Early Modern Europe: An Oxford History 9780198207603

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EARLY MODERN EUROPE

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EARLY MODERN EUROPE AN OXFORD HISTORY

E D I T E D BY

EUAN CAMERON

OXPORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

OXPORD UNIVERSITY PRESS

Great Clarendon Street, Oxford 0x2 6op Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford. It furthers the University's objective of excellence in research, scholarship, and education by pubUshing.worldwide in Oxford New York Auckland Cape Town Dar es Salaam Hong Kong Karachi Kula Lumpar Madrid Melbourne Mexico City Nairobi New Delhi Shanghai Taipei Toronto With offices in Agentina Austria Brazil Chile Czech Republic France Greece Guatemala Hungary Italy Japan Poland Portugal Singapore South Korea Switzerland Thailand Turkey Ukraine Vietnam Oxford is a registered trade mark of Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries Published in the United States by Oxford University Press Inc., New York © Oxford University Press 2001 The moral rights of the author have been asserted Database right Oxford University Press (maker) First published 1999 First published in paperback 2001 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University Press, or as expressly permitted by law, or under terms agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization. Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at the address above You must not circulate this book in any other binding or cover and you must impose this same condition on any acquirer British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Data available Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Early Modern Europe Edited by Euan Cameron p. cm. Includes bibliographical references and index. 1. Europe—History—1492-1648. 2. Europe—History—17th century. 3. Europe—History—18th century. I. Cameron, Euan. D228.E.187 1999 940.2—dc21 98-26115 Printed in Great Britain on acid-free paper by TJ International Ltd, Padstow, Cornwall ISBN 978-0-19-820760-3 (pbk) 9 10

CONTENTS List of Illustrations List of Contributors Editor 's Acknowledgements Editor's Introduction

Prologue: Europe and the World Around

ix xiii xv xvii

i

ANTHONY PAGDEN

Europe: The Myths of Europe—A Continent and its Peoples—The Cultural Inheritance—Frontiers and Boundaries—Technologies and their Impact—The Sense of being European—The Quest for Peace and Union

I. The Sixteenth Century, c.i5oo—c.i6i8

29

1. The Conditions of Life for the Masses

31

ALISON ROWLANDS

Who were the Masses?—The Peasant Household—The Peasant LifeCycle—Ways of Coping—Wider Links: Village, Lordship, Market— The Processes of Change—The Effects of Change—The Urban Experience of the Lower Orders—Conclusion 2. The Power of the Word: Renaissance and Reformation

63

EUAN CAMERON

The Renaissance and the Word—The Word Written and Printed— The Ancient Word and the Ancient Tongue—The Word of Exhortation—Describing the World and the Universe—The Word of Faith: The Old Faith—The Reformation Challenge—Reformed Churches and Reformed People—The Old Church Responds—Conclusion 3. War, Religion, and the State 102 STEVEN GUNN

States and Borders—The Habsburgs and their Rivals—War and the State—Courts and Government—Society, Justice, and Sovereignty— The Impact of Religious Change—The Impact of Religious Division—

vi

Contents The Weak Monarchies of the East and the Coming of the Thirty Years War

II. The Seventeenth Century, c.i6i8—A//(London, 1994). JOHN HARDMAN,Louis XW (London, 1993). R. H. HATTON, Charles XIIof Sweden (London, 1968). WALTER HUBATSCH, Frederick the Great: Absolutism and Administration (London, 1975). PAUL LANGFORD, A Polite and Commercial People: England, ¿'23—1783 (Oxford, 1989). J. T. LUTOWSKI, Liberty's Folly: The Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth in the Eighteenth Century (London, 1991). JOHN LYNCH, Bourbon Spain, 1-00-1808 (Oxford, 1989). DEREK McKAY and H. M. SCOTT, The Rise of the Great Powers 1648—1815 (London, 1983). ISABEL DE MADARIAGA, Catherine the Great: A Short History (New Haven, 1990). KENNETH MAXWELL, Pombal: Paradox of the Enlightenment (Cambridge, 1995). H. M. SCOTT (ed.), Enlightened Absolutism: Reform and Reformers in Later Eighteenth-Century Europe (London, 1990). H. M. SCOTT (ed.), The European Nobilities in the Seventeenth and Eighteenth Centuries, 2 vols. (London, 1995). DENNIS E. SHOWALTER, The Wars of Frederick the Great (London, 1995). GEOFFREY SYMCOX, Victor Amedeus II: Absolutism in the Savoyard State, 1675—1-30 (London, 1983).

380

Further Reading

FRANZ A. J. SZABO, Kaunit^ and Enlightened Absolutism i~5¿-iy8o (Cambridge, 1994).

Epilogue: The Old Order Transformed 1789-1815 T. C. W. BLANNING, The French Revolutionary Wars ij8j—iSo2 (London, 1996). T. C. W. BLANNING (ed.), The Rise and Fall of the French Revolution (Chicago, 1996). T. C. W. BLANNING, The French Revolution: Class War or Culture Clash? (London, 1997). M. R. BROERS, Europe under Napoleon ijgy—iSiS (London, 1996). WILLIAM DOYLE, The Oxford History of the French Revolution (Oxford, 1989). CHARLES J. ESDAILE, The Wars of Napoleon (London, 1995). GEOFFREY ELLIS, The Napoleonic Empire (London, 1991). COLIN LUCAS (ed.), Rewriting the French Revolution (Oxford, 1991). SIMON SCHAMA, Citizens: A Chronicle of the French Revolution (London, 1989). PAUL SCHROEDER, The Transformation of European Politics, 1363—1848 (Oxford, 1994). JEAN TULARD, Napoleon: The Myth of the Saviour (London, 1984).

INDEX absolutism 123,206, 219-21,268,305, 314 Achaean League 6 acquisitiveness 257-60 Adages 71,74 administrators and administration see bureaucrats Adolf Fredcrik, king of Sweden 305 Aerschot, duke of 129 Aeschylus 4 Africa 2-4, 12-13, '6-17, 23; 27> 1O 5~6,138,156, 164-5,207,252-3,265 Africans, European attitudes to 165 Agrarian Societies 333 'Agricultural Revolution', British 337 agriculture 144-5, 15°, 2 35, 2 39~43, 2 5°, 333 see also land and landholding air pump 196-7 Aix-la-Chapelle, Treaty of 222 Alba, duke of 129 Albanians 102 Albert!, Leon Battista 69 Albrecht of Hohenzollcrn, duke of Prussia 126 Albrecht of Mainz, Archbishop 88 alchemy 172,199-200,268 Ales, Grace of 213 Alexander I, tsar of Russia 289, 366, 369 Alexander VI, Pope 96 Alexander the Great 226 Alexis, tsar of Russia 228,311 Algiers 105,124,160 Allgemeines Landrecht, Prussian 333 'allotment system' 311 Almagest 78 almsgiving 60-1 see also poor relief Alps 82,156,223,309 Alsace 217 altarpieces 92 Alte Veste 213 Altopascio 243 Al-Zahravi 68 ambassadors 119 America, United States of 6,371 American Indians 281 Americas 5-7,16-17, TOO, no, 116,138,145,156, 162,164-5, 207~8, 225, 239, 245, 252-4, 265, 308,342-3 Amiens 215 Treaty of 364-5 Amphyctionic Council 26—7 Amsterdam 49-50,120,147-8,150-2,154,

163-4,167,169,208,222,239,246,252,261 amulets 41 Anabaptism 104-5 anatomy 75-7,199 Andalucía 141 Andrusovo, Truce of 228 Angola 208 Anne, St 86 annuities 204 Antichrist xvii, 69,172,189 anti-clericalism 289-90, 359 Antoninus Pius, Emperor 9,12 Antwerp 49,51,59,120,129-30,151 Apollo 116 apothecaries 148, 259 see also medicine apprentices 57-8,250 Aquinas, see Thomas Aquinas Aquitaine 278 Arab scholarship 68,78 Arabia 105 Arabs 167 arable farming 36-7 see also agriculture; cereals Aragon xxvii, 103,107 Aragonese language n arbitristas 124 architecture 100,203,312,319 Aristarchusof Samos 79 aristocracy see nobility Aristotle and Aristotelianism xxiii, 7-8,15,68, 70,172,192-3 Armadas, Spanish 112,124,130 armies 110-16,123,131,133,150, 369 French 107, 356-7 in local government 330 logistical support xxix, 307 losses 307 Prussian 315—17,319-20 recruiting 209, 299, 307, 311-12, 315-16, 332 reorganization 228 reserves 112 Russian 341—2 size of xxviii, 206, 214-15,220, 307, 342, 357 Arminius 180-1 Arnauld, Marie-Angélique 186 ArnishMoor 155 Arras 129,215 Union of 129 Arrighi, Ludovico Vicentino degli 64 artillery 107,109,111 artists' workshops 250

