Early Human Adaptation in the Northern Hemisphere and the Implications of Taphonomy 9781840580013, 9781407349794

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Early Human Adaptation in the Northem Hemisphere and the Implications of Taphonomy Marianne P. Stopp

BAR International Series 669 1997

Published in 2019 by BAR Publishing, Oxford BAR International Series 669 Early Human Adaptation in the Northern Hemisphere and the Implications of Taphonomy © Marianne P. Stopp and the Publisher 1997 The author’s moral rights under the 1988 UK Copyright, Designs and Patents Act are hereby expressly asserted. All rights reserved. No part of this work may be copied, reproduced, stored, sold, distributed, scanned, saved in any form of digital format or transmitted in any form digitally, without the written permission of the Publisher. ISBN 9781840580013 paperback ISBN 9781407349794 e-book DOI https://doi.org/10.30861/9781840580013 A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library This book is available at www.barpublishing.com BAR Publishing is the trading name of British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd. British Archaeological Reports was first incorporated in 1974 to publish the BAR Series, International and British. In 1992 Hadrian Books Ltd became part of the BAR group. This volume was originally published by John and Erica Hedges in conjunction with British Archaeological Reports (Oxford) Ltd / Hadrian Books Ltd, the Series principal publisher, in 1997. This present volume is published by BAR Publishing, 2019.

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ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS T h is s t udy w a s c omp le ted a s aP h .D . t h e s i s i n 1 994 . Many f r iend s a nd c o l league sc on t r ibu ted t h e i rt ime ,k now ledge ,a nd e ncou ragem en tt o mak ing i tp o s s ib le . A bove a l l , Ia mg r a te f u l t oG eo rg ia a nd B e rnha rd S t opp f o r t h e i rh ea r t f e l ts uppo r t .T h i s wo rk i sd ed ica ted t ot h em .

e n r ou te t o C zecho s lovak ia ; D r . O ld r ich F e jf a r , i n t h e P a laeon to logy Dep t . a tK a r lova Un ive r s i ty , P rague , w a s a g r ac iou sh o s ta nd It h ank h im f o ra r rang ing a ccomoda t ion ,f o r a cce ss t oh i s l i b ra ry , a nd o fc ou r se a cce ss t ot h e P rez le t ice c o l lec t ion ; D r . J .F r id r ich , e xcava to r o f t h e P rez le t ice s i te , p rov ided t r an spo r ta t ion t ot h e f i e ld l a b w he re Iwa s a b le t o

R icha rd McKenna w a s as o l id f o unda t ion t h roughou tt h eh i gh a nd l ow mom en t so fd oc to ra ll i f ea nd Is ha l la lway sb eg r a te fu l f o rh i sm any e ncou ragemen t s . A sw e l l ,h ec on tr ibu ted t e chn ica l a s s i s tance w i th g r aph ic sa nd p rog ramm ing c a lcu la t ion s .

e xam ine r e cen tm a te r ia l . I nS pa in ,D r . Ma rga r i ta D iaz -And reu a l so o f e red a ccomoda t ion a nd h o sp i ta l i ty ;D r .C a rmen C acho , Mu seo A rqueo log ico N ac iona li n Mad r id ,p e rm i t ted a cce s st o

T h i sr e se a rch w ou ld n o th ave b een p o s s ib le w i thou tt h eh e lp o f

t h eA r ido s , A r r iaga , P inedo , a nd s ome T o r ra lba ma te r ia l ;D r . T e re sa A lbe rd i a nd L u i s A lca la o f t h e Mu seo d e C ienc ia s N ac iona le s i n Mad r id , p e rm i t ted a cce ss t o L acha r a nd t h e

my t h e s is s upe rv i so r ,D r .G eo f fB a i ley ,D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge . It h ank h im f o ri n t roduc ing m et ot h e s t udy o ft a phonomy , a nd f o rh i sp a t ien ts uppo r ta nd e xce l len t

Manzana re s c o l lec t ion s ; P epe E namo rado , a l so a t MCN , p rov ided p ub l ica t ion si nS pan i sh t a phonomy a nd ag rea td ea l o f i n f o rma t ion w i th r e spec tt oS pan i sh P a laeol i th ic s i te s . Du r ing

a dv ice o ve rt h ey ea r s .

a n a l l t o o b r ie fv i s i t w i th D r . Ange le s Que ro l , Mad r id , s he p rov ided u se fu li n f o rma t ion o nP inedo ,A r ido s a nd A r r iaga .

A tC amb r idge ,D r .E l i sabe th S topp o f e red t h ec he r i shed g i f t s o ff r iend sh ip a nd w i sdom g a ined o fm any y ea r s i na cadem ia . D r .P e te rE ch l in o ft h eB o tany S choo lw as o fc on s ide rab le h e lp i n i n t roduc ing me t oS EM wo rk ; D r . K .A . J oy sey , D ep t . o f Z oo logy ,p e rm i t ted a cce s st ot h ev e ry f i ne Wre t ton c o l lec t ion ; D r . A d r ian L i s te r a l lowed a cce ss t os eve ra l p a laeon to log ica l c o l lec t ion s a nd w a s f o r thcom ing w i th s ound r e sea rch a dv ice ; D r .P au lL i nden ,D ep t .o fA ppl i ed Ma thema t ic s a nd T heo re t ica l P hy s ic s ,g ave t e chn ica la dv ice o nf l ume s t ud ie s ;D r .R o sema ry L uf f o ft h e C ambr idge F auna l R ema in s Un i t w a s e x t reme ly s uppo r t ive t h roughou t my t ime a t C ambr idge ; C a ro l ine Ma the son a dv i sed o ns e t t ing u p DBa se f i l e s ,o ve rc up so ft e a ; D r . P e te r R ow ley -Conwy w a s a n e n thus ia s t ic t h e s i s a dv i se r b e f o re t a k ing ap o s i t ion a tt h e Un ive r s i ty o f Du rham a nd Is ha l l a lway s r emembe r t h e f r iend sh ip o f e red b y h im , D ebb ie Row ley -Conwy a nd f am i ly . A s pe c ia l n o te o f t h ank s i s e x tended t oD r . T odd Wh i te law , D ep t . o fA rchaeo logy , w ho b ecame m ys e cond t h e s i s a dv i se r , a nd c ou ld a lway sb ec oun ted u pon f o r p romp t , s ound a dv ice . I nL ondon , a tt h e B r i t i sh Mu seum ( Na tu ra lH i s to ry ) ,D r .P e te rA nd rew s ,D r .J i l lC ook , a nd A nd rew C u r ran t v a r iou s ly p rov ided a cce s s t o t h e

I nC anada ,D r .R icha rd Mo r lan o ft h eA rchaeo log ica lS u rvey , Na t iona l Mu seum o fC iv il iza t ion , O t tawa w a s ad ependab le s ou r ce o fk now ledge a nd s uppo r t . Iam g ra te fu lf o rh i si n te re s t i n my t h e s i sr e sea rch ,h i s many s ugge s t ion sa nd c a re fu lr ead ing o f t h e t h e s i s , a s w e l l a s a cce ss t o s ome o f t h e O ld C row m a te r ia l . D r . P r i sc ila R enou f , A rchaeo logy Un i t , Memo r ia l Un ive r s i ty o f New found land , n eve r d oub ted t ha t Iw ou ld e ven tua l ly r e ce ive f u nd ing ,a nd Iam g ra te fu lf o rh e rf r iend sh ip a nd e ncou ragemen tt h roughou t . U se o f af l ume t a nk wa s made p o s s ib le t h rough t h eg rac iou se fo r t so fD r .R icha rd McKenna , I n s t i tu te f o r Ma r ine Dynam ic s , S t . J ohn 's , a nd D r . De rek Mugge r idge , F acu l ty o f E ng inee r ing a nd A pp l ied S c ience , Memo r ia lU n iv er s i ty ,w h i le L loyd L i t t le a nd Dav id T i l ley g ave t e chn ica l a s s i s tance . C a ro l ine Eme r son , S EM l a b i n t h e B io logy D ep t .a t Memo r ia l Un ive r s i ty ,d e se rve ss pec ia lt h ank s f o r h e r s k i l l fu l a s s i s tance d u r ing t h e b u lk o f t h e s cann ing e l e c t ron m ic ro scopy . Mary C .S co t tg ene rou s ly e d i ted s eve ra l c hap te r s . F i na l ly , It h ank t h eP a laeon to logy Dep t . a t Memo r ia l Un ive rs i ty f o r p rov id ing s t udy s pace w h i le t h e O ld C row m a te r ia lw a si nS t .J ohn ' s .

Swan scombe c o l lec t ion , a dv i sed o nr e sea rch d i rec t ion s a nd o n S EM a pp l ica t ion .

W i th r e spec t t of und ing , Is hou ld s ay t h a t t h i s wa s t h e mo s t d i ff i cu l ta s pec to ft h er e sea rch t or ea l ize ,e x tend ing my t ime a s

My f i e ldwo rk a l so i n vo lved s t udy ing c o l lec t ion s " o n t h e c on t inen t " .

T hank s a r e e x tended t ot h e e n t i re s t af o f t h e

L ande smu seum B raun schwe ig i n Wo l f enbü t te l , G e rmany , f o r t he i r h o sp i ta l i ty a nd o f c ou r se a c ce s s t o t h e S a lzg i t te r c o l lec t ion ;D r .R a lph D ohe r ty a nd D r .N o rbe r tK la t tw i l la lway s b er emembe red f o rt h e i rh o sp i ta l i ty i n Gö t t ingen , w h i le Iw a s

ad oc to ra l s t uden t c on s ide rab ly . Iw a s e x t reme ly g ra te fu l , t h e re fo re , f o r f u nd ing f r om t h e C la re H a l l T rave l F und , t h e Ove r sea s R e sea rch S tuden t Awa rd s S cheme , a nd e spec ia l ly f r om t h e I n s t i tu te o f S oc ia l a nd E conom ic Re sea rch a t Memo r ia l Un ive r s i ty o f New found land f o r g ran t ing me a Doc to ra lF e l low sh ip d u r ing t h ef i na ly ea ro fs t ud ie s .

CONTENTS

ACKNO WLEDGE MENTS CONTENTS L IST OF F IGURES L IST OF TABLES L IST OF P LATES

v i v i

CHAPTER 1RESEARCH PURPOSE AND I NTERPRET IVE F RAME WORK 1 . 1 I NTRODUCT ION 1 . 1 .1 S t a tem en to fR e sea rch P u rpo se 1 . 1 .2 D e sc r ip t ion o fD a ta B a se 1 . 2 I NTERPRET IVE F RA ME WORK 1 . 2 .1 A nO ve rv iew o fA ppl ied Mode l so fA dap ta t ion f o rt h e No r the rn H em i sphe re 1 . 2 .2 C u r ren tD ep ic t ion so fP l e i s tocene A dap ta t ion i nt h eN o r the rn H em i sphe re 1 . 2 .3 T he C ond i t ion so fC u l tu ra lC au sa l i ty 1 . 3

1 . 2 .4 S umm a ry CONCLUS ION

1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 6 7

CHAPTER 2DESCR IPT ION OF CASE S TUDIES 2 . 1 I NTRODUCT ION 2 . 2 S ITE DESCR IPT IONS 2 . 2 .1 T he A rchaeo log ica lS i te s 2 . 2 .1 .1 A r ido sl &l l 2 . 2 .1 .2 A r r iagal l 2 . 2 .1 .3 Mad r id A rene ro s 2 . 2 .1 .4 P inedo 2 . 2 .1 .5 P rez le t ice 2 . 2 .1 .6 S a lzg i t te r -Leben s ted t 2 . 2 .1 .7 Swan scombe 2 . 2 .2 T he P a laeon to log ica lS i te s 2 . 2 .2 .1 B a lde r ton 2 . 2 .2 .2 L a cha r 2 . 2 .2 .3 M 1V 1 -2 -O ld C row 2 . 2 .2 .4 M 1V 1 -7 -O ld C row 2 . 2 .2 .5 N bV 1 -2 -O ld C row 2 . 2 .2 .6 N bVn -4 -O ld C row 2 . 2 .2 .7 Wre t ton 2 . 3 CONCLUS ION

1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 3 1 3 1 3 1 4 1 4 1 4 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 5 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6 1 6

CHAPTER 3METHODOLOGY 3 . 1 I N T RODUC T ION 3 . 2 METHODOLOG ICAL F RA ME WORK 3 . 2 .1 A na ly t ica lT e chn ique s 3 . 2 .1 .1 S k e le ta lE lem en tR ep re sen ta t ion 3 . 2 .1 .2 B one Mod if ica t ion S tud ie s 3 . 2 .1 .3 B one T ran spo r tS t ud ie s 3 . 2 .1 .4 B one S t r ia t ion S tud ie s 3 . 2 .1 .5 A ge Mo r ta l i ty P rof i le s

1 7 1 7 1 7 1 8 1 8 1 9 1 9 2 0 2 0

3 . 3

CONCLUS IONS

2 0

CHAPTER 4ANALYS IS :PART ONE 4 . 1 I NTRODUCT ION 4 . 1 .1 Sma l lS amp le si nE a r ly S i te A na ly s i s 4 . 2 ANALYS IS 4 . 2 .1 S ke le ta lE lemen tR ep re sen ta t ion 4 . 2 .1 .1 S k e le ta lE lemen tR ep re sen ta t ion a nd B one D en s i ty . 4 . 2 .1 .2 S k e le ta lE lemen tR ep re sen ta t ion a nd Hyd rodynam ic F o rce 4 . 2 .1 .3 S ke le ta lE lemen tR ep re sen ta t ion a nd C a rn ivo re G naw ing 4 . 2 .1 .4

S k e le ta lE lemen tR ep re sen ta t ion a nd O the rP hy s ica lI mpa c t s

1

2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 1 2 2 2 6 2 9 3 0

4 . 2 .2

4 . 3

A pp l ica t ion o fU t i l i ty a nd B u lk D en s i ty I nd ice s 4 . 2 .2 .1 A rchaeo log ica lS amp le -%MAU /MGU IP lo t s 4 . 2 .2 .2 Me a su re so fC o r re la t ion f o r %MAU w i th MGU Ia nd

4 . 2 .2 .3 P a la eon to log ica lS amp le 4 . 2 .2 .4 S umma ry 4 . 2 .3 Mo r ta l i ty P rof i le s CONCLUS ION TO P ART ONE OF ANALYS IS

B u lk D en s i ty

3 2 3 3 3 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3

CHAPTER 5 ANALYS IS :PART TWO 5 . 1 I NTRODUCT ION 5 . 1 .1 B one F rac tu r ing 5 . 1 .1 .1 A pp l ica t ion 5 . 2 S t r ia t ion so nB one 5 . 3 I mp l ica t ion so fF re sh -F rac tu red Mammo th a nd Ma s todon B one 5 . 4 CONCLUS ISON TO PART TWO OF ANALYS IS

5 6 5 6 5 6 5 8 5 9 6 0 6 1

CHAPTER 6CONCLUS IONS 6 . 1 I NTRODUCT ION 6 . 1 .1 Mode ll ing E a r ly H um an A dap ta t ion i nt h eN o r the rn H em i sphe re 6 . 1 .2 T im ea st h eU ncon s ide red H o s to fA t t r i t ion 6 . 2 CLOS ING REMARKS

6 4 6 4 6 5 6 6 6 7

A PPEND IX 1H ISTOGRA MS OF SKELETAL E LEMENT REPRESENTATION A PPEND IX 2F LU ME EXPER IMENT P LATES R EFERENCES

1 1

6 8 1 04 1 07 17

L IST OF F IGURES CHAPTER 1 1 . 1 LOCAT IONS OF ANALYSED FAUNAL A SSE MBLAGES I N EUROPE 1 . 2 LOCAT IONS OF ANALYSED FAUNAL A SSE MBLAGES I N CANADA 1 . 3 LOCAT IONS OF VAR IOUS EUROPEAN S ITES MENT IONED N T EXT CHAPTER 4 4 . 1 D ISTAL VERSUS PROXIMAL E P IPHYSEAL SURV IVAL 4 . 2 RELAT IVE REPRESENTAT ION OF CARPALS , TARSALS ,T EETH ,

9 1 0 1

2 4

4 . 3 4 . 4 4 . 5 4 . 6 4 . 7 4 . 8 4 . 9 4 . 10 4 . 11 4 . 12

AND PHALANGES BONE I DENT IF IABIL ITY BY S ITE %MAU /MGU I , ARR IAGA , CERVUS S P %MAU /MGU I , MADR ID ARENEROS ,C ERVUS S P %MAU /MGU I ,P REZLET ICE ,C ERVUS E LAPHUS %MAU /MGU I ,P REZLET ICE , EQUUS S P %MAU /MGU I , SALZGrr ihR , BOS /B ISON %MAU /MGU I ,S ALZGrr ibR , EQUUS S P %MAU /MGU I ,S ALZ ar ibR , RANG 1FER %MAU /MGU I , SWANSCOMBE , BOS /B ISON %MAU /MGU I , BALDERTON , BOS /B ISON

2 5 3 1 4 2 4 2 4 3 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 4 5 4 6

4 . 13 4 . 14 4 . 15 4 . 16 4 . 17 4 . 18 4 . 19 4 . 20

%MAU /MGU I , LACHAR , BOS /B ISON %MAU /MGU I , LACHAR , CERVUS S P . %MAU /MGU I , LOCAL ITY 4 7 ( NBVN -4 ) , EQUUS S P . %MAU /MGU I , MLVL -2 , BOS /B ISON %MAU /MGU I , MLVL -7 , BOS /B ISON %MAU /MGU I , MLVL -7 , EQU ID /BOV ID %MAU /MGU I , MLVL -7 , EQUUS S P . %MAU /MGU I , NBVL -2 , BOS /B ISON

4 6 4 7 4 7 4 8 4 8 4 9 4 9 5 0

4 . 21 4 . 22 4 . 23 4 . 24 4 . 25

%MAU /MGU I , NBVL -2 , EQUUS S P % MAU /MGU I , WRETTON ,B ISON P R ISCUS %MAU /MGU I , WRETTON , RANGIFER REPRESENTAT IVE P LOTS OF %MAU AGA INST BULK DENS ITY KREUTZER ( 1992 ) B ISON I NDEX P LOTTED AGAINST LYMAN ( 1985 ) DEER I NDEX

5 0 5 1 5 1 5 2

CHAPTER 5 5 . 1 LUD W IG P FEEFFER 'S ( 1912 :212 ) I NTERPRETAT ION OF T HE MANUFACTURE OF D IAPHYSEAL CYL INDERS WITH TRANSVERSE F RACTURES ( " a " ) AND S PIRALLY DETACHED BONE S PL INTERS ( " b " ) 5 . 2 FRACTURE TYPES 5 . 3 SALZGIf il iR CUTMARK

i v

5 3

5 6 5 7 6 2

L IST OF TABLES CHAPTER 1 1 . 1 CHRONOLOGY OF ANALYSED A SSE MBLAGES 1 . 2 E LEMENTS P ER S ITE CHAPTER 4 4 . 1 SU MMARY OF E LE MENT CATEGORY BY S ITE TYPE 4 . 2 LONGBONE REPRESENTAT ION F OR PALAEONTOLOG ICAL ( P . ) AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL A SSE MBLAGES WITH ( A . ) 4 . 3

4 . 4

AND WITHOUT ( A .2 ) SALZG IT II .R SAMPLE R ELAT IVE SURV IVAL OF HU MERAL S ECTIONS F OR TOTAL PALAEONTOLOG ICAL ( P . ) AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ( A . ) POSTCRAN IAL A SSE MBLAGES E LE MENT"TRANSPORTABEL ITY AT LO W VELOC ITIES

8 8

2 2

2 3

2 3 2 8

4 . 5 4 . 6 4 . 7 4 . 8 4 . 9 4 . 10 4 . 11 4 . 12 4 . 13 4 . 14 4 . 15

4 . 16

A PPL ICA 'T ION OF BEHRENSMEYER 'S ( 1975 ) TOOTH /VERTEBRA I NDEX TO S ELECTED S ITE TAXA CARN IVORE GNAWED POSTCRAN IAL BONE BY S ITE AND RELAT IVE REPRESENTAT ION OF TOTAL POSTCRAN IAL BONE E LE MENT REPRESENTAT ION AND SURV IVAB IL ITY ( DOES NOT I NCLUDE COUNTS OF CRAN IAL ELE MENTS ) %MAU P ER S ITE %MAU P ER S ITE %MAU P ER S ITE %MAU P ER S ITE %MAU P ER S ITE KENDALL 'S TAU CORRELAT ION MEASURES CORRESPOND ING TO TABLES 4 . 8 -4 .12 S PEAR MAN 'S M O CORRELAT ION COEFF ICIENT MEASURES CORRESPOND ING TO TABLES 4 . 8 -4 .12 %MAU P ER S ITE AGA INST KREUTZER 'S ( 1992 ) VOLU ME DENS ITY ( VD )F OR B ISON AND LY MAN 'S ( 1985 ) BULK DENS ITY FOR C ERVIDS J UVEN ILE ELE MENTS ( N ISP )F RO M POSTCRAN IAL AND CRAN IAL E LE MENT GROUPS

CHAPTER 5 5 . 1 R ELAT IVE REPRESENTAT ION OF F RESH -BONE F RACTURES -A LL S ITES 5 . 2 R ELAT IVE REPRESENTAT ION OF F RESH -BONE F RACTURES W ITHOUT

2 9 3 0 3 2 3 5 3 6 3 7 3 8 3 9 4 0 4 1

5 4 5 5

5 8

5 . 5

SALZGIF 1 ER S AMPLE S TR IAT ION AFF IL IAT IONS OF S EM S AMPLES S ALZGr uhR CUTMARK LOCAT IONS REFERENCED TO B INFORD 'S ( 1988 :140 -142 ) KEY F RESH -FRACTURED BONE -POSTCRAN IAL E LEMENTS

6 3 6 3

5 . 6

F RESH -FRACTURED BONE -UNIDENT IF IABLE E LE MENTS

6 3

5 . 3 5 . 4

5 8 5 9

L IST OF PLATES P LATE 1

1 08

P LATE P LATE P LATE P LATE P LATE P LATE

2 3 4 5 6 7

1 09 10 11 12 13 14

P LATE 8 P LATE 9

15 16

CHAPTER 1 RESEARCH PURPOSE AND I NTERPRETIVE FRA ME WORK 1 . 1 1 . 1 .1

I NTRODUCTION

My c en t ra la r gumen ti st h a tt h ea r chaeo log ica le v idence f o rt h e

S ta temen to fR e search P urpo se

h un t ing mode l i ss c a rce , t h a t t h e a ppl ied e v idence i so f t en i log ica l ly i n te rp re ted , a nd t h a t t h a t e v idence i sb i a sed b y

T he e a r l ie s t e v idence o f H omo s ap ien s i n t h e n o r the rn h em i sphe re , b o th d u r ing t h e P a laeo Ind ian p e r iod i n No r th Ame r ica , a nd d u r ing t h eL owe ra nd M idd le P le i s tocene i nt h e O ld Wo r ld ,i si nt h ef o rm o fs t one t o o l sw h ich a re o cca s iona l ly f ound i na s soc ia t ion w i th a n ima lr ema in s . C u r ren t mode l s o f

t a phonom ic p roce s se s wh ich h ave n o tb een c on s ide red d u r ing a na ly s i s . T h i s t h e s i s s ugge s t s a n a l te rna t ive a pp roach t ot h e a na ly s i s o f e a r ly s i te s w he reby h uman c au sa l i ty i sn o t a n a s sumed c omponen t o f s i te a ccumu la t ion . A p r ima ry , o r r e la t ive ly u nd i s tu rbed c on tex tn eed st ob ed emon s t ra ted b e f o re t h e se l i t h ic a nd b one s ca t te r s c an s ugge s th uman s ub s i s tence p a t tern s . T h i s i n vo lve s d ef in ing t e s ti mpl ica t ion s t oc r i t ica l ly e va lua te t h ei n teg r i ty o ft h ea s soc ia t ion /co -oc cu r rence o fl i t h ic s

e a r ly h uman a dap ta t ion i nt h en o r the rn h em i sphe re a r eb a sed o n t h el e g i t ima cy o ft h i s a s soc ia t ion . T he p u rpo se o ft h i sr e se a rch i st oe xam ine t h e me thodo log ica la nd t h eo re t ica ln a tu re o ft h e

a nd f a una l r ema in s . T h i s r e sea rch u l t ima te ly a dd re s se s t h e p rob lem o fw he the re a r ly h uman l i f ew ay sa r ea cce s s ib le t ou s , a nd t h ee mpha s i si nb o th a r chaeo log ica la nd p opu la rl i t e ra tu re ( f o re xamp le ,K oppe l 1 992 ,L ambe r t 1 989 ) o nr e con s t ruc t ing

i n te rp re t ive l i nk s b e tween o pen -a i r a s semb lage s a nd t h e r e su l tan t m ode l s o fh uman a dap ta t ion . I tw a s s t i mu la ted b y m any r e cen t ly p ub l i shed a r chaeo log ica li n te rp re ta t ion so fe a r ly l i f e w ay s w h ich f o cu s o n ah un t ing p a rad igm , a nd w h ich

e a r ly a dap ta t ion a s ah un t ing w ay o fl i f e .

t h e reby o ve r look av a r ie ty o ff a c to r sw h ich a r ei n teg ra lt ob o th h uman a nd s i te s u rv iva l .

T he t r an s i t ion t o a mo re h o l i s t ic u nde r s tand ing o f h uman a dap ta t ion i si n c rea s ing ly e v iden t i n E a r ly H uman s t ud ie s . G rea te r c on s ide ra t ion i sg i ven t o t h e h ypo the s i s t h a t e a r ly

T he t ime p e r iod o fi n te re s td a te s f r om a se a r ly a s9 00 ,000 t o 1 00 ,000 y ea r s b e fo re p re sen t ( BP ) . T he e a r l ie s t p e r iod

h om in id s e xp lo i ted l ow r i sk a nd h igh -y ie ld m a r ine e nv i ronmen t s ,c olec ted a nd s cavenged f o od so n as i gn if ican t

r ep re sen t st h ed i f fu s ion o f Homo e r ec tu s n o r thwa rd st owa rd s E u rope a nd P ak i s tan .

s ca le , a nd t h a t t h ey w e re e xpe r t s a t s u rv iva l , p o s s ib ly i n co rpo ra t ing s ea sona l movemen ti n to t h es ub s i s tence r ound ( Ma r t in a nd V oo rh ie s 1 975 , McG rew 1 981 , T anne r 1 981 , 1 988 , Z ih lman 1 981 , B lumen sch ine 1 986 , 1 987 , a mong o t he r s ) . T he se s t ud ie s a l so empha s ize t h ep a r t ic ipa t ion o fa l l

No H . e r ec tu s f o ss i l s h ave b een

r e cove red i nE u rope ,b u ta r t i f ac t sf r om s i te ss uch a sI s e rn ia L a P i ne ta i nc e n t ra lI t a ly ,P re z le t ice n ea rP rague ,a nd K ä r l ich i nt h e N euw ied B a s in o fw e s t cen t ra lG e rmany , a r ei d en t if ied b yt h e i r p robab le c on tempo rane i ty w i th H . e r ec tus s i te s e l sewhe re ( K le in 1 989 ) . T he se e a r ly s i te s a r ea s soc ia ted w i th c hoppe r t o o la s semb lage s .

a ge g roup s a nd s exe s i nt h ef ood p rocu remen tp roce s s . T hey a cknow ledge t h en ece s s i ty o f amo re r e a l i s t ic c on s ide ra t ion o f

B y6 00 ,000 B Pt h eE u ropean p ebb le t o o lt r ad i t ion i sg radua l ly

t h ea dap t ive s t ra teg ie si n vo lved f o rs ucc e s sf u lp roc rea t ion a nd n u r tu r ing o f o f spr ing ; t h e v i ta l c on t r ibu t ion o f g a the red

r e p la ced b ya s semb lage sw i th w e l lc r af t ed A cheu lean h andaxe s

f ood s tu f f s , s ma l lv e r teb ra te s a nd i n ve r teb ra te s i nt h ed i e t ;t h e

w h ich p e r s i s t u n t i l a pp rox ima te ly 5 0 ,000 BP

T he se a r e

r o le o fg a the r ing i no b ta in ing r e sou rce i n f o rma t ion ; a nd t h e

a s soc ia ted w i th as p r ink l ing o fH . s ap ien s f o s s i l s f r om s uch s i te s a s V e r te szö l lös ( K re tzo i a nd Va le s 1 965 ) , A rago ( de

i mpo r tance o ff o od p roce s s ing a nd f o od s t o rage . A bove a l , n ew a pp roache st ot h eo l dp rob lem o fa dap ta t ion d emon s t ra te

L um ley 1 975 ) , a nd Swan scombe ( Ovey 1 964 ) , among o t he r s .

t h a t h uman s u rv iva l c an b e e nv i s ioned , a nd u l t ima te ly mode l led , w i thou t r e cou r se t o t h e s cena r io o f e red b y t h e

T he h om in id t y pe s a s soc ia ted w i th t h e L owe r a nd M idd le P l e i s tocene i nE u rope a r e al a te f o rm o fH . e rec tus a sw e l la sH .

h un t ing mode l , a nd t h a t as i ng le g roup c an b e a dap ted t o s eve ra ld if e ren ts ub s i s tence c y c le s( c f .S p ie s s 1 979 :133 ) .

s ap ien s . T he l a t te r g roup c o inc ide s w i th t h e mo s tp e r s i s ten t t o o l mak ing t r ad i t ion i n t h e n o r the rn h em i sphe re , t h e A cheu lean . B y a pp rox ima te ly 1 50 ,000 B P Neande r tha l

A na ly se s w h ich t r an s la te p a t te rn ing i n e a r ly P le i s tocene a r chaeo log ica l d a ta i n to s pec if i c b ehav iou ra l t r a i t s a r e a l so

p eop le s b egan t oi n hab i t n o r thern h em i sphe re e nv i ronmen t s u n t i l 3 5 ,000 B P a nd b ecau se o f e xcep t iona l f o ss i l a nd s i te

b e ing r e con s ide red . F o ri n s tance ,r e cen te t hnog raph ic s t ud ie s p o in tt oe x ten s ive v a r iab il i ty i nt h ed ec i s ion m ak ing p roce s se s

p re se rva t ion a r e t h e b e s t u nde r s tood o fn on -mode rn h uman

a s soc ia ted w i th c a rca s s b u tche ry . T h i s v a r iab i l i ty r e su l t s i n

g roups .

r e s idue s w h ich n eve r c on s i s ten t ly c o inc ide w i th a s pec if ic f unc t ion , w he re s ke le ta l e l emen t r ep re sen ta t ion c anno t b e

T he a dap t ive t r a i t s o fb o th l a te H . e rec tus a nd a r cha ic H .

i n te rp re ted i nt e rm s o fc a rca s s u t i l i ty o r s i te f u nc t ion ( Sep t 1 992 :21) .

s ap ien s a r e d eba tab le . We re t h ey g a the re r s , f i she r s , s c av eng e r s ,o rf o rage r s? T he r e ce ived mode li na r chaeo log ica l

T he a pp l ica t ion o f t h e h un t ing mode l a s a n i n te rp re t ive f r amewo rk f o r e a r ly E u ropean a s semb lage s p reva i l s i ne a r ly P l e i s tocene a r chaeo logy a sw e l la si np opu la rl i t e ra tu re a nd i n

s i te r e po r t s o f t h e n o r the rn h em i sphe re p re sen t s al a rge mamma l h un t ing w ay o f l i f e w h ich i nvo lve s k i l l ing a nd c on sump t ion o fr h inoce ro s ,m ammo th ,a u roch s ,e t c . I mp l ic i ti n

museum e xh ib i t s t h roughou t E u rope . T he se v enue s p re sen t h uman s u rv iva l a s af e a t o fb ravado c ha rac te r i sed b y " . .an

t h i s m ode li s ad i v is ion o fl a bou ra l ong g ende rl i ne s w he reby m a le sa c t ive ly h un ta nd f ema le sa r ed e s igna ted a si n ac t ive b u t

a dvan tage t h a t s hou ld n o t b e u nde re s t im a ted -t h e a n ima l 's i n s t inc t ive k now ledge o f t h e u ndoub ted s upe r io r i ty o f t h e

w i th o f f sp r ing .

h uman b e ing ,h oweve rw eak h i sp hy s ica lr e sou rce sm igh tb e " 1

t h an c ave d epo s i t s , i ts hou ld b e empha s ized t h a t a eol ian a nd

( Breu i l a nd L an t ie r 1 965 :69 ) .

f l uv ia ld i s tu rbance sh ave t a ken t h e i rt ol o fo nce p r ima ry o pen 1 . 1 .2

a i r d epo s i t ion s . K le in ( 1989 :312 ) c u rso r i ly s um s u p t he c ond i t ion o f o pen -a i r d epo s i t s : " Mo s t o pen -a i r s i te s w e re

D escr ipt ion o f Da ta B ase

Ar e sea rch empha s i s o n f a una l d a ta r a the r t h an l i t h ic s h a s i t s b a s i s i nt h e mode l u nde rc on s ide ra t ion w h ich f o cu se sb o th o n l a rge g ame a sf ood a nd f ood p rocu remen ts t ra tegy . T he se f o c i

p robab ly l o ng a go d e s t roy ed b ye ro s ion , a nd t hose t h a tr ema in a r e h a rde r t ol o ca te t h an c ave s . " Mo s t P le i s tocene o pen -a i r

h ave g ene ra ted a na ly t ica l t e chn ique s t o a s ce r ta in h uman

s i te s i nE u rope , mo reove r , w e re d i scove red d ur ing i ndus t r ia l q ua r ry ing o r c on s t ruc t ion a c t iv i t ie s . A s ar e su l t o f t he se

b ehav iou rf r om f a una lr ema in s . E xamp le s o fs uch t e chn ique s

d i s tu rbanc e s ,s t ra t ig raphy i sf r equen t ly d i ff icu l tt oi d en t i fy , a nd

i n c lude s ke le ta le l emen tr ep re sen ta t ion , mo r ta l i ty p rof i le s , a nd

t h e a s semb lage s may b e a ccumu la t ion s o f u n sy s t ema t ica l ly

t oo l c u tma rk i d en t if ica t ion o n b one s ( B in fo rd 1 978 , K le in

e xcava ted p i ece s .

1 982 , 1 989 , S pe t h 1 983 ) . I n t h i s r e sea rch t r ad i t iona l t e chn ique so ff a una l a na ly s i s a r es c ru t in ized f o rt h e i rr e levance

D ic erorh inus b one s f r om T aubach , n ea r We ima r , G e rmany ,

F o r i n s tance , t h e 1 878 a s semb lage o f

t o e a r ly s i te a na ly s i s a nd c on s ide red i nc on junc t ion w i th a n a pp roach wh ich a t temp t s t o m ea su re d i ve r se t a phonom ic

t h i s a s ap a t te rn p roduced b y h uman s b u t che r ing c a rca sse s a way f r om t h e ma in c amp s i te . T he l i ke ly e xp lana t ion ,

d i s tu rbance s .

h oweve r , i s B ehm -B lankes i n fo rma t ion t h a t much o f t he

c on ta in s n or i b s o rv e r teb rae . B ehm -B lanke ( 1960 ) e xp la ins

c o l lec t ion w a sp u rcha sed p iece b yp iece f r om q ua r ry w o rke rs A n umbe r o f f a una l a s semb lage s w e re s t ud ied d u r ing t h e r e sea rch p roce s s( Tab le 1 . 1 , 1 . 2 ) . T he s i te s c ho sen f o r a na ly s i s o ccu r n o r th o f 4 0° l a t i tude i n n o r the rn t empe ra te z one s d i s t ingu i shed b ys ea sona lc y c le s , a nd a r el o o se ly r e f e r red t oa s

w ho p robab ly d i dn o tc o l lec tt h es ma l le r , mo re f r agmen ted a nd u ndoub ted ly l e s sp rof i tab le e l emen t s . I nt h i sr e sea rch a ne fo r t w a s m ade t oe xam ine a s semb lage s w h ich w e re s y s tema t ica l ly e xcava ted o rc o l lec ted .

b e ing i nt h en or the rn h em i sphe re ( F igu re s 1 . 1 , 1 . 2 , 1 . 3 ) . T h i s i st od if e ren t ia te t h em f r om o l de rE a s tA f r ican h om in id s i te s ( bu t n o t n ece ssa r i ly s ou th o f t h e e qua to r ) , a nd f r om t h e t a phonom ic c on tex t s g ene ra ted b y ah o ta nd a r id e nv i ronm en t .

T he s i te s a na ly sed i nt h i s r e sea rch a r et h o se t o wh ich a cce ss w a s g ran ted b y t h e r e spec t ive i n s t i tu t ion s . T hey a r e n o t n ece ssa r i ly ar ep re sen ta t ive s amp le o f t h e b e s t o f t h e e a r ly

Many o ft h e t a phonom ic a pp roache s b rough t t o ge the r i nt h i s r e sea rch w e re i n i t ia l ly d eve loped f o r a r id c on tex t s ( i . e . . ,b one

P le i s tocene , n o r a r e t h e s i te s r eg iona l ly o r c h rono log ica l ly r ep re sen ta t ive ( Tab le 1 . 1 , 1 . 2 ; F ig . 1 . 1 , 1 . 2 , 1 . 3 ) . T hey d o ,

p re se rva t ion ) a nd t h e i r c onc lu s ion s r equ i re mod if ica t ion f o r

h oweve r , r e f lec t t h e c on s i s ten t i n te rp re t ive a pp roache s u sed

n or the rn s i te s w h ich u nde rwen t t h e i mpac t s o f g l ac ia l ,

f r om o ne c oun t ry t oa no the r , a nd s ub sequen t ly empha s ize t he p a rad igm o fe a r ly h uman s u rv iva l s ha red b ya r chaeo log i s t s i n

i n te r s tad ia l , a nd i n te rg lac ia lc ond i t ion s .

t h ea r ea su nde rs t udy . I n i t ia l ly i tw a s ama t te r o fs o me c once rn Open -a i r d epo s i t s w e re c ho sen o ve r c ave s i te s b ecau se t h e

t h a tb e t te rk now n o pen -a i rc o l lec t ion sc ou ld n o tb ee xam ined ,

t a phonom ic p roce sse s a c t ing u pon t h e f o rme r a r e b e t te r u nde r s tood , p a r t icu la r ly t h rough a c tua l i s t ic a nd e xpe r imen ta l

s uch a sB i lz ing s leben i nG e rmany , a nd Mau ran a nd B iache -

p a laeon to log ica l r e sea rch . I th a s b een s a id t h a tc ave s i te s a r e

o t he ri mpo r tan to pen -a i rs i te sw h ich a re e qua l ly r ep re sen ta t ive

t he i d ea l a r chaeo log ica l e nv i ronmen t b e cau se t h ey p re sen t

o ft h ea pp roach t oe a r ly P le i s tocene a s semb lage s .

S a in t -Vaa s ti nF rance . T h i sh a s ,h oweve r ,p romp ted as t udy o f

b e t te ro ppo r tun i t ie sf o ra s se s s ing s i te c on tex t , s i te a ccumu la t ion a nd d i s tu rbance , s e rv ing a ss ed imen ta ry t r ap s b yb u ry ing a nd

C onc lu s ion sm ad ei nt h i sr e sea rch a r eb a sed o nc r i t ica lr ead ing s

p ro te c t ing e a rl ie rs ed imen t st o ag rea te rd eg re et han i no pen -a i r c on tex t s ( c f .F ar rand 1 985 ,K le in 1 989 ) . Wha ta r ef r equen t ly

o f a r chaeo log ica l r epo r t s f r om B r i ta in , F rance , G e rmany , C z e cho s lovak ia ,I t a ly ,a nd S pa in ; o nt h er e su l t so ft h ea na ly s is

i n te rp re ted a ss t e r i le s ed imen tl a y e r s ,h oweve r , o f ten r ep re sen t

o ft h eH o me s i t ef a una l a s semb lage f r om S uf f o lk ( S topp 1 988 ,

c omp lex

1 993 ) ; a nd o n a n e xam ina t ion o f s even e a r ly P le i s tocene a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s a sw el a ss even p a laeon to log ica l

h i s to r ie s

a f ec ted

b y

s o l i f luc t ion ,

i luv ia t ion

( downwa rd w a te r p e rco la t ion ) , e l luv ia t ion ( wa sh ing o u t o f s ed imen t s ) , a nd t h ev a r iou s e f ec t s o ff r eeze thaw c ond i t ion s .

c on t ro la s semb lage s .

C ave s ed imen t s t e nd t ob e i n t r ica te , w i th u ncon fo rmab le a nd u nc lea r l a y e r s , whe rea s o pen -a i r d epo s i t s a r e g ene ra l ly s t ra igh t fo rwa rd f l uv ia ld epo s i t s . C ave s i te s u nde rgo e x ten s ive

1 . 2

I NTERPRET IVE FRA ME WORK

c ru sh ing , p a r t icu la r ly f r om r oof c o l lap se d ue t oc ryoc la s t i sm

1 . 2 .1

An O verv iew o f App l ied Mode ls o f Adap tat ion f or

w he re r ock s pa l l s d ue t of r o s t a c t ion i n amo i s te nv i ronmen t .

t he Nor thern Hem i sphere

T he c omb ina t ion o f s ed imen ta ry c ompac t ion a nd mo i s tu re r e ten t ion w i th in c ave s a i d s b one d ecompo s i t ion .

O pen -a i r

I n E u rope , t h e P a laeo l i th ic s equence h a s b een i n te rpre ted

d epos i t s a r e g ene ra l ly s i ng le h o r izon s i te s w he rea s c ave s i te s

f o l low ing t wo f r equen t ly o ve r lapp ing l i ne s o f i n ve s t iga t ion .

i n ev i tab ly h ave s eve ra l h o r izon s w h ich a r e o f ten d i ff icu l t t o

E conom ic a n a ly s i s s t re s se ss i t ev a r iab i l i ty , s uch a ss i te l o ca t ion

e ta l .

a nd a s semb lage c on ten t , a nd i s man ife s ted i n t h e h un t ing

1 990 ) . E a r ly P le i s tocene d epo s i t s i nt h en o r the rn h em i sphe re

s c ena r io . I ti sb a sed c h ie f ly o nf a una le l emen ti d en t if ica t ion a nd

n eve r the le s s t e nd t o b e o pen -a i r a nd s i tua ted i n r i pa r ian

r e la t ive q uan t if ica t ion i n o rde r t o mode l e nv i ronmen ta l

c on tex t s (Wyme r 1 981) , w i th Uppe r P l e i s tocene b ecom ing

a dap ta t ion s a nd s pec if ic s ub s i s tence s t ra teg ie s ( i . e . , Gamb le

d ec iphe r ( Lav i l le e ta l . 1 980 , J enn ing s 1 985 , T o r re s

i n c rea s ing ly f r equen tp a r t icu la r ly i ns ou the rn E u rope .

1 979 , C ha se 1 989 ) . As oc ia la na ly s i si sf ounded o nt h es ame d a ta c l a s s if ica t ion s . P roponen t s o ft h i s a pp roa ch s pecu la te o n

T o d i spe l a ny s ugge s t ion t h a t o pen -a i r s i te s a r el e ss mod if ied

t h eo r ig in s o ft h ef am i ly u n i t ,t h ei d en t if ica t ion o fh ome a nd /o r

2

b a se c amp s( I saa c 1 971 ,b u ts e ea l so I s aac 1 983 ) , a nd e v idence o fc oope ra t ive h un t ing ( Cha se 1 989 ) . T o q uo te R igaud a nd

m amma lh un t ing m ode lh a s ,h owev e r ,b een t r an sf e r red o n to t h e e a rl ie s tE u ropean s i te sf r om t h es em ina lE a s tA f r ican r e sea rch . A s w e l l , t h e re i sc oncep tua l t r an sf e r ra l f r om mo re r ecen t ,

S imek ( 1987 :84 ) ,

Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic s i te r e sea rch w he re as t ronge r d a ta b a se I n r e cen t y ea r s p a t te rn ing o b se rved i nt h e

p e rm i t s mo re r obu s t mode l l ing . C ha se ( 1989 ) , f o r i n s tance ,

P a leo l i th ic r e co rd ( whe the r s i te l o ca t ion ,

a r gue st h a tM idd le P a laeo l i th ic s ubs i s tence d if e red l i t t le i ni t s

a s so c ia t ion ,o rc on ten t )h a sb een i n te rp re ted

o ve ra l l n a tu re f r om t h e Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic , a nd t h a t M idd le P a laeo l i th ic h om in id s w e re p rac t i s ing a" pu rpo se fu l , e c lec t ic h un t ing s t ra tegy " w he reby s e lec ted s pec ie s w e re e xp lo i ted s ea sona l ly a t d ife ren t l o ca t ion s i n t h e l a nd scape ( Cha se 1 989 :333 ) . H eu se s M in imum Numbe r o fI nd iv idua l (MN I )

a si fi tw a s c au sed b yp a s th uman a c t iv i t ie s a nd d ec i s ion s . T he r ema inde ro ft h i sp ape rd i scu sse sh ow s kewed t h e" a si f " a s sump t ion c an b e , a nd h ow i mpo r tan t i ti s t o a c t ive ly i n co rpo ra te t a phonom ic e xam ina t ion i n to t h em e thodo log ica l a nd i n te rp re t ive s t age s o fe a r ly s i te a na ly s i s i ft h e r e su l tan t a dap t ive mode l s a r et ob er obu s ta nd c r ed ib le -t h ee a r l ie rt h e s i te , t h e m o re c ompe l l ing t h i s b ecome s . E f remov ( 1940 :82 ) make s t h i s o b se rva t ion w i th r e spec t t o p a lae o n to log ica l ma te r ia l ; " The o l de r t h ea ge o ft h eg eo log ica l f o rma t ion . . . the s c a rce ri st h ea c tua l ma te r ia l ,a nd t h e re a r e mo re a nd m o re w ay s i nw h ich i tc an b ei n te rp re ted . " I n much E u ropean a r chaeo log ica ll i t e ra tu re t h eh un t ing mode l i su sed a sa ne xp lana t ion f o r t wo c ond i t ion s . I ts uppo r t s t h e a s soc ia t ion o fl i t h ic a nd f a una l r ema in s i n e a r ly s t ra ta , i . e . h uman su s ed t h el i t h ic st ok i l la nd /o rp roce ss t h ea n ima l sw ho se b one sa r er e p re sen ted ( t he e conom ic a pp roach ) . C on sequen t ly , i t a l so p rov ide s a n e xp lana t ion o f t h e n a tu re o f h uman a dap ta t ion a nd s u rv iva li nt h en o r the rn h em i sphe re ( t he s o c ia l mode l ) . E ven q u i te r e cen t a r chaeo log ica l r epo r t s d o n o t c on s ide rt h ep o s s ib i l i ty o fo t he rs c ena r io so fa dap ta t ion ,s u ch a s f o rag ing , g a the r ing , p r ima ry o r s e conda ry s c aveng ing , o r

c oun t so ff a una lt an t oa r gue f o rs pec ia l ized h un t ing d ur ing t h e M idd le P a laeol i th ic , w h i le a cknow ledg ing t h a to the r t h an t h e L eh r ingen s pea r t h e re i sl i t t le a r t i f ac tua l e v idence t os ugge s t h un t ing t o o l s . T he d if i cu l ty w i th t h i sf a ce -va lue a na ly s i so ft h e f a una l r ema in s i st h a t i ta s sume s " s pec ia l ized k i l l s i te s " a r e c u l tu ra l i n o r ig in b ecau se o f t h e p redom inance o f as i ng le s pec ie s .

