the Problem with the School Steering Committee?, Proceedings of Korean Educational Administration Society Spring Conference. Yang Jung-Ho (2006b), A Longitudinal Analysis of Private Tutoring Expenditure: A Polarization Index and Gini Coefficient Analysis of KLIPS, Journal of Economics and Finance of Education Vol. 15(II), pp. 213–234. Yang Jung-Ho (2009), A Study on the Policy Implementation Plan Based on the Analysis of Educational Data, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. Yang Jung-Ho (2013), How Would You Conduct Character Education?, Proceedings of Korea Forum for Progress. Yang Jung-Ho (2015), Education Polarization: The Collapse of Public Education and Education Reform, Proceedings of National Assembly Economic Policy Forum. Yang Jung-Ho and Kim Ji-Hee (2012), A Study on the Presidential Commission on Education, Journal of Politics of Education Vol. 19(2), pp. 23–47. Yang Jung-Ho, Kim Moo-Hwan, Chae Ki-Joon, Yang Sung-Kwan, Lim JinTaek, Shin Myung-Ho, Kim Su-Gu, Cho, Eun-Min, Kim Su-Kyung, and Chae Sun-Ki (2010), Development of Common Application for College Admission and Improvement of Application Acceptance System, Ministry of Education, Science and Technology. Yang Jung-Ho, Sung Tae-Je, Baek Soon-Geun, Kim Su-Kyung, Park Hye-Lim, Oh Hyun-Seok, Lee Gun-Nam, Chae Sun-Ki, and Jung Hyun-Ju (2010), A Study on the Advancement of College Admission System and Improvement of Admission Officer System, Korea Foundation for the Advancement of Science and Creativity. Yoon Jong-Hyuk, Kim Young-Chul, Kim Jung-Rae, Han Yu-Kyung (2003), A Study on the Appropriatedness of High School Standardization Policy(I), Korean Educational Development Institute Yoon Jung-Il et al., (2008), Korea’s Education Policy in the Times of Transition, Hakjisa Publisher. Yoon Jung-Il, Kim Byung-Joo, Kim Young-Chul, Kim Yoon-Tae, Yoon JongGun, Lee Hyun-Chung, and Korean Educational Administration Society

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(2003), Theory of Education Reform, Korean Educational Administration Society. Yoon Jung-Il, Song Ki-Chang, Cho Dong-Seob, and Kim Byung-Joo (2002), High School Standardization Policy, Issues in Korea’s Education Policy, Kyoyookbook. Yoon Jung-Il, Song Ki-Chang, Cho Dong-Seob, and Kim Byung-Joo (2008), Exploring Korea’s Education Policy, Kyoyookbook. 阿部洋 (Hiroshi Abe) (1987), Education Reform in Korea after Liberation, Ahn Ki-Sung (1994), The Challenges of Politics of Education in Korea, Journal of Politics of Education Vol. 1(1), pp. 55–77.

Development of Higher Education in the Republic of Korea

1

Introduction

Higher education in the Republic of Korea has experienced substantial quantitative growth over the past 70 years since the liberation in 1945. The number of higher education institutions increased from 19 (1945) to 168 (1970) and to 433 (2014). The number of students attending institutions of higher education has grown explosively from 7,800 (1945) to 200,000 (1970), and to 3.67 million (2014). As stated in Article 2 of the Higher Education Act, the types of institutions of higher education include universities, industrial universities, universities of education, junior colleges, universities offering distance education (open universities and cyber universities), technology institutes, and miscellaneous schools. The higher education institutions also include general graduate schools, professional graduate schools, and special graduate schools as specified in Article 29 and graduate school universities as specified in Article 30. Of the higher education institutions in the Republic of Korea, universities account for 42%, followed by colleges and technical institutes (34%), which together account for 76% of the total number of higher education institutions. In terms of the number of students enrolled in higher education institutions, 4-year universities account for the largest © The Academy of Korean Studies 2022 D-H. Lee et al., Education in South Korea, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5229-5_4

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share (47%) followed by colleges and technical institutes (20%), which together account for the two-thirds of students enrolled in higher education institutions. The college enrollment rate, the ratio of high school graduates to college freshmen stands at 80%, which is among the highest in the world. At present, the Republic of Korea is the 15th largest economy in the world. In the year 1953 when the Korean War ended, the nominal Gross National Income (GNI) of the Republic of Korea was KRW48.3 billion, but it grew to KRW1.441 trillion in 2013, nearly 30,000 times growth over the past six decades. The ROK’s per capita GNI, which was less than 100 dollars in the 1950s, increased to USD257 in 1970 and exceeded USD24,000 in 2014. The Republic of Korea, the country which was poorer than North Korea, the Philippines, and Argentina in the 1960s and 1970s, now stands on the threshold of becoming a developed country. The U.K.‘s think tank, the Center for Economic and Business Research (CERB), predicted in its recent World Economic Outlook report that the Republic of Korea would become world’s eighth largest economy by 2030. The secret of the rapid growth of the Republic of Korea, a small country, which rose from the ashes of the devastating war despite the lack of natural resources including oil, lies in the universalization of primary and secondary education and the expansion of higher education built on the Korean people’s passion for education. In other words, the expansion of higher education opportunities led to the development of individuals and the achievement of nation’s political, social, economic, and arts and cultural development. However, unlike many other Western countries, where the governments took the initiative in establishing and providing supports for universities, private schools played a leading role in the development of higher education in the Republic of Korea as the government lacked financial resources. According to a study conducted by the Korean Educational Statistics Service under the Korean Educational Development Institute (KEDI), 81% of four-year universities and 94% of junior colleges were privately owned schools as of 2014. In terms of the number of students, 75 and 98% of students were enrolled in private four-year universities and

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junior colleges, respectively. Therefore, it is no exaggeration to say that private institutions of higher education have contributed to more than 80% of the economic development of the Republic of Korea. Moreover, the government’s financial support for national and public universities, though it has slightly increased in recent years, has never been sufficient. Simply put, the growth of higher education in ROK was attributable to the Korean people’s passion for education and the devotion of parents to their children’s education. In this context, many of the government’s policies on higher education for the past 70 years have been inevitably related to private schools. Unlike most private schools in the West, which have been developed autonomously with an emphasis on their founding ideology, private schools in Korea were not free from the government’s control and intervention. In some respects, private schools in Korea were able to secure students in a stable manner in accordance with the admission and selection criteria as well as the university student quota determined by the government at the expense of their autonomy. In this process, the government has changed its policies on private schools in the name of public interests to secure and maintain its legitimacy. The government and private schools have maintained symbiotic relationship, benefiting from each other. This chapter examined the 70-year history of the country’s higher education policy in three different periods. First is the state formation period from the end of the Korean War to the May 16 coup. During this period, the government adopted non-interference policy and did not have strong control over higher education. Though private universities mushroomed after the liberation, criteria for ensuring quality of those universities were not strictly applied. On the surface, it appears that the U.S.’s liberal democratic thought influenced the government’s non-interference policy, but, in reality, the government did not have enough administrative capability and capacity to pay attention to higher education. The second period includes the Park Chung-Hee government, which took power after the May 16 coup, and the two successive Chun Doo-Hwan and Roh Tae-Woo governments. Last is the informatization period from the Kim, Young-Sam government when the concept of education consumers emerged for the first time in the operation of education system. Since May 31 Education

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Reform (1995), Korea’s higher education policies have also been heavily influenced by market-oriented neoliberalism. What was noticeable about the higher education policy of this period was that quality of higher education institutions was controlled through autonomy and competition of those institutions, and evaluation was conducted to check their accountability. Moreover, the status of Korean universities on the global stage was significantly improved during this period thanks to the government’s strong support for research and development of universities. In this chapter, we examined the background of major higher education policies of each period and analyzed how the policies were implemented, what kind of conflicts occurred in policy implementation process, and what the policy outcomes and future tasks are.

2

Higher Education in the State Formation Period: After Liberation to the Late 1950s

2.1

Establishment of National Universities and University Model

2.1.1 Political and Social Context After Liberation After the liberation of Korea on August 15, 1945, the first policy that the U.S. Military Government pursued in the field of higher education was the establishment of Seoul National University, the so-called a plan to establish Seoul National University. As soon as the plan was announced by the government, it met with strong opposition from professors and students nationwide. Though faced with such a fierce opposition, the government pushed ahead with the plan, and as a result, Seoul National University, which has now become a world-class university, was finally established. The plan was prepared in the following political and social context: the need for the efficient use of educational resources and the

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demand for the removal of vestiges of militarism in higher education under the Japanese colonial rule. (1) Efficient Use of Educational Resources When Korea gained independence from Japan, there were no proper higher education institutions in the nation, except for Keij¯o Imperial University whose aims were to cultivate high-ranking officials and highly educated intellectuals for the management of colony, and public and private vocational schools for cultivating craftsmen. As the government was fiscally stained, government officials expected that the equipment, buildings, faculty members, and technicians, which were scattered in different public schools, could be utilized to the fullest extent if they were integrated into one large university. Back then, the education authorities put forward the cultural benefits students could enjoy at universities and the benefit of cultivating scholars through graduate schools as the justification for the plan to establish SNU. Specifically, the plan was about establishing a single national university by merging three colleges of Gyeongseong University—College of Law, College of Medicine, and College of Natural Science and Engineering— with nine public vocational schools in and around Seoul. Initially, Seoul National University was composed of nine colleges: College of Liberal Arts and Sciences (merger of Gyeongseong University’s department of literature with department of science), College of Law (Gyeongseong University’s department of law with Gyeongseong Law College), College of Education (Gyeongseong College of Education), College of Medicine (Gyeongseong University’s department of medicine with Gyeongseong Medical College), College of Commerce (Gyeongseong Higher Commercial School), College of Engineering (Gyeongseong University’s department of engineering, Gyeongseong Mining College, and Gyeongseong Higher Technical School), College of Dentistry (Gyeongseong Dentistry College), College of Agriculture (Suwon Agriculture College), and College of Arts (newly established departments of music and fine arts). As the plan was to integrate schools with similar functions, it was like merging four-year universities with

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junior colleges by today’s standards. Therefore, the plan encountered strong opposition. Moreover, even though different colleges were merged into one giant national university under the plan, the plan still had limitations in achieving operational efficiency of the university as the colleges were still geographically dispersed. This issue was resolved to a certain extent when Seoul National University relocated its campus to the current Gwanak campus in 1975. (2) Demand for the Removal of Vestiges of Militarism in Higher Education under the Japanese Colonial Rule The educational sovereignty was brought back to Korea by national liberation on August 15, 1945, and the need for establishing our own higher education system was also raised. In response to the public opinion that a new education was necessary to remove the vestiges of Japanese militarism in our education and to accommodate national demands, the U.S. Military Government adopted a policy to promote private colleges to universities and to integrate national and public colleges into a single university. As university autonomy was considered a general practice under the Japanese colonial rule, the university autonomy was regarded as the essence of university by the professors of Gyeongseong University . However, the reformers of the Department of Education, including Oh Chun-Suk, who advocated the plan to establish Seoul National University, regarded the university autonomy as part of “college factionalism” or “Monroe Doctrine”, the evil practices in higher education under the Japanese colonial rule which should be removed. Though the conflicts could be viewed as ideological clash between rightists and leftists, in some respects, the conflict was caused due to the differing views on university autonomy between the establishment and those who advocated university reform (Kim Ki-Seok 2008). In April 1946, before the plan to establish Seoul National University was announced, the USAMGIK’s Bureau of Education attempted to merge Gyeongseong University’s medical department with Gyeongseong Medical College, but such attempts failed due to strong opposition from professors. There

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was a sense of entitlement that Keij¯o Imperial University was the only true university. Oh Chun-Suk who led the reform later said that, though he realized that the plan was not democratic, he inevitably had to push ahead with the plan because he could not draw consensus from professors.

2.2

Development of the Plan to Establish Seoul National University and Significance of the Establishment of SNU

The plan to establish Seoul National University was announced on July 13, 1946, by Director Yu Eok-Gyeom and Deputy Director Oh Chun-Suk of the Department of Education under the U.S. Military Government. The plan can be summarized as follows. First, to integrate three faculties of Keij¯o Imperial University and three public colleges into a national university, consisting of nine colleges and two graduate schools. Second, the board of directors, consisting of nine directors representing each college, is responsible for the management of the university. It is a new type of university governance implemented by state universities in the U.S., where the board of directors manages university’s personnel and financial affairs instead of recognizing university autonomy. The Department of Education under the U.S. Military Government announced the prospectus of the establishment of Seoul National University as follows. First, the Department of Education’s first priority after gaining independence from Japan was to resume operations of schools that had been closed. Therefore, elementary schools were reopened followed by secondary schools and colleges. We decided to reopen the schools that had been around during the Japanese colonial period as a temporary measure to avoid discontinuity of study of more than one million students. Second, after resuming the operations of the existing schools, the Department of Education began to review the existing education

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system and its contents. As educational institutions are not like factories that manufacture products, we are not supposed to uncritically accept and manage education system. Therefore, we made efforts to improve the education system by seeking advice and pooling wisdom from education experts as well as officials within the education department through education council. Third, the Department of Education, recognizing the importance of higher education institutions, continued to review and study education system carefully for months after the education council. The only principle guiding our actions during this period was how we can make sure our higher education institutions contribute to our nation as much as possible. Fourth, our study and review suggest that it is not possible to provide ideal and efficient education with existing higher education institutions. The higher education institutions during the Japanese colonial period were nothing but the ones created according to the situation and conditions of the times without a consistent educational plan considering the true welfare of Joseon. At that time, those who advocated reforms within the Department of Education maintained that the existing institutions of higher education were not established for the benefit of our nation, they were merely the remnants of the Japanese colonial rule used for colonizing our nation. That’s why they thought it was necessary to establish new higher education institutions in Korea. Those advocates of reform thought that higher education institutions wasted the state’s finances due to their ineffective duplication of functions and competition, and that the small institutions were operated independently and did not collaborate with one another. Against this backdrop, the Department of Education finally decided to abolish all public colleges in and around Seoul, and to establish a single, giant university, which is Seoul National University, to represent all the academic circles of our country under new ideas and initiatives (Oh Chun-Suk 1964). One month after the announcement of the plan, U.S. Military Ordinance No. 102 (Establishment of Seoul National University ) was promulgated and became effective on August 22,

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1946 . However, the idea of establishing the new national university met with strong opposition from many professors and students from all over the country immediately after the announcement until 1948. On July 31, 1946, Korean Educator’s Association and Korean Association of College Professors jointly held the National Educators’ Conference and called for the withdrawal of the plan. Later, some professors and students of Gyeongseong Mining College, Gyeongseong College of Economics, Gyeongseong College of Education, and Gyeongseong Medical College joined a campaign to oppose the establishment of Seoul National University. The collective action against the establishment of SNU began in earnest in September 1946 when the students of the relevant colleges refused to enroll at SNU and boycotted classes. Those who opposed the idea of establishing SNU demanded that the pro-Japanese professors be dismissed, police interferences be stopped, assembly permit system be abolished, the entire administrative authority over national university be transferred to Korean nationals, and the American president of SNU be replaced with a Korean president. The movement against the plan for establishing SNU escalated into political confrontations between rightists and leftists, and left-wing and right-wing professors and students were sharply divided into two groups—one group advocating a student strike over the plan and the other supporting the suspension of the strike. In this process, many professors were dismissed and hundreds of students were expelled. Despite the turmoil surrounding the plan, the U.S. Military Government pushed ahead with the establishment of Seoul National University by appointing Harry B. Ansted , a former U.S. Navy captain and a former president of Gyeongseong Imperial University, as the first president of Seoul National University. Yoon In-Sul was appointed as the dean of the Graduate School, and Lee Tae-Kyu as the head of the College of Liberal Arts and Sciences. Meanwhile, the board of directors of Seoul National University decided to allow conditional return of the dispelled students on June 13 of the same year. In response to the demands of the opponents who called for the replacement of the American president with a Korean national, Lee Choon-Ho was elected the president of Seoul National University in October of the same year, which put an end to the yearlong chaos. It can be said that the crisis was caused because the

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authorities strongly pushed ahead with the establishment of a comprehensive national university in a situation where the government of the Republic of Korea was not even established (the 60-year History of Seoul National University 2006). Seoul National University, which was established after many twists and turns, has maintained its status as a leading higher education institution in the Republic of Korea. In the early years after its establishment, however, Seoul National University was operated in a form different from the originally intended concept of a single, giant university; and the colleges were operated almost independently for a long time in a loose form of union colleges. Although laws and ordinances related to Seoul National University were promulgated and relevant administrative measures were taken, large-scale financial investment necessary for the development of the university was not made. With the enactment of the Education Law 1949, the board of directors, the highest decision-making body of Seoul National University lost its raison d’être, and the bureaucratic control of the Ministry of Education continued for a long time. Policy efforts to turn Seoul National University into a genuinely comprehensive university were not made until 1968. It can be said that SNU became a more comprehensive university after relocating its campus to the new Gwanak campus in 1975 (Fig. 1). Oh Chun-Suk who designed and pushed ahead with the plan to establish Seoul National University once said that “I am so pleased to see the relocation of Seoul National University to Gwanak campus and the development of SNU into a comprehensive university in both name and reality”. After the establishment of Seoul National University, the establishment of national universities in other provinces followed. During the Korean War, SNU formed a “War-time Union University” along with other private universities that had evacuated to Busan, which laid a ground for the establishment of national universities in other provinces. The War-time Union University provided an opportunity for local residents to receive college education, which had so far been concentrated in the Seoul Metropolitan Area. After the dissolution of the War-time Union University, national universities were established in other provinces as a way to relieve the anxiety of parents, who otherwise had to send their children to study in Seoul. Many national

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Fig. 1 Old main building of Seoul National University

universities were established between 1952 and 1953. In 1952, Kyungpook National University, Chonbuk National University, and Chonnam National University were established. In the following year, Pusan National University, Chungnam National University, and Chungbuk National University (formerly Cheongju Junior Agricultural College) were established, and Jeju National University was established in 1955. The establishment of these national universities expanded opportunities for higher education and laid the foundation for balanced regional development. It is important to remember that private universities, along with national universities, have also been playing a pivotal role in higher education in the Republic of Korea. On June 24, 1946, Ewha Women’s College, a two-year junior college, became the first accredited four-year university in Korea under the name of Ewha Womans University. Then, Yonhi College (July 31, 1946) and Boseong College (August 5, 1946) received a letter of accreditation from the USAMGIK’s Bureau of Education, which laid the legal basis for Yonsei University and Korea

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University, respectively (University News Network, January 15, 2013). Hyehwa Professional College was accredited as Dongguk University on September 20, 1946. Myeongryun Professional School received accreditation on September 25 as Sunkyunkwan University. Dankook University was officially accredited as a four-year university on November 1, 1947. In 1948, Sookmyung Women’s University, Chungang University, Hanyang University, and Kookmin University received accreditation. In 1949, Konkuk University and Hongik University were approved officially by the Korean government. Kyunghee University, which was temporarily accredited in 1949, was officially established in 1952, and Soongsil University, which had been established in Pyongyang during the Japanese colonial period and later closed down, was officially approved by the Ministry of Education on April 15, 1954. In terms of higher education and national development of the Republic of Korea from a long-term perspective, the establishment of national universities in other provinces must have been the right choice. However, on the other hand, it is also true that it has left unfavorable legacy. At that time, the Republic of Korea was at war and did not have hardware and software necessary for proper college education (Kim Jong-Chul 1979, p. 65). As unfavorable conditions such as overcrowded classes were taken for granted in elementary and secondary education in the wake of the Korean War, unnatural conditions were also taken for granted in university education as well. In fact, the universities that were established back then had no choice but to accept the poor educational conditions including professors and facilities, etc. Actually, educational conditions of national universities even fell short of those of excellent high schools. Moreover, following the crisis surrounding the establishment of Seoul National University, many prominent professors who had been recognized for their outstanding achievements in research, including Do SangRok (Quantum Physics), Han In-Suk(Physics), Kim Han-Joo (Agricultural Science), Lee, Jae-Gon (Mathematics), Rhee Seung-Ki (Chemical Engineering), Park Geuk-Chae (Economics), Kim Suk-Hyung (History), and Kim, Taek-Won (Education), defected to North Korea and became faculty members at Kim Il Sung University. Seoul National University and Kim Il Sung University were born as “identical twins” at the same

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time as the “best educational institution” in the South and the North, respectively, due to the internal division among the intellectual circles. The supporters and opponents of the establishment of the Seoul National University showed multi-layered conflicts. Simply put, there were complicated conflicts between leftists and rightists, the U.S. Military Government and the Korean people, professors of Gyeongseong Imperial University and professors of colleges, U.S.-style university operations and Japanese-style university operations, and the hegemonic struggles between Japanese and Americans. Realizing that not only did left-wingers penetrate “extensively” into schools of all levels but also some of the schools had become “stronghold of left-wingers”, the USAMGIK attempted to reform education system into American style and remove the left-wingers from schools based on the public demand for eliminating the remnants of Japanese colonial rule. In this process, the only people that the U.S. Military Government could trust were Koreans who had been educated in the U.S. However, Koreans who played central role in education and academia were not willing to accept them because they were not the central figures of the education system during the Japanese colonial period. The crisis surrounding the establishment of Seoul National University was the result of the hegemonic struggle between people who had been educated in Japan and the U.S. (Jeon Woo-Yong 2011). Those who opposed the plan thought that the U.S. Military Government intended to take control of the academia and education system of Joseon with a small number of pro-American people. The issue surrounding the board of directors encountered the strongest opposition. Many professors and students fiercely opposed to the idea because they believed that the U.S. Military Government tried to take control of the university by transferring the management authority, which previously belonged to faculty, to the board of directors consisting of U.S. military personnel and three Koreans working for the U.S. Military Government. This resistance was perceived as a “democratization of education” for those who opposed the plan, but it was perceived as leftist struggles that had to be suppressed from the perspective of those who supported the plan. Strong administrative measures were taken by the U.S. Military Government, such as dismissing the professors and

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dispelling students who participated in the opposition campaign. As a result, the opposition campaign eventually failed. Following the crisis surrounding the establishment of Seoul National University, many of the dismissed professors defected to North Korea and moved to Kim Il Sung University. However, this incident cannot merely be seen as ideological confrontations between leftists and rightists. It can be seen that professors who lost their vested rights might have chosen Kim Il Sung University to secure opportunities to study their academic disciplines. Though university autonomy was not granted to Kim Il Sung University, these professors did not stir up opposition movement and enthusiastically worked for the university, which indicates that professorship and the privilege to continue their academic research were what they valued most. According to the Times, a U.K. daily that periodically releases the rankings of world universities, Seoul National University was ranked top 50th in terms of academic achievement and 26th in the Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings in 2014. Although Seoul National University was ranked lower than the University of Tokyo which was ranked 23rd and 11th, respectively, it is regarded a remarkable achievement given that SNU has not received full financial support from the government and society. Seoul National University is expected to become a world-class university if only adequate support from the government is provided.

2.3

Expansion of Universities and Decree on Standards for the Establishment of Universities and Colleges

2.3.1 Political and Social Context Surrounding the Expansion of Universities The most evident change in higher education in Korea after the liberation was the rapid expansion of higher education opportunities that had been denied under the Japanese colonial rule. When Korea gained independence from Japan in 1945, there were 7,819 students enrolled in 19 universities, including junior colleges. The number increased to

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63,999 students in 63 colleges as of 1960. In 15 years, the number of colleges has more than tripled, and college students increased more than twelve times (Oh Chun-Suk 1964). In addition to Seoul National University, several other national universities were established in provinces, and the number of private universities mushroomed during this period (in 1960, 47 of 63 were privately owned universities. Private school-centered university system is the characteristic of Korea’s higher education). As the number of universities grew rapidly, quality of education was hardly considered. To address quality issue in education, Decree on Standards for the Establishment of Universities and Colleges was enacted in 1955. However, the Decree failed to meet its policy goal and the number of universities and students continued to grow. The political and social contexts that led to rapid increase in the number of universities during the state formation period is divided into the following categories: Korean people’s zeal for education, economic structure in the post-liberation period, Farmland Reform Act, and profit-seeking by privately owned schools. (1) Korean People’s Zeal for Education Koreans have tradition of respecting humanities and enjoy learning. However, under the Japanese colonial rule, the majority of Koreans could not receive higher education because it was allowed only for Japanese children and a small number of Koreans. Under the U.S. Military Government, open higher education system was adopted in accordance with the ideology of liberal democracy, so the pent-up demand for higher education, which had been generally denied under the Japanese colonial rule, began to explode. Moreover, social demand for college education further increased as the existing social order collapsed due to the Korean War and the college education became a critical factor in determining social class in the society. Most people had to start from scratch and rise from the ashes of the War. Under these circumstances, a college diploma guaranteed a decent job. People believed that “Parents should pay for their children’s college education, even if they have to sell their cows, one of the most valuable properties of a family”. This is why universities were called

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“cow bone tower” rather than an ivory tower. In this sense, it can be said that the Korean people’s zeal for education was demonstrated not because of a pure passion for learning but because of a desire for social status or success. However, there were not enough infrastructures to meet the explosive demand for higher education. Under these circumstances, the number of universities increased indiscriminately. (2) Economic Structure in the Post-liberation Period Educational opportunities were rapidly expanded not only in Korea but also in many developing countries that gained independence after the Second World War. This can largely be explained by the human capital theory. According to the human capital theory, it is necessary to invest in the development of human capital through education because the more people are educated, the more productive they become. With the lack of natural resources, the importance of human capital was relatively high in the Republic of Korea. The expansion of universities in the Republic of Korea over a 10-year period after liberation, however, was more closely related to the post-war economic structure (Park Se-Il 1982). Even when Korea suffered a shortage of administrative, managerial, and technical manpower after liberation, there was oversupply of unskilled workers. In this situation, as the economy grew, wage gap increased depending on the types of occupations and educational background, and demand for university education grew accordingly. During the Japanese colonial period, most of the professional and administrative positions were held by Japanese people. In the case of public administrative agencies, Korean officials were rarely recruited. Of the nearly 1,000 employees working for the Japanese Government General of Korea, only 44 Koreans were employed and all of them were employed in lower-level positions (Kim Young-Mo 1980). As the Japanese, who had held important posts, left after the liberation, the lack of talents in leadership position surfaced as a very serious issue. Therefore, the need for cultivating talents naturally led to the expansion of universities and contributed to raising the social value of educational background. Interestingly, the business world, however, couldn’t wait

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until highly qualified workers were cultivated, so they employed the workforce first even if they were somewhat unqualified. With the rapid expansion of universities, Korean society has experienced the oversupply of high-quality manpower since the mid-1950s (Kang Moo-Sub et al. 1986). (3) Farmland Reform Act and Profit-Seeking by Privately owned Schools The Farmland Reform Act (Act No. 108, 1950) must be discussed as an economic and social context that led to the rapid expansion of universities in Korea after liberation (Kang Moo-Sub et al. 1986). Before the farmland reform, landlords had private ownership of vast acreage of farmland, leased their lands to farmers who had no farmland, and collected high rent from those farmers. For the purpose of realizing a new agricultural economy, the Farmland Reform Act was enacted to purchase entire farmland owned by landlords and to distribute them to actual farmers. Many landlords who foresaw the enactment of the Farmland Reform Act established private schools on their land or donated their lands for schools to be built before their lands were sold to the government at low price. The Ministry of Education received a flood of applications for the establishment of universities. In fact, 23 private universities were established under the U.S. Military Government before the Farmland Reform was carried out. The Ministry of Education approved almost all of the applications (Korean Association of Private Secondary School Principals 1974; Committee for Compilation of a Ten-Year History of Korean Education 1960). The problem was that most of the private schools which previously had owned land could no longer collect rent from tenant farmers, they could not raise endowment. Therefore, tuition became the significant source of income for universities. Meanwhile, corruption scandals of the private university founders became social issues, and private universities that lacked finance tried to supplement their finances by illegally admitting student or admitting students exceeding the admission quota. These corrupt practices evoked criticism over universities and resulted in the control by the government (Han Joon-Sang 1983).

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Expansion of Universities and Enactment of the Decree on Standards for the Establishment of Universities and Colleges

In the following, we will examine the operation of War-time Union University, which contributed directly or indirectly to the rapid expansion of universities after the liberation, and Decree on Standards for the Establishment of Universities and Colleges which was enacted to ensure a certain level of quality of the universities. (1) Operation of War-time Union University War-time Union University, which was operated for about a year during the Korean War, clearly shows Korean people’s strong zeal for education. The War turned the entire nation into ruins and caused many casualties and refugees. The War-time Union University was organized in Busan, the interim capital during the Korean War, in May 1951 in order to provide education for students who fled Seoul. In addition, other war-time union universities were established in cities like Gwangju, Jeonju, and Daejeon. This was the clear example of Korean people’s strong desire to learn which was not discouraged even by the war. There were a total of 6,455 students who studied at war-time union universities, including 4,268 in Busan, 527 in Gwangju, 1,283 in Jeonbuk, and 377 in Daejeon. As the war stabilized and each university could hold its own classes, the war-time union universities were closed at the end of 1952 (Ministry of Education 1998). The Ministry of Education announced the following measures concerning the operation of war-time union universities based on the “Decree concerning education during wartime” (Education Ministry Ordinance No. 9) (Oh Chun-Suk 1964, p. 452). First, the relevant universities shall select steering committee members and the dean through consultation and have them take charge of the operation of the War-time Union University. Second, the expenses required for the operation of the War-time Union University shall be borne jointly by the relevant universities. Third, teachers are obliged to teach at participating universities. Fourth, the credits earned at the

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War-time Union University are deemed to have been obtained at each university. (2) Decree on the Temporary Deferment of Conscription for College Enrollment The rapid increase in the number of colleges during and after the Korean War was the result of the government’s open policy or non-interference policy for higher education institutions, which was adopted taking into account the society’s demands for the universities. However, the rapid expansion of universities and colleges was partly attributable to the preferential treatment given to the students for temporary exemption from conscription. Though the Decree on the Temporary Deferment of Conscription for College Enrollment promulgated on February 28, 1950, was aimed at fostering future leaders of the nation, it also resulted in the increase in the number of young people who chose university as a means of avoiding military service. The operation of war-time union universities was the example of Korean people’s passion for education; however, the preferential treatment given to the students for temporary exemption from conscription would have had some influence on such increase (Kang Moo-Sub et al. 1986). However, as the war was prolonged much longer than expected, the Ministry of National Defense insisted that the number of students who were temporarily exempted from conscription should be limited in order to strengthen national defense. Accordingly, the Ministry of Education imposed quotas on the number of university students in wartime. As a result, the number of students in the humanities was reduced by 25% and that of social science students by 50% (75% in 1953) compared to the previous number of students. However, the natural science recruited the same number of students as before, and the departments of medicine were able to recruit additional 50% of students for the supply of military surgeons. However, the total number of newly admitted students was not reduced because women, disabled soldiers, and those who were over the maximum age for conscription were not

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subject to these restrictions. The total number of students who benefited from the postponement of conscription was 54,167 in 64 schools by April 1, 1955 (Daehan MunKyo Publishing 1956). The Decree was maintained until November 1956. With the amendment of the Military Service Act (August 1957) and the Enforcement Decree of the Act (February 1959), college students could opt to have their conscription postponed until graduation. After the amendment of the Military Service Act and the Enforcement Decree of the same Act, the postponement of conscription did no longer have much influence on the demand for college admission. (3) Decree on Standards for the Establishment of Universities and Colleges Though the indiscriminate increase of colleges after the liberation satisfied the people’s pent-up demand for college education to some extent, the quality of college education was sacrificed in this process. Thus, the Ministry of Education enacted the Decree on Standards for the Establishment of Universities and Colleges (Presidential Decree No. 1063, August 4, 1955), which was aimed at improving the qualitative improvement of college education and putting a brake on the quantitative expansion of colleges. The Act was specifically aimed at preventing indiscriminate increase of student enrollment in unqualified private colleges. Specifically, if a college failed to meet the requirements stipulated by the law regarding the site, buildings, professors, and financial conditions, the college would not be allowed to be established. In the case of existing colleges that failed to meet these standards, they were required to meet the standards within a certain period (five years for colleges of humanities, six years for colleges of natural science). Furthermore, the Act specified that colleges that failed to comply with these requirements could be asked to integrate departments, reduce student quota, and even shut down the college. It also stipulated that Coordination Committee for Colleges should be established and operated to investigate and deliberate whether colleges meet the standards specified under the Act. In fact, in 1956, 28 departments of 32 colleges were abolished and student quota was reduced by 6,710 in accordance with

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this Act. The number of students was reduced by 1,060 and recruiting new students was suspended for the Department of Communication, Department of Educational Psychology, and Department of Educational Administration at Seoul National University in accordance with the 2nd College Reorganization Plan (Kim Jong-Chul 1979; Ministry of Education 1958). The Act was effective in curbing additional establishment of colleges for a while and improving some unqualified colleges. However, the Act is considered to have failed to achieve the desired result of securing the quality of college education. The standards were set uniformly, and the goal could not be attained in a short period of time in light of circumstances of the time. As a result, the grace period for compliance with requirements was extended several times, and even the yearly standards were relaxed. Moreover, the state control was weakened during the transition period from the Rhee Syng-Man government to the Chang Myon government. As a result, these standards existed in names only and the number of college students soared again after the April 19 Revolution. Nevertheless, the Decree on Standards for the Establishment of Universities and Colleges was meaningful because it served as the basis for the administration of university facilities (Kim Jong-Chul 1979, p. 69).

2.5

Achievements and Challenges

Although there were many twists and turns until Seoul National University was established, it cannot be denied that the plan to establish SNU contributed to the establishment of the university, the best comprehensive university in the Republic of Korea. The establishment of Seoul National University laid the groundwork for the development of other national universities in provinces and private universities into comprehensive universities. And these universities contributed to fostering human resources in various fields beyond being mere educational institutions that cultivated skilled workers. However, even though there were various criteria such as college student quota in our higher education policy, the government adopted a kind of non-interference policy and did

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not strictly control colleges for 15 years after liberation. Considering the explosion of demands for higher education, which had been suppressed under the Japanese colonial rule, and people’s strong desire to elevate their social status through college education in the wake of the collapse of existing hierarchical structure after the Korean War, the cash-strapped government had few policy measures to take. The paid education system, which is the characteristic of higher education system of the Republic of Korea, has already been established since then. Though private colleges contributed to satisfying people’s demand for higher education, people had to pay for the education themselves and colleges were even called “cow bone tower”. Meanwhile, private colleges made money by illegally admitting student or admitting students exceeding the admission quota. In some respects, the rapid expansion of higher education system in Korea after liberation was the result of the “devil’s deal” between the private colleges and the government-private colleges earned money in return for sacrificing “autonomy” and the government maintained control over private colleges. Many people worried about the deteriorating quality of college because of the sudden increase in the number of colleges and college students. In particular, there were problems such as shortage of professors, lack of reference books and facilities, deterioration of students’ academic ability, and the commercialization of educational institutions (Committee for Compilation of a Ten-Year History of Korean Education 1960). The following is how Oh Chun-Suk viewed the size of our education market which had become too big given the size of the nation’s economy (Oh Chun-Suk 1964, p. 511). The Republic of Korea is one of the poorest countries in the world with GNI per capita of less than USD 78. However, the size of education market is close to that of developed countries. It is said that one-fourth to one-fifth of the total amount of the currency in circulation flows into schools during the tuition payment period in the beginning of each semester. For this reason, people fear that “excessive investment in education would put our nation in peril”. Particularly, there is growing criticism over college education.

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He also argued that “academic abilities of (college) applicants must be measured according to strict standards and their education should be limited to some extent according to the evaluation results”. In addition, he said what matters would be to secure the quality of education, which was sacrificed for the sake of quantitative expansion of colleges (Oh Chun-Suk 1964, p. 512). To this end, he presented three alternatives: the government authorities should provide more financial support; schools should be operated in a conscientious manner; and economic support of civilians, especially influential entrepreneurs, is needed. The three alternatives he proposed are still recognized as valid for the development of universities and colleges even today. Nevertheless, we must admit that the universities and colleges made contribution to the realization of social equality in the process of establishing new social order after the collapse of existing hierarchical structure following the Korean War. Higher education opportunities that were exclusively enjoyed by some upper-class Koreans and Japanese people were opened to the general public, and social mobility through college education was promoted. In particular, as Korean society has very homogeneous characteristics in terms of the hierarchical factors of the social groups such as language, ethnicity, and race, school education, especially college education, can play a crucial role in elevating socioeconomic status (Kim Young-Hwa 2010). The problem is that, due to this social function of universities and colleges, the Korean society has become increasingly academic background-oriented society. People pursued graduation from prestigious universities and a higher level of education that actually required in the job world, which led to the so-called education inflation and youth unemployment.