382

Index

Artois 107,215,217 Artois, comte d' 352-3 Artigat 47 arts, patronage of 117,169 Ashkenazi Jews 102 Asia 1-5, 7-8,12-14,16-18, 23, 26-7,145,162, 206-7,252-4, 327 Asselyn,Jan 214 Assyria 27 astrolabe 16-17 astrology 78,172-3 astronomy 78-81, j 93-4,197-8 atheism 189-90,272-3,285, 289, 350 see also scepticism, religious Athens 8,23,282,288 Atlantic ocean 12,50, 107, 159, 167, 170 Auerstedt, battle of 365, 368 Augsburg 55-6,65-6,103,139 religious peace of 110,132 Augustine, St 23,66,73,179-80 Augustinian Order 88 Augustus, Emperor 9,116,226 Augustus II 'the Strong' of Saxony-Poland 229, 304-5, 306 Austerlitz, battle of 365 Australia 165 Austria: archdukes of xxvii Counter-Reformation in 98,127,131-2 Enlightenment in 292, 294, 297 foreign relations 299, 307, 309, 340—2 government 323-4, 328-9, Habsburgs in 105-6,109-10,219 intervention in economy 255,333 manufacturing in 246 population 371 social conditions in 32 warfare 206, 209-10, 213-15, 224-8, 300-3, 3 : 9-2i, 354-5, 36°, 364-5, 36g-9 see also Habsburg dynasty; Habsburg monarchy; Holy Roman Empire; and under individual rulers Austrian Succession, War of 317,321 authority, concepts of xxx, 68, 204-5, 296-7 auxiliary saints see saints Averrocs 68 Avicenna 68 Avignon 325 Azov 229 Bacciochi, Prince 366 Bach, J. S. 92 Bacon, Francis xxiv, 21,69,173,190,192 bacteria 198 Balkans 228 ballads 67 balloon 285 Baltic 50,154, 156, 158-9,163, 211, 215, 217, 226,

228-9,239,242,311,313 banditry 123,152,363 bankruptcies, state xxvii, 113,123,129, 345 banks and banking 150-1 baptism 39-40 Baptists 181 Barbados 164 Barcelona 158,167,245-6 barometric experiment 196 baroque piety 335 barter 148, 254,280 Basle 21,65 Bastille 295, 347, 352 Bavaria 121,123,126-7, T 3 2 > 2I 3, 2 I 5, 224-5, 24^ see also Maximilian Bayle, Pierre 189 Beam 216 Beaton, David, Cardinal 73 Beauharnais, Eugene de 365 beer 153-4,161,243,258 Bchem, Hans 43 Belgium 236-7, 245-6, 355, 356-7, 360, 362, 366,371-2 Belgrade 105,228 Bcllin, Niccoló 118 Benátky 8o Berbers 13 Berbice 165 Bcrckhcydc 208 Beresina 370 Berg, grand duchy of 365 Berg Harsan, battle of 228 Berlin 143,246,310,319 Bernini 100 Bessarion, John 70 Bible 67,72,90,93,98,133,180-1 creation narrative 2, 266 editions of 65-6 Renaissance textual criticism of 73-4 as source of political forms 282 bills of exchange 148-50,254 Binnehof, the 208 biology 198-9,274 Biondo, Flavio 69 Bisticci, Vespasiano di 69 Black Death, see plague Black Sea 339 Blaeu, cartographer 152 Blake, William 267,279 Blenheim, battle of 225 Bock, Hicronymus 77 Bodin,Jean 123,139,144 Bohemia xxvii, 80,105-6,110,131-3,158,179, 210-11, 214-15, 219, 245, 320, 324, 328-9, 333 Bologna 75, 292 Bonaparte, Caroline 365 Bonaparte, Elisa 366

Index Bonaparte, Jerome 365 Bonaparte, Joseph 365 Bonaparte, Louis 365, 369 Bonaparte, Napoleon 360, 361-5 see also Napoleon books and book-trade 67,258 see also printing Bordeaux 154,157-8,167,217,219 borrowing personal xx, 47,150, 243, 251 government xxviii—xxix, 113-14,150-1,255, 2 99,3°7,343,345-6 Bosch, Hieronymus 82 Bossuet,J.-B. 282,286 Boston 162 Botero, Giovanni 24 Bougainville, Louis-Antoine de 279 Bourbon dynasty 128, 226, 308-9, 365, 369 see also under individual rulers bourgeoisie 161, 264 Boyle, Robert 196-7 Boyne, battle of the 224 Brabant 129-30 Bracciolini, Poggio 64,69 Brahe, Tycho 80-1, 193 Brandenburg 95-6,104,213,314,317 Brandenburg-Prussia 217,220 elector of 178 brandy 240 Brazil 106,164-5, 2°8 bread 36-7,54, 239, 243, 278 see also cereals bread riots 346 see also famine, harvest failures Breisach 215,224 Breitenfeld, battle of (1631) 213 Bremen 215 Breslau 327 Breton language n brewers 142 see also beer Brissot, Jacques-Pierre 354-5,357 Bristol 167 Britain agriculture 241,251-2,337 Civil Wars 218—19 colonies 207—8,299,342-3,345 economy 252, 299 and the Enlightenment 291-3,295-6 government 204, 284-6, 314, 322, 324, 349, 351 incomes in 237 navy 303 political system 209, 304 taxation 363 trade 371 warfare 223-6, 303-4,320, 356-7, 360, 364-5 see also England; Scotland

383

Brittany 103,130,141 broadsheets 67 brotherhoods 84,100,183 Browne, Sir Thomas 266 Bruges 129 Brumaire coup 361 Brunfels, Otto 77 Bruni, Leonardo 64, 70 Brunswick, duke of 355 Brussels 177, 217 Brutus 287 Bucer, Martin 90 Buda 228 Bude, Guillaume 70 building industry 245 Bulgars 102 bullion 48,138,253-4 bundling 38 Bunyan,John 187,266,268 bureaucrats and bureaucracy xxix, 113,115, 117-19,126,133,139,150,162,204,220, 221,322-4,326,362-3 recruitment problems 327-8 Burgundy 46,103,106-7, '41 dukes of xxvi, 116; see also under individual dukes see also Franche-Comté Büring, J. G. 319 Burke, Edmund 9,13-14, 21-2, 273, 275, 278, 285-6,361 Byzantium 105 calico 153,245 Caligula, Emperor 9 Callot 211 Galonné, Charles-Alexandre de 344-5 Calvin, John 42,91-2,95,133,189 Calvinists and Calvinism 92-6,100,131,132, 176,180-1, 210, 217, 271 Cambridge 90 cameralism xxii, 254, 337 Cameron, Charles 290 Campanella, Tommasso 24,116 Campo Formio, Treaty of 360 canals 120, 160, 247, 257, 259—260 cancellaresca hand 64, 66 Canterbury 64 cantonal system, Prussian 316 Cape Town 207 capital and capitalism 155-6,164-5, 246~7, 255, 263-4, 277-8, 279-80 capital punishment 297,333 Capuchin Order 183 Caraffa, Gian Pietro 97 Cardano, Girolamo 203 Cardinals, College of 96 Caribbean 130,167 Carinthia 105

Index

384

Carlos II, king of Spain 222, 224, 301-2, 308 Carlowitz, Peace of 228, 300 Carolina 164 Caroline Islands 207 Carolingian minuscule 64 Cásale 223 Casaubon, Isaac 70,101 cash labour hypothesis 263 Castile xxvii, 103—4,114,121,138,141, 158 see also Spain Catalonia 103,215,217,219,245 Cateau-Cambrésis, Peace of 110,127 catechisms 92,98,181 Catherine of Aragon, queen of England 109 Catherine de ' Medici, queen regent of France 128 Catherine II 'the Great', Empress of Russia !3-J4, 255, 289,291-5, 328,333, 336, 339-40,342,368 Catholic Church 193-4, 289-91, 292, 330, 363 secularization of property, 349-50 and the state 282-3,335-6 see also Catholicism; papacy Catholicism xxv—xxvi, 81-7, 93, 95-101,123, 133, 165-6,171,178,182-3,209;289 Catholic leagues, 127-8,211 Cato 288 Cattaneo, Carlo 10 Catullus 74 cavalry 109 Caxton, William 31 celibacy, clerical 280 Celtis, Conrad 73 censorship 282, 291, 294-5 centralization, government 117, 220, 220-1 of justice 120-1 cereals 36-7, 47-9,59-61,131,145, 243 trade in 50,159,163,239,254, 280, 333 Ccvennes 166 Ceylon 208 Chaldaean, language 70 Champaigne, Philippe de 186, 213, 216 chapbooks 67 charcoal 147 Charlemagne 11-12,64,106,116 Charles I, king of England 177,181,218 Charles II, king of England 153,157,197, 218, 222-3

Charles III, king of Spain 292,294 Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor xxvii, 12,25, 95,97,106-11,116-17,120,124,127,137, 372 Charles VI, Holy Roman Emperor 224-5 Charles VIII, king of France 106,109 Charles IX, king oí France 128 Charles IX, king of Sweden 129 Charles XI, king of Sweden 305,308, 311 Charles XII, king of Sweden 209,229, 304-6,

3 1 1 >34i Charles of Styria 106 Charles the Bold, duke of Burgundy 103 charivari 45 charms 39,41-2 chemistry 199-200 Chesterfield, Lord 273,277,289 childbirth 39-40,218 children living conditions 258 work of 235-7,261 China 4, 9,16, 24,26-7,153,165, 209, 265, 327 china xxii, 153,159,162 chocolate 239, 258 Christ see Jesus Christ christening see baptism Christian III, king of Denmark 126 Christian IV, king of Denmark 211 Christianity xxv—xxvi, 2,10,101,165, 230 Enlightenment and 266-76 Renaissance impact on 73-5 rigorist movements in 174-5 seventeenth-century challenges to 189-91 see a/so Catholicism; Protestants and Protestantism; Orthodox churches chronometer 203 see also clocks Chrysoloras, Manuel 69 church government 126-7 in French Revolution 350 see also Catholicism, Protestants and Protestantism Churchill, John, duke of Marlborough 224-5, 307 churching of women 40, 218 Cicero 22—3,66,69 cities 7-9,55-6!, 115,147-54,168-9, 257, 325, 329 economies of 240 industries in 153-4 Reformation in 87-8,93,110,126 citizenship, concept of 348-9 Clausewitz, Carl von 365 Clement VII, Pope 96,117 clergy 31, 41-2, 90, 98,100,125-6,150,175, 182-3,185 Civil Constitution of 350,353 educationof 175,183 ClermontdeLodève 158 Cleves 133 clientage 117-18,128,325-6,362 climate 5 clocks xxii, 16,153,156, 201-3, 2 5^i 26° clothing 146,155,245,258 cloth trade 138,155-6,168 see also textiles and textile industry coal industry and coal trade 141,147,154,245,