MN I c oun t s c anno t , h owev e r , d emon s t ra te t h i s

c onc lu s ion w i thou tc on s ide r ing w he the r s pec ia l ized k i l l s i te s m ay i nf a c tb en a tu ra lm a ss d ea th s i te s o fh e rd m amma l s A dap t ive m ode l sr e fe r r ing s pec if i ca l ly t op re -Neande r tha le r si n t h e n o r the rn h em i sphe re a r e r a re . B inf o rd 's ( 1981 , 1 985 ) z ooa rchaeo log ica l mode l o f u t i l i ty h a s b een d e sc r ibed a s a p o ten t ia l ly p owe r fu la r chaeo log ica lt oo lb ecau se " i t emp loy sa g ene ra lu nde r s tand ing o fe conom ic b ehav iou ri n aw ay t ha tc an b eu s ed t oa n t ic ipa te ,a nd t h u se xp la in ,v a r iab i l i ty i np reh i s to r ic f a una l a s semb lage s r ega rd le s s o f a ge " ( Be t t inge r 1 991 :75 ) . U s ing i n d ice sd eve loped f o rK la s ie sR ive r Mou th a s semb lage s B in f o rd a r gue s t h a t f a una l r ema in s i n E u ropean e a r ly P le i s tocene s i te s s uch a s Hoxne , Swan scombe a nd C ombe

c omb ina t ion s t h e reof . No r d o s uch a na ly se s ( f o r i n s tance , B os insk i 1 988 , B o s in sk i e t a l . 1 986 , C ha se 1 986 , 1 989 ) i nve s t iga te a nd d i scu s s t h e i n teg r i ty o ft h e i r d a ta , c h ie f ly t h e

G ren a l a r e t h e r e su l t o f s caveng ing a nd d o n o t u pho ld t h e

f a una lr em a in s ,i nl i gh to fw he the ro rn o tt h e se may b es e r iou s ly b i a sed b yt a phonom ic p ro ce s se sr a the rt h an r ef lec t ive o fh uman

h un t ing . I n t h e a na ly s i s o f t h e Hoxne f a una ( S topp 1 988 , 1 993 ) , Id emon s t ra te t h a tB in f o rd ' s( 1985 )i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h a t c o l lec t ion ( t ha t i tr e f lec t s as caveng ing w ay o f l i f e ) i sn o t

a c t iv i ty . F o r t h e m o s t p a r t ,

a r chaeo log ica l r epo r t s i n vok e a n

u ndeve loped a nd s imp l i s t ic l a rge m amma lh un t ing s cena r io t o

t r ad i t iona l h un t ing mode l . H e c on tend s t ha t o n ly w i th H . s ap iens d ow eb eg in t of i nd d i s t inc tl a rge a nd med ium mamma l

s uppor ted b y t h e e v idence a t h and . T he h igh d eg ree o f t a phonom ic d e s t ruc t ion ,i nc on junc t ion w i th s m2 l 1s amp le s i ze , d oe s n o tp e rm i ta ny th ing b u th igh ly h ypo the t ica l c onc lu s ion s

e xp la in s i te d a ta . T he e mpha s i s o nh i gh -r i sk e nv i ronmen ta l e xp lo i ta t ion a s e xp lana t ion o f e a r ly h uman s u rv iva l i s

r ega rd ing h uman a c t iv i ty .

h i s tor ica l ly r oo ted i nn i ne teen th c en tu ry s oc ia l e vo lu t iona ry t h eo ry w h ich p e rce ived e x tan th un te r -ga the re r s a sv e s t ige s o f

G amb le ( 1987 ) s ugge s t s af o rag ing mode l o fw in te r s urv iva l d u r ing t h e M idd le P le i s tocene w he re in t he c o lon iz a t ion a nd l o ng te rm s u rv iva lo fe a r ly h uman si nt h en or the rn h em i sphe re

a nc ien ts o c ie t ie s a nd a se xamp le s o fh ow p a s th uman s l i ved . A s n o ted ,t h ep opu la r mode li n vo lve sh om in id m a le sh un t ing

w a sl im i ted b yl o ng w in te r s d u r ing e a r ly g l ac ia lp e r iod s . T he k ey p o in t o f t h i s mode l i st h a t d u r ing c o ld p e r iod s g roups r ema in ing i nt h en o r th h ad t od eve lop t e chn ique sf o ro b ta in ing

l a rge mamma l s a nd t r an spo r t ing k i l s t o ab a se c amp f o r d i s t r ibu t ion among w a i t ing f ema le s a nd y oung . T h i s p rov ide r : rec ip ien tr e la t ion sh ip e s tab l i shed t h eb a s i sf o rs oc ia l

f o od . G amb le s ugge s t st h a tt h i sa dap t ive n eed may h ave b een m e t b y p u rpo se f u l f o rag ing o ff r ozen c a rca sse s b enea th t h e

b ond ing ,d i v i s ion o fl a bou r ,a nd e ven tua l ly f o rt h ed eve lopmen t o fc en t ra l iz ed s e t t lem en ts y s tem s( I saa c 1 978 ,I s aac a nd C rade r

s now u s ing p robe s . F o rag ing i ss ugge s ted o ve r s caveng ing

1 981 ;c f .B in fo rd 1 985 ,B e t t inge r 1 991 f o rs umma r ie s ) .

b ecau se f o rag ing ( I ngo ld ' s [ 1 986 :79 ] " e x t ra c t ive b ehav iou r " ) i s l e ss p u rpo se fu l a nd i mpl ie s i n c iden ta l f ood e ncoun te r s o f ten " embedded i na no the ra c t iv i ty . "

T h i s mode l h a s b een a pp l ied t ot h e a r chaeo log ica l e v idence f r om P l io -P le i s tocene s i te s s uch a sO lduva i ,K oob iF o ra , a nd L ake T u rkana . Due t ol a ck o fd ef in i t ive c u l tu ra l d a ta b u t a

Af ou r th a pp roa ch , d eve loped i nt h i sr e sea rch , ma in ta in s t h a t

s ur f e i to ft a phonom ic d i s tu rbance ,r e sea rche r s i nE a s tA f r ica n ow s u spe c tt h a tt h e re i sn oc l ea ri n d ica t ion o f ah un t ing w ay o f

c u l tu ra l ly p e r t inen td a ta a r el im i ted a s ar e su l to ft a phonom ic

l i fe f o rH . e rec tus d ue t os i te d i s tu rbance s ( Bunn e ta l . 1 980 ,

i n o n " p re -Neande r tha le r s t o t h e s ame e x ten t a s f o r l a te r

I s aa c1 983 , 1 984 ;b u ts e eL eakey a nd L ew in 1 992 ) . T he l a rge

a s semb lage s .

d e s t ruc t ion o ve rt ime ,a nd t h a ti tmay n o tb ep oss ib le t o" home

3

E a r ly s i te s d o n o t t e l l u s h ow s ucce s sfu l o r

e f fec t ive H . e r ec tu s o ra r cha ic H . s ap ien s w e re a to b ta in ing

s ub s tant ia te b o th u nd i s tu rbed s i te c on tex ta nd al a rge mamma l

mea t b ecau se o f t h e u nknown f a c to r s i n vo lved i n s i te

h un t ing w ay o fl i f ed u r ing t h ee a r ly P l e i s tocene p e r iod . E ach i s

a ccumu la t ion . A l though c u tma rk sc au sed b ys t one t o o l se x i s t

e xam ined w i th r e la t ion t ob o th i t s s uppo r t ing e v idence a nd t o e x is t ing l i t e ra tu re .

o n s ome f a una le l emen t s , t h ey c anno to ft h em se lve s s ugge s ta w ay o fl i f e ( c f . B unn e ta l . 1 980 , S h ipman a nd R o se 1 983b , S topp 1 988 , 1 993 , K le in 1 989 ) . T h i s mode l o f c on s t ra in t q ue s t ion s t h e ef i cacy o f u s ing e a r ly , c l ea r ly d i s tu rbed a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s t od e r ive e xp lana t ion s o fh uman a dap ta t ion ,a g ree ing w i th G amb le ( 1986 :xv i i ) t h a tt h ey a r e " t he wo r s t a r chaeo log ica l d a ta b a se f r om w h ich t o a t temp t t h e r e con s t ruc t ion o fc u l tu re h i s to ry . " I tc u t s a c ro ss b ehav iou ra l i s t a s sump t ion so ft h ep o s i t iv i s ta pp roach ,r e con s ide r ing t h ep r ima f ac i ei n te rp re ta t ion so fs t ra t ig raph ic i n teg r i ty ( V i l la 1 982 , V i l la

1 . 2 .3 1 .

T he Cond i t ions o f Cu l tura l Causa l i ty T he a s soc ia t ion o f b one w i th l i th ic t oo l s i s t h e

p redom inan t c r i te r ion f o r a s s ign ing c u l tu ra l c au sa l i ty t o t h e f a una ld epo s i t sf r om o pen -a i rs i te s . T he b one / too la s soc ia t ion , h oweve r , n e i the rj u s t if ie s n o r s ugge s t s a ny c au sa l c onnec t ion b e tween t h e t wo a r t ifac t c l a sse s . T he c au sa l r e la t ion sh ip i s n eve r the le s s i mp l ic i t ly a ccep ted i na r chaeo log ica ls i te r epo r t s .

a nd C ou r t in 1 983 ) , a nd t h e a u toma t ic c au sa l a s soc ia t ion o f f a una l a nd l i t h ic r ema in s ( B in fo rd 1 987 , K le in 1 987 ,Z ih lman

T he O s te i f e l s i te s i n c en t ra l Ge rmany ( F ig . 1 . 3 ) , i n c lud ing

1 988 ,S t opp 1 988 , 1 993 ,V i l la 1 990 ) . U l t ima te ly t h i s mode l o f

P l a id te r -Humme r ich ( K röge r 1 987 )d a ted t oa pp rox ima te ly 2 00

c on s t ra in ts ugge s t s t h a t many a spe c t s o ft h ed i s tan th uman p a s t

t housand y ea r s a go ( kya ) ,M ie senhe im ( Bo s insk i e ta l . 1 988 ;

a re i ndef inab le a nd n o t e ven t e s tab le t h rough t h e f a una l

a pp rox . 3 00 k y a ) , a nd S chwe in skopf -Ka rme lenbe rg ( Schä f e r 1 987 ; a pp rox . 1 50 k y a ) , w h ich a r e a l l o ca ted i na n a nc ien t

r e ma in s .

v o lcan ic f i e ld , o f e r a ne xamp le . T he p re sence o fl i th ic sw i th o ccupa t ion l a y e r ,o rs e ve ra la r t if ac t s , a r en o tt h ek ey t oe ven tua l

b one g ive s t h es i te sc u l tu ra lc r edence . T he l i th ic a s semb lage s f r om t h e se s i te sc on s i s tc h ie f ly o fu n re touched f l ake s a nd c o re s

A s e a r ly a s 1 966 , F . C la rk H owe l l p o in ted o u t t h a t a n s i te i n te rp re ta t ion ;r a the r , o ne n eed s t ob u i ld a n a r gumen tf o r i n

w h ich m ay b el i nked w i th s ome o ft h ef a una lr ema in s ;h oweve r ,

s i tu c on tex t . H owe l l ' s d e ta i led a na ly s i s o f m any e a r ly P le i s tocene s i te s i nE u rope i n va r iab ly c onc luded t h a t t h e se

i n te rac t ion w i th l a rge m amma l r ema in s . T he wa te r ing h o le s

c o l lec t ion s w e re " i ndeed v e ry l im i ted i n t h e i r u se fu lne s s " ( Howel 1 966 :181 ) . Ag ene ra t ion l a te r , R igaud a nd S imek

w h ich f o rmed i nt h ee x t inc tO s te i f e lc r a te r sw ou ld h ave s u i ted t he h ab i t s o f l a rge mamma l s s uch a s e l ephan t s a nd r h ino s .

( 1987 ) r e i te ra te t h a t t h e m any p roce s se s

a f f ec t ing t h e

E lephan tb ehav iou rs t ud ie sa nd a c tua l i st ic r e sea rch h ave s hown

P a laeo l i th ic d a ta b a se n ece s s i ta te h a rd c on s ide ra t ion o f i t s r e l iab i l i ty a nd r obu s t ic i ty a si nd ica t ive o fp a s tp a t te rn ing .

t h a to ve r t ime s uch l o ca t ion s b ecome n a tu ra lb one r e se rvo i r s ,

t h e a r t if ac t s d o n o ti mpl ic i t ly s ugge s th un t ing , o re ven h uman

a nd t h a t n o h uman i n te rven t ion i sn e eded t oc rea te t h em ( G . Hayne s , p e r s . c oram . , 1 988 , 1 990 ; C oneybea re a nd H ayne s

1 . 2 .2 .

Curren tD ep ic t ion so fP le i s tocene Adap ta t ion i n

1 984 ; Voo rh ie s 1 969 ; We ige l t 1 927 ;D a rw in 1 900 ) . E qua l ly

t he Nor thern H em i sphere

l i ke ly a r et h ep o s s ib il i t ie st h a tt h el i th ic r ema in s a re e v idence o f s caveng ing a c t iv i t ie s , o fh uman a c t iv i t ie s a l toge the ru n re la ted t o mea tp rocu remen t ,o ra r es e conda ry d epo s i t su n re la ted t ot h e f a una lr ema in s .

T he h un t ing m ode l i sc ommon ly p o r t rayed i n t wo w ay s i n a r cha eo log ica ll i t e ra tu re ;f a una lr ema in sf r om s i te se i the rr e f lec t g enera l ized l a rge mamma lh un t ing , o rt h ey a r et h er e su l to f s pec ia l ized h unt ing . Af ew e xamp le s o fa s semb lage s a sc r ibed t ol a rge m amma l h un te r s o fe i the r e l ephan t o rr h inoce ro s a r e

O fa l l t h ec ond i t ion sr equ i red t od i s t ingu i sh a n a r chaeo log ica l

t h e n o r th G e rman s i te s o fL eh r ingen ( Th ieme a nd V e i l 1 985 )

b e tween b one a nd s t one i sp e rhaps t h em o s td if i cu l tt oc on te s t

s i te f r om p a laeon to log ica l r ema in s , t h i s a s sumed a s soc ia t ion

a nd B i lz ing s leben ( Man ia e ta l . 1 980 , 1 986 , Ma ie ta l . 1 983 ) ,

f o r i tr ep re sen t s t h e e s sen t ia l r equ i remen t o f t h e c u l tu ra l ly

T o r ra lba i nS pa in ( F reeman e ta l . 1 966 , B in fo rd 1 987 ) , a nd

d e r ived f a una la s semb lage . Y e ti ti s ac r i te r ion t h a tc an o n ly b e c on s ide red t e nab le b yf i r s tc on s ide r ing t a phonom ic i mpa c t s a nd

S o le ihac i ns ou th -cen t ra l F rance ( Bon i f ay e ta l . 1 976 ) .

A n

t h en a tu re o fb one b reakage a t as i te .

" e lephan tb u tche ry l e ve l " i sp re sen ted f o r t h e S pan i sh s i te o f A r ido s 1( San ton ja a nd V i l la 1 990 ) ,a nd s eve ra l o ft h e Neuw ied B a s in s i te si nt h eR h ine land ,s uch a sI C a r l ich a nd K a rme lenbe rg

. quan t i t ie s o f b roken b one s a r e f ound

( Bo s in sk i e ta l . 1 986 ) , a r ei n te rp re ted s im i la r ly ( F igu re 1 . 3 ) .

i n te rm ing led

w i th

c oncen t ra t ion s

o f

d i sca rded s t one a r t i f ac t s . . . the i n te rp re ta t ion G rea te r r ep re sen ta t ion o f o ne s pe c ie s o ve r o t he r s a t as i te

o f

p romp t s t h e i d en t if ica t ion o f as pec ia l ized h un t ing s t a t ion .

a r chaeo log i s t s

t h e se

s eem s

p e r f ec t ly f am i l ia r

o bv iou s w i th

t o

r e cen t

E xamp le s i n c lude Mau ran i ns ou thwe s te rn F rance , wh ich i s

s i te s . . . . We n eed f i r s t t oc heck w he the r t h e

i n te rp re ted a s ab ov id h un t ing s t a t ion ( G i ra rd a nd D av id 1 979 ) ; s pe c ia l i sed f a l low d ee r h un t ing d epo t ( Man ia a nd T homae

c o -occu r rence o fa r t i f ac t s a nd b roken b one s i s as uf i c ien t ly d ef in i te p henomenon . . .we n eed t oc on s ide rt h ev a r iou sp roce s se so t he r

1 988 ) ;a nd B iache -Sa in t -Va a s tt h ough tt ob et h er e su l to fb ea r

t h an h om in id a c t ion s t h a t m igh t s e rve t o

h un te r s ( Augu s te 1 988 ) ( F igu re 1 . 3 ) .

f o rm s uch c o inc iden tc oncen t ra t ion s ( I saac 1 983 :4 ) .

Neuma rkNo rd i nt h eG e ise lv a l ley o fG e rmany i sg iven a sa

I nt h ef o l low ing p a rag raph sc r i te r ia u sed t os uppo r tt h ep rem i se o f l ow s i te d i s tu rbance a r e d e scr ibed a nd d i scu ssed . c ond i t ion s

w e re

i d en t if ied

b y

w h ich

s i te

2 .

F ive

A t

S chwe in skopf -Ka rm e lenbe rg

t h e

a s soc ia t ion

b e tween l i th ic s a nd b one i sp re sumab ly s t reng thened b y a

r e sea rche r s

4

s econd c r i te r ion f o r a s s ign ing c u l tu ra l c au sa l i ty , n am e ly , r ea son ing t h a t t h e b one s d i sp lay " f rac tu r ing t y p ica l o fb one s haf t s w h ich h ave b een c r u shed f o r m a r row e x t rac t ion " ( S chä f e r 1 987 ,t r an s la t ion f r om t h eG e rman ) . No tw i th s tand ing t h e d i ff icu l ty o fi d en t ify ing b one f r agmen t s wh ich a r e t r u ly " t yp ica l " o f marrow f rac tur ing ( c f . My e r e ta l . 1 980 ) , t h i s c ond i t ion w a si n vok ed i ns eve ra lr epo r t st os ubs tan t ia te h uman i mpac t ( f o r i n s tance , P opl in 1 978 ; B o s in sk i e t a l . 1 986 ; A ugu s te 1 992 ) . F o rt h es i te o fI s e rn ia ,I t a ly ( F igu re 1 . 3 ) ,d a ted t o a pp rox ima te ly 7 50 l c y a , i ti sr e a soned t h a t t h e c omp le te f a una le l emen t s , s u ch a sp ha lange s , t e e th ,c a rpa l s a nd t a r sa l s , a r ei n ta c tb ecau se t h ey l a ck m a r row .T he r ema in ing f r agmen ted

d epo s i t s h ave b een r ed i s t r ibu ted a t s ome p o in t i n t ime . M ie senhe im ,f o ri n s tance ,y i e lded t h es ke le ta lr ema in so fe i gh t m amma l ian s pec ie s a nd i si n te rp re ted a s at empo rary h un t ing c amp d a t ing t oa pp rox ima te ly 3 00 ,000 BP ( Bo s in sk i e ta l . 1 988 ) . Ac l o se rr ead ing r evea l s t h a tt h ef a una lr ema in s f r om M ie senhe im c on s i s t p r ima r i ly o f a n t le r f r agmen t s , t e e th f r agmen t s , p ha lange s , c a rpa l s , t a r sa l s , a nd a f ew l ong b one f r agmen t s . A s a l ready n o ted , t h e se e l emen t s c on s t i tu te t h e d en se s tp a r t s o f as ke le ton a nd t h u st h el e a s tl i ke ly t ou nde rgo d e s t ruc t ion . S ec t ion 4 . 2 .1 .2 d i scu sse s s ke le t a l e l emen t b ehav iou r i n h yd rodynam ic c ond i t ion s . Den se b one s a r e d i f f e ren t ly m ob i l ized a tl ow v e loc i ty t h an l e ss d en se e l emen t s

b one st h e re f o re r e p re sen tm ar row e x t ra c t ion b yh uman h un te r s ( Co l to r t i e ta l . 1 982 ; G iu sbe r t i a nd P e re t to 1 991) . W i th t h e

s u ch a sr i b s o rv e r teb rae . Den se e l emen t sa r et h e mo s tl i ke ly t o b e p re se rved i n a t t r i t iona l c ond i t ion s s uch a s d u r ing

e xcep t ion o f G iu sbe r t i a nd P e re t to ' s ( 1991) d e ta i led a nd c onv inc ing a na ly s i s o f t h e I s e rn ia l o ngbone f r ac tu re s , t h e m a jo r i ty o f r epo r t s d o n o tp re sen t a n e xp l ic i t d i scu s s ion o f b one p re se rva t ion ,o rf r e sh -bone v s . o l d -bone f r ac tu re s ,n o ri s

p ro longed h i gh v e loc i ty c ond i t ion s , o r d u r ing f r eeze thaw c y c le s . T he o ve r rep re sen ta t ion o fd en se e l emen t si nt h i s a nd o t he r c o l lec t ion s i s u ndoub ted e v idence t h a t t h e o r ig ina l a s semb lage w a s a l te red s ubs tan t ia l ly ( c f . Voo rh ie s 1 969 , B in fo rd a nd B e r t ram 1 977 , S hack ley 1 978 , Hayne s 1 981 ,

t h e re r ecogn i t ion t h a t s p i ra l f r ac tu r ing , i fi te x i s t s , c an b e c au sed b yc a rn ivo re g naw ing o fb one ( c f .B onn ich sen a nd S o rg

a mong o t h e r s ) . T he s ma l l -g rave ls ed imen ta ry ma t r ix i n wh ich

1 989 , J ohn son 1 985 , Mo r lan 1 984 , H ayne s 1 983 , Mo r lan

f a una l r ema in s w e re f o und may s imp ly b e t h e l a s t o fs eve ra l

1 983 , among o t he r s ) . T he S chwe in skopf -Ka rme lenbe rg r epo r t i nd ica te s t h a tt h es ed imen t s a r ee x ten s ive ly c ryo tu rba ted , a nd

p rev iou ss ed imen ta ry c on tex t s .

t h a t t h e f i nd l a y e r h a s ah i gh mo i s tu re c on ten t ( " braunen N as sboden " ) a nd i so ve r la in b ys eve ra lm e t re s o fc ompac ted s ed imen t s . S ed imen ta ry c ond i t ion s o ft h i s n a tu re a f ec tb one p re se rva t ion , a s d oe s o ve rbu rden , a nd i ti sn o t o u t o f t h e q ue s t ion t h a tb one f r ac tu ra t ion a nd b one p re se rva t ion p a t te rn s

4 . T he a s soc ia t ion o fa no pen -a i rb one a ccumu la t ion a nd h uman a gency i st h ough t t o b e f u r the r s t reng thened when

a tt h i s s i te a nd o t he r s w e re c au sed b ys e d imen ta ry c ond i t ion s . 3 .

A rchaeo log ica lr epo r t s o fo pen -a i re a r ly P le i s tocene

s i te s f o l low t h e r ea sonab le max im t h a t a n u nde r s tand ing o f h uman a dap ta t ion f i r s tr equ i re s a nu nd is turbed o rr e la t ive ly

c u l tura l f e a ture s a r e i d en t if ied . S uch i d en t if ica t ion s a r e a lway s o pen t o q ue s t ion b u t o cca s iona l ly q u i te p lau s ib le f e a tu re s a r e r epo r ted , s uch a s t h e p o ss ib le h ea r th s a t V e r te szö l lo s ( K re tzo i a nd V e r te s 1 965 ) a nd B iache -Sa in t V aa s t( Tu f f reau e ta l . 1 977 ) ( c f .J ame s 1 989 f o rd i scuss ion o f h om in id u se o ff i re i nL owe r a nd M idd le P le i s tocene ) . Mo re f r equen t ly i ti si s o la ted c ha rcoa l b i t s wh ich a r e l i nked t o a h uman

a gency s uch

a s a t Hoxne

(Wyme r

1 983 )

o r

u nd i s turbed s i te c on t ex t . I ti st h e re fo re i n te re s t ing t oo b se rve t h a ta r chaeo log i s t si nva r iab ly d e s igna t ed a ni ns i tu c on tex tf o r t h e r epo r ted a s semb lage s . T h i s b eg s t h e q ue s t ion o fw ha t

B i lz ing s leben ( Man ia e ta l . 1 980 ) ( F ig . 1 . 3 ) .

g eomo rpho log ica l t r an sfo rma t ion s m ay h ave a f ec ted t h e

a r ea s " r e po r ted f o rn o r the rn h em i sphe re o pen -a i re xcava t ion s i s o f s ome c once rn g i ven t h e p reponde rance o f e v idence

a s semb lage a f t e r2 00 ,000 t o8 00 ,000 y ea r s , a nd a f te rs eve ra l k nown g l ac ia l c y c le s? T he f l uv ia l o r l a cu s t r ine s ed im en t s w h ich e nc lo se t h e m a jo r i ty o f e a r ly P l e i s tocene o pen -a i r d epo s i t sa r ec ompo sed o fs ma l l -d iame te rg rave l s . S i te r e po r t s r ou t ine ly a t t r ibu te t h i s ma t r ix t o al ow f l ow v e loc i ty w h ich embedded , b u td id n o t d i sp lace , t h ea r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l . A r ido s 1a nd 2 ,f o ri n s tance ,w e re d epo s i ted u nde rc ond i t ion s o f " ve ry l ow e ne rgy ' a se v idenced b yt h es i l t -c lay sand l a y e r

T he i n c rea s ing i d en t if i ca t ion o fh ab i ta t ion u n i t s a nd " a c t iv i ty

s ugge s t ing t h a t t h e se s i te s a r e d i s tu rbed d epo s i t s ( h igh ly f r agmen ted b one b ea r ing o l d -bone f r ac tu re s ,l a rge n umbe r s o f d ense e l emen t s , a nd n ea r sho re s i te l o ca t ion s ) . A t B i lz ing s leben ,f o re xamp le ,s eve ra lh ab i ta t ion a r ea s a nd a c t iv i ty a r ea s w i th l a rge b one " a nv i l s " h ave b een i d en t if ied o n t h e f o rm e rl a ke sho re o nt h eb a s i s o fl e ss c l u s te r ing o fl i th ic d ebr i s ( häuf igke i t sm in ima ) ( Man ia a nd Webe r 1 986 ) . T h i s i n te rp re ta t ion i sa r gued o nt h ep rem i se t h a tt h ef r agmen ted b one

( San ton ja a nd V i l la 1 990 ) . T he s ame e xp lana t ion i sg iven f o r B i lz ing s leben (Man ia e t a l . 1 980 ) , I s e rn ia ( Co l to r t i e ta l .

a r ound t h e a nv i l s i sa l loch thonou s . L ow f l ow v e loc i ty c ou ld

1 982 ) , P rez le t ice i n C zecho s lovak ia ( F r id r ich 1 989 ) , a nd

h ave i n t roduced f r agmen ted b one , b u t n o t t h e l a rge b one

' Ube id iya i nI s rae l ( S teke l i s e ta l . 1 969 ) , a mong o t he r s ( F ig .

" a nv i l s " o n t h e l a ke sho re . No t c on s ide red i st h a t t h e b one c oncen t ra t ion sa tB i lz ing s leben maybe e v idence o fg rea te rf l ow

1 . 3 ) .

v e loc i ty t h an p rev iou s ly s u spec ted ,a nd t h a tt h e i rd epos i t ion i s T he l i ke l ihood t h a tt h e se a s semb lage s a r es e conda ry d epo s i t s

ac omb ina t ion o ft h el o ca lc a tchmen ts y s tem a c t iv i ty a nd /o r a

wh ich h ave b een a l te red b yn a tu ra l t a phonom ic f o rce s o ve r many m i l lenn ia i sw o r th c on s ide r ing . I ti sp e rhap s b e s t

n a tu ra l d ea th s i te . T he p reponde rance o fo l d -bone f r ac tu re s

s ugge s ted b ys i te l o ca t ion s i no ra l ong s ide f o rme rw a te rway s .

d e s icca ted ) o n t h e s ke le ta l e l emen t s , mo reove r , s ugge s ts c on s ide rab le d i s tu rbance t ot h i sd epo s i tu n re la ted t oh uman o r c a rn ivo re a c t iv i ty ( c f .P la te si nB i lz ing s leben r epo r t s ) . S pa t ia l

( b reak s m ade w hen t h e b one w a s n o l o nge r f r e sh b u t

E ven t h e s ma l le s t c a tchmen t s a r e c hangeab le s y s tem s o n a s ea sona l s c a le , a nd h ave u nde rgone a v a r ie ty o f S ke le ta l

d i s t r ibu t ion o ff a una lr ema in s i sa l so g round s f o r i d en t i f y ing h uman a c t iv i ty a r ea s a t B iache -Sa in t -Vaa s t . A n a n ima l

e l emen tc onf igu ra t ion a tt h e se s i te sf u r the r s ugge s t st h a tt h e se

b u tche ry z one i sd i s t ingu i shed a tt h i ss i te o nt h eb a s i so fb one

g eomo zpho log ica l c hange s o ve r t h e c ou r se o f g l ac ia l a nd i n te rg lac ia l p e r iod s i n t h e n o r the rn h em i sphe re .

5

c l u s te r ss e pa ra ted f r om t h ea r ea o fl i t h ic f i nd s ( Augu s te 1 992 ) .

O nce a ga in , t a phonom ic f a c to r s a r ei n suf f i c ien t ly c on s ide red .

A t P rez le t ice , i n C zecho s lovak ia , ad we l l ing s t ruc tu re i s

T he b one c oncen t ra t ion s f ound a l ong f o rme r w a te rway s may

i d en t if ied o n t h e b a s i s o fa n i l -def ined s em i -c i rc le o fs t one s ,

w e l lr ep re sen tl o ca t ion s whe re m amma l sb ecame p red ic tab le ,

a nd w o rk shop a r ea sh ave b e en i d en t if ied a ga in b yt h ep re sence o f l a rge s t one " a nv i l s " ( F r id r ich 1 989 , p e r s . c omm . ) . T he

c a ta s t roph ic e ven ts s uch a s s p r ing f l ood ing , f l a sh f l ood ing .

i d en t if ica t ion o fc u l tu ra lf e a tu re sm ay b es omewha tp re sump t ive

E qua l ly , t h e i rc a rca sse s wou ld h ave b een s ub jec tt o an umbe r

i f n o t r e la t ive ly e a sy , t a rge t s f o r p reda to r s a nd n a tu ra l

g i ven t h ec ond i t ion o ft h ef a una lr ema in s ,t h es i te 's n ea r sho re

o ft a phonom ic i mpac t s a s soc ia ted w i th s ho rel ine e nv i ronmen t s

l o ca t ion ,t h el a ck o f ac l ea rc u ta r gumen tf o ri ns i tu d epo s i t ion ,

s uch

a nd ag ene ra l a b sence o ft a phonom ic a na ly s i s .

d e s t ruc t ion t h rough s a tu ra t ion a nd /o rf r eeze thaw c ond i t ion s .

5 .

1 . 2 .4

Af i na l a nd i n f requen tc r i te r ion f o ra s s ign ing c u l tu ra l

s i gn i f icance t of a una l r ema in s r e la te s t oa s sump t ion s o fh ow f a una l r em a in s a r r ive a t as i te . T he h un t ing mode l d ep ic t s

a s s h i f t ing a nd r edepo s i t ion b y mov ing w a te r , o r

S ummary

h om in id sr ang ing t h rough ar eg ion t oh un t , a nd r e tu rn ing k i l l s

N a tu ra l c au se sc an b ee f ec t ive a gen t so ff a una l a ccumu la t ion a nd a l te ra t ion . Undeve loped , o r m a rg ina l ly d eve loped

t o ac amp s i te . B ye x ten s ion ,t h eb one d epo s i ta s soc ia ted w i th

t a phonom ic a na ly se s o f a r chaeo log ica l s i te s w eaken t h e

l i th ic t oo l s e x i s t s b ecau se a n ima l c a rca s se s w e re a ma s sed b y

l i t h ic :bone a s soc ia t ion a sw el a st h el e g i t imacy o fa ny h ighe r l e ve l i n te rp re ta t ions o f as i te .

h un te r sa t ab a se c amp . I no t he rw o rd s ,l a rge a ccumu la t ion s o f b one a r eg ene ra l ly c on s ide red c u l tu ra l ly d e r ived i fl i t h ic t o o l s a r ep re sen t ,a nd a r ef u rt he ri n te rp re ted a sc amp l o ca t ion s . T h i s

T h ree r e cen t a r chaeo log ica l s t ud ie s o f M idd le P le i s tocene

i st h ec a se f o rs i te s s uch a sB iache -Sa in t -Vaa s t( Tu f f reau e ta t . 1 977 ) , N euma rkNo rd ( Man ia a nd T homae 1 988 ) ,

a s semb lage s i lu st ra te t h a ti ns p i te o fc a re fu l a na ly s i s o fl i th ic a nd f auna l r ema in s , t h ee v idence i si n suf f i c ien tt oi n d ica te a n

B i lz ing s leben ( Man ia a nd Webe r

1 986 ) , a nd P rez le t ice

a d ap t ive s t ra tegy . V i l la a nd S an ton ja ( 1990 ) s t ud ied t wo n ea r ly

( F r id r ich 1 989 ) , a mong o t he r s .

c omp le te ly a r t icu la ted e l ephan ts ke le ton s a tt h eS pan i sh s i te o f A r idos i n t h e Manzana re s r i ve r v a l ley . T he s ke le ton s w e re

A n a d junc tt ot h i s p rem i se i st h a tt h em ic roma rnma l s a t as i te a r ec on s ide red t ob en a tu ra ld epo s i t sw he rea s t h el a rge mamma l

a s soc ia ted w i th n ume rou s c on jo inab le l i th ic f r agmen t s , s ugge s t ing l i t t le d i s tu rbance o f t h i s l o ca le o ve r t h e p a s t

r e ma ins a r e a l loc thonou s . Ma i e t a l . ( 1983 ) r ea son t h a t b ecau se t h el a rge v e r teb ra te s a tB i lz ing s leben a r er ema in s o f

m i l lenn ia .

h om in id h un t ing , t h a ti s ,t h ey w e re t r an spo r ted t ot h ef i nd s i te f r om s u r round ing r eg ion sb ye a r ly h un te r s , t h ey c anno ts e rve a s

n o ts ugge s te i the r ah un t ing o r as caveng ing a dap ta t ion .

T he a r chaeo log i s t s d emon s t ra te , h oweve r , t h a t

c a re fu l a na ly s i s o fs i te c ond i t ion a nd a r t i f ac td i s t r ibu t ion d oe s

d i rec t i nd ica to r s o ft h e s i te 's p a laeoenv i ronmen t . T he s ma l l

S im i la r ly ,

f a una ,o nt h eo t he rh and ,r e p re sen t an a tu ra lt h ana tocoeno se a nd c an b e u sed f o r e nv i ronmen ta l r e con s t ruc t ion . I d en t ica l r ea son ing i sa pp l ied t ot h e H unga r ian s i te o f V e r te s szö l lö s

Ne the r land s ( F ig . 1 . 3 ) , R oeb roek s ( 1985 ) a rgue s t h a t t h e

( K re tzo i a nd V e r te s 1 965 : 7 6 ) :

a t Un i t

6 :S i te

E

o f Maa s t r ich t -Be lvede re ,

p re sence o fn ume rou s c on jo inab le l i t h ic f r agmen t s a nd s ome c on jo inab le f a una lr ema in s s ugge s tm in ima ld i sp lacemen t . On t h eo t he rh and ,h en o te s ,t he se o ccu ri n am a t r ix o fr edepo s i ted s ed imen t s , c onc lud ing t ha t " . .we c anno t b e s u re a bou t t h e

. . rema in s

o f

m ac romamma l s

a s soc ia t ion b e tween a r t ifac t s a nd f a una lr ema in s " ( 1985 :116 ) .

w e re

r ecove red f r om t h ec u l tu ra ll a ye ra l one i na p oo r s t a te o fp re se rva t ion . . .wh i le t h e o t he r

At a phonom ic a na ly s i s o ft h ef a una l r ema in s f r om t h e s i te o f

l aye r s

H oxne , S uf f o lk ( F ig . 1 . 3 ) , s how s t h a ta na ly t ic t e chn ique s s uch a s s ke le ta l e l emen t r ep re sen ta t ion a nd m o r ta l i ty p rof il ing ,

y i e lded

o n ly

r ema in s

o f

m ic roma rnma l s . T h i sh a sh e lped c l a r i fy t h e t h er em a in so ft h eP a laeo l i th ic h un te r 's p rey .

t r ad i t iona l ly u sed t o i lust ra te h uman a dap t ive p a t tern s ( i .e . K le in 1 982 , 1 989 , B info rd 1 984 ) , c anno t b e a pp l ied t o a

O n ly t h er ema in s o fm ic romamma l s g o ti n to

c o l le c t ion w h ich h a s b een b ia sed b y n ume rou s t a phonom ic

t h e l a y e r i nn a tu ra l w ay s . S o t h e p hy s ica l

p rocesse s ( S topp 1 988 , 1 993 ) . A ny " pa t te rn ing " o fs k e le ta l

c ond i t ion so ft h ei mmed ia te e nv i ronmen ta r e r e f lec ted o n ly b ym ic rom amma l s , w h i le t h e

e l emen t si nt h i sa s semb lage i s ad i rec tf u nc t ion o fb one d en s i ty

f a c tt h a tt h eb one so ft h em ac romamma l s a r e

r ema in s o fm ac romamma l s ,c o l lec ted f r om

a nd t h ea b i l i ty o fd en se b one s uch a sc a rpa l s ,t a r sa l s , o rt e e th , t or e s i s ta t t r i t ion . A l though s ome c u tma rk sw e re i d en t if iab le o n

aw ide r a r ea , a r e n o t r ep re sen ta t ive o f

e qu id a nd c e rv id e l emen t s , t h ey c ou ld n o t b e i n te rp re ted a s

h omogeneou se nv i ronm en ta lc ond i t ion s .

p a t te rn ing r e fe rab le t o ah om in id a gen t . I n te re s t ing ly , b one f r agmen t s wh ich e xh ib i t f r e sh -bone f r a c tu re s , t h a t i sb reak s

I ti se qua l ly p o ss ib le h oweve rt h a tl a rge m amma l sd i ed i nt h e i r

m ade w hen t h eb one w a s ' g reen ' o rs t il f r e sh , a r ec on s i s ten t ly

n a tu ra le nv i ronm en t( i n a s soc ia t ion w i th af l uv ia lo rl a cu s t r ine s y s tem ) ,a nd t h e i rr ema in sr e p re sen tn a tu ra ld ea th a s semb lage s .

f r om t ho se s ec t ion s o f t h e s i te wh ich y i e lded l i th ic s a nd c u tma rk s o n b one . A l l o f t h e c arn ivo re g nawed b one a l so

B ye x t en s ion ,t h e se r ema in s w ou ld a l so b ev a l id e nv i ronmen ta l

c ome sf r om t h e se a r ea s , mak ing i td if i cu l tt oi d en t i fy t h ea gen t

i nd ica to r s . T he s ma l le r , m o re t r an spo r tab le m ic rove r teb ra te

o ff r e sh b reakage .

r e ma ins m ay , i nf a c t , b e s e conda ry d epo s i t s o r ig ina t ing f r om d ue t oh uman f o rag ing ,p e rhap s a sn a tu ra lr edepo s i t ion d ue t o

A t tr ibu t ing o pen -a i rd epo s i t s t oh om in id a gency c on t ra s t sw i th t wo a na ly se s o f M idd le P l e i s tocene c ave s i te s b y

w a te rf l ow ( c f . Wo lf f1 973 ) .

p a laeon to log i s t s .

s eve ra lp o in t s w i th in a ne x ten s ive c a t chmen ts y s tem -p e rhap s

6

A l though t h e c hance s o f ac ave s i te

h arbou r ing a n u nd i s tu rbed c u l tu ra l d epo s i t a r e t h eo re t ica l ly g rea te r t h an f o r a n o pen -a i r , r i pa r ian s e t t ing , b o th t h e P on tnewydd ( G reen e ta L 1 981) a nd H una s( He l le r 1 983 ) ( F ig . 1 . 3 )r e sea rch t e am sc onc lude t h a tt h e re i sl i t t le e v idence t h a tt h e f a una l r ema in s f o und i n e i the r c ave a r e c u l tu ra l d epo s i t s , r ega rd le s s o ft h e l i t h ic s f o und i nt h e c ave s . I n b o th c a se s , c on s ide ra t ion w a s g i ven t on ume rou s t a phonom ic p roce s se s ,

f i nd r epo r t s wh ich d e ta i l as i te 's s ed imen ta ry s t ruc tu re o n ly t o i gno re i t s s i gn if icance i nt h ei n te rp re ta t ion o ft ha ts i te l i ke w i se , d i scu ss ion s o f s ke le ta l r ep re sen ta t ion a s s ign b one f r ac tu r ing t o h uman m a r row e x t rac t ion a c t iv i t ie s w i thou t s ub s tan t ia t ing t h i sl i nk . O ne i sl ef tt ow onde ri fi ti st h ef r ac tu re mo rpho logy , t h e s i ze o ft h e b one f r agmen t s o r a no the r c l ue w h ich h a sl e dt ot h es eem ing ly i n ev i tab le c onc lu s ion o fh uman

s uch a s c r u sh ing b y s ed imen t s , m a t r ix mo i s tu re a l te ra t ion ,

i n te rven t ion . B eh ind c onc lus ion s s uch a s" t ou s l e sg ros o sä

c a rn ivo re b one a c cumu la t ion , a nd t h e n a tu re o fs ed imen ta ry a c cumu la t ion a nd s h if t ing i n ac ave s e t t ing .

p ra i s to ire , p our l ' ex t rac t ion d e c e t t e s ubs tance g ra . s se "

moe l le o n t e t g c a ssg s äl ' or ig ine , c omme i le s t d e r eg le e n ( Pop l in 1 978 : d e sc r ib ing B iache -Sa in t -Vaa s tb one b reakage )

1 . 3

CONCLUSION

l i es t he i mpl ica t ion t h a t w e c an c onf iden t ly i d en t i fy h uman b reakage f r om b reakage c au sed b yc a rn ivo re g naw ing .

I n he ren t b i a se s i n s i te i n te rp re ta t ion o ve r look t h e e f ec t o f a t r i t iona lp ro ce s se s o na nc ien ta s semb lage s . I ti sc ommon t o

7

TABLE 1 . 1 :

CHRONOLOGY OF A SSE MBLAGES EXA M INED DUR ING RESEARCH P ROCESS

A rchaeo log ica lS i te s A r ido s

I& I

D a t ing T echn ique

D a te KYR B P

S ou rce

f auna , l i t h ic t ypo logy

M ind e l -R i s s

R us 1 987 , S an ton ja & Q ue ro l 1 980

R i s s - Wü rm

R u s &V ega 1 984 , R u s 1 987

_ . f a una , l i t h ic t y po logy

A r r iaga I P inedo

l i t h ic t ypo logy

P rez le t ic e

p a la eomagne t ic

S a lz g i t t e r -Leb en s ted t S wan scom be ( Uppe rM idd le G rave l s , B a r n f ie ld P i t )

Q ue ro l &S an ton ja 1 979

I f

7 50 -8 90 , 5 90 -6 60

V a lo ch 1 976 , F r id r ich 1 989

C 14

5 5 .6 + / -9 00 y r s .

G ro te & P reu l 1 980

f auna / l i th ic s U /Th

4 00 -2 50 3 26 + 99 / -54

K le in 1 989 , S zabo & C o l l in s 1 975

1 30 -1 90

B randon & S umb le r 1 988 , L i s t e r &B randon n . d .

"

_ _

P a laeon to log ica lS i te s E SR f a una , l i t h ic s

B a lde r ton

Wo l s to luan

a pp rox . 6 00

s t ra t ig raphy C 14*

L acha r M 1V 1 -2

AMS*

M 1V 1 -7

AMS -

N bV 1 -2

.

A gu i r re 1 974

_

3 8 + / -2 000 y r s .

Mo r lan 1 980

3 0 .1 + / -600 y r s .

Mo r lan e ta l . 1 990

3 5 .5 + / - 8 00 y r s .

Mo r lan e ta l . 1 990

N bVn -4

f a una ,s t ra t ig raphy

a pp rox . 5 00

Wr e t ton

m o l lu sc a ,f a una ,s t ra t ig raphy

We ich se l /Deven s ian

Mo r lan ,p e r s .c omm . .

.

S tua r t 1 986 , Wes te ta l . 1 974

*Mo re t h an o ne d a te f o rt h i s s i te , c f . a l so Mo r lan e ta l . 1 990

TABLE 1 . 2 :

S T IES USED FOR ANALYS IS -ELEMENTS P ER S ift ,* P o s tcran ia l

C ran ia lE l -

Un iden t if iab le

E lement s

emen t s

E lemen ts

A r ido s

6 5

2 5

A r r iaga

10

2 1

-

1 31

Mad r id A rene ro s

4 8

2 0

2

7 0

P inedo

2 2

4 9 _ .

-

7 1

7 3 -

7 5

6 3

7 89

2 14

A rchaeo log ica lS i te s

P rez le t ice

-

1 664

S a lzg i t te r Swan scombe

.