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3

Higher Education During the Industrialization Period: 1960 to Early 1990s

3.1

Park Chung-Hee Government’s College Reorganization Policy

3.1.1 Social and Political Context in the 1960s Although Decree on Standards for the Establishment of Universities and Colleges promulgated in 1955 failed to serve its intended purposes, the situation in which the Decree was required was not changed. The Park Chung-Hee government, which took power after the May 16 coup, pursued a strong policy to reorganize colleges to address the social issues regarding unqualified colleges and the quantitative expansion of colleges without qualitative growth. The Park Chung-Hee government tried to tackle the college issues by taking policy measures such as Decree on Reorganization of Schools, Private School Act, Presidential Decree on the Fixed Number of University and College Students, and preliminary college entrance examination. In the following, we will examine political and social contexts of taking such policy measures—widespread distrust in private colleges, the low employment rate of college graduates, and the necessity for securing the legitimacy of the military regime. (1) Widespread Distrust in Private Colleges It was the private colleges that accommodated the rapidly growing demand for higher education. In a situation where private schools had to depend on tuition fees for the operation of school, private schools in poor financial condition tried to increase the number of students at all costs because the number of students was closely related to revenues of those schools. Even though most of the colleges had student quota, they generated extra revenues by admitting many special students by cunningly taking advantage of Article 114 of the Education Law that allowed colleges to hold

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open lectures and recruit special students. There were also some irregularities related to student admission within the student quota, but in the case of auditors, the so-called admission by donation was common practice. Even more serious problem was that the colleges accumulated wealth of founder’s family and school foundation with the extra revenues instead of making investment in recruiting more professors or expanding university facilities. Not only did the founder’s family take control of the foundation, but also they occupied major positions under the president, forming the so-called nepotistic system (Kang Moo-Sub 1986). Meanwhile, the Park Chung-Hee government pursued a strong policy to reorganize colleges because of social confusion caused after the April 19 Revolution and the increasing student demonstrations (Kim JongChul 1979, p. 69). Although college students took the lead in achieving peaceful regime change through free election, subsequent political crisis led to the May 16 coup, and student demonstrations followed at colleges and universities. From April 19, 1960, to October of the same year, student demonstrations occurred at 31 colleges nationwide. Students staged demonstrations demanding for tuition cuts, resignation of president, dean, or professors. Or they staged protest because they distrusted board members of school foundation. Amid growing distrust about colleges, the Park Chung-Hee government came up with the college improvement policy as its top priority in higher education. (2) Low Employment Rate of College Graduates As a result of the government’s open policy and non-interference policy on higher education and the pursuit of profit by private school operators, universities and colleges increased indiscriminately. However, many highly educated manpower produced by these universities and colleges could not find suitable jobs, which became a serious social problem. Given the economic level and occupational structure of the Republic Korea of those days, too many highly educated workers were supplied. Lee Young-Duk diagnosed the situation as follows. The fact that not even 30% of graduates get a job after graduation from universities and colleges, which were supposed to be established and operated in close relation to the development of economy, is likely

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to cause serious social problems in the future. Complaints about inadequate education and anxiety about job shortage can be enough reasons for students to have antipathy toward society. In a similar vein, the Park Chung-Hee government found justification for the strong implementation of the college reorganization policy in the social turmoils caused by mass unemployment of highly educated manpower (Kim Jong-Chul 1979, p. 81; Ministry of Culture and Public Information 1962, pp. 191–192). Colleges and universities expanded quantitatively (the number of students increased to 142,576, or 0.57% of the total population from 7,819, or 0.05% of the total population as of August 15, 1945) without qualitative improvement. As a result, mass unemployment of the highly educated manpower (about 60% of the college graduates) was caused, resulting in social problem and further paralysis of the rural economy. Therefore, we have launched the colleges and universities reorganization project…. At that time, the employment rate of college graduates seemed to be only 30–40%. According to the 1964 Statistical Yearbook of Education, the employment rate of the four-year college graduates in 1963 was 38.7%. However, considering the quality of employment, the percentage of students who were employed in occupations requiring actual college education was much lower. About 70% of college graduates were employed in professional, technical, administrative, and office jobs in the 1960s. However, the remaining 30% of college graduates were employed in professions that required less education than college education such as sales, agriculture, and manufacturing jobs. As a result, the so-called academic inflation due to the excessive supply of college graduates became widespread, and the college reorganization policy gained momentum (Park Se-Il 1983). Accordingly, the Park Chung-Hee government enacted the Decree on the Reorganization of Universities and Colleges, specifying that colleges and universities should set their student quota based on the manpower supply plan. In addition, the government expected and tried to make sure colleges and universities link future human resources development with their student quota.

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(3) Necessity for Securing Legitimacy of Military Regime It was important for the Park Chung-Hee government, which took power after the May 16 coup, to secure the political legitimacy and broaden the support base. In the early years of the Park government, the government pushed ahead with the improvement of colleges to “correct malpractices and irregularities in college education, to meet the national demand for human resources, and to improve the quality of college education” (Kim Jong-Chul 1979, p. 81; The Korean Military Revolution History Compilation Committee, 1963; Compilation Committee for History of Korean Military Revolution, p. 1394). However, as with most other military regimes, the Park Chung-Hee government tried to secure the legitimacy of the regime by accommodating ardent desires of the majority of the people. In that sense, the plan to improve colleges and universities to solve the high unemployment rate of college graduates and the problem of unqualified private schools must have been considered an attractive policy agenda for the military regime. Meanwhile, the college students who emerged as the social movement forces in the aftermath of the April 19 Revolution would have been considered a threat to the military regime whose support base was weak. In this context, the government might have chosen to curb the number of college students as a way to reduce the size of student groups who could potentially pose a threat to the government. Lee Hye-Young concluded that parents, students, businesses, colleges and universities, and government were social forces influencing student quota and that the student quota was the result of their interactions (Lee Hye-Young 1992). Lee viewed that there might have been political intention behind curbing the number of college students. In other words, “the Third and Fourth Republic, which exercised strict control over the college student quota, had to tackle the issue of securing legitimacy”. To this end, the government tried to control the number of college students who attempted to undermine the legitimacy and political stability of the regime after the establishment of the Third Republic. This policy of curbing the number of college students lasted until 1979 when President Park was assassinated. It is interesting to note that in the 1970s, when the economy grew rapidly, the policy of curbing the number of college students caused

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a shortage of high-quality manpower and educational deflation in higher education (Kang Moo-Sub et al. 1986). This was the example of adverse effect of the government’s policy on college implemented mainly based on political considerations.

3.1.2 Details of the College Reorganization Policy The Park Chung-Hee government tried to secure the legitimacy of the regime and utilize education policies as a means to maintain the regime. To this end, the government enacted Decree on Reorganization of Schools, Private School Act, and Presidential Decree on the Fixed Number of University and College Students. These policies were aimed directly at solving the problems of widespread distrust in private colleges and the low employment rate of college graduates, which were social problems at the time, to gain public support. (1) Decree on Reorganization of Schools The government believed that colleges and universities were indiscriminately expanded in light of the economic situation and population as a result of laissez-faire policy, and that the quality degradation and corruption of colleges were rampant. Therefore, the government concluded that direct government control would be necessary to solve these problems. The Special Act on Education (Act No. 708, September 1, 1961) was enacted based on this necessity, and Decree on Reorganization of Schools was promulgated on December 9, 1961, in accordance with Article 3 (2) of the Special Act on Education, which specified that “the criteria for the merger or abolition of schools, or the readjustment of classes or student quota shall be determined by respective decree”. In particular, Article 16 (Criteria for the Adjustment of Students Quota) of this Decree prescribed that the total number of college students nationwide should be determined by the Minister of Education in consideration of the nation’s human resources demand, college founders’ ability to pay for expenses, and people’s financial capacity to afford education expenses. It is significant in that the Decree allowed colleges and universities to determine student quota according to the manpower supply and demand,

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and to enable the government to have full control over student quota of universities and colleges. The details of reorganization of universities and colleges in accordance with Decree on Reorganization of Schools were as follows (Kim Jong-Chul 1979, pp. 84–85). First, to reorganize universities or colleges in which corruption scandal and student demonstration occurred, to decentralize universities and colleges in local communities, and to scale down the humanities education while scaling up vocational education. Second, to set the total number of university and college students nationwide at 70,000 (20,000 students for 4-year national or public universities, 35,000 students for 4-year private universities, 10,000 for junior colleges, and 5,000 for night colleges). Third, to have school foundation pay for 30% of the operating costs as ways to normalize university education (in the case of private universities), to guarantee retirement of professors at the age of 60, and to introduce national college entrance exam and bachelor’s degree qualification, evaluation of professor’s research achievement, etc. Fourth, with regard to the reorganization of national and public universities, to absorb an independent college located in the same area into a college under university, to integrate similar departments of college under university, and to incorporate public universities into one national university. Fifth, to abolish universities with less than 700 students (600 in the case of provinces) and to limit the number of duplicate majors in the same area (10 for Seoul and 4 for province), to switch theological universities to miscellaneous schools, and to integrate the one belonging to the same denomination into a single school. As a result of the reorganization of universities and colleges in 1961, a total of 71 four-year universities were reduced to 50, and 919,000 students in 679 departments were down to 66,410 in 532 departments. Instead, 3,208 students in 12 junior colleges increased to 10,509 in 27 junior colleges, including students in 10 colleges of education

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which were reorganized from normal schools. However, as the reorganization of universities and colleges was mainly focused on their quantitative reduction, the opinions of experts were not fully reflected and various problems occurred in the process of policy implementation (Kang Moo-Sub et al. 1986; Ministry of Education 1988; Kim Jong-Chul 1979). For example, the reorganization of universities and colleges was decided prematurely and undemocratically without scientific analysis of the nation’s supply and demand of human resources, and reduction in the number of college students made people uneasy because their demand for higher education was not satisfied. Abolishing the only university or department in a certain region was against the principle of balanced regional development. Having foundations of private universities, which had been dependent on students’ tuition fees to cover operating expenses, pay 30% of the operating expenses ended up being an empty slogan. And there was strong backlash from the theological colleges, which were to be switched to miscellaneous schools under the reorganization plan. There was huge controversy over the government’s reorganization of universities and colleges; therefore, people strongly called for the revision of the plan. Accordingly, the Education and Culture Committee of the Supreme Council for National Reconstruction formed a committee in December 1962 to review amendments to the educational policy. The plan, which was revised in early 1963, was intended to bring universities and colleges back to the state before the reorganization in 1961. Consequently, with the introduction of new higher education institutions (college of education in 1962, vocational colleges in 1963), the number of students increased to 150,595 in 164 schools in 1965, which was a significant increase when compared to 97,272 students in 82 schools before the reorganization. In short, the reorganization of universities and colleges is evaluated as “a policy mistake of the government ”, although the military government pushed ahead with the plan using its strong administrative capability (Kim Jong-Chul 1979, p. 92).

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(4) Enactment of Private School Act The reason why university autonomy is required is to ensure universities demonstrate their intellect and moral culture freely and creatively so that they can contribute to the development of the nation and society as well as to the prosperity of the entire humanity. However, since universities have always existed in relation to the nation, in reality, university autonomy has its limitations. Especially, since all education has public characteristics, it is necessary to ensure the educational ideology does not conflict with the national ideology, to guarantee the entrance qualification and equal opportunity of students, and to maintain the minimum standard in order to guarantee a certain level of education. Since private schools have their own founding ideology, their distinct characteristics can be demonstrated when there is no external intervention or control. Though private schools generally enjoy greater autonomy than public schools, it is also true that private schools, as one of the public institutions, are not free from state supervision and control. The state supervision and control over private schools were partly specified in the Education Law 1949. However, supervision and control over these schools were fully stipulated for the first time in Special Act on Education announced after the May 16 coup. After several revisions, regulations for private schools were comprehensively specified in the Private School Act (Act No. 1362, June 26, 1963). The purpose of the Private School Act is to ensure the sound development of private schools by securing their independence and promoting their public characteristics, in view of their special characteristics. This Act was revised several times and has been maintained until today. The key matters in relation to higher education specified in the first Private School Act are as follows: First, a school juristic person for maintaining and managing private schools shall be established for schools of all levels.

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Second, supervisory authority of private universities, colleges of education, vocational colleges, and other schools equivalent to these schools shall be the Ministry of Education. Third, the president of a school juristic person cannot be the head of the school, and the appointment of the officers of the school juristic person and the head of private school shall be approved by the supervisory authority. Fourth, temporary director may be appointed by the Minister of Education. Fifth, every school juristic person shall report its budget to the competent agency and publish its budget before the commencement of every fiscal year, and report its settlement of accounts to the competent agency. Sixth, when a school juristic person runs a profit-making business, it shall report type of the business and its business plan. Seventh, no teacher of a private school shall be subject to temporary retirement, suspension, or dismissal from office against his/her will, and shall not be subject to removal from office, dismissal, suspension from office, reduction of salary, and reprimand without the decision from Teachers’ Disciplinary Committee. Although the Private School Act contained provisions on the protection of private school teachers’ status, overall control over private schools was strengthened. Therefore, private school officials and the education community were strongly opposed to the Act because of the concerns that the autonomy of private schools would be violated. The Korean Association of Private Secondary School Principals and the Korean Federation of Education Associations made suggestions to revise the Private School Act. However, such suggestions were not accepted at all. In the revised Private School Act, however, the restrictions in personnel matters on the executives of school juristic person and the regulations for the founders and heads of private schools were rather strengthened. Thus, the public characteristics of private schools rather

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than the autonomy of private school were emphasized (Park Jung-Tae and Kim Jung-Rae 1986). (5) Promulgation of the Presidential Decree on the Fixed Number of University and College Students The Presidential Decree on the Fixed Number of University and College Students (Presidential Decree No. 2331, December 22, 1965) was enacted to put an end to the indiscriminate quantitative expansion of universities and colleges. It was promulgated in accordance with the regulations stipulated in Article 65 (5) of the Enforcement Decree of the Education Act that “maximum student number of universities (including graduate schools and junior colleges) and colleges of education shall be determined by presidential decree”. As a result, state control over universities was further strengthened. Based on this Decree, the government has so far determined maximum student number for all universities and departments. The presidential decree consisted of three Articles and addenda. Article 2 of the Decree specified that the student enrollment quota for each department of universities (including junior college) and the college of education, and the maximum student number per grade shall be specified in an attached table. However, the number of commissioned students and overseas Korean nationals and foreigners was excluded. As for the student quota for graduate schools, there were no specific regulations except for the provision, which states that “student quota for graduate school shall be one-tenth of student quota for undergraduate school”. The Article 3 specified that the head of universities and colleges shall not admit students exceeding the student quota as specified in Article 2. Nevertheless, some private universities often violated the student quota policy by abusing the provision of Article 114 of the Education Act, which specifies that “universities and colleges may provide open lectures for persons other than enrolled students and receive auditors”. Therefore, the Ministry of Education revised the Presidential Decree on the Fixed Number of University and College Students (Presidential Decree No. 2826, December 9, 1966) to thoroughly control student quota of universities and colleges by newly

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inserting Article 4 (Confirmation of Notice of Admission), Article 5 (Retention of Notice of Admission), and Article 6 (Announcement of Student List) and supplementing Article 3 by additionally including transfer admission in the categories of college admission. Specifically, the Decree specified that the head of a university or college shall notify the applicant who has passed the entrance exam after receiving confirmation from the Minister of Education, and the acceptance letter without the confirmation of the Minister of Education may be canceled. Determination of the student quota for universities and colleges was subject to the approval of the vice minister of the Ministry of Education. However, it was changed to require universities and colleges to go through a State Council meeting if they wish to change the student quota in accordance with the Presidential Decree on the Fixed Number of University and College Students. As for the university student quota, the university was unable to exercise autonomy at all, and the government started to exercise its exclusive rights and control over student quota of universities and colleges. The question was how reasonably student quota of each department of universities and colleges, which was stipulated in the attached table of the Decree, was actually determined. Though manpower supply and demand plan such as science and technology personnel forecasting (1967–1986) was used as a reference for this table, it ended up being a mere gesture because the statistical basis was not enough. At any rate, it was never easy to determine the student quota of all universities and all departments based on the overall manpower supply and demand forecasting.

3.2

Education Reform Plan (1980) and Graduation Quota for Universities and Colleges

3.2.1 Political and Social Context in the 1980s Following the assassination of President Park Chung-Hee, who had been a long-time dictator, on October 26, 1979, Army General Chun DooHwan and his military cronies seized power after military coup d’état which took place on December 12, 1979. As student protests against

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the constitutional amendment of the government and labor disputes had intensified since the spring of 1980, the Special Committee for National Security Measures announced the “normalization of education and measures to address overheated private tutoring” (hereinafter referred to as Education Reform Plan [1980]) on July 30, 1980, before the official launch of the Fifth Republic. In the Education Reform Plan (1980), the issues related to the reform of higher education included: the expansion of student enrollment quota and the introduction of graduation quota, the abolition of college-specific entrance examination and reflection of student’s academic records in high school on college admission, the operation of the full-time undergraduate courses, the strengthened operation of open universities, and the extension of the course of study for the colleges of education. In the following, we will focus on the university graduation quota, which seems to have caused the greatest ripple effect. With the implementation of graduation quota system, the student enrollment quota of universities and colleges, which had been suppressed so far, began to expand rapidly. This policy was intended to reduce competition in college entrance examination and to encourage college students to study harder to graduate from universities and colleges. In the following, we will examine the contexts in which this new policy was implemented: social problems arising from overheated private tutoring and increase in the number of students retaking the college entrance exams; the problem with the existing system where students graduate automatically from universities and colleges; and the political intensions of the ruling power. (1) Social problems arising from overheated private tutoring and students retaking the college entrance exams Even when the student quota system was implemented under the Park, Chung-Hee government, student quota for four-year universities, colleges of education, and junior colleges increased by 1.65 times from 46,300 in 1970 to 76,400 in 1978. However, during the same period, the number of high school graduates increased by 2.76 times from 145,000 to 400,400 and applicants for preliminary college entrance examination

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by 2.65 times from 320,000 to 126,000, which was the result of a baby boom and the high school standardization policy introduced in 1974. While the number of high school graduates and people wishing to enter college increased, the gate to college entrance was narrowed and the number of re-takers further increased. In 1970, the number of students who applied for preliminary college entrance examination was 45,700, but the number increased to more than 140,000 in 1979. To solve this problem of imbalance between supply and demand, junior colleges for nurturing senior professionals were established in March 1979. The total student enrollment quota for the institutions of higher education was 78,400 in 1978, but it increased rapidly to 182,500 in 1979. It is true that the problem of imbalance between supply and demand was resolved to a certain extent by taking these measures (see Table 1). Nevertheless, the demand for the college entrance did not decrease and the overheated private tutoring for entrance exam for top-tier universities was still rampant due to the increase in national income, wage gaps depending on the level of education, and parent’s high expectations of their child’s education. On the one hand, the Special Committee for National Security Measures widened the gates to the college entrance. On the other hand, the committee implemented the graduation quota policy, the policy to maintain the number of students by dropping a certain percentage of students based on their grade, in order to address the social problems arising from overheated private tutoring and increase in the number of students retaking the college entrance exam (Kang Moo-Sub et al. 1986). In order to secure political justification for the graduation quota system, the military regime, whose political base was still weak, commissioned the research on the social loss due to accumulation of the re-takers and seriousness of the economic problem caused by overheated private tutoring while continuing to promote the policy through the media to expand the support base for the policy. As a result, the enrollment quota of higher education institutions increased from 205,800 in 1980 to 305,500 in 1981, an increase by more than 100,000 mainly in four-year universities. The government’s university policy of controlling the student quota was changed to the expansion policy. People are largely skeptical about how much the expansion of the

46.3 56.5 76.4 182.5 205.8 305.2 328.9 311.0

High school Year graduates

1970 1974 1978 1979 1980 1981 1984 1986

120.6 194.9 319.8 400.0 501.5 575.1 687.7 712.9

Students applying for preliminary college entrance examination (Total) 74.9 130.7 202.6 259.5 317.6 357.8 439.6 417.6

Students applying for preliminary college entrance examination (Graduates of the year) 45.7 64.2 117.2 140.5 183.9 217.3 248.1 241.2

Students applying for preliminary college entrance examination (Re-takers)

51.7 55.7 50.6 59.0 68.0 72.0 71.6 70.6

Note College Entrance Test for 1984 and 1986. Student enrollment quota for university freshmen Source The table above was reproduced based on the table presented in the following paper (Kang Moo-Sub et al. 1986, pp. 76–77)

145.2 234.9 400.4 439.8 467.4 497.0 614.1 667.8

College student enrollment quota

Percentage of high school graduates applying for preliminary college entrance examination of the year(%)

Table 1 High school graduates, college student enrollment quota, increase in re-takers (1970–1986) Unit: 1,000

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enrollment quota contributed to curbing the increase in re-takers and overheated private tutoring, which will be discussed separately. (2) The problem with the existing system where students graduate automatically from universities and colleges Graduation was guaranteed automatically once students were admitted to universities and colleges. In other words, the management of academic affairs by the universities and colleges was not done in a strict manner. From the mid-1970s to the end of the Park Chung-Hee government, student uprisings demanding for democratization took place at universities and colleges across the country. As a result, some universities could not manage their academic affairs normally. In the case of private universities, it would not have been easy to forcibly expel students based only on their academic performances, since each student was a valuable source of revenue for those private universities that depended heavily on students’ tuition fees. Also, professors would have wanted their students to graduate from universities considering their future career. In this situation, the graduation quota system was considered attractive to the military regime at that time. In fact, the graduation quota system was presented as one of the long-term plans in the research report of the Korean Educational Development Institute (1977), but the dominant view at the time was that immediate implementation of the system would be difficult because of the huge cost. The Chun Doo-Hwan government believed that graduation quota system was essential to achieving the goal of qualitative improvement of college education. The policy was intended to create more academic atmosphere at universities and colleges. However, all universities and colleges across the country applied the uniform dropout rate because increasing the enrollment quota was not possible, and universities and colleges did not have autonomy to determine their graduation quota. In a situation where the enrollment quota was increased significantly, the government authorities could not trust individual universities. Therefore, the government expected that the universities and colleges would keep their academic affairs strictly so that their students would study harder (Kang Moo-Sub 1986).

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(3) Political intentions of the ruling power In 1977, when the Korean Educational Development Institute proposed the graduation quota system, it was considered necessary to prepare for more than 10 years to translate the policy into practice. Therefore, it is necessary to look at other contexts besides the government’s goals of creating a more academic atmosphere at universities and colleges, and addressing the issues of overheated private tutoring and increasing retakers in order to understand the context in which the graduation quota system was suddenly implemented. In other words, it can be assumed that those who pursued the Education Reform Plan (1980) showed strong interest in graduation quota system because of political intention other than the reason for improving college education (Kang Moo-Sub et al. 1986; Wang Han-Shin 1994; Jung Young-Soo 1987; Choi Jong-Chul 1985). The graduation quota system, which widened the gates to the college entrance, was enough to instill an illusion for students who were not qualified to advance to college and their parents to think that “I can also go to college”. It seemed that the implementation of graduation quota system could even solve the problem of increasing re-takers. This policy was a good news for private universities where the number of students was directly linked to their finances. Since securing legitimacy of the regime and gaining wider public support were urgent tasks for the new government. The government would have expected that they would gain favorable response from many students, parents, and universities through graduation quota system. In other words, there might have been other political intention to use the graduation quota system as a means to prevent student uprisings by encouraging students to focus on their studies (or by creating an atmosphere of learning) at universities and colleges because the graduation quota system required a certain percentage of enrolled students to be dropped before graduation if they failed to meet graduation requirements. The Chun government might have considered the graduation quota system as an effective tool to prevent students’ uprising because they clearly knew that chronic student uprisings during the years of Park Chung-Hee’s presidency not only made the normal operation of the universities and colleges harder, but also caused social unrest.

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If it was deemed necessary to improve the quality of college education as a result of increased college enrollment, the government would have prioritized securing more faculty members and expanding educational facilities. Instead of doing so, the government had all universities and colleges apply uniform dropout rate despite the differences in the level of students and the circumstances of each university and college.

3.2.2 Implementation of Graduation Quota System The graduation quota system included in the “normalization of education and measures to address overheated private tutoring” announced on July 30, 1980, was as follows. First, the concept of the graduation quota system was to allow universities and colleges to accept a certain number of students (approved by the Ministry of Education for each school) in addition to their enrollment quota, but to limit the number of graduates to “fixed number of students”. Universities and colleges shall determine students who are subject to academic probation and disenrollment by each grade or semester according to the separate guidelines established by the Ministry of Education and school authorities. The enrollment quota was set at 130% of the graduation quota in 1981 and 150% in 1982, and the government planned to expand the enrollment quota after review. If a student fails to graduate even though he/she acquired statutory credits, university or college will issue a certificate of completion and allow the student to transfer to the next grade. Expected effects of the graduation quota system were: (1) expanding opportunities for university admission, (2) improving academic environment, (3) overcoming financial difficulties, and (4) facilitating the supply of manpower to industries. And the expected problems related to the implementation of the graduation quota system were how to handle the students who were dispelled, and a campus life focused on the grades rather than the quest for truth. The details of the measures prepared by the Ministry of Education for the implementation of the graduation quota system were as follows (Ministry of Education 1983, pp. 111–112).

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First, the graduation quota shall be determined by each university, college, faculty, and department. Second, 60% of the students exceeding the graduation quota (18% of the graduation quota) should be eliminated by the end of the fourth semester. For students enrolled in the 7th semester (the first semester of 4th grade), the number of students shall not exceed 33% of the students exceeding the graduation quota (10% of the graduation quota). Third, each university shall establish and operate the “Academic Affairs Reform Committee”. Fourth, details such as the method and criteria for completion shall be prepared by the heads/deans of universities and colleges. From the beginning, the policy met with strong criticism and resistance because it required universities and colleges to admit additional 30% (15% for junior colleges) of graduation quota and eliminate certain percentage of students by each grade even though the circumstances of each university and department were different from one another. Some even raised an objection to setting the admission quota at 130% (Moon Myung-Ho 1986). Due to the operational rigidity, the graduation quota system revealed the following problems from the outset (Kang Moo-Sub 1986). For example, certain percentage of students had to be eliminated even though there were dropouts who took on the leave of absence among the students who advanced to the higher grade. While students with excellent academic backgrounds from the prominent universities were forcibly dropped out, those with relatively low academic background from lower-ranked colleges were not eliminated. In order to address these problems, the graduation quota system was revised and supplemented twice in 1983 and 1984. The plan revised in 1983 allowed universities and colleges to autonomously implement graduation quota system, determine the dropout rate by each grade, and allowed women’s universities and medical schools to flexibly determine freshmen recruitment rates within 100–130% range of the graduation quota. In addition, the government tried to make the system more flexible by introducing graduation qualification test for the students who completed the fourth

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grade, allowing students to change majors and graduate in fall. The second revision, which was implemented from 1985, allowed all universities and colleges to autonomously determine freshmen recruitment rate within the range of 100–130% of the graduation quota. As a result, in the 1985 school year, national universities recruited 115% of the graduation quota and private universities 126%. Private universities, where the number of students was linked directly to their financial revenues, accepted a fairly high percentage of students, despite the problems of dropouts. Only a handful of universities forcibly removed their students in compliance with the policy goals. In other words, universities did not comply with the new policy of graduation quota system. The reason why universities and colleges did not comply with the graduation quota system even under the powerful military dictatorship of the Fifth Republic can be explained by three of the Coombs’s five basic explanations for noncompliance (Coombs 1980, pp. 885–892): programbased noncompliance, action-based noncompliance, and authority-based noncompliance (Kim Jae-Woong 1996). First, it seems that universities and colleges did not basically agree with the policy goal of forcibly eliminating a certain percentage of students by each grade to control the quality of education. Particularly, in the case of private universities, dropping out students meant a loss of their revenues. Therefore, it seems that they did not comply with the policy because the disadvantage from complying with this policy outweighed their advantages (objection to goals of the policy itself ). And they did not believe in the effectiveness of the policy that the quality of education would be maintained by forcibly eliminating students (objection to the policy because of lack of belief in the policy itself ). Second, it seems that each university and college (professors) did not comply with the policy because they did not want their students to be forcibly dropped out by strictly adhering to the graduation quota (action-based noncompliance). This suggests that graduation quota system was not likely to be successful in the first place in light of Korea’s university climate, which emphasizes the relationship between professors and students. Finally, it can be understood that the legitimacy of the new government was weak and the

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enforcement of the policy became weaker as the democratization movements grew steadily over time, which resulted in noncompliance with the policy (authority-based noncompliance). In 1983, two years after the implementation of the graduation quota system, then Deputy Minister of Education Chung Tae-Soo proposed in his report to the president that the autonomy should be given to universities and colleges so that they can decide on the number of student enrollment within the range of 100–130% of graduation quota (Tae-Soo 1991). This proposal, however, was not adopted by President Chun DooHwan who said, “Once the policy regarding universities and colleges is implemented, it is desirable to assess the effectiveness of the policy five years after the implementation, after students affected by the policy are graduated”. The Ministry of Education, which was responsible for the implementation of the policy, lacked firm convictions in the original goal of the policy, and thus, the graduation quota system remained until the end of Fifth Republic without substantive effectiveness. In June 1986, the ceiling on the number of bachelor’s degree-seeking applicants was finally removed, so that students exceeding the graduation quota were able to take the bachelor’s degree examination. The graduation quota system was finally changed again to the enrollment quota system in 1988. Did the graduation quota system actually serve the purposes of absorbing the demands for higher education, reducing the number of re-takers, improving the quality of universities and colleges, and ultimately eliminating overheated private tutoring, as the Special Committee for National Security Measures originally intended? In fact, considering the situation in which the increase in student quota was strictly limited until the 1970s according to the enrollment quota system, it was a kind of revolution that the number of students enrolled in 1981 increased by about 100,000 compared to 1980. As a result, the percentage of students who were admitted to universities and college was significantly increased from 41% in 1980 to 53% in 1981. And in 1982, the number of students retaking national college entrance test dropped by 15,000 for the first time since the 1970s. As such, the system was effective in absorbing demands for higher education and reducing the number of retakers for one to two years after the implementation of the graduation quota system. However, the number of re-takers has rebounded since

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1983 (see Table 1), as suggested by the theory that increased opportunities in university and college admission would trigger anticipatory demand for college education. This means that the number of people taking the university entrance exam increased significantly due to the increased college enrollment quota. In short, as top 50% of students were admitted to universities and college, even students who were not likely to pass college entrance exam (e.g., bottom 20–30% of students) joined the competition for university entrance exam. Therefore, demand for private tutoring for the entrance exam increased. Though private tutoring was completely banned, secret private tutoring and expensive private tutoring did not disappear despite punishment given to those who violate this regulation (Kim Jae-Woong 1996).

3.3

Changes in University Entrance System

3.3.1 Political and Social Issues of University Entrance System In general, selection refers to the “process of identifying eligible candidates for a particular purpose among a large number of candidates”. The criteria and method of selection depend on its purpose and area. In that sense, educational selection is the “process of selecting eligible students for higher grade or higher level of education”. In the Republic of Korea, the most important part of the educational selection is the university entrance exam, considering the fact that education is compulsory up to middle school; high school education is generalized; and students can advance to the next grade almost automatically. Since the liberation of Korea, the university entrance system has been one of the greatest matter of interest in the nation’s educational policy. Therefore, political circles also sought public support by reforming the university entrance system. In the following, we will examine the preliminary college entrance examination, which was introduced in 1969 during the Park Chung-Hee presidency, and the national college entrance examination, which was implemented in 1981 during the earlier years

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of the Chun Doo-Hwan government. In addition, we will discuss the omnishambles surrounding the university entrance system and the university entrance system as a political agenda in order to understand the context of changes in the university entrance system. (1) Omnishambles Surrounding University Entrance System Since the liberation, university entrance examination system in the Republic of Korea has been changed alternately from examinations conducted individually by universities and colleges to national examination controlled by the state. In the earlier days, individual universities were allowed to autonomously determine all matters concerning admission under the non-interference policy for higher education. However, as the student quota did not increase as much as the increasing social demands for college education, universities and colleges abused their autonomy in selecting students and illegally admitted students exceeding their admission quota. To address this problem, it was decided to conduct national joint examination from the 1954 school year before the individual entrance exam by each university and college, but the examination was abolished immediately after implementation without any effectiveness. Initially, it was decided to admit 140% of student quota based on the results of the national joint examination. However, the examination was completely abolished due to the following reasons: the incident where some children of bureaucratic elites failed the exam was escalated into a political problem; the claim that conducting both national joint examination and college-specific entrance examination was a double burden for the students; and controversy surrounding the exemptions granted to female students and those who completed their military service. Thus, the college-specific entrance examination was introduced again. However, under the Park Chung-Hee government, national college entrance system was introduced in 1962 because of widespread distrust in universities and colleges due to prevalent irregularities and corruptions related to college admissions. However, after two years, it was again changed to the college-specific entrance examination because of

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the lack of preparation and the controversy surrounding unilateral implementation of the system without much discussion with the university authorities. However, the college-specific entrance examination did not solve problems such as poor student quota management by private universities and colleges, widening gap in admissions standards of universities and colleges, and education solely focused on college entrance exam. As far as the university entrance system was concerned, the government tried to control the universities and colleges with national standards, but the preparation for the reliable and standardized national test was insufficient. Therefore, the state-led entrance system failed, and the college-specific entrance system was in place as a result. However, the college-specific entrance exam has always been obstacle to the transparent management of student quota; therefore, the government tried to solve this problem by conducting a uniform national examination. Amid the continued confrontations between the government and the universities for the initiative over the college entrance examination, the preliminary college entrance examination was introduced in October 1968. This system survived for a comparatively long period serving as the basis for our university entrance system until it was abolished by the Education Reform Plan (1980). (2) University Entrance System As a Political Agenda Among the many aspects of education, there is nothing that draws the attention of the public as much as the educational selection, especially the university entrance system. The greatest concern of students and parents about education is not about education in its true sense, but about “something other than education”. Simply put, what students and parents expect from education is not to gain more knowledge or to cultivate good personality, but to win in the fierce competition and climb up the ladder of education. What they pursue is not academic ability but academic background. This phenomenon is more prominent in a society where academic background plays a decisive role in important matters in life such as employment, promotion, and marriage. The Republic of Korea is a

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representative country where the academic background-centered characteristics are prominent. Political parties tend to focus on the area of public concern because this is where they can get votes from the people. It is quite natural that political parties pay particular attention to college admissions system, the main area of people’s concern, considering that politicians are basically interested in how many votes they can win in elections. For political parties, it is important to come up with a good educational selection system; however, it is much more important for them to show that they pay attention to “the people” by expressing their interest in the “issues” of public concern (Kim Jae-Woong 1994). Therefore, the university entrance examination system for student selection is a “political” issue rather than a simple technical issue (Kim Shin-Il 1993; Broadfoot, 1979). In other words, the political parties try to gain public support by demonstrating their willingness to improve the university entrance examination system, and at the same time, to have control over the society through the form and content of the examination. Broadfoot pointed out how educational assessment relating to selection performs social control functions (Broadfood 1979, pp. 122–123). Assessment is the bridge between school and society, it is one of the most political aspects of education. The formal test is like a well-designed filter in its form and content and serves to screen the right persons to maintain today’s society. All levels of exams, including unannounced pop quizzes, pending final term exam, and even college entrance exams at the national level, help strengthen the reproduction of any social status quo. Moreover, policy makers who need to maintain existing political structures will seriously consider this possibility in the educational assessment process (for selection). Kim Shin-Il also describes the political aspect of the examination system in the Republic of Korea (Kim Shin-Il 1993, p. 312). The examination system has been sacrificed by political intentions of the successive governments. In this sense, there is a very strong political aspect to the examination system. If schools and universities lose their ability to manage the examination system and leave it to politicians, the system will rapidly deteriorate because of their political intentions. In that sense, the history of the examination system in the Republic of

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Korea may be defined as the history in which education community has lost its autonomy and has been dependent on politicians. From the standpoint of high schools, the university entrance examination is a process of sending their students to universities and colleges based on their student’s academic performances; however, from the perspective of universities and colleges, it is the process of selecting qualified persons who are ready for college education. With regard to the university entrance system, the government has been concentrating on ensuring fairness of selection process, such as cracking down on illegal admissions, but has not really paid attention to the important issue of “normalization of high school”. It can be said that the government has concentrated only on the introduction of the national examination, which is relatively easy to handle and less controversial. As Edelman (1964) appropriately expressed using the term “political rhetoric”, politicians have tried to appeal to the public by constantly changing the entrance examination system, which has been one of the nation’s greatest concern, whenever they introduced a new college admissions system (Kim Jae-Woong 1994). In fact, the reform of the university entrance system is not costly, and it is the most effective tool for the government to take credit.

3.4

Changes in University Entrance System

(1) Introduction of Preliminary College Entrance Examination The preliminary college entrance examination (1969–1980) was introduced in 1969 with the aim to prevent deterioration in the quality of college education caused by the quantitative expansion of college students and to regulate illegal admission of students exceeding admission quota. The recruitment practice of admitting students in excess of student quota was rooted out by introducing Presidential Decree on the Fixed Number of University and College Students and preliminary college entrance examination. As a result, the government was able to manage the college student quota in a systematic manner. The

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preliminary college entrance examination, which was aimed at evaluating the eligibility of students for university admission, was conducted in a multiple choice format, and the examination subjects were decided among high school subjects by the preliminary examination committee. As for physical education, physical fitness test was conducted. In the early stage of the preliminary examination, the preliminary test was used to judge whether or not students were eligible to take university entrance examination. The preliminary examination certificates were awarded to only 150% of the college student quota, and those who passed the exam were eligible for taking the university entrance examination. In the first year, a total of 112,000 applicants took the exam and 61,000, slightly more than half of total applicants, were qualified to take college-specific entrance examinations. Of these, 47,000 were men and 14,000 were women. The passing score of the exam was 152 out of 360 points. The examination was regarded as a system in which autonomy of universities and colleges was respected in selecting their students because they selected students who passed the preliminary examinations based on their selection criteria. However, from 1974, the preliminary exam was not used as a qualification for university entrance examination, and its score was converted into a certain percentage (30% of the total entrance exam score) and was reflected in the overall entrance examination along with college-specific entrance examination scores (Fig. 2). In its editorial on January 4, 1970, the Dong-A Ilbo, Korean daily newspaper, made a comment with positive expectations for the preliminary examination held on December 16, 1969, as follows. The preliminary college entrance examination has several important implications. First of all, as only a certain number of high school graduates were qualified for universities and colleges, it will serve as an opportunity to improve the quality of universities and colleges and reorganize them. In the past, irrespective of qualifications or educational backgrounds of students, students were eligible to enter any university as long as they had high school diploma, a formal requirement for college education. After they were admitted to universities and colleges, students who completed a certain number of years automatically acquired bachelor’s

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Fig. 2 Banner of 1970 preliminary college entrance examination

degree and went out into the real world. As a result, some college graduates with worthless bachelor’s degree formed a group of the unemployed who could not get a job even after receiving higher education, which became a serious social problem, causing economic and social loss. This examination, however, is expected to prevent this social problem from getting worse. However, the results of preliminary examination, which was a qualification examination in its nature, were no longer reflected much in the college entrance examination from 1974. Instead, college-specific entrance examinations on major subjects such as Korean, English, and mathematics became a deciding factor in students’ success in college entrance exams. As a result, the entire nation was gripped by private tutoring frenzy. Moreover, social disharmony caused due to the gap between people who could afford expensive private tutoring and those who could not emerged as a social problem. In 1981, the college-specific entrance examination was abolished and the preliminary college entrance examination was replaced by the National College Entrance Test.