Index 247,25 2

Cockaigne, Land of 53,62 Cockayne project 158 coffee xxi, 142,153,162, 239, 252, 258, 265 coffee-houses 152,265 coinage 148,157,203,254 debasement of 113,158,163 see also money Colbert, Jean-Baptiste 162, 310, 337 Colet, John 72 Coligny, Admiral 128 colleges, Russian system of 312-13 Cologne 25,55,127 colonial trade xxii, 157—64 colonies 161-70,190 Columbus, Christopher 16, 116,138 Comenius, Amos 192 commerce 120,145-6,148-50,157-64, 245, 280 see also trade Committee of Public Safety, French 357 common fields, loss of 51 communications 151-2,156,220,333 communism 286 composite monarchies 321,324-5 Comtat Venaissin 325 Comuneros 104 Concordat of 1802 363 Conde, Louis prince de 215 Condorcet, marquis de 273,294 confession of sins 82, 86-7,91,98,100 confraternities see brotherhoods conscience 275 conscription 312, 316, 325, 342, 356-7, 363, 367-8 Constant, Benjamin 288 Constantine, Emperor 116 Constantinople 116,124,138,151-2, 300, 339 see also Byzantium Constituent Assembly 294 Consulate, French 361—2 consumer goods and consumerism 246,257-64 Contarini, Gasparo 97 Continental System 366, 369 Convention, French see National Convention Copernicus, Nicolaus 78-80,172,193 copper trade 158 Corbie 215 Corday, Charlotte 359 Cordoba 153 Cornaro, Luigi 243 corporal punishment 292-3 Corpus Christi 84 see also Eucharist, real presence corruption 121 Corsica 280 Cosmas and Damián, Sts 98-9 cosmology xxiii—xxiv, 79-81,266 see also astronomy

385

cosmopolitanism 21-3, 281 Cossacks 103,115,370 cottage industry see putting-out cottars 141 cotton 159,245,252,258,278-9 Councils of the Church see Lateran Council, Trent councils, political 119 Counter-Reformation 38,42,51,55, 95-101, 124,126-33,175,183 Courland 229 courts: church 126 of justice, secular 120-1 rulers' xxvii, 116—19,128,169 Cracow 78 crafts and craftsmen 56-8,60 Cranach, Lukas, the Elder 89 creation, debates over 199 credit 150, 247 see also borrowing Crete 226 Crimea, the 339,354 'crisis', mid-seventeenth-century 218-19 Cromwell, Oliver 217-19, 265 Cromwell, Richard 219 Cromwell, Thomas 119 crops xxi, 145, 209, 242, 247 rotations 240, 242, 250 witches and 188 see also cereals crop yields 40—1,145,241-2 Cruce, Eymeric 26 crusades 87, 116, 124,179,300 curia, papal see papacy currency see money Cyprus 105 dairy farming 50 d'Alembert, Jean le Rond 21,292 Dalmatian coast 104 Danckelmann 310 Dante n Danton, Georges 294 Danube 225 Danzig 50, 102 Darien 162 Darwin, Charles xxiv, 297 David, Jacques-Louis 358-9 death attitudes to 42-3, 82-3 causes of 40 death penalty see capital punishment debasement of coinage 113 debt see borrowing Declaration of Independence, American 297 Declaration of the Rights of Man 293, 297, 343-9,35!

386

Index

decoration, household 153,245 deism 270-4, 285, 289 Delft 261 Dclmenhorst 325 demesne states 114 democracy 285-6, 288 demography see population Denmark 36, 80, 93,102—3, I I : 7 : I 4 > I ^3, 211, 215, 221, 229,304,313, 324-5, 335 Desargues 201 Descartes, René 194-7, 267 design, argument from 274 Dessau, battle of 211 Detwang 34 Devil, beliefs about 187-9 Devolution, War of 222—3 d'Holbach, Paul, baron 270,273-4,281, 286 diaries, spiritual 182,187 Diderot 19,21, 274,279,286,288, 291-2 diet: peasant 53-4,243 social differentiation 234 Diggers 181 Dioscorides 77 Directory, French Revolutionary 359, 361, 363 discipline, religious 100,174-5, T ^ 2 disease 40,112,120,142,199 explanations for 234 see also plague Dissenters, English 181 Dithmarschen 103 divination xx Donatus, Aelius 68 Dordrecht see Dort Dorp, Maarten 74 Dort, Synod of 180—i Dover, Secret Treaty of 222 dowries 38,57 dragonnades 178 drainage see land reclamation Drake, Francis 130 Dresden 370 Dublin 152,324 Dunes, battle of the 217 Dunkirk 217-18 Dürer, Albrecht 33 Dutch language 165 Dutch Reformed Church 180-1 Dutch Republic colonies 207-8 Descartes in 195 economic policies 157-60,169-70, international influence xxx, 304 manufacturing in 246 political structures 130, 208, 345, 372 privateers 138 religious policies 176 social and economic conditions 49-50, 237,

247, 260-1,371 state funding 114, 204, 307 warfare 132-3,178,210-11,222-4, 3°3~4, 348,356,360 see also Holland; Low Countries; Netherlands Dutch revolt see Netherlands, Revolt of the Dutch War (1672-5) 222 see also Dutch Republic; Low Countries; Netherlands dykes 271 dysentery 40,234 East, trade with 138,170, 208 Easter customs 84 East India Company, Dutch 165 East India Company, English 161 East Indies 138,165,239 Eck, Johann 127 economics 296 economy 31— 62passim, 137—70passim, developed xvii—xviii Enlightenment and 276-80 expansion of xxi—xxii state management of 120,277 traditional xx Edict of Restitution 177 Edinburgh 143,156,161,324 education 291 control of 126,172,255, 282,288,335-6 theories of 72,92, 101,292-4 Edward VI, king of England 103,113 Egypt 105,282,360,361,368 Elam 27 Elba 370 Elbe 46-7,140,154,169, 215, 333 Elizabeth I, queen of England 106, 1 1 1 , 1 1 6 , 119,126 Elizabeth, queen of Bohemia 133 émigrés 351-3,363 Empire, French 362—71 employment see work enclaves 325 enclosure 51,145 Encyclopédie 21,288,290 energy, sources of 147 England 102-3, 106, 124, 130, 137, 218-19, 222-4 agriculture xxi, 36-7,51-3, 144-5,242, 250 Arminianism in 181 Church of 93,126,181 colonies 157,170 economy 49-50,144,151,237,261 Exchequer 151 exports 138, 144, 168 government xxvi, 282, 329 industrialization in 246-7 inheritance cusioms 34-5 interest rates 150

Index Jesuits in 98 landholding 141,144 law courts 121 law on vagrancy 61 Lollards 82 manufacturing 245-6, 260 Parliament 144,218 population 48,139,144,233,247 religious persecution in 95 Reformation in 92-3 Renaissance in 63 Republican period 178,218-19 social change 52-3,169 religion xxvi taxation 112—13 textile industry 155-6 trade xxii, 162-4, '68,170 union with Scotland 303 warfare 217 witch prosecutions in 188 see also Britain English Civil War 181,218-19 'Enlightened absolutism' and 'enlightened despots' 230, 255,278, 284, 289,294, 333-9 passim Enlightenment xix, xxiv, 189, zfvj-cij passim, 298,320,322-3,333,336-7 Enseñada, marquis of 309 entrepôts 252 entrepreneurs see merchants entry-fines 51 Erasmus of Rotterdam 71-4, 90,100,117 Ergersheim 41 Escorial 116 estates see representative assemblies Estates-General, French see France Esterháza 331 Esterházy, Prince Nikolaus the Magnificent 331-2 Esterházy dynasty 331-2 Estonia 103,229,305 ethics, Enlightenment 271,273 Eucharist 83—5,116 Eucharistie wafers 90 see also mass Eugene of Savoy, Prince 225,228,302 Europa, myth of i Europe, definition of xix—xx, 1-7 Euscbius 66 Evelyn, John 201 evil, problem of 273-4 evolution, theory of xxiv, 266, 274, 277, 281 exchange, bills of see bills of exchange experimental method 192,196-7 faction 118-19,128,221 factories 245, 247, 263 faith, reformed doctrine of 91

387

family 126, 364 Counter-Reformation attitudes to 183,185 organization of work within 235-6 Protestant attitudes to 185 size of 39,139 famine 49—50,120,138,168,234, 255, 278, 346 Fanti, Sigismondo 64 farming, see agriculture; arable farming; dairy farming Farnese family 96 Faroe Islands 325 fashions 155,258 Federation Day 352 Fehrbellin, battle of 223 Peltre, Vittorino da 72 Fénelon, Archbishop 266,268,288 Ferdinand, king of Aragon 124 Ferdinand I, Holy Roman Emperor 106, 109-10 Ferdinand II, Holy Roman Emperor (formerly Ferdinand archduke of Styria) 132,177, 210-11,213-14,372 Ferdinand III, Holy Roman Emperor 196 Ferdinand VI, king of Spain 309 Ferguson, Adam 15 Ferneres, marquis de 279 fertility: agricultural 144-5 human 143, 233 Fertöd 331 festivals, religious 84 feudalism 279 feudal rights 141 Ficino, Marsilio 70 Fielding, Henry 271 Finland 229, 237 Gulf of 306 firearms 111,207 see also musket fiscality see taxation Fischer von Erlach, J. B. 302 Flamsteed, John 198 Flanders 49, 95,107,113,121,129-30, 217 Army of 210, 215, 217 flax 144,155,252 fleets 111-12,116,133,307 Fleurus, battle of 357 Florence 68,111,114,117,261,290 Fludd, Robert 173 fluijt 159 flyboat see fluijt folk-healers 41,187,259 Fontcnellc 266-7 food: cost of 145-6 state control of 120 supply xxi,48, 138, 147-8,209,239 Fortezza da Basso, 111