9 0

_ ,

3 72

T o ta l

2 11 •

-

2 667 3 72

i

P a laeonto log ica l S i te s 1 82

2 0

-

-

2 02

5 0

6 1

'

-

11

2 84

5 0

-

3 34

M 1V 1 -7

1 24

7 4

2 45

NbV 1 -2

2 75

3 13

144

1 732

NbVn -4

3 3

3 0

4 99

5 62

Wre t ton

8 68

3 48

4 170

1 875

B a lde r ton L acha r M 1V 1 -2

T o ta l

_ ,

2 167

'

4 43

1 216 8 212

*T he se e l emen tc oun t si n c lude t h em any c omp le te /nea r ly c omp le te m and ib le sa nd m ax i l lae f r om S a lzg i t te rw h ich w e re n o ti n c luded i nt h ea na ly s i s . T h i s a ccoun t s f o rt h ed if e rence i n t o ta lc oun t sp re sen ted h e re a nd i nt h et o ta le l emen t s s hown i n T ab le 4 . 1 .

8

F IGURE 1 . 1 : LOCAT IONS OF ANALYSED FAUNAL A SSE MBLAGES I N EUROPE Archaeo log ica l S i tes 1 . A r idos

3 . Mad r id A rene ro s s i tes

5 .P rez ie t ice

2 . A r r iaea

4 . P inedo

6 .S a lzg i t te r

7 . Swanscombe

P a laeon to log ica l S i te s 8 . B a lde r ton 9 . L acha r 1 0 . Wre t ton

9

F IGURE 1 . 2 : LOCAT IONS OF ANALYSED FAUNAL ASSE MBLAGES I N CANADA

P a laeon to log ica l S i tes 1 . O ld C row B as in s i te s :

M 1V 1 -2 , M 1V 1 -7 ; N bV 1 -2 ; NbVn -4

1 0

F IGURE 1 . 3 : LOCAT IONS OF VAR IOUS EUROPEAN S ITES MENT IONED I N TEXT 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 .

B ia ch e -Sa in t -Vaa s t B i lz ing s leben H oxn e H una s I s em ia

6 . 7 . 8 . 9 . 1 0 .

L eh r ingen Mau ran O s te i f e l s i te s* P on tnewydd S o le ihac

1 . 1 2 . 1 3 . 1 4 . 1 5 .

T o r ra lba V er te szö l lö s S t rän skä s kä la P r ib ice Maa s t r ich t -Blv de r e

* I n c lude s K ä r l ich . M iesenhe im . P la id te r -Humme r ich , S chwe in skopf -Ka rme lenbe rg

1

CHAPTER 2 DESCR IPT ION OF CASE S TUDIES 2 . 1

I NTRODUCT ION

S even a r chaeo log ica l a nd s even p a laeon to log ica l c o l lec t ion s w e re e xam ined , c ove r ing aw ide g eog raph ic a r ea a c ro s s t wo

2 . 2

S ITE DESCR IPT IONS

2 . 2 .1 2 . 2 .1 .1

T he Archaeo log ica lS i te s A r ido s I& I ( San ton ja G ome z 1 976 ,R u s 1 987 , S an ton ja e ta l . 1 980 ,Q ue ro l a nd

c on t inen t s ( F igu re s 1 . 1 -1 . 2 ,T ab le 1 . 1) . B o th a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l a s semb lage s w e re s t ud ied i n o rde r t o

S an ton ja 1 980 , S an ton ja a nd Que ro l 1 980 , R ive ro 1 990 , V ila

i d en t i f yc u l tu ra l ly d ef ined d i f f e rence sb e tween t h et wo g roup s . T he a r chaeo log ica l s amp le s c ons i s t o f f a una l r ema in s

1 990 ,S an ton ja a nd V i l la 1 990 )

a s soc ia ted w i th l i th ic o r b one a r t i f ac t s a nd a r e c on s ide red c u l tu ra l ly d e r ived ,u nd i s tu rbed d epo s i t s . T he p a laeon to log ica l

T he S pan i sh o pen -a i rs i te o fA r ido si ss i tua ted 1 6 km s ou thea s t

a s semb lage s c on s i s t o ff a una lr ema in s , s ome t ime s a s soc ia ted w i th l i t h ic o rb one a r t i f ac t s ( a si nt h eO ld C row s amp le s ) ,a nd

R ive r v a l ley . I ti sd a ted t ot h e M idd le P l e i s tocene H o l s te in s t age b a sed o n i t s s t ra t ig raph ic p o s i t ion a nd t h e p re sence o f

a r ec on s ide red n a tu ra la c cumu la t ion s . T ab le 1 . 1 a nd A ppend ix 1p rov ide f a una lc oun t s a nd s ke le ta le l emen tr ep re sen ta t ion s .

A cheu lean h andaxe s .

o f Mad r id , o n 1 5 -20 me t re t e r race s o ve r look ing t h e J a rama

A r ido s w a s f i r s t d i scove red i n 1 971

d u r ing q ua r ry ing o pe ra t ion s a nd s y s tema t ica l ly e xcava ted i n 1 976 . T he a s semb lage c on s i s t s o f 33 l i t h ic a r t i f ac t s , 3 4 o f wh ich a r e c on s ide red t o o l s , a nd f a una l r ema in s o fe l ephan t

T he a na ly sed s i te s a r e c on s ide red r ep re sen ta t ive o f e a r ly P le i s tocene a s semb lage s i nt h e n o r the rn h em i sphe re b yt h e i r

( Pa laeo loxodon a n t iquu s ) , b ov id , c e rv id , l a gomo rph , a v ian

g eog raph ic l o ca t ion s , g eomo rpho log ica l c on tex t s , a nd a s semb lage c ha rac te r i s t ic s a nd s i ze . A l l a s semb lage s w e re

s pe c ie s ,f i sh ,r e p t i le s ,a nd a mph ib ian s . Ie xam ined t h em ed ium t ol a rge m amma lr ema in si nt h e Mu seo A rqueo lög ico a nd t h e

c ho sen o nt h eb a s i s o fa cce s s ib i l i ty ( g ran ted b yt h er e spec t ive

Mu seo N a c iona ld eC ienc ia sN a tu ra le s ,b o th i n Mad r id . I tw a s n o tp o s s ib le t oo b ta in at o ta lb one c oun t( o ne t h a ti n c lude st h e

i n s t i tu t ion s ) , a nd b yt h en a tu re o ft h ef a una l a s semb lage ( i . e . , m ic romamma la s semb lage sw e re n o tc on s ide red ,w he rea st h o se c on s i s t ing o f med ium t o l a rge u ngu la te s w e re ) . T he

s ma l l s pec ie s ) f r om t h er epo r t s , n o rf r om t h e a r chaeo log i s t s a nd i n s t i tu t ion c u ra to r s ,n o rc ou ld t h es ma l lm amm a lr ema in s b e l o ca ted b yt h e r e spec t ive c u ra to r s . T he i d en t if iab le l a rge mamma le l emen t st o ta l6 5 .

a s semb lage s o f S a lzg i t te r -Leben s ted t a nd Wre t ton w e re p rev iou s ly c a ta logued w h ich f a c i l i ta ted c od ing c on s ide rab ly . P inedo a nd P rez le t ice h ad b een p a r t ia l ly c a ta logued ,w h i le t h e r em a in ing c o l lec t ion s w e re i d en t if ied t o t a xon a nd s ke le ta l

A r ido s i so ne o fs eve ra lf i nd s po t s i nt h e Manzana re s Ja rama r i ve rv a l ley s ,p a r to ft h eT agu sb a s in ,c ha ra c te r ized b yl i t h ic s e rod ing o u t o ff o rme r f l uv ia l s ed im en ta ry l e ve l s o r i nt a lu s

e l emen td u r ing t h ec od ing p roce ss . T he f o l low ing s i te d e sc r ip t ion s a r e a r ranged i na l phabe t ica l

d epo s i t s . I ti sd i s t ingu i shed f r om o t he re a r ly s i te si nt h i sr eg ion b y t h e p re sence o ff a una l r ema in s . A r ido s i sc on s ide red a n i mpo r tan ts i t ei nt h eh i s to ry o fS pan i sh e x cava t ion b e cau se i ti s o ne o f af ew i n t e rd i sc ipl ina ry p ro jec t si n co rpo ra t ing g eo log ica l ,

o rde r a nd b y as i te 's a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l a ff il ia t ion . I nd e sc r ib ing t h e se s i te s , Ih ave c oncen tra ted o n a t r ibu t e sr e levan tt ot a phonom ic a na ly s i s , n o tab ly g eophy s ica l a nd p a laeoenv i ronmen ta ld e ta i l s ,s i te a ge , o bse rva t ion s o nt h e

p a laeon to log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica lf i e ldwo rk ,w i th c l a im st o b o th p r ima ry s i t ec on tex t( t ha ti s ,p r ima ry d epo s i t ion o fm a te r ia l w h ich h a s n o tu nde rgone s i gn if ican t s ub sequen td i s tu rbance )

g ene ra l c ond i t ion o f t h e f a una l a s semb lage , p rocu remen t me thod s , i . e . g ene ra l ized c o l lec t ing , s y s tema t ic c o l lec t ion , s y s tema t ic e xcava t ion , a nd a ny k nown d i s tu rbance sw h ich t h e a s semb lage h a s u nde rgone s uch a s c on s t ruc t ion o r f l ood ing . S i te l o c a t ion sa r en o ted i nF igu re s 1 . 1 a nd 1 . 2 . F u r the rs i te d a ta

a nd e v idence o fe a r ly h uman b u tche ry a c t iv i ty . T he se f a c to r s a l one , n o tw i th s tand ing t h e s ma l l f a una l s amp le , make i ta r e levan tc a se s t udy f o rt a phonom ic a na ly s i s .

c an b eo b ta ined f r om t h el i s ted r e f e rence sf o re ach s i te . Mo re c o l le c t ion s w e re e xam ined t h an a ppea r i nt h e a na ly s i s .

A s w i th m any M idd le P le i s tocene d epo s i t si nE u rope , A r ido s w a s o nce p a r to f ar i pa r ian p a laeoenv i ronmen tw i th m eadow s

T hose e xc luded f r om t h ef i na l a na ly s i s w e re e x t reme ly s ma l l a s semb lage s f r om t h e B r i t i sh p a laeon to log ica l s i te s o f

b o rde r ing r i ve r s b roade r t h an t o day , w ide r f l ood p la in s , a nd s t eppe l a nd s b eyond . B a sed o n t h e a nu ran r ema in s ,

S ug v vo r th ( 7e l emen t s ) ,L i t t le Oak ley ( 9 ) ,a nd Swan ton Mo r ley ( 9 ) , a l i ns t o rage a tt h eD epa r tmen to fZ oo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f

p a laeoc l ima t ic c ond i t ion s a r et h ough tt ob es im i la rt ot h o se o f t oday .

C ambr idge .

Du r ing r e sea rch a t t h e Mu seo A rqueo log ico

Nac iona l i n Mad r id Ir eque s ted a cce ss t o b one s f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i te o fT o r ra lba a nd t h is a l so p roved t ob e a

A r ido s h a s b een v a r iou s ly i n te rp re ted a s as e t t lemen t , a b u tche ry s i te , a nd a n o ccupa t ion f l oo r . T he a s semb lage i s " con s ide red t ob e i n ap r imary p o s i t ion " ( R ive ro 1 990 :461 ) .

s ma l ls amp le ( 46 ) . T he b u lk o ft h ec o l le c t ion h ad b een m oved t ot h e Mu seo Numan t ino , S o r ia w he re Iw a su nab le t or e ce ive a cce s s .

S ea son o fo ccupa t ion i sg i ven a sl a te a u tumn b a sed o nb ov id a nd c e rv id d en ta lr ema in s ( i b id . :462 ) . O ccupa t ion a r ea s Ta nd ' 1 'a tA r ido sa r ec ha ra c te r ized b yl i t h ic a nd f a una la s soc ia t ion s . T he se l o c ia r ei nm ud -c lay s ed ime ,n t s c o r r e spond ing t ot h ef a rme rf l ood p l a in o ft h er i ve rv a l ley . Two c u l tu ra ll a y e r sw e re i d en t if i ed a tA r ido sI .T he f i r s tc on ta ined s ke le ta l e l emen t s 1 2

o f a s i ng le s ub -adu l t P a laeo loxodon

l i th ic s . T h i sh a sb een i n te rp re ted a s ab u t che ry o rk i l ls i te . I n

f r agmen t ss ma l le rt h an t h e 3cm f r ac t ion . T he se a r et aken t o r ep re sen tt h et h re sho ld c apac i ty o ft h ec u r ren t sw h ich d epo s i ted

t h es e cond l e ve l ,l i t h ic sw e re f o und w i th b i rd b one s ,f i sh ,c e rv id

t he s ed imen ta ry m a t r ix . S ynch ronou s a ccumu la t ion ( t ha tt h e

a nd l a gomo rph b one f r agmen t s . T h i si si n te rp re ted a s ac amp

v a r iou s e l emen t s o ft h ea s semb lage o r ig ina te t o ge the r )i sa l so a r gued . T he e l ephan tr ema in sa r ef r om as i ng le i nd iv idua l , a nd

a n t iquus , a nd b ov id mand ibu la rf r agmen t si na s soc ia t ion w i th

s i te " b a sed o n t h et a phonom ic a na ly s i s o ft h ef a una lr ema in s " ( Rus 1 987 :35 ) . T h i s l o cu s w a s p a r t ia l ly d e s t roy ed d ue t o q ua r ry ing a c t iv i t ie s .

s ynch ron i sm o ft h el i t h ic sw i th t h es ke le ta lm a te r ia li sr ea soned a sf o l low s : t h el i t h ic sa nd f a una lr ema in sa r ef o und i n ac l ea r ly d e l im i ted a r ea ; c e r ta in l i t h ic sw e re f ound i nd i rec ta s soc ia t ion

A r idos I c on s i s t s o f P . a n t iquus r ema in s a s soc ia ted w i th a

w i th t h ee l eph an tr i b s ; a s soc ia t ion so ccu ra tt h es ame e l eva t ion

q ua r tz i te a nd f l in t l i th ic a s semb lage i n as i ng le h o r izon . I ti s

a nd i nt h es ame s ed imen ta ry l e ve l . T he r e sea rche r s c oncede , h oweve r , t h a t i ti sn o t p o ss ib le t o p rove c on tempo rane i ty b e tween t h e se a s soc ia t ion sa nd t h e ma te r ia lu ncove red d u r ing

a l so i n te rp re ted a s ak i l lo rb u tche ry s i te . T he r e sea rche r s ma in ta in t h a t t h e a ye s a nd m ic romamma l s t ud ie s , t h e p a laeoeco logy a nd t a phonom ic a na ly s i s o f t h e f a una p rov ide p roof o fh uman c au sa l i ty . B a sed o n s pa t ia l

t h e 1 984 d r edg ing o pe ra t ion s wh ich f i r s te xpo sed t h es i te .

mapp ing o fa l f i nd c a tego r ie s , t h ey a r gue t h a tl i t h ic d i spe r sa l

3 cm o r s ma l le r f r ac t ion a r e i n t ru s ive , a nd " c loud " t h e t r ue

a round t h eP .a n t iquus s ke le ta lr ema in s e xemp l i f ie s m in ima l d i s tu rbance a nd h uman b u tche ry o ft h a tc a rca ss , a nd t h a tt h e

a rchaeo log ica l p i c tu re . T hey a l so n o te t h a t t h e f r agi l i ty a nd

l a ck o fs ma l le re l emen t sp o in t st or emova lo fc a rca s sp o r t ion s b y h uman s . T he f i ne -g ra ined s ed imen ta ry m a t r ix i sh e ld a s e v idence t h a tc u r ren t sw e re s l ow mov ing a nd t h a tf l oodwa te r s

t oo l c u tma rk s a nd c a rn ivo re g naw ing . T hu s , A r r iaga I i s i n te rp re ted a s a n e l ephan t b u tche ry s i te o n t h e b a s i s o f

I n te re s t ing ly , t h ea u tho r s m a in ta in t h a tt h em any f r agmen t s o f

s u rf i c ia ld amage o ft h ef a una lr ema in si mpede si d en t if ica t ion o f

a s soc ia t ion .

c ou ld n o th ave d i s tu rbed o r c r ea ted t h i s a c cumu la t ion . T he c omp le te a nd n ea r ly c omp le te s ke le ta l r ema in s o f s ma l l

2 .2 .13

A rr iaga I

( San ton ja G omez 1 976 ,

T h i s c a se s t udy c omp r i se s as e r ie s o fs ma l l A cheu lean f i nd l o ca t ion sf r om t h ec i ty o f Mad r id ,S pa in . T hey w e re i n c luded t o i n c rea se t h e a r chaeo log ica l s amp le , a nd a ma lgama ted b ecau se e ach i st o o s ma l l t o b e u se f u l o n i t s own . T he

1 980 c i t ing I s aac 1 971) . 2 .2 .1 .2

Madr id A renero s

R u s 1 983 , 1 987 )

mamma l s a tt h i s s i te a r e t a ken a s i n d i spu tab le e v idence o f h uman c au sa l i ty b ecau se t h i ss ame a s soc ia t ion o ccu r sa tL owe r a nd M idd le P le i s tocene s i te s i nA f r ica ( Que ro l a nd S an ton ja

( Ru s a nd V ega 1 984 )

s pec im en sa r es t o red a tt h e Mu seo A rqueo l6g ico Nac iona la nd A r r iaga i ss i t ua ted 2 5 km S .E . o f Mad r id n ea rt h ec on f luence o f

i n c lude m a te r ia l f r om A rene ro s , F uen te d e l a B ru ja , L a s

t h e Manzana re s a nd J a rama r i ve r s o n a1 4 m e t re t e r race c ompo sed o f f l ood d epo s i t s . I ti sd a ted t ot h e R i s s /Wü rm p er iod ( e nd o ft h eM idd le P le i s tocene ) o nt h eb a s i s o ff a una l

Me rcede s , T ran s f e sa , a nd V i l lave rde . E ach a s semb lage w a s r ecove red d u r ing u rban a nd i n du s tr ia l e xpan s ion a c t iv i t ie s . L i th ic a s soc ia t ion s a nd s t ra t ig raphy s ugge s t a M idd le P le i s to cene t i me f r ame . D epo s i t sa r ef r om f o rme rr i ve rg rave l s

r ema in s . F ive f l uv ia lc y c le s a r ev i s ib le i nt h et e r race d epo s i t s wh ich c o r re spond t o af o rme r meande r o ft h e Manzana re s R ive r . S ed imen tary d i scon t inu i t ie s b e tween e ach o f t h e se

o ri nt a lu sd eb r i s a nd f a una lr ema in s a r eo fB o s /b i son ,c e rv id s , E lepha ss p . ,a nd e qu id s .

l aye r s a r et h er e su l t o fs ubs t ra te s h i f t ing a nd t e c ton ic a c t ion . E a ch l a ye ri sc ha rac te r ized b yc l ay sa nd mud sd epo s i ted b yl ow

2 .2 .1 .4

P inedo i so ne o fm any o pen -a i r A cheu lean d epo s i t s i n t h e Me se ta C en t ra l r eg ion b e tween Mad r id a nd T o ledo . I ti s

T h ree a r chaeo log ica l l o c i a r e i d en t if i ed a nd c o r re spond w i th

s i tua ted 2 5 km NE o f T o ledo , o n a2 2 me t re t e r race o ve r look ing t h eT agu s R ive r . A s a tA r ido s a nd A r r iaga , t h e t e r race i s af o rm e rm eande ro ft h eT agu s . T h i sc o l lect ion w a s s t ud ied a tt h e Mu seo A rqueo l6g ico N ac iona l i n Mad r id . A g eomo rpho log ica l s t udy o f t h is s i te i d en t if ied t h i r teen

d i f fe ren t f l uv ia l e ven t s . A r r iaga Ii st h e e a r l ie s t o ft h e f i ve s ed imen ta ry d epo s i t s w i th s ome l i th ic r ema in s . A r r iaga H ai s i n te rpre ted a s a n o ccupa t ion f l oo r d ue t ot h e a s soc ia t ion o f e l ephan t r ema in s a nd l i t h ic s . A r r iaga l i b i s t h e s am e s ed imen ta ry l a ye r a s E r a w i th a n a s semb lage c ompo sed o f e l ephan t ,b ov id ,h o r se ,f a l low d ee r ,a nd a na ppa ren t ly u ne roded l i th ic i n du s t ry . A r r iaga D Ic omp r i se se l ephan tr ema in sw h ich

s ed imen ta ry l a ye r so fr i ve rg rave l si n ac oa r se s and ma t r ix . B y e xam in ing t h e a ng le a nd i n c l ina t ion o f t h e g rave l s , i tw a s p o ss ib le t os ugge s tp a laeocu r ren td i rec t ion sf o re i gh to ft h e se l aye r s . A tt h i s l o ca t ion t h eT agu s i sb ra ided , h av ing c u t a nd u nde rcu tf o rme rb ed ss eve ra lt ime s .

w e re f o und i n mud si n te rca la ted w i th s a nd sa nd n ol i t h ic s . A s w i th A r ido s , t h i s r epo r t c on ta in s al e ng thy d e sc r ip t ion o f I s aac 's ( 1971 , 1 983 ) " o ccupa t ion f l oo r "

P inedo ( D i az a nd P t e re z -Gonz ä lez 1 979 ,S o to 1 979 , Que ro la nd S an ton ja 1 979 )

v e loc i ty c u r ren t s . T h i s a s semb lage i sh ou sed a tt h e Mu seo A rgeo l6g ico Nac iona li n Mad r id .

w h ich r e f lec t s t h e

a rchaeo log i s t s ' c once rn w i th i d en t i f y ing l i nk s b e tween t h e r e cove red m a te r ia l a nd c u l tu ra l c au sa l i ty . A s w i th A r ido s , a

T he m a jo r i ty o ff a una lr ema in sf r om P inedo a r eu n iden t if iab le

p os th oc a c commoda t ive ( sensu B in f o rd 1 981) i n te rp re ta t ion i sd eve loped t h rough i n te r s i te c ompa r i son s w i th I s aac ' s e a s t

a c t iv i t ie s . T he f a una l c olec t ion i sl a rge ly c ompo sed o ft e e th

A f r ican s i te s .

l a gomo rph ,e qu id ,c e rv id ,b ov id , a nd h ippopo tamu s . T he f a una

d ue t oe x t reme f r agmen ta t ion a nd a t t r i t ion c au sed b yf l uv ia l a nd b one f r agmen t s .

T he i d en t if iab le r ema in s a r e o f a ye s ,

c ompr i se s t eppe a nd f o re s t s pec ie s , a nd t h e h ippo r ema in s s ugge s t aw a rm , h um id r i ve r ine e nv i ronmen t .

T he A r r iaga I ma ter ia l i sc on s ide red t ob e i ns i tu e xcep tf o r 1 3

P . an t iquus

r ema in sw e re n o tr ecove red d u r ing t h es y s tema t ic e xcava t ion s ,

s t ra ta i nt h e 1 952 e xcava t ion a r ea . R edepo s i ted f i ne f l uv ia t i le

b u t w e re c o l le c ted f r om t h e s i te i n t h e 1 960 's . T he l i t h ic r em a in s a r er ounded a nd s moo thed f r om f l uv ia le ro s ion .

w e re i nv e r t ica lp o s i t ion ) c ha rac te r ize t h e 1 977 s i te a r ea . T he

T he P ined° r epo r t m ake s n o s ugge s t ion f o r ac au sa l l i nk

b a sed o n t h e e xce l len t s t a te o fp re se rva t ion o ft h e b one s . A

b e tween t h el i t h ic sa nd f a una ,a nd n one f o r ap r ima ry c on tex to n t he g round s t h a t s ed imen ta ry e v idence i si n adequa te . I nt h i s ,

s ku l lf r agmen t o fH . s ap ien sn eander tha lens i sw a sr e cove red

s ed imen t sd i s tu rbed b yc ryo tu rba t ion ( c e r ta in s ke le ta le l emen t s 1 952 e xcava t ion a r ea i st hough t t o b e m in ima l ly d i s tu rbed

t h ea pp roach t oP inedo i su n ique a nd s e rve s a s au sef u ld a tum

a nd s e ve ra lC 14 d a te sw e re c olec ted i nt h er ange o f5 0 -5 5 k y r B .P . T he 1 952 c olec t ion i sa na lyzed h e re ; i ti si ns t o rage a tt h e

f o rc ompa r i son w i th o t he r a s semb lage s .

L ande smu seum B raun schwe ig , Wo l f enbü t te l ,G e rm any .

2 .2 .1 .5

T he s i te o f S a lzg i t te r -Leben s ted t i s s i tua ted o n at e r race

P rez le t ice

( Fe jf a r 1 969 , S ib rava 1 979 ,F e jf a r 1 989 ,F r i c i r ich 1 989 )

o ve r look ing as ma l lc any on . Ab rook f l ow st h rough t h ec anyon

P rez le t ic ei so ne o fs eve ra l Mo rav ian s i te si d en t if ied t oa ne a r ly

i n to af o rme rg l a c ia lm e l twa te rv a l ley . T he f r agmen ta t ion o ft h e 1 977 m a te r ia l r ep re sen t s ma te r ia l e roded f r om t h e t e r race ,

E u ropean p ebb le t o o lc u l tu re , among t h em P r ib ice ( Va loch e t

w a shed d own s t ream , b u t n o t o u t o f t h e c anyon .

a l . 1 978 ) a nd S t rän skä s kä la (Mu s i l a nd V a loch 1 968 ) . I ti s

( 1983 a nd p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ) d e scr ip t ion o ft h e 1 977 a s semb lage i nd ica te s a f r agmen ted c o l lec t ion o f m any

s i tua ted 2 0 km NE o fP rague , i nf l uv ia ls ed imen t s o f af o rme r s t ream w i th in t h ef l ood p l a in so ft h eE lbe . T he c o l le c t ion sw e re

S tae sche 's

s t ud ied a tt h eP a laeon to logy Dep t . ,K a r lova U n ive r s i ty ,P rague ,

u n iden t if iab le s ma l l -d iame te r p iece s . T h i s c on t ra s t s s i gn i f i can t ly w i th t h ef a una l ma te r ia l f r om t h e 1 952 e xcava t ion

a nd a tt h ea r chaeo logy f i e ld l a bo ra to ry o u t s ide P rague .

w h ich i sn o t i n ac omm inu ted s t a te . T he 1 952 a s semb lage ,

Two i n dependen ts ed imen ta ry a na ly se sf o rP rez le t ice c onc lude

r ep re sen ta t ive o ft h eo r ig ina l u nd i s tu rbed d epo s i t .

mo reove r , r e ta in s many o r ig ina l f r ac tu re f a ce s a nd i s mo re t ha t t h e d epo s i t s a r e s e conda ry a nd t h a t t h e f a una l r ema in s r epre sen t a ccumu la t ion o ve r a n u ndef ined p e r iod o ft ime ( c f .

S a lzg i t te r -Lebens ted t( hence f o r th r e f e r red t oa s' S a lzg i t te r ' ) i s

S ibrava 1 979 :83 , 9 3 ; Z a ruba -Ro th 1 946 q uo ted i n F e jf a r

i n te rp re ted a s ar e indee r h un t ing s t a t ion w i th in as ub -a rc t ic

1 989 :13 ) .

s t eppe e nv i ronmen t . T he p re sence o f m ammo th b one s h a s f u r the r p romp ted ac ha rac te r iza t ion o fm ammo th h un te r s , a n

T he f i ne -g ra ined n a tu re o f t h e s t ra ta a nd t h e

mo l lu scan s pec ie s s ugge s te v idence o fl ow s t ream v e loc i ty .

i d ea w h ich t h e mu seum si nB raun schwe ig e xp lo i tt ot h ef u l le s t . A mo la rf r agmen tf r om P rez le t ice w a so nce c l a imed t h ee a r l ie s t e v idence o f H . s ap ien s i nE u rope ( Fe jf a r 1 969 ) . I th a s s i nce b een

i d en t if ied

t o

U r sus

s pe laeu s

( Fe jfa r

2 .2 .1 .7

Swanscombe

(Wyme r

1 964 ,

S u tc l if f e

1 964 ,

Waech te r 1 971 , V i l la 1 983 , a nd

p e r sona l

t h e i rr e f e rence s )

c ommun ica t ion ) . F auna la nd l i th ic r em a in sh ave b een a s c r ibed t o h uman h un t ing , b u tche ry a nd l i t h ic a nd b one t o o l -mak ing a c t iv i t ie s . L ong te rm s i te u se a nd e v idence o f a" hu t " a r ea l so

T he S wan scombe f a una la s semb lage h a s a ccumu la ted o ve rt h i s

n o ted i n t h e r epo r t .

c en tu ry f r om e xcava t ion s a nd c o l lec t ing a tt h e P a laeo l i th ic

T he s i te i sc on s ide red t o b e i n n ea r ly

d epo s i t s i n Swan scombe , K en t .

u nd i s tu rbed c on tex t . As i ng le p a laeomagne t ic d a te i nd ica te s at ime f r ame o f5 90 6 60 k y rB .P .( S ib rava 1 979 :128 ) . C h ie fa r chaeo log i s tF r id r ich

d epo s i t s i nt h e Swan scombe t e r race c ame f r om B a rnf ie ld P i t . I ti sr e la t ive ly d i ff icu l t t o p iece t oge the r ac omp rehen s ive

( 1989 :71) m en t ion s a ne x t rapo la ted d a te o f8 00 k y rB .P . T he m ic ro f auna s ugge s t ap a laeoenv i ronm en ta l s e t t ing o f o pen

a ccoun t o f r e sea rch a t Swan scombe .

S a lzg i t ter -Lebens ted t

T he s eve ra l f i e ld

e xped i t ion r epo r t s u se v a r ied s t ra t ig raph ic l a be l s a nd e xcava t ion u n i t l a be l s , a nd r equ i re " i n s ide r k now ledge " t o

g ra ss land s ,m a r she s , a nd f r e shwa te rz one s . 2 .2 .1 .6

T he f i nd ma te r ia l w a s

p r im a r i ly o b ta ined f r om t wo n ow d i sused g rave lp i t s ,B a rnf ie ld P i t a nd I ng re ss Va le p i t . T he mo s t c omp le te s equence o f

( K le in schm id t

1 952 ,

B o s in sk i

G ro te

1 967 ,

d ec iphe r . Swan scombe i sr ep re sen ted b ya ne x ten s ive ,l a rge ly u nana ly zed

a nd P reu l 1 980 , T ode

f a una l c o l lec t ion ( t o ta lc oun t u nk nown ) h ou sed a tt h e B r i t i sh

1 982 ,S tae sche 1 983 )

Museum ( Na tu ra l H i s to ry ) .

T he s amp le s t ud ied h e re w a s

T h i se x ten s ive l a te M idd le P a laeo l i th ic d epo s i ti st h ey ounge s t

c olec ted b yA .T . Ma r s ton b e tween 1 934 -1955 ,A .S .K enna rd

a r chaeo log ica ls i t ei nt h e s amp le a nd o ne o ft h eb e s tp re se rved .

b e twe en 1 940 -1948 ,a nd B .0 Wyme rb e tween 1 955 -1960 , a nd

I tw a sf i r s tl o ca t ed i n1 952 d u r ing c on s t ruc t ion o f aw a s tewa te r -

r e p re sen t s m a te r ia lf r om s t ra ta r e f e r red t oa st h eB a sa lG rave l ,

p u r if i ca t ion p l an ti nt h es ubu rb o fS a lzg i t te r -Leben s ted t , 2 0 km

M idd le G rave l , a nd L owe r M idd le G rave l . S u tc l if f e ( 1964 ) ,

S .W . o f t h e c i ty o f B raun schwe ig , G e rmany .

w ho se d e ta i led f a una l a na ly s i sr ep re sen t s t h eo n ly o ne t od a te ,

T he t o o l

a s semb lage ( >200 p ie ce s ) i n c lude s d i ve r se t o o l t y pe s s uch a s

o bse rve s t h a t t h e v a r iou s s pec ie s i n t h e L owe r a nd M idd le

Uppe r A cheu lean h andaxe s , b i f ac ia l ly r e touched s c rape r s ,

G rave l s i nd ica te a ne nv i ronmen ta l c hange f r om wood land s t o

L eva l lo i sf l aked b lade s a nd c o re s ,b one i mp lemen t s , a sw e l la s

g ra s s land s ,w i th aH oxn ian i n te rg lac ia lt ime f r ame .

f l ake s ( >3500 ) . E xcava t ion st o ok p l ace i n1 952 a nd i n1 977 w i th c u l tu ra ll a y e r s

No c l a im s a r e made f o ru nd i s tu rbed c u l tu ra l ma te r ia l . O nt h e c on t ra ry , m any o ft h e f a una l a nd l i th ic r ema ins b ea r s i gn s o f

r eco rded 4 . 5 -6 m b e low s u r f ace .

S t ra t ig raph ic a nd

e r o s ion a nd o c cu ri nv a r iou sr ewo rked f l uv ia t i le d epo s i t s . V ila

s ed imen ta ry a na ly se s s ugge s tp r ima ry c on tex ta nd n on -f luv ia l

( 1983 :24 )h a ss ugge s ted ,h oweve r , t h a tt h en umbe ro fb i f a ce s 1 4

( 218 f r om t h e M idd le G rave l s ) p o in t s t o mo re t h an j u s t a n a tu ra le r o s ion a ccumu la t ion , s i nce s ome p ie ce s a r ei nf a c ti n p r i s t ine c ond i t ion ( c f . Wyme r 1 964 , Waech te r 1 971 a nd t h e i r r e f e ren ce s ) . Wyme r( 1964 :21 )h a sd e sc r ibed t h ec r o s s -bedded

g eo log ica l e ven t s , a nd L i s te r n o te s t h a t t h e f a una i n t h e se d epo s i t sc ompr i se s eve ra la ccumu la t ion s a nd a r en o t as i ng le e ven td ea th a s semb lage . 2 . 2 .2 .2

l e n se so fB a rnf ie ld P i t :

L achar ( Agu i r re 1 974 )

A rchaeo log ica l m a te r ia l . . .wou ld h ave b een w a shed f r om t h e i r p lace o fo r ig in b y t h e

L acha ri sl o ca ted 1 5 km w e s to fG ranada , S pa in , a nd d a te st o t h e L owe r P le i s tocene , a pp rox ima te ly 6 00 k y r B .P .

f l ood s a nd s p read o ve r a nd i n to t h e u ndu la t ing b ank s o fg rave l a nd s a nd w h ich

Mamma l ian f o ss i l s i n c lude D icerorh inus e t ruscus , E quus

f o rmed .

T he n ex t f l ood ing m igh t h ave

w e re c o l lec ted f o r t a xonom ic p u rpo se s ( t ha ti s , f r agmen t s o f

w a shed a way o ne o f t h e se b ank s a nd

u n iden t if iab le b one w e re n o tr e ta ined ) f r om s and s a nd mud s

d epo s i ted

i t s

i n te rca la ted w i th g rave l s . T he re i se v idence o fi n ten s ive b u t

y a rd s

i n te rm i t ten t f l uv ia l a c t iv i ty w i th in t h e f o s s i l b e ar ing s t ra tum .

P a laeo l i th ic

t h e

m a te r ia l ,

c on ten t s ,

i n c lud ing a f ew

d own s tream a nd f o rmed a no the rb ank . I ti s i mpo ss ib le t ok now h ow m any t ime s s u ch e ven t st o ok p l a ce ,b u ti ti so bv iou st h a tt h e se c ond i t ion sr u le o u ta ny h ope o fe s tab l i sh ing

s t enon i s ,a sw e l la sc av id ,b ov id a nd E lephas s p . T he r ema in s

T he c o l lec t ion w a sa na lyzed a tt h e Mu seo N ac iona ld eC ienc ia s N a tu r a le s , Madr id ,w he re t h ee l emen t sh ad b een b leached a nd t r ea t ed w i th a n t i -o rgan ic c ompound s a nd r e s in f o rp re se rva t ion .

ac h rono logy b yv e r t ica lh e igh t .

2 . 2 .2 .3

T he m a jo r i ty o f b one s pec imen s a r e c omp le te o r n ea r ly

M1V 1 -2 -O ld C row

(Mo r lan 1 980 )

T h i ss i te a nd t h ef o l low ing t h ree (M 1V 1 -7 , NbV 1 -2 ,a nd NbVn 4 ) r ep re sen t o n ly as ma l l s e t o ft h e n ea r ly 2 00 l o ca l i t ie s o f

c omp le te p i ece s , b u t a r e e x fo l ia ted , c r u shed , a nd s ome t ime s r e s to red w i th a dhe s ive s . F ragmen ta t ion h a s a l so t a ken p l ace d u r ing s t o rage d ue t o ad ry s t o rage e nv i ronmen t( A . C u r ren t ,

f a una l d epo s i t s a l ong t h e O ld C row R ive r v a l ley , Y ukon

p e r sona lc ommun ica t ion ) .

b i ogeog raph ic p rov ince o f e a s tern B e r ing ia wh ich i n c lude s A l a ska a nd t h eY ukon . Much o fi tr ema ined u ng lac ia ted d u r ing t h eP le i s tocene , t h e reby a c t ing a s ar e fuge f o r t h e s u rv iva lo f p l an t sa nd a n ima ls pec ie s wh ich c ou ld t h en m ig ra te i n to n ew ly d eg lac ia ted z one sa tt h ee nd o fe ach g l ac ia lp e r iod ( hence i ti s o f ten r e fe r red t oa st h e" Be r ing ian r e fug ium " ) . T he O ld C row B a s in i st h el a rge s t a nd mo s ts t ud ied o ft h ree l a rge b a s in s i n

2 .2 .2 2 .2 .2 .1

T e r r i to ry , n o r thwe s te rn C anada .

T he P a laeon to log ica lS i te s B a lder ton ( Brandon a nd S umb le r 1 991 , A . L i s te r p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion , 1 991 ,L i s te ra nd B randon n . d . )

T h i s a r ea i s w i th in t h e

n o r the rn Yukon t e r r i to ry ( Bel B a s in a nd B lue F i sh B a s in a r e

De sp i te t h eo ccu r rence o fa nu nwo rn A cheu lean h andaxe a nd s eve ra l w o rn C lac ton ian l i t h ic s , B a ld e r ton i sc on s ide red a

t h e o t he r s ) . T he se b as in s h ave u nde rgone r epea ted a nd e x ten s ive f i l l ing d u r ing t h e Uppe r P le i s tocene , f olow ed b y

p a laeon to log ica l d epo s i t . I ti sd a ted t ot h e Wo l s ton ian c o ld s t age a nd y i e lded f a una l r ema in s f r om t h e e x t inc t s t ra igh t -

p o s t -g lac ia ld owncu t t ing d u r ing t h e Ho locene w h ich c r ea ted t h e m any s t ra t ig raph ic e xpo su re sa l ong t h eO ld C row r i ve ra nd i t s

t u sked e l ephan t( Pa laeo loxodon a n t iquu s ) a nd n a r row -no sed r h inoce ro s ( D icerorh inus h em i toechus ) . E lec t ron s p in r e sonance d a te s r ange b e tween 1 30 -190 k y r B .P . ( G rün , i n B randon a nd S umb le r 1 991 ; L i s te r 1 99 1) . T he m amma l ian

t r ibu ta r ie s . T od a te ,t h e many d epos i t si nt h eO ld C row b a s in c anno tb e a s s igned t oh uman a gency , d esp i te t h ep re sence o f c u l tu ra l ma te r ia l .

f o s s i l sw e re r e cove red f r om f l uv ia t i le s a nd a nd g rave lc hanne l f i l l su nde r ly ing t h eB a lde r ton s and a nd g r ave lt e r ra ce b e tween

T he O ld C row d epo s i t s g a ined i mpo r tance w hen C 14 d a te s

N ew a rk a nd L inco ln , ad i s tance o fa pp rox ima te ly 3 0 km . T he f l uv ia t i le d epo s i t s ma rk af o rme rb ed o ft h eR ive rT ren t .

t a ken f r om b one t o o l s f ound i nt h ef a una ld epo s i t s s ugge s ted

T he s i te h a s b een q ua r r ied a nd mo s t o ft h e f a una s l r ema in s w e re c o l le c ted f r om c onveyo r b e l t s b yq ua r ry w o rke r s . A s L i s te r( 1 991 :3 ) n o te s , " The a bundance o ff o s s i l sf r om t h i ss i te d oe sn o tn ece s sa r i ly i nd ica te u nu sua l ly f o s s i l i f e rou sd epo s i t s ;i t p robab ly r e la te s mo re t ot h ew o rk ing m e thod sa nd d i l igence o f

r a nged 2 5-35 k y rB .P . ) . I th a ss i nce b een s ugge s ted t h a tt h e se t o o l s w e re f a sh ioned l a te r i nt ime u s ing b one s f r om t h e O ld

h uman p re sence i n No r th Ame r ica f a r i n a dvance o f t h e a c cep ted t ime f r ame o fa pp rox ima te ly 1 5 -20 k y rB .P . ( t he d a te s

C row d epo s i t s a sr aw ma te r ia l . Ac oun te ra rgumen tp o in t st o t h ep r e sence o ff r e sh f l ake s ca r s a nd r e la t ive ly s y s tema t ic f l ake r emova lb o th o fw h ich c an o n ly b ep roduced f r om u nde s icca ted b one . F re sh f r ac tu red mammo th b one s , wh ich c anno t b e

q ua r ry s t af . "

r ead i ly r epl i ca ted b yk nown n a tu ra l f o rce s o t he r t h an h uman p o in tl o ad ing o nu nde s icca ted b one ,a l so p re sen t ac onv inc ing c a se f o r a n e a r ly h uman p re sence . T he i mpl ica t ion s o fl a rge

T he f a una lr ema in s a re l a rge ,d ense e l em en t s , g ene ra l ly w e l l p re se rved a nd u n ro l led . T h i s c ou ld s ugge s t m in ima l t r an spo r ta t ion p r io r t ob u r ia l , b u t m ay a l so r e f le c t t h e h and -

m amma lb one f r ac tu ra t ion a r ed i scu s sed f u r the ri nC hap te r4 .

p i cked o r ig in o ft h ec o l lec t ion . A na ly s i sw a sd one a tt h eD ep t . o fZ oo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge .

T he O ld C row

T he B a lde r ton f a una sr ep re sen tt empe ra te s pec ie sf r om ac o ld p e r iod ,i n hab i t ing o pen b io tope ss uch a sg r a s s land so rt u nd ra .

a nd /o r e xcava ted w he re a l l ma te r ia l i n c lud ing u n iden t if iab le s p e c imen sw a sr e ta ined . NbVn -4 a nd M IV 1 -2 w e re s t ud ied a t t h e Mu seum o fC iv i l iza t ion ,O t tawa . M IV 1 -7 a nd NbV 1 -2 w e re

T he l i t ho log ica l a na ly s is b yB randon a nd S umb le re mpha s ize s t h a t t h e s ed imen ta ry a nd f l uv ia t i le d epo s i t s r ep re sen t s eve ra l

s h ipped t o S t . J ohn 's , New found land w he re a na ly s i s w a s c omp le ted i nt h eP a laeon to logy Dep t . a t Memo r ia l Un ive r s i ty 1 5

a s semb lage s w e re s y s tema t ica l ly c o l lec ted

o fN ew f ound land . M 1V 1 -2 r ep re sen t s o ne o ft h el a rge s te xpo su re s a l ong t h eO ld

2 . 2 .2 .6

NbVn -4 -O ld C row

C row v a l ley b l u f f si nt h en o r the rn Y ukon . I tc on s is t s o ff i f teen f i nd s t a t ion s s i tua ted a pp rox ima te ly 1km a bove t h e mou th o f

( Mo r lan n . d .a , a nd p e r s . c ommun ica t ion )

J ohn son C reek ,o nt h er i ve r ' sr i gh tb ank . T he c o l lec t ion s t ud ied h e re i si ns t o rage a tt h e C anad ian Mu seum o fC iv i l iza t ion ,

M ic ro t ine a nd l a rge rf a una s ugge s t ab i o s t ra t ig raph ic d a te o f 5 00 k y rB .P .f o rt h i sd epo s i t . T he 2 4ms ed imen ta ry s equence a t NbVn -4 r e p re sen t s mo s t o ft he B runhe s m agne t ic p e r iod .

O t tawa . I to r ig ina te s f r om as t ra t ig raph ic c on tac t k nown a s D iscon fo rm i ty A , c on s i s t ing o fc ro ss -bedded s i l t s a nd s and s o ve r ly ing s i l ty c l ay a nd d a t ing t oa pp rox ima te ly 5 0 k y r B .P .

A l l f a una l e l emen t s a r e p e rm ine ra l ized a nd e x t reme ly f r agmen ted d ue t o mechan ica l s t re s se s c au sed b y f l uv ia l

T he re i se v idence o f l a rge i c e w edge p seudomo rph s w h ich

t r an spo r t ,s e d imen ta ry l o ad ing ,a nd a l te rna te w e t t ing a nd d ry ing c y c le s .

m e l ted a nd f i l led w i th s ed imen t s . M 1V 1 -2 i so ne o ft h e mo re f r agmen ted c olec t ion s i n c luded i n

2 . 2 .2 .7

t h i s s t udy . I tr e semb le s P rez le t ice i n t h e many v e ry s ma l l r ewo rk ed b one s p ec imen sw h ich s ugge s te x ten s ive a tr i t ion . I t

Wre t ton

i s ,h oweve r ,l e s sw a te r ro l led t h an M 1V 1 -7 o rP rez le t ice .

( K .A . J oy sey p e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ,A .L i s te rp e r sona l c ommun ica t ion ,A . J . S tua r t 1 986 )

T h i s i s aD even s ian ( a pp rox ima te ly 5 5 -50 k y r B .P . ) f l uv ia l d epos i t i nN o r f o lk . T he f a una l r ema in s a r e e x ten s ive , w e l l 2 . 2 .2 .4

MIV 1 -7 -O ld C row

( Mo r lan 1 980 )

p re se rved ,a nd w e re c o l lec ted f o rt a xonom ic p u rpo se sb e tween 1 961-1963 b yK .A .J oy sey f r om t h eb ank sa nd b ed o f ac u t -o f f

T he M 1V 1 -7 a s semb lage w a s s y s tema t ica l ly c o l lec ted o n t wo I tr ep re sen t s as amp le o fc on t inuous ly

c hanne l w i th c omp lex c ro s s -bedded s and s , s i l ts a nd g r ave l s . T he a s sem b lage c on s i s t s ma in ly o f i n tac t a nd n ea r ly i n tac t

a ccumu la t ing b one ma s s f r om ar e cen t ly f o rmed ( s ince 1 967 ) p o in tb a ri n ab end o fJ ohn son C reek , al ef tb ank t r ibu ta ry o ft h e

s ke le ta l e l emen t s o fB i son p r i scus , a nd w a s a na lyzed a tt h e Dep t . o fZ oo logy , Un ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge .

s epa ra te o cca s ion s .