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(2) Abolition of College-specific Entrance Exams and Introduction of College Entrance System Based on National College Entrance Test and High School Grades On July 30, 1980, the military government announced Education Reform Plan (1980), the plan to normalize high school education and address the overheated private tutoring. The reform plan included the proposal to replace the preliminary college entrance examination with National College Entrance Test. The college-specific entrance examination, which had been the pillar of the nation’s university entrance system since liberation, was abolished. Instead, the National College Entrance Test and high school grade became important factors in university and college admission process. The decision to reflect high school grades in university and college admission process was aimed at normalizing high school education. In the university and college admission process, student’s high school grades were reflected more than 30% of the total score. In the same vein, almost all school subjects (14 subjects in 1982) were included as examination subjects for the National College Entrance Test. Chung Tae-Soo, the then Deputy Minister of Education, who was also a member of Education and Public Affairs Subcommittee under the Special Committee for National Security Measures looked back on the situation at the time as follows. Many people voiced their concerns that high school education could be undermined because of college-specific entrance examination conducted by universities and colleges which had no knowledge of high school curriculum. Therefore, the military government abolished collegespecific entrance examinations and had universities and colleges select students based on the results of the National College Entrance Test and high school grades. Based on the ideas of the Korean Educational Development Institute, I systemized the ideas of abolishing college-specific entrance examination and reflecting student’s high school grades in university and college admission process with the help of the military government. Relevant research was either conducted by the education community or already under way. In the meantime, the military government took power and accomplished the long-cherished project that could not be achieved by

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the Ministry of Education alone. I was asked by the military government to come up with an entrance examination system to solve the overheated private tutoring issue. Most of my opinions were respected by the military government. So I designed the college admissions system under which students can go to college based only on their grades in the long run (p. 69). Education Reform Plan (1980), which was mainly focused on the abolition of the college-specific entrance examination, the introduction of the National College Entrance Test, and reflection of and high school grade point average in college admissions process, was the most radical reform in the history of university entrance system in the Republic of Korea since liberation. It can be said that universities and colleges that had been insisting on university autonomy had no choice but to accept the reform plan without resistance because of the strong public support for the new military government’s plan to address overheated private tutoring issue. In addition, the way students applied to universities and colleges was also changed. From 1981 to 1987, students took college entrance exams before they applied to universities and college based on their grades. As a result, the wait-and-see attitude was prevalent, and even some of the prestigious universities failed to meet their quotas for student numbers. The relative rankings of universities and departments across the country became apparent as students applied to universities and colleges based on their examination scores. In order to solve these problems, it was changed to the way in which applicants apply to universities and colleges before they take the entrance exam starting from the 1988 academic year. To reduce students’ burden of learning, the number of subjects for the entrance examination was also reduced to five required and four optional subjects. In order to evaluate students’ high-order thinking skills, essay test was temporarily introduced in the 1986–1987 academic year, but was soon abolished due to the reliability of the scoring. Instead, interviews (not exceeding 10% of the total score) were newly introduced by universities and colleges. Faced with public criticism that the National College Entrance Test failed to evaluate students’ high-order thinking skills and meet the requirements for selecting qualified students for college education, the

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National College Entrance Test, which had been the pillar of the university entrance system in the Republic of Korea for over 10 years, was replaced by the new College Scholastic Ability Test in 1994.

3.4.1 Revision of the Private School Act: Public Characteristics and Autonomy of Private Universities and Colleges Political and Social Context Surrounding the Private School Act As soon as Korea was liberated from the Japanese colonial rule, the Korean people’s desire for college education grew even further. Like many countries in Western Europe, the state could have established and operated universities in order to meet people’s growing demand for higher education. However, Korea was too poor at the time to do so. The people’s demand for higher education was so strong that it was impossible to ask them to wait until the government could secure enough financial resources. The politicians knew that it would be a kind of political burden to suppress the people’s desire for higher education. Therefore, they opened the floodgates for college education by making education consumers pay all the costs of higher education themselves. Private universities and colleges increased rapidly around the 1950s and were established based on their contributed property, but they were mostly farmland or forest land with little profitability. Private universities, therefore, had to depend on tuition fees to pay for investment in their facilities. However, student quota for universities and colleges did not increase as expected. Universities and colleges recruited auditors or illegally admitted students exceeding their enrollment quota. In addition, some private schools have overly interfered or unfairly influenced the school management, academic affairs, and personnel management for faculty members. The Private School Act 1963 was enacted by the Park Chung-Hee government in this context. It is true that the enactment of the Private School Act was effective in checking and controlling the commercialization and unethical practices of private schools to some extent, but in the

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case of many sound private schools, uniform control by the government was a hindrance to the development of private schools in autonomous and creative manners. The tug-of-war between the public characteristics and autonomy of private schools, which has been discussed since the enactment of the Private School Act, has been controversial every time when the Private School Act was revised.

3.4.2 Revision of the Private School Act (1) Revision of the Private School Act 1981 General Chun Doo-Hwan, who took power in 1980 after President Park Chung-Hee’s assassination, vigorously promoted reforms in various sectors of society, including corrupt practices and irregularities in private schools. The first step was the “Reform Measures for Private Schools” announced on September 26, 1980, by the Ministry of Education. The measures were fully reflected in the Private School Act (Act No. 3,373), revised on February 28, 1981. The revised Private School Act outlined the limits of the responsibility of founders and heads of private universities and colleges to prevent them from interfering unfairly with the administration of those universities and colleges. It was aimed at creating the framework for private universities and colleges, which were regarded as private property of the founder’s family, to raise their public characteristics and develop soundly. On May 9, 1986, the Private School Act (Act No. 3,812) was revised once again, which further strengthened the public characteristics of private schools. This amendment was criticized for preventing the founders and juristic persons of private schools from engaging in the financial and personnel affairs of their school and for discouraging the founders from providing financial support for the development of their school. This became a political issue when the Private School Act was revised. The details of the revised Private School Acts are as follows. – School juristic persons shall be obliged under the Act to appoint certified public accountant(s) as auditor(s) in order to strengthen the supervision in school finances.

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– Faculty members shall be appointed by the president or dean of university or college with the approval of the personnel committee composed of the existing faculty members (elementary and junior high school teachers [excluding the heads of schools] shall be appointed by the chairman of the board of directors). – The president or dean of university or college is granted with the authority to organize, execute, and settle the budget. Provided that the university financial committee shall be established as an institutional device for professors to participate in the financial management of their university or college. – The founder, the spouse of the founder, liner ascendant or descendant of the founder and their spouses shall not be appointed as the president or dean of their university or college. (2) Revision of Private School Act in 1990 The Private School Act was continuously criticized for discouraging the founders of private schools from making further investments in their schools because the Act put too much emphasis on the publicness of the private schools from the viewpoint of private school foundations. As private schools’ demands for autonomy were strongly raised in the process of democratization after the Fifth Republic, the Private School Act was revised again on April 7, 1990 (Act No. 4,226). As we can see from the following excerpts from the revised Private School Act, the main focus of the Act was on empowering the school juristic persons as a whole and allowing them to participate in school management with a sense of ownership, although there were also provisions on the improvement of the transparency in school operations. – The right of the president and dean of a university or college to appoint professors will be transferred to school juristic persons. – Matters relating to re-appointment of professors shall be determined by the articles of association of the school juristic person concerned. – The approval of appointment of the president and dean of a university or college will be changed to reporting such appointment, and the

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cancelation of appointment approval will be changed to a request for dismissal. The ban on the chief director of a school juristic person from concurrently holding another chairman post for the other school juristic person will be lifted. The university deliberation committee shall be established in order to increase the opportunities for faculty members to participate in the operation of schools. Advisory committee on budget and settlement of accounts comprised of faculty members shall be newly established. The prohibition of liner ascendant or descendant of the chief director of school juristic person from being appointed as president or dean will be lifted, and the proportion of relatives in the number of directors will be increased from one-thirds to two-fifths.

Private schools are the schools established by the private sector with their own financial resources to satisfy the people’s demands for school education in situations where the government alone cannot meet such demands, or to achieve specific educational goals expressed in the founding ideology of a school. The Article 1 of the Private School Act stipulates that the purpose of this Act is “to ensure the sound development of private schools by securing their independence and promoting their public characteristics, in view of their special characteristics”. According to the purpose of this Act, this Act recognizes both the autonomy and public characteristics of private schools, which are difficult to be satisfied at the same time. It is not a simple matter to acknowledge the autonomy of private schools while not undermining their public characteristics. Those who emphasize the public characteristics of private schools make the following argument. The Article 9 (2) of the Framework Act on Education specifies that “schools shall be public in nature”. As such, education has public characteristics rather than private authority in its nature. As long as private schools are part of the public education system, which is formed by the state with an aim of “fostering people”, it is inevitable that state control and intervention over the private schools are necessary to realize values such as universality and equality of education.

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Thus, it is natural that the state plays a role as a “mediator of public interests” in educational activities. For example, if the endowment of the school foundation is insignificant and the expenses necessary for the school operation are subsidized by the state, the school juristic person shall not be allowed to have monopoly in school operation. They think that the autonomy of private schools is not based on the autonomous management by founders of schools, but rather on the autonomous operation by teachers, students, parents, and local communities (Park Bu-Kwon 2008). However, those who emphasize the autonomy of private schools make the following arguments. First, unlike national or public schools established and operated by the state or local government, private schools are established and operated not by a state but by a school juristic person. Second, the school juristic person is a foundational juristic person in accordance with the civil law; therefore, making school juristic person as a public juristic person is contrary to Article 23 of the Constitution which guarantees private property rights such as physical facilities and management rights of a school even if it receives financial support from the state or local government. Those who advocate the above claim agree that private schools have public characteristics to some extent because they are in charge of public education. However, they assert that private schools embody the constitutional spirit of realizing the people’s right to learn because they are established in accordance with Article 31 (1) of the Constitution, which stipulates that “all citizens shall have an equal right to receive an education corresponding to their abilities”. Therefore, it is natural that even though the state finances the private schools, the state does not necessarily have to control the private schools. With regard to autonomy and public characteristics of private schools, it is necessary to examine the revision process of the Private School Act in the 2000s. The revised Private School Act, which was discussed from the beginning of the Roh Moo-Hyun administration and was passed on December 9, 2005, was revised on July 3, 2007. The first and second revision of the Private School Act is totally different from each other in terms of public characteristics and autonomy of private schools because the political conflicts between the progressive camp and the conservative

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camp were reflected. The strong will of the Participatory Government and the Uri Party was reflected in the first revision of the Private School Act (December 2005). The revised Act stipulates as follows: every school juristic person shall select and appoint not less than one-quarter of the fixed number of directors from among the multiples of persons who are recommended by the school operating committee or the university deliberation committee; when converting all directors to temporary directors, one-third of such directors shall be appointed by the school operating committee or university deliberation committee; those who have relationship of relatives shall not exceed one-fourth of the fixed number of directors in organizing the board of directors. However, as soon as the first revision of the Private School Act was passed, private schools run by religious institutions strongly opposed the revised Private School Act, insisting that they would disobey the revised Private School Act and shut down the school. As a result, the revised Private School Act was re-revised in July 2007. The provision, which stipulates that one-quarter of the total number of directors, shall be appointed in accordance with the Open Trusteeship System, remained unchanged in the re-revised Private School Act. However, the amended provision stipulates that the school operating committee or university deliberation committee shall have “Directors Recommendation Committee”, and one-half of the committee members shall be recommended by school operating committee or university deliberation committee. In addition, the revised provisions stipulate as follows: converting some or all of the directors of juristic person to temporary directors is allowed; the private school dispute mediation committee shall be established under the control of the Minister of Education in order to deliberate on matters concerning the selection and appointment, and dismissal of temporary directors, and the normalization of private schools. In an attempt to ward off the opposition of the private school juristic persons, the influence of school operating committee or university deliberation committee was reduced and the board of directors of the juristic persons had bigger voice in matters concerning the selection and appointment of directors (Kim Jae-Woong 2009). The extreme conflict over the publicness and autonomy of private schools seems to have been abated after the re-revision of the Private School Act in July

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2007. However, the founders of private schools think that the interference and control of the state are still too strong to implement private schools’ founding ideology autonomously and specialize their schools. Public management of the private schools is necessary not only because private schools are part of the public education system, but because irregularities, illegal practices, and corruption by private schools still exist. Perhaps the debate on public characteristic and autonomy of private schools will continue, but it is clear that both are precious values that cannot be abandoned (Kim Jae-Woong 2009). The following arguments concerning the debate over public characteristic and autonomy of private schools (Kim et al. 2009, p. 9) are worth noting. Autonomy and public characteristics are often regarded as two conflicting values. If autonomy is expanded, public characteristics are undermined; and autonomy is violated if public characteristic is strengthened. In fact, if the demand for publicness becomes stronger, the room for autonomy is reduced; however, in theory, these two are not conflicting values. The opposition of autonomy is heteronomy, and it can be said that the opposition of the publicness is “pursuit of private interests” or “marketism or privatization” although there is room for disagreement. Extreme pursuit of autonomy can degenerate into laissezfaire and self-indulgence, which can hinder social integration, but a moderate level of autonomy contributes to the development of publicness. If publicness is overemphasized, autonomy can be violated, and the society can be transformed into a totalitarian society. However, in a society where publicness no longer exists, autonomy of people is hardly guaranteed.

3.4.3 Achievements and Challenges The military government, which took power in 1960, imposed various controls on universities and colleges by using powerful political means to solve the social problems caused by the policy of non-interference in higher education. It can be said that a series of university reorganization policies, which have been implemented so far to solve the

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problem of excessive supply of college graduates, low employment rate of college graduates, and the corruption of private schools, were rational and supported by the people. However, the issues concerning undemocratic process of reorganizing universities and colleges, and the irrationality of the policy have been raised. For example, in the case of private universities and colleges, which were depending heavily on students’ tuition fees to cover their operating expenses, it was almost impossible for school foundations to cover more than 30% of the operating expenses. Moreover, the reduction in college student quota resulted in financial crisis in universities and colleges (Ministry of Education 1998). There was, of course, a reason to reduce student quota of universities and colleges considering the manpower supply and demand, but it seems that the decision was politically intentional given that forecasting future manpower demand is a technically difficult task. It is ironic that the excessive reduction in college student quota caused the shortage of high-quality manpower required for the nation’s rapid economic development since the 1970s. Although the government’s policy to control the student quota of each university and college caused various problems, the policy has been in place for 40 years partly because higher education in the Republic of Korea has maintained private school-centered structure. Private universities and colleges, where the number of students is directly linked to their revenues, were able to fill their student quota determined by the government without much effort, because student enrollment quota (supply) was always insufficient compared to the number of students who wanted to enter universities and colleges (demand). Thus, it can be seen that universities and colleges have adapted themselves to the government’s centralized policy on student quota at the expense of their autonomy. This suggests typical example of subordination of private universities and colleges to the government. Although universities and colleges spent money on lobbying for creating new departments or increasing their student quota, it would have been far less than the amount of money, which would have been invested to attract (good) students by enhancing the quality of universities and colleges. As a result, the quality of university education was sacrificed in this process. In addition, the enactment of the Private School Act, which allowed the government to fully control

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private schools, was significant because it sparked the debate over the publicness and autonomy of private schools. Although it is hard to say that the Park Chung-Hee government’s policy to reorganize universities and colleges was successful, the policy have had important implications for the direction of higher education in the Republic of Korea (Kim Jong-Chul 1979, pp. 94–96). First, it served as an opportunity to pay more attention to the qualitative improvement of universities and colleges than their quantitative expansion. Second, people realized that quantitative reduction would not automatically lead to the qualitative improvement of universities and colleges. Third, the unilateral strengthening of the government’s supervision and compulsory measures reveal limitations in the normalization and qualitative development of universities and colleges, and no policy can be effective when the principle of university autonomy is denied. Fourth, if the government takes a piecemeal and helter-skelter approach to university policy, the policy will inevitably fail. It is, therefore, necessary to take a consistent approach in implementing the policy according to the plan from a long-term and comprehensive perspectives. Fifth, since universities and colleges are the institutions that require enormous educational expenses, the development of universities and colleges can be possible only if greater investment in those universities and colleges is made. The graduation quota system, which was a representative higher education policy implemented by the Chun Doo-Hwan government, was an inappropriate education policy because universities and colleges had to eliminate a certain portion of students, irrespective of the characteristics of each university or college and the student’s grades. If the quality of education matters, more attention should be paid to securing excellent professors and expanding educational facilities. In addition, autonomous activities between teachers and learners should be guaranteed in order to provide proper education given the nature of education. As the attendance rate of students improved and the library was

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crowded with students, it seemed as if academic atmosphere was created. However, as the evaluation mainly based on multiple choice questions was conducted in order to drop a certain portion of students, the climate for teaching and learning between the students disappeared, and students were estranged from professors (Kang Moo-Sub et al. 1986). In this regard, it can be said that this policy, in which the government intended to control the college graduation rate, was the policy that emphasized social or political needs rather than educational needs. As stated above, it was assumed that there may have been a hidden intension behind the gradation quota system—to prevent student uprisings by making students concentrate only on their study out of fear for possible dropouts. Interestingly, however, with the enormous increase in admission quota, the size of the potential group to participate in student uprisings rather grew as universities and colleges did not comply with the policy of dropping a certain percentage of students. The graduation quota system was not effective in controlling the number of students. In the latter half of the 1980s, when the desire for democratization grew in each sector of the society, the student group challenged the ruling power and contributed to the announcement of the June 29 Declaration. Though the military government had hidden intentions to achieve its political goal of controlling the society by enforcing the forced dropout rule, it could be said that the government dug its own grave by adopting the graduation quota because universities and colleges did not fully comply with the graduation quota (Kim Jae-Woong 1996). Some universities and colleges faithfully complied with graduation quota rules and dropped certain percentage of students, and others maintained their students by postponing their compliance with the graduation quota. Ironically, universities and colleges that did not follow the rules enjoyed the benefits of increased tuition revenues as well as letting their students to graduate. On the other hand, in the case of universities and colleges that followed the rule had to suffer the loss of tuition revenue, and the students who were dropped out under the graduation quota rule remained forever victimized by the system. Simply put, those who adhered to the policy suffered the loss, and those who violated it enjoyed the benefits. In this regard, the graduation quota system was a policy

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with serious ethical problems. Furthermore, the Education Reform Plan (1980) has been criticized for its legitimacy (Lee Jong-Gak 1994). First of all, it could be a problem that the organization which prepared and announced the Education Reform Plan (1980) was the Special Committee for National Security Measures (SCNSM) that had supraconstitutional status. As the chairman of the SCNSM was then President Choi, Kyu-Hah, there would have been no legitimacy issue with the reform if the president had taken the initiative in pushing ahead with the reform. However, instead of holding the SCNSM plenary meeting to adopt the Education Reform Plan (1980), the culture and public information committee, which was created to assist the SCNSM, took the initiative in drafting the reform plan and reported it to the chairman Chun Doo-Hwan of the standing committee in order to secure the legitimacy of the education reform. The reform plan was neither reported to the president nor discussed in the National Assembly. The SCNSM subcommittee reported the reform plan to the chairman Chun DooHwan on July 29, 1980, and on the following day, the chairman Oh Ja-Bok of the culture and public information committee announced the reform plan at a press conference. The media featured this education reform, calling it an “educational revolution”. This is how the Education Reform (1980), which was drafted without following the procedure and lacked legitimacy, was initiated. In short, the graduation quota rule is a policy pursued by the political group, which had the goal of securing the legitimacy of its regime at the earliest possible time, with political intentions rather than educational intentions. According to the above analysis, this education reform was not only a failed educational policy, but also a failed political and social policy. This suggests that education policy and education reform, which were designed only for political purposes without educational considerations, not only undermine education, but also harm the economy as well as politics (Kim Jae-Woong 1996). In the history of ROK’S education policy since the liberation, there are few policies that have been changed as often as the university entrance system. The college entrance examination has always been the matter of great interest for the people as well as college entrance examinees, and has been highlighted by the media. Therefore, it may be natural that the political power interested in gaining more votes tried to reform the

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university entrance system as a means to let the public know that they were paying attention to the issue that most people were interested in. Moreover, reforming the university entrance system does not cost much and is an effective policy to inform the people that the government is making reform efforts. For this reason, every time the government changes, the college admissions system has undergone major or minor changes, which often caused confusion to schools and students. The university admissions system can be evaluated according to the criteria such as fairness and efficiency of entrance examination management, autonomy of universities and colleges, and normalization of high school education. The college-specific entrance examination with the guaranteed university autonomy was the main axis of the early day university entrance system in the Republic of Korea. However, as social problems such as corrupt practices of universities and colleges including illegally admitting students occurred, the government introduced measures such as preliminary college entrance examinations and the National College Entrance Test and had universities and colleges to use the results of the examinations in their admissions process in order to ensure fair management of the entrance examination. In addition to the fairness and efficiency of college entrance examination, the autonomy of universities and colleges to select students who are suitable for their founding ideology and characteristics is also an important value. College-specific entrance examination, interview, and essay exam have been recognized for this reason. However, the college-specific entrance examination centered on subjects like Korean, English, and mathematics was abolished following the Education Reform (1980) and has not been implemented again because it has been blamed for causing overheated private tutoring and fostering the atmosphere of social disharmony. According to the Education Reform (1980), reflection of high school grades in college admissions process was adopted under the banner of the normalization of school education. In some way, our university entrance system has evolved in a balanced manner to represent the positions of the government, universities and colleges, and high schools in their power struggles. Nonetheless, the college admissions system may be successful in “managerial” perspective but still seems to have a lot of problems from “educational” perspective.

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The various examinations that are conducted according to the “managerial” purpose are bound to limit individual students’ development, liberation, and further entry into the “world of meaning” (Bates 1984). The results of the recent Program for International Student Assessment (PISA) show that Korean students ranked fairly high among the OECD countries in terms of academic achievement in major subjects, but they ranked at the bottom in terms of students’ level of satisfaction with school life and their interest in the school subjects. What does this tell us? Our primary and secondary schools focus on the preparation for college entrance examination and are spending a lot of time trying to solve problems similar to those of college entrance examination repeatedly. These academic experiences and tests at schools not only contribute to the distribution of social classes of the students, but also instill the idea into students that the students’ failure in this academic experiences and tests is not the institution’s responsibility but their personal responsibility. In order to ensure students can have deeper educational experiences in schools, there should be changes in curriculum, teaching method, evaluation method, university entrance system, etc. However, socioeconomic conditions, such as wage gap by individual’s educational background, emphasis on academic background in the process of recruitment and promotion at businesses, and materialism should also be improved along with such changes. In short, during the industrialization period under the Park Chung-Hee and the Chun Doo-Hwan governments, economic development was the first priority for the nation; therefore, universities and colleges were viewed as a means of national development, and the government-led education was implemented to secure and maintain the legitimacy of the regime. In this process, autonomy and creativity of universities and colleges were undermined to some extent. It was a natural result that universities and colleges, which seek academic freedom and freedom of thought, resisted and did not passively accept this political environment. Consequently, college campuses across the country saw a surge in student demonstrations. Ironically, the team solely responsible for dealing with students’ demonstration was one of the major teams under the Ministry of Education’s Bureau of Higher Education. The quality of college education such as academic research and teaching-learning was sacrificed in this process. Students’ political

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activism at university campuses in the 1980s laid the foundation for the announcement of the June 29 Declaration in 1987 and served as a driving force behind the democratization of universities and society.

4

Higher Education in Informatization Period: Since the Mid-1990s

4.1

May 31 Education Reform (1995) and Higher Education

4.1.1 Background of the Kim Young-Sam Government’s Education Reform The May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) refers to the education reform proposals reported to President Kim Young-Sam on May 31, 1995. This reform proposals were distinguished from previous education reforms because the direction of the reform was in line with the neoliberalism, which focused on market and consumer rather than the state and suppliers. Moreover, the education reform plan covered the entire education system. After several public discussions, the education reform proposal was announced in February 1994 a year and three months after its inception. This reform plan was prepared based on the recognition that the existing education system should fundamentally be changed and the problems in our education should be addressed in order to actively prepare for the future society, which will be totally different from today. The Education Reform Commission led the education reforms at the time and recognized that the world will soon witness the advent of the ages of knowledge and information, and globalization, in which countries compete infinitely for intellectual property such as technology, information, knowledge, and culture. Already the global powers showed considerable interest and attention to higher education because they viewed it as the basis of the knowledge-based system.

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In particular, the opening of global trade market and the introduction of the principle of free markets following the launch of the World Trade Organization (WTO) served as an opportunity to form a consensus that we would inevitably have to jump into global competition for our survival. The opening of the education market in line with the globalization trend was inevitable, and the market opening in higher education was expected to be more active than ever. Globalization fostered the movement of students between countries and opened the way for excellent universities in other countries to enter the higher education market in the Republic of Korea. Competition between foreign universities and domestic universities was inevitable. Informatization was another factor which drove the May 31 Education Reform. Even in the 1990s, there was a perception that universities and colleges in the Republic of Korea were not yet ready to cultivate talents suitable for the information age. Moreover, it was not easy for the higher education sector to provide the human resources necessary for the nation’s future IT environment. Financial support for higher education was also insufficient compared to that of developed countries, and universities and colleges were not well prepared for the diversification and specialization of their education to respond rapidly to the global trend of informatization. In response to the demands of the times, the Kim Young-Sam government announced education reform measures for establishing a new education system to lead the globalization and information age, or the so-called Education Reform Plan (1995).

4.1.2 Education Reform (1995) and Higher Education Policy Presidential candidate Kim Young-Sam presented 66 education pledges in 7 areas, and most of these pledges were included in the Education Reform Plan (1995). The Education Reform Commission (ERC) announced the reform plan focused on core values such as the right to choice, specialization, diversification, autonomy, accountability, and excellence of schools. Details of the proposed education reform plan are as follows: (1) to establish a foundation for open education society and

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lifelong learning society; (2) to diversify and specialize universities and colleges; (3) to establish school community for autonomous operation of elementary and secondary education; (4) to develop curriculum for fostering character and creativity of students; (5) to introduce a university entrance system that alleviates the burdens of the people; (6) to provide primary and secondary school education that respects various personalities of learners; (7) to establish the system for evaluation and support for educational providers; (8) to nurture competent and decent teachers; (9) and to secure 5% of GNP (until 1998) (Education Reform Commission, May 31, 1995) Table 2 shows the issues related to higher education among the education reform proposals. The Education Reform Plan (1995) was aimed at improving the quality of education through education reform, based on the recognition that strengthening education competitiveness would lead to the strengthening of national competitiveness, and sought its ground in “change in the history of civilization” toward globalization and informatization. The Education Reform Plan (1995) proposed policies aimed at qualitative improvement rather than quantitative expansion of universities and colleges, and encouraging universities and colleges to develop through specialization and diversification. The education reform plans announced after the Education Reform Plan (1995) include the followings: the Second Education Reform Plan (February 9, 1996) contained the proposals such as the introduction of a degree system for junior college, open university, and technology institute; the introduction of professional graduate schools such as medical graduate school and law school; and the reform of the education-related laws and regulations. The Third Education Reform Plan (August 20, 1996) proposed the reform of teacher policy for the promotion of the teaching community including reforming teacher training system to improve teachers’ qualification, liberalization of private schools, and the education information reform plan. The 4th Education Reform Plan (June 2, 1997) included proposals such as support for fostering local universities and the specialization of junior colleges; securing excellence in higher education by fostering world-class prestigious universities through investment

Education Reform Plan (1995) (May 31, 1995)

1. To diversify and specialize universities and colleges

Objective

Table 2 Kim Young-Sam government’s higher education reform plan

(continued)

• Diversification and specialization of university models • Establishment of stand-alone type professional graduate schools • Autonomy in the establishment, affairs, student quota, etc., of university or college • Globalization of academic research—Collaboration with foreign scholars and support for publication in international academic journals—Establishment of advanced academic information center—Strengthen connectivity between research evaluation and financial support • Globalization of college education—Training of experts in international relations—Improvement of policies related to foreign students—Support for higher education institutions to enter overseas education market—Establishment of Korean cultural identity

Major reform tasks

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• Establishment of an institutional basis—Introduction of academic credit bank system—Introduction of part-time enrollment- Introduction of a minimum credit requirement system—Operation of a new type of universities using advanced equipment and technology • Establishment of technology infrastructure - Establishment of a system to support distance learning — Establishment of national support centers for multimedia education • Improvement of college admissions system • Improvement of selection system for national and public universities.—Documentation of essential data for student selection in student transcript (information on college scholastic ability test, essay, interview is optional)—Abolition of college-specific entrance examination based on Korean, English, and mathematics-Autonomy of private universities in their student selection • Introduction of admissions information center, comprehensive student transcript, multiple college application system

2. To establish a foundation for open education society and lifelong learning society

3. To introduce a university entrance system that alleviates the burdens of the people

Major reform tasks

Objective

Source Edited with reference to Shin Hyun-Seok (2005, pp. 30–31)

Table 2 (continued)

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in research-oriented universities including graduate schools; and the establishment of college admissions screening method .

4.1.3 University Autonomy Policy Background of the Policy Introduction Autonomy means independence from external control, regulation, interference, and protection and is the ability to set principles on one’s own according to the principles of internal control and to self-regulate in accordance with those principles (Seo Min-Won 2008). If we apply this concept to universities, the autonomy of universities will not only mean independence from external control and interference such as control by the government, but also the authority and responsibility of those universities to set their own principles and to self-regulate themselves according to the principles. Changes in the role of universities following the arrival of the knowledge-based society in the 1990s were the background of the introduction of university autonomy policies. Universities and colleges were asked to be independent from external control and interference and to act as the backbone of knowledge-based society through the development of its own capabilities. Therefore, the issue of higher education reform is summarized as follows: the autonomy of universities, strengthening competitiveness of universities, and the improvement of excellence. The Korea Council for University Education (2009) stipulates that the purpose of liberalization of higher education is to ease the existing regulations on higher education and to serve the purpose and carry out functions of higher education institutions in a more efficient manner. In December 1994, the government announced a plan to promote university autonomy, which included university’s autonomous determination of student enrollment quota and graduation quota, diversification of semester and credit management, and differentiation of college tuition fees. The Education Reform Plan (1995), which reflected this trend, included the tasks such as the diversification and specialization of university models, ensuring autonomy in the establishment of university or

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college, the management of academic affairs, determination of student quota, and the autonomous selection of students. In 1996, the system was upgraded to improve the autonomy of private schools, so that the authority to form a board of directors was granted to school juristic persons, the term of presidents and deans of private universities was guaranteed, which suggests that the scope of university autonomy gradually expanded to include higher education institutions’ decision-making structure, entrance screening process, appointment and selection of professors, and so on. In this section, we will look at the policy of university autonomy focused on university and college admission system and normative rules for the establishment of university.

4.1.4 Evolvement of Policy (1) Changes in University and College Admission System and Student Selection According to the statistics of the Korean Educational Development Institute, university and college enrollment rate in the Republic of Korea reached over 70% in 2011, which was higher than the average of OECD countries (59%) in the same period. This shows that the university education in Korea has become universal. However, while university and college admission rate has grown in Korea, the government has maintained excessive control-oriented policies in admission system rather than granting autonomy to universities and colleges. Table 3 shows the changes in the methods of university and college admission adopted by the governments since liberation. The very first method of university and college admissions was left to the choice of the university. The first form of national college entrance examination was implemented for a while in order to overcome the shortcomings of the existing system. In the late 1960s, the new test called Preliminary College Entrance Examination was adopted to screen students eligible for university, and college admission and college-specific entrance examination were conducted for

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final student selection. Subsequently, the college-specific entrance examination was abolished, and the university and college admission was uniformly converted into a uniformed system under which successful students were selected based on high school grade point average and National College Entrance Test scores. Since the introduction of the College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) in 1994, the university and college admission process has continued mostly unchanged. Today, in addition to CSAT, student transcript, essay writing, oral test, interview, and practical demonstration of skills and competencies are performed in parallel to diversify the university admissions system, but the method of admissions to universities is still not stabilized. Table 3 shows that the method of university and college admission changed every five years on average. The admission system has changed more than 15 times over the 70 years after the liberation, and the changes were made almost every year when the detailed changes in the system are included. The problem with university and college admission in Korea is that the system led by the government lacked consistency in its principles and operations, and that this method has been uniformly applied to all universities and colleges across the country (Table 3). This is a clear indication that the government has not established a university and college admission system based on a long-term and comprehensive plan, but has prepared the system depending on the circumstances of the time, and that the government’s university autonomy policy was nothing but an empty slogan. Consequently, universities and colleges had to prepare their own admission procedures and to supplement or develop their own admission method. University’s right to select students has an inseparable relation with the university admissions system. Over the past 70 years, with regard to the university’s student selection rights, the government’s control and autonomy of universities and colleges, and interference and non-interference by the government have been alternately repeated. Until the early 1960s, universities were operated autonomously and could select students without external interference thanks to the government’s open, non-interference policy. However, the university’s failure to strictly manage and operate admission system

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Table 3 Evolvement of university and college admission method Year

University and college admission method

1945–1953 1954

College-specific Entrance Examination National Joint Examination and College-specific Entrance Examination College-specific Entrance Examination National College Entrance System College-specific Entrance Examination Preliminary College Entrance Examination and college-specific Entrance Examination Preliminary College Entrance Examination and high school grade point average National College Entrance Test and high school grade point average National College Entrance Test, high school grade point average, essay writing National College Entrance Test, high school grade point average, and interviews College Scholastic Ability Test, high school grade point average, college-specific entrance examination College Scholastic Ability Test, student transcript, college-specific entrance examination(essay writing) College Scholastic Ability Test, student transcript, essay writing, letter of recommendation, in-depth interview College Scholastic Ability Test, student transcript, essay writing, interview and oral test College Scholastic Ability Test, student transcript, essay writing, interview and oral test, personality and aptitude test, practical demonstration of skills and competencies Reorganization of CSAT system, adjustment of subjects for CSAT

1955–1961 1962–1963 1964–1968 1969–1980 1981 1982–1985 1986–1987 1988–1993 1994–1996 1997–2001 2002–2007 2008–2010 2011–2013

2014–

Source The above table was rewritten based on Son Choong-Ki (2003, p. 104), Seo Min-Won (2008), Korean Council for University Education (2011)

led to the government control over universities’ student selection as irregularities and corruptions related to college admissions become social issues. As a result, there have been incidents in which the autonomy of universities was undermined by the government control. Despite the fact that the autonomy of universities should be secured and expanded based on market principles and competition, the government took the leadership in the hegemony struggle between the government and universities over the selection of students. However, the government has continued to take measures to gradually expand university’s autonomy and right

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to select students by introducing Admission Officer System in 2007. In relation to student selection, there are two methods. One of the methods is to select students under the control and management of the Ministry of Education in accordance with the regulations and guidelines regarding college admissions, and the other is to select students regardless of regulations and guidelines of the Ministry of Education. Ulsan National Institute of Science and Technology (UNIST), which was established in 2009 as a research-oriented university, and Korea Advanced Institute of Science & Technology (KAIST) select students according to their own admission policies without being controlled by the government. All other universities and colleges select their students following the government’s guidelines and regulations. (2) Rules for the Establishment of University With the implementation of the Education Reform (1995), the Kim Young-Sam government took market-oriented approach to promote competition among universities and colleges to enhance their quality and pursued deregulation policies for the establishment of universities to diversify and specialize universities and colleges. The university establishment rule was introduced in July 1996 by promulgating University Establishment and Operation Regulations. According to the regulations, the Minister of Education authorizes the establishment of a university if the university meets the four requirements stipulated by the law such as building site, buildings, property for profit, and faculty members. Under the advance notice system for the establishment of universities,1 a university was allowed to be established if it meets the facilities standard for the university with more than 5,000 students. On the other hand, the new rule for the establishment of university made it possible for smaller and specialized universities to be established to promote specialization and diversification of universities. Moreover, the new rule was aimed at raising competition among universities by easing various regulations on the establishment of universities in order to ultimately enhance their educational competitiveness. Therefore, the number of newly established universities increased after the introduction of the rules for the establishment of universities. A total of 80

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institutions of higher education were established from 1996 to 2006, including 38 universities, 34 graduate school universities, and 8 junior colleges. The number of college students increased explosively during this period (see Fig. 3). In 2005, the number of students for the universities that were established under this rule was a total of 15,668 including 10,090 for universities, 3,760 for junior colleges, and 1,919 for graduate school universities. The number of students enrolled in higher education institutions increased by 73,291 between 1996 and 2005. Of the newly established universities, 23 were reorganized from miscellaneous schools, junior colleges, and industrial universities, and they were mostly small universities and established in provinces due to the regulations in the Seoul Metropolitan Area. Graduate school universities, however, were mostly established in the Seoul Metropolitan Area. As for the problem of quantitative expansion of universities due to the university establishment rule, the government thought that some universities would be gradually eliminated following the neoliberalism and the logic of the market. (number)

Higher education institutions

University

College of Education

Industrial University

Graduate School

Community College

Others

Fig. 3 Changes in the number of students enrolled in higher education institutions (Source Korean Educational Statistics Service of the Korean Educational Development Institute [kess.kedi.re.kr/index])

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In other words, even if universities are allowed to be established freely, students and parents who are the customers of the university will choose the university based on the quality of the services provided by the university. Therefore, each university cannot but competes fiercely to attract students. The government thought that no one would choose substandard universities even if those lower-level universities were established (Park Bu-Kwon et al. 1999). In reality, however, opposite results were produced. While the government’s deregulation seemed to have increased the opportunities for higher education, the adverse effects of oversupply in university education were resulted from the relaxation of regulations governing the establishment of universities, such as the mass production of substandard universities, the concentration of universities in specific fields, problems related to the survival of some specialized universities, and the paralysis of screening functions for the establishment of universities (Lim YeonKi 2008). The rule for the establishment of universities was abolished in 2014. In recent years, the structural reform policies introduced to solve the problems associated with the mismatch between student resources and college population due to low birth rate and subsequent decline in high school graduates have surfaced as main topics. The government, which called for autonomy and openness of universities and encouraged the establishment of universities under the name of neoliberalism, is now taking steps to reduce those universities due to concerns over the excessive supply of universities.

4.2

Institutionalization of University Evaluation

4.2.1 Background of the Introduction of University Evaluation System The Republic of Korea, which has pursued the government-led economic development, is undergoing major changes in the direction of educational policy due to market pressure following the globalization. In particular, changes in policy based on free market principles are demanding university reform, and competition among universities is

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becoming more intense while the demand for college education is declining. The university evaluation system was introduced in a situation where universities are accelerating efforts for the improved efficiency, specialization, and differentiation in accordance with market order due to the changes in the economic and social environment surrounding the universities. There are several reasons for the government to introduce and institutionalize university evaluation system. The underlying cause is financial vulnerability of universities. Private universities make up 80% of higher education institutions in the Republic of Korea; about twothirds of the universities’ operating income are generated from tuition fees. These financial vulnerabilities show the probability that universities would make poor investment in improving their education environment in the age of infinite competition among countries due to globalization and openness. It also raises questions about how competitive universities are in terms of education and research, and what efforts are being made or what plans they have to strengthen their competitiveness. Second, the stereotyped universities are inevitably vulnerable to changes in the external environment. As a result of rapid quantitative growth of higher education in Korea, universities were not established, operated, and developed according to their special purposes and functions, but rather they underwent a similar development process under the single development model with their functions being undifferentiated. Third, despite the fact that the research conditions of higher education institutions in the Republic of Korea are deteriorating, it has become necessary for the higher education institutions to pursue excellence in education and improve accountability due to the opening of the education market. For these reasons, the government developed a policy to institutionalize university evaluation to evaluate and assess the level of universities in order to secure competitiveness of higher education on the global stage.