388

Index

fortification xxviii, 111-12, 207 Foucault, Michel 15 Fouquier-Tinville 357 'Four Last Things' 82 France 25,102,124,130,137,168,237, 246 agriculture 145, 222, 242, 346 army 221-2,307-8,347,361,365 bourgeoisie 264 bureaucracy 162 clergy 347,353 colonies 157,207-8 conflict with Britain 342-3 conflict with Habsburgs 106-8, no, 129,179, 211-18, 223, 302-3 conflict with Spain 217-19,222 court 116,128 decline in late eighteenth century 342-4 economy 346, 363, 371 in eighteenth-century Europe 298-9, 302-3 Empire 362-71 and the Enlightenment 291-4, 295, 297 Estates-General 343-4,346-7, 349 finances 151, 215, 343, 345-6,349-50,363 government 322, 325, 329 foreign relations xxix—xxx, 130, 206-7, 2O9, 211-18,221-6,319 influence on other states 308-10 inheritance customs 34-5 late Middle Ages xxvi nobility 115,128-9,161, 220, 282, 347-8, 362-3,371 peasantry 32,52-3,114, 141 politics 209 population 48,139,144,222,233,264,346,366 prefects 362-3 Protestants in 127-9, 2 I l ~ 1 3, 221 , 353 Reformation in 92 religion in xxv religious conflict in 95,123,127-9 Renaissance in 63 taxation system xxviii, 112,141, 217, 343 trade 164 venality of office 121,329 village assemblies 43 warfare 209, 321, 342 witch prosecutions in 188 see also Revolution, French Franche-Comté xxvii, 46,107,223 see also Burgundy Franciscan Order 86,124 Francis Stephen, grand duke of Tuscany 324 Franck, Sebastian 48 François I, king of France 13,103,106,108, no, 116,118,128 François II, king of France 128 Franconia 40 Frankfurt-am-Main 59,156,213 Frederick II 'the Great' (1740-86), king of

Prussia 13, 254-5, 284, 292, 294, 306, 315-20, 326-8, 333-5, 337-8, 340, 342 Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor 106 Frederick III and I, Elector of BrandenburgPrussia and king of Prussia (1688-1713) 310 Frederick IV, king of Denmark 229 Frederick V, Elector Palatine and King of Bohemia 132-3,177,210 Frederick William, Elector of BrandenburgPrussia, the'Great Elector' 223 Frederick William I, king of Prussia (1713-40) 3 I 4- I 5,3 I 7, 3 2 °- I ,3 26 Frederick William II, king of Prussia (1786-97) 34/,354 Frederiksten 305 freemasonry see Masonic lodges Freiburg 223 French language 11,166,289,298 French revolutionary wars 354-61 Friedland, battle of 365 Fricsland 103 Friuli 105 Fronde, the 213,217,219 Fructidor coup 359 fruit 153, 243 Fuchs, Leonhart 77 Fugger, Anton 56 Gabor, Bethlen, prince of Transylvania 132 Gaelic lords 104 Galen of Pergamum 75,77 Galilei, Galileo 80-1,193-4, 203, 290 Gascony 103,217 Gassendi, Pierre Gelderland 103, U4 gender, work division by 36-7 General Directory, Prussian 315, 320 Genesis, Book of xxiv Geneva 94-5, 144, 345 Genoa 103,167 George II, king of England 153 George III, king of England 345 German language 166 Germany xxx, 25,102,138, 225, 237, 313, 365-6, 371,374 agriculture 242 cities 103,126,148,153,345 and the Enlightenment 291 government xxvi—xxvii, 109, 299 inheritance customs 34-5 Jesuits in 98,126-7, : 9 J journeymen's culture 9jf peasantry 52-5 Pietism xxvi, 291 population 48,139 princes 115,179, 214, 217,222, 225, 367; and the Reformation, 125-6

389

Index Protestant churches in i 82 Reformation in 87-90, 92-3, 95-6 religious customs 84 Renaissance in 63 society in 34—5 towns 55 vagrancy laws 61 village assemblies 43,45 witch hunts in 42,188 see also Holy Roman Empire;, Peasants' War; Thirty Years War Gesner, Konrad xxiv, 77 Ghent 104,129 Gianni, Francesco Maria 338 Gibraltar 225 Girondins 359 Glasgow 167 glass industry 147,156,245 Glorious Revolution, English 224, 304 Goa 106 gold 254 see also bullion goldsmiths 57,150-1 Gontard, K. von 319 Good Hope, Cape of 138 government: publications 119-20 see also states and state-formation Goya 367 grace, doctrines of 83,91 grain see cereals grain levies 299, 311 Granada 103 'Grand Design' 25 grand tour 319 Granvelle 108 G raunt, John 204 Great Britain see Britain Great Northern War see Northern War Greece 228 Greek Church 81 Greek language 63,66-7,69—70 Greek literature 68-70 G reek mythology 1-2 Greek New Testament 74 Greek people 102 Greek thought 4-8,14-15, 26, 27, 68 Greenland 325 Greenwich 198 Treaty of 103 Gregory I, Pope 83-5 Gresham College 203 Griffo, Francesco 66 Grolier, Jean 67 Groningen 103 Guarino da Verona 72 Guericke, Otto van 196 Guerre, Martin 47

guilds and guild-masters 57-60,154-5,250-1, 279> 2 8 4,3 2 5 Guise family 128 Gustav Vasa, king of Sweden 126 Gustav III, king of Sweden 305 Gustavus Adolphus, king of Sweden 126, 177-8,211-14, 216, 229,305 Gutenberg, Johannes Gensfleisch zum 65 Guyenne 104 see also Gascony Guyon, Madame 185 Habeas Corpus, suspension of 296 Haarlem 142,154 Haarlcmsc Meer 147 Habsburg dynasty court 191 possessions xxvii,xxix, 25,105,137-8, 215, 324,366,369 propaganda 116 rivalries with other powers 106-10,129,179, 2'3,

warfare 114,177,210-11,224-6 see also under individual rulers Habsburg monarchy administration 321,326,328,330 commercial weakness 138 composite structure 324 Counter-Reformation in 127,131-3 division (1556) 25,137 economic policies 333 military structures 302-3,316,321 warfare 300—3, 321 see also Austria; Holy Roman Empire; Spain; entries under individual rulers Haggard, H. Rider 19 Hague, The 152,208 H akluyt, Richard 165 Halberstadt 315 Halley, Edmund 197-8,204 Hamburg 153,164,167 Hanover 323 harmonies, theory of 173 Harriott, Thomas 193 Harrison, John 203 Hartlib, Samuel 192,201 harvest failures 40, 61, 235,278, 346 see also famine Harvey 194-5 Hay, Archibald 73 Haydn, Joseph 332 health: state provision for 255,282 see also life expectancy Hebrew 21,70 Hegel, G. W. F. 3 , 5 height, human 234 Helvétius, Claude-Adrien 271-3, 275, 279-81,

390

Index

286-7 Hemp, Hans 38 Henri II, king of France 106, 127 Henri III, king of France 128 Henri IV, king of France 119, 120, 128—9, r3°; 133,226 Henry VII, king of England 124 Henry VIII, king of England 109,113,119,126 Heraclides Ponticus 79 Hercules, Jacob Fransz. 257 Hercules, pillars of 107 Herder, ]. G. 23 Hereford 3 heresy 82,95,296 Hermes .see Hermetic corpus Hermetic corpus 70,172 Hermonymos, Georgius 69-70 Herodotus 1,4—6,15 Hesse 95 Hildesheim 127 history, sense of 69 hoarding 49 Hobbes, Thomas 192-3,195, 282 Hohenlindcn, battle of 364 Hohenlohe 35 Hohenzollern dynasty 242,292,310, 314, 326, 328,366,369 see also Prussia Holbach, baron d' see d'Holbach Holland 129,159-60,180-1,223 see also Netherlands; Dutch Republic Holstein 325 Holy Office see Inquisition Holy Roman Empire 25,102,106-10,137, 210, 2I 7, 3 2 5,3 6 5> 37 2 ,374 government xxvii, xxx law code 121 Reichstag 90 Holy Week rituals 84 Hondschoote 59 Hooke, Robert 198,201,203 Horace 9 Horni Litvinov 245 hospitals 338 household: furnishings 245 income 236 industry 245; see also putting-out structure xx, 32—7, 140, 235—6 work 235-6, 240 'house peace' 34 housing 152-3, 259 Hudson's Bay 224-5 Huguenots 128,156,166,216,219 cultural influence of refugees 191-2, 221 see also France, Protestants in humanists 70-5, 120,288 see also Renaissance

humamtas 72 Hume, David 22,24,271,274,281 humours, theory of 77-8 Hungary xxvii, 36,105-6, no, 131, 206,225-8, 2 94,3°°,3 2 4,3 28 -9, 332-3, 345 Huntingdon, earl of 95 Hus, Jan 133 Hutchcson, Francis 286 Huygens, Christian 195, 197, 201, 203 Huygcns, Constantijn 153 Hyde Park 320 hygiene, municipal 259 lamblichus 70 Iceland 325 iconoclasm 95 ignorance 273, 277,278,281,285, 296 illegitimacy 38 illiteracy see literacy image-breaking see iconoclasm imperialism 21 income, estimates of 236-9 mdelningsverket 311, 316 India 18,24,208,224,342 Indonesia 156 indulgences: belief in 86-7, 90-1 Luther's ninety-five theses against 88 'industrious revolution' 261-3 industry, rural see putting-out industry and industrialization xxii, 147,150, 153-6,154-6,170, 235, 245-51,260,262-4, 297,371 Ingolstadt 132 Ingria 229, 305 infertility 39 inflation 48, 138, 261 see also 'price revolution' influenza 234 inheritance customs 66f, 52 Innocent XI, Pope 226,228 inoculation 234 Inquisition, Roman 97,188,290 Inquisition, Spanish 188,289 instruments, scientific 197—8, 200—3 insurance 142 intendants: in France 220, 308-9 in Savoy-Piedmont 309-10 in Spain 308-9 interest rates 150 Iran 105,226 Ireland 104, 129,139,156,163,218,235, 324 iron and iron industry 147,156,252-3 Isabella, queen of Castile 124 Islam 105,137,160,165-6 Istanbul see Constantinople Italian language 11,67,69