O ld C row R ive r . T he a s soc ia t ed s ed imen t sa r ec oa r se s and a nd s i l ta nd v e ry l i t t le f i ne g r ave l . T he b one s a r ew a te rr o l led a nd Mo r lan s ugge s t s t h a t t h e a bsen t s ma l le rf o ss i l s s uch a ss ma l l m amma l s ,a nd b i rd a nd f i sh r ema in s ,h ave b een c a r r ied f a r the r

23

CONCLUSION

d own s t ream . Ar e la t ive ly d e ta i led t a phonom ic a na ly s i s o ft h i s c o l le c t ion s umma r iz e st h ef r equenc ie s o fo bse rvab le a l te ra t ion s

Wi th t h e e xcep t ion o f t h e 1 952 S a lzg i t te r a s semb lage , a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l d epo s i t s u s ed i n t h i s r e sea rch w e re f ound i n o r a l ong s ide p a laeo r ive r c hanne l s

a nd t r ace s t h e se t ol i ke ly c au se s o fa l te ra t ion (Mo r lan 1 980 ) .

w h ich u nd e rwen t c r o s s -bedd ing a nd r e channe ll ing d ue t o s ea sona l f l uc tua t ion s , a nd g l ac ia l a nd i n te rg lac ia l c y c le s .

2 . 2 .2 .5

NbV 1 -2 -O ld C row

( Ne l son

e t a l .

1 986 ,

S eve ra lo ft h ea s semb lage sw e re d i s tu rbed b yt wen t ie th c en tu ry q ua r ry ing o rc on s t ruc t ion a c t iv i t ie s . W i th t h e e xcep t ion o f

Mo r in e ta l . 1 990 )

P i nedo t h ea r chaeo log ica la s semb lage sa r ec on s ide red t ob ei n T h i sa s semb lage i sf r om al a te P le i s tocene d epo s i tw i th as e r ie s o f C 14 d a te s r ang ing b e tween 2 4 ,400 -36 ,300 B .P . I tw a s s y s tema t ica l ly e xcava ted u s ing a r chaeo log ica l c on tro l s a nd

v i r tua l ly u nd i s tu rbed c on tex t s b ecau se o f t h e f i ne -g ra ined s ed imen ta ry ma t r ix . T he i r a s soc ia t ion w i th l i t h ic m a te r ia l i s c on s ide red e v idence o ft h ec u l tu ra lo r ig in o ft h ef a una lr ema in s : P rez le t ice ,A r ido sI ,A r r iaga I ba r ei n te rp re ted a sg ene ra l ized l a rge m amma lh un t ing a ccumu la t ion s ,w h i le A r ido sI ,A r r iaga

y i e lded v a r iou s a r t i f ac t s i n c lud ing a c ha lcedony f l ake , a R ang i f er a n t le r p e s t le d a ted t o2 4 ,700+ / - 3 00 , a nd a n a n t le r b i l le tw i th aH o locene d a te o f2 930 4 / -140 . T he f a una lr ema in s

H a ,a nd S a lzg i t te ra r ep re sen ted a ss pec ia l ized k il o rb u tche ry l o ca t ion s . T he i d en t if ica t ion o f as t ruc tu re o ccu r s o n ly a t

a r ef r om P l e i s to cene s e d im en t sr e depo s i ted o n aHo locene p o in t b a r o f t h e O ld C row R ive r a nd h ave n o t b een p rev iou s ly a na ly zed . T he p r e sence o fc u l tu ra lm a te r ia la nd mammo th b one

P rez le t ice a nd i sc on s ide red f u r the r e v idence o ft h e c u l tu ra l

f l ake s , a l be i t f ew i nn umbe r , p re sen t s t h ep o s s ib i l i ty t h a tt h i s c o l lec t ion i sn o te n t ire ly p a laeon to log ica li no r ig in .

med ium t ol a rge mamma l r ema in s , h oweve r t h e i r s t a te o f

o r ig in o ft h ef a una lr ema in s . T he c olec t ion sa r ec ompo sed o f p re se rva t ion s d i f f e r s s ubs tan t ia l ly .

T he a pp roach t a ken t o

a na ly se t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i te s i sd e sc r ibed i nt h ef o l low ing c hap te r s .

1 6

CHAPTER 3 METHODOLOGY 3 . 1

e qua l m e r i t s u r f aced i n No r th Ame r ica a s ar e su l t o f t h e

I NTRODUCT ION

r e sea rch c l a im s o fe a r ly h uman e v idence a tO ld C row (Mo r lan 1 980 ,G u th r ie 1 984 ) . G if o rd ( 1981 :478 )d e sc r ibe st h ep u r su i t o fd if e ren t ia t ing c u l tu ra lf r om n a tu ra lo r ig in a sb o rde r ing " on a n o b se s s ion i n a n th ropo log ica l c i rc le s . " P e rhaps n o t

A ne ve r -g row ing b ody o fl i t e ra tu re ( c f .K och 1 989 ) a t te s t s t o t h e i mpo r tance o f t a phonomy a s a n a n a ly t ica l p a rad igm f o r a r chaeo log ica l s i te i n te rp re ta t ion . I . A . E f remov f o rma l ly i n t roduced t a phonomy t o p a laeon to logy i n 1 940 , a l though r e sea rch i n te re s t s i ns i te a c cumu la t ion a nd d i s tu rbance d a te t o

s u rp r i s ing ly ,t h eo bse ss ion w i th c u l tu ra lv e r su sn a tu ra lo r ig in s r e su r f a ce si nt h i sr e sea rch w i th r e spec tt on o r the rn h em i sphe re e a r ly P l e i s tocene a s semb lage s .

t h et u rn o ft h ec en tu ry ( i . e . We ige l t 1 927 , Wa smund 1 926 ) . I n a r chaeo logy , t a phonom ic i n qu i ry f i r s ta r o se i nr e spon se t oR . Da r t 's ( 1957 ) p roposa l o fa n " o s teodon toke ra t ic " c u l tu re o f

T he re i s n o t r ad i t ion o f g ene ra l o r s pec if ic t a phonom ic

A us t ra lop i thecus a f r icanus ( p rome theu s ) . T he S ou th A f r ican

a ppl i ca t ion f o re a r ly E u ropean s i te s wh ich r e cogn ize sc hem ica l , p hy s ica l , g eo log ica l , b io log ica l a nd c u l tu ra l p roce sse s a s mod if i e r s o f o nce p r ima ry c on tex t a s semb lage s . G row ing

f a una lr ema in sw h ich Da r ti n te rp re ted a se v idence o fh om in id h un t ing s t imu la ted C .K . B ra in t o u nde r take t a phonom ic

i n te re s ti ne a r ly h uman a dap ta t ion i nt h en o r the rn h em isphe re , p a r t icu la r ly i n No r th Ame r ica , h a s i d en t if ied a n eed f o r

r e sea rch . T h rough a c tua l i s t ic a nd e xpe r imen ta l a na logue s , B ra in a nd o t he r r e sea rche r s d emon s t ra ted t h a t n on -hom in id f o rce ss u ch a sa n ima l so fp r ey w e re t h el i ke ly mod if ie r s o fb one a t Makapan sga t . T he se r e su l t s e f ec t ive ly i mp l ied t h a t o t he r e a r ly a s semb lage s a l so r equ i red r e -a s se s smen t ( B ra in 1 970 ,

a c tual i s t ic s t ud ie s a pp ropr ia te t on o r the rn e nv i ronmen t s wh ich c on s ide r c r yo tu rba t ion , s ol i f luc t ion , b one w ea the r ing i nc o ld a nd mo i s t c ond i t ion s , a nd o t he r f o rce s r e la t ing t o g l ac ia l / in te rg lac ia l e nv i ronmen ta l c hange s . T he O ld C row

1 981 , 1 989 ;c f . a l so S h ipman a nd P h il ip s -Con roy 1 977 ) .

B a s in d eba te o ve rt h ec l a im t h a th uman s w e re p re sen ti n No r th C r i t ica l a na ly s i s d i s t ingu i she s at a phonom ic a pp roach f r om

Ame r ica b y3 5 ,000 B Ps t imu la ted v a luab le a c tua l i s t ic r e sea rch i n to t h ee f ec t so fc a rn ivo re g naw ing o nf a una l a s semb lage s a nd

f o rma lf a una la na ly s i s . I n qu i ry o ft h i sn a tu re c on t inue st ob et h e

b one a c cumu la t ion ,b one f r ac tu re s t ud ie s , a nd t h er o le o fp o s t g l ac ia lw a te r shed s i np roduc ing s i zeab le b one a ccumu la t ions

r o le o f t a phonomy i n a r chaeo logy , t od e te rm ine w he the r a n a s semb lage i sac u l tu ra lo rn a tu ra la c cumu la t ion , a nd t od eve lop a na logue sa nd m e thodo log ie st ot h i se nd . T he a na logue s t ud ie s w h ich t y p i fy t a phonom ic r e sea rch w i th in a r chaeo logy a r e f o u r f o ld . T hey a r eb a sed o no bserva t ion s o fa n ima lb ehav iou r i nn a tu ra lc on tex t s , o ne xpe r imen t sw h ich t r yt os imu la te p a s t

d u r ing r un -of fp e r iod s ( Mo r lan 1 980 , 1 983 , 1 986 , Hayne s 1 980 , 1 981 , B onn ich sen 1 978 , 1 979 , J ohn son 1 985 ) . T he s t udy o f b one f r ac tu re m echan ics i n p a r t icu la r r equ i re s i mp lemen ta t ion i ne a r ly P le i s tocene s i te a na ly s i s .

o rp re sen tc ond i t ion s , o no b se rva t ion so fb one d e te r io ra t ion i n mode rn c on tex t s , a sw e l l a so n o bse rva t ion s o fb one a nd s i te

3 . 2

METHODOLOGICAL FRA ME WORK

i mpac t s a tp reh i s tor ic s i te s( Bonn ich sen 1 982 ) . T aphonomy a s ac r i t ica lm e thodo logy i sc ons ide red t h ek ey t o e f ec t ive a na ly s i s o fe a r ly s i te si nE u rope . T he a r chaeo log ica l

T he t e rm " t aphonomy " i nE u ropean s i t el i t e ra tu re a ppea r s t o mean d i f f e ren t t h ing s t o d if e ren t r e se a rche r s . B on i f ay

a nd p a laeon to log ica l a s semb lage s i nt h i s s t udy a r e a na ly sed u s ing a r a nge o f i n dependen t a na logue s t ud ie s l a rge ly d eve loped b y o t he r r e sea rche r s b u t n eve r p rev iou s ly ama lgama ted i n to a s i ng le r e sea rch p ro jec t . T he se a r e d eve loped i n to ap re l im ina ry b u t e f ec t ive m e thodo logy f o r

( 1988 :181 )t a ke st h ep o s i t ion t h a tt a phonomy c an d emon s t ra te t h a t " bone a c cumu la t ion s o fr a the r a nc ien tp e r iod s , w h ich , a p r io r i , m ay b e l ooked a t a s n a tu ra l , a r e , a f te r d e ta i led t a phonom ic c oun t ing s , a c tua l ly a r t if i c ia l a nd l i nked t o t h e

a s se ss ing t a phonom ic d i s tu rbance .

a c t iv i ty o ft h ep r eh i s to r ic m an c on s ide red a s ap reda to r " ( quo ted f r om E ng l i sh a b s t rac tt oa r t ic le ) . I nB on if ay 's s i te d e sc r ip t ion s

Ab a s ic p rem i se o ft h i s

r e sea rch i st h a t ar ange o f t e s t s , w h ich i nd iv idua l ly w e re d eve loped t o s t udy t h e q ue s t ion o f c u l tu ra l v e r su s n a tu ra l o r ig in , p rov ide s as t rong m e thodo log ica l f r amewo rk f o r

o fv e ry a nc ien tF rench s i te s( 900 1 ,200 k aB P ) i ti sc l ea rt h a t t r ad i t iona lf a una la na ly t ica lt e chn ique s s u ch a ss ke le ta le l emen t r ep re sen ta t ion c oun t s a nd c ompa r i son s , a nd g ene ra l ized

c heck ing a s semb lage i n teg r i ty . C onve r se ly , as t udy l im i ted t o as i ng le l i ne o fa na ly s i s ,s u ch a st h eo r ig in o fc u tma rk s o nb one ,

d e sc r ip t ion so fb one b reakage p a t te rn ing c on s t i tu te t a phonom ic a na ly s is . S im i la r ly , i nS pan i sh a r chaeo log ica l s i te l i t e ra tu re ,

h a sm a rg ina lh eu r i s t ic v a lue f o r a s se s s ing t h eh un t ing mode lo r

t a phonom ic

t h e c ond i t ion o f af a una l a s semb lage .

a na ly s i s

i n vo lve s

s p ec ie s

a nd

e l emen t

T he me thodo log ica l

q uan t if ica t ion ( i . e . S an ton ja e ta l . 1 980 ;b u tc heck L opez 1 990

f r amewo rk w a s f u r the r s t reng thened b y c ompa r ing t h e

f o rc r i t ica l a pp l ica t ion o ft a phonomy ) . A pp roached t h i s w ay , " t aphonom ic " a na ly s is i sf a una la na ly s i s u nde ra no the rn am e , w i th a n i mp l ic i ta s sump t ion o fh uman i n te rven t ion a nd u se o f

a r chaeo log ica la s semb lage sw i th f a una lc o l lec t ions k nown t ob e n a tu ra l a ccumu la t ion s . T he mu l t ip le l i ne s o fs t udy b rough t t o ge the ri nt h i sr e se a rch i n c lude c on s ide ra t ion o fs i te f o rma t ion

s imp le

p ro ce s se s ,f a una la na ly s i s ,b one f r ac tu ra t ion a nd a l te ra t ion , a nd

q uan t i ta t ive

c ompa r i son s

f o r

mode l l ing

h uman

b ehav iou r .

a ne xpe r imen ta lh yd rodynam ic sa na logue s t udy .

T he q ue s t ion s r a i sed o fP l e i s tocene s i t e s i nt h i s r e sea rch a r e

C au se o fa s semb lage a ccumu la t ion i st h e mo s td if i cu l tf a c to r t oi d en t i f y . F o ri n s tance ,m any e a r ly P le i s tocene s i te si nE u rope

r em in i scen t o ft h e t heo re t ica l q uanda r ie s a nd q ue r ie s w h ich a ro se i nE a r ly Human s t ud ie s i nE a s t A f r ica ( G i f fo rd 1 981 , S ep t1 992 f o ro ve rv iew s ; a l so B eh ren smey e r 1 975 ,H i l l 1 975 , 1 976 , 1 980 , B ra in 1 981 , I s aac 1 983 , 1 984 ) . C ha l lenge s o f 1 7

a r e l o ca ted i n f l uv ia l s ed imen t s .

I n t h i s c on tex t f a una l

a pp l ica t ion o f mea t u t i l i ty i nd ice s .

a c cumu la t ion s may b ec u l tu ra li no r ig in ,b u tt h ey c ou ld a l so b e n a tu ra ld ea th s i te s o fa n ima l s w h ich n o rma l ly i n hab i tr i pa r ian

A n i n he ren t a s sump t ion

s ha red b yt h e se a pp roache si st h a th uman si n te rac ted w i th t h e b one a t as i te a nd we re r e spon s ib le f o rt h ep a t te rn s o fs ke le t a l

l o ca t ion s , o ra cc re t ion s o f ma te r ia l s t r an spo r ted b yg l ac ia l o r s ea sona l r un -of f , o rc omb ina t ion s t h e reo f . T he d if i cu l t ie s o f

r ep re sen ta t ion .

T homa s ( 1971) , f o r i n s tance , s ugge s ted a n

i n dex f o rd e te rm in ing h uman i mpac to nf a una lr ema in sw i th t h e p u rpo se o fd i s t ingu ish ing n a tu ra lf r om c u l tu ra ld epo s i t s . T he C SI i ndex ( c o r rec ted n umbe r o f s pec im en s p e r i n d iv idua l ) mea su red t h e " r e la t ive c omp le tene s s o fr ep re sen ta t ion o f a

i s o la t ing c au se o fa ccumu la t ion a r ei n c rea sed b yc hange si nt h e l a nd scape s i nce t h ee a r ly P le i s tocene . P roce sse s o fa s semb lage a l te ra t ion , o n t h eo t he rh and ,p e rm i t

s pec ie s " a nd i nd ica ted t h ed eg ree o f" ex t ra -co rpo rea la c t iv i ty " w h ich h uman s e xpended t ob r ing b one s o fg iven s pec ie st oa s i t el o ca t ion . T he a s sump t ion ,o fc ou r se ,i st h a th uman s p lay ed

g rea te rd ef in i t ion b ecau se o fs pec if i cd ef in ing c ha rac te r i s t ic s . F o ri n s tance ,b one w h ich h a sb een g nawed b yc a rn ivo re sb ea r s d i st inc t ive m a rk ing s ,w h i le b one w h ich h a sb een c r u shed a f te r

ap a r ti na ma s s ing t h eb one s . I f ,h oweve r ,o ne a s sumed t h a tt h e

d e s icca t ion b ea r s d i s t inc t ive f r ac tu re e dge sf r om b one b roken wh i le s t i l l f r e sh o r u nde s icca ted . Ap roce s s o f a s semb lage

d epos i tw a sc r ea ted b yw o lve s , t h en t h eC SI w ou ld r e p re sen t

a l te ra t ion m ay a l so b et h ec au se o fi t sa c cumu la t ion , a l be i tt h i s i sd if i cu l tt oe s tab l i sh f o ra nc ien tc o l lec t ion s . F ina l ly ,c e r ta in

e f f ec t m ea su red wha teve r o ne t ook t ob e t h e c au se , a nd a s B rewe r( 1992 :223 )p o in t so u t , " A l though t h em e thod f a i led t o

a t t r i t iona l p roce sse s s h a re s im i la r s i gna tu re s s uch a s t h e s im i la r i ty o fs ed imen t a ry a b ra s ion o nb one t os ome l i t h ic t o o l

mea su re w ha ti tw a s i n tended t o mea su re , i t . .d id s t imu la te a

t h ee f ec t s o fn on -human f a una la ccumu la t ion . T he m e thod i n

s ea rch f o ra l te rna t ive s o lu t ion s . "

m ark ing s ( Beh ren smeye re ta l . 1 986 ) . T he Mod if ied G ene ra lU t i l i ty I ndex (MGU I ) ,B in fo rd 's ( 1978 , 1 981) z ooa rchaeo log ica l mode l o fs i te a c cumu la t ion a nd s i te

T h i sr e sea rch w a s s t imu la ted b y at a phonom ic a na ly s i s o ft h e f a una l r ema ins f r om t h e M idd le P le i s tocene s i te o fH oxne ,

u se , i sa l so b a sed o n s ke le ta l e l emen tr ep re sen ta t ion . I tw a s

S uf f o lk ( S topp 1 988 , 1 993 ) . T he H oxne s t udy d emon s t ra te s

d eve loped f r om e t hnog raph ic o bse rvat ion o fc a r ibou h un te r s a nd p roce sso r s , t h e i r d og s , a nd o n w o l fb ehav iou r . B in fo rd

t h ed if i cu l ty o fu s ing f a una lr ema in sa se v idence o f as pec if i c a dap t ive s t ra tegy s u ch a sh un t ing o rs c aveng ing ,w hen t h ef a una

mode l led t h ea s soc ia t ion o fs pec if ic c onf igu ra t ion so fs ke le ta l r em a in sw i th s i t ef u nc t ion i no rde rt of a c i l i ta te t h ei d en t if ica t ion o f a r chaeo log ica l s i te f u nc t ion b y t h e p a t te rn o f s ke le ta l e l emen t s . I n t h i s s cheme , a" bu lk u t i l i ty " p a t te rn i n vo lve s t r an spo r t ing m ea t -bear ing b one s , s uch a st h ep rox ima ll imb s , f r om ak i l l s i te t o ab a se c amp . T h i s i sc on t ra s ted w i th t h e " gou rme tu t il i ty s t ra tegy ' w he reby h un te r ss e lec tp r ime m ea t b ear ing b one s t ot ake t o ac amps i te , l e av ing p a r t s o fl e sse r

a nd t h e i r s ed imen ta ry ma t r ix a t te s t t o o t he r mod if i ca t ion p roce sse s . T he Hoxne f a una l a s semb lage b ea r s e v idence o f e ro s ion , w ea the r ing , c a rn ivo re g naw ing , m o i s t s ed imen ta ry ma t r ix , a nd c r u sh ing , a nd t h es ed imen t s s ugge s ts t ra t ig raph ic u pheava l . I nc on junc t ion w i th ac r i t ica la s se s smen to fs ke le ta l e l emen tr e p re sen ta t ion , mo r ta l i ty p rof i le s , a nd t h ea pp l ica t ion o fu t i l i ty i n d ic e s ,t h e se f a c to r sa r gue f o rs i gn if i can tt a phonom ic a l te ra t ion o ft h e Hoxne a s semb lage o ve r t h em i l lenn ia . A s a

u t i l i ty a tt h ek i l ls i te . T he l a t te rs t ra tegy i sa no p t ion w hen t h e

r e su l t ,i tw a s o fi n te re s tt ot e s tw he the rt h es ame h e ld t r ue f o r o t he re a r ly h uman s i te si nE u rope .

d emand f o rm e a ti sr e la t ive ly l ow , o rt h ed i s tance sb e tween k i l l

3 .2 .1

whe re t h e k i l l s i te i sg raph ica l ly r ep re sen ted b ya n " i nve r se u t il i ty c u rve " , s i gn i fy ing h ighe r n umbe r s o fs ke le ta l e l em en t s

a nd c amp s i te s a r e g rea t ( B info rd 1 981 :81) . B o th t y pe s o f b u t che ry c r ea te a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t s o f ap a r t icu la rn a tu re ,

Ana ly t ica lT echn iques

F o re a ch f a una la s semb lage b o th i d en t if iab le a nd u n iden t if iab le

r e p re sen t ing l ow u t i l i typa r t s ,s uch a s me tapod ia l so rp ha lange s .

e l emen t s w e re c oded f o ro b jec t ive a nd q uan t if iab le a tr ibu te s s u ch a st a xon ,e l emen tt y pe a nd e l emen tp o r t ion ,e dge f r ac tu re t y pe ,p re sence o fc a rn ivo re g naw ing ,p re sence a nd l o ca t ion o f

B inf o rd 's m ode lh a sp roven t ob e au se fu le xp lana to ry t o o lf o r

s t r ia t ion s , a nd s u r f ace c ond i t ion .

a st h eG a rn sey s i te ( Spe th 1 983 ) . L yman ( 1985 ) a nd G ray son ( 1989 ) a r gue t h a t s ke le ta l e l emen t f r equenc ie s a r e t e nuou s

s i t e sw i th m in ima ln a tu ra la tr i t ion ,i . e . ,m o re r e cen ts i te ss uch

Mo ld s o f s t r ia t ion s w e re

p roduced a nd s ubsequen t ly e xam ined u nde rs cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scope . I nt h ef o l low ing s e c t ion ss ke le ta lr ep re sen ta t ion ,

r ep re sen ta t ive s o ft h e f o rce s o f s i te a ccumu la t ion . B e cau se

a ge mo r ta l i ty p rof i le s ,b one mod if i ca t ion s t ud ie s ,b one s t r ia t ion s t ud ie s , a nd b one t r an spo r ts t ud ie s a r ei n t roduced a nd b r ief ly

p roce s se s o fb one d e s truc t ion a r e s o d ive r se a nd u n ive r sa l , " bu lk u t i l i ty " o r " gou rme t u t i l i ty " o r a ny v a r ia t ion w h ich

d i scus sed w i th r e spec t t o t h i s p a r t icu la r r e se a rch , a nd t o t a phonom ic a na ly s i si ng ene ra l . T he se s e c t ion s a r ei n tended a s ab road i n t roduc t ion t o a r ea s o f a na ly s i s w h ich a r e f u r the r d eve loped i n c on junc t ion w i th t h e r e su l t s o f a na ly s i s i n

a ssume s h uman a gency , may a c tua l ly b e t h e r e su l t o f d if e ren t ia ld e s t ruc t ion a nd d i spe r sa lb y av a r ie ty o fp roce s se s

C hap te r s 4a nd 5 . T hey a l so r ep re sen t t h e me thodo log ica l

B unn a nd K ro l l 1 986 ) .

w h ich c anno t n ece ssa r i ly b e i den t if ied ( Hayne s 1 980 , B ra in 1 981 ,C oney be a re a nd H ayne s 1 984 ,A nd rew sa nd C ook 1 985 ,

f r amewo rk f o r a s se ss ing t h ec ond i t ion o f af a una la s semb lage a nd s ub sequen t ly f o r d e te rm in ing i t s d i s t inc t ivene s s f r om a

U s ing e v idence f r om K la s ie s R ive r Mou th i nS ou th A f r ica ,

p a laeon to log ica la s semb lage .

K le in ( 1989 )p o in t s o u tt h a tt h e mea tu t i l i ty mode li sb a sed o n

3 .2 .1 .1

m ed ium la rge a r t iodac ty l b u tche r ing a nd t h u s i r re levan t t o s i tua t ion s w he re s ma l l -med ium s i zed a r t iodac ty l s w e re

S ke le ta lE lemen tR epre sen ta t ion

a va i lab le .

I nt h e sma l le r s i ze r ange s , b u lk v e r su s g ou rme t

R e la t ive ly s oph i s t ica ted t e chn ique s o ff a una la na ly s i s s u ch a s mo r ta l i ty p rof i le s a nd s ke le ta le l emen tr ep re sen ta t ion a r eu sed

s t ra teg ie s

d o n o t

t oi n f e rs i t ef u nc t ion a nd m ea tp rocu remen ts t ra tegy t h rough t h e

J one s ( 1988 ) , t h a tB info rd 's mode lp la ce su ndue empha s i so n

a pp ly b ecau se t h e e n t i re c a rca s s i s

t r an spo r tab le . K le in r e i te ra te st h ep o in tm ade b y Me tca lf ea nd

1 8

t h ef ood v a lue , o ru t i l i ty , o f as ke le ta lp a r tt ot h ee xc lu s ion o f p roce s s ing a nd t r an spo r ta t ion c on s ide ra t ion s a nd n on -d ie ta ry v a lue s s u ch a so fs i new s o rh i de . F o l low ing L yman ( 1985 ) , K le in a l so n o te s t h a t b one d u rab i l i ty a nd a tr i t iona l f o rce s c on tr ibu te t oe l emen t f r equenc ie s , a nd c anno t b e i ndexed o r q uan t if ied s o le ly i nt e rm s o fh uman a c t iv i t ie s . I nt h i sa na ly s i si tw a si mpo r tan tt oc hoo se ab one c oun t me thod

c oun t s f o r c ompar i son w i th m ea t u t i l i ty a nd b one d en s i ty i nd ice s . P e rcen tage o fM in imum A na tom ica l Un i t s ( % MAU ) w a s d e r ived f o r e ach i d en t if iab le e l emen t i n at a xon 2,a nd m e a su re so fc o r re la t ion a nd s ca t te rp lo t sw e re g ene ra ted a ga in s t B in fo rd 's ( 1981) MGUT , a nd L yman 's ( 1985 ) a nd K reu tze r ' s ( 1992 )b one b u lk d en s i ty i nd ice s . T he a r chaeo log ica ld a ta a r e c ompa red t ot h ep a laeon to log ica l ma te r ia l . C ompa r i son s o ft h e t wo s e t s a r e u se fu l f o r a s se s s ing t h e c u l tu ra l o r ig in s o ft h e

w h ich w a s s e n s i t ive t ob one f r agmen ta t ion . T he Numbe r o f I nd iv idua l S pec imen s ( N ISP ) c oun tw a s c on s ide red t h e mo s t

a r chaeo log ica la s semb lage s .

r e levan tb ecau se o fi t ss e n s i t iv i ty t ov a r ia t ion si nf r agmen ta t ion . Med ium t ol a rge u ngu la te sr ep re sen tt h em a jo r i ty o ff a una i n

3 .2 .1 .2

t h e s i te s amp le s , t h e reby a vo id ing c ompar i son s b e tween s amp le s d i f f e ren t ly a f ec ted b y t a phonom ic f o rce s , i . e . , a n

T he s t udy o fb one mod if ica t ion r equ i re ss pec if i ck now ledge o f

B one Mod if ica t ion S tud ie s

a s semb lage o fm ic romamma le l emen t s a ga in s tt h a t o fc e rv id s

b one c ompo s i t ion a nd b one f r ac tu re mechan ic s t od e te rm ine c au se s a nd n a tu re o fb one b reakage . C en t ra lt ou nde r s tand ing

o re qu id s( K le in a nd C ruz -U r ibe 1 984 :25 ) . T he N ISP h a sb een c r i t ic iz ed b e cau se i to ve rempha s ize st h ei mpo r tance o fs pec ie s

t h e mo rpho logy o fb roken b one i st h e s t udy o fb one d en s i ty , " t he a b i l i ty o f ab onepa r t t o w i th s tand ( t ha t i s , t o s u rv ive )

w hose b one s t e nd t os u rv ive , s uch a sp robo sc idean e l emen t s ( c f . e x ten s ive d i scu s s ion o f N ISP i n G ray son 1 984 ) . T he r e la t ive r e p re sen ta t ion o fi n d iv idua le l em en t si sn eve r the le ss a v a luab le o b se rva t ion s i nce t h ep u rpo se h e re i st ot e s tc u l tu ra l

d e s t ruc t ive f o rce si s af u nc t ion o fb one d en s i ty a nd s t ruc tu re " ( Lyman 1 985 :226 ) . V a r iou s m e thod s o f m ea su r ing b one d en s i ty a r e g i ven i n t h e t a phonom ic l i t e ra tu re ( Bra in 1 976 , 1 981 ,B eh ren smeye r 1 975 ,B in fo rd a nd B e r t ram 1 977 ,G if f o rd 1 981 ,S h ipman 1 981a ) . L yman ( 1985 )p re sen t s a rgumen t sf o r w hy t h e se mea su re sa r ef l awed ,d e r iv ing ab one d en s i ty i n dex w h ich r ep re sen t s at r ue mea su re o fb one d en s i ty d i scu ssed i n g rea te rd e ta i li nC hap te r5 .

a ccumu la t ion ,w i th l i t t le f o cu s o nh un t ing p re f e rence s o rm ea t y i e ld p e r c a rca s s . B ecau se t h e N ISP i ss en s i t ive t o b one f r agm en ta t ion ,i ta c t sa s am echan i sm f o ra s se ss ing a s semb lage d i s tu rbance b e t te r t h an t h eM in imum N umbe r o fI nd iv idua l s c oun t (MN I ) . T he MN I m a sk s t h e c ond i t ion o fi nd iv idua l s ke le ta le l em en t sa nd o ft h ea s semb lage a s aw ho le ,a nd c anno t

B one f r ac tu re mo rpho logy p lay s a n e qua l ly v i ta l r o le i n d e te rm in ing w he the r ac olec t ion o fb one h a sb een a l te red b y h uman s o r b y n a tu ra l f o rce s . I n t h e e a r l ie s t b one f r ac tu re s t ud ie s t h ec h ie fa gen to fb reakage w a s a s sumed t ob eh uman

c on s ide ru n iden t if iab le e l emen t s . N ISP c oun t s f o r e ach o f t h e a na ly sed s i te s a r e s hown a s

( Sadek -Koo ro s 1 975 ,B onn ich sen 1 978b , 1 979 , Noe -Nygaa rd 1 977 ) . F olow ing as e r ie so fg row ing p a in sw h ich n eve r the le s s r ep re sen t f u ndamen ta l p o in t s o f d epa r tu re i nu nde r s tand ing

h i s tog ram s o fs ke le ta l e l emen tr ep re sen ta t ion i n A ppend ix 1 i d en t if ied t o t a xon o r t o a n u ngu la te s i ze -g roup s uch a s " equ id /bov id " o r" l a rge u ngu la te " . T he MN Ic oun t ,i nd ica ted n ex t t oe a ch t a xon n ame i nt h eh i s tog ram s o fA ppend ix 1 ,i s

b one b reakage, i ti sn ow k nown t h a tn a tu ra l f o rce s r ep l ica te mod if i ca t ion so nce a s sumed t ob ed i s t inc t ive o fh uman a c t iv i ty .

b a sed o nt h eb e s tr e p re sen ted e l emen tf o ra du l t s a nd j uven i le s .

R ep l ica t ion c an o ccu r t h rough av a r ie ty o ff o rce s i n c lud ing I n t h i s a pp l ica t ion N ISP i si mp l ic i t ly a s sumed t oe qua l t h e

s ed imen t ary p re ssu re a nd a b ra s ion , c a rn ivo re g naw ing , a nd

M in imum N umbe r o f E lemen t s ( MNE ) s i nce t h e e n t i re

p re s su re sc au sed b yt r amp l ing . N eve r the le ss ,o b se rva t ion so f t h et y pe so ff r ac tu re sr ep re sen ted i na na s semb lage a r ei n teg ra l

a s semb lage i st r ea t ed a s as i ng le a gg rega te . T he MNE m ea su re w a s d ev i sed b y B in fo rd ( 1984 ) a s am ean s o f a s s ign ing

t oi d en t i f y ing w he the rb one sw e re b roken a r ound t h et ime o fa n a n ima l 's d ea th ( t h i s c ou ld b e i nt h e o rde r o fs eve ra l d ecade s d epend ing o ne nv i ronmen ta l c ond i t ion s ) , o ra f te r ab one h ad

i n d iv idua lb one sa na ly t ica li mpo r tance w i thou tu s ing N ISP a nd w i thou t MN Ig ene r a l izat ion . ' Mo re r e cen t ly ,R ing ro se ( 1993 ) h a sd ef ined MNE a st h eN ISP c a lcu la ted f o re ach s ke le ta lp a r t . T he d if i cu l ty r em a in s o fe s tab l i sh ing a n e xp l ic i t me thod o f d e te rm in ing v a lue sf o r MNE ,w h ich Mo r lan ( n .d .b )h a sr e cen t ly

b een d e s icca ted a nd p re sumab ly n o l o nge r u se fu l t oh uman s e i the ra sf ood o ra s ma te r ia lf o rt o o l s .

a dd re s sed f o rt h eb i son s ke le ton .

3 .2 .13

B one T ran spor tS tud ie s

Du r ing t h e i n i t ia l l i t e ra tu re s e a rch Ib ecame p a r t icu la r ly

T he N ISP c oun t sf o re a ch s i t ea r ec onve r ted d i rec t ly t o %MAU

i n te re s t ed i nc ompa r ing d e sc r ip t ion so fs i te a ccumu la t ion w i th ' B in fo rd ( 1984 :51) d e f ine s t h e M in imum Numbe r o f 2M in imum

E lemen t s (MNE ) a s , " t he m in imum n umbe r o f d i f fe ren t

d iv id ing

s pe c imen s r e fe rab le t o a g i ven a na tom ica l p a r t u sed i n c l a s s i f ica t ion . F o r i n s tance , t h e p rox ima l

p re sen t . "

n umbe r

o f

o bse rved

s pec imen s

p e r

a r e d iv ided b y t h e h ighe s t MAU t oa r r ive a t a%MAU f o r e ach . T he se a r e u sua l ly p re sen ted i n h o r izon ta l

My t a sk i st h en t o e s t ima te

t he m in imum n umbe r o f p rox ima l h ume r i r ep re sen ted b y t he f r agmen ta ry r ema in s o n c omp le te . . .p rox ima l h umeru s

Ana tom ica l Un i t s (MAU ) a r e c a lcu la ted b y

a na tom ica l p a r t b y t h e f r equency o f t h a t p a r t i n a n i nd iv idua l o f t h e t a xon . %MAU i s t h en c a lcu la ted b y r ank ing t h e h ighe s t MAU a t1 00% . T he r ema in ing MAU

h ume rus m ay b e t h e c l a s s , a nd I m ay s e ek t o t a bu la te t he n umbe r s o f t h i s u n i t , y e t t h e p rox ima l h ume r i p re sen t m ay a l b e b roken .

t h e

h i s tog ram

t h e a s sump t ion t h a t a h ad o r ig ina l ly b een

e l emen t

f o rma t t o l e a s t ,

t od i s ta lp ha lange s .

I t i s u nc lea r h ow a n e s t ima te i s d e r ived . 1 9

e i the r

f r om

o r i n s ke le ta l

b e s t o rde r

r ep re sen ted f r om c r an ium

p o ten t ia l ly e x tended p e r iod so fa b ra s ion w h ich t h ea s semb lage s i nt h i s s t udy h ave u nde rgone .

t h er e la t ive c ond i t ion so fe ach a s semb lage . T he f a una lr ema in s f r om P rez le t ice , f o r i n s tance , w e re h igh ly f r agmen ted a nd c r umb led . Neve r the le s s , ag en t le g eomo rpho log ica lh i s to ry i s a t t r ibu ted t o P rez le t ice ( s low mov ing w a te r a nd g r adua l s ed imen ta t ion [ F r id r ich 1 989 a nd p e r s . c omm . ] ) . T he

3 .2 .1 .5 Age Mor tal i ty P rof i le s

Swa n scombe f a una a r e b e t te r p re se rved y e t d e sc r ibed a s a

Mo r ta l i ty p rof i le sa r eb a sed o na ge e s t ima te so fi n d iv idua l sp e r t a xon w h ich a r ei nt u rn b a sed o nt o o th c rown h e igh ta nd a ge -

f r equen t ly d i sp laced a s semb lage d ue t of l uv ia l a c t ion a nd r e s ed imen ta t ion (Wyme r 1 964 :21) . T h i s p romp ted a n e xpe r imen ta l f l ume s t udy t o o bse rve t h e e f ec t s o fd if e ren t

e r up t ion s equence s ( K le in

e ta l . 1 981 , L ev ine 1 982 ) .

A

m o r ta l i ty p rof i le r ep re sen t st h ea ge a td ea th o fi nd iv idua l si na n

w a te r v e loc i t ie s o n s ke le ta l e l emen t s o f am ed ium s ized

a s semb lage a nd h a s b een u sed t o i n f e r t h e mode ( s ) o f s ub s i s tence o ft h ep reda to r ,e spec ia l ly o fe a r ly h uman s . S t ine r

u ngu la te ( Chp t .4 ) .

( 1990 ) , f o r e xamp le , u se s mode rn d ea th a s semb lage d a ta t o s how t h a th un t ing o rp r eda t ion c an r e su l ti nb o th ac a ta s t roph ic

A c tua l i s t ic a nd e xpe r imen ta l r e sea rch i n to b one t r an spo r t i s p r ima r i ly c once rned w i th o bse rv ing t h ed if e ren t ia l e f ec t s o f

p rof i le ,w he reby a l la ge g roups a r er e p re sen ted , a sw e l la si na p r ime -age a du l t p rof i le i n s i tua t ion s o f a mbush h un t ing o r

w a te r f o rce s . T he se i n c lude t h e e f ec t s o f mov ing w a te r o n s ke le ta l m a te r ia l o f v a ry ing d en s i ty ( K le in schm id t 1 965 ,

t r ophy h un t ing . S he d emon s t ra te s t h a tp r ime -age d om ina ted mo r ta l i ty r equ i re s am ea su re o fs e lec t ive c on t ro ln o tf o und i n n on -human p reda to r s ,n o ri nc a ta s troph ic d ea th c ond i t ion s . I n

V oo rh ie s 1 969 ,H i l la nd Wa lke r 1 972 , Dod son 1 973 ,B oaz a nd B eh ren smeye r 1 976 , S hack ley 1 978 , Han son 1 980 , T ho r son a nd G u th r ie 1 984 ) ,a nd o nl i t h ic s ( Sch ick 1 986 ) . T he se s t ud ie s

o l da s semb lage s ,h oweve r ,b one so fy oung i nd iv idua l sm ay b e

d emon s t ra te t h a t o b jec t d en s i ty a nd f l ow v e loc i ty d e te rm ine t r an spo r tab i l i ty , t h a ta s semb lage s s ub jec tt of l uv ia lf o rce s a r e s u scep t ib le t od i sp la cem en t ,e spec ia l ly f a una lr ema in s ; a nd t h a t

t h e f i r s t r emoved o r d e s t roy ed b y a tr i t iona l p roce s se s , r ende r ing a ge mo r ta l i ty d e te rm ina t ion i n to a n u nce r ta in a na ly t ica lp rocedu re .

f l uv ia l c on tex t s a r e s i gn if i can t a r ena s f o r b one d e s truc t ion . D ispe r sa l o fb one f r om ad ea th s i te b yc a rn ivo re s o rh e rd ing

De te rm in ing a ge m o r ta l i ty i s f u r the r s u scep t ib le t o t h e

a n ima l s i sa no the r k nown d i s tu rbance f a c to r ( Hayne s 1 980a ,

w eak ne sse s o f o t he r i n d ice s , n ame ly , t h e a s sump t ion t h a t

1 980b , 1 981 , 1 990 ,B in fo rd 1 978 , 1 981) .

h uman s a r e r e spon s ib le f o r ap a r t icu la r d ea th a s semb lage p rof i le w h ich e xc lude sc on s ide ra t ion o fo t he ra t t r i t iona lf o rce s

3 .2 .1 .4 B one S tr ia t ion S tud ies

t h a tm igh t h ave c on t r ibu ted t oa ge a nd e l emen tr ep re sen ta t ion

T he s t udy o fs t r ia t ion so nb one d i s t ingu i she s a r t if ic ia lc u tm a rk s

j uven i le , p r im e a du l t , o l d a du l t ) w a s m ade f o r a l i d en t if iab le c r an ia la nd p o s t c ran ia le l emen t sb a sed o ns i ze o fe l emen t ,t o o th

( i b id . , K le in 1 982 ) . G ene ra l a ge d e te rm ina t ion ( i n f an t / f e ta l , m ade b ys t one o rb one t o o l sf r om ma rk sc au sed b y av a r ie ty o f n a tu ra l c au se s s uch a s s ed imen tary a b ra s ion , c a rn ivo re o r r oden t g naw ing , e xcava to r 's ma rk ing s , a nd r oo t e t ch ing .

w ea r , o r e p iphy sea l f u s ion .

Mo r ta l i ty p rof i le s w e re n o t

p roduced f o rt h es i te su nde rs t udy b ecau se t h ey c on t r ibu te l i t t le t ot a phonom ic a na ly s i s .

C u tma rk i d en t i f ica t ion i s ,t od a te ,l a rge ly b a sed o nt h er e su l t s o fs c ann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scope ( SE M )e xam ina t ion so fm a rk s o n b one . S cann ing e l ec tron p ho tom ic rog raph r e f e rence

33

CONCLUSIONS

c o l lec t ion s o fv a ry ing a gen t s o fs t r ia t ion h ave b een c omp i led t h rough a n umbe r o f s t ud ie s ( Sh ipman 1 981b , P o t t s a nd

A c tua l i s t ic r e se a rch g ene ra te sr e su l t s wh ich a r el a rge ly r e levan t t ot h es i tua t ion u nde rs t udy . T he a pp l ied r e su l t so fa c tual i s t ic r e sea rch a r e o f ten t r an sf o rm ed i n to g ene ra l i7 a t ion s o r c au t ion a ry n o te s . F o ri n s tance ,m ode rn o b se rva t iona la na logue s o fb one d i spe r sa l c au sed b y h e rd t r ampl ing a r e d i ff i cu l t t o i d en t ify i na r chaeo log ica lc on tex t s ,e ven w i th t h ep re sence o f

S h ipman 1 981 , S h ipman 1 983 , S h ipman a nd R o se 1 983a , 1 983b , A nd rew s a nd C ook 1 985 , B eh ren smey e r e ta l . 1 986 , O l sen a nd S h ipman 1 988 ) . T he se h ave g rea t ly i mp roved o u r a b i l i ty t o d i s t ingu i sh n a tu ra l f r om c u l tu ra l m a rk ing s . Neve r the le ss , s t r ia t ion i n te rp re ta t ion c on t inue s t os u f f e rf r om t h ep rob lem o fr ep l ica t ion whe reby ma rk ing sw h ich r e semb le

mu l t ip le s t r ia t ion s o n b one . S cann ing e l ec t ron m ic ro scope ( SE M ) s t ud ie s o fe xpe r imen ta ll i t h ic t o o l ma rk s o nb one a r e

c u tma rk sm ay b ed ue t on a tu ra l a gen t s .

e qua l ly w e igh ted a ga in s t S EM s t ud ie s d emon s t ra t ing t h a t I n s ome c a se s m ic ro scop ic c ha rac te r i s t ic s o fa l te red s u r f ace s

n a tu ra l f o rce sc au se t o o l l ike s t r ia t ion s , a nd t h a ts t r ia t ion s o n

a r ed i agno s t ic o ft h e mod ify ing a gen t( Sh ipman 1 981b , P o t t s

a r chaeo log ica l

a nd S h ipman 1 981 , C ook 1 986 , O l sen a nd S h ipman 1 988 ) .

e xpe r imen ta la na logue sd ue t oa b ra s ion ( Chap te r5 ) .

b one

r a re ly

c o r re spond

p e r f ec t ly

w i th

Mo reove r , " I f aw ho le a s semb lage i se xam ined , p a t te rn s o f mean ing f u lp lacemen to f ma rk s s hou ld b eg in t oa ppea rw hen

D e sp i te t h e m e thodo log ica l u n i fo rm i ta r ian ism ( s ensu B a i ley

s y s tema t ic b u tche ry r a the r t h an s ed imen ta ry a b ra s ion i st h e

1 983 , Wi l son 1 988 ) w h ich p rem i se s a l a c tua l i s t ic r e sea rch , r e su l t sr a re ly o f e r c on s i s ten t , d ef in i t ive i n te rp re ta t ion s . T he

c au se ( O l sen a nd S h ipman 1 988 :550 ) . T he mean ing fu lne s so f a ny " pa t te rn " i s , h oweve r , q ua l if ied b ys amp le s i ze , w h ich i s

" s t rong r e l iance o n a na logy i s d i rec t ly r e spon s ib le f o r i t s

r a re ly l a rge i nt h e se e a r ly a s semb lage s . D iagno s t ic f e a tu re s o f

g r ea t e s tw eakne s s : t h ep rob lem o fe qu if ina l i ty -t h a tm o re t h an

c u tm a rk s c an , h oweve r , b e o b l i te ra ted b y r e la t ive ly b r ie f

o ne p a th c an l e ad t ot h es ame r e su l t " ( B rewe r 1 992 :205 ,2 25 ) .

d u ra t ion s ed imen ta ry a b ra s ion , ( Sh ipman a nd R o se 1 983a ) ,

Neve r the le s s ,

a nd n a tu ra l r ep l ica t ion o f ac u tma rk c an o ccu r t h rough s ed imen ta ry a bra s ion o n ab one s u r face ( And rew s a nd C ook

a wa rene s s a nd a pp rec ia t ion o ft h ei n te rp re t ive l im i t so fa nc ien t d epo s i t s ,t h e i ru se fu lne s si nm ode l l ing e a r ly h uman s ub s i s tence , a nd t h e a t ten t ion w h ich mu s t b e p a id t o f a una l :l i th ic a s soc ia t ion s .