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Various Types of University Evaluation

(1) University Evaluation and Accreditation Since its establishment in 1982, Korean Council for University Education (hereinafter referred to as “KCUE”) has been conducting the university evaluation and accreditation project. The university evaluation was officially notified by the Ministry of Education in 1991 after the announcement of the plan in accordance with the recommendation by the Presidential Committee on Educational Reform of the 5th Republic. In 1994, the name of the university evaluation was changed to the university evaluation and accreditation. Since the establishment of the Korean University Accreditation Institute (KUAI) under KCUE in 2009, the KUAI has been conducting university evaluation and accreditation project. The purpose of the university evaluation and accreditation is to pursue excellence in the quality of university education by systematically evaluating the quality of universities and to secure the credibility of university education. According to the KCUE report, university evaluation and accreditation system has produced positive results such as creating academic atmosphere in universities, strengthening universities’ efforts for development based on their long- and short-term plans, and improving negative perception among people toward universities. This illustrates that this system helped to improve the conditions of university education, encourage universities to strengthen educational competitiveness by establishing a sound and constructive competition system among universities, and also contribute to the improvement of university accountability. However, we cannot deny that there is also a negative aspect to the evaluation and accreditation system. In particular, we cannot rule out the possibility that the system may be tarnished by formalism and finally end up being an evaluation for evaluation. In addition to the issues of fairness and professionalism of evaluation, there are also other problems associated with evaluation criteria. Kim Kwang-Woong (1994) evaluates the university evaluation and accreditation system as a “rough-and-ready” and “short-lived ” system and expresses concerns over the system. In addition, Shin Hyeon-Seok (2005)

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points out that there are problems such as the deepening of the richget-richer and the poor-get-poor phenomenon among universities, the validity and reliability of the evaluation itself, excessive formalism, and insufficient consideration of university specialization. Some universities are refusing to participate in the university evaluation and accreditation. (2) University Self-assessment In accordance with Article 11 (2) “Assessment” of the Higher Education Act and Regulation on Self-Assessment of Higher Education Institutions (January 1, 2009), each university shall conduct its own self-assessment. It is designed to help universities to explore future direction for development. Universities shall publish their self-assessment results at least once every two years on the website of “Higher Education in Korea Service” (www.acadmyinfo.go.kr) and each university’s website. This selfassessment provides universities for the opportunity to check the current state of their education and research, and establish a new development plan and manage their performance based on this assessment results, so that they can constantly improve the quality of education and research. In the case of students, parents, and businesses, they can refer to the assessment results published on the website of each university or “Higher Education in Korea Service” to utilize for the selection of university or department, and recruitment of employees. The university’s self-assessment helps universities to develop further and is establishing itself as a positive system that is beneficial to universities, education consumers, and the industry. (3) University Rankings Evaluation by Local and Foreign Media Organizations The representative local media organizations that conduct university rankings evaluation are “Joongang Ilbo” and “Chosun Ilbo”. The university rankings evaluation of “Joongang Ilbo” started in 1994, and the evaluation is conducted based on the data received from the participating universities every year or additional data acquired through related

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institutions or information disclosed by universities. The annual evaluation results are announced no later than September or early October. There are four areas they evaluate: educational conditions (100 points), internationalization (70 points), professors’ research achievements (120 points), and students’ entry into society and reputation of university (110 points). The rankings of universities are determined based on the sum of the evaluated scores of the four areas. In the case of evaluation of internationalization, it can be divided into sub-areas including: the proportion of foreign students enrolled in the degree course (15), the proportion of foreign exchange students (5), the proportion of exchange students abroad (10), and the proportion of major classes in English (20). Since 2009, Chosun Ilbo has been conducting Asian University Ranking evaluation jointly with Quacquarelli Symonds (QS), a U.K. university evaluation institution, and announces the evaluation results at the end of May or at the end of June every year. University evaluation is institutionalized in the Republic of Korea to improve global competitiveness and quality of its university education. The institutionalization of university evaluation has resulted in the strengthening of university education and the rise of the rankings of Korean universities in world university rankings. However, Korean universities are not ranked high in world university rankings. The number of Korean universities ranked among the top universities in the world rankings is very small, and the major field is limited to some science and engineering fields. Times Higher Education (THE) in the U.K. and QS jointly publish the world’s top 500 university rankings each year. The quantitative criteria include excellence in research, excellence in lecture, number of foreign professors and international students, and qualitative criteria include peer evaluation and employer surveys. The two institutes had been conducting world university evaluation since 2004; however, QS has been conducting its own world university rankings evaluation since 2008, and THE since 2010. QS announces their evaluation results in September, and THE announces its evaluation results at the end of September or early October based on the data submitted by universities at the end of May every year. However,

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in the case of research-related evaluation, QS evaluates research achievements of universities based on Elsevier’s SCOPUS, and THE based on Thomson Reuters’ Web of Science database instead of evaluating data submitted by universities. Because these assessments are conducted in the U.K., non-U.S. universities, especially U.K. universities, are ranked higher than U.S. universities. Seoul National University was ranked 50th in academic achievement in 2014 and 26th in overall reputation. Meanwhile, we should also pay attention to the adverse effects of the university evaluation. It should be remembered that the evaluation may produce counterproductive outcomes. The evaluation may result in social problems such as exhaustive competition among universities over rankings, resulting in the eventual extinction of small, private universities in local areas. Especially, if the government provides graded financial assistance to universities based on their evaluation results, rich universities will get richer and poor universities will get poorer. As a result, survival of small and medium-sized universities with poor financial condition can be threatened. Second, we also need to see if there is a problem with the validity and reliability of the evaluation itself. It is also necessary to ensure the fairness of the evaluation, by examining whether there is a problem with the evaluation items, whether the evaluation is composed of normal evaluation items, and in addition, who the evaluators are. Third, the universities may be trapped by formalism. For example, the evaluation items such as proportion of foreign professors, graduates’ employment rate, student-faculty ratio, and proportion of English lectures do not require universities to prepare a long-term university development plan. Instead, it is likely to result in poor management of academic affairs as well as poor administration by universities to meet these criteria. Shin Hyun-Seok (2005, p. 226) emphasizes that the existence of evaluation is bound to the dynamism of contemporary social environment, and that the meaning and emphasis of the evaluation differ from one period to another as the social environment changes. Therefore, it is important to make sure that a strict and fair standard is applied in the evaluation with the social environment in mind in order to contribute to the improvement of the overall competitiveness and quality of university education, which is the original purpose of the university evaluation.

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Expansion of Graduate Education and Research and Development

4.4.1 Importance of Graduate Education and R & D Due to the globalization trend, the competitiveness of higher education has attracted more political attention than any other sector. This is because the world economy is being restructured depending on how much a country has secured an economically active population with advanced creative knowledge, technology, and information processing ability. Thus, the expansion of university and graduate school education and the enhancement of R & D capacity to improve the quality of higher education have become an important policy agenda for almost every country in the world. This trend is no exception to the Republic of Korea. Therefore, we continue to strive for the national development by creating added value through our knowledge and ideas based on the recognition that international competitiveness of higher education is an important factor determining our future. These efforts include strengthening R & D functions of universities through the establishment of professional graduate schools and strengthening financial support from the government.

4.5

Introduction of New Graduate Programs and Expansion of R & D

(1) Establishment of Law Schools The Republic of Korea has selected lawyers through the national bar examination and has trained legal professionals through two years of practical training at the Judicial Research and Training Institute. There are more than 90 colleges of law in Korea nationwide. However, legal professionals are screened actually based on the bar examination, which is not the extended curriculum of the colleges of law. Therefore, candidates for the bar examination have diverse educational backgrounds, and even if they did not receive normal legal education, they could become

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legal professionals if they pass the bar examination. After completing the two-year practical training at Judicial Research and Training Institute, a trainee could be qualified as an attorney, or be appointed as a deputy judge or a prosecutor. This process of selection and training is problematic in that, in the case of a legal professional selected without knowledge in liberal arts and major fields other than legal education, he or she may lack sufficient applicability and creativity applicable to various legal cases of society. It also has a disadvantage because it can lead to a lack of competent and experienced legal professionals who are well versed in international law and legal services that require foreign languages such as copyright law. With the existing selection and training system, the legal professionals may not be able to provide satisfactory legal services to the society, and the competitiveness of legal services in the specialized fields in this era of liberalization could also be weakened. In order to improve the problems of the existing selection and training system and to prepare for the liberalization of the legal services market, the government attempted to establish law schools to enhance global competitiveness of Korean legal professionals and legal services. The establishment of law schools was first discussed in 1995 after the Kim Young-Sam government’s Globalization Promotion Committee proposed the introduction of the American-style law school as part of the globalization of legal services and legal education. Particularly, it was aimed at improving the competitiveness of the domestic legal professionals in competition with foreign law firms, which was expected after the conclusion of the Free Trade Agreement (FTA) under the Participatory Government. It was also aimed at improving the problems of the existing training system for legal professionals in order to help companies survive in infinite competition with global companies. With this intention, the government pursued the plan more aggressively. In July 2007, 12 years after the establishment of law schools was first discussed, the Act on the Establishment and Operation of Law School was passed and law schools were established in 25 universities in 2009 with 2,000 students. The Legal Education Committee describes the objectives of the establishment of law schools as follows. The objectives of the establishment of law schools are to provide quality legal services to meet the diverse expectations and demands of the

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people, and to nurture legal professionals who have the knowledge and ability to resolve complex and diverse legal disputes in a professional and efficient manner based on profound knowledge of culture, deep affection and understanding for human and society, and values of freedom, equality, and justice. Though law schools have produced legal professionals, however, voices calling for training legal professionals through the previous national bar examination are also gaining momentum. The law schools have a mission to overcome this controversy by improving the quality of their education. (2) Introduction of Medical Graduate School. The introduction of medical graduate school was first proposed as one of the plans for medical education reform in the Education Reform Plan (1995), which was announced by the Presidential Commission on Education Reform (ERC) in May 1995. In 1996, as the ERC changed the approval system for the establishment of university to the rule-based one, it was made possible to establish stand-alone type specialized graduate schools in various fields. As a result, medical graduate schools were established. In February 1996, the government announced the second educational reform and emphasized that medical graduate schools were necessary in order to train competent doctors to compete on the global stage. The discussion on the medical graduate school system, which had been deadlocked by the opposition of the universities and the medical community, was resumed in 1998 as a national policy agenda for the promotion of research-oriented universities under the Kim Dae-Jung government. In July 2000, the Presidential Commission for the New Education Community of the Kim Dae-Jung government announced the “Educational Policy Report for the Establishment of Educational Community for a Knowledge-based Society”, which allowed universities to choose one of the following two options: medical schools that maintain the existing system of 2-4 system, and universities that transform into medical graduate schools. In the same year, the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development (MOCIE) announced a draft plan to introduce a medical graduate school in October of the same year.

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In 2002, MOCIE announced the plan to introduce graduate school of medicine and dentistry based on 4-4 system starting from 2003; however, it also allowed universities to choose one of the three options: maintaining existing 2-4 undergraduate medical education system, converting to medical graduate school, or adopting the both system. The medical graduate schools started their operations in 2005. The introduction of the medical graduate school system is positive because it opened the door for undergraduates with diverse educational backgrounds to become a doctor. However, there were also some disadvantages. For example, the system caused intense competition among students for the admission to the graduate school of medicine, and even undergraduates majoring in science and engineering changed their course and chose medical graduate school instead of graduate school of science and engineering in pursuit of economic stability. In particular, the graduate school of medicine and dentistry based on 4-4 system has imposed a heavy financial burden on students due to long period of education. Some schools that were converted to medical graduate schools or schools that adopted a system combined with medical school and medical graduate school are changing their system back to 2-4 system. This suggests that the system needs to be reexamined to determine whether the introduction of this system is appropriate for the Republic of Korea. (3) Brain Korea 21 and BK21 Plus Brain Korea 21 (BK21) was launched under the Kim Dae-Jung government with the aims of fostering world-class graduate schools and universities by making investments of KRW 1.4 trillion over seven years from 1999 to 2005. The project was divided into two areas. One was to foster world-class graduate schools and local universities, and the other was to enhance the research capacity of graduate schools. To foster world-class graduate schools and local universities, the government planned to support KRW 200 billion annually in the following four fields: science and technology (to foster graduate schools in advanced science and technology fields such

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as IT and BT), humanities and societies (to nurture talents in advanced humanities and social sciences in the twenty-first century), local universities (to train manpower suitable for local industry’s demand), and graduate school facilities (to secure facilities with significant ripple effects on the industries). To enhance the research capacity of graduate schools, the government provided KRW 49.5 billion annually for the following fields: specialized field (to establish specialized graduate schools in the field of higher-value added and new industries) and core field (to foster high-quality researchers at the graduate level for balanced development of all academic fields) (Policy Evaluation Committee, Office for Government Policy Coordination 2003). A total of 127 universities and 385 business teams participated in the project. The total number of participants, including professors, postdoctoral fellows, contract professors, graduate students, and university students from local universities, exceeded 30,000. The BK21 project was implemented in two phases: Phase 1 (1999– 2005) and Phase 2 (2006–2012). According to the Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST), the BK21 project created 21,000 master’s and doctoral level talents every year, thereby creating a growth engine for national development and laying the foundations for worldclass research-oriented universities by enhancing university education and research capacity. The BK21 project team reported that this project dramatically enhanced research capacity of universities, created a positive competitive atmosphere among universities and faculties, produced globally competitive faculties in the fields of science and technology, and laid an institutional foundation for research-oriented universities. In 2013, the Ministry of Education announced a master plan for the BK21 Plus project, integrating the existing BK21 project and the World Class University (WCU) project. The government acknowledged that the BK21 project had limitations in enhancing quality of research due to the quantitative performance-oriented evaluation and the BK21 project team’s lack of autonomy in budget execution. In the case of the WCU project, pursuing various internationalization strategies befitting the conditions and characteristics of each project team had its limitations as a result of attracting and supporting overseas scholars in a uniform manner. Therefore, the government announced a plan to implement the

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BK21 Plus project, combining the two projects. The BK21 Plus project (2013–2019) is divided into three areas: (1) fostering global research centers, (2) cultivating high-quality human resources specialized in each academic field and multidisciplinary fields, and (3) improving the quality of university education and research

4.5.1 Achievements and Challenges Since the Education Reform Plan (1995) dealt with the entire aspects of education reform in Korean education system, the range of reforms was so wide and diverse that there is no other reform plan comparable to this one. The neoliberal educational reform policy was first introduced in the Education Reform Plan (1995) and continued to influence the Kim Dae-Jung government, the Roh Moo-Hyun government, and the Lee Myung-Bak government. However, the reform plan is not free from criticism for attempting to deal with the legacies of the successive authoritarian military governments before the Kim Young-Sam government based on market logic rather than democratization. Some scholars point out that there were some problems with the Education Reform Plan (1995) because it tried to apply the global trend of the time, neoliberalism, in our education problems rather than pondering over and solving those educational problems. For this reason, Kim Yong-Il (2006) views the Education Reform Plan (1995) as “a strategy for the privatization of education by marketism” and evaluates that the reform plan was successful in changing the policy by introducing a new system; however, it is doubtful whether it produced desirable results. These critics have pointed out that education reform obsessed with economic logic can lead to democratic retrogression, and the university education focusing on the extra-educational purpose of cultivating talents needed for businesses, under the name of economic efficiency, will inevitably tarnish education itself. The Ministry of Education is trying to promote competition among universities and enhance their education quality by providing graded

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financial assistance to universities based on the results of various university evaluations. However, universities concentrate only on meeting the evaluation criteria and writing seemingly good evaluation reports. The educational reform proposal based on this neoliberal economic logic may lead to the polarization and stratification of education as a result of obsession with management and improvement of education quality, and may eventually have negative effects on our future. Therefore, it is necessary to prepare a new philosophy and fundamental principle in our educational reform plan from our perspective for the future. Since the liberation of Korea over the past 70 years, higher education in Korea has grown both qualitatively and quantitatively. Leading universities in the Republic of Korea are continuously climbing in the world university rankings. In terms of the number of scientific papers published on the basis of Science Citation Index (SCI), the Republic of Korea remains in the upper ranks. A total of 50,051 SCI papers were published in the Republic of Korea in 2013 and ROK ranked 12th place in the world according to Thomson Radar’s national science and technology index, Incites DB. Among the 22 standard disciplines, 10 disciplines ranked in the top 10: materials science (3rd), engineering (4th), computer science (5th), chemistry (8th), pharmacology (8th), microbiology (10th), biology / biochemistry (10th), clinical medicine (10th), and physics (10th). Switzerland had the highest average citation frequency per paper over the last five years (2009–2013) with 9.48 times, and the Republic of Korea is ranked 32nd with 4.55 times. However, according to the 2014 IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook , the Republic of Korea’s overall national competitiveness fell to 26th place, which was down four notches from the previous year. Education competitiveness fell by six notches to 31st. The Republic of Korea ranked the second highest among the 60 countries surveyed in terms of the percentage of population aged between 24 and 34 who completed higher education. However, in the evaluation of effectiveness of education system in meeting the demand of a competitive economy, ROK ranked 53rd, and Korean students’ English proficiency (TOEFL score) is ranked 43rd. These results show that the ROK’s competitiveness in higher education is high in terms of quantity and low in terms of quality.

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Kim Jin (2010) explains that there is usually a close relationship between a country’s educational competitiveness and its economic power. This means that educational competitiveness of a country is closely related to whether the country can provide a lot of quality education opportunities for its people based on its economic power, and in other words, whether the country has the well-established infrastructure to invest in human resources. For example, the economic power of developed countries can be attributable to the provision of higher education opportunities for the people and the improvement of educational quality through continuous development of higher education. Economic power of a country and its education competitiveness mutually affect each other. However, though the Republic of Korea has grown into one of the strongest economic powers, its educational competitiveness, especially education competitiveness of universities, has not contributed to the enhancement of national competitiveness. This is also related to the Korean people’s perception of universities as well. Koreans tend to perceive that universities with high employment rate are good universities. At least the top universities in advanced countries such as the U.S. are not educating students for the preparation for employment. They think that the competitiveness of higher education lies in research, not graduates’ employment rate. In short, research-oriented higher education is the central element that determines national competitiveness. The government’s financial support for higher education and the introduction of professional graduate schools are aimed at improving the global competitiveness of our higher education and fostering global talents. But government funding is not enough for universities to concentrate solely on education and research. In addition, due to globalization and internationalization, the outflow of our high-quality human resources will further accelerate, and the need for the enhancement of quality and competitiveness of Korean universities through comparison with the world’s leading universities will continue to be a key issue in higher education in Korea. Improving competitiveness in higher education is not something that can be achieved overnight. Therefore, in order to raise the level of Korea’s higher education to a world-class level, the government and universities should work together for the development of the academic community and contribution to

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the global community while laying the foundations for research and education. If university autonomy is guaranteed by the government, it will lead to the strengthening of universities’ autonomous quality management capabilities. On the other hand, government intervention, control, and evaluation-based compensation will lead to a decline in universities’ autonomous quality management capabilities. Guaranteeing university autonomy will contribute to the democratization of universities and ultimately improving the quality of university education and strengthening its competitiveness by encouraging universities to enhance their academic maturity and development. The introduction of the university establishment rule may have contributed to strengthening competitiveness of universities, diversification, and specialization of universities. However, this system has also caused a variety of side effects. First, uncompetitive and poorly performing universities were massproduced. Second, since universities established under the university establishment rule were mostly private universities, the burden of students and parents for university education increased. As many universities depended on tuition fees for their operational costs, not only did the quality of university education deteriorate, but also infrastructures were in short supply. Third, the expansion of opportunities for higher education was not translated into social equality. In other words, though the opportunity for higher education was expanded, competition to get into prestigious 4-year universities in the Seoul metropolitan area remained still intense, which was the chronic problem of education in Korea, and the qualitative differentiation among universities was more accelerated. Park Hwan-Bo and Kim Sung-Sik (2011) found that graduates of universities established after the introduction of the university establishment rule had a lower status and wage level than students graduated from universities established before the introduction of the rule. They argue that despite the expansion of educational opportunities, qualitative differentiation in each level of education in Korean society ultimately helped maintaining the vested rights of the upper classes. In short, the university establishment rule has caused crisis of many local private universities and youth unemployment problem.

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Conclusion

The educational system of the Republic of Korea is characterized by the phenomenon of “simultaneous universalization” in which the “Secondary Education for All ” and the “Tertiary Education for All ” were almost simultaneously realized, which is unprecedented in national education in modern history. What is more surprising is that universalization of universities was realized through universities’ own efforts, more precisely efforts of professors, students, and parents, without proper financial support from the government. Today’s higher education in Korea is like “flowers blossomed in an isolated setting ” (Kim Ki-Seok 2008). The seeds of the flowers were already sown after the liberation, and in order to derive the tasks required for Korean universities to become world-class universities in the future, we will have to learn lessons from the trial and error in policy implementation, which we have experienced since the state formation period. In order for Korean universities to develop into globally competitive universities, the desirable relationship between the government and the universities should be established first in the direction toward promoting university autonomy. The higher education policy went through transitions since the liberation: non-interference policy after liberation and the government’s continued control over universities for 20 years after 1960 the May 16 coup. In the mid-1990s, after the Kim, Young-Sam government, the center of higher education policy has been shifting from the government to the market as autonomy and deregulation was pursued due to the influence of neoliberalism. However, it is not easy for national universities to pursue autonomous development under the government’s control, and private universities have limitations in pursuing what they want to do freely because of financial pressure due to their high dependency on tuition fees. So far, the government has been encouraging university reforms through large-scale, evaluation-based financial support projects, which produced some positive results. There is accumulated sense of fatigue to the reforms imposed from outside. Even if academic and educational identity of universities are recognized, in reality, they cannot be free from the administrative control of the government. In the case of poorly funded

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universities, there are few universities that will not give in to the pressure of the government if the government’s financial assistance is cut or canceled if a university fails to comply with certain conditions. Nonetheless, in the long run, it is desirable to limit the functions of the Ministry of Education to financial support for universities, while allowing universities to determine detailed policies. It would be better to expand the education capacity of universities through formula funding. The government’s financial assistance, however, needs to be focused on basic disciplines that are likely to be neglected in the marketplace and areas that need to be strategically fostered in the long run. Second, it is necessary to promote the diversification and specialization of higher education systems befitting the diversified and globalized societies. Many universities still tend to imitate the models of SKY (Seoul National University, Korea University, Yonsei University) without much consideration, but it is necessary to promote specialization by function of universities. For example, it is necessary to nurture research-oriented universities, graduate school-oriented universities, education-oriented universities, and technical manpower-oriented research universities. Among them, research-oriented universities need to concentrate their efforts to produce knowledge and skills that can enhance national competitiveness through world-class academic pursuit. For example, it is necessary to lower the student-faculty ratio to 10 to 1 or less, and to readjust personnel management practices including recruitment and promotion of faculty members, curriculum, and educational facilities in order to maximize research output. Third, we must accelerate internationalization of higher education. Internationalization of universities in the global society is now becoming increasingly inevitable. It is necessary to create a condition for internationalization and to raise the status of Korean universities on the global stage by expanding international exchange students and professors, revitalizing joint research with world’s leading universities and research institutes, expanding joint curriculum and degree courses with foreign universities, and attracting foreign students and foreign universities to the Republic of Korea. It is also necessary to actively participate in the new global education system, which is being implemented in cyber space through

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the Massive Open Online Course (MOOC). Furthermore, it is necessary to strengthen the support of government and corporations and to ensure that universities make their own efforts so that many Korean universities can advance to the top level in the evaluation of world universities announced by THE and International Institute of International Development (IMD). Finally, it is needed to provide humanities and vocational education in a balanced manner. In the age of materialism, the capitalism that places the meaning and value of life on money and power is prevalent across the universities. Various humanistic values are losing ground in the curriculum of the university in the situation where only the tangible values are emphasized. Paradoxically, however, “non-remunerative values” or “the value that cannot be bought with money” is becoming more and more important in our lives. Today, on college campuses, the “grand narratives” that dominated universities until the 1980s is hard to find. Instead, students are obsessed with the preparation for employment. However, the university should be a place where students can enjoy the opportunity of critical reflection on the essence of life, society, nature, and technology, and this is indispensable not only for individual students but also for building a healthier society.

Note 1. The “advance notice system for the establishment of universities” introduced in 1993 required universities to satisfy the conditions stipulated by the law such as the number of departments and students. The following procedures were taken in accordance with the system: to notify approval standards for university establishment; to permit establishment of a school juristic person, and to approve and notify the university establishment. In other words, under the advance notice system, only the university that satisfied conditions for the establishment at every stage was granted an approval or a conditional approval. Therefore, large sum of money and long preparatory period was required for the establishment of a university.

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References Bates, R. J. (1984), Educational Versus Managerial Evaluation in Schools, in P. Broadfoot ed., Selection, Certification and Control , New York: The Falmer Press. Broadfoot, P. (1979), Assessment, Schools and Society, London: Methuen. Choi Jong-Chul (1985), Education System Reform and State Control , Doctoral Thesis Seoul National University. Committee for Compilation of a Ten-Year History of Education in Korea (1960), The 10 Year History of Education in Korea, Poongmunsa. Compilation Committee for the 60 Years History of Seoul National University (2006), The 60 Years History of Seoul National University. Coombs, F. (1980), The Bases of Noncompliance with a Policy, Policy Studies Journal Vol. 8(6), pp. 885–892. Daehan Education Book (1956), School Yearbook. Edelman, M. (1964), The Symbolic Uses of Politics, Chicago: University of Illinois Press. Han Joon-Sang (1983), Sacrifice of College Education in Korea, Moonumsa. Jeon Woo-Yong (2011), The Birth of Contemporary Men, Yisoon. Jung Tae-Soo (1991), Education Reform Plan (1980 ), Yejigak. Jung Young-Soo, Han Man-Gil and Jung Jae-Gul (1987), Ideology of Korean Education Policy (III): Educational Reform and Consciousness Reform (1980– 1986), Korean Educational Development Institute. Kang Moo-Sub, Kim Jae-Woong and Min Moo-Sook (1986), A Study on Enrollment Policy of Higher Education in Korea, Korean Educational Development Institute. Kim Jae-Woong (1994), Politics of Educational Selection, Journal of Politics of Education First Issue, pp. 111–142. Kim Jae-Woong (1996), Political Educational Implications of Education Reform (1980): Graduation Quota and Ban on Private, Journal of Politics of Education Vol. 3(1), pp. 42–69. Kim Jae-Woong (2009), Autonomy and the Publicity of the Private Schools, Kim Young-Hwa et al., Seeking Solutions to the Challenges of Education in Korea, Korea Dialogue Academy, pp. 87–104. Kim Jin-Young (2010), Assessment of Korea’s Competitiveness in Higher Education Based on the Analysis of International University Rankings, Proceedings of the 2010 Korean Association of Public Finance Spring Conference, pp. 1–26.

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Kim Jong-Chul (1979), A Study on Higher Education in Korea, Baeyoungsa. Kim Ki-Seok (2008), A Study on Higher Education in Korea, Kyoyookbook. Kim Kwang-Woong (1994), Possibilities and Limitations of the University Accreditation System, Spring Conference of Korea Society for the Study of Education, pp. 1–24. Kim Shin-Il (1993a), Development of Social Education in Korea and Issues Related to Rights to Learning, Social Education Research Vol. 18, Korea Association for Community Education. Kim Shin-Il (1993b), Korean Journal of Sociology of Education, Kyoyookbook. Kim Yong-Il (2006), The Situation of 5.31 Education Reform and Its Prospects, Journal of Research in Education p. 24, pp. 127–145. Kim Young-Hwa (2010a), Contribution of Education to Industrialization and Economic Growth, Lee Jong-Jae et al., 60 Years of Education in Korea, Seoul National University Press. Kim Young-Hwa (2010b), Educational Sociology, Kyoyookbook. Kim Young-Hwa et al. (2009), Understanding of Higher Education: Theory and Practice, Hakjisa Publisher. Kim Young-Mo (1980), Recruitment System and Opportunity Structure of the Ruling Class, Korea Social Science Studies Association, Korean Society, Minumsa, pp. 116–130. Korean Association of Private Secondary School Principals (1974), Private Schools in Korea, Minjoon Books. Korean Council for University Education (2009), Policy Direction and Research Projects for Higher Education in the Age of University Autonomy. Korean Council for University Education (2011), Basic Information About 2011 College Entrance Exam. Korean Educational Development Institute (1977), Prospects and Challenges of Educational Development: 1978–1991. Lee Hye-Young (1992), A Study on the Social Context of Introducing College Enrollment Quota, Doctoral Thesis Seoul National University. Lee Jong-Gak (1994), Reality and Illusion of Education Reform of July 30 Education Reform of 1980, Proceedings of 1994 Korean Educational Administration Society Summer Conference, Korean Educational Administration Society. Lim Yeon-Ki (2008), A Study of the Impact Analysis of University Establishment Regulations, The Korean Society for the Study of Educational Administration Vol. 26(IV), pp. 147–167. Ministry of Education (1958), Education Overview. Ministry of Education (1983), Education Reform in South Korea in the 1980s.

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Ministry of Education (1988), 40 Years of Education in the Republic of Korea, Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education (1998), 50 Years of Education: 1948–1998, Ministry of Education. Moon Myung-Ho (1986), Graduation Quota Policy Should be Abolished , Shindonga March 1986. Oh Chun-Suk (1964), The New Korean History of Education. Seoul , Hyundai Education Publishing. Park Bu-Kwon (2008), A Review of Independent and Public Natures of Private Schools, Korean Journal of Sociology of Education Vol. 18(I), pp. 21–38. Park Bu-Kwon, Lee Gun, and Park Jung-Soo (1999), Performance Analysis and Improvement Plan for University Establishment Regulations, Ministry of Education. Park Hwan-Bo and Kim Sung-Sik (2011), An Analysis on the Effects of Individual Background, Employment Efforts, and University Selectivity on Labor Market Outcomes of College and University Graduates, Korean Journal of Sociology of Education Vol. 21(III), pp. 77–98. Park Jung-Tae and Kim Jung-Rae (1986), Revision of Education Law and Promotion of Private Schools Following the Constitutional Amendment, Korea Private Schools Foundation. Park Se-Il (1982), The Impact of Higher Education Expansion on the Labor Market (I), KDI Journal of Economic Policy Vol. 4(IV), pp. 149–170. Park Se-Il (1983), The Impact of Higher Education Expansion on the Labor Market (I), KDI Journal of Economic Policy Vol. 5(I), pp. 26–52. Policy Evaluation Committee under the Office for Government Policy Coordination (2003), Policy Evaluation Results for the Kim Dae-Jung Government. Presidential Commission on Education Reform (1995), The 2nd Report to the President: Reform for Establishing New Education System in the Era of Globalization and Informatization, Presidential Commission on Education Reform. Presidential Commission on Education Reform (1997), The 5th Report to the President: Reform for Establishing New Education System in the Era of Globalization and Informatization, Presidential Commission on Education Reform. Seo Min-Won (2008), An Analysis and Implication of the Quality Enhancement Strategies and Student Selection Policies, Journal of Educational Evaluation Vol. 21(III), pp. 93–120. Shin Hyeon-Suk (2005a), Policy for Higher Education Reform, Hakjisa Publisher.

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Shin Hyeon-Suk (2005b), The Ideas and Philosophy of Educational Reform: Reflection the 10 Years of the Reform and Its Tasks, Journal of Politics of Education Vol. 12(I). Sohn Choong-Ki (2003), A Study on the Transition and Direction for the Development of College Admission System, Journal of Research in Education p. 22, pp. 17–42. The Korean Military Revolution History Compilation Committee (1963), History of Military Revolution in Korea, Vol. I University News Network (2013), College Issues 25: Changes in Higher Education Policy for 25 Years, University News Network. Wang Han-Shin (1994), Political Crisis and Changes in Korea’s Higher Education Policy, Kim Ki-Seok, Inquiry into Educational Sociology II: History, Society, and Educational Reality, Kyoyookbook.

Development of Lifelong Education in the Republic of Korea

1

Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to examine the 70-year history of lifelong education in the Republic of Korea by each period and to analyze its achievements and challenges. The policy for lifelong education and its implementation has contributed to the development of the Korean society by (i) providing basic literacy and technical education necessary for national development; (ii) expanding equal educational opportunities for all Koreans; and (iii) realizing routinized education through work-integrated learning. The most important goals of lifelong education are to realize the “Equal Education for All” that has been promoted by UNESCO, to improve the quality of life of the people, and to develop community. With these goals in mind, it is necessary to review the history of ROK’s lifelong education over the past 70 years. Lifelong education in Korea has evolved significantly both quantitatively and qualitatively. It evolved from the era of social education before the enactment of relevant law, the enactment of the Social Education Act in 1982, and the era of lifelong education1 after the revision of the Lifelong Education Act in 1999. The world recognizes that the Republic of Korea achieved remarkable development by responding vigorously to © The Academy of Korean Studies 2022 D-H. Lee et al., Education in South Korea, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5229-5_5

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the challenges such as the eradication of illiteracy, the modernization of the ways of life, and industrialization. As the interest in the identity of social actors has increased since the democratization, human-centered thinking, and self-centered lifestyle have become widespread, and as a result educational paradigm has changed in earnest. The core task of education shifted from national development to national welfare. The educator-centered education has changed to the learner-centered education, and lifelong education in Korea has accordingly entered a new phase. These changes in the educational environment are manifested by various challenges and conflicts in realizing national education. The challenges and conflicts facing Korea’s lifelong education emerge as social and educational issues in conjunction with various problems that have arisen in the process of Korea’s rapid economic growth. Thus, it is necessary to understand various conflicts and heal the wounds caused by such conflicts at a social level. Yet above all, making consensus-building efforts at a national level is necessary to build stronger identity and pride of Koreans. There is a growing need for social integration through communication and mutual understanding among diverse interest groups, and it is necessary to cultivate people’s identity and critical thinking based on accurate historical recognition, especially in the field of education. Without these efforts, it will be hard to improve not only the quality of life, which is the purpose of lifelong education, but also the level of happiness, which is the people’s concern. In this chapter, we will examine the main social challenges and conflicts that have occurred in the process of developing lifelong education in Korea over the past 70 years in three periods: the state formation, industrialization, and informatization periods. In addition, we will also look at the main contents of the national education as follows. First, lifelong education related to the state formation such as the provision of literacy education, civic education, basic education for people, and education to raise national consciousness. Second, lifelong education related to national development such as the promotion of technical education, education to improve productivity, the introduction of community schools, Saemaul education and industrial universities, and the implementation of human resource development plan and lifelong learning city project.2 Third, lifelong education related to public

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well-being such as respect for individual identity, the development of hobby and personality, the introduction of academic credit bank system, and the provision of education for re-employment and lifelong education for the improved quality of life. In addition, in this chapter, we will look at the main accomplishments and challenges facing lifelong education in the Republic of Korea by each period. To this end, we examined data and records, relevant policy and regulations, photographs and references, and held experts forums and seminars. The scope of lifelong education can vary depending on how we view its concept. In this chapter, we will look at the challenges and conflicts, accomplishments and tasks of lifelong education in the Republic of Korea from the perspective of “all types of systematic educational activities other than regular school education”, as specified in the Lifelong Education Act. The ideology, purpose, and implementation of lifelong education in Korea were actively discussed around the time when the Lifelong Education Act was revised in 1999. With the revision of the Lifelong Education Act, the practice-oriented social education, which had been implemented separately from the public education, was expanded as lifelong education, thereby opening the era of full-fledged lifelong learning. Due to the rapid changes in the social environment, such as shortened validity period of knowledge and the extended average life expectancy, the existing 6-3-3-4 school ladder system faces its limitations. As the validity period of knowledge learnt at universities became shortened, necessity for new learning activities in workplaces is increasing. In addition, as the demands for lifelong education have grown due to the increase in leisure time, the function of lifelong education as supplemental educational opportunity for the youth who were left out of primary and secondary schools in the past was expanded to the universalization of higher education and continuing education for professional development. In the future society, lifelong education is expected to change from education that supplements school education to education that goes beyond school education. In terms of relationship with school education, the types of social education are classified into the following categories: life-oriented social education (social education that is not related to

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school education), social education for the underprivileged (social education that supplements school education), social education focused on higher education (social education as an extension of school education), and social education befitting modern lifestyle (social education that goes beyond school education) (Oh Hyuk-Jin and Kim Mi-Hyang 2010). Paradigm of lifelong education is changing from education that supplements school education, to the extended school education, and finally to education that goes beyond school education. This clearly shows that lifelong education is gradually becoming more closely related to the everyday lives of people. Therefore, future challenges of lifelong education will be how to ensure that this characteristic is well demonstrated. In particular, it should be noted that the lifelong learning city project, which was recently implemented in accordance with the policy for lifelong learning cities, has a direct impact on the lives and learning experiences of local residents. The lifelong learning programs can affect the experience of local residents, and lifelong education policies can have a significant impact on the development of community and lives of its residents. Since lifelong education policy can be regarded as “the planning for the Korean people’s lives’”, a rational and future-oriented policy is required. In this context, we analyze Korea’s policy for lifelong education and present its future prospects and challenges in terms of routinized learning and education that is closely related to everyday life.

2

Lifelong Education in the State Formation Period: After Liberation to the Late 1950s

The main focus of Korea’s lifelong education policy in its state formation period was to teach the people how to read and write. As much emphasis was placed on practical strategies for eradicating illiteracy, the policies and administration were mainly concentrated on combating illiteracy. The key measures taken during this period for lifelong education include: (i) training and retraining teachers (ii) eradicating illiteracy through adult education and disseminating Korean alphabet (called

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“Hangul ” in Korean) (iii) institutionalizing civic schools and civic high schools, (iv) promoting the five-year plan for eradicating illiteracy, and (v) implementing enlightenment activities and establishing mini-libraries in rural communities.

2.1

Social Education for Enlightenment and Eradicating Illiteracy

Teaching illiterate Koreans how to read and write Korean alphabet was the top priority for laying the foundation for state formation, and the state-led literacy campaign was a very important policy task during this period. The main policies and projects implemented for eradicating illiteracy were: (i) US Military Government’s campaign to disseminate Korean alphabet, (ii) the five-year plan for combating illiteracy during the post-war reconstruction period (1954–1958), and (iii) independent literacy education campaign led by students and the private sector. In the early days after the liberation, the key direction of Korea’s educational policy was to remove the vestiges of Japanese colonial rule, to maintain peace and order, and to enhance practical knowledge and skills (USAMGIK’s Bureau of Education, September 22, 1945). The purpose of social education at the time was to restore Korean language, which was banned during the Japanese colonial rule. Therefore, the US Military Government organized an Adult Education Committee to teach Korean people Korean alphabet and songs at schools or community centers as a part of literacy education. School teachers, adult educators, educated youth, and influential people in the local communities conducted literacy training for illiterate villagers. The Adult Education Division was established under the USAMGIK’s Bureau of Education in January 1946, and the Division was promoted to the Adult Education Bureau in April of the same year. In July 1946, Enlightenment Division and Reeducation Division were also created (Nam Jeong-Gul 1987, p. 122). At that time, adult education was mainly focused on literacy education to eradicate illiteracy. In other words, the government directly promoted literacy and adult basic education for state formation and national integration in the early days

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after liberation (Kim Shin-II 1993). After the establishment of the ROK government in August 1948, the Social Education Bureau was reorganized into the Cultural Bureau with five divisions including Adult Education Division, Welfare Division, Correction Division, Arts Division, and Sports Division were incorporated into the Cultural Bureau. The first social education project initiated at that time was the operation of civic schools and civic high schools for the youth who were left out of regular schools (Hwang Jong-Gun 1978, p. 201). Though there were 2 national, 13 public, and 4 private libraries nationwide as social education facilities, these libraries served only as places of data provision and study. Social education was mainly focused on rural enlightenment movement, literacy education, and supplementary education for non-enrolled students. As a result, social education, which put an emphasis on enlightenment, played a significant role in improving literacy and consciousness of people in local communities. Social education was in its infancy in the 1950s. As 78.2% of Koreans were illiterate after 36 years of the Japanese colonial rule, reducing high adult illiteracy rate and strengthening the basic education for the people were top priority during this period (Figs. 1 and 2).