Index italic hand 64,66-7 Italy 13,102,237,360,362,364,372 agriculture 145,243 cities 49,103,154,167 and the Enlightenment 290-1 government xxvi, 299 Habsburgsin 108,110,138,218,324 industry 163 invasion of, 1494 96,111 'kingdom of 365 mercenaries in 115 peasantry 32 plague in 265 Renaissance in 64 Ivan IV'the Terrible', tsar of Muscovy 115, 228 Jacobins 295,355,362,363 Jagiellon dynasty 105,130 Jamaica 164 James VI and I, king of Scotland and England 103, 126, 129, 133, 177 James II, king of Scotland and England 224 Janscn, Cornelius 180 Jansenists 180,186,221,276,291 Japan 24,26, 165 Jason 116 Java 165 Jena, battle of 365, 368 Jenson, Nicolas 66 Jerome, St 2,68 Jerusalem 3 Jesuit Order 16, 98,100,126,132,177,183 suppression of 336 Jesus Christ 74, 91 representations of 84 Jews 120,150,166, 218, 282, 335—6, 350 John Frederick, Elector of Saxony 125 John Sobieski, king of Poland 226, 228 Johnson, Samuel 284, 289 joint stock companies 159,286 Joseph I, Holy Roman Emperor 302 Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor 255, 292, 294, 323-4, 328-30,335-6 JoseplunischeLandesaufnahme 323, 330 Josselin, Ralph 67,182 journeymen 93^95^250 judicial office, venality of 121 Jülich 133 Julius II, Pope 96 Julius Caesar 116 Junkers 317,330 justice I2O-I justification, doctrines of 91, 97-8,179-81 Justinian, Emperor 10 Kant, Immanuel 6,22, 26,27-8 Karelia 305 Karlowitz, Peace of see Carlowitz

391

Karlstadt, Andreas 95 Kaunitz, Wenzel Anton von 319, 326, 330 Kay, battle of 342 Kazan 327-8 Kchl 224 Kepler, Johannes xxiv, 80-1,173,192-3,198, 200 Kexholm 229, 305 Kcyncs, J. M. 278 Kiev 228 King, Gregory 144 Kinsale 130 Kircher, Anastasius 191 Kissling, Georg 41 Klopstock, F. G. 289 Koblenz 225, 355 Köprülü dynasty 226 Kosciuszko, Tadeusz 341 Kricgclstcin, Freiherr Friedrich Binder von 326 Kuelwein, Hans 34 Kunersdorf, battle of 342 labourers 58,141, 250, 262-3, 278-80 labour force, changes in 247-51 lace-makers 59 Lactantius i, TO Ladislas II, king of Bohemia and Hungary 118 Lafayette, marquis de 348 laissez-faire xxii, 157,170 Lameth, Alexandre comte de 348 La Mettrie, Julien Offroy de 274, 292 Lancashire 147, 278 land and landholding xx—xxi, 46-7,48,140-1, 144-7, i 2 ^9> 333 liberty, concepts of 283-8, 293-4, 348-9, 362 Liège 127,156 life expectancy 143-4,234-5, 237-9, 265 lighting: domestic 258 municipal 152 Lille 61,156,222 linen 153 Lipsius, Justus 122-3 Lisbon 49, 148,164 literacy 55, 67,117,120,154,170, 237,239,258, 2»4, 2 9 I 1 33° Lithuania 64,81,95,102,130-1 Liverpool 148,167 livestock 33-4,235,240, 242,243, 247 Livonia 103,115,229,305 Livorno 117 Livy 9 local government 329-33 Locke, John 189,268,270, 274, 279, 287 Lollards 82 London 49-50, 72, 143,148, 152-3,161,164, 202, 204, 218, 246, 260, 320 Loo, JohanClacsz. van 142 Lords, House of 161 Lorenzo the Magnificent 84 Lorraine 107,110 lotteries 151 Louis XII, king of France 103,106,124 Louis XIII, king of France 177, 211, 213-14, 216, 226 Louis XIV, king of France 10-11,144,154,158, 162,166,178-9,186, 206,209,218, 220-6,

260, 282, 303, 308—10,320, 322, 337, 343, 348,366,372 Louis XV, king of France 226, 314, 322, 342-3 Louis XVI, king of France 291, 345-7, 353, 355-6,37i Louis XVIII, comte de Provence 359, 371 Louisiana 209 Louvain 74,123 Low Countries xxi, 25,63,93,102,137-8, 218, 224,241,246,364 see also Belgium, Dutch Republic, Netherlands Low Countries, Southern see Belgium Lübeck 93 Lublin, Union of 130 Lucretius 74 Luné ville, Treaty of 364 Lusatia 132 Luther, Martin 87-91, 96,104,127,133,137, 189 Lutherans and Lutheranism xxvi, 92-3,95-6, 102,109—10,127,131—2 Lutter, battle of 211 Lützen, battle of 178,213-14 Lycurgus 288, 296 lying-in 39-40 Lyons 59-61,65,70,167 Maastricht 221 Macanaz, Melchior de 308 Machiavelli, Niccolô 6,73,123, 288 Madison, James 6, 26 Madrid 114,148,153,158,177, 215, 303, 308, 367 Treaty of 108 Magdeburg 213,315 Magdeburg spheres 196 Magellan, Ferdinand 138 Maggi, Ottaviano 10-11 magic xx, 34, 78,101,173,189 see also folk-healers Mainz 65 maize 145 Majorca 160 Malacca 208 Malebranche, Nicolas 195 Malta 105 Manege 351 Manger, H. L. 319 Mansfeld, Ernest count of 211 Mansfeld, J. E. 335 Mantuan Succession, War of 213 manufacturing 244-51,260,333,346 Manutius, Aldus 66—7 Manuzio, Paolo 71 map-making 198,203,323 MappaMundi 3 maps of Europe, early 3-4 Marat, Jean-Paul 292,355,358-9 Marengo, battle of 364

Index Margaret, St 42 Marianas 207 Maria Theresa, Empress of Austria 292, 324, 328-30,336 Marie Antoinette 353-4 Marignano, battle of 103 markets 38,50, tjrf, 146, 238—9, 246—7, 252—3, 264,277-8 Marlborough, duke of see Churchill Marmontel, Jean-François 294 marriage: attitudes to 185 civil 218 of clergy 93 customs 38—9,45 patterns 37-9,140, 234-5 Marseillaise, the 361 Marseilles 142,167, 259, 265 Marston Moor, battle of 218 Martianus Capella 68 Marx, Karl 279 Marxism 87 Mary, the Virgin 42-3, 83, 86, 90, 98 Mary I Tudor, queen of England 106 Mary Queen of Scots 103,129 Masonic lodges 276 mass, Catholic 83—5, 91, 95—6, 98, 335 see also Eucharist 'Mass of St Gregory' 84-5 Massachusetts 164 master craftsmen see guilds and guild-masters materialism 257-64 Matsys, Quentin 71 Matthias, Holy Roman Emperor 131-2 Maurice of Nassau 130 Maximilian I, Holy Roman Emperor 11,103, 109,116 Maximilian I, duke of Bavaria 123,132,177, 211 Mazarin, Cardinal 217,219,221,310 meat 243 mechanistic philosophy 189-90, 193-7 mechanization in textile industry 235 Mecklenburg 213 Medici dynasty 96,111,114,117 see also Lorenzo the Magnificent medicine 78,98-9,142,199,256-9 Medina Sidonia, duke of 150 Mediterranean 5-6,12,50, HI, 138,147,163-4, i 6 7,3 0 9,337 Megerler, Anna 56 mercantilism xxii, 157,170,254, 310, 337 Mercator, Gerardus 64 mercenaries 112,115 merchants 59,161, 247-51, 253-4, 277-8 see also commerce; putting-out system merchant ships 260 Mersenne, Marin 194 Mcslier,Abbé 286