1 985 , B eh ren smeye r e ta l . 1 986 ) . T he r e su l t s o ft h e S EM a na ly s i s p re sen ted i nC hap te r 5a r e t h u s o fi n te re s t g i ven t h e 2 0

t a phonom ic

a na ly s i s

d eve lop s

a c r i t ica l

CHAPTER 4 ANALYS IS OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL AND PALAEONTOLOG ICAL FAUNAL RE MA INS : PART ONE . .we s ugge s tt h a ta ny a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage t h a ti sc ompa rab ly r i ch i ns ma l l , h a rd , c ompac tb one s h a s p robab ly s uf e red g r ea t ly f r om p o s tdepo s i t iona ld e s t ruc t ion . . . .Th i si sp a r t icu la r ly t r ue i fmo s to ft h et e e th i nt h e a s semb lage a r ei s o la ted a nd i fi d en t if iab le f r agmen t so fm and ibu la ro r max i l la ry b one a r ev e ry r a re ( K le in a nd C ruz -U r ibe 1 984 :71) . D ans c er ta ine sc ond i t ion s , i le s tb i en d i f f ic i le d e reondr e al aq ue s t ion : s i te n a ture lo us i te p rdh i s tor ique? ( Bon i f ay 1 988 :183 ) .

4 . 1

D e sp i te t h e i rv ar iab le s i ze r ange t h ea r chaeo log ica ls i te si nt h i s s amp le a r ec on s ide red r ep re sen ta t ive c a se s t ud ie s b ecau se o f t h ec l a im sf o rp r ima ry c on tex ta nd c u l tu ra lc au sa l i ty a s soc ia ted

I NTRODUCT ION

T he f o l low ing d a ta a n a ly s i si sp r e sen ted b ya na ly t ica lc a tego r ie s r a the r t h an i n as i te b ys i te f o rma t . T h i s b y -pa sse s ac e r ta in a moun to fr e pe t i t ion a nd d i scon t inu i ty i nd a ta p re sen ta t ion a nd

w i th e ach . T he c ompa r i son b e tween v e ry c omm inu ted m a te r ia l , s uch a sf r om P rez le t ice , a nd b e t te rp re se rved f a una lr ema in s , s uch a s f r om S a lzg i t te r , i s au se f u l b a s i s f o r a s se s s ing t h e

s e rve s t o e mpha s ize t h e a pp l ied m e thodo logy r a the r t h an

a r cha eo log ica li n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e se c olec t ion s .I ti so f t en t h e o l de rs i te s f o r wh ich e l abo ra te c u l tu ra lc l a im s a r e made ,s uch

i d io sync ra t ic c ha rac te r i s t ic so fe a ch s i te . C hap te r a r rangemen t b eg in s w i th a d i scu ss ion o f s ke le ta l e l emen tr e p re sen ta t ion a nd t h ei mp l ica t ion s o fb one d en s i ty ,

a s t h e i d en t if i ca t ion o f b one t oo l s , m a r row e x t rac t ion b y h uman s ,b u tche ry a rea s ,g ene ra la c t iv i ty a r ea si n tac tw i th b one a nv i l s , a nd s he l te r s . A no the ra na ly t ica ll e ve li si n t roduced b y c on t ra s t ing a r chaeo log ica l s amp le s w i th p a laeon to log ica l d epo s i t s o fv a ry ing s i ze , s ome o fw h ich a r e a s soc ia ted w i th

h yd rodynam ic f o rce , c a rn ivo re g naw ing , a nd o t he r p hy s ica l f o rce s . T he u se fu lne s s o f u t i l i ty i n d ice s a nd b u lk d en s i ty i n d ice s a si n te rp re t ive c on s t ruc t sf o rt a phonom ica l ly mod if ied a s semb lage s i sd i scu ssed ,e nd ing w i th ab r ie fc ommen ta ry o n

c u l tu ra l ma te r ia l( i .e . ,B a lde r ton ,t h eO ld C row a s semb lage s ) . T he a pp l ied me thodo logy e ncompa s se s ar ange o f t e s t

t h ea pp l icab i l i ty o f mo r ta l i ty p rof i le s a si n te rp re t ive t e chn ique s f o rm od if i ed a s semb lage s . C hap te r 5c on t inue st h et a phonom ic

a pp l ica t ion s t od e r ive c onc lu s ion s o n s i te a ccumu la t ion a nd s ub s i s tence -ba sed t h eo ry .

a na ly s i s w i th a d i scu s s ion a nd a na ly s i s o f b one f r ac tu re m echan ic s a nd s u r f ace mod if i ca t ion so nb one . 4 . 1 .1

4 . 2

ANALYSIS

4 . 2 .1

S ke le ta lE lemen tR epre sen tat ion

Sma l lS amp le si nE ar ly S i te Ana lys is

I na r chaeo log ica lr e po r t so fL owe ra nd M idd le P le i s tocene s i te s f a una l a n a ly s i s o f ten t a ke s t h ef o rm o fr e p re sen ta t ive s pec ie s

At o ta lo f7 682 p o s tc ran ia l ,c r an ia la nd u n iden t if iab le e l emen t s

l i s t sw i th a c tua la s semb lage s i ze r a re ly g i ven . R e la t ive ly s ma l l c olec t ion ss u ch a sA r ido s( 90 e l emen t s ) o re ven Swan scombe

w e re c oded f r om s even a r chaeo log ica l a nd s even p a laeon to log ica l a s semb lage s ( Tab le s 1 . 2 , 4 . 1 ) . S ke le ta l

( 3 72 e l em en t s )s e em t ob et h en o rm . I nc a se sw he re ac oun to f

e l emen tf r equenc ie sa r es umma r ized i nh i s tog r am si nA ppend ix 1a r ranged i na l phabe t ica lo rde ro fs i te n am e . T he v e r t ica la x i s

f a una l e l emen t s i sa va i lab le , t h i s f i gu re c an r ange w ide ly b u t

o fe ach h i s tog ram l i s t s t h es pec ie s 'n ame w i th r e spec t ive MN I

t e nd s t oc l u s te r a tt h el ow e nd , w i th av e ry f ew s i te s , s uch a s T o r ra lba -Amb rona ,n umbe r ing i nt h et h ou sand s .

f o l lowed b yt h ei den t if iab le e l emen t s . T he l e ng th o fe ach b a r r e p re sen t st h er e la t ive p ropo r t ion o fs ke le ta le l emen t s ,a nd e ach b a r i nd ica te s t h e a b so lu te n umbe r o f s pec imen s f o r e ach

F o r s t a t i s t ica l a pp l ica t ion sw h ich r e ly o nc oun t s o fM in imum A na tom ica lU n i t s (MAU ) o rM in imum N umbe ro fI nd iv idua l s (MN I ;b o th t e rm sd e sc r ibed i nC hap te r3 ) , e ven a s semb lage s o fs eve ra lh und red b one sm ay b et o os ma l l . I nt h ec a se o ft h e H oxne f a una lm a te r ia l( 3 81 i d en t if iab le e l emen t s ;S topp 1 988 ,

e l emen t .

1 993 ) , o n ly o ne o ft h es even r e p re sen ted s pec ie sh ad a n MN I

p ha lange s a nd t e e th a c ro ss a l l s i te s e xcep t Wre t ton a nd

g r ea te rt h an o ne . Sm a l ls amp le s i ze c an a dve r se ly a f f ec tf a una l a na ly se s w i th s o c io -econom ic i n te rp re t ive g oa l s . C onc lu s ion s a r e b a sed o n s ma l l a moun t s o fi n f o rma t ion , o f t en i n te rp re ted

S a lzg i t te r . A l so a ppa ren t i st h e l ow MN I c oun t f o r a l t a xa e xcep t a t Wre t ton a nd S a lzg i t te r . F ina l ly , t h e re i s a

a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l a s semb lage s . T he re i sa p redom inance o f d en se s ke le ta l e l emen t s s uch a s t a r sa ls ,

p ropo r t iona l ly g rea te rn umbe ro fp robo sc idean e l em en t so ve r

w i th in a p re -de te rm ined f r amewo rk , i . e . , i n te rp re t ing MN I c oun t s a s h un te r o r f o rage r c ho ice s .

E ven a c u r so ry c ompa r i son o f t h e h i s tog ram s i n

A ppend ix 1i lu s t ra te s s eve ra l c ha rac t e r i s t ic s o ft h ea na ly sed

I f , a s i nt h i s s t udy , a

n umbe r o fv a r iab le s a r e c olec t ed f r om e ach e l emen t , b o th i d en t i f iab le a nd u n iden t if iab le ,t h en e ven s ma l l s amp le sy i e ld w o rkab le d a ta .

2 1

t h o se f r om o t he r t a xa b ecau se g rea te r b one t h ick ne ss a nd d en se r s t ruc tu re o f p robo sc idean e l emen t s e n su re t h e i r s u rv ivab i l i ty o ve rb one o fo t he rs pec ie s .

TABLE 4 . 1 :

SUM MARY OF ELEMENT CATEGORY BY S ITE TYPE* Archaeo log ica l

P a laeon to log ica l

T o ta l

C ran ia l

4 76

8 00

1 276 ( 1 6 .6% )

P o s tc ran ia l

2 387

1 852

4 239 ( 5 5 .2% )

2 77

1 890

E lemen t s

Un iden t if iab le

2 167 ( 2 8 .2% )

4 542

3 140 ( 41 .0% )

T o ta l

( 59 .0% )

7 682 ( 100 .0% )

* see n o te t oT ab le 1 . 2 T he h i s tog ram s f u r the r d emon s t ra te t h a t t h e b reakdown o fa

a ge a nd h ea l th a tt h et ime o fd ea th , t h et y pe o fs pec ie s ,a nd t h e

s i zeab le f a una l d a ta b a se i n to MN I r ende r s a n i mmen se i nve s tmen t i n a t t r ibu te c o l lec t ion i n to o ne o r t wo o r ig ina l

s t reng th o ft h ea t t r i t iona lf o rce a c t ing u pon i t .

i n d iv idua l sp e rs i t e . A s a l ready men t ioned , t h e MN Im a sk st h e

C on s i s tenc ie s i n t h e b one d en s i ty a nd b one s u rv ivab i l i ty r e la t ion sh ip w h ich s eem t o c ro s s -cu t s pec ie s t y pe a r e a s

d eg ree o f f r agmen ta t ion o f ac o l lec t ion b y i mp ly ing , f o r i n s tance , t h a ta nE quus c aba l lu s i nd iv idua lf r om B a lde r ton i s

f o l low s : 1 )p rox ima le nd so fl o ngbone sa r el e s sd en se t h an t h e d i s ta le nd a nd a r et h u sl e s sl i ab le t os u rv ive ,w i th t h ee xcep t ion o f t h e a r t icu la ted r ad iu s w h ich h a s as t rong j o in t w i th t h e h ume ru s ;2 )n on -a r t icu la rp o r t ion so ft h es c apu la a nd p e lv i s ,t h e

r ep re sen ted b y as capu la , w hen i n a c tua l f a c t i ti s as ma l l f r agmen t o f t h e g l eno id c av i ty w h ich r ema in s . T he s i ng le c e rv id " mand ib le "f r om P inedo i s as ma l lb one f r agmen to ft h a t

s p ine s a nd t r an sve r se p roce sse s o fv e r teb rae ,a nd t h er i b s a r e e x t reme ly s u scep t ib le t o d e te r io ra t ion ; 3 ) l e a s t a f ec ted b y a t t r i t iona l f o rce s i st h e r obu s t a ce tabu lum , s ome t im e s w i th i s ch ia l a nd i lum b ranch f r agmen t s a tached , m e tapod ia l

e l emen t . T aphonom ica l ly , t h e se a r e i mpo r tan t o b se rva t ion s . MN Ic oun t s a r e as t anda rd a pp roach t oc olec t ion a s se ssmen t , b u t f o r t h e p u rpo se s o f t a phonomy MN I c oun t s s hou ld b e d i s rega rded a nd t h ei n d iv idua ls pec imen s ,b o th i d en t if iab le a nd

s t udy . E s sen t ia lt oa ny t a phonom ic a na ly s is ,t h ey g i ve t h es i ze

e p iphy se s , a nd p a r t icu la r ly t h ec a rpa l s ,t a r sa ls ,p ha lange s ,a nd t e e th . Q uan t i f y ing a nd c ompa r ing t h e p rox ima l a nd d i s ta l s u rv ivab i l i ty o fl o ngbone f r agmen t sa nd e p iphy se s ,a nd r e la t ive

o f e ach a s semb lage ( s ee a l so T ab le 1 . 2 ) , ab re akdown o f c ran ia l ,p o s tc ran ia l a nd u n iden t if ied e l emen t s ( s ee a l so T ab le

s u rv iva l o f t h e v e ry d en se e l emen t s ( c a rpa l s , t a r sa l s , t e e th , p ha lange s ) p rov ide s s ome mea su re o f a n a s semb lage 's

4 . 1 ) , r e la t ive r ep re sen ta t ion o fe l emen t s p e r s i te ( t h rough t h e

c ond i t ion a nd i t sp o ten t ia lf o ra r chaeo log ica li n te rp re ta t ion .

u n iden t if iab le ,c on s ide red . T he h i s tog ram s i nA ppend ix 1a r e n eve r the le s s au se fu lf a una ls umma ry o ft h ec o l lec t ion su nde r

h o r izon ta lb a r s ) ,e xac te l emen tc oun t s ,a nd l i s tt h er e p re sen ted t a xa w i th t h e i r MN I . T he f o l low ing s ub sec t ion d i scu sse sh ow i nd iv idua le l emen ts u rv iva lc o r re spond st ob one d en s i ty .

Among t h es t ud ied a s semb lage s , l o ngbone s r ep re sen t3 4 .5 % ( 1461) o f t h e 4 239 p o s tc ran ia l e l emen t s i n b o th t h e

4 . 2 .1 .1 S ke l e ta lE lemen tR epresen ta t ion a nd B one D ens i ty

a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l a s semb lage g roups . A s m igh t b e e xpec ted , i n b o th a s semb lage g roup s p rox ima l l ongbone f r agmen t s a r e l e s s a bundan t t h an d i s ta l f r agmen t s

p robab ly r ef lec t s t h e l i ke l ihood t h a t a s ke le ta lp a r tw i l ls u rv ive d e s t ruc t ion b e t te r

It h ink i t c an b e a rgued t h a t . . .den s i ty

w i th r e la t ive p ropo r t ion s o f 3 1 .9% v s . 4 2 .1% i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l , a nd 1 5 .5% v s . 2 4 .3% i nt h ep a laeon to log ica l ( Tab le 4 . 2 ) . I ft h ec ro s s tabu la t ion sa r er un w i thou tS a lzg i t te r ,

t h an f o od v a lue r e f lec t st h el i ke l ihood t h a ti t

w h ich i s ab e t te rp re se rved a s semb lage t h an t h eo t he r s( Tab le 1 . 1 , 1 . 2 ) t h en amo re s t r ik ing p i c tu re o fb one s u rv ivab i l i ty

w i l lb et r anspo r ted ( K le in 1 989 :378 ) .

e m e rge sf o rt h ea r cha eo log ica ls amp le ,w i th p rox ima le l emen t s d im in i shed b yh a l fi nr e la t ion t od i s ta ls u rv ivab i l i ty ;2 2 .7% v s . 4 6 .0% ( Tab le 4 . 2 ,c o lumn A .2 ) . T he re i sn os ub s tan t ia ld if e rence i ns u rv ivab i l i ty b e tween t h e

T he d en s i ty o f ab one a f f ec t si t s s u rv ivab i l i ty . T he g rea te rt h e d ens i ty , t h e mo re l i ke ly t h a t ab one o rb one p a r tw i l l s u rv ive mechan ica l s t re sse s . A c tua l i s t ic s t ud ie s s ugge s t t h a t t h i s t e ndency r ema in s c on s i s ten tn o tw i th s tand ing t h en a tu re o ft h e

t wo a s semb lage g roup s , e spec ia l ly w i th t h e r emova l o f t h e

a pp l ied f o rce , b e i t c hem ica l , p hy s ica l o r b io log ica l ( Zap f e 1 939 ,H i l l 1 975 ,B in fo rd 1 977 , 1 981 ,H ayne s 1 980a , 1 980b ,

S a lzg i t te r s amp le . T h i s s imp le c ompa r i son o fp rox ima l a nd d i s ta l s u rv ivab il i ty o f l o ngbone s s ugge s t s t h a t e l emen t

1 981 ,L yman 1 984 , 1 985 ) . L yman ( 1984 ) f u r the re mpha s ize s t h a t t h e b one d en s i ty /bone s u rv ivo r sh ip r e la t ion sh ip i sa l so

d e s t ruc t ion h a s o ccu r red a nd t h a t b one d en s i ty a c coun t s f o r s ke le ta le l emen tp a t te rn ing .

c on t ingen to n ab one 's a ge a tt h et ime o fa tr i t ion ,t h ea n ima l 's

2 2

TABLE 42.

LONGBONE REPRESENTAT ION FOR PALAEONTOLOG ICAL ( P . ) AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ASSE MBLAGES WITH ( A . ) , AND WITHOUT ( A .2 ) SALZGHTER SA MPLE

p .

A .

A .2

T o ta l

T o ta l

T o ta l

P rox ima l

6 3 ( 1 5 .5% )

2 05 ( 3 1 .9% )

4 8 ( 22 .7% )

S haf t

2 07 ( 50 .9% )

9 4 ( 14 .6% )

4 3 ( 20 .4% )

D i s ta l

9 9 ( 24 .3% )

2 70 ( 42 .1 % )

( 46 .0% )

3 8 ( 9 .3% )

7 3 ( 1 1 .4% )

2 3 ( 10 .9% )

4 07 ( 100 .0% )

6 42

2 11

( 100 .0% )

( 100 .0% )

L ongbone S ec t ion

Who le

T o ta l

i ndex o f a s semb lage d e s t ruc t ion .

A no the rt e s tf o r a s se ss ing t h eb one s u rv ivab i l i ty .bone d en s i ty r e la t ion sh ip w a s d eve loped b y B in f o rd ( 1981 ) . T he d i s ta l

9 7

F igu re 4 . 1 i s ag raph ic

p re sen ta t ion o fd i s ta lv e r su sp rox ima le p iphy sea ls u rv iva la nd r e i te ra te s t h ec a se f o r d e s t ruc t ion o ft h e se a s semb lage s . T he

h ume ru s i so ne o ft h e d en se s tb one p o r t ion s i nt h e s ke le ton . B in f o rd ( 1 981 :217 )d eve loped a" hume ra li n dex " ( a l so u sed b y

p lo t ted p o in t sr ep re sen t %MAU f i gu re s ( d e r iva t ion d e sc r ibed i ns ec t ion 3 . 2 .1 .1) f o r t h eb e t te rr ep re sen ted t a xa i nb o th t h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l s i te g roup s . I nb o th s i te g roups p o in t d i spe r sa l s ugge s t s s ome e l em en t s u rv iva l , b u t

S ch ick e ta l . 1 989 ) f o r " d iagnos ing t h e r e la t ive r o le b one d e s t ruc t ion p l ay si n mod i f y ing a n a s semb lage " ( o r ig ina li t a l ic s ) . I td i s t i l l st h ed a ta s hown i nT ab le 4 . 2i n to ac ompa r i son ( Tab le 4 . 3 )o fd i s ta lv e r su sp rox ima lh ume ra lr ep re sen ta t ion t oa s se s s " p r is t ine v e r su s r avaged " a s semb lage s . T ab le 4 . 3 s how s t h e

f o l low ing B in fo rd 's ( 1981 :219 ) t e rm ino logy t h e m a jo r i ty o f p o in t sf a l lw i th in t h e" Zone o f De s t ruc t ion " ,t h es e c to rc l o se t o a nd a l ong t h ex ax i s . C on s i s ten ts u rv iva lo fd i s ta la nd p rox ima l

r e la t ive h ume ra lr ep re sen ta t ion f o r a l t h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica la s semb lage s . D i s ta ls u rv iva lo ft h eh ume ru s i sg r ea te r( P .=38% ,A .=66 .7% ) t h an f o rt h ep rox ima lh ume ru s

e p iphy se s ,t h a ti s ,s u rv iva lo f a1 : 1 r a t io ,w ou ld p roduce p o in ts a r ound t h el i ne o fe qua lv a lue ,t h ei n te r sec t ion o ft h ex -y a xe s a nd t h e u ppe rr i gh ts e c to r o fe ach g raph . A s n o ted , c a rpa l s ,

( P .=4% , A .=9% ) i nb o th g roup s b u ta l so v e ry l ow r e la t ive t o t h ep o s tc ran ia la s semb lage . T h i s a ga in s ugge s t st h a ta t t r i t iona l

t a r sa l s , p ha lange s , a nd t e e th p redom ina te i n e ach o f t h e a s semb lage s .

f o rces h ave d e s t roy ed a nd r emoved b one e l emen t s a nd a ccoun ted f o ra ny s ke le ta le l emen tp a t te rn ing .

A t A r r iaga , mo reove r ,

t h i s p a t te rn o fd en se

e l emen t s u rv iva l i sr epl i ca ted b y s u rv iva l o f E lephas s p . e l emen t s .

A sw i th t h eh ume ru s ,e p iphy se s o fa du l te l emen t s ,p a r t icu la r ly m e tapo c l ia l s , h ave h igh b one d en s i ty a nd c an b e u sed a s a n

TABLE 4 . 3 :

RELAT IVE SURV IVAL OF HU MERAL S ECT IONS FOR TOTAL PALAEONTOLOG ICAL ( P . ) AND ARCHAEOLOG ICAL ( A . ) POSTCRAN IAL A SSE MBLAGE ( #4239 )

P .

A .

S e c t ion

C oun t

C oun t

P rox im i l

4 ( 4 .0% )

7 ( 9 .0% )

S h a f t

5 0 ( 50 .0% )

1 0 ( 12 .8% )

D i s ta l

3 8 ( 3 8 .0% )

5 2 ( 6 6 .7% )

Wh o le ( 8 .0% ) T o ta l

1 00 /42 39 ( 2 .4% )

2 3

9 ( 1 1 .5% ) 7 8 /4239 ( 1 .7% )

D ista l v ersus P rox i ma l E p iphyses — B one S urv ivab i l ity

A rchaeo log ica l S ites

D ata f ro m %MAU c a lcu lat ions 1 0 0

a

a

9 0 • 8 0 • 7 0• 6 0 • 5 0 •

D ista lE p iphyses

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P rox i ma lE p iphyses I nc ludes :Arenas C orm' u p . .M adr id C or rea u p . .P rez let ioe C o m te s p . P re: l i lac . &p a lm u p . .S a lzg itter am/B ison . Ze lda u p . .R .t arandua

D ista lv ersus P rox i ma l E p iphyses — B one S urv ivab i l ity P a laeonto log ica l S ites Data f ro m %MAU c a lcu lat ions 1 0 0

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D is te lE p iphyses

a

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a 4 0• 3 0a 2 0-

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P rox i ma lE p iphyses I nc ludes : N bV I2B oa/B iaoo a nd & gu m u p . .W ret ton B ison p r .s od H .t arandua

F IGURE 4 . 1 : D ISTAL VERSUS P ROX IMAL E P IPHYSEAL SURV IVAL

2 4

I

1

I

1

1

1

1

0%

1 1 00 %

P rez le t ice ( 69% ) P ined° ( 69% ) N bVn -4 ( 62% ) L acha r( 6 1% ) N bV 1 -2 ( 57% ) M 1V 1 -7 ( 5 1% ) Madr id A renero s( 43% ) Wre t ton ( 2 5% ) A r ido s( 23% ) S wanscombe ( 17% ) M 1V 1 -2 ( 15% ) S a lzg i t ter ( 1 3% )* B a lder ton ( 8% ) A rr iaga ( 0% ) F IGURE 4 . 2 :

RELAT IVE REPRESENTAT ION OF CARPALS , ARCHAEOLOG ICAL S ITES ARE I N BO W .

TARSALS ,

TEETH ,

AND

PHALANGES .

* No ti n c luded a r e1 59 m and ibu la rs e c t ion sa nd 2 8m ax i l lae w i th a l , o ra lmo s ta l lt e e th i np o s i t ion ( s ee A ppend ix 1h i s tog ram f o r S a lzg i t te r ) .

o fE l epha ss p .e l emen t s( h i s tog ram i nA ppend ix 1 ) . S a lzg i t te r ,

F i gu re 4 . 2i l u s t ra te st h er e la t ive r e p re sen ta t ion o ft h e se d en se e l emen t s t oo t he r i d en t if iab le e l emen t s i ne a ch a s semb lage . Two a r chaeo log ica l s i te s ( P rez le t ice a nd P inedo ) h ave t h e

t h ey ounge s ta nd l e a s td amaged o ft h ea r chaeo log ica l s i te s , i s l ow o n t h es ca le o fr e la t ive r ep re sen ta t ion o fd en se e l emen t s .

h i ghe s t r ep re sen ta t ion o fd en se e l emen t s i n t h e i d en t i f iab le

M in ima ld e s t ruc t ion o ft h eS a lzg i t te ra s semb lage i sp a r t icu la r ly

f r ac t ion a nd a r e c ompa rab le t o t wo o f t h e o l de s t p a laeon to log ica ls amp le s( NbVn -4 a nd L a cha r ) . A r r iaga , a tt h e

Mammu thus p r im igen ius ,R ang if er t a ran c lu s , a nd B os/ 1 3 i son

b o t tom w i th n o c a rpa l s , t a r sa l s , t e e th , e t c . i s , a s w e k now , r ep re sen ted b y ama jo r i ty ( 85 .5% , a l so A ppend ix 1 )o fd en se

( Tab le 4 . 16 ) . T hu s , a n a na ly s i s o fb one d en s i ty i nr e la t ion t o b one s u rv ivab i l i ty s how s t h a tt h ea r chaeo log ica ls i te sp re sen t

E l epha s s p . e l emen t s . A r ido s a ppe a r s t oh ave f ewe r d en se e l emen t s f o rs im i la rr ea son ss i nce i th a s a5 4% r ep re sen ta t ion

ap a t te rn o fs u rv iva l o ft h ed en se s te l emen t s . I ti ss a f et os ay t h a ta na s semb lage w e l lr ep re sen ted b ys ke le ta le l emen t s ,s uch

a ppa ren t i nt h e s u rv iva l o fj uven i le e l emen t s f o r E quus s p . ,

2 5

a sS a lzg i t te r , p o in t s t o am in imum o ft a phonom ic d i s tu rbance o ve r t ime , w he rea s a n a s semb lage r e ta in ing p r ima r i ly t e e th ,

c e r ta in t h a t s ome t h ou sand s o f s ke le ton s

c a rpa l s , t a r sa l s , p ha lange s , a nd d en se l o ngbone f r agmen t s

y ea r .

i n d ica te st h a ta t r i t iona l f o rce s h ave a l te red i ta nd d e s t royed t h e

g eo log i s t

l e ss d en se e l emen t s .

r ep re sen ta t ion c ou ld c once ivab ly h ave o r ig ina ted t h rough

c o l le c t ion o fb one s , o fa l l k i nd s o fa n ima l s a nd o fa l a ge s , t h u s embedded i no ne t h ick

h uman a c t iv i ty , t h e l i k e l ihood i st h a t ,

e a r thy m a s s?

w e re b u r ied b yt h ed epo s i t s o ft h ev e ry n ex t

A l though s uch a p a t te rn o f e l emen t " . .any a r chaeo log ica l

a s semb lage t h a t i sc ompa rab ly r i ch i n s ma l l , h a rd , c ompac t b one s h a s p robab ly s uf e red g rea t ly f r om p o s tdepo s i t iona l

S ke le ta l

E lemen t

v i ew ing

s uch

a n

e no rmou s

D a rw in ( 1900 :206 ) c on t inue s h i s i n te re s t ing o b se rva t ion s ,

d e s t ruc t ion "( K le in a nd C ruz -U r ibe 1 984 :71) . 4 .2 .1 .2

Wha t w ou ld b e t h e o p in ion o f a

q ue s t ion ing w hy c a rca sse s o fc e r t a in s pec ie sw e re c on s i s ten t ly f ound a tr i ve r s :

R epre sen ta t ion

a nd

Hydrodynam ic F orce

T he g uanaco sa ppea rt oh ave f a vou r i te s po t s f o r l y ing d own t od i e . On t h eb ank s o ft h e S an ta C ruz ,i nc e r ta in c i rcum sc r ibed s pace s ,

C on s ider ing Mas sD ea th A ssemb lage s

t h e g round w a s a c tua l ly wh i t e w i th b one s . T aphonomys r o le i n p a laeon to logy a nd p a laeoe co logy i s f ounded o n t h e p rem i se t h a t p a s t l i v ing c ommun i t ie s c an b e

O no ne s u ch s po t Ic oun ted b e twe en t e n a nd

u nde r s tood b y s t udy ing t h e i r mode rn c oun te rpa r t s ( G if f o rd 1 981 ,Sh ipman 1 981a ) . E f remov ( 1940 :83 ) c on s ide red

b one s ; t h ey d id n o t a ppea r . . .gnawed o r

d epo s i t s

( dea th

p rey . . . . Im en t ion t h e se t r i f l ing c i rcum s tance s

a s semb lage s ) w h ich d on o tr e f lec tt h el i v ing p opu la t ion n o ri t s

b ecau se i nc e r ta in c a se s t h ey m igh te xp la in

e nv i ronmen t p re c i se ly b ecau se o f t h e p rob lem o f s econda ry

t h e o c cu r rence o f an umbe r o f u n in ju red

d epo s i t ion .

u n ifo rm i ta r ian p r inc ip le s imp l i s t ic , ma in ta in ing t h a t f o ss i l

b one s i n ac ave , o r b u r ied u nde r a l luv ia l a ccumu la t ion s , a nd l i kew i se t h ec au se w hy

a s semb lage s d i d n o t i n t r in s ica l ly c onvey a ny th ing o f t h e i r

c e r ta in

o r ig ina lp a laeoeco logy . H eb a sed t h i s a s se rt ion o nt h ee f f ec t s o ff l uv ia ls y s tem so nf a una la s semb lage s ,c au t ion ing t h a tf l uv ia l f o rce sc r ea te a c cumu la t ion so fd ea th a s semb lage sw h ich a r en o t

embedded

o f t e r re s t r ia l f a una s

Wa smund

a s t h ana tocoeno se s

( 1926 )

a l so

c on s ide red

t wen ty h ead s . Ip a r t icu la r ly e xam ined t h e b roken , a si fd ragged t oge the rb yb ea s t s o f

t h i s

a n ima l s t h an

a r e o t he r s

mo re

c o mmon ly

i n s ed im en ta ry

d epo s i t s .

n ece s sa r i ly e x tan ti nt h el i v ing s y s tem ( b iocoeno se ) .

We ige l t ( 1927 ) , aG e rman p a laeon to log i s t w ho c onduc ted f i e ldwo rk a l ong t h eG u l fo f Mex ico n ea rt h eT exa sb o rde r , a l so

Wa smund t h e reby i n t roduce s a n e s sen t ia l i ng red ien t t o u nde r s tand ing ma ss f a una l a s semb lage s , n ame ly t h a t f l uv ia l

r e cogn ized t h a te n t i re p opu la t ion s w e re s u scep t ib le t on a tu ra l d ea th a nd r e la t ive ly q u ick s ubsequen tb u r ia l . T he n ume rou s o b se rva t ion si n co rpo ra ted i nh i s s t udy i n c lude d ea th b ys wamp

f o rce s c an a nd d o c r ea te s econda ry d epo s i t s w h ich h ave n o r e la t ion t ot h e o r ig ina l d ea th a s semb lage ( c f . a l so Voo rh ie s 1 969 , Wo lf f1 973 ) . T h i s i sa n i mpo r tan tc on s ide ra t ion w hen

g a sf i r e s ,p r a i r ie f i r e s ,f o re s tf i re s , d rown ing , a nd e x t reme c o ld ; a l so c ap tu re i nm ud s ,i ns wamps ,q u ick sand s , a nd i no i l a nd t a r

i n te rp re t ing n o r the rn h em i sphe re , e a r ly P le i s tocene f a una l a s semb lage s w h ich a r e c on s i s ten t ly f ound i n , o r a l ong s ide ,

s and s . H el i s ted s ea sona lf l ood ing a s am a jo rc au se o f ma ss d ea th , a s w e l l a s c onsump t ion o f e x ce s s s a l ine w a te r , a nd

a nc ien t f l uv ia l s y s tem s a nd i n f l uv ia t i le s ed imen t s . Ih ave men t ioned a l ready t h a t t h e p re sence o f l i th ic s w i th t h e se

o bse rved t h a t d rough t s c rea ted a r t if ic ia l p opu la t ion c oncen tra t ion s a nd s ubsequen t m a s s d ea th s ( c f . a l so

d epo s i t si sg ene ra l ly h e ld a se v idence t h a tt h eo r ig ina lc a rca s se s

C oneybea re a nd H ayne s 1 984 ) . H ed i s t ingu i shed b e tween t wo

w e re h uman k i l l s . A pp roached f r om ap a laeon to log ica l o ra

c ause s o f d ea th : " e ingehen " a s d ea th c au sed b y o l d a ge o r i lne ss s uch a s k i dney i n f ec t ion d ue t oe x t reme c o ld ; a nd t h e

t a phonom ic p e r spec t ive ,t h ep re sence o fl i t h ic s c ou ld e qua l ly b e B one ma s se s c an b ec r ea ted b yn a tu ra l f o rce s s uch a sf l uv ia l

mo re c ommon " umkommen " a s a c c iden ta l d ea th , i . e . , b y p reda to r s o rf l ood d rown ing s (We ige l t 1 927 :27 ) .

s y s tem s , a nd m a s s b u r ia l p henomena h ave a l so b een l i nked w i th n a tu ra lm a s sd ea th s .

A pp l ica t ions

T rave l l ing f r om S an ta F e o nt h eP a rana R ive r , i nt h ep rov ince

Hyd rodynam ic f o rce s a r e a cknow ledged a t tr i t ion a l a gen t s o f

o fB ueno s A i re s , C ha r le s Da rw in ( 1900 :166 ) o b se rved l a rge

p a laeon to log ica la s semb lage s . T he i ri mpac to n a r chaeo log ica l

d ea th a s semb lage s o ff a una .

I n e s tab l i sh ing t h e i r c au se , h e

d epo s i t s i n t h e n o r thern h em i sphe re i s , c u r iou s ly , l a rge ly

w ro te t h a t " A l l t h e s ma l lr i ve r sb e came h igh ly s a l ine , a nd t h i s

u ncon s ide red i ns i te r epo r t s , d e sp i te t h er e cogn ized e f ec t s o f g l ac ia l / in te rg la c ia le p i sode s o nt h el a nd scape a nd t h ee x t reme

c on s ide red i n c iden ta l a nd w i thou t r e la t ion sh ip t ot h e b one s .

c au sed t h ed ea th o fv a s tn umbe r s i np a r t icu la r s po t s , f o rw hen a na n ima ld r ink s s uch w a te ri td oe s n o tr e cove r . " H ea dd s t h a t

e f e c t s o fs e a sona lc hange o nc a tchmen ts y s tem s . Ar ev iew o f

mo re t h an o nce h e o b se rved t h e c a rca sse s o f u pwa rd s o f a

t h e r e levan t l i t e ra tu re ( be low ) i nd ica te s t h a t n o d ef in i t ive

t h ou sand w i ld h o r se sd e s t royed i nt h i sw ay . A s f o rt h e i rb u r ia l

a t t r ibu te s e x i s tw h ich m ea su re o rr e f le c t p re sence /ab sence o f

i nr i ve rm ud s ( i b id . ) :

f l uv ia l f o rce s o rt h e i rd eg ree o fi mpa c to n a nc ien td ea th s i te s . S i te l o ca t ion a l ong s ide k nown a nc ien t f l uv ia l s y s tem s , i n

S ub sequen t ly t o t h e d rough t o f 1 827 t o 1 832 , av e ry r a iny s ea son f olowed , w h ich

c on junc t ion w i th r e g iona l a nd l o ca ls ed im en t s , a r ei n d ica to r s o f

c aused g rea t f l ood s .

p o ten t ia l h yd rody nam ic d i s tu rbance , b u t c anno t r evea l i t s

H ence i ti s a lmo s t

2 6

n a tu re . T he s ed imen ta ry ma t r ix o f af i nd -s i te may b e f i ne -g ra ined a nd s ugge s t ive o fs l ow c u r ren t s , b u t t h i s ma t r ix

Two p ivo ta lf a c to r si na s semb lage c r ea t ion a nd d e s t ruc t ion a r e r e i te ra ted h e re . Wa te rv e loc i ty i s at a phonom ic a gen to fg rea te r i mpa c tt h an a cknow ledged i nr epo r t so fe a r ly P le i s tocene s i te s .

may s imp ly r ep re sen t t h e mo s t r e cen t o f s eve ra l v a r ied , p rev iou s m a t r ice s . Mo r lan 's d e sc r ip t ion ( be low ) o ft h e O ld C row R ive rs ed imen ta ry / f auna l a ccumu la t ion s empha s ize st h e " t aphonom ic p a thway s " w h ich e ncompa ss f a una l r ema in s a s

S econd ly , t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i te si nt h i s s t udy e ach o r ig ina te w i th in af o rme rf l uv ia lc on tex ta nd t h u sh ave a ts ome t ime i n t h e p a s t b een a f f ec ted b yw a te r c u r ren t s , s e a sona l f l ood ing , a nd /o rt h ee f ec t so fg l ac ia l / in te rg lac ia la c t iv i ty o nw a te r shed s .

t h ey m ove t h rough t h eh yd rodynam ic e nv i ronmen t .

I ti sd if i cu l tt oa ccep t av e rd ic to fp r ima ry c on tex to rm in ima l P rev iou s h yd rodynam ic s t ud ie s h ave n o t e xpe r imen ted w i th

d i s tu rbance f o r t h e se a s semb lage s b a sed o n t h en a tu re o ft h e s e d im en t a ry m a t r ix ( f i ne -g ra ined ) a nd ,a sw i l lb es hown ,o nt h e

l a rge o rm ed ium -s ized m a m ma lb one s a st h eo b jec t s o ff o rce . K le in schm id t( 1 965 )d i scu sse s s ed imen ta ry b ehav iou ri nf l ume a nd n a tu ra l c ond i t ion s . Voo rh ie s ( 1969 ) o b se rved s heep ,

c ond i t ion o ft h e b one s i n d iv idua l ly a nd t h e a s semb lage a s a w ho le . T he s e d imen t so ft h ef i nd s i te a r eu nl ike ly t ob et h eo n ly m a t r ice st h e se a s semb lage sh ave r e s ted i no ve rt h em i l lenn ia .

c oyo t ea nd b adge rb one b ehav iou ri nb o th s ha l low ( 1 -1 . 5 i n . ) a nd d eepe r ( 3 -4 i n . ) w a te r , d ef in ing t h ree t r an spo r tab i l i ty g roup s ; " immed ia te ly r emoved b one " , " bone r emoved

I n o rde r t ot e s t t h e e f ec t s o fs l ow mov ing w a te r o n b one a f l ume e xpe r imen t w a s i n i t ia ted u s ing a n i n comp le te ,

g r adua l ly ' ,a nd " l ag d epo s i t s " . Dod son ( 1973 ) u sed mou se a nd t o ad s ke le ta le l emen t s t od e te rm ine r e la t ive s u scep t ib i l i t ie st o w a te r v e loc i ty . Wo l f f ( 1973 ) d e ta i l s t h e e f f ec t s o f d e l ta

u nfo ss i l i sed , p a r t ia l ly d e s icca ted a du l t e qu id s ke le ton . T he d e ta i ls o ft h e e xpe r imen t a r e s e t o u t i nA ppend ix 2 a nd i t s

c hanne l s o nb one s a nd t e e th o fr abb i t s ize a nd s ma l le r . B oaz a nd B eh ren smeye r( 1976 ) c onf i rm t h a th uman b one a l so s o r t s

r e su l t sa r es umma r ized i nt h er ema inde ro ft h i ss ec t ion .

i n to t r an spo r tab le a nd l a gd epo s i tg roup ing s . S hac ldey ( 1978 ) d eve lop s av a luab le d i scu ss ion o f t h e b ehav iou r o f l i t h ic

A t v a ry ing l ow v e loc i t ie s r ang ing f r om 9i n che s / second ( 23 c m / sec . ) t o2 . 5f e t / second ( 70 c m / se c . ) ,t os imu la te t h e " s low mov ing c u r ren t s " o f t h e s i te r e po r t s , b o th s a tu ra ted a nd u n sa tu ra ted e l emen t sw e re e a s i ly b o rne a way b yc u r ren t s . T he

a r t i f a c t s w i th in s ed imen ta ry c on tex t s , c au t ion ing t h a t s ed im en ta ry t y pe s d on o to fn ece ss i ty r e f lec tw he the r o rn o ta d epo s i t h a s b een d i s tu rbed . H an son 's ( 1980 ) v e ry t e chn ica l d i scu s s ion a nd mode l l ing o f f l uv ia l p roce sse s e s sen t ia l ly i nd ica te s t h a t t h e p a rame te r s f o r i d en t ify ing s pec if i c f l uv ia l

e xcep t ion si n c lude m e tapod ia ,a s t raga lu s ,c a lcaneum ,s e samo id , a nd o cca s iona l ly t h es c apu la a nd a x ia l v e r teb ra ( no te t h a tn o o t he r c a rpa l s , t a r sa l s o rp ha lange s w e re a va i lab le f r om t h i s s ke le ton ) . I na g reemen tw i th V oo rh ie s 's ( 1969 ) o b se rva t ion , t h e e qu id s ku l l c on s i s ten t ly s ank t ot h e b o t tom , b o th w hen

e f e c t so nb one a r ei ndeed b road a nd n o tu nequ ivoca l . S ch ick ( 1986 ) e xpe r imen t s w i th l i th ic a r t i fac t s i n f l uv ia l s e t t ing s , a r r iv ing a t g ene ra l c onc lus ion s r ega rd ing l i t h ic a r t i f ac t

w a te r logged a nd w hen c omp le te ly d ry , b e tween t h e l ow v e lo c i t ie so f9 " -2 . 25 f t i se cond ( 2 3c m -7 0c m / sec . ;v e loc i t ie s o fr i ve r s c ommon ly r a nge 6 -1 0 f t . / sec . , o r 1 . 8 -3 m / sec . ;

i n c l ina t ion sa nd t h e i rr e la t ion t of l ow v ec to r s a nd f l ow i n ten s i ty , f o ri n s t an ce ,t h es ma l le ra na r t i f ac t ,t h el owe rt h ep robab i l i ty o f r e cove ry f r om i t s s i te o f o r ig ina l d epo s i t ion u nde r f l ow

L eopo ld i n Dod son 1 973 :17 ) . T ab le 4 . 4 s umma r ize s t h e o b se rved e l emen tb ehav iou ra tl ow v e loc i t ie sd u r ing t h ef l ume

c ond i t ion s . T ho r son a nd G u th r ie ( 1984a ) t a ke a ni n nova t ive a pp roa ch b yf r eez ing b one w i th in i c eb lock s a nd t r a i l ing t h e se

e xpe r imen t . T he t r an spo r tab i l i ty o f u n sa tu ra ted b one r e semb le s Voo rh ie s 's r e su l ts ,h oweve rs a tu ra ted b one a ppea r s

b lock s b eh ind a mov ing v eh ic le o ve r g rave l r oad s . T he i r e xpe r imen t a temp t s t ou nde r s tand t h e e f ec t s o fr i ve r i c e o n b one

i n h i gh l a t i tude e nv i ronmen t s ,

a nd

a n

t ob em o re m ob i le a tv e loc i ty g r ea te rt h an o re qua lt o1 . 5f t . / sec . ( 46 cm / sec . ) , wh ich i sn eve r the le s s r e la t ive ly s l ow mov ing w a te r .

" i n tu i t ive

t a phonom ic mode l "i sd eve loped t oe xp la in h ow r i ve ri c em ay move a nd f r ac tu re b one .

A b one 's b uoyancy d i rec t ly a f ec t s i t s d i spe r sa l . F lume e xpe r imen t s r epl i ca te ar ange o fv a r ied s i tua t ion s i n

When

u n sa tu ra ted ,e l emen t ss uch a st h eh ume ru s ,t i b ia , s capu la ,a nd m e tapod ia l sw e re o b se rved t ot u rn o nt h e i ra xe sb y1 80° a nd b y

t e rm so fv e lo c i t ie sc ho sen ,s i ze o fs ke le ta le l emen t s ,o rw he the r e l emen t s a r e f r e sh , d e s icca ted o r f o ss i l ized . F u r the rmo re , e xpe r imen ta t ion i na r t if ic ia l a nd n a tu ra lf l ume e nv i ronmen t si s

9 0° i mmed ia te ly u pon e n te r ing t h ef l ume ,s h if t ing t o ap o s i t ion w he re t h ed en se s tp o r t ion o ft h ee l emen tp o in ted d own s t ream .

u n l ike ly t o r e c rea te t h e v a r iab le d e s t ruc t ive a spec t s o f h yd rodynam ic i mpac t . O ft h e c i ted l i t e ra tu re , Voo rh ie s a nd Dod son o f e r u se fu l c ompa ra t ive o bse rva t iona l d a ta , a nd

T h i s b ehav iou r w a s a l so o b se rved o nce t h e e l emen t s w e re s a tu ra ted b u tt h et u rn ing p roce s sr e qu i red s l igh t ly g rea te rt ime t oe xecu te . T h i s o b se rva t ion d oe sn o tc o r robo ra te w i th F r i son

S hack ley d eve lop s ar e levan t g ene ra l d i scu ss ion .

a nd T odd ( 1986 :54 ) w ho n o te t h a tt h el i gh te re nd sw ou ld " be e xpec ted t ob e i n ad own s t ream d i rec t ion , wh i le t h eh eav ie r e nd s ,d ragg ing b o t tom ,w ou ld b eu p s t ream . "

None ,

h oweve r , o b se rve t h eb ehav iou r o f med ium t ol a rge u ngu la te s ke le ton si nv a ry ing f l ow v e loc i t ie s .