Fig. 1 Second Nationwide Literacy Education, 1955

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Fig. 2 Third Nationwide Literacy Education (Source『Kyung Hyang Newspaper』, January 19, 1956)

Literacy campaigns were promoted by county and municipal governments, Adult Education Association, and military. Moreover, the five-year project for eradicating illiteracy (1954–1958), enlightenment activities by the Korean Language Society and Korean Christian Literacy

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Association, as well as student-centered enlightenment activities were implemented.

2.2

Promotion of Literacy

When Korea was liberated from the Japanese colonial rule, 78% of Korean adults were illiterate. Therefore, eradicating illiteracy, or literacy education, emerged as the most urgent educational task for adults. Social education aimed at cultivating “modern citizens” by teaching subjects such as civic courses, Korean history, arithmetic as well as Korean alphabet for adults and those who were left out of regular schools. In order to meet these educational needs, civic schools were established in May 1946 in accordance with the Guidelines for the Establishment of Civic Schools, and those schools ran Korean language courses for adults aged over 30 years. Civics schools had courses for the youth and adults, and supplementary education courses. The courses for the youth and adults were for those who did not receive primary school education. The courses for the youth were for teenagers aged 13 and older. The courses for adults were for adults over 18. On the other hand, the supplementary education courses were for those who completed primary school education and were aged 13 and older. In all courses, subjects such as Korean language, civic courses, Korean history were commonly taught. In courses for the youth, various subjects similar to those of primary schools were taught. As combating illiteracy was the most urgent task in social education, the Ministry of Education announced the five-year project for the eradication of illiteracy on April 25, 1950, after the enactment of the Education Law. However, the implementation of the plan was suspended due to the outbreak of the Korean War before it was resumed in 1954. The five-year project for the eradication of illiteracy was promoted by the Ministry of Education from 1954 to 1958 with the cooperation of the Ministry of Interior and the Ministry of National Defense. This project was conducted annually for 70 to 90 days during the offfarming season, and participants were taught reading, counting, and

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basic science knowledge equivalent to second-grade level. The illiteracy eradication project was actively promoted based on inter-Ministerial cooperation. The Ministry of Education was responsible for the provision of education, the Ministry of Interior encouraged the residents to participate in the illiteracy eradication project, and the Ministry of National Defense was involved in teaching illiterate soldiers how to read and write (National Archives, The five-year project for the eradication of illiteracy). As a result, the illiteracy rate of Koreans, which stood at 78% in 1945, was reduced to 4.1% in 1958 (the number of illiterate Koreans aged over 12 was 562,982 out of total population of 13,731,883). Though illiteracy rate varied depending on surveying organizations (the illiteracy rate announced by the Ministry of Internal Affairs in 1959 was 13.7%), the illiteracy eradication project contributed significantly to the improvement of literacy in the Republic of Korea.3 The government set literacy as a key agenda for lifelong education in the state formation period and carried out a phased implementation strategy. Though the concept of literacy education was gradually expanded and the criteria for literacy became more detailed, the task of eradicating illiteracy was achieved to some extent by the end of the 1950s. As a result of the six-year compulsory education plan (1954–1959) and the five-year plan for the eradication of illiteracy (1954–1958), school-age children could receive compulsory primary education, and those who had not received regular school education could have the opportunities to receive literacy education. As a result, the vast majority of Koreans could read and write Korean alphabet by the end of the 1950s.

2.3

Self-Help Efforts by the Youth in Each Village

In addition to the national-level campaign to eradicate illiteracy and improve ways of life, efforts were also made at the private level. The 4-H movement, which was carried out in each village as a part of self-help efforts, was a case in point. The 4-H Club, which led the 4-H movement, was founded as a worldwide youth organization in the U.S. in 1914 to improve the agricultural structure and rural life. Though the 4-H movement was first introduced to the Republic of Korea by the

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YMCA in 1927, the movement was suspended during the Japanese colonial period and was resumed in 1947 (An Jae-Kook 1977). According to 4-H headquarters, 4-H stands for “Head to clearer thinking”, “Heart to greater loyalty”, “Hands for larger service”, and “Health to better living”. The 4-H movement is a youth education movement aimed at helping young people, who are the future leaders of a nation, to build their character and creativity by practicing 4-H philosophy through 4-H clubs’ group activities. The purpose of 4-H movement is to create right value of agriculture in the age of environmental crisis and to cultivate the qualities of professional farmers who will lead our agriculture industry and rural communities (www.Korea4-h.or.kr). If the philosophy of 4-H movement is practiced successfully, the philosophy is worthy of note at a time when the value of agriculture, environment, and life is reexamined.

2.4

Building the Foundation for the Improvement of Living and Adult Basic Education

In this period, the policy and administrative efforts for lifelong education were concentrated on how to effectively implement the task of literacy education. It is also noteworthy that the Social Education Act was first drafted in 1952. After fifteen amendments were made for over 30 years, the Social Education Act was finally enacted on December 15, 1982 (Lee Ok-Boon 1998). The Social Education Act is significant because it provided the basis and framework for the current Lifelong Education Act (1999). In the entire course of development of lifelong education policies in the Republic of Korea, lifelong education and adult basic education were in their infancy during this period. First, three years under the US Military Government (1945–1948) were a transition period in which efforts were made to remove the vestiges of Japanese colonial education and to establish a new democratic education system. The Korean Committee on Educational Planning established a new school system on September 1, 1946, and the new school system was established following the enactment and promulgation of the Education Law in late 1949. Although the Educational Law (1949) mainly focused on

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school education, the Education Law also had provisions concerning lifelong education. The Law specified that “Education should be provided not only in schools and other educational facilities, but also in all areas of politics, economy, society and culture. Civics, science, vocational training, and teacher education should be emphasized”. The state and local governments were urged to take and implement appropriate educational measures to educate all citizens who did not receive compulsory education to have the requisite knowledge as citizens of a democratic state. Educating women for enlightenment purposes, such as improving sense of hygiene and improving costume culture, and literacy education for raising women’s consciousness were also very important goals of social education. The Law stipulated that factory facilities, workplaces, and other facilities could be used for educational purposes as long as the use of such facilities for education would not affect their original purpose. This may be a provision that reflected the situation of the time where the facilities to meet educational needs were lacking, but this provision contributed to laying the infrastructure of lifelong education in the Republic of Korea. The policy and administrative efforts for lifelong education during this period were focused on the establishment of school education system and implementation of civic education for adults in all areas (Fig. 3). Since the illiteracy rate of Koreans reached 78% after the liberation, providing 6-year compulsory primary education for children, training Korean teachers to replace Japanese teachers, and retraining existing teachers were urgently needed. In addition, educating people who were deprived of educational opportunities to have minimum qualifications as citizens of a democratic state was a top priority at that time (Lee Byung-Ho 2010). The Ministry of Education established and actively implemented a five-year plan to eradicate illiteracy, disseminate Korean alphabet, and introduce civic schools and civic high schools. Thanks to the efforts to reduce illiteracy rate such as by carrying out rural enlightenment activities and establishing village libraries at local communities, the illiteracy rate was lowered to around 10% (Table 1). Association of Social Education in Korea, Myongji Graduate School of Social Education (1994).

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Fig. 3 Education to improve living (Source “Kyung Hyang Newspaper”, November 28, 1948)

The implementation of literacy education and basic education for adults was the most important tasks and achievements in Korea’s lifelong education policy during this period.

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Table 1 Achievement of Nationwide Literacy Education project Project

Period

1st

March–May 1954 March–May 1955 January–March 1956 January–March 1957 January–April 1958

2nd 3rd 4th 5th

2.5

Number of classes

Number of teachers

Number of literate population

Illiteracy rate (%)

84,190

88,700

1,972,115

14.0

62,192

65,168

1,053,000

12.0

712,000

10.0

20,694

24,345

419,000

8.3

33,185

39,364

582,300

4.1

Achievement and Challenges of Lifelong Education in the State Formation Period

The most urgent educational task in the state formation period was to teach students how to read and write Korean alphabet. At the time, however, there were few students who could read and write Korean alphabet properly. Moreover, teachers were also lacking. In this situation, literacy education was the most important and urgent national task. The results and accomplishments of lifelong education in the state formation period are as follows: (i) Implementation of literacy and civic education, establishment and operation of national libraries; (ii) Institutionalization of civic schools; (iii) Improvement of literacy rate (from 22% to 95.9% as of 1954) as a result of the five-year project to eradicate illiteracy; (iv) Enlightenment of farmers, opening rural village libraries, and implementation of book collection campaign. Literacy project and village enlightenment movement later led to the Saemaul Movement, especially the Saemaul education, which made a very positive contribution to national development. The literacy project and village enlightenment movement were aimed at realizing ideals in daily lives, and they became a good example of cooperation between schools and the communities. The desire and will of the

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people for national development resulted in a significant achievement. However, various sociocultural conflicts and problems arose between the efforts for accommodating the rapidly increasing educational needs of the people after the Japanese colonial rule and the efforts for a state formation. During this period, as accommodating realistic educational demands of the people was urgently needed, educational policies were established and promoted in a short period of time rather than being established in a step-by-step manner based on a certain principles. Therefore, it can be assumed that the institutionalization of educational policies based on the basic principles would have been limited by the hasty development process.

3

Lifelong Education in the Industrialization Period: 1960s to Early 1990s

The five-year economic development plan, which began in 1962, was implemented for five consecutive times during this period. In this process, the government’s administrative goals were shifted from economic development to the development of educational system for national development. Policy goals were expanded to community development, industrial development, recruitment and training of manpower. During this period, the Social Education Act, which was significantly revised in August 1999 as the Lifelong Education Act, was enacted and laid the institutional ground for today’s lifelong education in Korea. Major lifelong education policies during this period are as follows: (i) National reconstruction movement and the establishment and operation of village libraries (ii) Establishment of private institutes (iii) Promotion of local schools and Saemaul education (iv) Library-related legislation and expansion of libraries (v) Education for preschoolers and the working youth

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(vi) Increased interest in and implementation of education for overseas Koreans (vii) Inclusion of the provision on the state’s responsibility to promote lifelong education in the 8th Constitutional amendment (1980) and the enactment of the Social Education Act (1982) (viii) Establishment and expansion of various social educational facilities and organizations (ix) Institutionalization of lifelong education at universities.

3.1

Community Development and Saemaul Education

3.1.1 Community Development and Literacy Education Saemaul education including the establishment of community schools, the operation of local schools, and village-wide movement to promote education became main educational activities during this period (Lee Byung-Ho 2010, p. 13). In addition, the Association for Research on Social Education, which later became the Korean Society for the Study of Lifelong Education, was established and began to pay attention to research on lifelong education, especially on community development through lifelong education. In the early 1960s, the National Agricultural Cooperative Federation established the Leadership Training Center for training its employees, and the NACF began rural leadership development programs in 1966. With the establishment of the Rural Development Administration in 1962, projects to disseminate agricultural technology and improve rural life began in earnest. In April 1961, the Planned Parenthood Federation of Korea was established to raise the public awareness of population issues (family planning as a part of an enlightenment campaign) was promoted. In addition, volunteer activities of university students focused on activities for rural communities, education for rural residents and urban workers. Agriculture high schools also conducted extracurricular activities for students to foster leading farmers and fishermen as well as future faming and fishing leaders. In 1966, schools were open to local residents by creating and operating social education courses for the general public in vocational

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schools. At the private level, Supporters’ Association for Community Schools was launched in January 1969. The association was involved in offering nature learning programs for children, training college students for volunteer activities, providing support for social education at the school level, and disseminating the ideologies of community school for educational administrators. The supporters’ association later became the Korea Association for Community Education, which now runs 32 branch offices nationwide (Fig. 4). One of the most significant social education activities of the 1970s was the Saemaul Education. This educational movement aimed at the modernization of the country through balanced development of urban and rural areas, fostering an elite group of pioneers for the Saemaul Movement, promoting the self-help movement by elite leaders, and building a welfare state based on diligence, self-help, and cooperation.

Fig. 4 Enlightenment activities by college students for eradicating illiteracy in rural communities (Source National Archives of Korea [1962])

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In line with these policies, government organizations and social organizations from all walks of life also developed various programs in connection with Saemaul education. The programs mainly focused on cultivating Saemaul spirit, raising incomes, introducing best practices for cooperation, and a study tour to model villages. Adult basic education is linked to literacy education project. Literacy education in the state formation period was focused on teaching people how to read and write. However, recently, the notion of literacy education has been expanded functional literacy education; therefore, it should be regarded as adult basic education. In this regard, it is necessary to look at the history of literacy education to explain this more clearly. Illiteracy can be interpreted and defined as not being able to read and write letters, but in fact, the concept of illiteracy has become more and more sophisticated with time. The following shows how the concept of being literate has evolved. (1) Basic literacy skills (writing one’s name in Korean alphabet, writing numbers based on pictures, and reading a clock) (2) Literacy skills(basic reading, writing, and counting) (3) Functional literacy skills (how much one can apply the literacy skills to a real-life context). Table 2 shows how the concept of literacy has evolved as well as the changes in policies for literacy education (Korean Educational Development Institute 1990). Other literacy surveys also show that the concept and scope of literacy education have changed with time. Table 3 shows literacy standards and illiteracy rate in the state formation, industrialization, and informatization periods. The concept of being literate has changed. Recently, the concept and meaning of being literate are expanding as interest in the literacy education grows. As shown in studies on literacy education, illiteracy rates vary as the concept of literacy has gradually become more sophisticated. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the achievements of literacy education based on individuals’ reduced inconveniences in real life and psychological compensation of being literate such as feeling less shameful or alienated in family relationship or other interpersonal relationship, and their change toward being more confident and active in their family and social life. Given the positive

Literacy campaign as part of enlightenment movement during the Enlightenment Period and Japanese colonial period

After liberation–1950s Government-led literacy campaign

1st phase

2nd phase

Table 2 Evolution of literacy education • Dissemination of Korean alphabet through “The Independent” and “Hwangseong Shinmun (Newspaper)” • Literacy education promoted by the Korean Language Society • Korean language education campaign promoted by Chosun Ilbo • V narod movement (“going to the people”) led by “Donga Ilbo” • Literacy education by holding seminars or teaching night classes • Japanese literacy education policy of the Japanese Government General of Korea • Korean alphabet dissemination project led by the US Military Government • Five-year plan to eradicate illiteracy during the post-war reconstruction period (1954–1958) • Literacy education initiated by student groups and the private sector after liberation

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Literacy education as adult basic education since 1980

4th phase

Source Korean Educational Development Institute (1990)

1960s–1970s UNESCO and school-led literacy education

3rd phase

• The primary literacy project at the national level was deemed almost complete with the completion of the five-year plan to eradicate illiteracy • Literacy education project was transferred from the Ministry of Education to the National Reconstruction Movement Headquarters • Implementation of school-based literacy education mainly through adult education classes opened at elementary schools • In addition to Korean language education, efforts were made to realize ideology of the Charter of National Education, to comply with the Simplified Family Ritual Standards, to do away with superstition, and to promote anti-communism • Achievements of literacy education were insufficient due to lack of financial resources • No relevant data was available as literacy education almost disappeared or remained stagnant (~the late 1980s) • No action was taken

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Table 3 Illiteracy rate in major surveys on literacy of Korean adults Survey title

Survey objects

Nationwide Sample Survey of Illiterate Koreans

0.5% of the population aged 12 or over

Current Status of Literacy and Literacy Education in Korea

2,116 people aged 13 or order sampled by region

A Study on the Adult Literacy in Korea and International Comparative Survey among OECD Countries

1,200 adults aged 16 to 65 years sampled by region, gender, and educational background

Current Status of Illiteracy among Korean Adults

2,979 people aged 19 or older nationwide

Literacy standards

Illiteracy rate (%)

Unlettered: Illiterate Literate: minimum literacy, functional literacy Primacy literacy Basic literacy (level of 6 grader) Functional literacy Functional literacy in each evaluation area Prose literacy Document literacy Quantitative literacy (1–5 level for each)

Unlettered: 22.1 Illiterate: 15.5 Semiliterate: 6.6

Literacy skills equivalent to basic level 1 Literacy skills equivalent to basic level 2 Literacy skills equivalent to basic level 3 (reading, writing, and counting)

Unlettered: 11.9 Basic illiteracy: 9.1 Functional illiteracy: 9.1

Average prose literacy: Level 2 Average document literacy: Level 2 Average Quantitative literacy: Level 3 Level 1: 8.4 Level 2: 16.2 Level 3: 75.4 Illiteracy Rate: 24.8

Source Kim Jong-Seo, Kim Shin-Il, Han Soong-Hee, Kang Dae-Joong (2009 Revised Edition)

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results of literacy education, continuous policy support for the education is needed.

Saemaul Education as Social Education The Saemaul Education Movement has contributed greatly to the modernization of the Republic of Korea and the improvement of Korean people’s lives in terms of economic and emotional aspects. Saemaul education was not a mere educational movement but a policy effort to improve the quality of life for all citizens. The Saemaul Movement was aimed at reducing the gap in living standards between urban and rural areas. Saemaul Movement was initiated as a policy effort to improve the living standards of farmers by productively using their idle labor force during the off-farming season. Based on the recognition that the good leaders are the decisive factor for the success of the movement, the government implemented Saemaul education to foster Saemaul leaders. Although Saemaul education is a social education in its nature, it differs from general social education because the education was focused on: (1) inspiring people’s will and commitment to development; (2) providing education on service and labor; (3) developing minds and power of execution; and (4) mutual learning (Korean National Commission for UNESCO 1982). In terms of the practical activities of Saemaul education, the Saemaul Education includes all formal and informal education and training activities carried out to promote the nationwide Saemaul Movement. The Saemaul education is activity carried out at all levels of the schools, including primary, secondary, and agricultural high schools. The education includes all education conducted at Saemaul Leadership Training Institutes or other training institutes, officials training institutes, factories, and vocational training institutes. In addition, Saemaul education refers to a collective or institutional activity for collaboratively planning and conducting Saemaul projects at each village level. The Saemaul education includes all activities such as formal education programs, teaching or extracurricular activities at schools and universities of all levels, which were implemented as part of the Saemaul Movement for the purpose of raising income and structural improvement

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of urban and rural areas, and developing communities and the nation (Korean National Commission for UNESCO 1982). Table 4 shows the summary of goals and directions of Saemaul education presented by the Ministry of Education at that time, showing that the Saemaul education was a systematic national education for all people. According to the study on the comparative advantage of Saemaul education conducted by the Korean National Commission for UNESCO (1982), Saemaul education emphasizes mental aspects, while traditional development plans of developing countries put emphasis on technical aspects. This shows that, in Korea’s education, the soft system such as individual’s mind or psychological aspect is more important than the hard system such as transfer of capital or technology and establishment of institutional framework. In particular, Saemaul education focused on practical application of education, aiming at closing the gap between theory and practice. Moreover, Saemaul education pursued the goals of linking education to society and cultivating people’s capacity required for community and national development. Saemaul education holds significance because it is a future-oriented education that is directly linked to development and a purely Korean education which is not influenced by the education movement of other countries. Because Saemaul education was an on-site education and a practical training, it focused on motivating residents to participate in the education and cultivating development-related values, attitudes, and work ethics of the residents. In addition, such efforts led to the improvement in living standards or income increase, and the sense of achievement of the residents. As a result, Saemaul education spread from rural areas to various communities throughout the country such as cities and workplaces, companies and factories and developed into the so-called national education activities. The social education organizations established in those days had a firm educational purpose of instilling enlightenment mentality, patriotism, and diligence to the people. For example, Korea Association for Community Education, the Canaan Farmers School, Young Korean Academy, and Korean Federation of Housewives Clubs are representative private organizations, which are regarded as organizations that have great significance in terms of community development. Adequate education is necessary in a situation where psychological

In 1979, the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development stated the objectives of Saemaul education as follows: “Under the principles of the Charter of National Education, we aim to foster people who will contribute to community and national development by cultivating Saemaul spirit for students and local residents through school education” (1) Mental attitude training (2) Education for increasing income through technical education (3) Education for practicing science in everyday life (1) [Curriculum] To localize curriculum and focus on solving basic problems in local community (2) [Learning Guidance] To diversify learning guidance by utilizing all the human, material, and cultural resources of the community (3) [Life Guidance] To provide life guidance for people in a systematic manner in order to cultivate diligence, self-help, and cooperative spirit of Saemaul Movement and to create a rational, efficient, and productive lifestyle (4) [Adult Education] To offer various educational opportunities for children, adolescents, and adults in local community through schools (5) [Volunteer Activities] To ensure that schools conduct educational volunteer activities and actively participate in community development (6) [Production Education] To ensure that schools conduct pilot education to promote scientific production technology for increasing income of the community (7) [Cultural Activities] To ensure that schools play a central role in promoting education, culture, and sports activities ➇ [Public Relations Activities] To ensure that schools promote Saemaul Education in community, for example, by publishing the Success Story of Saemaul Education

Source Reorganized based on the information of the Korean National Commission for UNESCO, Institute of Saemaul Undong Studies of Seoul National University, and UNESCO Asia and Pacific Regional Bureau (1982)

Policy of Saemaul Education

Direction of Saemaul Education

Objectives of Saemaul Education

Table 4 Goals and achievements of Saemaul Education

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Fig. 5 Conference in August 1968, Korea Association for Community Education

modernization does not follow physical modernization, and institutional and legal democratization does not follow cultural democratization. In the process of rapid urbanization, many problems such as traffic, housing, education, and youth problems as well as weakening sense of community have been caused. In addition, the social conflicts have been intensified due to the mixed modern and traditional values. As a result, Korean society was faced with the dual tasks of overcoming backwardness and the side effects of modernization. Of these organizations established under these circumstances, the Korea Association for Community Education, which was established on the sidelines of the international conference hosted by Dong-A Ilbo and the U.S Information Service in August 1968 under the theme “Community Action in a Changing World”, has taken its firm root as a lifelong education institute (Fig. 5). At this conference, a movie titled “To Touch a Child”,4 which was about the practical experience of a community school in Flint, Michigan for more than 30 years, was shown and impressed people attending the seminar.

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Educators, especially principals, were negative about the feasibility of such activities shown in the movie, but Chung Ju-Yung, president of Hyundai Engineering & Construction said, “I do not know much about schools and education. But if a poor country like Korea do not use school facilities for education, how can we develop our country? If it is so difficult to open school facilities to the public, I will open up the facilities of a cement plant, which is currently being built in Danyang, to the residents”. His remarks sparked the cooperation of schools, local communities, and private companies. The vice-chairman Lee Sang-Joo of the Korea Association for Community Education (then president of Kangwon National University) delivered a key note speech in a conference held in 1984 and emphasized the basic elements of the community education movement as follows: (i) to become a cornerstone of the society, (ii) to take the bottom-up approach, (iii) to pursue an approach to doing the best than being the best, (iv) to stay focused to accomplish any task, and (v) to feel the intrinsic rewards of learning. In 1987, the following four key objectives were presented (Korea Association for Community Education 2014, internal data). First, the formation of civil society—to encourage citizens to learn a democratic way of life and solve community problems autonomously in cooperation with neighbors. Second, the improvement of educational environment—to ensure that residents and schools work closely together to create an educational environment for the wholesome growth of the youth, and that all the residents work together to develop educational activities to guide the youth to the right path. Third, the implementation of lifelong education—to provide educational opportunities to all residents without age and gender limitations on the assumption that human beings can and should continue lifelong learning. Fourth, the improvement of lifestyles—to promote the movement to improve the lifestyles of residents and inherit and develop traditional custom and values that are suitable for modern society.

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This community education movement is a representative type of regional development movement that began in the 1970s. Since then, community issues have diversified in response to the challenges of the times, such as consumer-related, human rights, and environment issues. Today, the activities of civil society organizations are not limited to educational activities but have been extended to issues related to life, culture, and ecosystem.

3.2

Establishment of Various Adult Education Institutions

3.2.1 Establishment of Various Facilities and Organizations for Adult Education During the industrialization period, various adult education institutions were established in response to the actual needs for adult education (Tables 5 and 6). In 1961, the Act on the Establishment of Private Institutes (Act No. 719) was enacted and promulgated. The number of private institutes that were first registered in 1961 was 521, but in 1990, it grew rapidly to 32,000 (Table 5) (Association of Social Education in Korea, Myongji Graduate School of Social Education 1994, p. 97). The matters concerning the establishment of citizens’ hall, county, or district hall Table 5 Number of students taking courses at private institutes Year

1961

1970

1980

1990

Number of private institutes Number of students

521 21,527

1,421 119,681

5,854 161,179

32,895 572,404

Source Ministry of Education (1997, p. 160)

Table 6 Number of women’s community centers Year

1960

1970

1985

1996

Women’s community centers

7

14

35

69

Source Whitepaper on Women (1997)

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are specified in Article 6 (1) of the Local Autonomy Act. Since the establishment of the Jeju Citizens’ Hall in 1964, the establishment of such halls has ensued in other local communities’ nationwide (Ministry of Education 1997, p. 147). In addition, women’s community centers (women’s welfare centers) run by the government began in 1960 with the establishment of the Women’s Business Center in Seoul, which was replaced by the Seoul Women’s Welfare Center in 1979. The National Women’s Community Center, established in December 1963, had been operated independently as National Women’s Welfare Center since 1975 and was absorbed and integrated into the Korea Women’s Development Institute in 1983 (Ministry of Education 1997, p. 160). Meanwhile, women’s community centers were established in cities and provinces in the late 1960s and early 1970s with the aim of promoting self-reliance of low-income women by providing technical education and promoting the welfare of local women through the improvement of qualities and capacity building (see Table 6 for the status of women’s community center). Since then, women’s community centers have been expanding their activities to leisure and volunteer activities in addition to skills training, and educational opportunities have been gradually expanded to ordinary women (Ministry of Education 1997, p. 160).

3.2.2 Establishment of the Korea National Open University and Colleges for Continuing Education The policy to provide higher education opportunities for adults through the Korea National Open University and open colleges for continuing education was a very significant move in the period of industrialization. Since the 1970s, as part of the lifelong education policy, policies such as establishing industry-affiliated middle and high schools, introducing special evening classes, and establishing the Korea National Open University for out-of-school youth and workers have been pursued. From the 1980s and onward, the educational demand for college-level manpower has increased due to the increased opportunities for the enrollment in regular middle and high schools and the advancement of the industrial structure. In accordance with the Education Reform Plan

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(1980), following measures were taken: to train technical professionals to meet the needs of the industrial society; to realize lifelong education ideals; to grant continuing education opportunities, and to open colleges for reorientation of workers. The establishment of the Korea National Open University is a representative example of the open college policy and served as a cornerstone for expanding higher education opportunities for adults. November 1968—Established a legal basis for the establishment of the Korea National Open University (Article 114-2 of the Education Act was newly inserted) March 1972—Promulgated the Presidential Decree on the Establishment of the Korea National Open University (Presidential Decree No. 6106). KNOU, as a branch faculty of the Seoul National University (SNU), was formally established as the first, lifelong learning institution in the Republic of Korea. 1981—Reorganized into five-year bachelor’s program February 1982—Separated from SNU 1992—Reorganized into four-year college. The Korea National Open University, which was established in 1972 with the aim of “Realizing a Lifelong Learning Society by Expanding Opportunities for Distance Learning in Higher Education”, has provided opportunities for higher education and lifelong education for many people who could not have chances of learning due to socioeconomic circumstances, age, geographical conditions (Ministry of Education, National Institute for Lifelong Education 2013). The Korea National Open University became a full-fledged higher education institution for adults as it was reorganized into five-year bachelor’s program in 1981 and a four-year university in 1991. In the case of open colleges, the legal basis for the establishment of open colleges was laid down with the promulgation and enforcement of the revised Education Act (Act No. 3525) on December 31, 1981. After the establishment of Gyeonggi Open Industrial University in Seoul on February15, 1982, eight national and private open universities were

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established for the following six years. In March 1987, as these open universities changed their names to industrial universities or general universities, the so-called Open University system has existed in name only (Association of Social Education in Korea, Myongji Graduate School of Social Education 1994, p. 114).

3.2.3 Enactment of the Social Education Act and Establishment of Lifelong Education System The legal basis for lifelong education was laid down during this period. With the promulgation of the new Constitution of the 5th Republic, institutional ground for lifelong education was provided, and the Social Education Act came into effect in 1982 in line with the new Constitution. In addition, with the inauguration of the Kim Young—Sam government in 1993, emphasis was placed on decentralization and the autonomy of local governments was also emphasized in education.

3.3

Constitutional Provisions on Lifelong Education and Revision of the Social Education Act

The most significant change was the introduction of a comprehensive concept of lifelong education instead of the existing concept of social education. Simply put, legal and institutional grounds were provided to realize the philosophy of lifelong education for building the society for “open education and lifelong learning” where everyone can have access to education anytime, anywhere. Though the Education Law enacted in 1949 did not specify the concept of lifelong education, the purpose of education based on the ideology of lifelong education is specified as follows. The purpose of the education is to ensure that all people contribute to the development of democratic nation and the prosperity of the

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mankind by cultivating character, self-reliance, and civic virtues under the educational ideology of Hongik Ingan. In addition, the provisions on the civic schools and civic high schools of Article 137 of the Education Law stipulate that “the purpose of civic schools and civic high schools is to provide ordinary adults with primary and secondary education, civic and social education, and vocational education necessary for their lives”. Articles 10 and 11 of the same Law provide for educational measures for those who are older than school age, and contributions to social education of all facilities that can be used for educational purposes such as factories, workplaces, and other facilities. Article 81 of the Education Law stipulates that “the following schools shall be established so that all citizens can receive equal education based on their abilities without discrimination”. The schools specified in the Article include open universities, technical institutes, higher technical institutes, civic schools, civic high schools, and special schools, which can be classified as social education institutions (Association of Social Education in Korea, Myongji Graduate School of Social Education 1994, p. 13). The Lifelong Education Act was enacted based on the 9th amendment of the Constitution enforced on October 27, 1980. Article 29 (now Article 31) of the Constitution defined “the people’s right to education”. Paragraph 5 and 6 of the same article specified that “States shall promote lifelong education”, “Fundamental matters pertaining to the educational system, including in-school and lifelong education, administration, finance, and the status of teachers shall be determined by the Act”. Discussions on making lifelong education into act began at the National Assembly and the government level in the second half of 1981, a year after the constitutional amendment. In accordance with Article 29 of the 1982 Constitution, the Social Education Act was enacted in order to institutionalize social education and provide opportunities for all citizens to social education through lifelong learning, thereby contributing to the improvement of people’s qualities, the establishment of a righteous and democratic welfare society, and the development of culture.

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Increase in the Number of Various Social Education Facilities

With the enactment of the Social Education Act, the definition of the social education facilities became clearer, and the social education system became more systematic with the establishment of new institutions. The Chapter 4 of the Social Education Act enacted in 1982 dealt with matters pertaining to social education facilities and specified private institutes, museums, and libraries as facilities for social education. A strong system for the promotion of lifelong education was established with the enactment of the Social Education Act in 1982 and the promulgation of the Enforcement Decree of the Social Education Act in 1983. The economic growth, desire for acquiring new knowledge, and cultural demand led to the establishment of the system, and the demand for lifelong education increased in middle-class communities (Lee Byung-Ho and Choi Eun-Soo 2009). In 1982, open universities were established with the aim of providing continuing education opportunities for industrial workers. New educational demands were raised due to improved living standards and lifestyle changes following the successful industrialization. To meet such demands, short and long-term lectures were provided by private institutions, and various educational programs were run by cultural centers of mass media organizations and so on. The first cultural center was established in 1981 as a lifelong learning facility. Tongyang Broadcasting Company (TBC) and Donga Broadcasting System (DBS), the two commercial broadcasting stations, were merged by the government into the Korea Broadcasting System (KBS) in 1980 in accordance with the government-led media policy. Studios at Unhyeongung and Yeouido, the two media facilities which were not integrated into KBS, were renovated by Joongang Ilbo and Donga Ilbo into Korea’s first cultural centers (Hyun Yu-Kyung 1995, p. 3). The first cultural center ran by the department store was the Oriental Plaza culture center opened in October 1984. The Lotte Cultural Center operated by Lotte Department Store was the first cultural center registered as a general social education facility (March 16, 1989) in accordance with the Social Education Act (Ministry of Education 1997, p. 148). After

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legal and institutional basis was laid down, various social education facilities have established themselves as public educational institutions, and the number of facilities and adult learners continued to grow.

3.5

Institutionalization of Lifelong Learning Centers at Universities and Academic Credit Bank System

3.5.1 Establishment of Centers for Lifelong Learning at Universities In the 1980s, a legal basis was created for universities to provide adult education. In the 1970s, universities and local communities worked together to provide education for local residents. Especially in 1971, Keimyung University was accredited by the Ministry of Education to establish a center for community education and offered various courses for unmarried women, community leaders, and residents, which has grown into educational projects for housewives and working women in Pohang and Gumi areas from 1976. In the late 1970s, there were more than 20 universities providing lifelong education. Universities’ lifelong education programs during this period were implemented jointly by local communities to provide short-term community education programs such as liberal arts education, agricultural education, and civic education for local residents (Table 7). Since the 1970s, those centers have offered programs for ordinary adults and have provided systematic lifelong education as permanent institutions affiliated with universities since the 1980s. Those centers were specialized as various institutions such as Social Education Center, Lifelong Education Center, Art and Design Education Center, Farming Promotion Center, International Lifelong Education Center, Industrial Education Center, Education Center for Women, Center for Information and Technology, and Computing Institute.

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Table 7 Centers for lifelong learning at universities 2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

Universities 372 376 411 412 416 422 432 Lifelong 257 294 313 375 378 388 403 learning centers Number 7,055 9,205 13,274 17,809 19,416 25,568 26,920 of courses Number 142,905 266,935 273,868 283,725 615,923 883,196 845,860 of students Source e-National Indicators

– Daegu City and Keimyung University began offering “lectures for housewives” in 1971. – The Social Education Act was enacted in 1982. Roles of universities in promoting lifelong education were specified in Article 24-1 of the same act. – In 1984, Ewha Womans University became the first university to establish a lifelong education center. – In 1995, the Ministry of Education strongly encouraged universities to establish lifelong education centers. Lifelong education at universities based on the philosophy of lifelong learning was carried out in accordance with provisions on lifelong education inserted in the 1980 Constitution and Article 24 (1) of the Social Education Act enacted in 1982. The Article 24 (1) of the Social Education Act specified the roles of universities in promoting lifelong education as follows: “Universities, teachers’ colleges, colleges of education, and junior colleges shall offer social education services in accordance with their characteristics”. Based on this Act, Ewha Womans University established Korea’s first university-affiliated lifelong education center in 1984. Following the establishment of the lifelong education center by Ewha Womans University, the establishment of other lifelong education institutes affiliated with universities ensued (Table 7). Although establishing lifelong education centers at universities was a positive move because universities began to recognize adults as learners,

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it also caused conflicts between the functions of existing universities and the demands for adult education. Since the mid-1990s, national and public universities have been involved in the operation of lifelong education centers, and lifelong learning has seen both quantitative and qualitative growth as a result of the diversification and specialization of programs and participants. In addition, academic credit bank system and part-time enrollment were introduced, and distance learning was further expanded as part of education reform measures for the new education system, which promoted the development of lifelong education at universities. In addition, the amendments of the Lifelong Education Act provided legal grounds for adults with a bachelor’s degree to earn second bachelor’s degree in a major different from that of the first degree (Kwak SamGeun et al. 2014). This is a crucial issue that can lead to the demand of the time for higher education reforms. The boundaries between higher education and adult education are becoming more and more blurred as the policy demands for degree programs including junior colleges for adult and adult learner-centered universities are soaring.

3.5.2 Acquisition of Academic Degrees Through Self-Education This system is to allow a person who has the qualification equivalent to a high school graduate to earn a bachelor’s degree recognized by the Minister of Education as long as the person passes qualification test conducted by the national institutions. – April 1990: Promulgated Act on the Acquisition of Academic Degrees through Self-Education. – June 1990: Established the Department of Bachelor’s Degree Examination for Self-Education in the National Board of Education Evaluation. – February 1992: Granted bachelor’s degrees to 147 students who passed the bachelor’s degree examination. – January 1998: Transferred the tasks of the Department Bachelor’s Degree Examination to Korea National Open University (Table 8).

1992 147 2003 944

1993 514 2004 603

1994 458 2005 610

1995 594 2006 708

Source National Institute for Lifelong Education (2013)

Year Degrees awarded learners Year Degrees awarded learners

1996 783 2007 778

1997 744 2008 679

1998 1,011 2009 541

1999 618 2010 742

2000 508 2011 787

2001 755 2012 950

2002 904 2013 961

Total 15,345

Table 8 Bachelor’s degrees awarded through the Bachelor’s Degree Examination for Self-Education (unit: persons)

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– February 2008: After the revision of the Lifelong Education Act in February 2008, the Department of Bachelor’s Degree Examination for Self-Education supervised by the Korea National Open University was incorporated into the National Institute for Lifelong Education. In April 1990, the Act on the Academic Degrees through Self-Education was enacted, and the Enforcement Decree and the Enforcement Regulations of the said Act were also enacted based on this Act. In the same year, the National Board of Educational Evaluation (the then Central Board of Educational Evaluation) was established for a Bachelor’s Degree Examination for Self-Education. After the reorganization of the Ministry of Education and its affiliated organizations in 1998, the task of Bachelor’s Degree Examination for Self-Education was transferred to the Korea National Open University and then to the Lifelong Education Promotion Agency following the revision of the Lifelong Education Act in 2008. The Bachelor’s Degree Examination for Self-Education allows selftaught learners to be evaluated for their learning without time and space constraints, thereby expanding the opportunities for higher education to lifelong education and contributing to the realization of lifelong learning society (Ministry of Education, National Institute for Lifelong Education 2013). This system is meaningful because it aimed at addressing the issue of excessive competition for college entrance, realizing meritocratic and egalitarian society, and popularizing higher education. Moreover, it also contributed to the realization of lifelong learning society.