393

Mesmer, Franz Anton 276,291 metalworking 59,201,245 Methodism xxvi, 271, 276, 291 metric system 350 Metz 25, no Mexico 18,24,27,165 me^adn 243 microscope 198 midwives 39, 42,57, 187 migration 50,54,58,61,156 beyond Europe 161,164 seasonal 251 Milan 96,107,121,123-4,148,163, 210, 225,324 millenarian beliefs see Second Coming ministries, governmental 321-2 Minorca 225 Mirabeau, comte de 348,353 mirrors 258 'Mississippi Bubble' 246 mobility see migration modernity, meaning of xvii—xix Mohammed 288 Moivre, Abraham de 204 molasses 153 Moldavia 105 Moluccas 106,208 Mombasa 207 monarchy 206, 209, 320-30 passim attitudes to 337 composite 324-5 constraints on 220-1 personal nature of 326 see also absolutism money 148-50 see also coinage; taxation Monnet, Jean 28 monasticism 93,96,126,335 monopolies 120,162 Mons, siege of 221 monsters 173 Montaigne, Michel de il Montesquieu 6,12,13,266,268, 273-4, 280, 284-5,294 Montmorency, constable of 112 Montmorency family 128 Montrnorency-Châtillons 95 Montrnorency-Damville, Henri de 128 moral reform 189 see also discipline Moravia 105,131—2,158 More, Thomas 117 Morcllet, Abbé 286 Morelly 271,275,290 Moriscos 166 Moroccans 124 mortality rates 40,143-4, 204, 233-5 mortgages 150 Moscow 115,229,246,370

Index

394 Moses 288 movable type see printing Mozambique 207 Mozart, W. A. 273 Mühlberg, battle of 125 Müller, Adam 25 Müller, Heinrich 53 Munich 213 Münster: city of 104-5,127 Treaty of 215 Münster, Sebastian 18,20-1 Murat, Joachim 365—6 Muratori, Ludovico Antonio 337 Murray, Sir Robert 161 Muscovy 103,114-15,131 see also Russia musket xxviii, 109,207, 307 Muslims see Islam, Ottoman Empire Mustafa I, Ottoman Sultan 105 mutual societies 258 mysticism 185

nails 248-50 Namur 143, 221 Nantes 25,148,167 Edict of, and its Revocation 128-9, 1 7^~9> 184,221 Naples 96,107, no, 112,114,123, 215, 225, 361, 365-6, 369 Napoleon xxviii, 10,14, 27, 255, 294, 303, 365-7i, 372-4 see also Bonaparte Napoleonic Code 363-4 Napoleonic Wars 23,296,364-71 Narva, battle of 229,311 Naseby, battle of 218 Nassau, Maurice of 130 National Assembly, French 347-9, 351-3 National Convention, French 294, 356, 359 National Guard, French 347 nationalism 288,299,361,372 Nations, Battle of the 368 nation-states 137 see also under individual countries natural philosophy 75-81,171-4,191-205^x11-

sim see also science nature, attitudes to 265-7, 270-1, 273-5, 277~8, 281, 289, 297 Navarre 103 navies 111—12,206,307 Navigation Acts, English 157 navigation techniques 198,203 Necker, Jacques 279 Neerwinden, battle of 356 Neoplatonist philosophy 70,73, 78, 80,172 Netherlands xxi, xxvii, 92-3,95-6,103,105,

106, i IQ, 112, 120, 144—5, ' 5°— T , I( ^5, r ^9, 291-2,371 Austrian 294,303,324,345 kingdom of 365,369 Revolt of the 49,95-6,129-30,158,178,219 Spanish 210,215,223-4,225,303 see also Dutch Republic Neumann, Balthasar 19 New Amsterdam 208 Newcastle upon Tyne 154 New England 164 Newfoundland 225 'New Palace', Potsdam 318-20 news, gathering of 152 newspapers 258,291 Newton, Isaac xxiv, 192—3,197—200,203,205, 267-8, 274, 279 New World see Americas New York 208 Niemen 314 Nietzsche, F. 27-8 Nijmegen, Treaty of 223-4 Niklashausen 43 Nile, battle of the 360 nitrogen-fixing crops 242 Noah 2 Noailles, vicomte de 348 nobility 115—17,120-3, ^^ ^^ 220, 280, 299, 3'3,330-3,335,371 Prussian see Junkers Nogari, Giuseppe 248-9 Nordic countries see Scandinavia Nördlingen, battle of 214 Norfolk system 242 Normandy 35,103,128 Norris, Sir John 112 North Sea 156 Northampton 153 Northern War, Great (1700-21) 206, 228-9, 304-5,306,311,314 Norway 48,102,235,325 Nova Scotia 225 Novalis 25 novel, the modern 260 Novgorod 115 nunneries 335 Nuremberg 55-7, 59, 61, 65, 93, 103, 167 Nystad, Peace of 229, 305 observatories 198 'occult philosophy' 173—4 Ochakov crisis 13-14 Oder 215 Odessa 339 Okeley 160 Okhotsk 207 Oldenburg 325 Olivares, count-duke of 177,214

Index Optics 2OO

Oratorian Order 183 Ordnance Survey, British 323 organs 92 Orthodox churches 2,81,166,290 Osnabrück, Treaty of 215 Ottoman Empire xxx, 13, 24,64, 81,102, 105-6, 109-12,115-16, 131,163,165-6,179, 199, 226,228, 300—2, 321,339,341 see also Turks and Turkey Oudenaarde, battle of 225 Overijssel 103 Oxenstierna, Axel 177 Pacific 206-7 Paderborn 127 Padua 75, 78,193 Pailhes 47 Paine, Thomas 294 paintings 258 Palatinate 132 Palermo 148,215 Paltzig, battle of 342 panegyrics 73 Panin, Nikita 336 Pannartz, Arnold 66 papacy, Roman 81, 87, 95-7, 124, 179-80, 189, T

94,353) 3 6 3

Papal States 96,123,292 paper 155 Paracelsus, Thcophrastus xxiv, 77,172 Paris 50, 65-6,128,130,143,148,152,198,241, 246, 258-61,285,370 in the Revolution 347, 350-2,355-7, 361 parishes 330 Parlements, French 220, 284 Partition Treaties 224 Pascal, Biaise 196,201,203,205 Passarowitz, Peace of 228, 300 Patino, José 308 patriarchy 34,126, [85 patronage artistic 117,169 ecclesiastical 125-6,218,290 political 117-18,325-6,362 Paul III, Pope 96 Paul IV, Pope 97 Pavia, battle of (1525) 108-9 Pavia, battle of (1655) 217 pawning and pawnbroking 150-1,251 Pazzi conspirators 83-4 peasant élites 52, 251 peasantry 32-55passim, 114-15,121,140-1, 235-6,243,250-1,285 military service required of 299, 312, 316 Peasants' War, German (1524-5) 43,45,51,55, 58, 61,104 peat 147

395

Pecham, John, Archbishop of Canterbury 83 Peenemünde 213 Pelagians 179 penance 82,86-7, 91 Pensacola 208 Pentarchy, the 299 Pernambuco 166-7 Perpignan 215 Persia i, 16, 27 Peru 16,18,24, 27 Peter the Great, tsar of Russia 13, 206-7, 228-30,290, 304-5,311-14, 341 Peterwardein, battle of 228 Petty, Sir William xxiv, 144,151,204 Pheasants, Isle of 217 Philip, duke of Burgundy 73 Philip II, king of Spain xxvii—xxviii, 10, 25, 96, 106, no, 113,116,119,123,129—30,138,148 Philip III, king of Spain 123-4,158 Philip IV, king of Spain 177, 214,217, 222 Philip V, king of Spain, formerly duke of Anjou 22 4-5,3°3 Philippines 165, 207 Philippsburg 224 Philolaus 79 Philosophes 286,289,291-2,294-6 physiocrats 337 Picardy 106,155 Piedmont see Savoy-Piedmont Piedmontese language 11 Pietism xxvi, 291 pike xxviii, 109,112 pilgrimage 335 Pilgrimage of Grace 104 Pilgrim's Progress 266 pins 248-50 pirates 160-1,167 see also privateers Pitt, William 13 Pius VII, Pope 363 plague xxi, 40,48, 87,138-9,142,199, 233-4, 265 planetary motion 78-81,193-4 plantations see colonies Plato 70 plebiscites 362 Pliny the Elder 75 Plotinus 70 Pluche, Abbé 271,273 Podolia 228 Poland and Poland-Lithuania 102-3, I 3 O ^ I > T 5 ^ ) 166, 211, 226, 228-9, 2^8, 2 95, 3°o, 304, 306,321,332,336,345,368 agriculture xxi, 239, 242 cities 58 Jesuits in 98 partitions of 339—41,366 Protestants in 95

396

Index

Pole, Reginald 97-8 polio 142 polis 7-8 political economy 144,204 political thought 123,282-8,337 poll tax, Russian 312-13,328,330 Poltava, battle of 229,305, 312 Pomerania (East and West) 213, 215, 305, 314, 3'7 Poniatowski, Stanislas Augustus, king of Poland 340 poor relief 61,120,126 Pope, Alexander 270-1,281,283,287 popes see papacy; and names of individual popes popular politics 350-1,372 population xxi, 47-50,52-5,58,104,120,138-9, 2I 9, 2 33-5, 202 , 337 mobility of 54 porcelain see china Porphyry 70 portents 41 portrait medallions 71 Port-Royal 186 Portugal 12,102,106,120,130,138-9,164-5, 167, 207-8, 215, 219, 221, 225, 372

Portuguese language 165 Posen roí postal services 257 potatoes 145,242,258 Potsdam 318-20 pottery 147,258 poverty 120,138, 237 rural 52-5 urban 58-61 Prague 80,210,213,215 'defenestration of Prague' 132 Peace of 214 Praise of Folly 73,117 prefects, French 362-3 pregnancy 39 Presbyterianism 218 Preston, battle of 218 Priam 116 'price revolution' 48 priesthood see clergy primitive, cult of the 281 printing and the press xxii—xxiii, 65-7,101, 120, 154,166,172, 291-2, 295, 351 pnsca tlieologia 172 prisca sapientia 192,204 Priscianus of Caesarea 68 privateers 130,138,161 see also pirates privilege xviii—xix, xxxi, 220,325, 348-9 ecclesiastical 335 probability, theory of 203 processions, religious 84 Proclus 70