2 7

TABLE 4 . 4 :

ELE MENT TRANSPORTABIL ITY AT LO W VELOC 111ES ( Summ a r ized f r om A ppend ix 2 )

I mmed ia te m ovemen t ,n o s i nk ing

S ink , f o l lowed b y d ragg ing m ovenen t a l ong b o t tom w i th s o re r o l l ing

S ink , m ovemen tf o r s2m . ,t h en s t i l l

S ink , n o movemen t

n one

h ur rr ru sw /d i s ta l e nd d own s t ream ,

n e tapod ia l s capu la s e samo id c a lcaneum

h umeru s*

S atura ted B one 9 " / sec . ( 23 c i n i se c . )

t i b ia a t la s a s t raga lu s a x i s t h o rac ic v e r t .

1 . 5 f t . / sec . ( 46 c m / se c . )

h ume ru s t i b ia s c apu la a t las t ho rac ic V .

a s t raga lu s a x i s s e sa rn o id

n e tapod ia l

n one

2 .25 f t . / se c . ( 70 cm / se c . )

t i b ia h umeru s a l l o the r s

n on e

n e tapod ia l

n one

s capu la t ho rac ic V .

l u ime ru s t i b ia s e samo id t h o rac ic V . c a lcaneum a s t raga lu s

m e tapod ia l**

m and ib le w / t e e th

a l l

n one

n one

n one

Unsa tura ted Bone 9 " / se c . ( 23 c r n i se c . )

2f t . / sec . ( 61 cm / sec . )

*o n ly i fp rox ima le nd i sp o in t ing d own s t ream w hen e n te r ing f l ume * * movemen tc ea se s w i th in 1m e t re o fe n te r ing f l ume

How c an t h ef l ume o b se rva t ion sb ea pp l ied t ot h ea na ly sed s i te

T ee th r ep re sen t t h e l a g c omponen t o f as ke le ton b ecause o f

d epo s i t s?

t h e i r d en s i ty w he rea s v e r teb rae w i th g rea te r s u r f ace a nd l ow

T he r e su l t s s ugge s t a mode l o f a s semb lage

w innow ing w he reby l ow v e loc i ty f l uv ia lf o rce sc on t r ibu ted t o

d en s i ty a r e t h e mo s t e a s i ly d i spe r sed .

r e -depo s i t ion . A tl ow f l ow v e loc i t ie s s uch a s2 . 25 f t . / sec . ( 70

i n s tance , a pp l ie s t h i s i ndex t o M iocene f o ss i l f i nd s f r om

cm /sec . ) a nd l e s s , b o th s a tu ra ted a nd e spe c ia l ly u n sa tu ra ted b one s a r ee a s i ly r ed i s t r ibu ted e l sewhe re i nt h ew a te r shed ( c f .

P ak is tan d e te rm in ing t h a t a s semb lage s f r om r i ve r c hanne l o r

a l so Dod son 1 973 :18 ) . T he se r e su l t s f u r the r s ugge s tt h a tt h e wa te r c u r ren t s i na nd a r ound t h ea r chaeo log ica l s i te s w e re o f

v e r teb rae w i th t o o th /ve r teb ra r a t io v a lue sa t3 . 3 a nd 3 . 6 . T he s ame r a t io v a lue s f o rc hanne l ma rg in o rf l oodp la in f a c ie s s how

l ow v e loc i ty ( a s l ow a s9 " / se c . )b u td id n o td i s tu rb t h eh eav ie r ,

l e ss f l uv ia l a tr i t ion a t1 . 6 a nd 1 . 7 . T ab le 4 . 5 l i s t s r a t io s f o r

d ense E lepha s s p . r ema in s . W i th t h ee xcep t ion o fs i te s w i th

s e lec ted t a xa f r om b o th a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l

E lephas

t h e

s i te s . T he se f i gu re s s ugge s te x ten s ive w innow ing o fv e r teb rae .

o ve r -

T he e xcep t ion s a r e Wre t ton 's B i son p r i scu ss amp le w h ich h a s

s p .

a rchaeo log ica l

f r agmen t s , a nd

u ngu la te

r ema in s

p a laeon to log ica l

i n b o th

s amp le s

a r e

B adg ley ( 1986 ) , f o r

c reva s se sp lay s ed imen ta ry d epo s i t s s how w innow ing o f

r epre sen ted b y l a g e l emen t s s uch a s t e e th a nd c a rpa l s , i n

a1 . 1 r a t io . S wan scombe h a s n ot e e th i nt h eB os/B i son s amp le

c on t ra s t t o as ca rc i ty o fr e ad i ly t r an spo r ted e l emen t s s uch a s

p e rhap s i nd ica t ing t h a tt h i s i s at r an spo r ted a s semb lage w he re

v e r tebrae .

T he se r e su l t s a r e r ef lec ted i n t h e r e la t ion sh ip

t h e t e e th a r el a gd epo s i t s e l sewhe re i nt h ew a te r shed , o r , t h a t

b e tween s ke le ta lr ep re sen ta t ion a tt h e se s i te s a nd b one d en s i ty ,

i nd iv idua l t e e th w e re n o tc o l lec ted . T he r ema in ing e xamp le s

d i scu ssed i ns e c t ion 4 .2 .1 .1

s how h igh t o o th /ve r teb ra r a t io s , i mp ly ing t h a t s o r t ing h a s o ccu r red .

B eh ren smey e r ( 1975 ) s ugge s ted at o o th /ve r teb ra r a t io a s a n i n dex o ff l uv i a lw innow ing . T he r a t io o ft e e th t ot h en umbe ro f v e r teb rae i nt h e mamm a l ian s ke le ton i su sua l ly 1 . 0 a nd t h e g rea te rt h er a t io , t h e mo re l i ke ly t h a tw innow ing h a s o ccu r red .

2 8

TABLE 4 . 5 :

A PPL ICAT ION OF B EHRENSMEYER 'S ( 1975 ) TOOTH /VERTEBRA I NDEX TO S ELECTED S ITE TAXA

T oo th /Ve r teb ra R a t io

A r chaeo log ica lS i te s P rez le t ice C er v us e l aphus

4 / 1 ( 4 .0 )

S a lzg i t te r B o s /B i son

3 52 18 ( 44 .0 )

S wan sc onte B o s /B i son

0 / 20

P a laeon to log ica lS i te s L ach a r B o s /B i son

8 / 0

M 1V 1 -2 B os /B i son

1 6 /0

M 1V 1 -7 E quus s p .

9 / 2 ( 4 .5 )

N bVn -4 E q uu ss p .

1 / 1 ( 1 1 .0 )

W re t ton B i son p r is cus

1 58 / 148

Mo r lan ' sl o ng te rm f i e ldwo rk i nt h eO ld C row B a s in o fY ukon T e r r i to ry , C anada , i n vo lved r e co rd ing a nd e x cava t ing f o s s i l m amma l d epo s i t s a l ong t h er i ve r b a s in . We l l -p re se rved b u t f o s s i l iz ed s p e c im en sw e re f r equen t ly c o l le c t ed f o l low ing s p r ing f l ood ing a c t iv i t ie sw h ich d i s lodged t h ea n c ien tf a una lm a te r ia l f r om r i ve r b ank s a nd i n to t h e c u r ren t . Mo r lan ( 1 983 :255 ) d e sc r ibe s t h ef l uv ia le nv i ronmen to ft h e se o nce -bu r ied f o s s i l s :

g eomo rpho log ica l c on tex t s . T he f l uv ia l r eg im e i sh i gh ly v a r iab le i nn o r the rn l a t i tude s ( Dod son 1 973 , S hack ley 1 978 ) a nd a r chaeo log ic a la na ly se s o fe a r ly s i te ss hou ld r e con s ide rt h e e x ten t t o w h ich " f ine -g ra ined s ed imen t s " s ugge s t al ow d i s t u rbance e nv i ronmen t . C e r ta in ly t h ec omb ined e v idence o f s k e le ta lr ep re sen ta t ion a nd t h ef l um es t udy s ugge s t s t h a ts i te s s u ch a sP rez le t ice ,A r ido s ,A r r iaga , a nd P inedo a r ew innowed a s semb lage s w he re l e s s d en se e l emen t s ( a nd n on p robo sc idean ) h ave b een r emoved o r mod i f ied b ey ond r e cogn i t ion b ya t t r i t iona lf o rce s . A l though t h e se f o rc e sc anno t b ei d en t if i ed w i th a ny d eg ree o fc e r ta in ty i ti sp robab le t h a tt h e f l uv ia lr eg ime w a s as i gn if i can t mod if ie r .

T h roughou t m o s t o fi t s l e ng th O ld C row R ive r m eande r s s l ow ly a l ong a v a l ley i n c i sed i n to u ncon sol ida ted Q ua te rna ry s e d im en t s i n w h ich l i t h ic p a r t ic le s a r e s e ldom l a rge r t h an g ranu le s ( 2 -4 mm ) . . . .Thu st h eb one sa r eu sua l ly t h el a rge s t p a r t i c l e sc a r r ied b yt h es t ream ,a nd t h e re a r e n o c obb le o r c oa r se g r ave l b a r s a ga in s t w h i ch t og r ind o ri mpa c tt h em . I nt h el owe r

4 . 2 .1 .3

S ke le ta l E lemen t R epresen tat ion a nd C arn ivore Gnaw ing

S t udy o fe a r ly h om in id s c an o n ly b e s ucce s s f u l w hen ac l ea r d i s t inc t ion c an b e m ade b e tween h om in id a nd a n ima l s i gna tu re s . T oo o f ten f a una l ma te r ia l i s d i scu ssed i n a r chaeo log ica l r e po r t s a s t h ough i tw e re a d i rec t r e su l t o f h uman a c t iv i ty ( Z ap f e 1 939 :129 , my t r an s la t ion ) .

6 0 I a n o fi t s c ou r se , t h e c ha ra c te r o ft h e b ank sa nd b a r sc hange s a b rup t ly . T he r i ve r f l ow s o ve r as e r ie s o f s i l l s f l oo red w i t h c obb l e sa nd b ou lde r s ,a nd b ed ro ck o u t c rop s o ccu r i n te rm i t ten t ly o n b o th b ank s a st h e s t ream e n te r s a n o l dc anyon . . .In t h i sz one , a bov et h ec anyon ,t h e re a r ea bundan tb one s o n t h e b a r s , b u t t h ey a r e h eav i ly r o unded a nd a b rad ed ,f r equen t ly f r a c tu red a nd c l ea r ly s o r ted b y f l uv ia l t r an spo r t . W i th in a nd b e low t h e c anyon w e s e ldom f i nd af o s s i l s pec imen o fa ny s i ze .

T he v a r ie ty o fa c tua l i s t ic s t ud ie so nt h ee f f ec t so fc a rn ivo re a nd u ngu la te g naw ing o nb one c ove ra no bse rva t iona ls pe c t rum o f a n ima l s i nb o th t h e w i ld ( Abe l 1 935 , S u t c l i f f e 1 970 , 1 973 , 1 977 , B ro thwe l l 1 976 , B in f o rd 1 977 , 1 978 , 1 981 , H ayne s 1 980a , 1 980b , 1 981 , 1 983a , 1 983b , B ra in 1 981 , G ha leb 1 983 ) , a nd i nc on t ro l led e nv i ronm en t s ( Z apf e 1 939 , H ayne s 1 981 ) . T he se s t ud ie s c olec t ive ly empha s ize t h a tc a rn ivo re s s uch a s w o lve s a nd h yaena s a r e h igh ly e f ec t ive a gen t s o f d e s t ruc t ion ,l e av ing f ew c a rca s sp a r t su naf ec ted ,p o s s ib ly e ven o fl a rge m amm a l s s uch a sr h inoce ro s ( Zapf e 1 939 :120 ) , b u t w i thou t n e ce s sa r i ly l e av ing g naw m a rk s o n r ema in ing b one ( Hay ne s 1 980 ) . C a rn ivo re a l te ra t ion o fb one i sf r equen t ly m i s iden t if ied a st h ee f ec t s o fh um an b u tche ry ( c f .d i scu s s ion s

T he O ld C row e xamp le , ar e cen t p o s t -g la c ia l c on tex t i n E u ropean t e rm s , n eve r the le s s o f e r s au se f u la na logue f o r t h e e f f ec t s o ff l uv ia ls y s tem s o nb ank d epo s i t s . I ti l u s t ra te sh ow r e la t ive ly i n ta c tb one i smod if ied a si tm ove st h rough c hang ing

2 9

b yH ay ne s 1 980 , 1 981 , B in f o rd 1 981 ) . T he se d a ta r ep re sen t c on s ide rab le a dvance si nb one a l te ra t ion i d en t if i ca t ion , a l be i t t h ey a l so d emon s t ra te t h a tc u l tu ra la nd n a tu ra lf o rce s o fb one b reak age c anno t a lway s b e d i s t ingu i shed f r om o ne a no the r .

g nawed p o s tc ran ia l e l emen t s i sf r om Wre t ton , N bV 1 -2 , a nd S a lzg i t te r . R e levan t ly , t h e se a r e a l so t h e l e a s t f r agmen ted a s semb lage s ( a l l r a nge 3 0 -50 k a i n a ge a nd a r e a l so t h e y ounge s t s t ud ied a s semb lage s ) . C a rn ivo re s a r e a n e a r ly a tr i t iona l f o rce a t ad ea th s i te ( s ee a l so d a ta o n g naw ing a s soc ia ted w i th f r e sh f r a c tu re s i n T ab le 5 . 2 ) . T he b e s t

S tud ie s o fa n ima l sw h ich g naw b one s uch a sw o l f ,h u sky d og , a nd h ya e na s ugge s tt h a tc a rn ivo re g naw ing a s ab i o log ica l a gen t o f a tr i t ion i so ne o ft h e e a r l ie s t a nd mo s t f o rm idab le f o rce s a c t ive a t ad ea th s i te . H ay ne s( 1980a )h a sc omp i led e v idence t os how t h a tc a rn ivo re g naw ing i sn o t ar andom p rocedu re , t h a t b one i sg naw ed i np a t te rned w a y sd i c ta ted b yb one a na tomy a nd p a r t icu l a r ly b yb one d en s i ty w he reby t h el e a s td en se b one sa r e

p re se rved a s semb lage s i n t h e s amp le r e ta in t h e g r ea te s t e v idence o fg naw ing p o s s ib ly b ecau se t h ey h ave b een t h el e a s t a f f ec ted b ya t t r i t iona lf o rce s w h ich o b l i te ra te g nawm a rk s a nd o r ig ina l f r a c tu re e dge s . Wre t ton a nd S a lzg i t te r i np a r t icu la r r e ta in al a rg ep e r cen tage o fp o s t c ran ia le l emen t s( c f .T ab le 4 . 2 )

t h ef i r s tt ob ec on sum ed .

w i th e v idence o fg naw ing o n l o ngbone f r agm en t s . I nh i gh ly c omm inu ted a s semb lage s s uch a sP rez le t ice o rN bVn -4 t h e re

C ro s s t abu la t ion o ft h e a r cha eo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l p o s tc ran ia la s semb lage s a ga in s tp re sence /ab sence o fg naw ing o nb one e l em en t si n d ica t e st h a tt h ep a laeon to log ica lc o l lec t ion s e xh ib i tt h re et ime sm o re e v idence o fg naw ing ( Tab le 4 . 6 ) . O f t h ei n d iv idu a ls i t ea s semb lage s ,t h eg rea te s ta b so lu te n umbe ro f

i sl e ss l i k e l ihood t h a t t r ace s o fg naw ing r ema in . S o w h i le p re sence o fg naw ing r e f le c t sp r e sence o fn on -cu l tu ra la t r i t iona l a gen t s , i t s a b sence m ay r e f lec t y e t af u r the r s t age o f a n a s semb lage ' s a t r i t ion .

TABLE 4 . 6 :

CARN IVORE GNA WED P OSTCRAN IAL BONE BY S ITE AND RELAT IVE REPRESENTAT ION OF TOTAL P OSTCRAN IAL BONE ( #4239 )

A rchaeo log ica l

P a laeon to log ica l B a lde r ton

1

. 9

M .A rene ro s

1

3 . 0

L i t t le O ak ley

2

1 . 8

Swan scombe

2

6 .0

S a lzg i t te r

M 1V 1 -2

1 7

1 5 .0

M IV 1 -7

1

9 . 7

N bV 1 -2

3 0

2 6 .5

N bVn -4

5

4 . 4

Swan ton Mo r ley

5

4 . 4

Wre t ton T o ta l

4 . 2 .1 .4

4 2

2 6 .5

13 / 4 239

1 00 .0 2 . 6

S ke le ta l E lemen t R epre sen ta t ion a nd O ther P hy s ica lI mpac t s

3 0

9 1 .0

3 3 / 4239

1 00 .0 . 7 8

a f ec t ing a ne l emen to r ap opu la t ion b e tween d ea th ,b u r ia l ,a nd c o l lec t ion s u ch a sh uman /an ima l /phy s ica l i mpa c t s ( M a r sha l l 1 989 ) ; s e le c t ion , m ix ing , a nd a l te ra t ion o f n e c ro ly t ic a nd b i o s t ra t inom ic c ommun i t ie s (W i l son 1 988 ) ; a nd b i o s t ra t inomy v s . d i agene s i s w h ich r e f e r s t o t r an s f o rma t ion s o f o rgan ic r ema in s b e tween d ea th a nd f i na l b u r ia l v s . t r an s f o rm a t ion o f

B one d en s i ty ,h yd rodynam ic f o rce ,a nd c a rn ivo re g naw ing ,t h e t o p ic s o ft h e p reced ing s e c t ion s , a r e t h ree o f an umbe r o f t a phonom i cf o rce sa f e c t ing b one s u rv iva l . Av a r ie ty o ff u r the r g eophy s ica l f o rce s a r e r e cogn ized a t t r i t iona l a gen t s a nd a r e g ene r a l ly s u b sumed w i th in t h ev a r iou ss t age so fd ecompo s i t ion .

o rgan ic r ema in s i n to f o s s i l s ( G if f o rd 1 981 ; c f . a l so A nd rew s a nd C ook 1 985 ) .

I n Mo r lan ' s( 1 980 )t a phonom i cm ode l ,f o ri n s tance ,p e r tho tax ic f a c to r sa r et h ed egene ra t iv ef o rce s w h ich ad ea th a s semb lage

N o tw i th s tand ing t h ev a r iou s mode l s o ft a phonom ic i mpac to n b one , t h e i d en t if ica t ion o fa gen t o fb one b reakage r ema in s h ypo the t ica l . D if f e ren tf o rce sa r ec apab le o fl e av ing as im i la r

u nde rgoe s b e f o re b u r ia l . T he se a r e n um e rou s , i n c lud ing i n se c t s ,t empe ra tu re ,m o i s t u re ,s c avenge r s ,e t c . T aph ic a t t r i t ion i s ap o s t -bu r ia l p henomenon i n vo lv ing f o rce s s uch a s

" s igna tu re c r i te r ion " ( B in f o rd 1 981 :26 ) a nd s im i la r r ep re sen ta t iona l p a t te rn . A n e xamp le i st h e p ropen s i ty f o r s ma l l , d en se s ke le ta l e l emen t s s uch a s t e e th a nd c a rpa l s t o s u rv ive b o th f l uv ia la c t ion ,c a rn ivo re g naw ing ,a nd s e d im en t a ry t r an sf o rma t ion .

f r eeze thaw c ond i t ion s , s e d im en ta ry w e igh t a nd c ru sh ing , i n se c t s ,m o i s t u re a nd a b ra s ion . A na tax ic f a c to r si n vo lve f u r the r w ea the r ing a nd e r o s ion i n ab one ' s r e tu rn j ou rney t o t h e p e r tho tax i c e nv i ronmen t , w h ich c ou ld o ccu r d u r ing f l uv ia l l o o sen ing a nd d i spe r sa lo f as e d im en ta ry m a t r ix . O the r mode l s u se d if e ren t d i v i s iona l c a tego r ie s t oi lu s t ra te t h e p roce s se s

3 0

I

I

I

0%

I

I

I

I

I

I 1 00 %

A rr iaga ( 100% )* L acha r( 100% )** Wre t ton ( 9 4% )** S a lzg i t ter ( 9 1% ) P inedo ( 6 3% ) A r ido s( 60% ) B a lde r ton ( 58% ) Madr id A renero s ( 54% ) M 1V 1 -7 ( 44% ) NbV 1 -2 ( 34% ) Swan scombe ( 28 % ) M IV 1 -2 ( 2 3% )

•

P rez le t ic e( 6% ) NbVn -4 ( 2% )

F IGURE 4 . 3 :BONE I DENT IF IABLENESS BY S IIE . ARCHAEOLOG ICAL A SSEMBLAGES ARE I N BOLD L ETTERS . ( * =ONLY E LEPHAS S P . RE MA INS ; * * =A SSE MBLAGES CO T F ,CTED BY PALAEONTOLOG ISTS FOR TAXONO M IC PURPOSES ) I nt h i s s t udy , t h eb e s tp re se rved a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage i s

T he r e la t ive r e p re sen ta t ion o fi d en t if iab le v e r su su n iden t if iab le

S a lzg i t te r ,

t h e

b one f r om a c o l lec t ion c an , h oweve r , b e a no the r r e l iab le

p a laeon to log ica l s amp le . B o th s i te s a r ey oung , t h ey h ave t h e g r ea te s tn umbe ro fs u rv iv ing e l emen t s , a nd a l so e xh ib i tt h eb e s t

i nd ica to r o f t h e d eg ree o f d amage t o t h a t c olec t ion . Un iden t if iab le e l emen t s w e re c oded f o r f r ac tu re t y pe , s u r f ace

p r e se rva t ion . Among t h er em a in ing c o l le c t ion s ,b one c ond i t ion

c ond i t ion ,a nd n a tu ra l o rc u l tu ra la l te ra t ion . B one s i n c luded i n

r a nged f r om d e s icca ted s u r f ace s a nd e dge r ound ing , t h rough t o

t he u n iden t if iab le c a tego ry w e re t ho se r e cogn izab le a s c l a ss

e x t reme d e s icca t ion a nd c o r t ica l e x f o l ia t ion . A n a t temp t w a s made t oc a tego r ize t h e m a te r ia l i n to B eh ren smey e r ' s ( 1978 )

mamma l ia , i . e . l a rge m amma l , o r a s an on spec if ic e l emen t

w i th

Wre t ton

t h e

b e s t

p re se rved

i n

f r agmen t s uch a s l o ngbone , b u t n o t b o th . A s w e l l , t h e u n iden t if iab le c a tego ry i n c luded t ho se e l emen t s w h ich w e re

w ea the r ing s t age s . T h i s w a s a bandoned o nce i tb ecame c l ea r t ha t d if e ren t ia t ing o ne s t age f r om a no the r p roved t o o

c omp le te ly u n iden t if iab le t oc l a ss o rs ke le ta lp a r t . F igu re 4 . 3 i lu s t ra te s r e la t ive r ep re sen ta t ion o f a s semb lage s u rv iva l f o r

s ub je c t ive , c r ea t ing t o o m any o ve r lapp ing c ond i t ion s t o b e m ean ing f u l .

e ach

3 1

s i te b y c on t ra s t ing i d en t if iab le w i th u n iden t if iab le

f r a c t ion s ,r a nked f r om t h e mo s tp ro l if i ci d en t if iab le e l emen t st o t h e l e a s t . T he a r chaeo log ica la s semb lage s a r er ep re sen ted b y

a nd t h er e la t ive s u rv iva lr a te i nd ica te a s semb lage d e s t ruc t ion .

as l igh t m a jo r i ty o fi d en t if iab le o ve r u n iden t if iab le e l emen t s . A r r iaga ,t h ea r chaeo log ica ls i t ew i th n ou n iden t if iab le e l emen t s ,

( MN I=26 ) s amp le ,e ach r ep re sen ted b yt h eh ighe s tn umbe ro f i nd iv idua l s o fa ny o ft h et a xa i nt h i s s t udy ,i nd ica te o n ly 1 7%

i sr ep re sen ted b y e a s i ly i d en t if iab le E l ephas s p . s pec im en s ,

a nd 3 1% s u rv iva lr e spec t ive ly . P inedo ' s C er vu ss p . (MN I=1)

a l though t h e se a r e n o t i d en t if iab le t oe l emen t . T he o ppo s i te h o ld s t r ue f o r P rez le t ice w i th 9 4% o f t h e e l emen t s

a nd S a lzg i t te r ' s B os/B i son ( MN I=3 ) h ave o n ly a n 8 . 5% a nd 1% s u rv iva lr a te .

u n iden t if iab le , t h e reby r e semb l ing t h e p a laeon to log ica l a s semb lage s f r om t h e O ld C row B a s in ( M 1V 1 -2 , M 1V 1 -7 , NbV 1 -2 , NbVn -4 ) . Wre t ton a nd L ach a r ,i nt h ep a laeon to log ica l s amp le , w e re b o th c olec ted f o r t a xonom ic i d en t if i ca t ion ,

T he a gen t ( s )o f mod if ica t ion f o r ap a r t icu la r a t t r i t iona lp roce ss may b e i n v i s ib le ( c arn ivo re s r emov ing l imb s f r om as i te a nd

S a lzg i t te r ' s r e indee r ( MN I=46 ) a nd Wre t ton 's B os/B i son

c on sum ing t h em e l sewhe re ) ,o r may b ei n d is t ingu i shab le f r om

e xp la in ing t h e i r9 4 -1 00% i d en t if iab lene ss r a te .

a no the rp ro ce s s (f r e sh -bone f r ac tu re s ,d i scus sed b e low ,r e su l t f r om g naw ing a s w e l l a s f r om b u t che ry .

R e la t ive e l emen t

Ana ly s i s o f u n iden t if iab le e l emen t s h a s b een u sed i n o t he r

s u rv iva l b e tween s i te s i nt h i s s t udy i n d ica te s t ha t n e i the r t h e

s t ud ie s . A a r i s -SO ren sen ( 1983 ) d eve loped a" m in imum d eg ree

a r chaeo log ica ln o rt h ep a laeon to log ica ls i te g roups a r eb e t te r p re se rved . E lemen t s u rv ivab i l i ty f o r i nd iv idua l t a xa a l so

o ft a phonom ic l o ss "c oun tt oq uan t ify t h ee x ten s ive d e s t ruc t ion o f aDan i sh Me so l i th ic f a una la s semb lage . B yc a lcu la t ing t h e a bso lu te m in imum n umbe r o f f r agmen t s e xpec ted p e r

r e i te ra te st h ep oo rr e la t ive s u rv iva lo fi n d iv idua le l emen t s . T he r e la t ive r e p re sen ta t ion o fu n iden t if iab le o ve ri d en t if iab le b one a l so s ugge s t s t h a t a r chaeo log ica l s i te s s uch a s

i n d iv idua la n ima li n at a xon ( EMNFAND . ) a nd mu l t ip ly ing t h i s b yt he MN I o ne a r r ive s a tt h ee xpec ted m in imum n umbe r o f

Swanscorabe a nd P rez le t ice h ave u nde rgone a t t r i t ion o n p a r

f r agmen t sp e rs pec ie s . C ompa r ing t h i sf i gu re t ot h eN ISP g i ve s

w i th t h e mo s tf r agmen ted p a laeon to log ica lc o l lec t ion s .

am in imum d eg ree o ft a phonom ic l o s s . I n t h i s s cheme t h e EMNF / IND .c a lcu la t ion i su n f o r tuna te ly u nc lea r : " Th i sq uan t i ty

4 . 2 .2

h a s b een c a lcu la ted b y mu l t ip ly ing t h e a c tua l n umbe r o f e l emen t si nt h es ke le ton s . . .by f a c to r sf r om 1t o1 0a cco rd ing t o

App l ica t ion o fU t il i ty a nd Bu lk D ens i ty I nd ice s

t h ea b so lu te m in imum d eg ree o ff r agmen ta t ion t ob ee xpe c ted . "

T he Mod if i ed G ene ra l U t i l i ty I ndex ( MGU I ; B info rd 1 978 ,

Unc lea rf r om A a r i s -SO ren sen 's d e sc r ip t ion i sh ow t od e te rm ine t h ea pp rop r ia te f a c to r .

1 981 ; i n t roduced i n3 . 2 .1 .1 ) i s au se f u l e xp lana tory t o o l f o r i n te rp re t ing s k e le ta l r ep re sen ta t ion o f a s semb lage s w he re

As im i la rc a lcu la t ion o fs u rv iva l / lo ss u se sM in imum Numbe r o f E lemen t s ( MNE ) d iv ided b y t h e e s t ima ted n umbe r o f

i sk nown t ob ec u l tu ra l ly a ccumu la ted . I nt h ea bsence o ft h e se c ond i t ion s , MGU Ip lo tp a t te rn sc anno t ,i na nd o ft h em se lve s ,

e l emen t sb ased o n MN I( Sch ick e ta l . 1 989 ) . A ga in ,d i ff icu l ty a r o se i nd e te rm in ing h ow t h e MNE c oun t( de sc r ibed i ns e c t ion 3 . 2 .1 .1) w a sd e te rm ined .

s e rve a s am e an so fi d en t i f y ing c u l tu ra lo r ig in o fa na s semb lage ,

T ab le 4 . 7 p re sen t s t h e r e su l t s o f ac ompa rab le a pp roach t o

u nexpec ted t h a t t h e s ca t te rp lo t s o f s ke le ta l r ep re sen ta t ion d i sp lay p oo rp re se rva t ion a nd l ow u t il i ty e l emen t s ,b o th i nt h e

a t r i t iona lf o rc e sc an b es hown t ob es l igh t ,o ri ft h ea s semb lage

n o rc an t h ey b eu s ed t od ef ine af o od p rocu remen to rp roce s s ing f unc t ion . I nc on s ide r ing w ha tw eh ave a l ready l e a rned a bou t a s semb lage p re se rva t ion o f t h e s i te s u nde r s t udy , i ti sn o t

e s tab l i sh ing t h ed eg ree o ft a phonom ic l o s si n ac o l lec t ion . I ti s b a sed o n a n o p t ima l r ep re sen ta t ion ( r a the r t h an m in ima l ) c a lcu la ted a s a mu l t ipl i ca t ion o f MN I b y t h e n umbe r o f e xpec t ed p o s tc ran ia lb one sp e rt a xon . T he N ISP h e re a ppea r s t ob ee qu iva len tt oG ray son 's MNE ( 1988 :95 ,T ab le s4 5 ,4 6 ) .

p a laeon to log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica l s amp le . T h i s i s , t o a c e r ta in e x ten t , c o r robo ra ted b y t h e c o r re la t ion c oef f i c ien t s w h ich a r e a l so a dve r se ly a f f ec ted b y t h e s hee r a bsence o f s ke le ta l e l emen t s i na lb u tt h eb e s tr e p re sen ted t a xa . T he se d e ta i l sa r ed i scu s sed i nt h ef olow ing s ub sec t ion s .

T h ree o f t h e b e s t r ep re sen ted t an f r om t h e a r chaeo log ica l s amp le a nd o ne f r om t h ep a laeon to log ica la r eu sed i nt h i st e s t . I nb o th s i te g roups t h ep ropo r t ion o fu n iden t if iab le e l emen t s

TABLE 4 . 7 :

ELEMENT REPRESENTAT ION AND SURV IVAB IL ITY ( DOES NOT I NCLUDE COUNTS OF CRAN IAL E LEMENTS )

C oun t s

P i n ed° C e rvu ss p . 1

MN I

S a lz g i t t e r B o s / B i son 3

S a l zg i t te r R ang er

Wr e t ton B o s /B i son

4 6

2 6

O p t imum N umb e ro fF ragm en t sp e rI n d iv idua l

1 42

1 5 1

1 42

1 5 1

E s t im a t ed N umb e ro fE l em en t sB a s ed o n MN I

1 42

4 53

6 532

3 926

1 2

4 8

139

1 2 16

8 . 5

1 .0

1 7 .0

3 1 .0

N ISP p e rI n d iv idua l %S urv iva l

3 2

4 . 2 .2 .1

A rchaeo log ica lS amp le -% MAU / MGU 1

L yman ( i b id . ) a nd G ray son ( 1988 ) a rgue t h a tt h ei n ve r se b u lk

P lo t s

u t i l i ty c u rve i sn o t n ece ssar i ly amode l o fh uman t r an spo r t

T ab le s 4 . 8 -4 . 12 p re sen t t h e %MAU f o r t wen ty o ft h e b e s t

s i nce i ti se qua l ly l i ke ly t oo ccu rw hen l ow d en s i ty ( h igh u t il i ty ) b one s a r e d e s t royed b yn on -human f o rce s s uch a sc a rn ivo re s

r ep re sen ted , m ed ium -s ized u ngu la te t a xa f r om t h i r teen s i te s .

a nd p hy s ica l p re ssu re s .

F igu re s 4 . 4 -4 . 11 a r e s c a t te rp lo t s o f t h e %MAU f o r t h e

d e s t ruc t ion , n o to fh uman d ec i s ion mak ing . T h i s c u rve m ay a l so r e su l tf r om d if e ren t ia lt r an spo r to fb ody p a r t s , a ga in n o t n e ce s sa r i ly h uman a c t iv i ty . T he se r e se rva t ion sn a tu ra l ly a pp ly t ot h es i te si nt h i ss amp le .

a r chaeo log ica l s i te s a ga in s tB in f o rd ' s ( 1988 ) MGU Ic a r ibou . F igu re s 4 . 12 -4 . 23 s c a t te rp lo t t h e p a laeon to log ica l t a xa . Who le b one s w e re i n c luded a sp rox ima l a nd d i s ta l u n i t s i n

I n t h i s r e spe c t , i ti s ac u rve o f

o rde rt or e p re sen tt h em i nt h ep lo t s . 4 . 2 .2 .2 T h ree t r end s a r e a ppa ren t f r om F igu re s 4 . 4 -4 .23 . S ke le ta l p a r t so fl ow d en s i ty ( h igh u t i l i ty ) a r er a re ,w he rea sp a r t so fh i gh

Mea sures o f Corre la t ion f or % MAU w i th M GUI a nd Bu lk Dens i ty

d en s i ty ( l ow u t i l i ty )p redom ina te b u ta r en ever the l e ss p oor ly

I na s semb lage sw i th s u rv iva l o fh igh d en s i ty b one s( l ow MGU I

r e pr e sen t ed . T he s ca t te rp lo t si nd ica te t h a th i gh p ropo r t ion s o f

v a lue ) t h e re s hou ld b e as i gn if ican t b u t p o s i t ive r ank -o rde r c o r re la t ion b e tween % MAU a nd b one d en s i ty , a nd a r e la t ion sh ip b e tween % MAU a nd MGU It h a ti sn o ts i gn if ican t

s ke le ta l e l emen t s h ave n o t s u rv ived a tr i t iona l f o rce s ( a s r e p re sen ted b yt h ep o in t sa l ong t h ex ax i s ) . T he p lo tf o rE quus s p . f r om P rez le t ice ( F igu re 4 . 7 ) s how sm any e l emen t s a l ong t h e x -ax i s ( 0 %MAU ) a nd g ene ra l ly l ow e l emen t s u rv iva l o f

( G ray son 1 988 ) . I nt h es t ud ied s amp le s a s semb lage d e s t ruc t ion h a s n ega t ive ly a f f ec ted t h e b one s u rv iva l :bone d en s i ty c o r re la t ion a sw e l la sa ny c o r re la t ion w i th c a rca ss u t i l i ty .

t a r sa l s , p ha lange s , a nd l o ngbone f r agmen t s o ft h e p rox ima l f emu ra nd d i s ta lr ad iu s . T h i sp a t te rn i sr epea ted i nt h eC er vus e l aphu sp l o tf o rP rez le t ice ( F igu re 4 . 6 ) a nd t h eC er vu s s p .p lo t

T ab le s 4 . 13 -4 . 14 t a bu la te t h ec o r re la t ion m ea su remen t s f o r

f o r Mad r id A rene ro s ( F igu re 4 . 5 ) . Swan scombe , w i th s omewha tm o re e l emen t s ,p l o t s a s av ague i n ve r se c u rve ,b u ti s b es t d esc r ibed a s at h i rd t r end s how ing p oo rs u rv iva l o fb o th

%MAU a ga in s t MGU Ia nd a g a in s tb one d en s i ty c a lcu la ted b o th a sK enda l l ' st a ua nd S pea rman ' sr ho ,r e spec t ive ly ( "MGU I "and " Bu lk Den s i ty A "c o lumn s ) .

l ow a nd m ed ium u t i l i ty ( h igh a nd m ed ium d en s i ty ) e l emen t s . S a lzg i t te r ,w i th i t sr e la t ive ly l a rge r ep re sen ta t ion p e rt a xon i s e qua l ly a f ec ted b y p oo r s u rv iva l o f e l emen t s . T hu s t h e

K enda l l 's t a u( T ) a nd S pea rman 's r ho ( p ) a r en onpa rame t r ic o r r a nk c o r re la t ion t e s t s c ommon ly u sed t o r e la te p a i r s o f o bse rva t ion s i n a r chaeo log ica l c on tex t s ( c f . T homa s 1 976 ) .

c l u s te r ing i nt h el owe rl e f to ft h eg r aph f o rb o th t h eE quus s p . , B os/B i son , a nd R ang if er t a randu sp lo t s( F igu re s4 . 8 -4 . 10 ) .

E ach i sb a sed o n a n o rde r ing o ft h es amp le mea su remen t sb y r e la t ive magn i tude , d e r iv ing mea su re o f c o r re la t ion w h ich c ompa re s t h e i r r ank s r a the r t h an t h e n ume r ica l v a lue s . T he

Ac u rve f i tv i sua l ly o n to a ny o ft h ep lo t sr e su l t si n ad ub iou sb u t l ow , L -shaped o r ien ta t ion i d en t ica l t o B in fo rd ' s ( 1978 :18 ) i n ve r se b u lk u t i l i ty c u rve . T he i n ve r se b u lk u t i l i ty c u rve i s

c ompu ta t iona l me thod s d if e r i n t ha t S pea rman 's r ho u se s r ank ing s t o c ompu te a c o r re la t ion c oef f i c ien t w he reby t h e

d ef ined b yt h el ow f r equency o fh i gh u t i l i ty p a r t s ( l ow d en s i ty ) , a nd t h eh i gh f r equency o fl ow u t i l i ty p a r t s( h igh d en s i ty ,s uch a s c a rpa l s ) .

d if e rence i nt h er ank ing s o fe ach p a i ri sc ompa red . K enda l l 's t a uo n ly t a ke si n to a ccoun t wh ich i st h eg r ea te ro ft h er ank si n

G ray son ( 1988 )d e sc r ibe st h er eve r se u t i l i ty c u rve ( o ri n ve r se b u lk u t i l i ty c u rve ) a s b u i l t o n t h e r e la t ive a bundance o f e l emen t st h a tf a l lh i gh i nt h e MGU Is c a le ;c i t ing t h ee xamp le

e ach p a i r . K enda l l 's t a u i s t e chn ica l ly n o t ac o r re la t ion c oef f i c ien t ,b u t am ea su re o fc o r re la t ion . E ach a pp roach make s p rov is ion f o r t i ed o bse rva t ion s . T he a l go r i thm s u sed t o c ompu te t h e v a lue s o ft a u a nd r ho i nT ab le s 4 . 13 -4 . 14 a r e

t h a tr i b s( w i th ah igh MGU Iv a lue ) mu s tb ep oo r ly r e p re sen ted

d e sc r ibed i n P re ss e t a l . ( 1989 ) .

i f ar eve r se u t i l i ty c u rve i st oe me rge . C e rv ica l v e r teb rae , m e tapod ia l s , a nd o t he re l emen t s w i th a n MGU Iv a lue o fl e s s

m e an ing f u lc o r re la t ions when amea su re i sc l o se t o1 . 0 . T hu s , ar ho m ea su remen to f0 .22 r e f lec t s av i r tua ll a ck o fc o r re la t ion

t h an 3 0 ,c an b eh i gh o rl ow i na bundance b ecau se t h ey f a l lo n t h ev e r t ica lp o r t ion o fB in fo rd ' sh and -f i tc u rve s .

b e tween t h e t h ing s b e ing mea su red , s uch a s b one d en s i ty a ga in s t s ke le ta le l emen tr ep re sen ta t ion , w he rea s0 . 89 r e f lec t s as t ronge r r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e t wo p a rame te rs . T he

T he p lo t f o r t h e l a rge S a lzg i t te r R ang if er t a randus s amp le ( F igu re 4 . 10 ) s how s t h a t s ome e l emen t s o fm ed ium t oh i gh

p robab il i ty ( p ) o f e ach c o r re la t ion ' s a ccu racy i s f u r the r e xp re ssed b y i t s s i gn if icance a tt h e . 0 5 l e ve l , o r a s a9 5%

MGU I v a lue a r ew e l l r e p re sen ted , s uch a st h o rac ic v e r teb ra l

c hance t h a tt h e re i s ap o s i t ive c o r re la t ion . T hu s ,p robab il i ty e xp re s sed a s0 . 66 c an a l so b er ead a s a3 4% c hance t h a tt h e re

f r agmen t s . E lemen t s w i th l e s s t h an 3 0 MGU I v a lue a r en o t

T au a nd r ho r e f lec t

i s ap o s i t ive c o r re la t ion e xp re ssed b y t h e t a u o r r ho

w e l lr ep re sen ted . A s ar e su l t ,n oc onv inc ing u t i l i ty c u rve c an b e f i tt ot h e se p o in t s . T he s ame i st r ue f o rt h eE quus s p . a nd

m ea su remen t ,w he rea s ap robab i l i ty e qua lt o0 .02 r ep re sen t s a 9 8% , o r av e ry s i gn if ican tc hance t h a tt a uo rr ho r e p re sen ta n a c cu ra te mea su remen t .

B os/B i son p lo t s f o r S a lzg i t te r wh ich s how e ven p oo re r p re se rva t ion o fe l emen t st h an R .t a randu s . P lo t sf o rP rez le t ice o rA r r iaga v e rge o nt h eu n in te rp re tab le b ecau se o fu b iqu i tou s p oo re l emen tp re se rva t ion .

3

C o r re la t ion sw e re a l so c a lcu la ted b e tween %MAU a nd L yman 's ( 1985 ) b u lk d en s i ty m ea su re s o n c e rv id e l emen t s . As t rong

4 . 25 .

r e la t ion sh ip b e tween t h e se t wo v a r iab le sw a se xpec ted b ecau se o ft he many d en se e l emen t s i ne ach t a xon . Howeve r , n e i the r

K reu tze re xp la in s g rea te rd en s i ty t ob ody s i ze a nd p a t te rn s o f l o como t ion o f b i son w he reby t h e h ighe s t v o lume d en s i t ie s c l u s te ri nt h ec e rv ica lv e r teb rae ,a r t icu la rp o r t ion s o fm and ib le s ,

t a u n o rr ho s how s i gn if ican tc o r re la t ion b e tween b one d en s i ty a nd t h er e p re sen ted e l emen t s ( Tab le s4 . 13 ,4 . 14 , ' Bu lk D en s i ty A ' c o lumn ) . Two r ep re sen ta t ive s ca t te rp lo t s o fb u lk d en s i ty a ga in s t %MAU o fc e rv id s s ugge s ta ne xp lana t ion f o rt h el a ck

a nd i nt h e t a r sa l s . H igh v o lume d en s i t ie s a l so o ccu r i nt h e m e taca rpa l s , u l nae , a nd t i b ia l s ha f t s . I nc e rv id s , o nt h eo t he r h and , h igh v o lume d en s i t ie s c l u s te r i nt h e t a r sa l s a nd l imb

o fc o r re la t ion ( F igu re 4 . 24 ) . B o th p lo t si nF igu re 4 . 24 i nd ica te t h a t mo s te l emen t s o fl ow t oh igh d en s i ty a r en o tr ep re sen ted

s ha f t s s uch a sh ume ru s , r ad iu s , t i b ia a nd m e tapod ia l s ( i b id . ) . T ab le 4 . 15 p re sen t s K reu tze r ' s d en s i ty m ea su rem en t s a nd

( v a lue sa l ong t h ex -ax i s ) i mp ly ing t h a ta s semb lage d e s t ruc t ion

i nd ica te s t h e e qu iva len t s can s i te s t o L yman ' s d en s i ty

i sc on t ro l l ing t h es i gn if i cance r e la t ion sh ip .

m ea su remen t s f o rd ee r . B i son p r i scus %MAU f o rS a lzg i t te r a nd Wre t ton , t h e t wo b e s tr ep re sen t ed b ov id s amp le s i nt h e

K enda l l ' s t a u a nd S pea rman ' s r ho w e re a l so r un w i thou t t h e a bsen te l emen t s ( t ho se e l emen t s w he re %MAU =0i nT ab le s

s t udy s amp le ,w e re c a lcu la ted f o rc o r re la t ion a ga in s tK reu tze r 's

4 . 8 -4 . 12 )t od e te rm ine i fas t ronge rb one d en s i ty /bone s u rv iva l r e la t ion sh ip w ou ld eme rge ( Tab le s4 . 13 , 4 . 14 , c o lumn " Bu lk

b one d en s i ty i n dex t od e t e rm ine w he the r ar e la t ion sh ip b e tween b one d en s i ty a nd s u rv iva lw ou ld eme rge u s ing at a xonom icaly e qu iva len ti n dex . E lemen t s w i th %MAU = 0w e re e xc luded

Dens i ty B . " ) . T he o n ly s i gn if ican t c hange i sf o r C er vus s p . f r om Mad r id A rene ro sf r om T = 0 . 19 t o T= 0 . 50 . O the rw i se n o

f r om t h ec a lcu la t ion s . No a pp rec iab le d i f f e ren ce s a r ea ppa ren t b e tween t h e c o r re la t ion m ea su remen t s o f K reu tze r 's a nd

s t a t is t ica l ly m ean ing f u l c hange s o ccu r a nd b o th c o r re la t ion m ea su re sc on t inue t oi nd ica te l ow c o r re la t ion .