3.6

Academic Credit Bank System (ACBS)

Academic Credit Bank System (ACBS) is administered in accordance with the Promulgated Act on Recognition of Credits (Act No. 11690). The ACBS is a unique and open lifelong learning system which recognizes learners’ diverse learning experiences and certificates obtained both inside and outside the formal education as academic credits and confers a degree equivalent to a junior college or four-year university, which ultimately contributes to the realization of open and lifelong learning

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society (National Institute for Lifelong Education 2011). The Presidential Commission on Education Reform proposed the Academic Credit Bank System as part of a vision for a new educational system for the development of learning society in May 1996, and the Act on Recognition of Credits, etc., and related laws and regulations were enacted and enforced in March 1998. With the introduction of this system, the opportunity to earn bachelor’s degree was expanded remarkably, compared to the past when earning the bachelor’s degree was only possible after passing highly competitive university entrance examination. The implementation of this system is characterized by the followings (National Institute for Lifelong Education 2011). – Ensuring people’s right to lifelong learning and diversifying their learning experiences – Providing alternative method for enabling those who did not go to college to earn bachelor’s degree – Recognizing the completion of lifelong education course for the balanced development of education sectors – Strengthening linkage between lifelong education and school education for maximizing educational effect. Despite these advantages, criticism has been raised about ACBS surrounding the verification system for bachelor’s degree and worsening unemployment of college graduates due to excessive number of bachelor’s degree holders. Moreover, there is criticism that the need for an academic credit bank system, which allows adults who do not have high school diploma to complete basic education, has been overlooked because the benefits of ACBS are only given to high school graduates. Therefore, it is necessary to supplement the system in the future.

3.7

Promotion of Industrial Education and Cultivation of Human Resources

A major change in education following industrialization is the increased emphasis on the importance of industrial education.

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Human resource development, which is the main axis of lifelong education, was first introduced in the Republic of Korea in the form of corporate education in the industrial settings. The Korea Management Association (1988) divided the development of Korea’s industrial education before and after the 1980s. Based on the characteristics of training, this can also be divided into three periods during which: (i) support was focused on on-site training (1948–1960s); (ii) foreign programs were introduced (1970–1990s); and (iii) educational program was developed (early 1991–current) (Kwon Dae-Bong 2001). First, the period during which support was focused on on-site training (1948– 1960). This was the period when emphasis was placed on industrial training, the initial type of human resource development, and the foundation for industrial development was built after the establishment of the government. During this period, in-house and field-based training was the mainstay of industrial education. Institutions for specialized industrial education were established to support field-based training. The Korea Productivity Center was established in August 1957, the Korea Industrial Standards Association (the predecessor organization of the Korea Standards Association) in March 1962, and the Korea Management Association in May 1962, respectively. The Korea Productivity Center and the Korea Industrial Standards Association were established as government-funded institutions, but the Korea Management Association was established as Korea’s first private institution for industrial education (Kwon Dae-Bong 2001). Second, the period during which foreign programs were introduced (1970 to early 1990s). This was the period when education programs beyond training were introduced. According to the Korea Management Association (1988), Management Training Program (MTP), Training Within Industry (TWI), On-theJob Training (OJT) were introduced from the U.S. and disseminated to various industrial educational institutions. This period was when Korea’s economy started to take off under the successive five-year economic development plans, and each company was actively adopting TWI and MTP for training their newly recruited employees. During this period, case-based education focused on problem-solving such as business game and incident process method were the main stream. In addition, education that emphasizes human emotions and

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interpersonal relationships such as Sensitivity Training and Laboratory Training, as well as education that integrates human aspects into performance such as Managerial Grid was introduced. It was also the period to reflect on the education in which human beings had been neglected during the high growth period and to pursue the education that respects human beings and individuals through such education. After the oil shock in the 1970s, the global economy entered a recession and our corporations were required to strengthen their fundamentals in the aftermath of the crisis. As a result, industry education also faced significant challenges because educational activities were slowed down significantly due to a drastic reduction in education budget for cost savings. At this time, however, Korean companies worked hard to improve their fundamentals and began new education for a transition to elitism and meritocracy in a true sense. In the late 1980s, the Korean economy grew dramatically thanks to the favorable external conditions such as low oil prices, low interest rates, and low exchange rates, and saw many changes such as frequent industry-wide labor disputes (Kwon Dae-Bong 2001). Meanwhile, there was a perception that education was overly focused on the aspects of performance and productivity under the high economic growth policy, and it was argued that education should focus on human aspects instead. Following these changes, industrial education was changed from formal education to practical education, from uniform education that aimed at productivity improvement to education emphasizing individual differences considering self-realization of individuals. Moreover, industrial education was provided systematically from the viewpoint of lifelong education that links education and personnel system.

3.7.1 Achievement and Challenges of Lifelong Education in the Industrialization Period The Saemaul education, which was one of the most representative policy projects of the time, obviously did not claim to advocate the ideology

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of lifelong education, however, it held significance as lifelong education because community development was promoted through education targeting adults. In particular, community education, which was emphasized through this movement, has had a considerable influence on Korea’s lifelong education policy. Challenges encountered in the process of implementing Saemaul education included how to secure systematized educational contents, educational methods, teaching materials, and sufficient lecturers, and discontinuous and sporadic implementation of the education. Above all, the government-led education and participation were criticized for being used for maintaining the regime (Lee Byung-Ho, and Choi Eun-Soo 2009). Community education, which was initiated as part of the national reconstruction project in the 1950s, was evolved into the government-led Saemaul education for local residents in the 1970s and 80s. Community education was implemented with the operation of community schools by opening private schools to the public, the provision of civic education and literacy education for enlightening people, and programs for local residents offered by cultural centers. In line with the movement to provide educational opportunities for residents in local communities, Keimyung University established civic college and courses for housewives and Daegu University opened courses for the elderly welfare in 1975 and courses for agricultural successors in 1978. In 1977, National Agricultural Cooperative Federation set up training centers for its members. In 1978, the YMCA, a nonprofit organization, developed a program to train employees at the welfare center of the Korea Export Industrial Corporation (Jung Ji-Woong and Kim Ji-Ja 1992, p. 313). Other large companies also established in-house corporate colleges to provide vocational and technical education for their employees, and ran internship programs for prospective employees. In other words, great achievement was made during this period in human resource development and regional development such as developing minds through Saemaul education and providing technical education for industrialization. Implementation and achievement of lifelong education during this period can be classified into three categories. First, social education that complemented school education. In the 1960s, during the initial period

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of social education, many civic schools were established as social education facilities to supplement school education. In addition to the civic schools for those who missed opportunities for elementary education, civic high schools were also established to provide secondary school education and civic education for adults. With the completion of the Six-Year Compulsory Education Plan, the enrollment rate in secondary education increased dramatically from 35.1% in 1966 to 40.8% in 1970. In the 1970s, new types of social education were introduced. As the number of civic schools and technical schools dropped in the 1960s, industry-affiliated schools, air and correspondence high schools, and open universities were established instead. Industry-affiliated schools provided secondary education opportunities for people, and air and correspondence high schools and Korea National Open University became the representative types of distance education offering academic accreditation. Workers’ night school projects were vigorously promoted by Young Christian Workers (YCW), Urban Industrial Mission, and Christian Academy. Second, social education for community development was actively promoted. Rural development projects, focused on the development of rural communities, and the 4-H Club movement, which also served as the headquarters for the village library movement for the modernization of rural areas, were carried out. Saemaul education was a community development campaign aimed at reforming consciousness and raising incomes of the people. Saemaul education programs focused on raising incomes and agricultural technology for rural community leaders, cultivating civic spirit for urban community leaders, and improving lifestyles for female leaders (Korean Educational Development Institute 1993). Third, social education to nurture human resources was actively promoted. The interest in social education for raising productivity and nurturing manpower necessary for economic development increased. With the enactment of the Act on the Establishment of Private Institutes in 1961 and the Industrial Education Promotion Act in 1963, legal ground for social education for nurturing human resources was provided. Technical institutes, higher technical institutes, and private institutes were responsible for providing social education aimed at nurturing human resources.

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In the 1970s, as the demand for economic development and high-level manpower was high, the focus was on educating highly skilled workers as well as unskilled workers. Moreover, focus was also on educating workers to acquire skills through vocational training centers accredited by the government (Ministry of Labor), in-house vocational training centers, and public vocational training centers. In this period, lifelong education was related to community development and transitioned from rural community-oriented education to industrial society-oriented education. Lifelong education at that time, which can be called the period of social education, was promoted in diverse manners in rural and urban areas focused on economic growth and community development. Especially, as evidently shown in the ideology of government-led Saemaul education, economic development was the common objectives of lifelong education institutions such as the NACF, businesses in urban communities, various schools, and government agencies. Therefore, studies on lifelong education were mainly focused on adaptive social education related to community development. In addition, the demand for higher education increased during the industrialization period, as opposed to the state formation period when night schools provided elementary and secondary education at the basic literacy level. Korea National Open University, which was established in response to the increasing demand for higher education, was the result of the policy that reflected Koreans’ demand for higher education in lifelong education and made it possible for anyone wanting to receive college education to go to college. The most significant milestones in lifelong education during this period were the enactment of Social Education Act and the establishment and expansion of related social education facilities. In the 1980s, government-led education for local residents was gradually transformed to private sector-led civic education, literacy education, and civic programs offered by cultural centers. Businesses vigorously pursued in-house manpower training and education. In particular, large companies established in-house colleges to provide vocational and technical education for their employees and ran internship programs for prospective employees. On one hand, the implementation and accomplishment of lifelong education during this period provided momentum for the rapid economic takeoff based on the nationwide movement aimed at economic

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development and modernization during the industrialization period. On the other hand, however, criticism grew about government-led social movements and collective education. For this reason, lifelong education to cultivate critical citizenship was promoted in the 1980s. Those who criticized the existing social education for taking overly conformist approach used lifelong education to raise consciousness. Representative organizations include religious organizations (YMCA, YWCA, YCW, and Christian Academy) and education institutions for workers (night schools, Seoul People’s Union, etc.). These critical viewpoint inspired people to look at national development and education in various perspectives. Finally, human resource development, which was introduced as part of corporate training and education in the past, gradually emerged as a key issue across the entire industrial areas for human resources development at a national level. Especially in the informatization period following the industrialization period, human resources development has emerged as a crucial issue in lifelong education as the demand for strengthening national competitiveness increased in the current global economic order.

4

Lifelong Education in the Informatization Period: Since the Mid-1990s

4.1

Provision of Equal Educational Opportunities and the Human Resources Development Act

The lifelong education policy is determined by the social environment of the times, within the framework of government policy. Shown below is the summary of the actions taken by each government for the implementation and improvement of lifelong education policy.

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– Civilian Government (1993–1998): Lifelong education policies were prepared by the Education Reform Commission, and the Act on Lifelong Education was enacted after the announcement of the fourth education reform measures. – People’s Government (1998–2003): The Ministry of Education was reorganized and the Commission on Education and Human Resources was established to prepare the Basic Plan for National Human Resources Development, and the Human Resources Development Act was enacted to support the plan. – Participatory Government (2003–2008): The Basic Plan for National Human Resources Development was established, and the Human Resources Development Act was revised (Table 9). Korea’s lifelong education policy began with the establishment of May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995), followed by the preparation of 1st through 4th education reform measures, the establishment of the Comprehensive Plan for the Promotion of Lifelong Education in 1996, the revision of Lifelong Education Act in 1999, was promoted in earnest with the establishment of the Ministry of Education and Human Resources in 2000. Since the establishment of the Commission on Education and Human Resources, the lifelong learning policy has been continuously promoted with the establishment of the Basic Plan for National Human Resources Development and the Comprehensive Plan for the Promotion of Lifelong Education, and enactment and revision of the Human Resources Development Act and the Lifelong Education Act.

4.2

Human Resource Development for Ordinary Adults

As educational needs of adults became greater and more diverse, specific forms of government-led lifelong education failed to meet their diverse needs. As the Social Education Act enacted in 1982 was revised to the Lifelong Education Act in 1999, lifelong education was developed in earnest. The government tried to establish a systematic human resource

Major actions taken • Began establishing lifelong learning system and lifelong learning policies • Prepared education reform measures, Comprehensive Plan for the Promotion of Lifelong Education, and drafted the Act on Lifelong Education • 1996: Proposed the plan for new vocational education system • 1996: Prepared a lifelong education reform plan for a learning society • 1995: Announced the May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) • 1996: Established a Comprehensive Plan for the Promotion of Lifelong Education • 1997: Drafted the Act on Lifelong Education

Government

Civilian Government (1993–1998)

(continued)

• The May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) laid the foundation for the lifelong learning policy • Proposed a vision to realize the society for open education and lifelong learning society • Proposed the 1st through 4th education reform proposals • Established a lifelong vocational education system that enables everyone to receive vocational education of choice without time and space constraints • Expanded opportunities for lifelong learning, improved the people’s quality of life, and supported legislation related to lifelong learning

Detailed description

Table 9 Characteristics of lifelong education policy in the informatization period

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Major actions taken • Established lifelong learning policy subjected to human resource development policies • Focused on the development of excellent human resources and vocational skills for strengthening national competitiveness • Enacted the Lifelong Education Act in 1999 • Provided a legal basis for promoting lifelong education policies and projects • January 29, 2001: Reorganized the Ministry of Education into the Ministry of Education and Human Resources • December 2001: Established the 1st Basic Plan for National Human Resources Development • 2002: Established the 1st Comprehensive Plan for the Promotion of Lifelong Education • August 2002: Enacted the Human Resources Development Act

Government

People’s Government (1998–2003)

Table 9 (continued) Detailed description • The Social Education Act was fully revised and enacted as the Lifelong Education Act • Details of the Lifelong Education Act are as follows: (1) Specified national and local governments responsible for lifelong education (2) Specified organization responsible for lifelong education (3) Specified professionals dedicated to lifelong education (4) Specified lifelong education facilities • Established national strategies to develop human resources at the government level • Established a comprehensive plan for the promotion of lifelong learning in line with the National Human Resources Development Plan

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Participatory Government (2003–2008)

Detailed description • Promoted policy to cultivate creative learners • Promoted participation and linkage among lifelong learning institutes for social integration • Established infrastructure for lifelong learning and proposed three tasks for strengthening network for lifelong learning • Promoted the improvement of national competitiveness through human resources and knowledge-led growth, fostering high potential individuals, building lifelong learning capacity for all citizens, promoting social integration, education, culture and welfare

Source Reorganized based on the information compiled by Yang Heung-Kwon (2008)

Major actions taken • Strengthened lifelong learning policies and human resource development policies • 2006: Established the 2nd Basic Plan for National Human Resources Development • 2006: Revised the Human Resources Development Act • February 2008: Revised the Lifelong Education Act • 2008: Established the 2nd Comprehensive Plan for the Promotion of Lifelong Education

Government

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development policy by enacting the Human Resources Development Act on August 26, 2002. As adult learners’ right to learn was emphasized, the proportion of government-led education programs has decreased. Instead, lifelong education reflecting individual needs, such as liberal arts education, programs to develop hobbies, or education to enhance job skills has grown rapidly. Thus, the government-led lifelong education policy for community development has begun to be replaced by the lifelong education policy focused on individual well-being. First, liberal arts education to meet individual education needs and lifelong education for developing hobbies were vigorously promoted. The expansion of lifelong education, such as leisure time activities and liberal arts education, is attributable to the improved standard of living and the increased desire of the people to enjoy their free lives as social and political democratization was achieved to some extent. Most people taking these course are financially stable, formally educated middle-class women who live in urban areas. The representative institutions responsible for such education are the university-affiliated lifelong education centers, cultural centers affiliated with media organizations and department stores, various organizations and civic centers, which are the largest contributors to lifelong education for women. There has been criticism that lifelong education is widening rather than narrowing the education gap. In other words, it is pointed out that low-educated adults, who should be the beneficiaries of lifelong education, do not have access to the education due to lack of time or money. Second, lifelong education provided by corporate training centers for human resources development increased. As the need for manpower development to cope with rapidly changing social and business environment has become greater, professional trainings for those holding managerial positions (newly recruited, middle-grade, and senior managers) have also increased. Lifelong education for human resource development began to be emphasized in relation to individual abilities and vocational skills. The lifelong education for human resources development, which contributes to securing a high-quality workforce and improving individual’s adaptive capacity, has been emphasized increasingly in recent years. Third, as the Social Education Act was revised to the Lifelong

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Education Act, the concept of lifelong education expanded. The Lifelong Education Act was aimed at realizing lifelong learning society by transforming the target population, category, and system of lifelong education. The realization of lifelong education for improving the quality of life of people and developing local communities led to the implementation of lifelong learning city projects, which are evaluated as a resident-led projects to promote lifelong learning, befitting the era of local autonomy. The enlightenment ideologies, which were advocated in the early days of adult education, faded. However, interests in lifelong education policies, systems, and measures to expand individuals’ learning opportunities increased instead. Moreover, since the late 1990s, various lifelong learning programs for entertainment and development of hobbies have increased to meet the diverse needs of learners. As a result, lifelong learning programs related to the development of hobbies take up the largest proportion in all lifelong learning programs in Korea. Lifelong education for enhancing individual’s job skills and developing hobbies grew remarkably in this period. In other words, lifelong education programs such as liberal arts programs, programs for the development of hobbies or job skills, and accredited educational programs were offered in the name of “reflecting various demands of individuals”. Of the total 7,043 programs ran by lifelong education institutions in the mid-1990s, programs for hobbies and liberal arts accounted for 49.6%, programs to enhance occupational skills 27.0%, programs to raise awareness among women 6.5%, and literacy education 1.3%, which shows that individual-centered programs accounted for the largest portion of lifelong learning programs (Kwak Sam-Geun et al. 2000). Except for the purpose of “various community movements and environmental protection” offered by women’s organizations, purposes related to community development and environmental protection can hardly be found in the educational purposes of other lifelong education institutions. However, as for lifelong education’s purpose of improving quality of life, critical research on lifelong education programs began to be conducted because of the perception that lifelong education is related to the living environment of local residents has emerged (Kwak Sam-Geun 2001; Han Jun-Sang 2003; Lee Hee-Su 2001).

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The need for strengthening national competitiveness and the subsequent enactment of the Human Resources Development Act have had a profound impact on lifelong education. With the launch of the World Trade Organization in 1995, the task of fostering human resources for the era of globalization emerged. Due to education inflation, the enactment of the Act on Equal Employment and Support for Work-Family Reconciliation, aging population, and diversified customer demands, corporations began seeking how to cultivate the talents needed for their organization. In the past, the development of human resources in Korean companies tended to be implemented in the form of in-house education on an ad hoc basis following the trend of the times. In other words, rather than presenting a long-term perspective and vision, education programs popular in the U.S. and Japan or educational programs of other companies were blindly introduced without considering their own circumstances. However, due to the growth in the size of companies, subsequent increase of corporate social responsibilities, further development of advanced technologies, and acceleration of globalization, strategic aspects of corporate education and training began to be highlighted from the perspective of “long-term prospects and mid-term planning”. In recent years, Korean companies have established a unique human resource development system that distinguishes them from other companies. They also seek to specialize the development and management of human resources, and to develop new strategies beyond the level of simple education. They have commonly strengthened computer-related education to meet the need of society for advanced information technology. In addition, the unique HR development programs implemented by Korean companies include Ssangyong Motor’s “Shadow Board”, Daewoo’s “Daewoo-Michigan Global MBA”, SK’s “Can Meeting”, Samsung’s “Local Expert Program”, and in-house technical college run by each company (Kwon Dae-Bong 2001). The tasks for developing corporate education in Korea can be derived by examining the development of corporate education in the US and Japan, which are the two major trading partners of the Republic of Korea and benchmarked for their successful educational programs. First of all, Korean companies need to strengthen their education for globalization of their employees in

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globalized world. Japanese companies adopted the International Career Development Program to ensure that their employees for international positions in sales, production, technical, and management, who are likely to be sent overseas, are thoroughly familiar with the language and culture of the host country. Foreign language proficiency is the first step in the education for globalization. In the era of liberalization, thorough education for globalization is required in our human resource development. Moreover, we need to benchmark HRD systems such as US’s “Life / Education Advisor” and Japan’s Human Resources Development (HRD) Champion to develop institutional strategies for human resource development for Korean companies. In addition, it is also necessary to pay attention to the people’s demand for new lifelong education within the framework of human resource development in the era of globalization.

4.2.1 Human Resources Development for Military Personnel Since 2003, human resource development for military personnel has taken root. However, HRD for military personnel is unique because both the subject and object of human resource development are military personnel. The reason why military HRD in Korea has been promoted as a government policy is because the Republic of Korea adopts a conscription system. Under the current system, most men have to serve in the military before they enter the working world, which can lead to the loss of human resources at the national level due to their delayed participation in economic activities. Therefore, the efficient development and management of military human resources are closely related to the success of human resource development at the national level as well as the military level (Park Gil-Soo et al. 2010). In the past, lifelong education for military personnel played a very important role as a civic education, but it has gradually become human resource development beyond literacy education. In fact, in the 1950s, as a post-war national reconstruction mechanism, the Republic of Korea focused on literacy education for the economically active population and

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military personnel through the “National Literacy Education” to meet the needs to rebuild the county after the devastating war. Civic education for military personnel in the 1950s had a significant impact on the Korean society. First, it played an important role in literacy education, which was the most important issue in social education at that time. Second, it was a social education policy that played a significant role in establishing the national identity in the tumultuous period of the 1950s. Third, as evidenced by the studies on those who had completed military service and returned to the villages in the 1950s, they significantly influenced their communities and the civic education for military personnel in the 1950s had a significant impact on the Korean society (Oh Hyuk-Jin and Huh Jun 2011; Jung Yun-Sook and Park Sang-Ok 2014). The history of education for military personnel is as follows: (1) founding of the ROK Armed Forces—before the 1970s: provided literacy education; (2) in the early 1970s to mid-1980s: cultivated technical manpower; (3) after the mid-1980s: contributed to Korea’s social and economic development through improving civic awareness and character-building education; and (4) in recent years: strengthened foreign language education and civic education (Lee Jung-Pyo 2005). As the role of military education is expanding, it is necessary to establish an institutional framework to strongly support military men and women to develop their individual ability and to make the full use of the skills they learnt during their military service after discharge. Meanwhile, the Industry-Military Human Resources Development Committee was launched in 2004, and the military and business community jointly promoted the “pilot project for self-development of military personnel”, which holds great significance in the advancement of military HRD. The pilot project served as an opportunity for the industry, the end user of military human resources, to recognize the importance of military human resource development, to participate actively in the project, and to support related industries. As education policy officers of the Ministry of National Defense and the Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs were involved in the development of military human resources, military HRD gained momentum.

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Future tasks of military human resources development are as follows: (i) innovation in military education and training, (ii) provision of lifelong learning opportunities for self-development such as acquisition of qualifications, expansion of opportunity to earn degree and credits, and implementation of foreign language improvement programs, (iii) establishment of infrastructure for knowledge-based learning, and (iv) improvement of military human resource management system. Therefore, it is necessary to systematically study these tasks from the viewpoint of military HRD and to ensure the research results can be used for policy development (Lee Jung-Pyo 2005). In particular, what needs to be improved in military HRD is the expansion of lifelong learning opportunities. In other words, it is necessary to expand opportunities for military personnel to acquire qualifications, degrees, and credits during military service in order to provide lifelong learning opportunities for their self-development. In addition, it is expected that future military HRD will be developed into learnings that are closely related to everyday lives of military personnel such as self-directed learning, non-formal learning, and work-related learning as well as programs that can improve conversational foreign language skills.

4.3

Enactment of the Lifelong Education Act and University-Centered Lifelong Education

Significant changes were made in lifelong education policy during the informatization period. From the policy perspective, May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) was the starting point for education reform and the idea of lifelong learning society. To support this policy, the Lifelong Education Act was enacted on August 31, 1999, and the Act was fully revised on December 14, 2007, reinforcing national awareness on the lifelong learning society. As a result, a series of policies have been implemented, such as expansion of opportunities for higher education and its linkage with lifelong education, for example, the expanded implementation of academic credit bank system, implementation of lifelong learning city projects, and establishment of support systems for lifelong learning. As part of the 2nd education reform and an attempt at updating relevant

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terminology, the Social Education Act was fully revised into the Lifelong Education Act, and the full revision and enforcement of the Lifelong Education Act in 2008 opened a new era of lifelong education. The systematic compilation of statistics related to lifelong education began when the Ministry of Education started publishing the “White Paper on Lifelong Education” in 1997. According to the first White Paper on Lifelong Education, institutes and general social education institutions accounted for the largest portion of lifelong education institutions. In the case of social education institutions or cultural facilities for the elderly, though there is no aggregate data on the actual number of people participating in lifelong education, it is increasing continuously (Table 10). In this period, main focus of lifelong education was on the development of various lifelong education policies and programs to meet the needs of individuals, and Table 10 Status of lifelong education institutions in 1997 Classification Education and Training Institutions for Public Officials Vocational Training Institutions Industrial Training Institutions Private Institutes and General Social Education Institutions School-affiliated Social Education Institutions School Style Social Education Institutions Social Education Institutions and Organizations for the Youth Social Education Institutions and Organizations for Women Social Education Institutions and Organizations for the Elderly Cultural Facility-based Social Education Institutions

Number of institutions

Participants in education (person)

187

1,006,426

494 472 114,932

198,812 3,754,100 14,025,003

10,733

3,611,262

391

620,941

633

354,422

194

299,997

30,738

13,641

Source Ministry of Education (1997)

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expanding opportunities for higher education for all citizens and facilitating access to various lifelong education programs. The major lifelong education policies implemented in this period are as follows: (i) abolition of the Social Education Act and enactment of the Lifelong Education Act, (ii) development of Korea National Open University and establishment of open universities, (iii) implementation of academic credit bank system, (iv) implementation of lifelong learning-centered university policy, and (v) implementation of lifelong learning city projects. This is the period when the policy toward the realization of universitycentered lifelong education emerged while transitioning to the era of lifelong learning that meets the needs of individual learners.

4.3.1 Abolition of Social Education Act and Enactment of Lifelong Education Act The most important change in lifelong education was the introduction and application of the comprehensive concept of lifelong education instead of the existing concept of social education. It was the period when legislative and institutional measures were taken to realize the ideology of lifelong education for the construction of “Open Education, Lifelong Learning Society” in which anyone can receive education without time and space constraints. – Abolition of the Social Education Act and enactment of the Lifelong Education Act in 1999, enforcement of the Lifelong Education Act in 2000 – Full revision of the Lifelong Education Act in 2007 and enforcement of the Act in 2008. The Social Education Act remained at the lower level of the school-based Education Law, and the scope of application of the Act was limited. Therefore, Presidential Commission on Education Reform proposed the “Open Education, Lifelong Learning Society” in which anyone can learn anytime and anywhere, as a direction of educational reform (Ministry of Education, National Institute for Lifelong Education 2013).

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This led the government to promote the establishment of a practical lifelong education system. Public hearings were held based on the draft of the Lifelong Education Act. The Act was finally enacted after multiple amendments and discussions based on the results of the public hearings (Ko Young-Sang 2010). The Lifelong Education Act was again fully revised in 2007 and the revised Act contained changes in lifelong education promotion system and systematic implementation of lifelong learning projects.

4.4

Expansion of Lifelong Education Facilities and Programs

As the construction of lifelong learning society began to be accelerated, social education facilities such as museums, libraries, and information and learning centers were reorganized into lifelong education institutions. Moreover, the number of libraries, lifelong education programs, and cultural study classes run by museums gradually increased in response to social demand. Media organizations and large department stores opened their own cultural centers. Facilities such as youth centers, women’s centers, social welfare centers, workers welfare centers, village halls, centers affiliated with religious organizations, centers for the elderly, civic halls, and district centers ran lifelong learning programs for people of all ages and the size and number of the programs gradually increased. According to the Lifelong Education Act, types of lifelong learning facilities are classified into eight categories: school style lifelong learning facilities, in-house corporate college-type facilities, college distance learning type facilities, company-affiliated facilities, civic organization-affiliated facilities, school-affiliated facilities, facilities affiliated with media organizations, and lifelong learning facilities for knowledge and human resources development. The National Institute for Lifelong Education has been systematically promoting lifelong education policies, research, and surveys, and the Statistical Survey on National Lifelong Education has been conducted in earnest since 2007 after the completion of pilot project in 2006. As shown in the Table 14, the number of lifelong education institutions,

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programs, and learners of lifelong education has been steadily increasing (Tables 11, 12, 13, and 14). In contrast to the decline in the school-age population, the number of learners taking courses offered by lifelong learning institutions has increased every year. However, it is noteworthy that the number of learners enrolled at pre-school, primary and secondary school-affiliated Table 11 Number of lifelong education institutions Type of lifelong education institutions Total Pre-school, primary and secondary school-affiliated University (graduate school)-affiliated Distance learning type Company-affiliated Civic organizationaffiliated Media organizationaffiliated Lifelong education facilities for knowledge development and HRD Lifelong Learning Center

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2,221 9

2,620 12

2,807 11

3,213 3,591 3,768 3,965 12 11 10 8

375

378

380

388

397

403

405

502

611

674

781

853

887

876

207 166

244 244

268 275

298 386

328 461

357 495

375 524

78

92

107

203

376

494

703

570

681

713

761

774

727

687

314 358[25] 379[25] 384[28]

391

395

387

Source Company-affiliated lifelong education institutions: lifelong education institutions established and operated as subsidiary facilities by businesses, department stores, and cultural centers Lifelong education facilities for knowledge development and HRD: lifelong education facilities that are operated in conjunction with businesses or the Ministry of Employment and Labor, with the main purpose of developing human resources through the provision of knowledge and information, and education and training Lifelong Learning Center: lifelong learning center designated by Office of Education as a local lifelong education center that provides lifelong learning programs for local residents Lifelong learning centers marked in […] are included in university (graduate school)-affiliated, civic organization-affiliated institutions 2007–2013 Statistics of Lifelong Education

19,416 29,083 30,783 2,742 2,524 11,689 11,021

18,318 14,571 37,593 2,742 4,149 12,565 11,108

Source 2007–2013 Statistics of Lifelong Education

107,349 91

100,989 34

Total Pre-school, primary, and secondary school-affiliated University (graduate school)-affiliated Distance learning type Company-affiliated Civic organization-affiliated Media organization-affiliated Lifelong education facilities for knowledge development and HRD Lifelong Learning Center

2008

2007

Type of lifelong education institutions

Table 12 Number of lifelong learning programs

13,582

24,037 38,797 40,019 3,116 3,177 13,300

136,123 95

2009

15,055

25,568 47,702 50,882 3,922 3,853 13,158

160,249 109

2010

17,736

25,799 60,789 55,599 5,234 4,621 13,012

182,844 54

2011

18,872

26,920 48,162 61,833 5,497 4,520 13,108

178,971 59

2012

20,855

26,952 45,247 63,348 5,350 6,485 12,574

180,843 32

2013

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11,403,373 6,236

615,923 8,425,854 1,095,290 109,582 113,747 562,005

474,736

523,439

7,964,106 885,271 264,953

96,184

170,418

3,287,315

2008

13,192,908 1,222

2007

Source 2007–2013 Statistics of Lifelong Education

Total Pre-school, primary, and secondary school-affiliated University (graduate school)-affiliated Distance learning type Company-affiliated Civic organization-affiliated Media organization-affiliated Lifelong education facilities for knowledge development and HRD Lifelong Learning Center

Type of lifelong education institutions

Table 13 Number of learners

547,903

633,724

126,862

19,083,102 1,169,182 132,987

758,586

22,454,539 2,193

2009

721,917

768,736

119,007

23,123,612 126,890 169,401

883,196

27,026,042 3,283

2010

743,211

833,343

146,959

24,972,426 1,187,437 178,937

856,432

28,920,780 2,035

2011

903,143

840,451

134,454

13,669,575 1,036,910 186,712

845,860

17,618,495 1,390

2012

1,165,237

869,497

225,355

13,799,283 1,197,333 170,032

833,176

18,260,301 388

2013

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Total

47 22,967 5,007 17,960

51 21,415 7,446 13,969

2000 58 26,415 9,262 17,153

2002 64 29,386 14,702 14,684

2004 74 33,722 14,547 19,175

2006

83 40,217 17,763 22,454

2008

86 43,622 18,820 24,802

2010

83 36,943 16,217 20,726

2012

Source School-style lifelong education facilities are established pursuant to Article 31, Paragraph 2 of the Lifelong Education Act for adult learners who missed the opportunity for primary and secondary school education under the Elementary and Secondary Education Act Adults: Adult learners (21 years old and older) who missed school-age education opportunities; Others: Working youth who left school and formal education due to unavoidable reasons E-National Indicators

Number of facilities Number of students Number of adults Others

1998

Table 14 Current status of school style lifelong education facilities

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lifelong education institutions has decreased. Even though elementary schools are the most easily accessible place for all adults, they are not well utilized as facilities for lifelong education. New lifelong learning institutions are being built instead. Therefore, it is necessary to analyze the reason why primary schools are not being fully used for lifelong education. In particular, despite the fact that there are millions of people who have not graduated from primary and secondary schools nationwide and basic literacy education is still needed, there are still insufficient number of educational facilities available for adults. Therefore, it is worth considering to utilize school facilities of all levels as lifelong education facilities. The academic credit bank system holds significance because it provides university-level education opportunities for high school graduates. However, the problem is that those who need to receive basic education are neglected in this expanded educational opportunity. Compared to millions of people who have not graduated from junior high schools, facilities for adult basic education are seriously lacking. Above all, expanding opportunities for adult basic education is a top priority. Lifelong Learning City Project and Lifelong Learning Promotion Policy. Lifelong Learning City Project is the project that promotes lifelong learning in the most comprehensive manner, therefore the project has received great attention from local governors and residents. Article 15 (Lifelong Learning City) of the Lifelong Education Act stipulates the following provisions: (1) The State may designate and support lifelong learning cities for the city/Gun/Gu to promote lifelong education of local communities. (2) The Nationwide Lifelong Learning City Council may be established for connection and cooperation, and promotion of exchanges of information among lifelong learning cities under Section (1). – In 1999, Gwangmyeong city was declared as the first Lifelong Learning City in Korea. – In 2001, Korean government initiated Lifelong Learning City project, or the LLC Project, at a national level (Gwangmyeong

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city, Gyeonggi province; Yuseong district, Daejeon Metropolitan City; Jinan county, North Jeolla province). – A total of 129 local governments were selected as lifelong learning cities as of 2014. Until 2004, the Lifelong Learning City Project was mainly focused on the designation of a new lifelong learning city and support for excellent programs. However, consulting support for lifelong learning cities, project for the standardization of lifelong learning results, support projects for “one specialized program for one city” and “lifelong learning cities network”, and lifelong learning city construction project have been newly added every year since 2005. Since 2006, as the need for comprehensive management of lifelong learning city development projects has been highlighted, the review and management items for the selection of new lifelong learning cities have been added and have steadily been strengthened (Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, National Institute for Lifelong Education 2010, p. 51). Although the new designation of lifelong learning cities was temporarily suspended for three years from 2008 to 2010, it has been implemented as revised lifelong education project reflecting the local agenda since 2011 (Tables 15 and 16). In a city selected as a LLC, residents are actively participating in lifelong learning activities, but it is necessary to provide policy support to turn them into community-oriented lifelong learning activities. The advent of the era of lifelong learning has accelerated the realization of a lifelong learning focused on the characteristics of individual learners. As a result, community–oriented education has been put on the back burner. Instead, emphasis has been placed only on results of learning at individual level. In the era of globalization, as the importance of human resources development for enhancing national competitiveness has been heightened and policy achievements have become immediately measurable, economic aspect of learning has become more emphasized. Table 15 Current status of lifelong learning cities Year

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2011 2012 2013 2014 Total

Total 3

3

5

8

14

24

19

6

8

28

11

129

Region Total Region Total

Seoul 14 Gangwon 8

Busan 10 Chungbuk 7

Daegu 4 Chungnam 10

Incheon 5 Jeonbuk 8

Table 16 Status of lifelong learning city by region Gwangju 4 Jeonnam 8

Daejeon 4 Gyeongbuk 8

Ulsan 3 Gyeongnam 10

Gyeonggi 24 Jeju 2

Total 129

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Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, National Institute for Lifelong Education, 2013; Reorganized based on the information on the current status of lifelong learning cities by NILE. Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, National Institute for Lifelong Education, 2013; Reorganized based on the information on the current status of lifelong learning cities by NILE. Against this backdrop, the policy focused on individual learner’s capacity building has become mainstream. Meanwhile, as the criticism over possible collapse of community and insufficient social capital was raised, interest in the establishment and restoration of the genuine value of lifelong learning has increased. In this situation, the Lifelong Learning City Project needs to be planned in such a way as to contribute to the expansion of the ecological and social capital of the community in order to improve its residents’ quality of life. Lifelong Learning City Project is often compared with Saemaul education in terms of development of local communities. The Saemaul education in the 1970s had limitations as the “community development project” due to the central government’s forward-mapping approach to policy decision-making. However, it was an actual community education for adults from the perspective of lifelong learning and promoted community development (Table 17). This later raised the necessity for the government-led community education and led to the enactment of the relevant laws. In the initial phase of the Lifelong Learning City project, it was difficult to specialize each learning city because the LLC development project in the 2000s aimed at building regional learning communities. However, it has later been evaluated that the LLC project created a new model of community education by taking forward & backward mapping approach to policy decision-making in which the central government and local governments worked together (Lee Byung-Ho and Choi Eun-Soo 2009). The comparison of the two policies shows that the Saemaul education emphasized the mental aspect of education, and that it is not the various activities of Saemaul education that the developing countries want to benchmark. What they want to learn from Saemaul education is how they could build a unified community by combining the powerful desire and will of community residents through Saemaul education.