Prodigal Son 33 propaganda, state 116-20 property 286-8, 364 prophets 124 protectionism, economic 333 Protectorate, English 218-19 Protestants and Protestantism 2, 38,56-7,61, 67,69, 87-96,98,120,125-33,137, l66 , J 7i, 174, 178, l8l-2, 221, 269, 290,335-6,350

Protestant spirituality 181-2 proto-industrialization 247—51 Provence 103,112 Provence, comte de 359 Provençal language u proverbs see Adages provinces and provincialism 325, 329-30, 332-3 Prussia 137, 209, 239,242, 252, 255, 292, 297, 2 99, 300, 314-22,326-8, 33°> 33 2 ,335, 340-2,348,360,365-6,368 cities 58 Pruth, river 229 Ptolemy 78,193 public opinion 283 pulpit 94^5,33° Purchas, Samuel 2,15-16 purgatory 82,90,91 putting-out system 53-4,59,154-6, 247-51 Pyrenees 42,156, 223 Peace of the 217-18 Pythagoras 72,79,81 Quakers 181 quarantine 120,199 Quebec 207-8 Quesnay, François 254 Quintilian 69 Rabelais, François 63,70,72 Radishchev, A. N. 295 Radziwill family 95,332 Ralegh, Sir Walter 117 Ramillies, battle of 225 Rastrelli, Bartolomeo 290 Ratdolt, Erhardt 66 RaynaljAbbe 294 real presence 83-5,189,195 see also Eucharist, mass 'reason of state' xix, 123 record-keeping, government 119,139 recruitment, military see armies, recruiting re-enscrfment 58, 62 see also serfs and serfdom referendarn 31 o Reformation xxv, 42,51,55,57, 87-96,172 core theology of 91-2 political consequences of 124,126-30 see also Protestants and Protestantism 'Reform Catholicism' 334-5, 337

Index refugees 120,156 Regensburg 97 Reichstag 90 see also Holy Roman Empire relics 39,90 religion: in the late Middle Ages 81 and the Reformation 87-96 and seventeenth-century crisis 219 and seventeenth-century science 171-4 in the eighteenth century 272, 276-7,289-91, 300 in the nineteenth century 296 see also Christianity; Catholicism; Protestants and Protestantism religion, wars of 123-4,127-9,133 religious art 82,98-100 religious motives in politics 176-9 religious music 92-3 religious violence 95-6 remarriage 37,40 Remonstrants 180 Renaissance 63-75,100-1,106,242 similarities to Reformation 90-1 rents 51 representative assemblies 115,121,127,131,144, 324, 3 2 9;333,3 62 representative government 284-5, 2 ^9 republicanism, French 351,353-5 resistance, theory of 121 Restitution, Edict of 177 retailing see markets reunions 224 Reval 229 Revocation of the Edict of Nantes 178-9,184, 221

Revolution, French xix, xxx—xxxi, 141, 255, 279, 286, 288,292-3,298,322-3,333,344, 345-61 passim and the Enlightenment 293-6 Revolutionary wars, French 354-61 revolts 104 peasants' 51,104 princes' 110 see also Peasants' War Reymerswaele, Marinus van 113 rhetoric 72-3 Rhine 221, 223 Rhineland 92,224,314,356,360 Rhodes 105 Rhône valley 363 Ricci, Matteo 16 rice 145 Rich, Mary, countess of Warwick 185-6 Richardson, Samuel 289 Richelieu, Cardinal 177,179,211—14, 214, 2I 9, 221

Richerism 290-1

397

rickets 142 Riga 229 Rijswick, Treaty of 224 riksdag, Swedish, 305 Ripa, Cesare 18 roads 120, 152, 160-1, 209, 257, 259, 333, 363 Roanncz, duc de 201 Robespierre, Maximilien de 279, 294-5, 355, 357,359.3o0-1 Rochefoucauld, duc de la 294, 348 Rocroi 217 battle of 215 Roman alphabet 64—5 Roman Empire see Rome, ancient Roman law 121 Romanov dynasty 14 see also under individual rulers romanticism 275,280, 296 romantic love 260 Rome 65-6,68-9,87,96,98,148 ancient 2, 6, 8—n, 23—4,106, 282, 288 sack of(1527) 96,109 Rossbach, battle of 342 rotation, crop 145,240,242 Rothenburg ob der Tauber 45,56 Rotterdam 147,169 Rouen 130 Rousseau, Jean-Jacques 10,22, 273,275, 279-82, 286,288-9, 2 94,35°, 352 Roussillon 217 Roy, William 323 Royal Academy of Sciences, French 191,195, 291,29,1 Royal Society, English 191,197,201 Rubens, Peter Paul 122-3 Rude, Francois 372-3 Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor 131 Ruffo, Cardinal 361 rum 153,162 Russia: administration and government 229, 311-13, 322,328,330,349 agriculture 242 church in 81,290 Enlightenment in 269,290-3 expansion across Asia 206-7 expansion in late eighteenth century 339-42 French language used by nobles 166, 289 military structure 311-12,332,342 peasantry 141,236,335 population 371 relationship to Europe 13-14, 299 rise to power in the Baltic 304-6 warfare 209, 211,226,228—30, 300, 319, 354, 356,360,364-6,368-70 see also Muscovy rye 50, 241, 252

398

Index

Saarland 45 sabbath, witches' 53 Sachs, Hans 47 Sade, Marquis de 281 Safavid dynasty 105,226 St-Gallen 95 St Helena 371 Saint-Just 268,294, 357 St Petersburg 207, 229,246, 306,312—13, 340 St-Pierrc, Abbedc 26 St-Pierre, church of, Geneva 94-5 Saint-Quentin, battle of 116 saints 41,84—6,91,95,189 Saint-Ybars 47 Sallando, Pier Antonio 64 Salle des menus plaisirs 349,351 salt 239 saltpetre 253 saltpetre scheme 201 Salutati, Coluccio 68 salvation, doctrines of 266 see also justification sanitation 143,199 Sans Souci 320 San Vito, Bartolomeo di 64 Sardinia 225, 309 Sarpi, Paolo 176 satellite states 367-8 Saxony 95,121,214, 217,246, 321, 345, 366 Savoy, duke of 96,121 Savoy-Piedmont 209, 221, 225, 309-10 Scaliger, J. J. 101 Scandinavia 139,141,168,234,242,371 Lutheranism in 92,182 scepticism, religious 101,189-91 Schäufelein, Hans 109 Scheurl, Christoph 93 Schieland 147 Schlegel brothers 25 Schmalkalden, League of 109-10 scholasticism 68,90,101,172 schools 154 see also education Schiipfheim 45 science 100,171-4,189-205/10«™, 266-7, 2 9 and practical applications 200—4 politics as a 283 see also natural philosophy scientific societies 191 Scotland 92,102-3, T 4 T > T 4^> T 5°> : 54~^> t62, 168,218, 242, 246,324 Enlightenment in 291 Reformation in 129 union with England 303 witch hunts in 188 scripture see Bible Sea Beggars 129 Sebastian, king of Portugal 124

Second Coalition, war of the 360 Second Coming 172,176,181 sects 218-19 secularization 184, 260 Segovia 163 seigneurs and seigneurialism 46-7,50-2,104, 141,240,243,348 Sejm 131 Selim the Grim, Ottoman Sultan 105 Selim the Sot, Ottoman Sultan 105 Seneca 123 Serbia 228, 300 Serbs 102 serfs and serfdom 46-7,50,52,58, 62, 104, 131, 140-1, 243, 252,296, 312, 333, 335-6 servants 58,139-40, 239 service industries 252-4, 260 Seven Years War 306,319-21,341-2 Seville 49,114,120,152,162 Sfor/.a dynasty 124 share-cropping 46,53,141,243 ship design 159,252,260 see also fleets; navies shipping 252 shops and shopkeeping 258 shrines 90,95 Siberia 206-7, 2O 9> 2 95 Sicily 123, 225, 309 Siena no, 114 Sicycs, Abbé 286 Sieyès, Emmanuel-Joseph 361 Sigismund 1, king of Sweden 129 Sigismund III, king of Poland-Lithuania 131 'Silenus-figures of Alcibiades' 74 Silesia 131-2, 242, 246, 317, 319, 327,340 silk 138,156,162-3,252 silver 48, 253—4 see also bullion slave labour and slave trade 164,167,252,265, 297 sleighs 152 Slesvig 325 Smâland 104 smallpox 40,142, 234-5 Smith, Adam 16,245,252,254-5,277 Smolensk 228 soap 258 Sobeski, John, see John Sobieski social contract 338 see also Rousseau social control 184 social policy 276-81 society, orders of 31 sociology 296 Socrates 288 soldiers see armies Solomon 116 'South Sea Bubble' 151,246