L yman 's i n d ice s ( c ompa re T ab le s 4 . 13 a nd 4 . 14 f o r Wre t ton

As econd b one d en s i ty i ndex ( K reu tze r 1 992 ) d eve loped f o r

w i th t h et a ua nd r ho mea su re sq u i te l ow a nd s ugge s t ing aw eak r e la t ion sh ip b e tween b one d en s i ty a nd s u rv iva l . T h i si sd ue t o

a nd S a lzg i t te r B i son t o T ab le 4 . 15 ) . F o r b o th i n d ice s t h e Wre t ton s amp le s how s a9 5% c hance o fa na ccu ra te c o r re la t ion ,

B i son f o l low ing L yman 's v o lume d en s i ty mea su remen t s i s p e rhap s m o re a pp l icab le t o t h e u ngu la te d a ta o f t h e b e t te r r e p re sen ted s p ec ie si nt h es i te s amp le . T he B i son b one d en s i ty

t h e o ve ra l l e xce l len t p re se rva t ion a nd r e p re sen ta t ion o f t h e Wre t ton e l emen t s . T he S a lzg i t te rt a u a nd r ho mea su remen t s , h oweve r ,i n d ica te p oo re rc o r re la t ion s t h an f o r Wre t ton a tl e ss

i n dex t e nd s t owa rd sh ighe r mea su remen t s o fb one d en s i ty f o r t h e e qu iva len t s ke le ta l e l emen t s i nL yman 's i ndex f o r d ee r .

t h an 9 0% c e r ta in ty t h a t t h e c o r re la t ion m ea su remen t s a r e

H ighe r v o lume d en s i ty f o re qu iva len ts ke le ta le l emen t s i nt h e

a ccu ra te . T h i s i su ndoub ted ly ar ef l ec t ion o fg ene ra le l emen t d e s t ruc t ion .

b ov id i n dex i sr e f lec ted i nt h em anypo in t st ot h eu ppe rl ef t( t ha t i s , a bove t h el i ne o fe qu iva lence ) o ft h e s ca t te rp lo ti nF igu re

3 4

TABLE 4 . 8 :

% MAU p er S ITE

S ke l e ta lP a r t

MGU I

A r r iaga C ervus s p .

B a lde r ton B o s /B i son

L a cha r B os /B i son

L a cha r C e rvus s p .

1 00

5 0

N bVn -4 E quus s p .

Mand ib le

4 4

0

0

A t la s

1 0

0

0

A x i s

1 0

0

C e rv ica l

3 6

0

0

0

T ho rac i c

4 6

0

0

0

0

9

L umba r

3 2

0

0

0

0

P e lv i s

4 8

0

0

0

0

0

S ac rum

4 0

0

0

0

0

0

R ib

5 0

0

0

0

0

0

S t e rnum

6 4

0

0

0

0

0

S capu la

4 3

0

0

P .h ume rus

4 3

0

0

0

0

D . h umerus

3 7

0

0

P .r a d ius

2 7

D . r a d ius

2 2

P .u l na

3 2

D . u l na

2 2

P .m e ta ca rpa l

1 2

D .m e taca rpa l

1 0

P .f emu r D . f emu r

1 00

1 4

5 0

1 00

5 0

1 00

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2 5

1 00

5 0

1 00

5 0

0

3 3 0 3 3 0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

1 00

0

0

0

0

0

1 00

0

0

0

0

P .t i b ia

6 5

0

0

0

0

D . t i b ia

4 7

0

0

T a r sa l

3 2

0

0

0

A s t raga lus

3 2

0

0

0

C a l caneum

3 2

0

P .m e ta ta r sa l

3 0

D . m e ta ta r sa l

2 4

0

F i r s tp ha lanx

1 4

0

S econd p ha lanx

1 4

0

T h i rd p ha lanx

1 4

0

5 0 0 5 0

5 0

5 0

0

1 00

0

5 0

0

0 1 2 0

3 5

1 00

1 00

1 00 0 1 00 0 1 00 0

3 3

0

3 3 0 3 3 0 0 1 00 0 0

0

1 3

0

0

1 3

0

0

1 3

0

TABLE 4 . 9 :

% MAU PER S ITE

S ke le ta lP a r t

MGU I

Mad r id C ervu s s p .

M 1V 1 -2 B o s /B i son

Mand ib l e

4 4

1 00

1 00

A t la s

1 0

0

0

Ax i s

1 0

0

0

C erv ica l

3 6

T ho rac i c

4 6

0

0

7

L umba r

3 2

0

0

0

0

P e lv i s

4 8

0

0

0

0

S a c rum

4 0

0

0

0

0

R ib

5 0

0

8

0

8

S t e rnum

6 4

0

0

0

0

S capu la

4 3

0

P .h ume rus

4 3

0

0

D . h ume rus

3 7

0

0

P .r ad ius

2 7

0

0

D . r ad ius

2 2

P .u l na

3 2

0

D . u l na

2 2

0

P .m e ta ca rpa l

1 2

5 0

0

5 0

0

D .m e ta ca rpa l

1 0

5 0

0

5 0

0

2 0

0

1 00

1 00

0 1 00 0

M IV 1 -7 B o s /B i son 0 1 00 0 2 0

5 0 0 5 0 0 5 0

M 1V 1 -7 E , q . /Bov . 0 0 1 00 0 1 5

0 0 0 0 0

0

0

0

0

P .f emu r

1 00

0

0

0

D . f emu r

1 00

0

0

0

5 0

P .t i b ia

6 5

0

0

5 0

D . t i b ia

4 7

0

0

5 0

T a r sa l

3 2

0

A s t raga lus

3 2

0

C a l caneum

3 2

0

P . me ta ta r sa l

3 0

0

0

5 0

D . m e ta ta r sa l

2 4

0

0

2 5

F i r s tp ha lanx

1 4

0

S econd p ha lanx

1 4

T h i rd p ha lanx

1 4

1 00

1 3 0

3 6

0 2 6 0 1 00

2 6

1 00

0

4 0

0

0

0

0

2 5

0 5 0 0

2 6

0

0

2 6

0

0

TABLE 4 . 10 :

% MAU PER S ITE

S ke le ta lP a r t

MGU I

M IV 1 -7 E quus s p .

N bV 1 -2 B o s /B i son

N bV 1 -2 E quus s p .

Mand ib le

4 4

0

0

A t l a s

1 0

0

0

5 0

0

A x i s

1 0

5 0

0

5 0

0

C e rv i ca l

3 6

1 00

T ho rac i c

4 6

0

L umba r

3 2

0

P e lv i s

4 8

0

0

S a cr um

4 0

0

0

0

0

R ib

5 0

0

0

4

0

S t e rnum

6 4

0

0

0

0

S capu la

4 3

0

0

P .h ume rus

4 3

0

0

D . h ume rus

3 7

0

5 0

P .r a d ius

2 7

0

5 0

D . r a d ius

2 2

P .u l na

3 2

D . u l na

4 0 8 3 0

5 0

0

P rez le t ice C e rvus e l .

0

0

0

0

1 00

7

1 00

2 5

2 5 0 2 5 0

0

0 0 0 1 00

0

0

0

0

0

0

0

2 2

0

0

0

0

P .m e ta ca rpa l

1 2

0

1 00

7 5

0

D . m e taca rpa l

1 0

0

1 00

2 5

0

P .f emur

1 00

0

D . f emu r

1 00

0

2 5 0

0

1 00

5 0

0

1 00

5 0

0

P .t i b ia

6 5

D . t i b ia

4 7

1 00

1 00

1 00

T a r s a l

3 2

7 5

2 5

3 8

A s tr aga lus

3 2

1 00

C a l caneum

3 2

P .m e ta ta r sa l

3 0

2 5

D .m e ta ta r sa l

2 4

F i r s tp ha lanx

0

0 0 5 0

2 5

0

2 5

0

0

1 00

0

5 0

0

2 5

0

1 4

7 5

0

1 8

0

S e cond p ha lanx

1 4

3 7

1 3

4 3

T h i rd p ha lanx

1 4

2 0

2 5

4 3

0

3 7

1 00

8 0 0

TABLE 4 . 11 :

% MAU PER S ITE

S ke le ta lP a r t

MGU I

P rez l e t ice E quu s s p .

S a lzg i t te r B o s /B i son

0

1 00

S a lzg i t te r E quus s p .

Mand ib le

4 4

A t la s

1 0

A x i s

1 0

0

C erv i ca l

3 6

0

4

3 5

T ho ra c i c

4 6

0

0

1 0

L umba r

3 2

0

0

2 3

P e lv i s

4 8

0

9

0

S a c rum

4 0

0

0

0

R ib

5 0

0

S t er num

6 4

0

0

S capu la

4 3

0

0

P .h umer us

4 3

0

9

D . h umerus

3 7

0

P .r ad iu s

2 7

0

D . r ad ius

2 2

P .u l na

3 2

0

9

0

D . u l na

2 2

0

9

0

P . me ta ca rpa l

1 2

0

D . me ta ca rpa l

1 0

0

1 00

5 0

2 6

1 8

2 5

1 7

2 7

2 5 0 1 00 0

7 6 4 0 2 4 0 1 0 3 7 3

2 7

2 5

9

4 5

1 7

9

1 3

1 5

3 6 9

1 3

1 00

4 5

1 5

1 3

0

S a lzg i t te r R ang i fe r

2 7

1 3 8

6 3

2 1

2 5

3 1

5 0

1

P .f emu r

1 00

D . f emu r

1 00

0

1 8

P .t i b ia

6 5

0

2 7

5 0

4 8

D . t i b ia

4 7

0

2 7

2 7

3 7

T a r sa l

3 2

0

A s t raga lus

3 2

1 3

0

1 3

3 0

C a lcaneum

3 2

1 3

0

2 7

3 3

P .m e ta ta r sa l

3 0

0

9

2 7

4 0

D . m e ta ta r sa l

2 4

0

9

1 3

6 1

F i r s tp ha lanx

1 4

6

0

0

S e cond p ha lanx

1 4

3

5

0

4

T h i rd p ha lanx

1 4

3

2

6

4

3 8

2

0

6

1

2

1 6

TABLE 4 . 12 :

% MAU PER S ITE S ke le ta lP a r t

MGU I

S wan scombe B o s /B i son

Wre t ton B i son p r .

Wre t ton R . t a randus

Mand ib le

4 4

0

1 00

A t l a s

1 0

0

6 6

5 5

A x i s

1 0

0

6 6

5 5

C erv ica l

3 6

1 4

4 1

7

T ho ra c ic

4 6

1

1 5

4

L umba r

3 2

6

2 2

3

P e lv i s

4 8

0

5 9

9

S acrum

4 0

0

5 0

0

R ib

5 0

1

2 2

4

S t e rnum

6 4

0

S capu la

4 3

P .h umerus

4 3

D . h ume rus

3 7

2 1

8 9

P .r ad ius

2 7

6 4

1 00

D .r ad ius

2 2

P .u lna

3 2

1 4

D . u l na

2 2

1 4

P . me taca rpa l

1 2

1 4

4 4

3 6

D . me taca rpa l

1 0

1 4

4 6

2 7

2 9 0

7

5 9 7 5

9

1 8 1 00 9 9 1 0

9 7

4 5

3 3

2 7

3

9

P .f emur

1 00

7

2 3

D . f emur

1 00

0

2 6

P .t i b ia

6 5

7

2 0

D . t i b ia

4 7

5

6 4

T a r sa l

3 2

1 00

1 0

0

A s t raga lus

3 2

1 00

6 4

9

C a lcaneum

3 2

P . me ta ta r sa l

3 0

2 9

5 4

D . me ta ta r sa l

2 4

2 9

3 3

1 8

F i r s tp ha lanx

1 4

1 3

3 8

1 4

S e cond p ha lanx

1 4

0

1

0

T h i rd p ha l anx

1 4

2

6

0

0

3 9

6 9

9 1 8 0 5 5

1 8 9

TABLE 4 . 13 :

KENDALL 'S TAU CORRELAT ION MEASURES CORRESPOND ING TO TABLES 4 . 8 -4 . 12 ( p = p robab i l i ty )

A r chaeo log ica lS i t e s

MGU I

Bu lk D en s i ty A .

B u lk D ens i ty B .

A r r iaga C er v us s p .

0 .14 p0 . 279

0 . 22 p0 . 086

0 . 00 p1 . 000

M ad r id A ren e ro s C er v u ss p .

0 .24 p0 . 053

0 . 19 p0 . 125

0 . 50 p0 . 158

P rez le t ice C e rv us e l aphus

0 . 16 p0 . 198

0 .15 00 . 246

0 .07 p0 . 836

P rez le t ice E q uus s p ,

0 .24 p0 . 056

0 . 04 p0 . 737

0 . 2 1 p0 . 467

S a lzg i t t e r B o s /B i son

0 . 02 p0 . 880

0 . 14 p0 . 264

0 . 18 p0 . 2 19

S a lzg i t t e r E quus s p .

0 .05 p0 . 696

0 . 15 p0 . 2 32

0 . 04 p0 . 801

S a lzg i t t e r R ang i f e rt a r and us

0 .07 p0 . 600

0 . 34 p0 . 007

0 . 27 p0 . 043

S wan s comb e B os /B i son

0 .13 p0 . 297

0 . 34 p0 . 007

0 . 22 p0 . 172

B a lde r ton B os /B i son

0 .23 p0 . 07 1

0 . 10 p0 . 439

0 . 12 p0 . 668

Ja nhat

B o s/ B i son

0 . 05 p0 . 698

0 . 2 1 p0 . 104

0 . 63 p0 . 12 1

L a ch a r C er v u ss p .

0 .10 p0 . 430

0 . 36 p0 . 005

0 . 51 p0 . 040

M 1V 1 -2 B os /B i son

0 . 06 p0 . 663

0 . 12 p0 . 339

0 . 14 p0 . 569

M 1V 1 -7 B o s /B i son

0 .34 p0 . 008

0 . 12 p0 . 35 1

0 . 07 p0 . 748

M 1V 1 -7 E qu id /Bov id

0 . 2 1 p0 . 10 1

0 .06 p0 . 625

0 .16 p0 . 577

M 1V 1 -7 E quus s p .

0 .16 p0 . 199

0 . 06 p0 . 662

0 . 15 p0 . 507

N bV 1 -2 B o s /B i son

0 .02 p0 . 850

0 . 19 p0 . 124

0 . 70 p0 . 001

N bV 1 -2 E quus s p .

0 .40 p0 . 002

0 . 15 p0 . 229

0 .04 p0 . 803

N bVn 4 E q uus s p .

0 . 2 1 p0 . 105

0 . 17 p0 . 185

0 . 72 p0 . 032

W re t ton B i son p r iscu s

0 .08 p0 . 506

0 . 25 p0 . 051

0 . 25 p0 . 051

0 .12 p0 . 332

0 . 14 p0 . 263

0 . 05 p0 . 729

P a la eon to log ica lS i te s

W re t ton R ang if e rt a r and u s

4 0

TABLE 4 . 14 :

S PEAR MAN 'S RHO CORRELAT ION COEFF ICIENT CORRESPONDING TO TABLES 4 . 8 -4 . 12 ( p= p robab i l i ty )

A rchaeo log ica lS i te s

MGU I

B u lk D ens i ty A .

B u lk D ens ity B .

A r r iaga C er vus s p .

0 .16 p0 . 383

0 . 26 p0 . 158

0 . 00 p1 . 000

Mad r id A rene ro s C er vus s p .

0 .30 p0 . 099

0 . 25 p0 . 168

0 . 68 p0 . 139

P rez le t ic e C er vus e l aphus

0 . 20 p0 . 276

0 .18 p0 . 338

0 .09 p0 . 849

P rez . le t ic e E quus s p .

0 .30 p0 . 098

0 . 04 p0 . 828

0 . 15 p0 . 715

S a lzg i t te r B os /B ison

0 . 05 p0 . 791

0 . 17 p0 . 364

0 . 23 p0 .2 82

S a lzg i t te r E quus s p .

0 .07 p0 . 692

0 . 19 p0 . 295

0 . 03 p0 . 888

S a lzg i t te r R ang zf er t a ranc lus

0 .07 p0 . 694

0 . 48 p0 . 007

0 . 39 p0 . 037

S wan sc ombe B os /B ison

0 .2 1 p0 . 253

0 . 43 p0 . 015

0 . 30 p0 . 187

B a lde r ton B os /B ison

0 .28 p0 . 12 0

0 . 12 p0 . 524

0 . 14 p0 . 740

L a cha r B o s /B ison

0 . 06 p0 . 763

0 . 25 p0 . 176

0 . 71 p0 . 181

JA rha r C er vus s p .

0 .14 p0 . 468

0 . 46 p0 . 010

0 . 67 p0 . 033

M IV 1 -2 B os /B ison

0 . 06 p0 . 743

0 . 16 p0 . 380

0 . 16 p0 . 655

M IV I -7 B ose ison

0 .41 p0 . 022

0 . 16 p0 . 400

0 . 07 p0 . 826

M IV 1 -7 E q u id /Bov id

0 . 24 p0 . 189

0 .07 p0 . 688

0 .2 0 p0 . 629

M 1V 1 -7 E q uus s p .

0 .24 p0 . 198

0 . 08 p0 . 688

0 . 17 p0 . 587

N bV 1 -2 B os /B ison

0 .04 p0 . 835

0 . 23 p0 . 210

0 . 83 p0 . 0002

N bV 1 -2 E quus s p .

0 .50 p0 . 004

0 . 2 1 p0 . 264

0 .03 p0 . 919

N bVn -4 E q uus s p .

0 . 26 p0 . 165

0 . 20 p0 . 2 83

0 . 80 p0 . 030

W re t ton B i son p r iscus

0 .14 p0 . 459

0 . 35 p0 . 057

0 . 35 p0 . 057

W re t ton R ang if er t a rand us

0 .17 p0 . 363

0 . 20 p0 . 292

0 .06 p0 . 768

P a laeon to log ica lS i te s

4 1

1 00

%MAU A r r iaga -C er vus s p .

8 0

6 0 pmc

.

p r d

p

. r e i t

.

4 0

2 0

0

0 0

0

00

0 C D 0 C O OD 0

, 2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 00

% MGU I( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 4

a u i

%MAU Madr id A rene ros -C ervus s p .

1 00

oc a l

8 0

-

6 0

d i ng 0 p mc

4 0

2 0

c e r 0

p h2 0

0

0 0

0

00 0 00

2 0

c o

0 0 0 M O

4 0

6 0

% MGU I( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 5

4 2

o —

8 0

1 00

1 00

-

%MAU P rez le t ice -C ervus e l aphus

0 l u t n

i t ho0

p f e /df e o -

-

p h3

8 0

6 0

P r ao

-

_ 1 t a r

4 0

-

/ 0

-

0

-

00 0

0

0

00

i 2 0

00

c o

C O 0 C O C OO

4 0

8 0

6 0

1 00

% MGU I( B info rd . 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 6

1 00

%MAU P rez le t ice -E quus s p .

8 0

1 _

6 0

4 0

2 0

p e

d rao o a s t /ca l p hl 0 0 ph2 0 0 000 CD 0 CD CID 0

0 0

1 0

4 0

6 0

% MGU I( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 7

.

C D

8 0

1 00

1 00

%MAU S a lzg i t te r -B o s /B ison

8 0

6 0

4 0

p ne d hu d t i 0 a x i 0

2 0

d rq c

5

0

d hu d r a/du l 0 ° 0 o p u i Pm t a r o ce r 0

0

/ ( 3 ,

0

f e

or i b

PPe i

0 0 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 00

% MGU I ( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 8

s c an

%MAU S a lzg i t te r -E quus s p .

8 0

p rnoc 6 0 a t l

o

P r io

p fe

0

p r ao 4 0

c e r 0 a x i d r t ‘ c

pmf0a10d hu I i

2 0 d ra odm p h30 0

0

0

0

2 0

o a s t t a ro 0

i t a ib

o t ho 0 C D

0

4 0

6 0

% MGU I ( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 9

44

8 0

1 00

E l lan

%MAU S a lzg i t te r -R ang if e rt a r andus

1 00

8 0

t ho 0

d t r j t

6 0

pi n t

4 0 dmc

c a l 0

o

a l

0 pmc a x i o pga .

2 0

p h2 ,3

0

s ca 0 o dl

o aSt

d hu o

p r aiui

s i u l 0

o pe l

p f e

e r

t a r

op hu • b 0 P

g

2 0

4 0

0

0 6 0

8 0

1 00

% MGU I ( B inford , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 10

9 1 r /at

1 00

C

8 0

%MAU S wanscombe

P r a 6 0

4 0 d in to 2 0

p in t

tc a

s l hu dmc a mc s l u l p al g ra p h3

' b um

p f e

d t d 0c o 0g i b

0

0

p ' ut e r

2 0

4 0

0 6 0

% MGU I ( B inford , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 11

8 0

1 00

a x

1 00

p r opm t 0

0

-

%MAU B a lde r ton -B o s /B ison

8 0

6 0 d in t 0

c a l 0

4 0 -

2 0 p ho2

0

000

0

o

0

0

2 0

l um

C 0 0 C D C00

4 0

C D

6 0

0 .

8 0

1 00

8 0

1 00

T o MGU I( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 12

' p rd d hu l m an ' ° °d tt °

1 00

% MAU L acha r -B o s /B ison

8 G 1

6 0

4 0

2 0

l um 0

0

000

0

00

2 0

00

0

0 0 000

, 6 0

4 0

% MGU I( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 13

4 6

p inoc

1 00

pmg

a S t

od tb

8 0 , e *

%MAU L acha r

6 0 Pr a i a

oman

4 0 c e r 0 2 0

p h1 ,2 .3 0

0

0

0

0

00

0

2 0

0 0 000

6 0

4 0

8 0

1 00

% MGL T I( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 14

%MAU L o cal i ty 4 7 -E quus s p .

1 00

8 0

6 0

4 0

d r e ,

d hu 0

d t i s& 0

d f e 0

2 0 t h o 0 0

000

0

00 0 00

2 0

0 0 C D

00

4 0

6 0

% MGU I ( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 15

4 7

8 0

1 00

c a

1 00

l ' s c a ° p ur )

0Pt i

%MAU M IV 1 -2 -B o s /B ison

8 0

6 0

4 0 p h 1 1, 2 3

.t a r

/ 0 r i p 0

00

0

00 0 00

C D 00 0 1D

2 0

4 0

0

6 0

0

8 0

1 00

% MGU I( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 16

1 00

' a t ! 0

t a r

o

-

%MAU M IV 1 -7 -B o sB ison

8 0

6 0 dam _ d r a

d hu ° ° sca

4 0 p hl o

d ie t c e r 0

2 0 -

t h o 0 0

0 0

0

0

2 0

0

0

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a o

6 0

% MGU I( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 17

o —

8 0

1 00

a x i 0

%MAU M IV 1 -7 -E qu id /Dov id s i ze

1 00

8 0

6 0 dm g

d t i

0

p t io

d f e 0

t a ro

4 0

2 0

t h oo r i b 0

0

000

0

0

0 00

2 0

C O 0 C D

0

4 0

0 -

6 0

8 0

1 00

% MGU I( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 18

1 o

a s t

%MAU M IV 1 -7 -E quus s p .

8 0

cr

° 0d t i

t a r

P h i

6 0 a x io 4 0

dms ip inc

p I9 d f e

p re

0

P h%

2 0

0

00

0

0

2 0

0

0

00

000

4 0

0

6 0

% MGU I( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 19

4 9

8 0

-

1 00

'dms

1 00

,

c a lo

1 Dmc

od t i

'

%MAU N bV 1 -2 -B o s /B ison

8 0

6 0

I _ P r a o

d h 0u

p h .

d f eo

0

0

c e r 0

4 0

l um 0 0 t a r

p h3 0

2 0-

p h2 0

0-

0 0

t h o 0 00

00

0 C O

00

t

0

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 00

% MGU I( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 20

Ip m t .

1 0 0-

%MAU N bV 1 -2 -E quus s p .

8 0

0d t i

'

P re

6 0 a x i ia t lo P h2 ,g

t a r

4 0 dmc 0 2 0

0

d i n t

d hu s c a

0c a 1 /0a s t°

0

°P e i

p hi ' l u rg

0

0

0

i 2 0

0

0

r i bo a )

0 0 0 30

4 0

6 0

% MGU I( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 21

08 0

1 00

w r a

1 00

m an 0 0 s ca

%MAU Wre i ton -B ison p r iscus

4 1 hu 8 0 c a l 0

a t l /ax i 0

c p e l

pm t °

dmc

o p ipc p hi, dm j

4 0

gt i

a s t

6 0

a c c e r 0

p u l

l um .

2 0

r i b.

d f e0 P t i

p f e°

t h o a r Ph 3 0d u l 0 0

s t e 0

P hu

2 0

4 0

6 0

8 0

1 00

% MGU I ( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 22

'ä c a

l o o

d hu 0 8 0

6 0

d t i 0

a t l / ax io & I r a gmc 4mc d u j

l e d d i n t °

pm t

g

o

00

0 0

2 0

d f e 0

m an

l ie c e r

i ° P l20

t h o

0

p I e

p e l

c i b

0 r

4 0

6 0

% MGU I( B info rd , 1 978 )

F IGURE 4 . 23

5 1

8 0

1 00

1 00

8 0

p u l o sca

p i n t

2 0

0

0

01

0

0

0 00

0 . 2

0000

0

0 . 3

00

000

00

0 . 4

00

0 . 5

0 . 6

0 7

B u lk D en s i ty [ g /cm ^3 ] ( Lym an , 1 985 )

1 00

%MAU P re z le t i ce -E quu ss p .

8 0

6 0

4 0

2 0

d ra 0 1 31 2 0 0 00 0 0 0

01

0 . 2

0 . 3

a s t

0

g a l

p e

p h i 0

00

0 . 4

0 0 0

00

0 . 5

000

0 . 6

0 7

B u lk D en s i ty [ g / c i r t A3 ] ( Lym an , 1 985 )

F IGURE 4 . 24 : REPRESENTAT IVE P LOTS OF %MAU AGA INST BULK DENS ITY

4 .2 .2 .3

P a laeon to log ica lS amp le

T he p a laeon to log ica l a s semb lage s a r e a l so c ha rac te r ized b y i n s ign if ican tc o r re la t ion sw hen %MAU i sc a lcu la ted a ga in s tb o th t h e MGU Ia nd b u lk d en s i ty ( Tab le s4 . 13 ,4 . 14 ) . P robab i l i t ie s a r en eg l ig ib ly g r ea te rt h an i n t h ea r chaeo log ica ls amp le ( Ba lde r ton ,L acha r ,M IV 1 -2 ) . 4 .2 .2 .4

S ummary

I nt h ep re ced ing s e c t ion st h e %MAU f o rt h eb e t te rr ep re sen ted u ngu la te t a xa f o re a ch s i te w a sp lo t ted a ga in s tB info rd ' s ( 1981) MGU I a nd S pea rman 's r ho a nd K endal 's t a u mea su re s w e re c a lcu la ted . T he se m e thod s i n d ica te t h a t n o s t a t i s t ica l ly s i gn if i can tr e la t ion sh ip e x i s t sb e tween t h er e p re sen ted t an a nd m ea t /bone u t i l i ty ,n o r , i n te re s t ing ly ,b e tween b one s u rv iva la nd b one d en s i ty . D e sp i te t h ep reponde rance o fd en se e l emen t si n t h e c o l lec t ion s , n o s t a t i s t ica l r e la t ion sh ip eme rge s b e tween b one s u rv iva la nd b one d en s i ty . T h i si si n te rp re ted a st h er e su l t o f ag ene ra la b sence o fs k e le ta le l emen t sp e rt a xa w he reby e ven t he h i gh d en s i ty e l emen ts a r e t o o p oo r ly r ep re sen ted f o r s i gn if i can tc o r re la t ion s t oo ccu r( e xcep ti nt h ec a se o f Wre t ton B i son p r i scu s ) . A ssemb lage d e s t ruc t ion i s , o nce a ga in , i n d ica ted w i th n o a ppa ren t d if e rence s b e tween t h e p a laeon to log ica l a nd a r chaeo log ica ls amp le s . T he re i s ,m o reove r ,l i t t le d if e rence i n t h ec o r re la t ion s o ft h e l e ss w e l lr e p re sen ted t a xa o ft h e o l de s t a s semb lage s a nd t h o se o f Wre t ton ( e xcep t B i son p . ) o r Sa l zg i t te r . 4 .23

Mor tal i ty P rof i le s

A s d i scu s sed i ns e c t ion 3 . 2 .1 .2 a ge m o r ta l i ty p rof i l ing i sn o t c on s ide red a r e levan t a na ly t ic t e chn ique f o r t a phonom ic

F IGURE 4 . 25 :

a na ly s i s , n o r f o r a s semb lage s w i th a s i gn if ican t d eg ree o f a t t r i t ion . Mo r tal i ty p rof i le s c l a s s ica l ly a s sume a c au sa l c onnec t ion b e tween t h e p rof i le a nd n a tu re o f d ea th , i . e . c a ta s t roph ic mo r ta l i ty , w i thou t c on s ide ra t ion f o r a s semb lage d e s t ruc t ion ( S t ine r 1 990 ;d i scu ssed i ns e c t ion 3 . 2 .1 .2 ) . T ab le 4 . 16 n eve r the le s sp re sen t st h es u rv iv ing j uven i le e l emen t sf r om t h e s t ud ied s i te s . J uven i le b one i s c ha rac te r i s t ica l ly n o t c a lc if ied , l e s s d en se , a nd t h u s mo re r ead i ly d amaged o r t r an spo r ted . I ti su n l ike ly t os u rv ive a t t r i t iona lf o rce s o ve rt ime . E xcep tf o rS a lzg i t te r ,t h e re a r ef ew n on -adu l te l emen t s i nt h e s t ud ied a s semb lage s a nd o ft h e se mo s t a r e f r om h igh b one d en s i ty t a xa s u ch a sp robo sc idean a nd r h ino . 4 . 3

CONCLUSION TO PART ONE OF ANALYSIS

Ad i scu s s ion o ff a una l s u rv iva l a nd i t sr e la t ion sh ip w i th b one d en s i ty , h yd rodynam ic f o rce , c a rn ivo re g naw ing , a nd o t he r p hy s ica l f o rce s h a s d emon s t ra ted t h a t t h e a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage sh ave b een s i gn if i can t ly c omm inu ted a nd d i s tu rbed o ve r t ime . T he re i sn o u nequ ivoca l e v idence t ha t t h e se a s semb lage sr e p re sen t as i ng le -even td ea th a s semb lage . E ach i sa s l i ke ly t ob e a n a ccumu la t ion o f mu l t ip le h yd rodynam ic d epo s i t s . E v idence f o r e x ten s ive a s semb lage a t t r i t ion a nd w innow ing i ss hown b yt h ep redom inance o fd ense s ke le ta l e l emen t s s u ch a st e e th , c a rpa l s / ta r sa l s , p ha lange s , a nd d en se a r t icu la r f r agmen t s o fl o ngbone s s uch a st h e h ume rus . T he r e su l t s o f af l ume e xpe r imen ti n d ica te t h a tb o th s a tu ra ted a nd u nsa tu ra ted e l emen t s a r e b o rne b y c u r ren t s a s l ow a s 4 6 c m / second , s ugge s t ing t h a t e ven s l ow -mov ing c u r ren t s c an t r an spo r t s ke le ta l e l emen t s . Ove ra l l s i gn if ican t e l emen t d e s t ruc t ion i s a l so s ugge s ted a s t h e e xp lana t ion f o r p oo r c o r re la t ion s o f t h e b e s t r e p re sen ted t a xa w i th b one d en s i ty i n d i ce sa sw e l la sw i th t h eg ene ra lu t il i ty i ndex o fs ke le ta lp a r t s .

KREU ' iLbR ( 1992 ) B ISON I NDEX P LOTTED AGA INST LY MAN ( 1985 ) DEER I NDEX

0 . 9 0 . 8 0 . 7 0 . 6 0 . 5 0 . 4 0 . 3 0 . 2 0 .

1

0 . 2

0 3

0 . 4

0 . 5

0 . 6

0 . 7

L yman B u lk D ens i ty [ g / cm "3 ]

5 3

0 . 8

0 9

TABLE 4 . 15 :

%MAU P ER S ITE AGA INST KREU1ZER 'S ( 1992 ) VOLUME DENSITY ( VD ) F OR B ISON AND LYMAN 'S ( 1 985 ) BULK DENS ITY FOR CERVIDS S a lzg i t t e r B os /B ison

Wre t ton B ison p r .

VD

K reu tz e r ' s s c an s i t e s

L yn n ' sB u lk D en s i ty

1 00

1 00

0 . 6 1

DN2

0 . 57

A t la s

4 5

6 6

0 . 52

AT 1

0 . 13

A x i s

1 8

6 6

0 . 65

AX1

0 . 16

S ke le ta lP a r t Mand ib le

C e rv ic a l

4

4 1

0 . 37

CE1

0 . 19

T ho rac ic

0

1 5

0 . 42

TH 1

0 . 24

L umba r

0

2 2

0 . 31

LUI

0 . 29

P e lv i s

9

5 9

0 . 53

AC 1

0 . 27

S ac rum

0

5 0

0 . 27

S C 1

0 . 19

2 2

0 . 57

R I3

0 . 40

NONE

0 . 22

0 . 50

S P1

0 . 36

0 . 24

HU 1

0 . 24

8 9

0 . 38

HU5

0 . 39

R ib

1 5

S te rnum

0

S capu la

0

P .h uurru s

9

D .h u r rr ru s

2 7

5 9 7 5

P .r ad iu s

9

1 00

0 . 48

RA 1

0 . 42

D .r ad iu s

9

9 7

0 . 35

RAS

0 . 43

P .u l na

9

3 3

D .u l na

9

P .m e t aca rpa l D .r n e taca rpa l

3 6 9

0 . 34

UL 1

0 . 30

0 . 69*

UL3

0 . 44

4 4

0 . 59

MC1

0 . 56

4 6

0 . 46

MC5

0 . 49

3

P .f e nxr

2 7

2 3

0 . 34

F E2

0 . 36

D .f en =

1 8

2 6

0 .26

FE6

0 .2 8

P .t i b ia

2 7

2 0

0 . 41

T I1

0 . 30

D .t i b ia

2 7

6 4

0 . 41

T I5

0 . 50

T a r sa l

2

1 0

0 . 48

NC 1

0 . 39

A s t raga lu s

0

6 4

0 . 72

A S1

0 . 47

C , a lcan e tun

0

6 9

0 . 80

CA2

0 . 64

P .' m e t a ta r sa l

9

5 4

0 . 52

MR 1

0 . 55

D . m e ta ta r sa l

9

3 3

0 . 40

MRS

0 . 46

F i r s tp ha lanx

0

3 8

0 . 46

P 12

0 . 42

S econd p ha lanx

5

1

0 . 41**

P 22

0 . 25

T h i rd p ha lanx

2

6

0 . 32

P 31

0 . 25

KENDALL 'S TAU

0 . 22 p =0 .141

0 . 26 p .0 .046

S PEARMAN 'S RHO

0 . 28 p =0 .199

0 . 36 0 . 051

5 4

TABLE 4 . 16 :

J UVEN I T FE LE MENTS ( N ISP ) F RO M CRAN IAL AND POSTCRAN IAL ELE MENT GROUPS POSTCRANIAL ELE MENTS

CRANIAL ELE MENTS A rchaeo log ica lS i te s

#

P rez le t ice C apr eo lus c apreo lus Mammu thus p r im igen ius

1 3

S a l zg i t ter E quus s p . R ang if er t a randu s Mammu thus p r im igen ius

5 1 65 3 9

A rchaeo log ica lS i te s Ar i do s U nknown t a xon

2

P inedo C e rv id s p .

2

Madr id A renero s B os/B i son

1

Swan scombe C e rv id s p .

2

P rez le t ice C e rv id s p . Mammu thus p r i rn igen iu s L a rge u ngu la te

1 1 1

S a lzg i t ter P a laeonto log ica lS i te s

P a laeon to log ica lS i te s

B a lder ton E l epha ss p .

1

M IV 1 -2 Mammu thu sp r im igen iu s

1

N bV I -2 Mammu thus p r im igen ius

1

Wre t ton B i son p r i scu s

1

B a lder ton D icerorh inus s p . E lepha ss p . E quus c aba l lus U nk nown t a xon M1V 1 -2 B o s/B i son E qu id /bov id Mammu thu sp r im igen iu s U r sus s p .

4

1 1 1

1 4

1 1

M1V 1 -7 B os/B i son

1

NbV 1 -2 B os/B i son E qu id /bov id E quus s p . Mammu thus p r im igen iu s Unknown t a xon

4 8 5 4 5

NbVn -4 E quus s p .

1

Wre t ton B i son p r i scu s R ang if er t a randus

5 5

3 1 8

CHAPTER 5 ANALYSIS OF ARCHAEOLOG ICAL AND PALAEONTOLOG ICAL FAUNAL RE MAINS : PART TWO 5 . 1

I NTRODUCT ION

1 959 ,S adek -Koo ro s 1 972 ) . P f e if f e r( 1912 :212 )b e l ieved t h a t d iaphy sea l c y l inde r s w i th t r an sve r se f r a c tu re s w e re

T h i sc hap te rc on t inue s t h ec ompa ra t ive t a phonom ic a na ly s is o f a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica l a s semb lage s b egun i n

manu f ac tu red b yi n te ll igen tr emova l o fe p iphy se s ( F igu re 5 . 1

C hap te r 4t h rough d i scu s s ion s o fb one f r ac tu r ing , s t r ia t ion s o n

a nd 5 . 2 ) ,h owev e r ,w en ow k now t h a ts uch b reakage i ss pec if i c t o d e s icca ted b one ( Mo r lan 1 980 , 1 983 , J ohn son 1 985 ) .

b one , a nd a s ec t ion o n t h e i mp l ica t ion s o f f r e sh f ra c tu red

P f e if f e r ( i b id . ) c o r rec t ly o b se rved , h oweve r , t h a t s p i ra l

mammo th a nd ma s todon b one .

f r ac tu r ing a nd a s soc ia ted p e rcu s s ion p o in ta nd b one s pl in te r s w e re c r ea ted i fp o in tl o ad ing o ccu r red o nt h ed i aphy s i s ( F igu re 5 . 1 , " b " ) . N eve r the le s s ,n od i s t inc t ion i s made b e tween s p i ra l

5 . 1 .1

B one F rac tur ing

f r ac t u r ing o nf r e sh b one a nd t r an sve r se f r ac tu r ing o nd e s icca ted b one . Two e xamp le ss e rve t oi l u s t ra te t h ev a lue o fi n c lud ing

L owe r a nd Midd le P le i s tocene s i te a na ly s i s h a s n o t i n co rpo ra ted t h ee x ten s ive l ow r ange r e sea rch o nb one f r a c tu re mechan ic s ( c f . Mo r lan 1 980 , B onn ich sen a nd S o rg 1 989 f o r

f r ac tu re a na ly s i si ne a r ly s i te s t ud ie s . T he f a una lr ema in sf r om P rez le t ice a r e d e sc r ibed a s b ea r ing t r ace s o f g r ind ing a nd

r e fe renc e s ,a l so K och 1 989 f o rr e f e rence s ) . D e ta i led a c coun t s

s t r ik ing b yh uman s ,a nd i ti se xpl i c i t ly s t a ted t h a tc ryo tu rba t ion a nd s o l if iuc t ion w e re n o tt h ec au se s o fb one b reakage , w h ich

o f d eve lopmen t s i n t h i s a r ea o f s t udy a r e a va i lab le i n B onn ich sen ( 1979 b u t c f . a l so My e r s e ta l . 1 980 ) , Mo r lan

r e su l ted f r om e i the r h y aena o r h uman a c t iv i ty ( F r id r ich 1 989 :27 ) . B one t o o l sa r em en t ioned i nt h es i te r epo r t( F r idr ich 1 989 )a nd ac e rv id d i aphy sea lt o o lh a sa ppea red i np ub l ica t ion

( 1980 , 1 983 ) ,a nd J ohn son ( 1985 ) . F o rme r m i sunde r s tand ing s o f b one f r ac tu r ing w e re b a sed o n a s sump t ion s t h a t b one b reakage c o r re sponded w i th o r ig ina lb reakage b ye a r ly h uman s . B one f r ac tu re morpho log ie s w e re i n te rp re ted a s c u l tu ra l p a t te rn sw i th n od if e ren t ia t ion made b e tween f r ac tu re t y pe s o n

( Fe jfa r 1 969 :172 , F ig . 6 ) . T h i s l a t te r p iece i sc omp le te ly p o l i shed a nd r e ta in s af r e sh f r ac t u re f l ake s c a r . I tw a sd e sc r ibed i nt h ef o low ing t e rm s ; " The b i f ac ia ls moo thne ss o ft h eb one i s af ea tu re t h a t c an b e o fn e i the r a n ima l n o r i n o rgan ic o r ig in

f r e sh a nd d e s icca ted / fo ss i l ized b one . T he b e l ie ft h a t t y pe o f b one b reakage r e f lec t st h ea gen to fb reakage ( s uch a sb reakage

a l one " ( i b id . ;o r ig ina le mpha s i s ) .

b yh uman s )i si n co r rec t a nd s t em s f r om e a r l ie rs t ud ie s w h ich ma in ta ined t h a th uman s t reng th w a s s u f f ic ien tt ot w i s t ab one

Upon e xam ina t ion t h i s p ie ce a l so s howed e v idence o fg naw m a rk s . A c tua l i s t ic r e sea rch h a ss hown t h a tp o l i sh ing ,f r e sh

a pa r t , t h e reby p roduc ing ac ha rac te r i s t ic s p i ra lf r ac tu re ( Da r t

F IGURE 5 . 1 :

LUD W IG P FEIFFER 'S ( 1912 ;212 ) I NTERPRETAT ION OF THE MANUFACTURE OF D IAPHYSEAL CYL INDERS WITH TRANSVERSE F RACTURES ( " a " ) AND S PIRALLY DETACHED BONE S PL INTERS ( " b " )

er fo lgen l a s sen . k i t s i ch d i e Übere ins t immung n och w e i te r v

E in R öhr enknochen

te r lage g e leg t w orden , d aß n ur d i e i s t i nd er We i se ( Abb . 1 97 ) a u f e i ne f e s te Un E p iphy se e i ne S te i lkan te d er U n te r lage ü ber rag t h a t .

E in

k r ä ft i ge r Hammer sch lag

a u f

d i e

E p iphy se

e rg ib t

a

4 ,

g l a t ten

Q i ie rbruch ( Abb . 1 . 97 a ) .

E ine

M od i f ika t ion d es Exper imen te s h a t d a r in b e s tanden , d aß d er m i t

b e iden

. Händen

K nochen a u f

e i ner

A bb . : 97 .

g e faß te s cha r fen

K an te a bgehauen wu rde . Wenn

uc r S chema t ische Da r s te l lung ü be r d a s Z us tandekommen v on Q u nd S p l i t te rbrüchen a n l angen R öh rcnknochen .

erden , s o b l e ib t d a s s o a d d i e se We i se b e ide Ep iphy senenden a bgesch lagen w v i e l fach i nD i luv ia l samm lungen v o rkommende z yl inde rha f te M i t te l s tück d er l a ngen K öh r enknochen ü br ig .

A us d i e sen M i t te ls tücken h a t s i ch d a s Knochenma rk l e icht

5 6

f r ac tu re e dge sa nd f l ake s ca r s a r et y p ica lo fc a rn ivo re g naw ing

b one b reakage a te a r ly P le i s tocene s i te sa r eo f ten t h er e su l to f

( Su tc l if f e 1 970 , Hayne s 1 980a , 1 981 , B ra in 1 981 , B in fo rd 1 981 :56 a nd F ig . 3 . 18 ) . A l lf r ac tu re e dge sw e re r e co rded f o r t h e P rez le t ice c o l lec t ion . O f 7 3 i d en t i f iab le p o s tc ran ia l e l emen t s i n t h i s c o l lec t ion , t h ree ( 4% ) r e ta in f r e sh -bone f r ac tu re s . O ft h e6 3 u n iden t if iab le s pec imen sf r om P rez le t ice , n one r e ta in f r e sh -bone f r a c tu re s . O ft h e7 5 c r an ia le l emen t s ,7 2 a r et o o th f r agm en t sa nd t h er ema in ing t h ree b one sd on o tr e ta in e v idenc eo ff r e sh -bone f r ac tu re s . A na ly s i so ff r ac tu re t y pe s f o r P rez le t ice r evea l s t h a t o l d -bone f r ac tu re s p redom ina te ,

b one c ond i t ion a nd t a phono rn ic d i s tu rbance , a nd c anno t b e a t r ibu t ed s o le ly t o ah uman c au se . As umma ry o ft h er e su l t so f b one f r ac tu re s t ud ie sf olow s ,h oweve r ,t h er e f e rence sc i ted a t t h e b eg inn ing o ft h i s s ec t ion s hou ld b e c on su l ted f o r g rea te r d e ta i l . F r e sh -bone f r ac tu r ing o ccu r sb e f o re ab one h a sl o s ti t s mo i s tu re c on ten t a nd t h u s i t s b end ing a b i l i ty a nd t o r s iona l s t reng th . I t r e su l t s w hen ab one i ss ub jec ted t o ad ynam ic l o ad ( f o rce ) g rea te r t h an i t s t e n s i le s t reng th s uch a s c a rn ivo re g naw ing ,

i nd ica t ing t h a tb one b reakage t ook p lace a f te re l emen t sw e re d e s icca ted . I ndeed , t h e e x ten s ive f r agm en ta t ion o f t h i s c o l lec t ion , t h e s ma l l s i ze o f t h e e l emen t s , s ugge s t s t h a t

h uman p o in tl o ad ing ,o rn a tu ra lp re s su re l o ad ing . Af r e sh -bone

b reakage w a s r e cu r ren t . T he re a r e f ew o r ig ina l b reakage e dge s , t h a t i s , f ew f r e sh -bone f r ac tu re s , i n t h e P rez le t ice

t h e t e rm " s p i ra l f r ac tu re " a nd b y s moo th f r ac tu re s u r face s . P r e s su re l o ad ing s e nd ss t re s sw ave st rough t h eb one w h ich ,i n at u bu l a r ,u nde s icca ted b one ,i n te r sec ta nd c au se b one f l ake st o s p l i to f fw h ich a l so r e ta in f r e sh f r ac tu re e dge s . P o in tl o ad ing , s u ch a ss p l i t t ing b one w i th ah amme r s tone ,c an b ei d en t if ied b y ap o in t o fp e rcu s s ion a nd n ega t ive i mpac t s ca r s . F re sh -bone

f r a c tu re i sc ha rac te r i s t ica l ly i d en t if ied b y as p i ra lb re ak ,h ence

c o l lec t ion . I th a su nde rgone e x ten s ive ,r epea ted c omm inu t ion e v idenced b yt h eo l d -bone f r ac tu re e dge sw h ich a r ep roo ft h a t b one b reakage f o l lowed d e s icca t ion o rp e rm ine ra l iza t ion . Human mod if ica t ion i sa l so p ropo sed f o rL aye r1 -Ba se a tt h e F rench s i te o f B iache -Sa in t -Vaa s t ( no t o ne o f t h e a na ly sed

f r ac tu re e dge s t e nd t ob et h es ame c o lou ra st h ec o r t ica lf a ce , w he rea s d e s icca ted o r m ine ra l ized b one b reakage w i l l o f ten e xh ib i t a n e dge f a ce o f ad if e ren t c o lou r t h an t h e c o r t ica l s u r f ace . S p i ra lf r ac tu r ing a nd /o r as moo th b reakage s u r face i s t h ec h ie fc h a ra c te r is t ic o ff r e sh b roken b one . I nt h ea bsence o f

a s semb lage s ) . F auna l s pec imen s a r e ma in ly u r s id a nd b ov id r ema ins a nd a r e a t t r ibu ted t ob ea r a nd b i son h un t s ( Augu s te 1 988 , 1 992 ) . Human s a r e t h ough t t oh ave p l ay ed ar o le i n f a una l a c cumu la t ion o n t h eb a s i s o fs t r ia t ion s o nb one a nd t h e g rea tf r agmen ta t ion o fb one t h ough tt ob ei n ten t iona lm a r row f r ac tu r ing . T he c u tma rk a na ly s i s i sn o td eve loped , b u tn o ri s

ac omp le te s p i ra l f r ac tu re , f r e sh -bone b reakage c an a l so b e i d en t if i ed b yi n te r sec t ing f r ac tu re e dge s ( F igu re 5 . 2e ) . Mo r lan ( 1 988 :49 ) h a s f u r the r empha s ized t h a t s p i ra l f r ac tu re s a r e k nown t o r e su l t w hen a d e s icca ted b one b reak s , w i th t h e d i f f e rence t h a tf r ac tu re s u r f ace sh ave r ough t e x tu re ,f o rm r i gh t

t h e n a tu re o f t h e b one f r agmen ta t ion . A n a na ly s i s a nd d e sc r ip t ion o ff r ac tu re t y pe s f r om t h i s s i te i se s sen t ia li fb one f r agmen ta t ion i st o b e s hown t o c o r re spond t ot h e t ime o f c a rca ss d epo s i t ion a nd o r ig ina lb reakage .

a ng le sw i th t h eo u te rb one w a l l ,a r ef r equen t ly c r o s s -cu tb ys p l i t l i ne i n te r f e rence ( s p l i t t ing p a ra l le lt ob one l e ng th ) o ft h eo u te r w a l l , a nd h ave d if e ren tc o lou r s o fo u te r b one w a l l a nd i n ne r

Obse rva t ion s o n b one b reakage c anno t b r ing u s c l o se r t o

b one .

d i s t ingu i sh ing c ause o f b reakage .