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Table 17 Comparison of Saemaul Education and Lifelong Learning City Project Saemaul Education Policy development

Policy decision-making Policy implementation

Lifelong Learning City Project

Backward- and Backward mapping forward-mapping approach to policy approach to policy development: development: Development of Development based on specialized lifelong citizens’ strong desire, education programs in will, and need for the form of a enlightenment and consortium of local education depending on governments, regional economic, social and offices of education, political backgrounds at and universities the time of policy development Forward-mapping approach suggests the central government’s strong commitment to policy decision Backward mapping approach suggests the government’s commitment to the effective implementation of differentiated policies to meet the needs of consumers by city, region, and institution

Source Reorganized based on the information compiled by Lee Byung-Ho and Choi Eun-Soo (2009)

On the other hand, in the case of the LLC project, it is necessary to examine what kind of results were derived from the combination of this powerful resident’s will and policy projects. The difference between the two exists due to the difference in the social context. Saemaul education focused on state formation and development and the LLC policy focused on the national welfare. In order to prepare for future reunification of the two Koreas, it is expected that lifelong education policy that is as strong as the policy of the state formation period will be necessary. Table 18 shows lifelong learning promotion policies that have been implemented in various ways together with the LLC projects to improve the quality of life. With the advent of the era of informatization, the forms of education have significantly changed. The analog teaching materials and teaching methods of the past changed rapidly in the digital age. It became harder for the educational system, which was implemented after research over a certain period of time by the state, to meet the needs of a

Detailed Implementation Plan

Objectives

• To hold lifelong learning festivals • To create lifelong learning villages / cities • To Develop a Korean traditional learning system into a study club movement • To restructure schools as local lifelong learning centers for 5-day workweek

To routinize and localize lifelong learning • To provide support for accredited lifelong education facilities and expand educational opportunities for school-age groups • To promote air and correspondence high school high school as alternative high school • To promote elderly education in preparation for an aging society

To strengthen support for lifelong learning for social integration • To improve academic credit bank system operation • To expand and improve the operation of universities offering distance education • To invigorate lifelong learning facilities related to knowledge and human resources development projects

To expand adult education opportunities to meet the requirements of knowledge-based society

Table 18 Comprehensive plan for the promotion of lifelong learning

• To expand adult vocational education and training opportunities significantly • To promote the establishment of in-house corporate colleges • To nurture technical institutes for human resources development

To organize learning at workplaces to expand vocational education

• To improve the professionalism of the person in charge of lifelong education and expand the number of those professionals • To create a lifelong education program pool • To establish and operate a comprehensive information system for lifelong learning

To lay foundations for lifelong learning

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• To implement lifelong learning campaigns in daily lives • To promote lifelong education for women • To develop national literacy education campaign to cultivate capacity of people • To lay an institutional basis for the promotion of democratic civic education • To implement retireecentered volunteer programs

Source Yang Heung-Kwon (2008, p. 380)

Objectives

To routinize and localize lifelong learning

To strengthen support for lifelong learning for social integration • To prepare for the introduction of individual learning account linked with academic credit bank system

To expand adult education opportunities to meet the requirements of knowledge-based society To organize learning at workplaces to expand vocational education • To establish learning counseling centers • To secure space dedicated to lifelong education and to modernize lifelong learning facilities • To introduce paid/unpaid educational leaves • To increase the number of organizations dedicated to providing support for lifelong learning

To lay foundations for lifelong learning

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rapidly changing education field. In addition, market liberalization called globalization has also intensified the competition for human resource development. In the era when knowledge became capital and the borders of knowledge disappeared, the Republic of Korea experienced a crisis called the International Monetary Fund (IMF) bailout at the end of 1997 amid intense international competition. As a countermeasure at the national level, the Ministry of Education was reorganized into the Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development in January 2001, and “the implementation of an open, lifelong learning society that promotes national human resource development” was determined as the basic direction of the lifelong education policy in 2001. As human resource development has become a core agenda, controversy has arisen over lifelong education. The controversy was about whether developing vocational abilities, cultivating humanity, and forming communities have a competitive or exclusive relationship. These issues are also reflected in the status of lifelong education institutions and programs (Table 19). We cannot ignore the voices of the field that only programs linked to qualifications or jobs trainings can survive. However, it is difficult to Table 19 Participation rate in lifelong education5 by gender and age group unit: % Total

Gender Age group

Total Formal education Non-formal education Male Female 25–34 35–44 45–54 55 and older

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

29.8 5.7

26.4 4.1

28.0 4.3

30.5 3.9

32.4 4.2

35.6 3.5

30.2 3.8

26.4

23.9

25.3

28.2

30.1

33.1

28.0

28.9 30.7 36.3 29.2 26.5 23.9

24.4 28.4 32.7 27.5 21.3 20.8

25.5 30.5 33.1 29.4 23.7 22.4

28.7 32.3 37.3 33.1 25.2 21.2

30.7 34.0 42.7 35.7 26.5 21.0

31.8 39.4 39.3 35.8 34.7 31.5

29.1 31.3 35.9 31.9 26.3 25.4

Source Ministry of Education·Korean Educational Development Institute, Annual Report on Korean Adults’ Lifelong Education

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dismiss the reality, in which humanities are missing so that the Character Education Promotion Act had to be enacted. There is a way to solve this problem, but the feasibility is low. The solution is the integration of work and play, learning and work, and the linkage of home and work, which are difficult to implement because of lack of creativity and imagination. Therefore, basic humanities education should be the core of lifelong education to change our understanding and social climate. What matters is what value is learned through lifelong education rather than just raising the participation rate in lifelong learning.

4.5

Achievement and Challenges of Lifelong Education

Conflicts and dilemmas between individual and community life have increasingly surfaced due to the challenges of the informatization era. First, the transition from the age of lifelong education to the age of lifelong learning has raised the issue of “learner-centered”, and sharp controversy has emerged over the meaning of the “learner-centered” and to what extent the concept of the learner-centered principle should be applied. Among the various discussions on the concept of lifelong learning, the interpretation and application of the concept of “learnercentered” have the most important implications for education. The “learner-centered” educational philosophy is an attempt to reconstruct the philosophical foundation of modern education system. This is to separate the “learning” from the “education” centered thinking that has been taken for granted in educational debates so far, and try to understand the phenomenon of learner-centered learning and teaching as an independent subject for study. This learner-centered viewpoint originates from the perception that the demand for learning should precede teaching, and free education is the most fundamental condition for the existence of human beings, (Kim Shin-Il 1999). The ideology and true nature of lifelong education are identified based on learnercentered “learning”, and the policy that supports it dramatically changes our values and lifestyles. According to learning-centered theory, the transition from education to learning is a necessary step in history,

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and it is a necessary revolutionary transition in terms of the development of pedagogy that tracks such historical development. Discussion on “learning-centered principle” (Kim Shin-Il 1995) suggests why lifelong learning-centered perception change is important in the existing school-centered and teacher-centered pedagogy. According to Kim Shin-Il, the educational revolution will transform the subject of education from educators to learners as the religious revolution transformed the subject of faith from clergies to laymen, and the political revolution transformed the subject of politics from noblemen to commoners. In other words, the learning revolution is a systemic and ideological change that transfers the ultimate decision-making power from educators or the state to learners. Learner-centered principle has revealed the fact that human learning should not be school-led, especially education-led, and that non-formal learning outside the school plays a very significant role in human behavior change. Nevertheless, since the learning-oriented principle is focused on individual learners, it is necessary to address the problems that are expected from the viewpoint of national or community formation. It is pointed out that the lack of character, care and respect, which is the problem in Korean society today, is caused due to the absence of education in homes, schools, and communities. The establishment of lifelong education policies for building educational environment and system needs to be considered and discussed in the context of the balance of power in learning. In lifelong learning, the perspective of “subjective learner” is highlighted. However, it should be noted that the term “subjective”, which means the learner as a subjective actor, does not mean “isolated individual”. Learning activities are not individually carried out at isolated places but by interaction with the learning environment in the lifeworld. Learning activity is not a personal activity but a collective and communal activity that is formed in a personal relationship, and the viewpoint of learning ecosystem is becoming common. If we look deeper into learning activities, we can see that the motivation, purpose, content, and method of learning can be seen as the result and process of collective interaction. In the postmodern context where the grand narratives are denied, the

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absolute standard of value judgment has disappeared. As a result, everything has become dependent on subjectivity, and the subjectivity and practicality of learning began to be emphasized. This points to the importance of community in learning, especially in the case of adult learners who are more closely related to the lifeworld and society. Community in which learners are involved in adult learning is an important factor determining their learning and life. As long as humans live in a community as social beings, the universal collectivity of communities has an important meaning. In the era of life-threatening and environmental crises, the common awareness of social problems and the joint efforts to solve them are urgently required from communities to the whole human community sharing the ecosystem. The concept of “learning community” was born based on learner-centered logic, importance of learning and community, and building a learning community is recognized as the ultimate goal of lifelong learning. This perspective is linked to the viewpoint that emphasizes the practical movement for the Fourth Wave of “We Are One” because it seeks the relationship between individuals as social beings and society. Since the late 1990s, as the serious environmental and life-threatening crises have emerged, the life movement, which has been spreading through global movements, has provided concrete evidence of educational practice. It is expected that further research will be conducted and practical attention will be paid to this area in lifelong education. Second, as a new task for lifelong education in the information age, challenges and conflicts related to the institutionalization and devaluation of lifelong education have significantly increased. As institutionalization of lifelong education has been promoted, there have been growing voices calling for self-reflection in the academic community. What is commonly pointed out in these discussions is that the nature of lifelong education has been changed toward strengthening economic development-oriented human development in the process of institutionalization of lifelong education in Korea, not the originally intended ideology of humanistic learning society, which ultimately leads to the distortion of educational ideology of lifelong learning. In the age of knowledge-based society, the importance of education has increased and the wave of neoliberalism triggered debates about the

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nature of lifelong education. There are many critical studies on lifelong education policy and system in the Republic of Korea centered on human resources development at an individual or national level whether it can meet the objectives of lifelong education for “improving the quality of human life and developing community” (Son Soon-Jong 2000; Kwak Sam-Geun 2001; Park Sung-Jeong 2001; Lee Hee-Su 2001; Han SoongHee 2003). The studies pointing out the conflict between the logic of community development and the economic logic of human resource development refer to the situation where priority of lifelong education is reversed. The studies argue that it is necessary to reflect on the situation in which various social problems are caused by the collapse of community, although human resource development has made achievements to a certain extent. In addition, learning-centered individualistic lifelong education emphasized the survival of individuals based on their abilities, so there is a possibility that social inequality could be deepened due to such nature. It has been criticized that emphasizing individualism as a universal value led to the perception that individuals’ failure in daily life or occupational life is ultimately the responsibility of individuals, thereby diluting political responsibility. Faced with these criticisms and problems, various conflicts have arisen in the actual field of lifelong education today, therefore, seeking policy alternatives to mitigate them has remained a challenge. Third, in order for the Republic of Korea to join the rank of advanced countries, it is necessary to achieve economic development and to have citizens’ cultural competency befitting the economic development. Therefore, it is necessary to discuss how this task has been achieved in lifelong education and how it should be developed in the future. In the twenty-first-century civil society, the level of a country or a region is measured by its cultural capacity. Now political decisions are made by citizens’ participation rather than the government’s one-sided approach, so the citizen’s cultural capacity becomes more important. Therefore, it is one of the most important virtues in a rational and well-functioning society to help citizens to have proper cultural competence. The process of producing, distributing, and consuming cultural products in a society has a certain and systematic relationship. This is

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closely related to the formation of individual’s cultural capital, and the level of individual’s cultural life depends on the level of system in which culture can be enjoyed. Cultural enjoyment is a factor determining the quality of life and the ability that can be measured by how well one can enjoy and feel the cultural environment and characteristics. Therefore, devising a system for the enjoyment of culture is emerging as a key role of lifelong learning. The cultural competency of citizens in the field of lifelong education should be analyzed from the viewpoint of living culture, art culture and social culture, and specific policy to cultivate the citizens’ cultural competency should be formulated. Finally, the Ministry of Education proposed the following policy tasks to be pursued by the government, which should be carried out with the continued interest and willingness (Ministry of Education, National Institute for Lifelong Education 2013). (1) to prepare a master plan for building learning society; (2) to build a strong network for national lifelong learning system; (3) to solidify a basis for an organization assuming full responsibility for lifelong learning; (4) to reform a school system from a perspective of lifelong learning; (5) to form a partnership among local lifelong learning entities; (6) to increase the number of learning cities and to enhance their qualities; (7) to activate local lifelong learning by utilizing after-school programs; (8) to expand participation of colleges and universities in adult education; (9) to strengthen a collaboration among various education-welfare support systems, and (10) to provide lifelong education to the so-called disadvantaged including women and the old. Among these ten policy tasks, the lifelong learning city project and the university’s participation in the higher and adult education are considered to be most influential in lifelong learning policy. Therefore, these two policies should be planned and promoted in the framework of community development and higher education reform. Changwon city established the Changwon Social Education Center in 1994, and Gwangmyeong city declared itself a lifelong learning city in 1999. The lifelong learning city project started in earnest from 2001. The government implemented the LLC project to establish local learning communities that jointly utilize the human and physical resources of

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local governments and regional education offices and to build infrastructures for lifelong learning to improve the quality of education services by expanding lifelong learning opportunities for local residents. The LLC project is evaluated as a successful lifelong education policy, which is attributable to the harmonization of forward-mapping approach of local governments and backward mapping approach of the central government. The local governments played a leading role in the implementation of the LLC project, implemented differentiated programs, and demonstrated a strong commitment to the successful implementation of the project. The central government developed and implemented policies, deployed professional personnel, and provided administrative and fiscal support. Universities’ lifelong education policies, which started as lifelong education centers in universities, have evolved with the creation of lifelong learning-centered universities, and the realization of lifelong education centered on universities. This trend shows that the universities should actively accommodate adult learners’ participation in any form. However, since higher education members’ traditional perception of universities is still dominant, it is necessary to change their perception. In the information age and the aged society, higher education institutions will exist in a form very different from traditional universities, and it is necessary to prepare measures against them.

5

Conclusion

The lifelong education policy in the Republic of Korea has evolved in response to various social situations facing the Korean society. Social education policy for the improvement of literacy and quality of life in the state formation period, community development and Saemaul education movement in the industrialization period, promotion of human resources development policy, introduction of academic credit bank system, and implementation of lifelong learning city projects were necessary measure to improve people’s quality of life and have led to the emergence of lifelong learning society. In this process, the national interest and demand for lifelong education have increased rapidly, and the paradigm of education has shifted. Due to the rapid expansion of

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knowledge and the extension of life expectancy, people can no longer live the whole life with what they learned in college. In light of the development of Korea’s social education, lifelong education will gradually change from education that supplements or complements school education to education that goes beyond school education, and such phenomena have already occurred in the fields of humanities and science and technology. Since lifelong education will be more closely related to work and life in the future, lifelong education policy should be decided at the intergovernmental level. Issues that have emerged as the biggest social concerns in Korean society in recent years are social conflicts, climate change, the gap between the rich and the poor, youth unemployment, violence and the absence of character. When crisis occurs in a society, it is hard to know how and who will be responsible for the crisis, and subjective competence has become unclear. Educational measures to solve these problems are not clear, and there is little possibility of solving these problems. These results are not irrelevant to the social culture, social policy, and educational practice that have fostered these human beings. Faced with the demand of the times, it is necessary to seek ways to expand social capital in the field of lifelong education. In order to increase national competitiveness in the path toward unified Korea and developed country, it is necessary to establish and implement policies that are comparable to those of the state formation period. However, interest in the formation and development of a state is pushed to the backburner due to the interest in people’s welfare. Moreover, there is also lack of awareness of accountability and measures against aging, low fertility, life-threatening crises, and sustainability. The lifelong education in Korea has evolved from lifelong education for the state formation to lifelong education for national well-being. In recent years, interest in the grand narratives at the national and social level is very low, since welfare centered on individual needs has become a main trend. While neighboring countries are investing boldly in order to establish their own history and identity, in Korea, education contents related to the establishment of values and identity are insufficient in the lifelong education for the people. The recently opened National

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Museum of Korean Contemporary History is a place where people can experience modern and contemporary history of Korea. The museum features separate exhibition halls covering each period, so visitors can explore modern and contemporary Korean history by exploring various themes and topics. The Republic of Korea, located between the great powers, suffered trials and tribulations from the 1870s. After losing its sovereignty, Korea went through the dark period of Japanese colonial rule followed by the liberation, the tragedy of the division between South and North Korea, the Korean War, industrialization, and democratization. The place like National Museum of Korean Contemporary History is a very important place for lifelong education that gives people the opportunity for “self-reflection and reflection”. The economic growth and industrialization of the Republic of Korea, which is so-called the Miracle on the Han River, was realized by the efforts of individual citizens, but above all, there was a national consensus that made it possible. Literacy education and lifelong education for the improvement of life played a strong role in this process, which was attributable to strong policy leadership. The Republic of Korea was able to achieve the Miracle on the Han River because of the political leadership that promoted industrialization based on economic development plans and the unity of people achieved through education on national consciousness. The future direction of the Republic of Korea can be discussed only when we look back on past history. At the national level, what is most important at this juncture is to improve the quality of life through the enhancement of national unity and citizen consciousness, and to demonstrate political leadership to this end. Ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle argued that political science, ethics, and pedagogy should be discussed and planned along the same line. Today, the necessity is raised again following the implementation of lifelong learning city policy. Politicians and heads of local governments should plan for all citizens to have the best learning experience and create an environment where they can translate their learning into practice. Policy for lifelong education should be planned in a way that system, legal system, and education are linked well so that citizens’ self-directed learning, the main feature of modern society, can be realized. The followings are the future policy tasks for research

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and implementation of lifelong education in Korean society. First, in the contemporary society represented by the age of uncertainty, the risk society, the consumer society, and the fatigue society, there has been little reflection on what the problems of adult life are and how to lead lives in Korea. Adult learning, which has been regarded as one-time event held at the community level, has not been treated seriously as an academic discussion. The recent emergence of socially important issues in the field of research in lifelong education indicates that our lives are becoming more complex. Especially in Korean society, where people think the purpose of studying is to pass college entrance exams or to find jobs, the fact that adults have to learn to develop their own competence has received little attention. In the Program for International Student Assessment (PISA), an international assessment of educational attainment of high school freshmen, Korean students are ranked second or third in the world. However, in the Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC), which assesses the basic competencies of adults, the Republic of Korea ranked in the bottom among the OECD countries, which indicates that adult learning is not working properly in Korea. Usually, in Korea, young people spend a lot of time on studying, but adults spend little time on learning and reading, which is also a concern in the same context. Instead of pursuing only material abundance and neglecting learning, policy measures should be established and implemented to promote adult learning. Second, from the perspective of social integration, it is necessary to establish and discuss the basic values of lifelong learning promotion policies including lifelong learning city projects in terms of the relationship between education and welfare. In particular, it is necessary to understand the scope and concepts of education and welfare at the social level, to agree on priorities in policy formulation, to set policy direction and value, and to discuss the suitability of policy implementation. It is necessary to identify the role of lifelong education and explore the educational welfare models and principles that incorporate the perspectives of lifelong education in a situation where linkage between socioeconomic vulnerability and educational vulnerability is strengthening.

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The co-participation model incorporating educational perspectives that goes beyond the existing deficit, affirmative, and additive models is presented as an educational welfare model (Kim Kyung-Ae 2012). The co-participation model is presented as a system for mutual learning while encouraging the sense of community through the participation of people from different backgrounds. Poverty-driven social exclusion arisen from “lack of income” and “lack of economic resources”, generational conflict-driven social exclusion arisen in the process of transitioning to an aged society, and ideological conflicts are key factors that hinder social integration in Korean society. However, the basic philosophy behind the national policy in response to these problems is ‘minimalism’, and the education program for social integration is mainly focused on vocational training or poverty reduction through job creation or human resources development. However, it is pointed out that this cannot prevent poverty-driven, or generational or ideological conflict-driven social exclusion. In order to overcome such limitations, it is necessary to change the perspective from “guaranteeing the minimum level of education to the people” to “guaranteeing the optimal level of education” and to renew the perception on “social value of labor and human labor in non-market economy”, which are the issues that need to be discussed in terms of balance between welfare and education. Third, it is required to demonstrate policy leadership to support the formation of sustainable ecological community culture. Future-oriented lifelong education planning that enhances sustainability of individuals, families, communities, and society is needed. In the face of the global environmental crisis, interest in life and environment has emerged, and the environment has become one of the most important issues in all areas in the twenty-first-century world. Since the late 1990s, there has been a heightened interest in the environment, and various programs have been actively offered by environmental organizations. Based on the dignity of life, the basic goal of lifelong education should be newly set up to ensure that humans play a key role in maintaining the balance and order of the ecosystem. Ecology began in the West in the late 1970s, and research on this area began in recent years in Korea, along with ecological ethics, ecological philosophy, bio-politics, and ecological education. However, as pointed out earlier, ecological studies are limited to theoretical studies,

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and, in reality, there are few educational activities centered on ecology or environment by lifelong education institutions. It is pointed out that educational policy should actively reflect the challenges of the sustainable development. Therefore, it should also be emphasized as a major future task in lifelong education policy and its implementation. In Western Europe, which emphasizes the importance of community, people are well educated about community life since childhood. In Korea, however, it is pointed out that little attention is paid to community education because Korean society is family-centered. In a family-centered society like Korea, top priority should have been placed on home education. However, character education has not been implemented properly because such tradition has collapsed. All education laws are focused on school education, and the Lifelong Education Act does not refer to home education. It is observed that education about community life is virtually non-existent. The Confucian tradition places an emphasis on the intimacy between parents and children. However, the lack of intimacy between parents and children in today’s increasingly disorganized families is directly linked to the social problem of destruction of character. The Chinese character 親 (chin) means “close”, “love”, “parents”, and so on, and it is the combination of three Chinese characters meaning wood (木), stand (立), and see (見). Therefore, it means taking care of (見) the tree (木) growing up (立). Also, the last letter 見 (see) is the combination of 目 (eye) and 唺 (person). In short, the Chinese character 親 (chin) means a person takes care of budding tree with his/her eyes wide open like parents protecting their young children (Kim Kyung-Soo 2012). Professor Jung In-Jae of Sogang University said that the greatest strength of humanity in Korean society lay in the emphasis on the intimacy between parents and their children. If the intimacy is lacking in a parent–child relationship in one’s childhood, it will have a negative impact on his or her entire life, which is difficult to be recovered. However, it is a serious problem that the national education policy does not pay due attention to it. Considering that making the biggest investment in childhood education is necessary for national development and civic education, it is required to focus on lifelong education to provide

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“opportunities for children to be fully loved” during this period and establish a policy to support it. Korea’s lifelong education in the state formation period contributed to national reconstruction through literacy education and awareness reform for the people by implementing programs for eradicating illiteracy and improving life. Also, during the informatization period, the lifelong education played a key role in enhancing the welfare of the people by reflecting individuals’ rights to and demands for learning. Lifelong education originally originated from life-oriented social education which had nothing to do with school education. Since modern times, it has evolved from the education supplementing school education to the extended school education. However, now the lifelong education is required to be established as a modern life-centered social education that goes beyond school education. In this period, politics is transformed into life-centered politics, and education is replaced with on-site education training throughout each stage of lifecycle. Due to the emergence and demand of diverse interest groups, policy interest has gradually been shifted from the lifelong education policy and its implementation related to state formation and development to the civil welfare-oriented policy. However, the Republic of Korea is faced not only with external challenges such as struggle for supremacy among neighboring countries, but also with new social challenges such as transition into multicultural and aged society, and low fertility rates. Moreover, it is required to prepare a new blueprint for lifelong education comparable to that of the state formation period in preparation for unexpected sudden change such as the reunification of the two Koreas. Among the various lifelong education tasks for “improving the quality of life of people and developing local communities”, it is necessary to establish a lifelong education policy that can meet educational needs for social contribution as well as educational needs for individuals’ self-realization. Particularly, it is required to establish lifelong education policy for social capital formation and strengthening communities by cultivating civic consciousness such as consideration and respect for others.

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Notes 1. The era of lifelong education is named in accordance with the current law of the Republic of Korea. It is divided into the era of social education before the revision of the Lifelong Education Act in 1999, and the era of lifelong education after the revision. Of course, lifelong education already began with the UNESCO Declaration in 1972, and a broader concept of lifelong education has been widely used in the literature of the 1980s in Korea. The era of lifelong education is divided into before and after the revision of the Lifelong Education Act to help understand readers since the term “social education” has continuously been used in academic community and research papers and journals were written under the title of “social education”. 2. Since 1992, OECD has recommended learning city projects around the world as a regional innovation project that enables the social integration as well as economic development of a community by improving conditions for learning in cities and guaranteeing every citizen’s right to learning. It is a comprehensive urban restructuring movement that aims to improve the quality of life of the individuals and to build a learning community to strengthen the competitiveness of the entire city. In addition, it is a community education campaign of the local residents, for the local residents, and by the local residents who want to build a network learning community by linking all the educational resources of the community with institutions, communities, and the state. Since 2001, the Ministry of Education has carried out a Lifelong Learning City Project. A total of 33 cities were selected as lifelong learning cities by 2005, and 24 cities were additionally selected in 2006. In 2009, 76 cities across the country were selected as lifelong learning cities (The Academy of Korean Studies, Encyclopedia of Korean Local Culture). 3. The illiteracy rates in the early republic period announced by each organization varies as follows: 22.1% (Central Education Research Institute 1959), 27.9% (Economic Planning Board 1960). 4. This film is about a philanthropist who donates his money to a school built with the taxpayers’ money for building facilities for people

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so that they can learn what they want to learn, thereby ultimately turning the community into the place where the residents have a strong sense of community and teach and learn from each other. 5. The lifelong education participation rate is the percentage of people aged between 25 and 64 who participated in lifelong education. Lifelong education is classified into formal and non-formal education. Formal education refers to the curriculum included in the national education system, and systematic school education implemented in schools, which leads to earning diploma or degree. These include Korea National Open University, academic credit bank system, and general equivalency diploma (GED). Non-formal education refers to structured learning activities that take place outside of school education. It refers to education that does not offer “accreditation / diploma” programs, although it offers planned, systematic and organized curriculum in the same way as formal education. Non-formal education includes workplace education, lessons offered by private institutes, programs offered by community centers or department store-affiliated cultural centers, agricultural education, TV lectures, online lectures, study clubs, and private tutoring.

References Ahn Jae-Kook (1977), A Study on the Guidance of Rural Youths in Korea: 4-H Club Members, 建農學報 Vol. 8(1), pp. 67–81. Graduate School of Social Education, Myongji University (1994), Encyclopedia of Social Education in Korea, Jungminsa. Han Joon-Sang (2003), The Status and Direction of Korean Lifelong Education: Correlation Between OECD and UNESCO’s Lifelong Education Theories, Lifelong Learning Society Policy Forum Organized by Korean National Commission for UNESCO, pp. 21–57. Han Soong-Hee (2003), Is it in the Domain of a Market or Public Sector?: Core Issues Concerning Lifelong Education Policy of the Participatory Government, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 9(III), pp. 1–26. Hwang Jong-Gun (1978), Social Education in Korea, Kyoyookbook.

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Hyun Yu-Kyung (1995), A Study on Marketing Strategy of Cultural Centers Run by Department Stores, Master’s Thesis Seogang University. Jung Ji-Woong, and Kim Ji-Ja (1992), Introduction to Social Education Rev., Seoul National University Press. Jung Yeon-Sook, and Park Sang-Ok (2014), An Analysis for Development of a Civic Education conducted by the Marine Corps in the 1950’s, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 20(IV), pp. 55–79. Kang Dae-Jung (2009), Problematizing Lifelong Education Act and Exploring Alternatives, Lifelong Learning Society Vol. 5(2), pp. 1–20. Kim Kyung-Ae (2012), The Model and Principles for Educational Welfare, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 18(IV), pp. 207–237. Kim Kyung-Soo (2012), 100 Chinese Characters and Culture, Institute of Traditional Culture. Kim Shin-Il (1993a), Development of Social Education in Korea and Issues Related to Rights to Learning, Social Education Research Vol. 18, Korea Association for Community Education. Kim Shin-Il (1993b), Korean Journal of Sociology of Education, Kyoyookbook. Kim Shin-Il (1995), Concept of Learning Rights and New Research Topic of Pedagogy, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 1(I), pp. 19–32. Kim Shin-Il (1999), Formation and Development of Learning Rights Theory, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 5(1), pp. 1–16. Korea Management Association (1988), Strategies for Human Resource Development for Korean Companies for the 21st Century, Korea Management Association. Korean Educational Development Institute (1990), The Status of Literacy in Korea and Literacy Education, Korean Educational Development Institute Research Report (RR 90-14). Korean Educational Development Institute (1993), Past, Present and Future of Social Education in Korea, Korean Educational Development Institute. Korean National Commission for UNESCO, Saemaul Movement Research Institute of Seoul National University, UNESCO Asia-Pacific Regional Education Office (1982), Theory and Practice of Saemaul Education—Report on Multidisciplinary Seminar on Saemaul Education. Ko Young-Sang (2010), The Changes of Lifelong Education Legislation in Korea and the Related Issues, Journal of Lifelong Education and HRD Vol. 6(3), pp. 1–27. Kwak Sam-Geun (2001), A Study on the Ideology and Direction of Korean Lifelong Education Institutions, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 7 (II), pp. 1–23.

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Kwak Sam-Geun, Kim Jae-In, Choi Eun-Sil, and Kim Kyung-Hee (2000), Analysis of Gender Gap in Lifelong Education Opportunity in Lifelong Learning Society, Educational Policy Studies 00-07 , Ministry of Education. Kwak Sam-Geun, Park Hyun-Ok, and Kim Hyun-Ju (2014), The Research Trends in the Publications on University-Based Lifelong Education-Based on Theses and Dissertations Published in Korea from 1982 to 2012, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 20(I), pp. 63–92. Kwon Dae-Bong (2001), Industrial Education, Moonumsa. Lee Byung-Ho (2010), A Study on the Analysis of the Trends of Policy Process of Lifelong Education in Korea—With Special Reference to Saemaul Education and Lifelong Learning City Policy, Doctoral Thesis Soongshil University. Lee Byung-Ho, and Choi Eun-Soo (2009), A Study on the Analysis of the Trends of Policy Process of Lifelong Education in Korea—With Special reference to the Lifelong Education Policy for Community Development, Journal of Lifelong Education and HRD Vol. 5(III), pp. 221–246. Lee Hee-Su (2001), Exploring the Meaning of the Transformation from Learning Society to Learning Economy, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 7(I), pp. 211–237. Lee Jung-Pyo (2005), The Results and Tasks of Military Human Resource Development, Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education & Training. Lee Ok-Bun (1998), The History of Social Education in Korea, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 4(I), Seoul National University, Education Research Institute. Ministry of Education (1997), White Paper on Lifelong Education, Ministry of Education. Ministry of Education, National Institute for Lifelong Education (2013), 2013 White Paper on Lifelong Education, National Institute for Lifelong Education. Ministry of Education, Science and Technology, National Institute for Lifelong Education (2010), 2010 White Paper on Lifelong Education, National Institute for Lifelong Education. Nam Jeong-Gul (1987), Social Education Administration, Kyoyookbook. National Institute for Lifelong Education (2011), Report on the Results of Implementation of Lifelong Learning City Development Project, National Institute for Lifelong Education. Oh Hyuk-Jin, and Huh Jun (2011), A Study on the Meaning of National Literacy Campaign in the 1950s in the Perspective of History of Social Education, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 17(IV), pp. 265–291.

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Oh Hyuk-Jin, and Kim Mi-Hyang (2010), A Study on the Trend and Outcome of the Historical Study of Adult Education in Korea, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 16(4), pp. 191–221. Park Gil-Soo, Shin Deok-Sang, and Lee Hee-Su (2010), A Study of Military HRD Based on Self-Directedness, Journal of Lifelong Education and HRD Vol. 6(II), pp. 141–164. Park Sung-Jung (2001), Human Resource Development System from the Perspective of Lifelong Education, Journal of Lifelong Education Vol. 7(II), pp. 159–175. Sohn Soon-Jong (2000), Significance and Limitations of Lifelong Learning, Journal of Educational Research Vol. 38(1), pp. 289–308. White Paper on Women’s Issue (1997). Yang Heun-Kwon (2008), A Study of the Changes of Lifelong Learning Policy in Korea, Proceedings of the Korean Association for Governance Conference.

Epilogue

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Retrospect

The fact that Korea’s sovereignty has been restored does not simply mean that the state has recovered its autonomy. This signifies that the country regained its rights to self-determination and independence for a way of life in relation to its society and culture, including the right to educate its people using its own language and letters. Thousands of years of cultural traditions were not completely eradicated or obliterated during the 36 years of Japanese occupation, nor were they naturally restored in its entirety after the Liberation. Traditions were already deeply and widely destroyed, and the lives of the Korean people resumed in a state in which significant change had occurred due to the global environment and conditions facing Korea. Hence, the recovery of sovereignty did not indicate that the nation had returned to the situation it was in before the Japanese colonial period. It represented the foundation of a new country, and the “democratic republic” was the “Republic of Korea” as stipulated in the Constitution. Yet, a declaration of a democratic republic by the national law through national choice does not mean the establishment of a full-fledged nation. Institutional system can be forged through political process, yet the © The Academy of Korean Studies 2022 D-H. Lee et al., Education in South Korea, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5229-5_6

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national capacity to form, protect, and operate that system should be cultivated through the power of education. First, the vestiges of Japanese colonial period had to be removed, people had to overcome the ignorance and evil practices that remained in their lives and consciousness, and education had to be carried out to understand and practice the basic rules regarding the way of democratic life. Moreover, talents that can lead the country have to be fostered systematically and the general capacity of the citizens has to be nurtured at the same time. In fact, during the state formation period, a basic institutional system was set up to implement the education of a democratic state centered around primary and secondary schools, and efforts were made to learn the ways and norms of a democratic life. Efforts were exerted to establish a modern system by educational leaders who led the New Education Movement with the influence of the U.S. Military Government. The principle of equality was set as a national goal to offer equal opportunities to all youth to receive education according to their abilities. Considerable progress was made in basic institutional conditions, such as the establishment of basic school system, introduction of educational autonomy, implementation of compulsory primary education, eradication of illiteracy, and establishment of comprehensive universities. However, the level of living standards was that of a typical underdeveloped nation with high illiteracy and very few intellectuals, and financial as well as physical conditions were in the state of absolute poverty. Furthermore, the Korean War that broke out in 1950 almost completely destroyed what little basic structure the country had institutionally and physically. But “Korean people’s education fervor” as demonstrated by teaching their children in remote rural areas and in street tents, especially during the war, is a noteworthy phenomenon. Although Korea was founded as a democratic republic, its divided territory and hostile confrontation that resulted in a fratricidal war between the two Koreas has hindered the development as a democratic state even today. Rhee Syng-Man, the first president of the Republic of Korea, and his government demonstrated leadership in protecting the democratic republic from North Korea’s communist forces with the support of allies, including the UN and the U.S.

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However, the system was overthrown during the April 19 Revolution, led by university students who represented the intellectuals in 1960, due to the Rhee Syng-Man government’s long-term dictatorship and corruption. It is ironic that the political authorities of a nation that claimed to be a democratic state collapsed because of dictatorship and corruption. Although the dictator failed to hold onto his power, the failure itself is a proof of the significant achievement of democratic education carried out under that system. It indicates that the protective function of national education played its role to a certain extent. In addition, the May 16 coup of 1961 in the midst of continued social chaos after the April 19 Revolution led the Republic of Korea that advocated liberal democracy into a time of new turmoil and trials. The military regime set its governing goals to justify its dominating power. Those goals were the modernization of the state, the establishment of liberal democracy and anti-communism, and the realization of an autonomous nation with cultural identity. “Modernization” proclaimed by early military government under President Park Chung-Hee implied “industrialization” aiming at overcoming poverty through economic growth, and education was recognized as a crucial means for economic advancement. For education, the government implemented policies to reform autonomous institutions, standardize secondary schools, improve universities, and reform other inadequate systems. At the same time, it emphasized and concentrated on supporting science and technology education related to productivity. Furthermore, the regime attempted to create an atmosphere where unity was emphasized for the efficiency of economic development, in conjunction with the Saemaul Movement implemented for reforming consciousness, and supported projects that promoted social education outside schools. Together with the economic growth achieved during this period, the education sector was mobilized to enhance the productive efficiency, which demonstrated significant results of national education from the perspective of social investment. Policy interest shifted from primary education to secondary and technical education. In other words, the state aims at improving the efficiency of national development, along with eradication of poverty and economic growth by educating its citizens.

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Moreover, there were policy efforts to establish a national value for social integration with the enactment of the Charter of National Education. However, it is true that education for encouraging diversity and openness of national consciousness and development of civic autonomy and critical thinking significantly diminished due to the system strictly enforced by the government. The democracy the military government aspired to establish was a passive meaning of anti-communist state (反共國家) and not of the active definition with the nature of procedural democracy. Instead, the government went as far as to justify its authoritarian goals in the name of Yushin System (維新體制, Revitalizing Reforms System). By the end of the military regime in the 1980s, the then President Chun Doo-Hwan planned the “July 30 Educational Reform” to soften the rigid political atmosphere to some extent and focused on developing policies to strengthen education. In particular, in accordance with the global trend of spreading the concepts of lifelong education and special education, relevant laws and projects were promoted. However, even these policy efforts were executed under the “Special Committee for National Security Measures” and other government-controlled organizations rather than relying on the spontaneity or creativity of the educational field. Also, the anti-communism education, independence education, morality education, and Saemaul education pursued as part of the awareness reform since the early military government were integrated under the name of “national moral education” for consistent continuation. Yet, the practical programs were implemented by government-led infusion and guidance and were unsuitable to educate people about democratic awareness and actions. Furthermore, polarization between the rich and the poor occurred in the process of economic growth led by the military regime and the realization of the basic values of freedom and equality—the goal of a democratic state—was deferred with “physical power”. As a result, a “secret” force of resistance emerged and conflict began to take took. The period from the early 1960s to the late 1980s was a time of transition from the military regime to the civil authority that launched in 1993. The Roh Tae-Woo government was not completely free of the military government characteristics although it was established

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through direct election. However, the Roh government initiated efforts to adjust and complement the rigid policies by operating the “Presidential Commission on Education”. This included the establishment of a special accounting policy to improve the educational environment, introduction of plans for special-purpose high schools in order to alter the high school standardization system, and improvement of vocational education system and university selection system. These supplementary efforts can be evaluated as preliminary changes that created significant conditions so that the succeeding “civilian government” of the Kim Young-Sam government could attempt a series of educational reform measures. The “Education Reform Commission” created in 1994 by President Kim Young-Sam announced the so-called “May 31 Education Reform” measures four times during his presidency. They were very comprehensive and innovative that the OECD’s educational evaluation team at the time called it “a bold and extensive educational reform”, and the whole world took interested in its success. These reforms were not only inherited by the following Kim Dae-Jung government, but were also partially adjusted by the Roh Moo-Hyun government and later utilized as the basis of educational reform for Presidents Lee Myung-Bak and Park Geun-Hye. At the turn of the century, the period was characterized by informatization and globalization. The Presidential Commission on Education Reform presented a reform measure aiming for “open education system” and “demand-centered education” to adapt to a swiftly changing world in a “great transformational period of civilization” towed by democratization, globalization, and informatization. The first step to implement the reform measures was to divide and expand the research support projects the Korean Educational Development Institute was in charge of. The government strengthened its research-related assistance for educational reform by newly launching an Educational Broadcasting Station, the Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation, the Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education and Training, and an educational multimedia center (that is now the Korean Education Research Information Service).