Index sovereignty, concepts of 348—51 see also monarchy Spaarne 142 Spain 13,25,102,105-6, no, 123-4,137-8,157, 22 4, 237, 2 45>3 0 5,3 68 -9 agriculture 36,145,163, 242 aristocracy 154 colonial empire 138,162, 207-8, 215,218-19, 343,37 2 'decline of 124,158,163,217 Enlightenment in 269,291 famine, measures against 255 fleet in—12 in French revolutionary wars 356, 360 government 322 grandees 308 imitation of Louis XIV's France 308—9 industry 163 Jesuits in 98 Moriscos in 166 peasantry 87 politics 209 religious policies 176 and the Revolt of the Netherlands, 129-30, 158 taxation 112-13,123-4,163 and the Thirty Years War 132-3 village assemblies 43 witch prosecutions in 188 see also Aragon; Castile Spanish language 165 Spanish Succession, War of 151, 224-5, 3°3> 3°9 Sparta 281—2,292,320 specialization, economic 146,155-6,160, 239-41,245,252,277-8 specialization, intellectual 205 Spectator, the 292 spectrum 200 Spengler, Lazarus 93 Spice Islands 130 spice trade 138,159,162,164,252 Spinelli, Altiero 28 spinning, mechanized 245 Spinoza 189 Staatsrad, Danish 325 Staatsrat, Austrian 321 Staël, Madame de 25 Stanislas Augustus Poniatowski, king of Poland 340 state papers 119 states and state-formation xxvi—xxvii, 110-16, 209, 299, TjTA-^passim counter-currents to 123-4 and the economy 254-7 the French Revolution and 350-1, 372 and overseas trade 157-64 war and reforms in 306-17passim, 321 statistics 139, 220, 323

399

steam engine and steam power 147, 201, 245, 263 steppes 156 Sterne, Laurence 275, 290 Stettin 314 Stock Exchanges 283 Stockholm 305 Stoics 8-9,123 Stornoway 155 Strabo 5-6, 8, 23 Stradanus, Johannes 16-17 Stralsund 177 Strasbourg 6 r , 65-6, 90 Stuart dynasty 219,225 see also Charles, James, Mary Sturm, Hans 35 Styria 105,127 Subiaco 66 subsistence crises .see famine, harvest failures Suffolk 55 sugar xxii, 142,153,162,164,167,239,252,258, 265 Suleiman the Magnificent, Ottoman Sultan 105, no, 228 Sully, duc de 25 superstition 41-2, 90,175,184,188-9, 2 ^*> 2 ^5) 296 Surinam 165 surveying 203 Suvorov, A. V. 342 Swabian war 103 Sweden: administration and government 313-14, 345 agriculture 242 church property in 126 copper industry 158 decline 304-7 independence 102 international influence xxx, 206 iron industry 147,156, 253 military structure 308,311 navy in peasants 104 Reformation in 126,129 social and economic conditions 239 state funding 114 trade 163 warfare 103, 206, 211, 213-15, 222-3, 3'9 see also under individual rulers Swedenborg, Emanuel 276 Sweynhcym, Konrad 66 Swift, Jonathan 201 Switzerland 43-5,97,103,292, 371 journeymen's culture 59 Reformation in 87-9,91-5,126 Syria 9,105 Tacitus 123

4OO

Index

Tahiti 279,280-1,287 tailors 258 Tarquín 287 Tartars 115 Tasman, Abel 165 Tatler, the 292 taxation xxviii, 38,51,104,107,112-15, I2 6,131, 133,141,162, 209, 240, 243, 255, 257, 299, 311,325,328 tax farmers 162,294 tea xxi, 142,153,162,239, 252,258, 265 technology xx, 14-19, 21,201-3, 245 telescope 16,197-8 Temesvár 300 'Tennis Court Oath' 347 tenurial systems 46,140-1 see also land and landholding teredo 271 Terror, the French Revolutionary 294-5, 355-9 Teutonic knights 103,126 textiles and textile industry 59,138,153,154-6, 158, 163, 239-40, 245, 247-8, 263 Indian 159 textual scholarship 69-70, 73-4, loo-i theology, reformed 87-92 see also Protestants and Protestantism Thermidor coup 357-9,361 Thirty Years War 24-5,124,127,130,132-3, 177-9, 2O( >, 2O 9~ : 7; 2I 9i 3°7 Thomas Aquinas, St 74-5 Thou, Jacques-Auguste de 117 Thuringia 158 Tiepolo, Giambattista 17-19 Tilly, General 127,211,213 Tilsit, treaty of 365-6, 369 timars 115 tobacco 143,153,162,167,239,252 Toledo 124,148 toleration, religious xviii—xix, 109-10,128,176, 181,218,335-6 tontines 151 Toricelli 196 torture 297, 333 Toulon 13,110,357 Tournai 103 Tours 64 towns see cities; urbanization trace italienne 111—12 trade 168-9,252~3 state support of 120,157-8,333 see also commerce, markets Trafalgar, battle of 365 transport 252 see also communications transportation, penal 164 transubstantiation, doctrine of 195 see also real presence Transylvania 105, 131-2,228,255,300

Trautson Palace 302 treason, law of 104 treasury of merit 87 Tremblay, Father Joseph de 179 Trent, Council of 97-8,100,176,183 Trental 83 Trezzini, Dominico 312 Trier 42 Triple Alliance 222 Troy 1-2, 116 Tsarskoe Selo 290 Tuileries Palace 351,355 tulip 151 Tunis 124 Turenne, Marshal 217,222 Turgot, A.-R.-J. 291 Turin 309 Turks and Turkey 12,151,206, 209, 226, 228-9, 2 7',339, 34 2 ,354 see also Ottoman Empire Turreau, General 357 Tuscany, grand duchy of 117, 324, 338 Twelve Articles of the Peasants (1525) 51 Twelve Colleges, St Petersburg 312 type, movable see printing and the press typhoid 142, 234 typhus 142, 285 tyrants, resistance to 121 Tyrol 127,302 Ukraine 102, 228-9, 239 Ulm 56 battle of 365 unemployment 250-1 United Kingdom see Britain Urals 14, 228 Urban VIII, Pope 194 urban culture see cities urbanization 49,145,148 Unitarianism 131 United Provinces see Dutch Republic 'Universal Monarchy' 24-5 universe, place of mankind in the 269-76 see also cosmology universities 126, 325, 336 Utopia 117 Utrecht 103 Peace of 225,303,309, 343 Union of 130 Uzkoks 104 vacuum .see void vagrancy 61,120 Valencia 103 Valenciennes 217 Valladolid 121 Valmy, battle of 356 Valois dynasty 106-8,116-17

Index see also under individual rulers Valpolicella 241 Vauban, Sébastien Le Prestre de 144, 224 Vaud, canton of 42 vegetables 153,243 venality of office 121, 280, 310, 329, 348 Vendee, the 356-7,363 Venice 40,49,65-6,70, 97,103,105,108, in, 120,123,148,151-3,156,163-4,167,176, 226,228,300, 304 Verden 215 Versailles 167, 220, 260, 298, 310, 331,346, 348, 351 Vesalius, Andreas xxiv, 75-7,172 Vespucci, Amerigo 16-17 Viborg 229 Victor Amadeus II, duke of Savoy-Piedmont 224-5,310,314 Vienna 105,109,132,177, 261, 300—2, 3t9, 321, 324, 3 28 ,33 8 Siege of (1683) 165-6,226,228,300 village 43-5 village assemblies 43-5,55 Villenouvette textile factory 158 Vimercati, Francesco 70 Virgil 8-9,66 Virginia Company, English 151,157 Virgin Mary sec Mary, the Virgin Vives, Juan Luis TO VOC see East India Company, Dutch void, debates over 194-7 Volga 255 Volga-Don canal 312 Volkach 38 Voltaire 5-6,7, 26, 229,271, 274, 279, 281,283, 292,295 wage rates 48,145-6,236-9,261-2, 278-80 wagers 151 wages, from kind to cash 262—3 Waldensian heretics 82 Waldstein, Count Johann von 245 Wallace, A. R. xxiv Wallachia 105,228 Wallenstein 177,211,213-14 Wallon language n wallpaper 153, 258 warfare xxvii—xxviii, 71,110—12,137, 206—19, 230,234,254-5,265,321 effects on trade 253 Warsaw 340 'grand duchy of ' 366 Wars of Religion, French 123,127-9 washing, customs of 258 water: as energy source 147,245,247 supplies of 142-3 Waterloo, battle of 370

401

waterways see canals weaving see textiles and textile industry Weber, Max 323 Weser 215 Wesley, John 276 West Indies 160,164,239 Westphalia 158 kingdom of 365 Peace of 215-16 wheat 241, 252, 255 Whitbread family 161 White Mountain, battle of 210 widows 34,45,150 Wilhelm IV, duke of Bavaria 121 Wilhelm V, duke of Bavaria 123 William of Orange (d. 1584) 129-30 William III of Orange, Stadtholder of Holland and king of England 150,224,303 Wilson, James 8-9 windmills 147 wind power 245 wine trade 138,157-8, 240, 252, 258, 278 wise women see folk-healers Wismar 305 witches, witchcraft, and witch hunts 34,41-2, 45,56,187-8, 269, 276, 296 Witt, de, brothers 223 Witt, John de 204 Wittelsbach dynasty 126-7 Wittenberg 88,95 Wolsey, Thomas, Cardinal 119 women 34, 37-40,42, 45, 55,59, 84,146, 235-7, 258,261-2,364 in the Enlightenment 292 female piety 185-7 female religious orders 183,185 status in craft guilds 57-8,250 in witch hunts 187 wood 147, 240 use in machinery 201 woodland management 201 wool and wool trade 138,144,154-6,163,168, 245,252,258 see also textiles work, patterns of xxii, 58, 235-7,247-51, 261-2 works, reformed doctrine of 91—2 worship, religious: reform of 92-4,98, 334-5 state control over 126-7 Worsley, Benjamin 201 Wren, Christopher 203 Wullenwever, Jürgen 93 Württemberg 95,121 Würzburg 17,213 yeomen 52 Yorkshire 156 Young, Arthur 250

4O2 Ypres 61 Yugoslavia 12 Zalánkemén, battle of 228 Zambesi 207 Zamoyski family 332

Index Zeeland 129 Zenta, battle of 228 Zinzendorf, Karl and Ludwig 326 Zürich 89 Zutphen, battle of 95-6 Zwingli, Huldrych 88-9,91