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Some of the important advancements accomplished with the help of these agencies include the enactment of the Framework Act on Education which is the amended Education Law, the establishment of a support system for lifelong education and informatization, the revision of curriculum and improvement of university selection system, diversification of high schools, and the introduction of a school steering committee and a normative system for founding universities. During the Kim Dae-Jung government, as an extension of the reform policy, the “7th curriculum” was implemented, independent private schools were permitted experimentally, direct election system was put into place for superintendents, the “Korean Teachers and Educational Workers’ Union (KTU)” was legalized, free compulsory education was extended to middle school, and the “Brain Korea 21” program which supported universities to prepare for a knowledge-based society was executed. The Roh Moo-Hyun government introduced innovative schools and revised the Private School Act; the Lee Myung-Bak government established meister schools and autonomous high schools and created a competitive structure based on university accreditation. Many changes continued to occur in the education sector after the “May 31 Education Reform” for about 20 years. Evaluation systems for universities and other educational institutions were implemented, and at the same time, facilities for information education were expanded swiftly at all school levels, and the local communities and parents participated actively in school education. In addition, Korean society started to rush toward a highly educated society with more opportunities for its people to receive tertiary education. Open operation systems of the universities were linked with lifelong education, and the inflow of foreign students increased rapidly in the 2010s. With the efforts to establish an open education system since the civilian government, it is true that the autonomy and diversity of each sector increased significantly within this flow. However, the change was not as great as to say that it achieved a complete transition to an education consumers-centered system. The progress of the education reform programs until then was a result of strong bureaucratic driving force rather than an outcome of voluntary efforts from the educational field and the education consumers. The

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structural complexity of the reform task and the expectation of quick results called upon the leadership of efficient bureaucracy. The various resistive desires and forces that had shriveled in this atmosphere were in a dormant state. However, several forms of conflict structure, including activities by the legitimized KTU, grew in the midst of education reform during the late Kim Dae-Jung government (“People’s Government”), the Roh Moo-Hyun government (“Participatory Government”), and onwards. In particular, it brought about a fierce confrontational structure between the conservative and progressive political powers. Around 2010, interests in policies regarding educational welfare—university tuition reduction, free pre-school education, support for school lunch—were grown, which led to the exposure of political conflict between the conservatives who prioritized efficiency and liberals who emphasized equality. Furthermore, the competitiveness between the two parties became obvious due to ideological disputes over the nature of national education, including Korean history education; legitimacy of the KTU; initiative over educational autonomy and control over education onsite. And this is where the problem related to the principle of political neutrality of education arose. The issue of political neutrality in relation to education is not restricted to a de-political state, institutional political parties, and other official political forces are not involved, as seen in the election of superintendent, the head of educational autonomy. The political powers show conflict even with the interpretation of the constitutional doctrine to exercise the ideological initiative which can determine the direction of national education. To maintain political neutrality, the differing political parties should share their understanding of the comprehensive value system expressed as “democratic republic” or “liberal and democratic basic order”; the values and lines allowed accordingly should comply with the democratic procedure and fundamental rules in the process of political adjustment; the modified policies or systems should be fully protected by the state’s authority. Korean society today experiences conflicts and confrontations between ideological lines. The root of differing forces is a legacy of the Cold War era, but it is not the only explanation. Although the developmental dictatorship that aspired to eradicate poverty and bring about

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abundance achieved outstanding results in “development” or “modernization” of Korea, it also created inequality between classes and regions and widened the gap. The so-called liberals provided the insight and theoretical interpretation to understand these inequalities and gaps, and offered instructions for methods of resistance. The conflict between the left and right or conservatives and liberal forces escalated and their competitiveness spiraled up to a point of expressing hostile sentiments. Yet, the conflict itself is not the factor that threatens the foundation of the democratic state. Conflict is a prerequisite to democracy by its nature. If conflict is not a precondition, that is, if there is no conflict in a society, that society will be one of the autocratic or closed societies. The problem is not in the conflict, but with the people inside the conflict who cannot share the principles of solving the conflict because they are controlled by thoughts and behaviors that are self-righteous and exclusive. Korean education failed to teach the basic rules of solving conflicts. Even if education has instructed those rules, it did not permit any freedom to deal with all the social, political, and moral issues in an open atmosphere for various reasons. Due to many political and social circumstances which include the rigidity of confrontational thinking from the Cold War era and the pressure for social stability to achieve economic growth targets, education to solve conflicts was not carried out properly. As a result, the public as well as the leaders in the political scene have grown accustomed to self-righteousness. The perception that recognizes compromise, dialogue, and negotiation as acts of defeatism became prevalent in the real world. Moreover, every citizen was and still is in an extreme struggle for victory regardless of its outcomes. This proves that the learning of “democratic lifestyle” which claimed to advocate for the basic principles of national education after the liberation was insufficient. Having tolerance toward a conflicting or confrontational issue that occurred due to any interest or belief system does not mean living a democratic life. To resolve the problem, the individual or group related to this issue should share reasonable rules or a system of rules required by that issue and lives by those rules. A member of the democratic society should, at least, be committed to producing the best outcome by resorting to one’s ability of rational thinking. Accepting and abiding

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by those rules are basic duties. Negotiating, coordinating, and solving problems according to those rules are fundamental requirements of a democratic life. In other words, people need to possess the will to “legislate (立法)” rationally and strictly “obey laws (遵法)” to solve problems and create values, and also obtain the skills and techniques required in that process. Hence, a democratic society “fundamentally” starts with at least some form of education and is maintained via the power of education. It can be said that we live in a true “liberal and democratic basic order” when this kind of principle of education is realized in every field, and social conflicts and issues are addressed. An organization where all of its members can live a “life of growth” within that order is a democratic and educational organization. A sophisticated “democratic living culture” is the basic social responsibility that should be led by education. We can attain the status of a mature advanced nation and expect to build a stable and unified country when education fulfills this obligation and provides the footing.

2

Education for Tomorrow

We currently live in a time when the speed of change is faster than any period in the history of mankind. The progress in science and technology is at the center of this change. The speed of advancement is only accelerating and its scope affecting almost all areas of our lives while its impact continues to expand. It is difficult to foresee until when this change will continue. The people living through this transition in the present day have to learn new rules and form new habits to always adapt to the new conditions and environment. However, people have to live with the constant burden of dealing with a new problem before they can even adjust to the new circumstances and surroundings. Nothing in life is fixed and everything is persistently and dramatically shifting at all times. Zygmunt Bauman described this kind of life as an attribute of “liquid modernity” (Culture in a Liquid Modern World 2011). In the early days of the modern era, individuals and states pursued a certain value together and the velocity of change was relatively slow. The transition from one phase to the next was the picture of

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“solid modernity” with comparative easiness. However, that transition is accelerating with extreme “liquid” characteristics in recent years. Under the circumstances of the drastic change that is progressing, the authority of moral judgment practiced by an elder of a family or community of the past cannot be exercised. But, when the speed of transition increases, we end up living in a world in which pre-modern, modern, and ultra-modern elements intersect in a chaotic manner. This change, of course, does not present a total discontinuity full of novelty by shifting the features and environment of life all at once. Our daily lifestyles or institutional forms do not morph into a completely different one at a certain point in time. Historically, the characteristics and surroundings of our lives moved from a pre-modern state to a modern one, then accepted the ultra-modern (contemporary) factors. In the ancient villages, the village elders used their authority to determine a moral problem that occurred in its community or human relationships. That is not entirely due to the authoritarian customs that dominated at the time. It was because the elders had the most balanced wisdom and experience regarding the traditions, practices, and norms of the community. Unlike today, the conditions and forms of life were passed down without much change through generations in the old villages. However, with rapid transition, the influence of the older generation tends to diminish. This is due to the fact that the young generation adapt more easily to a new environment or situation. The growing generations are quick in recognizing the flow of change, forming their identities within that change, and even joining the frontier in leading the change. Therefore, they stand at the focal point of change. On the other hand, the older generations are positioned in the fringes of the forces that determine the ethos of life and become bystanders (周邊人). As in a stagnant agricultural society, they lose their role as “managers of ethics” they played in the pre-modern structure. The public education system that emerged in modern society was in charge of maintaining and succeeding the cultural system that included social ethics. Under this system, schools teach sophisticated highbrow art with pure creativity, not popular art that is crude and inferior, in case of art. Language is taught in its standard form that expresses the world accurately and truthfully. Science teaches the systematized knowledge of

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objective experiences in a strictly logical form developed on the innate (先驗的) basis of rational thinking. Morality teaches to recognize the universal laws of human behavior and live a life that obeys to those laws. The model of knowledge is science and not a simple “story” that is told. Science is good knowledge, while stories are primitive, irrational and of low standards told by children, primitive people, or the sick. That is why knowledge itself holds its own value and has to be acquired through education to be a cultured person. This is the ideal of the traditional “liberal education”. The “cultivation of intelligence” that liberal educationists think of signifies the further refinement, inclusiveness, and expansion of the enlightenment through theoretical knowledge that contemplates (觀照) humans and the world. Their education means the “development of mind” required to liberate the mind of ignorance, error, prejudice, or closure; pursue more creative and rational values; enjoy free thinking and behavior as well as life. This is the outstanding and great contribution of traditional liberal education to humanity’s culture. The tradition of liberal education is like a cart that has carried rationalism—especially, Western rationalism—into modern society. However, with the age of ultra- (or post-) modernism, knowledge became functional and the purpose of learning knowledge is shifting to utilization from the desire to know about the world. Therefore, the knowledge incorporated into school textbooks is considered as more of a “game” or “narratives (story)” that describe the objectively existing world according to linguistic customs, rather than an expressive “picture”. There are at least two favorable conditions in the present day that made this trend of post-modernism spread its potential preponderance. One is that the method of distributing, saving, and organizing knowledge in the information age changed immensely compared to modern society. Knowledge is freely exchanged as information by people after being produced, processed, and applied, in cyberspace, also referred to as the “sea of information”, without time and space constraints. It is not delivered by teachers as certified and authorized information. The other is the open method of post-modernism that brings global culture in a new form. As the world develops into a multifaceted culture that is

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diverse in origin and coordinated with each other, each cultural system will undergo a radical transition as they negotiate and mix with one another in their own form. However, there is a certain anxiety and fear that people inevitably have to suffer under the circumstance of ultra-modern life (or liquid modernity). This is because all sorts of miscellaneous factors are jumbled as everything changes. The conventional methods and tools become no longer valid. The values that have been pursued until now lose meaning temporarily and may also experience a despondency that comes from the collapse of customs and traditions inherited from previous generations. In a physically and mentally “open society” like the present one, people are afflicted by the “attack of destiny” that cannot be avoided in the midst of various mixture. In a way, a closed society has stability and enables people to live a certain life at all times. However, an open society is accompanied by uncertainty which is part of its attributes, and it is impossible to know when the adverse effects will surface. In Liquid Times (2007), Bauman states that the original concept of open society means self-determination of a liberal society that values the openness itself, however, now, it can also signify a harsh experience for most of the unfortunate and vulnerable class who have to lead heteronomous lives. They need to face forces that they cannot handle or even comprehend due to openness. In some cases, they will end up in a situation where they are ruled by those forces. What kind of education should we provide to lead a life in a world where the liquidity of swift change and its accompanying openness dominate? The state, at all times, should be able to offer institutions and programs to develop abilities and qualities required to live a better life for all its citizens, including the older generation as well as the younger one. To this end, we stand at a point in time where we need to review a way to institutionalize the values and characteristics of tradition and times to provide them as education. We also need to examine what kind of activities the educated people experience and how they will empower themselves.

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Index

A

academic achievement 91, 182, 207, 230, 281, 298 academic affairs 254, 269, 288, 298 Academic Affairs Reform Committee 257 academic atmosphere 48, 58, 254, 255, 278, 295 academic background-oriented society 239 academic credit bank system (ACBS)/learning bank system 80, 286, 317, 346, 348, 350, 351, 367, 369, 375, 380, 381, 388, 396 academic high school 55, 56 academic information center 285 academic probation 256 academic record/academic records in high school/High School

© The Academy of Korean Studies 2022 D-H. Lee et al., Education in South Korea, https://doi.org/10.1007/978-981-16-5229-5

Grade Point Average 22, 23, 89, 251, 268, 289, 290 academic research fund 58 Academy of Korean Studies vi, xiv accreditation system 169, 178, 295 accredited school 38 a certificate of completion 256 Act on Equal Employment and Support for Work-Family Reconciliation 364 Act on Recognition of Credits 350, 351 Act on Special Measures for Vocational Training (1974) 76 Act on the Acquisition of Academic Degrees through Self-Education 348 Act on the Establishment and Operation of Law School 300

439

440

Index

Act on the Establishment and Operation of Private Teaching Institutes 184 Act on the Establishment and Operation of Private Teaching Institutes and Extracurricular Lessons 184 Act on the Establishment of Private Institutes 340, 355 Act on the Promotion of Education for the Handicapped 69, 82 additive model 392 Administrative assistants 157 Admission Officer System 89, 157, 291 adolescent alienation 112 adult basic education 319, 324, 331, 333, 375 Adult Education Association 321 Adult Education Bureau 319 adult education institutions 340 adult learner-focused universities 348 advisory committee 272 affirmation model 392 after-school programs 15, 387 Agricultural Technology Institute 329, 355 air and correspondence education system 64, 81, 87 air and correspondence high school 355, 380 air defense training 49 alternative school 103, 192, 193 anti-communist education 43, 49 anti-communist system 39 A plan to establish Seoul National University/The plan for the establishment of SNU 58 April 3 Uprising 41

April 19 Revolution 18, 89, 237, 241, 243, 403 a school affairs section 21 a school of higher level 36, 96, 205 Association for Research on Social Education 329 autonomous private high schools 187, 188, 190, 192, 193 Autonomy in Education 20, 21, 28, 29, 165

B

Basic Plan for National Human Resources Development 358, 360, 361 basic scholastic ability/basic academic ability 158, 204 basic school system 402 Bereaved families of revolutionaries 38 bio-politics 392 boarding high school 193 boycott classes/student strike 225 Bureau of Adult Education 17 Busan Science High School/Korea Science Academy of KAIST 192

C

Canaan Farmers School 336 Center for Economic and Business Research (CERB) 218 Central Audiovisual Education Institute 65 Central Board of Educational Evaluation 350 Central Council for Education 70

Index

central education authorities 39 Central Education Research Institute 110, 395 Cham Education Criticism 90 cham education (meaning true education) 90 character education/character-building education 190, 191, 194–196, 199, 366, 393 Character Education Promotion Act 196, 199, 383 Charter of National Education/Promulgation of the Charter of National Education 14, 47, 49, 50, 132, 143, 144, 333, 337, 404 Charter of the Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea 26 Chindan Society 19, 124 Chinese classics 19 citizenship training school 17 civic center 362 civic education 81, 103, 104, 131, 316, 325, 327, 346, 354–356, 365, 366, 393 civic high school 319, 320, 325, 344, 355 Civilian Government 3, 66, 358, 359, 405, 406 civil society organization 340 college enrollment rate 218, 288 college factionalism 222 college of education/university of education 44, 63, 126, 146, 221, 246, 249 College of Liberal Arts and Sciences 221, 225

441

college preparatory education 22 College Reorganization Plan 237 College Scholastic Ability Test (CSAT) 71, 89, 207, 269, 286, 289, 290 college-specific entrance examination/main examination 61, 251, 261, 262, 265–267, 288–290 colonist’s homeland 36 commissioned students 249 Commission on Education and Human Resources 358 Committee for Compilation of a Ten-Year History of Korean Education 233, 238 Committee for Strengthening Korean History Education 48 compensation system 170, 198 Compilation Committee for History of Korean Military Revolution 243 Comprehensive Measures to Eliminate School Violence 196 Comprehensive Measure to Develop the Teaching Profession 175, 177 Comprehensive Plan to Promote Lifelong Learning 17 comprehensive student transcript 286 compulsory elementary education 20, 29, 31, 42, 62, 73, 96, 100, 153, 155 Confucian Asian countries 182 constant price 180, 181 Constitution Drafting Committee 8 Constitution of the 5th Republic 343

442

Index

continuing education 317, 342, 345 contract faculty member/professor 23, 44, 221, 228, 256, 269, 271, 272, 291, 309 convention about cham education 90 Coordination Committee for Colleges 236 create an atmosphere of learning 255, 403 creative hands-on activities 129, 133, 157, 158 Creativity and Character Education/education focused on nurturing creativity and character 157–158 Cultural enjoyment 387 culture and public information committee 279 Current price 180

D

Declaration of a state of national emergency 48 Declaration of Democratic Education 89 Decree concerning education during wartime 234 Decree on Reorganization of Schools 16, 240, 244, 245 Decree on Standards for the Establishment of Universities and Colleges 16, 82, 230, 231, 234, 236, 237, 240 Decree on the Reorganization of Universities and Colleges 242

Decree on the Temporary Deferment of Conscription for College Enrollment 235 deficit model 392 degree course 297, 309 democratic civic education 11, 170, 172, 195, 381 Democratic education 13, 22, 25, 26, 32–36, 39–43, 79, 89–91, 101, 111, 324, 403 democratization of education 14, 37, 60, 147, 229, 307 denomination/sect 245 departmental system 173, 176 department of literature 221 department of science 221 deputy judge/prosecutor 300 differential compensation system 168, 171, 173 Directors Recommendation Committee 274 dispute mediation committee 274 dissemination of schools 41, 99 distance education 380 distance learning 286, 342, 348, 370–373 Document literacy 334 Donga Broadcasting System (DBS) 345 double-shift classes 45, 68 dual-track (two-track) policy 49

E

Each level of schooling 191 early childhood education 37, 64, 85, 108, 209 Early Childhood Education Promotion Act 82

Index

early retirement, honorary retirement 168, 171 ecological ethics 392 ecological philosophy 392 ecology 392, 393 Economic Planning Board 110, 395 education accountability 206, 207 education administration agency 39 educational administration 26, 39, 80, 89, 109, 147, 164 Educational arena 178 educational attainment 86, 182, 391 Educational Autonomy System 21 Educational Broadcasting System (EBS) 66 educational capacity 119, 175 educational deflation 244 educational guidance and counselling 205 Educational Ideology of Hongik Ingan (Humanitarian Ideal) 2, 13, 15, 19, 20, 40, 81, 109, 121, 136, 344 educational research information center 87 educational selection 260, 262, 263 educational sovereignty 222 Education and Culture Committee 28, 246 Education and Public Affairs Subcommittee 267 Education Committee of the National Assembly 28 education finance 57, 206, 209 education for democracy 99, 101, 106 Education Law 1949 14, 26–30, 81, 84, 110, 127, 226, 247, 324, 343

443

education law drafting committee 28 education law for the disabled 90 Education Ministry’s Decree on Standards for Curriculum Hours for Elementary, Middle, High Schools, and Normal schools 131 education official 1, 2, 39, 121, 126, 181, 191, 200, 207, 224, 228, 248, 295 education provider 80, 205 Education Reform Commission/Presidential Commission on Education Reform 118, 161, 163, 164, 168, 169, 191, 195, 208, 282–284, 301, 351, 358, 369, 405 Education Reform Plan (1980)/July 30 Education Reform Plan (1980) 60–62, 250, 251, 255, 262, 267, 268, 279, 341 Education Reform Plan (1995)/May 31 Education Reform Plan (1995) 15, 16, 80, 118, 133, 160, 161, 163, 164, 166, 169–171, 188, 191, 192, 195, 197–199, 206, 207, 282–285, 287, 301, 304, 358, 359, 367 education system vi, 3–7, 11–13, 18, 22–24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 32–37, 39, 41, 47, 48, 51, 52, 60–62, 70, 71, 79–82, 84, 85, 93–96, 98, 100–102, 105, 107–109, 118, 120, 121, 126, 127, 132, 136, 137, 145, 155, 164, 165, 170, 172, 187, 191, 195, 199, 219, 222, 224, 229, 231, 238, 272, 275, 282, 283, 302, 304,

444

Index

305, 309, 325, 345, 348, 359, 370, 383, 396, 405, 406, 410 Education Vision 2002 173, 176 education welfare policy 97 Eearly childhood education 194 egalitarian society 350 Electronics Industry Promotion Act 76 Elementary and Secondary Education Act 29, 80, 167, 168, 192, 193, 374 e-National Indicators 347, 374 Encyclopedia of Korean Local Culture 395 Encyclopédistes 6 endowment 188, 233, 273 Enforcement Decree of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act 167 Enforcement Decree of the Military Service Act 236 Enforcement Decree of the Social Education Act 345 Entrance Exam Reform (1968) 54 era of liberalization 300, 365 evaluation of teachers 15, 91, 155, 175, 178 examination hell/entrance examination hell 54, 55

F

faculty 44, 66, 83, 165, 223, 229, 257, 271, 272, 303, 342 farmers school 52 Farming Promotion Center 346 Farmland Reform Act 231, 233 Federation of Korean Industries 52 field suitability 178

financial committee 271 first-aid nursing 48 Five-year plan for educational development 176 Five-year Plan for Eradicating Illiteracy 31, 319 Five-year Plan to Expand Facilities for Compulsory Education 31, 45, 46 flexible work hours 168, 171, 179 flunk out of college/disenrollment 256 forced media consolidation in 1980 65 Foreign Investment Promotion Act 76 Foreign language high school 72, 189, 193 formal (school) education 94, 97, 335, 350, 353, 374, 382, 396 foundational juristic (judicial) person 273 founding ideology of school 219, 272 4-H headquarters 324 four-key reformist bills 91 Framework Act on Education 29, 80, 84–86, 92, 103, 109, 272, 406 Framework Act on Vocational Training (1976) 76 free semester system 158 full-scale implementation of compulsory elementary education 75 full-time undergraduate courses 251 Future Education Planning Committee 169, 203

Index

445

G

H

general graduate school 217 Gifted & Talented School 187 Gifted Science High School 189 Globalization Promotion Committee 300 government-designated textbooks 133, 134 government-funded projects 16 graduate school of medicine and dentistry 302 graduate school university 217, 292 graduation quota 16, 61, 73, 81, 100, 250–252, 254–259, 277–279, 287 grand narratives 384, 389 Group play program 194 growth failure, growth disorder, growth delay 54 Gyeonggi Open Industrial University 342 Gyeongseong College of Economics 225 Gyeongseong College of Education 23, 221, 225 Gyeongseong Higher Commercial School 23, 221 Gyeongseong Higher Technical School 221 Gyeongseong Law College 23, 221 Gyeongseong Medical College 23, 221, 222, 225 Gyeongseong Mining College 23, 221, 225 Gyeongseong University 23, 24, 221, 222

Heavy and Chemical Industry Promotion Policy 53, 73, 76, 100 high achieving student 29, 75 higher education/tertiary education 36 Higher Education Act 29, 80, 217, 296 Higher Education in Korea Service 296 Higher Order Thinking Skills (HOTS) 268 highly educated intellectuals 221 high-performing teacher 173, 176 High School Diversification 300 Project 190, 193 (high school) military drill 48 high school standardization policy 14, 15, 54, 56, 62, 70–73, 75, 100, 137, 139, 140, 149, 150, 152–155, 187, 188, 252 historical view 47 history textbook distortion 67 holistic growth 201 human capital theory 51, 232 Human Resources Development Act 17, 357, 358, 360–362, 364 Hyanggyo (government-run Confucian school) 38 Hyehwa Professional College 228

I

illiterate 31, 319, 320, 322, 323, 334 IMD World Competitiveness Yearbook 305 immoral crime 190

446

Index

inaugural general meeting 154 Incident process method 352 independence education 404 Industrial Education Promotion Act 51, 355 Industrial Technology Promotion Act 51 industry-academia cooperation 50–52, 59, 75 Industry-Military Human Resources Development Committee 366 Industry Technology Institute 51 information literacy 177 in-house corporate college 354, 370, 380 in-house vocational training center 356 in-service teacher training 25 institutions of higher education 23, 24, 59, 70, 77, 82, 217, 219, 224, 252, 292 instructional radio 65 instruction for basic learning 158 International High School 72, 187, 189, 192 International Institute for Management Development (IMD) indicators 160 interpersonal competence 196 itinerant teacher 169

J

job shortage/difficulty of finding work 242 joint examination 54, 56, 112, 261 junior college 24, 65, 80, 86, 126, 217–219, 222, 227, 230, 245,

249, 251, 252, 257, 284, 292, 347, 348, 350

K

Keij¯o Imperial University/Gyeongseong Imperial University 221, 223, 225, 229 knowledge and information-based society 118 knowledge, virtue and health 55, 56 Korea Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (KAIST) 54, 291 Korea Association for Community Education 330, 336, 338, 339 Korea Educational Broadcasting System 111 Korea Education Research Institute 43, 44, 46–48, 50, 52, 53, 57, 59, 120, 139 Korea Export Industrial Corporation 354 Korea Institute for Curriculum and Evaluation xiv, 111, 162, 207, 405 Korea Management Association 352 Korean Association of Private Secondary School Principals 233, 248 Korea National Open University xiv, 17, 63–65, 341, 342, 348, 350, 355, 356, 369, 396 Korea National University of Education, Compilation Committee for 100-year History of Korean Education 124, 131, 142, 173

Index

Korean Christian Literacy Association 322 Korean Committee on Education 18, 132 Korean Committee on Educational Planning 13, 18–20, 110, 324 Korean Council for University Education (KCUE) 83, 290, 295 Korean Educational Development Institute (KEDI) xiii, xiv, 59, 60, 65, 66, 71, 109, 111, 141, 145, 169, 179, 180, 203, 218, 254, 255, 267, 288, 292, 331, 333, 355, 382, 405 Korean Educational Statistics Service 218, 292 Korean Education Monthly 90 Korean Education Research Information Service (KERIS) 87, 88, 111, 405 Korean Educator’s Association 225 Korean Federation of Education Associations 13, 248 Korean Federation of Housewives Clubs 336 Korean Language Society 124, 321, 332 Korean Minjok Leadership Academy 188 Korean National Commission for UNESCO 124, 335–337 Korean Self-Strengthening Society 30 Korean Society for the Economics and Finance of Education (KOSEFE) 180 Korean Society for the Study of Lifelong Education 329

447

Korean Society of the Politics of Education 145, 147, 155, 160, 161 Korean-style democracy 59 Korean University Accreditation Institute (KUAI) 295 Korea Productivity Center 352 Korea Research Institute for Vocational Education & Training (KRIVET) 111, 405 Korea Science and Engineering Foundation Act 77 Korea Society for the Study of Education 13 Korea Youth Association 64 KTU Newspaper 90 Kyonggi Institute of Technology 66

L

Laboratory Training 353 learning society 178, 351, 359, 385, 387 Legal Education Committee 300 legal professional 299–301 liberal arts and social sciences track 66 liberal arts education 59, 346, 362 liberalization of the legal services market 300 lifelong education 3, 14, 17, 27, 38, 50, 63–66, 86, 87, 315–318, 324, 328, 343, 345–348, 353, 354, 356–358, 362–365, 368, 369, 375, 379, 380, 382, 383, 385, 386, 388–394 Lifelong Education Act 17, 66, 86, 315, 317, 324, 328, 344, 348,

448

Index

350, 358, 360, 361, 363, 367–370, 374, 375, 393, 395 Lifelong Learning City Project 17, 316, 318, 363, 367, 369, 375, 376, 378, 379, 387, 388, 391, 395 Lifelong Learning Society 17, 80, 284, 286, 342, 350, 351, 359, 363, 367, 369, 370, 382, 388 life movement 385 lifeworld 384, 385 literate 327, 331 Local Autonomy Act 341 Local Education Autonomy Act 167 local education subsidy 206, 209 low-educated adult 362

M

machine tool specialist 53 marketism 275 Massive Open Online Course (MOOC) 310 meister high school 190, 193 members of the State Council 49 meritocracy 353 metal worker 53 Michigan MBA-Daewoo-Michigan Global MBA 364 Military Junta led by Park Chung-Hee 43 Military Service Act 236 mini libraries in rural communities 17 minimum course credit requirement system 80 Ministry of Culture and Public Information 242

Ministry of Education and Human Resources Development (MOCIE) 85, 86, 173, 175, 180, 301, 302, 337, 382 Ministry of Education, Science and Technology (MEST) 7, 145, 180, 196, 197, 303, 376, 378 Ministry of Employment and Labor 371 Ministry of Finance and Economy 68 Ministry of Home Affairs 31, 38, 39 Ministry of Interior 110, 322, 323 Ministry of Patriots and Veterans Affairs 366 miscellaneous school/various kinds of schools 193, 217, 245, 246, 292 Monroe Doctrine 222 moral culture 247 moral education 43, 68, 131–134, 144, 145, 191, 194, 195 multiple choice written examination 62, 265, 278 municipal and provincial offices of education 169, 193 municipal and provincial superintendents 49, 86, 192 Myeongryun Professional School 228

N

National Agricultural Cooperative Federation 329, 354 National Archives 323 National Archives of Korea 31, 330 National Association of Teachers for Democratic Education (NAT) 90

Index

National Board of Educational Evaluation 350 national coalition of school subjects 90 National Institute for lifelong Education xiv, 342, 349–351, 369, 370, 376, 378, 387 national moral education 67, 68, 404 National Museum of Korean Contemporary History 109, 390 National Reconstruction Movement Headquarters 333 national restoration 47, 48, 111 national salvation 49 National Security Law, the Private School Act, the Truth Commission on the Past Acts, and other acts governing the media 91 National Technical Qualifications Act 76 National Women’s Community Center 341 Nation building/State formation 33 nationwide academic achievement evaluation 158 nationwide scholastic achievement test 15 natural science and engineering track 66 neoliberalism 220, 292, 304, 308 New Education Movement 14, 25, 35, 39, 402 next-generation NEIS 157 nominal Gross National Income 218 non-enrolled student 320

449

normalization of education and measures to address overheated private tutoring 150, 152, 251, 256 normative system/normative rule/rule-based 16, 82–84, 192, 288, 301, 406

O

occupational skills 38, 363 October Restoration 48, 49, 129 office automation 168, 171 Office for Government Policy Coordination 303 office of education 73, 87, 156, 206, 371 Officials training institute 335 open college/college for continuing education 341 open education society 80, 283, 286 open recruitment system for principal/open principal recruitment system 155, 178, 179 Open Trusteeship System 274 operating costs 245 Out-of-school children 50 Out-of-school education 63, 66, 97 over-education/academic credential inflation/academic inflation/education inflation 112, 239, 242, 364, 407

P

Participatory Government 274, 300, 358, 361, 407 part-time registration system 80

450

Index

Patriotism 48, 67, 336 per capita GNI 218 performance-based incentive system 91, 173, 175, 179 personality and aptitude test 290 personnel committee 271 personnel congestion 170 PISA international comparisons 160 Planned Parenthood Federation of Korea 329 plural majors 59 Policy Evaluation Committee 303 poorly managed colleges and universities/underperforming colleges and universities 16, 59 practical demonstration of skills and competencies 289, 290 preliminary college entrance examination 47, 58, 240, 251–253, 260, 262, 264–267, 280, 288, 290 preschooler 50, 328 Presidential Commission for the New Education Community 301 Presidential Commission on Education 70, 351, 405 Presidential Commission on Education Reform (1996) xiv, 165 Presidential Committee on Education Innovation 175, 178 Presidential Decree on the Establishment of the Korea National Open University 342 Presidential Decree on the Fixed Number of University and

College Students 16, 240, 244, 249, 250, 264 presidential instruction 49 Presidential Transition Committee 175 primary and secondary education vi, 3, 12, 15, 21, 22, 37, 56, 62, 80, 118–120, 124, 128, 129, 134, 136, 137, 149, 153, 155, 163, 170, 176, 177, 197, 199, 200, 218, 344 Principal Tenure System 170, 173 principle of law 63 Principle of Three Equalities/The Principle of Egalitarianism 26 private property rights 273 Private School Act 16, 44, 73, 89–92, 240, 244, 247, 248, 269–274, 276, 406 private school dispute mediation committee 208 private schools run by religious institutions 274 problem-based learning 25 professional graduate school 177, 217, 284, 285, 299, 306 Program for International Student Assessment of the OECD (PISA) 107, 160, 161, 198, 281, 391 Program for the International Assessment of Adult Competencies (PIAAC) 391 Prose literacy 334 prospective teacher 166 provincial governor 49 public broadcasting 65 Public Education Officials Act 44, 173

Index

public juristic person 273

Q

Quantitative literacy 334

R

Reform Measures for Private Schools 270 regular teacher 202 relieve overcrowded classrooms 68 removal from office, dismissal, suspension from office, reduction of salary and reprimand 248 reparation fund 53 request for dismissal 272 restoration of national sovereignty 27, 32 Rural Development Administration 329 rural development project 355 rural enlightenment movement 320

S

Saemaul Education/new community education 14, 17 Saemaul Leadership Training Institutes 335 Saemaul Movement (the new community movement) 49, 327, 330, 335, 337, 403 school affiliated to a business/Industry-affiliated schools 52, 64, 112, 355 Schoolbag Free Day 190 school exam exemption policy 100

451

school foundation 44, 92, 136, 241, 245, 273, 276 school juristic person 92, 247, 248, 270–274, 288, 310 school level 87, 93, 95, 96, 158, 160, 180, 191, 203, 330, 406 school management structure 163, 165 school steering committee 15, 160, 163–167, 406 School Style Social Education Institutions 368 school system/education system 2, 11, 72, 80, 155, 187, 188, 301, 302, 324, 387 Science and Technology Promotion Act 76 Science Citation Index (SCI) 305 Science Education Promotion Act 53 Science High School 72, 187, 189 Scientification of All Nation Movement 53 secondary school teachers training center 128, 146, 177 selection test 55 self-directed learning/self-initiated learning 193, 390 self-study 184 semiliterate 334 Sensitivity Training 353 Seoul Metropolitan Office of Education 168 Seowon (privately run Confucian academy) 38 shooting drill 48 Simplified Family Rite [Ritual] Standards 333 single ladder system/single track system 96

452

Index

single track 6-3-3-4 system 40 Six-Year Compulsory Education Plan (1954–1959) 30, 31, 323, 355 Social Education Act 17, 63, 64, 66, 315, 324, 328, 329, 343–345, 347, 356, 358, 360, 362, 368, 369 social exclusion 392 Special Act on Education 44, 146, 244, 247 Special Committee for National Security Measures (SCNSM) 279, 404 special graduate school 217 specialized graduate school 16, 301, 303 specialized high school 80, 192, 193 specialized schools for alternative education 192 special purpose high school 187–189, 192, 193, 205 special-purpose high school 96, 405 Special Research Institute Promotion Act 76 spending on private tutoring/private tutoring expenditure 138, 149, 183, 185, 186, 198, 203 Ssangyong’s “Shadow Board” 364 stand-alone type 285, 301 standardization, “downward” standardization 55, 62, 94, 96, 104, 139, 376 (standardized) National College Entrance Test 259, 266–269, 280, 289, 290 State formation period/period of state formation 3, 12–17, 31, 32, 34, 36, 37, 39, 40, 43, 78, 108, 120, 134, 136, 153, 200,

219, 220, 231, 308, 318, 323, 327, 331, 356, 379, 388, 389, 394, 402 Statistical Survey on National Lifelong Education 370 Statistical Yearbook of Education 128, 242 Statistics of Lifelong Education 371–373 statutory number of teachers 45 student athlete 56 student contribution 57, 188 student enrollment quota 249, 251–253, 276, 287 student-faculty ratio 298, 309 Student Human Rights Ordinance 155 student quota/maximum student number 219, 236, 237, 240–245, 249–252, 259, 261, 262, 264, 265, 269, 276, 285, 288 study leave system 179 subject-based classroom system 158 supplementary classes (lessons) 15, 152, 184 supplementary education 320, 322 supra-constitutional 279 Supreme Council for National Reconstruction 43, 246 Suwon Agriculture College 23, 221 syllabus 129, 130, 132

T

teacher education institutions 126 teacher quota management 178 teacher recruitment examination 147, 169, 174

Index

teacher’s authority 156 Teachers’ Disciplinary Committee 248 teacher(s) invitation program 170, 175 teachers’ union 154, 173, 198 teacher training institutions 81, 126–129, 145, 154, 168, 169, 171, 174, 177, 178 teaching and learning materials 88, 158 teaching community 104, 147, 154, 171, 173, 176, 198, 284 teaching method 25, 132, 178, 281, 379 technical high school 52, 54, 75, 76 technical qualification 52, 75 Technical School 23 Technology Development Promotion Act 76 temporary retirement from office 248 temporary teacher 15, 124, 128, 136, 202, 203 Tertiary Education for All 308 The 1948 Constitution of the Republic of Korea 1, 27, 28, 121, 320 The Academy of Korean Studies 395 the age of centenarians 202 The beneficiary-pays principle 37, 64 the constitutional provision on education 26 the Constitution of the 5th Republic 63 The Coup d’état of December Twelfth/The 12.12 Military Insurrection 250 the course of study 251

453

The Gifted Education Promotion Act 192 The Glorious Revolution in England 110 the Glorious Revolution, the American Revolution, the French Revolution 78, 101 the great industry of machinery 101 The Independent/Tongnip Sinmun 332 the Japanese Government General of Korea 232, 332 The Korea Federation of Teacher’s Associations 198 The Korea Foundation for the Promotion of Private School 140 The Korean Teachers and Educational Workers’ Union (KTU) 14, 89–91, 154, 198, 406, 407 The May 16 coup 3, 21, 35, 58, 219, 240, 241, 243, 247, 308, 403 The National Education Information System (NEIS) 87, 91, 155 The National Future Education Council 209, 210 theological university 245 the out of school youth 341 The Presidential Committee on Educational Reform 147, 295 The Research Council for Admission System 139 The Seoul Education Committee 138 The Special Committee for National Security Measures (SCNSM) 61, 152, 251, 252, 259, 267

454

Index

three-no policy 88 Three Ordinances for Autonomy in Education 14, 21 Times Higher Education World Reputation Rankings 230 Tongyang Broadcasting Company (TBC) 345 to normalize high school education 267 transfer admission 250 Trends in International Mathematics and Science Study (TIMSS) 182, 198 Tripartite Commission (of labor, business and government) 90 TV High School at Home 93

U

uncontrollable expense 206 underachieving students 158, 160, 162 under the U.S. Military Government 13, 21, 23–27, 34–36, 40, 98, 100, 111, 129, 130, 134, 137, 223, 233 United States Army Military Government in Korea (USAMGIK) 21, 121, 229 unit school 81, 156 unity as a whole 48 universities offering distance education/distance learning university 87, 217, 355 university accreditation system 83, 84 university autonomy 16, 222, 223, 230, 247, 268, 277, 280, 287–289, 307, 308

university/comprehensive university 100, 226, 237 university deliberation committee 92, 272, 274 university entrance system 80, 260–262, 264, 267–269, 279–281, 284, 286 University Establishment and Operation Regulations 82, 291 university faculty member 303 University News Network 145, 228 University Rankings Evaluation 296, 297 Unlettered 334 upper secondary education 53 (upward) social mobility 42, 110 Urban Industrial Mission 355 USAMGIK’s Bureau of Education 18, 20, 21, 110, 124, 222, 227, 319 U.S Information Service 338

V

V narod movement 332 Vocational and technical education 12, 38, 75, 354, 356 vocational college 246 vocational competency development center 80 vocational education 2, 22, 29, 30, 38, 44, 53, 70, 80, 81, 85, 98, 100, 139, 154, 245, 310, 344, 359, 380, 381, 405 vocational schools 24, 40, 75, 192, 221, 330 Vocational training institute 335

Index

W

wait and see policy (tendency) 268 War-time Union University 226, 234, 235 White Paper on Lifelong Education 368 whole-rounded education/whole-person education 67, 201 Women’s Business Center 341 Women’s community center 340, 341 women’s welfare center 341

455

Workers’ night schools 357 working youth 64, 328, 374 World Confederation of Organizations of the Teaching Profession (WCOTP) 46

Y

Yeosu–Suncheon rebellion 41 Young Christian Workers (YCW) 355 Young Korean Academy 336 Yushin System (Revitalizing Reforms System) 404