Ob se rva t ion s o n b one

b r eakage c an ,h oweve r , s e rve t od emon st ra te t h a t" p a t te rn s " o f

F IGURE 5 . 2 :

FRACTURE TYPES -

a .l o ng i tud ina l b . s t ep c . s e r ra ted d . t r an sve r se e . s p i ra l( a ssoc ia ted w i th f r e sh -bone b reakage )

5 7

D e s icca ted o rm ine ra l ized b one b reakage i sc ha rac te r ized b y

5 . 1 .1 .1

Appl ica t ion

o ld -bone f r ac tu re s . T he se f o rm a sl o ng i tud ina lb reak s , s t ep f r a c tu re s ,s e r ra ted f r ac tu re s , o ra st r an sve r se b reak s . O ld -bone f r ac tu re s u r f ace s a r e r ough , a nd t h e re i ss ome t ime s e dge c o r t ica l f a ce c o lou rd i f f e ren t ia t ion ( F igu re 5 . 2a ,b ,c ,d ) .

F rac tu re

t y pe

w a s

r e co rded

f o r

e ach

i d en t if iab le

a nd

D u r ing t h ea n a ly s i s ,i d en t if i ca t ion d i ff i cu l t ie s a r o se f r om at y pe

v s . 1 2 .7% r e spec t ive ly ;T ab le 5 . 1) a nd a r en o ta s soc ia ted w i th

o f f r ac tu re w h ich w a s c a l led a d ry -bone f r ac tu re . I ti s c ha rac te r ized b y a n i n c ip ien t o r i n comp le te s p i ra l f r ac tu re

e v idence o fg naw ing . G nawed b one a s soc ia ted w i th f r e sh -bone

u n iden t if iab le s pec imen i n t h e s t ud ied c olec t ion s . T he a r chaeo log ica lp o s tc ran ia l r ema in s i nt h is s t udy e xh ib i t mo re f r e sh -bone f r ac tu re st han t h ep a laeon to log ica lr ema in s( 37 .7%

f r ac tu re s w a s o n ly o bse rved f o r p a laeon to log ica l e l emen t s ( 2 .7% ) .

i n te r se c ted b ys p l i tl i ne i n te r f e rence . T h i si st h ough tt oo ccu r w hen ab one i so n ly p a r t ia l ly d e s icca ted a tt h et ime o fb reakage

T he c ro s s tabu la t ion s o fT ab le 5 . 1 w e re c a lcu la ted w i thou tt h e S a lzg i t te r s amp le , t oe l im ina te t h e b ia s o f aw e l l p re se rved

t h e reby e xh ib i t ing t r a i t s o fb o th f r e sh -a nd o l d -bone f r ac tu re s o n as i ng le f r ac tu re e dge ( f o r d e ta i led d i scu s s ion s a nd i lu s t ra t ion s o ff r ac tu ra t ion c f . J ohn son 1 983 , 1 985 , Mo r lan

s amp le . T h i ss ub s tan t ia l ly l e ve l st h ep ropo r t ion so ff r e sh -bone

1 983 ) .

f r ac tu re si nt h ea r chaeo log ica ls amp le f r om 3 7 .7% i nT ab le 5 . 1 t o 1 3 .3% ( Tab le 5 . 2 ) . T he o ve r rep re sen ta t ion o ff r e sh -bone

F ra c tu re s t udy i sc ruc ia lt oa ny f a una la na ly s i sr e la t ing t oe a r ly

f r ac tu re s a tS a lzg i t te r o nce a ga in s ugge s t s t h a t y ounge r , l e ss w ea the red a s semb lage s h ave a g rea te r c hance o fr e ta in ing o r ig ina l f r ac tu re f a ce s . Wi th r e spec t t o c au se , t h e h i gh

h uman s i te s . Af r e sh -bone f r ac tu re i sn o ti mp l ic i te v idence o f h um an a c t iv i ty ,a l though i td oe sg i ve at ime f r ame b e tween t h e a n ima l ' s d ea th a nd d ehyd ra t ion o ft h es ke le ton . I nt empe ra te

p ropo r t ion o f f r e sh -bone f r ac tu re s may r ep re sen t c u l tu ra l mod if i ca t ion s , h oweve r , t h e h igh p ropo r t ion o f c a rn ivo re

n o r the rn c l ima te s f r e sh -bone f r ac tu ra t ion c an o ccu re ven a f t e r s eve ra l y ea r s , p a r t icu la r ly i fb one i sk ep t mo i s t . O ld -bone f r ac tu re s ,o nt h eo t he rh and ,r ep re sen t av a s tt ime f r ame d u r ing

g naw ing ( Tab le 4 .6 ) a t S a lzg i t te r , a l though n o t d i rec t ly a s soc ia ted w i th f r e sh -f rac tu re e dge s , c ou ld a l so a ccoun tf o rt h e f r e sh f r ac tu r ing i nt h i sa s semb lage .

w h ich b reakage c ou ld o ccu r . I ti sl e s s l i ke ly t h a td e s icca ted b one p l ay ed ar o le i nt h e h uman f o od p rocu remen tp roce s s . O ld b r eakage ,t h e re fo re ,r ega rd le s s o fa ny p a t te rn ing ,p robab ly r ef l ec t sa t t r i t iona lf o rce su n re la ted t oc u l tu ra la c t iv i ty . TABLE 5 . 1 :

RELAT IVE REPRESENTAT ION OF F RESH -BONE FRACTURES -ALL S ITES*

De sc r ip t ion

F re sh -bone F rac tu re s

F re sh -bone F rac tu re s

NOT A s soc ia ted

A s soc ia ted w i th Gnaw ing

w i th G naw ing P a laeon to log ica l

5 2 /407 ( 12 .7% )

1/407 ( 2 .7% )

A rchaeo log ica l

2 42 /642 ( 37 .7% )

n one

* Samp le r ep re sen t s 1 461 ( 34 .5% ) l o ngbone so f4 239 p o s tc ran ia le l emen t s . TABLE 52.

D e sc r ip t ion

P a laeon to log ica l

A rchaeo log ica l

RELAT IVE REPRESENTAT ION OF F RESH -BONE FRACTURES WITHOUT SALZG Ir itR SAMPLE

F re sh -bone F rac tu re s

F re sh -bone F rac tu re sA s soc ia ted

NOT A s soc ia ted w i th G naw ing

w i th Gnaw ing

5 2 /407

1/407

( 12 .7% )

( 2 .7% )

2 8 /211

n one

( 1 3 .3% )

5 8

b one e l em en t s , t h a ti s ,l o ng a f t e r ac a rca s so rs ke le ta le l emen t

a tt h e S EM e xam in ing c u tma rk s . T h i s d oe s n o ti n c lude t ime

w ou ld h ave b een u se fu lf o rd i e ta ry p u rpo se s o rf o rt o o l

r e qu i red f o rf am i l ia r iza t ion w i th t h ev a r iou st e chn ique s o fS EM p repa ra t ion s uch a s e xpe r imen t ing w i th mou ld ing ma te r ia l s

T ab le 5 . 2 s how s t h a tb o th a s semb lage g roup sr e ta in as im i la r r e la t ive r e p re sen ta t ion o ff r e sh -bone f r a c tu re s . T he b u lk o f f r agmen ta t ion i nb o th s i te g r oup s o ccu r red a f t e rd e s icca t ion o f m anu f a c tu re . T he e xce s so fo l d -bone f r ac tu re si nb ot hg roup s d emon s t ra te s t h a t a t t r i t iona l f o rce s u n re la ted t o c u l tu ra l c on tex t sh ave mod if ied f a una lr ema in s . I ti st h u su n rea l i s t ic t o r e f e r t o " u nequ ivoca l e v idence o f s y s tema t ic m a r row -bone b reakage " i n t h e a b sence o f d e ta i led f r ac tu re a na ly s i s . L ikew i se , o b se rva t ion ss u ch a s , " The re a r e an umbe ro fb one s f r om C om be G rena lt h a td i sp lay ar a the rs t r ik ing t y pe o fb reak . T hey a r ev e ry s moo th a nd f i a t , a nd a lmo s ta ppea rt oh ave b een

( Xan topren B lue w a s e ven tua l ly c ho sen ) , c r ea t ing p o s i t ive r ep l ica s ( a d if i cu l t t e chn ique w h ich w a s e ven tua l ly a bandoned ) , e xpe r imen t ing w i t h p ump ing o u t a c tua l b one s pec imen s t o v acuum i n t h e S EM c hambe r v e r su s u s ing mou ld s , a nd a cqu i r ing s k i l la tS EM s c reen i n te rp re ta t ion . A l though h igh magn if ica t ion m ic ro scopy i sc o s t ly ,n o ta lway s r ead i ly a va i lab le ,a nd mo s te f f ec t ive i nc on junc t ion w i th o t he r l i ne s o f e v idence f o r i d en t i f ica t ion , i tn eve r the le s s p rov ide s r e l iab le p a rame te r s f o rt h ep roce ss o fi d en t if i ca t ion . E qua l ly , c u tma rk i d en t if i ca t ion i s mo s tr e l iab le i fas e r ie s o fc ond i t ion s a r em e ti ne a ch s t r ia t ion . C ha rac te r i s t ic a tr ibu te s o ft oo l -made c u tma rk s ,r e f e renced t ot h ea pp rop r ia te o r ig ina ls t ud ie s ,i n c lude t h ef o l low ing :

m ade w i th s ome i n s t rumen tl i ke as t ee la xe "( Cha se 1 986 :78 ) , a l so i mp ly t h a tf r a c tu re a na ly s i sh a sn o tb een c onduc ted . I nt h i s e xamp le , t h ef r ac tu re d e sc r ip t ion i sr em in i scen to ft r an sve r se

1 ) A symme t r ic c ro s s sec t ion , b e s td e sc r ibed a s at i l ted " V "

f r ac tu r ing , af o rm o fo l d -bone f r ac tu re w h ich b ea r sn ok nown r e la t ion t oh uman b u tche ry a c t iv i t ie s . 5 .2

( Bunn 1 981 , P o t t s a nd S h ipman 1 981 ; " a symme tr ic " i sp re sumab ly t h es ame ) ;

C ook 's

1 986

S t r ia t ion so nB one

S u r f ace mod if ica t ion sw e re r e co rded f o re ach s pec imen i nt h e a na ly sed a s semb lage s . I nt o ta l , 2 3 s t r ia t ion s f r om f i ve s i te s w e re s e lec ted f o r S EM s t udy . L i t t le O ak ley ( 1 ) , Mad r id A rene ro s ( 1 ) ,M IV 1 -7 ( 3 ) , P rez le t ice ( 2 ) , S a lzg i t te r ( 13 ) , a nd T o r ra lba ( 1 ) ( Tab le 5 . 3 ) . A pp rox ima te ly 3 4h ou r sw e re s pen t TABLE 5 . 3 :

S TR IAT ION AFF IL IAT IONS OF S EM S AMPLES ( NUMBER I N BRACKETS I S CATALOGUE MIN / 13ER OF S PECIMEN , WHERE AVA ILABLE )*

S i t e

L o ca t ion o fs t r ia t ion

I n terpre ta t ion

L i t t le O ak ley

b ov id r i bw i th f r e sh -bon ef r ac tu re ( # 33A )

g naw ed

Mad r id A r en e ro s

c e r v id i s tp ha l ang ew i th f r e sh -bon ef r a c tu re ( # 11074 )

c u tm a rk o rs e r l ineA t a ry

M IV 1 -7

e qu id i s tp ha l ange w i th g naw ing a nd f r e sh -bon ef r a c tu re ( # 82 ) -e qu id i s tp ha l ang ew i th g naw ing a nd f r e sh -bon ef r ac tu re ( # 82 ) u n id en t i f ied f r agm en t( #72 )

e rod ed s u r f a ce o fp o s s ib le g n aw m a rk o r s ed im en t s ame s ed imen t a ry

P rez le t ic e

u ngu la te v e r t eb ra lf r agmen t( #A s -X IV ) (15 ) Rh ino f r agm tn t( #A 3 -V I I ) (16 )

i nde te rnina t e

S a lzg i t t e r

Rang if er t i b ia s h a f tw i th f r e sh -bon ef r a c tu re ( n oc a ta logu e# ) (1a ) Rang if er t i b ia s h a f tw i th f r e sh -bon ef r a c tu re ( lb ) Rang if er t i b ia ( 2 ) -" r e tapod ia ls h a f t( 3 ) Mammu thus f i bu la ( 4 ) -" r i b( #648 )( 5 ) Rang if er a t la sv e r t eb ra ( 6a ,b ) Rang if er a t la sv e r t eb ra ( # 1078 )( 7a ,b ) Ra ng if er a x i sv e r t eb ra ( # 1093 )( 8 ) -" " " ( # 1092 )( 9 ) Rang if er c e rv i ca lv e r t eb ra ( # 122 1 )( 10 ) Rh ino f e n= s h a f t( #RH 3 )w i th g naw m a rk s( 1 1 ) Equ id t h o ra c ic v e r t eb ra ( #E55 ) ( 1 2 ) -" " " ( #E54 )( 1 3 )

( a l la r ep rob ab le c u tm a rk su n le s s i n d ica t ed )

b ov id r ad iu s ,p rox im a le nd

g naw ing o rs e d imen ta ry a b r a s ion

T o r ra lba

i nd e te rm in a t e

*T he n umbe r si nb o ld a r et h ec a ta logue n umbe r sf o rt h es i l icon mou ld s o ft h es t r ia t ion s . T he se c o r re spond w i th mou ld n umbe r s g i ven i nT ab le 5 . 4

5 9

T he mo s t l i ke ly t o o l -made s t r ia t ion s a r e f r om S a lzg i t te r .

2 ) F ine s t r ia t ion s w i th in a nd p a ra l le l t o t h e ma in g roove ( Sh ipman a nd R o se 1 983b , B eh ren smeye r e ta l . 1 986 , C ook

S te reo -pa i red p ho tom ic rog raph s o fs t r ia t ion s f r om S a lzg i t te r ( P la te s 5-9 )i nd ica te f i ne m a rk s w i th a symme t r ic V shaped p rof i le sa nd s l igh te v idence o fi n te rna ls t r ia t ion s ,b u tl a ck ing a w e l l -def ined " s hou lde r e f ec t " a nd c u r l o fb one . P la te 9i sa

1 986 ) . T h i s t r a i ti se a s i ly o b l i te ra ted b yw ea the r ing , e ven b y g en t le w a sh ing ( Beh ren smey e ri b id . ) ; 3 ) A " c u r l " o f d i sp la ced b one a l ong t h e o u te r e dge o ft h e d eepe rs i de o ft h ec u t . T h i s t r a i ti se a s i ly r emoved b ya b ra s ion

c l o se -up o fo ne S a lzg i t te rs t r ia t ion w h ich b ea r ss ome e v idence o fi n te rna ls t r ia t ion a nd ap o ss ib le " c u r l "o fb one a l ong i t sl ef t e dge . T he r e a l i t ie s o fc u tm a rk i d en t if i ca t ion c au t ion a ga in s t a b so lu te c e r ta in ty o fc au se ,h oweve r ,t h eS a lzg i t te rs pec imen s

( And rew sa nd C ook 1 985 ,C ook 1 986 ) ; 4 ) T he " s hou lde re f ec t "t h ough tt ob ep roduced b yc on tac to f t he l i t h ic t o o l s hou lde r w i th b one d u r ing c u t t ing o r s l ic ing

mo s tc l o se ly r e semb le " d ef in i t ive "c u tma rk sa nd a r ei d en t if ied a ss uch .

( Sh ipman a nd R o se 1 983b ) ; 5 ) T oo l c u tma rk s a r el i ne a r . C urv il inea r s t r ia t ion s , w he the r p a ra l le lo rs u b -pa ra l le l ,a r eg ene ra l ly a s soc ia ted w i th t r amp l ing o rg naw ing ; 6 ) S t r ia t ion s a r ew ide r a nd d eepe ra tm id -sec t ion ,t a pe r ing a t b o th e nd s . T h i sc ou ld b ed ue t ot h ec onvex e dge o f al i t h ic t o o l

B in f o rd ( 1981) d eve loped a ni nven to ry o ft o o lm a rk so nb one f o r i d en t i fy ing c u l tu ra l a c t iv i t ie s s uch a s c a rcass s k inn ing ,

p ene t ra t ing b one ( no ted o n Hoxne s pec imen s , S topp 1 988 , 1 993 ) . G naw m a rk s ,h oweve r , may h ave as im i la r mo rpho logy

m a r row f r a c tu r ing . T he l o ca t ion so ft h eS a lzg i t te rs t r ia t ion sa r e

d i smembe rmen t , f i l le t ing , a nd p e r io s teum r emova l p r io r t o i l u s t ra ted i nF igu re 5 . 3 a nd a r ef u r the rr e f e renced t oB in fo rd 's u t i l i ty c a tego r ie s ( Tab le 5 . 4 ) . T he p la cemen to fc u tma rk s o n s i x e l emen t s c o r re spond s w e l l w i th B in f o rd 's c a tego r ie s .

a nd d on o tn e ce s sa r i ly d if e ri nw id th f r om t o o l -made c u tma rk s ( Sh ipman 1 983 ) .

7 ) D e te rm in ing w he the r as t r ia t ion l ook sl i ke g naw ing ,n a tu ra l

C u tma rk l o ca t ion s o n t h e u l na s ugge s t t h ey w e re p roduced d u r ing d i smembe rmen to ft h ed i s ta lh um e ru sa nd r ad io -cub i tu s . Ma rk s p roduced o n t h ep rox ima l t i b ia c o r re spond w i th t h o se

a b ra s ion ,o rt o o lma rk ing . T h i si se n t i re ly s ub jec t ive ,b u to f ten

B info rd i d en t if ied t o f i l le t ing a c t iv i t ie s , a s d o t h o se o n t h e

t h e f i r s t n ece ssa ry s t ep i n i d en t if ica t ion , p a r t icu la r ly i n t h e a bsence o fc o s t -f ree S EM u se t o c onf i rm o r d i scon f irm a l

m e ta ta r su s . A n a t la s v e r teb ra b o re s t r ia t ion s w h ich B in f o rd

Mac ro scop ic c u tma rk i d en t if ica t ion m igh ti n c lude :

i n i t ia li d en t if i ca t ion s . 8 ) L oca t ion o f as t r ia t ion may r e la te t o c au se . C a rca s s p roce s s ing r e su l t s i n m a rk s a tj o in t s a nd a r t icu la r s u r f ace s ,

a s soc ia te sw i th s eve r ing t h eh ead f r om t h en e ck . Ma rk so na n a x ia l v e r teb ra may r e la te t ot h es ame a c t iv i ty b u tw i th as t if c a rca s s . As i x th c e rv ica lv e r teb ra b o re m a rk s o nt h et r an sve r se p roce s sw h ich may r e la te t od i smembe rmen t .

r a re ly a l ong d i aphy se s o r o t he r s u r f ace s ( c f . B info rd 1 981 ) . S h ipman ( 1981b , 1 983 ) s ugge s t s as e cond mode l b a sed o n

53

c u tm a rk so c cu r r ing o nn on -mea tb ea r ing a r ea s o fb one ,s uch a s me tapod ia l s ha f t s , a s i nd ica t ive o f ah om in id s caveng ing

I mpl ica t ion s o fF re sh -Frac tured Mammo th a nd Mas todon B one

T he d eba te s u r round ing l a rge m amma lb one f r ac tu r ing i n No r th

s t ra tegy .

Ame r ica c once rn s b reakage p a t te rn s o b se rved o n mammo th I nt h es t ud ied a s semb lage sr a ndom s t r ia t ion s a r es i xt ime sm o re

a nd m a s todon s ke le ta l e l emen ts a nd w he the r s uch f r a c tu r ing

c ommon o np a laeon to log ica lb one . On ly S a lzg i t te re l emen t s

m ay b ee xc lu s ive t oh uman a c t iv i ty .

b o re s t r ia t ion s w h ich r e semb led k nown c u tma rk mo rpho logy w hen v i ewed w i thou t , a nd w i th h igh magn if ica t ion ( t o 2 0x 2 00x ; P la te s 5 -9 ) . P la te s 1 -9 a r e s cann ing e l ec t ron

E v idence o fh uman - f r ac tu red mammo th b one i sb a sed o n a b one c o re t e chno logy w he reby d i s t inc t ion s a r es een b e tw een

p ho tom ic rog raphs o f as amp le o f s t r ia t ion s o b se rved i nt h e a na ly sed c o l lec t ion s .

n on -human a nd h uman b reakage .

S t r ia t ion s s uch a st h ee xamp le s hown i nP la te 1may b et o o l made , b u t s u r f ace a b ra s ion h a s smoo thed p o s s ib le f o rm e r e dge s . T he i n te rna l g roove s , c ha rac te r i s t ic o f d ef in i t ive

f o r f u r the r e dge f l ake r emova l . F lake r emova l i s , mo reove r , a s soc ia ted w i th c r i t ica l p l a t f o rm a ng le s f o r p o in t l o ad ing ( Mo r lan 1 978 , 1 980 ,B onn ich sen 1 979 ,B onn ich sen a nd S o rg 1 989 e spec ia l ly a r t ic le s b y H annu s , I r v ing e ta l . , J ohn son ,

c u tm a rk s , a r ea bsen ta nd o n ly a ni n te rna lr ound ing o ft h ee dge p rof i le i se v iden t . P la te 2i s as t e reo -pa i r( s te reo -pa i r s a r eb e s t v iewed t h rough as t e reo scope t oa ch ieve at h ree -d imen s iona l v i ew ) o fa no the r p o ss ib le c u tma rk o n amammo th r i b f r om S a lzg i t te r w h ich h a s as moo th , r ounded a ppea rance .

T he se d i s t inc t ion s a r e

f o unded o nc r i te r ia s uch a ss y s tema t ic f l ak er emova lt oo ne s i de o f ac en t ra la x i s ,a nd man ipu la t ion o fb one r educ t ion f r agmen t s

M i l le r , S t ee le a nd C a r l son ) w h ich , i ti sa r gued , c anno t b e c on s i s ten t ly r ep l ica ted i nn a tu re : T he p re sence o fl a rge f l ake s c a r sa d jacen tt o

T he

p i t t ing m aybe c ha rac te r i s t ic o fp robo sc id b one s t ruc tu re a nd i t i s d i ff i cu l t t o e s tab l i sh w he the r t h i s i s p o s t -ab ra s ion

a p l a t fo rm a r ea p repa red b y f l ak ing r e p re sen t sp rec i se m an ipu la t ion o ft h ec o re .

mo rpho logy , o ro r ig ina lc ond i t ion .

No t o n ly mu s t t h e b one b e r o ta ted 1 80°

T he se a r ed i s t inc tf r om s t r ia t ion s wh ich a r er u led o u ta st o o l -

m u s tb ed e l ive red a t ap rec i se a ng le i no rde r

made o n t h e b a s i s o fr ounded c ro ss -sec t ion s o r f u r row s a nd g ene raly p oo rd ef in i t ion (M lV 1 -7 s t r ia t ion s , P la te s 3a nd 4 ) .

t o a ch ieve t h e r e su l t s s een . . . .None o ft h e

a bou t i t s l o ng a x i s , b u t a l so e a ch i mpac t

n a tu ra l a genc ie s a nd p roce sse s t h ough t t o

F or c ompa r i son , P la te 5( l ef tp ho to ) i s ag naw ma rk f r om t h e

a l te rp robo sc idean b one sh a sb een s hown t o

p a laeon to log ica la s semb lage o fL i t t le O ak ley .

p roduce s uch c omp lex f o rm s . . . . " ( Mo r lan 1 990 :87 ) .

6 0

B reakage o ff r e sh e l ephan t b one b y e l ephan t t r ampl ing h a s

mamma l b one s b o re f r e sh -bone f r ac tu re s a nd 3 1 .5 % o ft h e

b een o bse rved i n an umbe ro fs t ud ie s ( C rade r 1 983 , Doug la s Ham i l ton a nd Doug la s -Ham i l ton 1 975 , H ayne s 1 983a ,

m ammo th l o ngbone s . T he se f i gu re s a r es omewha th ighe rt h an o bse rved i n t h i s s t udy o f1 V D :V 1 -7 w he re 2 8 s pec imen s , o r 1 5 .9% o f t h e l a rge m amma l l o ngbone s b ea r f r e sh -bone

C one )be a re a nd H ayne s 1 984 ) . C a rn ivo re g naw ing ,s uch a sb y t h e e x t inc t s ho r t -f ace b ea r o f t h e Y ukon , h a s a l so b een a s soc ia ted w i th p robo sc idean e l emen t s w h ich e xh ib i t f l ake

f r a c tu re s , a nd o f t h e se 7 ( 10% ) w e re o f m ammo th . T h i s d i sc repancy m ay b e a ccoun ted f o r b yi n c rea sed s amp le s i ze s i nce t h et i me o f Mo r lan 's o b se rva t ion s . N eve r the le ss , t h eO ld

r emova l , " p la t f o rm s " , a nd c h ip r emova l ( Mo r lan 1 980 :52 , S tee le a nd C a r l son 1 989 ) . B one f l ak ing c an a l so o ccu r i n

C row a s semb lage sa r eu n ique f o rt h e i rh igh p ropo r t ion o ff r e sh -

f l uv ia lc ond i t ion sw he re e l emen t ss u scep t ib le t or o ta t ion a r ound t h el o ng a x i s d u r ing t r an spo r t , s uch a ss c apu lae , w i l lu nde rgo

f r a c tu red m ammo th b one . NbV 1 -2 r e ta in sf r e sh -bone f r ac tu re s o n 5 1 ( 10% ) s pec imen s , a nd 1 1 1V 1 -2 h ad 1 55 ( 52 .2% )

f l ake r emova la l ong b o th b o rde r s a nd a l ong t h es p ine ( Mo r lan i b id . ) , o r i nr i ve r i c e d u r ing s p r ing b reak -up ( Tho r son a nd

s pec imen s b ea r ing f r e sh -bone f r ac tu re s o fw h ich 5 ( 22 .7% ) w e re m ammo th b one f l ake s .P repa red mammo th a nd ma s todon

G u th r ie 1 984 ) . R a re ly ,h oweve r ,d ot h e se n a tu ra l ly o ccu r r ing f l ake sr e ta in e v idence o fs y s tema t ic f l ake r emova l .

b one i n c on junc t ion w i th S EM s t ud ie s , t i gh t t a phonom ic c on t ro l ,a nd f u r the re xpe r imen ta t ion o nh eavy -wa l led b one ,m ay r e su l t i nh uman s i gna tu re s o n b one t h a t a r e a s d ef in i t ive a s c a rn ivo re t o o th m ark so nb one .

F lake r emova l d oe s n o t n ece s sa r i ly h ave t h e s ame c ha rac te r i s t ic s a s i n l i t h ic t e chno log ie s . F o r i n s tance , p e rcu s s ion b u lb sa r es e ldom w e l ld ef ined . P la t fo rm sm ay b eo n

5 .4

u nmod if i ed b one s u r face sr a the rt h an a te dge s ,a nd f l ake s hape i s h igh ly v a r iab le a nd d ependen t o n f a c to r s s uch a s b one o r ien ta t ion i nr e la t ion t o i t s m ic ro s t ruc tu re (Mo r lan 1 980 ) .

CONCLUS ION TO PART TWO OF ANALYSIS

B one f r a c tu re a na ly s i si s ac r i t ica ls t ep i nd e te rm in ing w he the r b reakage t o ok p lace l o ng a f t e rb one sh ad d e s icca ted , o rw h i le

C r i t ic so fb one f l ak ing t e chno logy i n No r th Ame r ica p o in to u t

b one w a ss t i l lf r e sh o rg reen . I nt h ec a se o f ad e s icca ted f a una l a s semb lage ,i ti sh igh ly u n l ike ly t h a th uman sw e re t h ec au se o f b one b re akage . B one f r ac tu re o b se rva t ion si nc on junc t ion w i th

t h a tl a t e rh um an s( i .e . 1 5 ,000 B .P . o rl a te r )m ay h ave f r ac tu red o rf l ak ed ad e s icca ted o rp e rm in e ra l i zed s pec imen ( wh ich m igh t r a d iome t r ica l ly d a te t o4 0 ,000 B .P . ) t op roduce t h ea s soc ia ted a t t r ibu te s . P roponen t sh ave e f ec t ive ly d emon s t ra ted t h a tt h i s

s t udy o f s t r ia t ion s i mp rove s t h e p roce s s o f n a tu ra l :cu l tu ra l d i s t inc t ion . I n ac o l lec t ion w i th n ume rou sf r e sh f r ac tu re sa nd

a rgum en th a sn ob a s i si nc u r ren ta c tua l i s t ic o b se rva t ion i nb one t e chno logy a nd t h a t b one f l ak ing i sa lway s a s soc ia ted w i th f r e sh -bone f r ac tu re e dge s . P roponen t s f u r the r ma in ta in t h a t , " f lake s a nd c o re s a r ee spec ia l ly d i f f icu l tt ou nde r s tand a st h e

s t r ia t ion sw h ich r e semb le c u tm a rk sd u r ing S EM magn if ica t ion , o ne c an b ef a i r ly c e r ta in o fa n th rop ic i n f luence s . Howeve r ,i n ac o l lec t ion w i th f r e sh -f rac tu re s , u nce r ta in c um ia rk s , a nd d ef i n i te g naw m a rk s , p a t te rn so fe l emen tr ep re sen ta t ion c anno t b ec l e a r ly a t r ibu ted t oc u l tu ra lc au se s .

r e su l t s o f n a tu ra l p roce s se s , a nd t h ey a r e q u i te e a sy t o u nde r s tand a s man if e s ta t ion s o f ab one f l ak ing t e chno logy " (Mo r lan 1 990 :87 ) .

B o th p a la eon to log ica la nd a r chaeo log ica ls amp le ss how s im i la r r a te s o fa t t r i t ion b yc a rn ivo re g naw ing , p oo rp re se rva t ion o f f r e sh -bone f r ac tu re e dge s , a nd h i gh d eg ree s o f b one f r agmen ta t ion . T h i si se spec ia l ly t r ue w hen t h ew e l lp re se rved

F re sh -bone f r ac tu re sw e re a s soc ia ted w i th m ammo th ,E lepha s s p . ,a nd r h inoce ro ss pec imen sf r om t h es t ud ied s i te s ( Tab le 5 . 5 , 5 . 6 ) . S a lzg i t te r , d e sp i te i t s p reponde rance o f r e indee r ( MN I=46 ) ,i sp re sen ted a s amammo th h un t ing s t a t ion i nb o th

a r chaeo log ica la s semb lage f r om S a lzg i t te ri sr emoved f r om t h e c ompa r i son s .

t he p opu la r l i t e ra tu re a nd b y l o ca l mu seum s i nt h e s t a te o f B raunschwe ig . A s T ab le s 5 . 5 a nd 5 . 6 i n d ica te , t h e re a r e

S tud ie s o fe a r ly a r chaeo log ica l s i te s mu s t i n co rpo ra te b one

r e la t ive ly f ew mammo th b one s r ep re sen ted a tS a lzg i t te r a nd t h e se c on s i s tm a in ly o fs ku l la nd r i bf r agmen t s o f am in imum o f

f r ac tu re a na ly s i si no rde rt ot e s ts ub jec t ive i mp re ss ion s o ft h e n a tu re a nd c au se o fb one f r agmen ta t ion a nd a ccumu la t ion .

o ne a du l t( 1 56 s pec imen s ) , a nd b one f r agmen t s( 39 ) o fa tl e a s t f i ve j uven i le s . A m in imum o f t wo r h inoce r i a r e a l so r e p re sen ted i nt h ea du l tp opu la t ion b yf i ve s pec imen s . F ive o f

A l though s i te c on tex t i s ac r i t ica l v ar iab le f o r u nde r s tand ing

t he a du l t m ammo th s pec imen s e xh ib i tf r e sh -bone f r a c tu r ing ,

o n i n d iv idua l b one s i s a n e qua l ly c r i t ica l s t ep t owa rd s i d en t i f y ing t h er e a son s f o r ab one 's c ond i t ion a nd i t s l o ca t ion w i th in t h el a nd scape .

a s semb lage a c cumu la t ion ,o bse rv ing f r ac tu ra t ion a nd s t r ia t ion s

f ou ro fw h ich a r eb one f l ake sa nd t h ef i f th i s ar i b . Mo r lan ( 1980 :139 ) n o ted t h a t 2 7 .8% o f t h e M 1V 1 -7 l a rge

6 1

F IGURE 5 . 3 :

S CHE MAT IC DRA W INGS OF SALZG I 1l ER CUTMARK LOCAT IONS

6 2

TABLE 5 .4 :

SALZGT 1 f ER CUTMARK LOCAT IONS REFERENCED TO B INFORD 'S ( 1988 :140 -142 ) KEY

E lem en t & SE M Mou ld # *

Key

D e scr ip t ion

Ac t iv i ty

A t la sV e r teb ra

CV -2

T ran sve r se c u t sa c ro s sp o s te r io rv en t ra l

s eve r ing h ead

( #6a ,b ;7 a , b )

s ur fa ce

Ax i s V e r teb ra

CV -3

( #8 , 9 )

T ran sve r se c u t sa c ro s sa n te r io rv ent ra l

s eve r ing h ead ( s t i f fc a rca s s )

s u r fa ce

6 th C erv i ca l

CV -6 ( ? )

T ran sve r se c u t so n t r ansve r se p roce s s

d i smembe r ing

RCp -3

D iagona l ma rk sa c ro s s med ia lf a ce o f o l ec ranon p roce s s T ran sve r se m a rk so na n te r io r

d i smembe r ing

( # 10 ) U lna ( no mou ld made )

RCp -5 T ib ia

T p -3

( # 1 , 2 )

d i smembe r ing Sho r to b l ique ma rk so nl a te ra lf a ce o f

f i l le t ing

t i b ia lc r e s t Ob l ique ma rk so n med ia lf a ce j us tb e low T p -4

a r t i cu la rs u r f a ce

f ile t ing

Long i t ud ina l ma rk so nu ppe rs ha f t

T p -5 Me ta ta r sus

MTd -4

( #3 )

f i l le t ing S hor tc hev ron ma rk sc l us te red o na n te r io r s ha f t

f i l le t ing

* Ca ta logue n umbe r sf o rs i l icon mou ld sc o r r e spond w i th c a ta logue n umbe r sf o rS a lzg i t te re l emen t si nT ab le 5 .3

TABLE 5 . 5 :

F RESH -FRACTURED BONE I N LARGEST S PEC IES -POSTCRAN 1AL ,E LEMENTS ( A rchaeo log ica lS i te s i nb o ld ) L a rge Mamma l* ( equ id s ,b ov id s )

A rr iaga

1

B a lde r ton

3

M 1V 1 -2

1 28 ( 14 )

M 1V 1 -7

3( 1 )

I N ' bV 1 -2

3

P re z let ice

1

S a lzg it ter

D ice ro rb inu s

1 4 1

1 3( 1 )

Swanscombe

E l epha ss p .

Manuno th

5

8( 1 )

T or ra lba

9

1 4( 1 )

Wre t ton

3 7 ( 15 )

*E xc lude sc e rv id s . Numbe ri nb racke t si n d ica te s a b so lu te n umbe ro fg nawed e l emen t s

TABLE 5 . 6 :

F RESH -FRACTURED BONE I N LARGEST S PECIES -UNIDENT IF IABLE ELE MENTS - ( A rchaeo log ica l S i te s i nb o ld ) L a rge Mamm a l*

Mammo th

Unk now n

( equ id ,b ov id ) 2 2

M 1V 1 -2 3 NbV 1 -2

1 8 ( 3 ) 4 7 ( 5 )

5 6

S a lzg i t ter

*E xc lude sc e rv id s . Numbe ri nb racke t si n d ica te s a b so lu te n umbe ro fg nawed e l emen t s .

6 3

6

CHAPTER 6 CONCLUS IONS 6 . 1

w a s f u r the r d emon s t ra ted t h rough B eh ren smey e r ' s ( 1975 )

I NTRODUCT ION

t o o th /ve r teb ra i n dex . O bse rva t ion s o fc a rn ivo re g naw ing w e re p re sen ted ; o ne o ft h ef ew l i ne so fe v idence d i rec t ly l i nked t oa

I ti si mpo r tan t t o i d en t i fy t h e a tr ibu te s w h ich g i ve e a r ly

k nown a t r i t iona lf o rce . Av a r ie ty o fo t he rp hy s ica li mpac t s a r e a ck now ledged t h rough a c tua l i s t ic o b se rva t ion b u ta r ed i f f icu l t t oi d en t i fy t oa gen t . T he r e la t ive a s se s smen to fi d en t if iab le t o

P l e i s to cene , o pen -a i ra s semb lage sa r chaeo log ica li d en t i ty , a nd w h ich s u s ta in t h e p rem i se t h a t a dap t ive b ehav iou r , s uch a s h un t ing o rf o rag ing , c an b e i s o la ted a nd i d en t if i ed i na nc ien t r ema in s . T he o b jec t ive s o ft h is r e sea rch w e re t ot e s tc e r ta in a s sump t ion s o f a r chaeo log ica l a na ly s i s o f e a r ly P le i s tocene d epo s i t sf r om t h en o r the rn h em i sphe re . Name ly ,t oe va lua te t h e

u n iden t if iab le b one w a s p re sen ted a s ar e l iab le g ene ra l i nd ica to r o f t h e e f ec t s o f n on spec if ic a t t r i t iona l f o rce s , i n c lud ing f r eeze thaw c ond i t ion s ,s ed imen ta ry w e igh t ,c r u sh ing ,

p re sumed a s soc ia t ion b e tween l i t h ic t oo l s a nd f a una lr ema in s ,

a b ra s ion ,f l uv ia lw innow ing , among o t he r s .

a nd w he the r e a r ly d epo s i t s w e re i n p r ima ry o r n ea r ly S ta t i s t ica l man ipu la t ion o f t h e f a una l d a ta f r om t h e b e s t r e p re sen ted u ngu la te t a xa p rov ided q uan t if iab le c o r robo ra t ion

u nd i s tu rbed c on tex t s . A t h i rd g oa l i n vo lved d eve lop ing a m e thodo log ica l a pp roach i n co rpo ra t ing mu l t ip le l i ne s o f

o fp rev iou s t e s t s . S ca t te rp lo t s o f %MAU c oun t ss howed t h a t

e v idence t oe va lua te c u l tu ra l c au sa l i ty a nd p r ima ry c on tex t , w h i le a tt h es ame t ime a s se ss ing t a phonom ic d i s tu rbance . A s a r e sea rch

o b jec t ive ,

q ue s t ion ing

t h e

e ven d en se , l ow u t il i ty e l emen t s a r e p oo r ly r ep re sen ted a nd h ave n o ts u rv ived a tr i t iona lf o rce s . S ta t i s t ica la s se s smen tw a s

r a t iona le b eh ind

s ugge s ted b yt h er e su l t s o ft h i ss t udy ,w h i le l im i t ing t h er ange

t a ken o ne s t ep f u r the rb y measu r ing t h ec o r re la t ion o f %MAU c oun t sf o re a ch s i t ea ga in s tB in f o rd ' s( 1988 ) MGU I ,a nd a ga in s t t wo b u lk d en s i ty i n d ice s f r om L yman ( 1985 ) a nd K reu tze r

o f i n te rp re t ive p o ss ib i l i t ie s f o r t h e a r chaeo log ica l d a ta , n eve r the le s se xpand sa wa rene ss o ft h ep roce s s a nd e v idence o f

c o l lec t ion s a r el a rge ly r ep re sen ted b yd en se e l emen t s ,b u tt h a t

i n te rp re ta t ion s o fe a r ly h uman a dap ta t ion i s au se fu l f o rm o f i n te rna l d i a logue o ft h e d i sc ipl ine . T he mode l o fc on s t ra in t

( 1992 ) . T he c o r re la t ion ss uppo r tt h ee a r l ie rc onc lu s ion t h a tt h e

a t r i t ion i ne a r ly a s semb lage s . F a rf r om p re sen t ing an i h i l i s t ic a pp roa ch t oe a r ly s i te a na ly s i s , o r ad en ia l t h a t a ny th ing o f

t h e se a r ep oo r ly p re se rved .

i n te rp re t ive v a lue c an b e f o und i n a nc ien t f a una l d a ta , t h i s r e sea rch e ncou rage s e xp l ic i t me thodo log ica l a pp roache s a nd c r i t ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o ft h e d a ta b a se . I ts ugge s t s ac e r ta in

T he d i scu s s ion o fb one f r ac tu re mo rpho logy i si n tended a sa n i n t roduc t ion t oa c tua l i s t ic r e sea rch w h ich h a sm ade s i gn if i can t c on t r ibu t ion s t op roce s sua ls t ud ie sy e tr ema in sc on sp icuou s ly a bsen t f r om P le i s tocene s i te a na ly s i s i n t h e n o r the rn h em i sphe re . T he l ow p e rcen tage o ff r e sh b one f r ac tu re s among

u rgency t oi n co rpo ra te r eg iona lp a laeoenv i ronmen ta la na ly s i s a s aw ay o f u nde r s tand ing t h e g eomo rpho log ica l c hange s

t h es t ud ied a s semb lage si sf u r the re v idence o fp o s t -depo s i t iona l a nd p o s t -de s icca t ion d i s tu rbance . F ina l ly , S EM s t udy o f s t r ia t ion s o n b one w a s i n i t ia ted a s y e t a no the r m e thod o f i d en t if y ing / te s t ing h uman i mpac to ni n d iv idua lb one s .

a f f ec t ing a nc ien ts i te s . T he m e thodo logy d eve loped f o r t h i s s t udy i si n tended a s a p re l im inary f r amewo rk f o r t e s t ing t h e c u l tu ra l n a tu re o r i n teg r i ty o fv e ry e a r ly a s semb lage si nt h en o r the rn h em i sphe re . I t s a pp l ica t ion c ou ld b e e xpanded t o i n co rpo ra te s pa t ia l

W i th o ne e x cep t ion ,t h ef a una lr ema in sf r om t h ea r chaeo log ica l

d i s t r ibu t ion o f f a una l e l emen t s a t af i nd s i te i n c lud ing d i rec t iona l i n fo rma t ion o n l o ngbone s t o i d en t i fy p reva il ing

s i te s i n t h i s s t udy e xh ib i t n o s ub s tan t ive c ha rac te r i s t ic s t o d i s t ingu i sh t h em f r om t h ep a laeon to log ica lt e s t a s semb lage s .

c u r ren t d i rec t ion s ( i . e . , S ch ick e t a l . 1 989 ) . T he m e thodo log ica l a pp roach w a s s yn the t ic , e va lua t ing t h e a r chaeo log ica l s i te s a s a g roup r a the r t h an a na ly s ing

T he a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage sr e semb le s e conda ry d epo s i t s wh ich h ave u nde rgone e x ten s ive , p robab ly r e pea ted , d e s t ruc t ion a nd t r an spo r t . T he i rf i nd l o ca t ion si nf i ne -g ra ined s ed imen t s i nc on junc t ion w i th t h e n a tu re o fs ke le ta l e l emen t

i d iosy nc ra t ic t r a i t s o n as i te b ys i te b a s i s . T he g ene ra l t r end s u nde r o bse rva t ion i n c luded ar e la t ive a s se ssmen t o fs ke le ta l

r e p re sen ta t ion s ugge s tp rev iou s ,d if e r ing s ed imen ta ry m a t r ice s

e l emen t r ep re sen ta t ion

r e p laced d u r ing t ime s o fh yd rau l ic e ne rgy . T he l a ck o fr e l iab le

w i th

a v i ew

t o d e te rm in ing

i f

a nd

e v idence f o rc u l tu ra lc au sa l i ty p romp t st h ee s sen t ia lq ue s t ion o f

p a laeon to log ica l o pen -a i r s i te s . T h i s i n c luded a s se s s ing t h e d eg ree t ow h ich t h eb one d en s i ty :bone s u rv ivab i l i ty r e la t ion sh ip

t h es i gn if icance o ft h ea s soc ia ted l i th ic a r t i f ac t s . T he e v idence f r om t h i ss t udy s ugge s t st h a ta ni n te rp re t ive c onnec t ion b e tween

p l ayed a p a r t i n s ke le ta l r ep re sen ta t ion t h rough s imp le

l i th ic s a nd f a una c anno tb e made w i th a ny d eg ree o fc e r ta in ty b ecau se o fs e conda ry d epo s i t ion .

p re se rva t ion

d i f f e red

b e tween

a r chaeo log ica l

c omp a r i son o fs ke le ta le l emen t s ,a sw e l la sa pp l ica t ion a ga in s t B in f o rd 's ( 1981) h ume ra la nd e p iphy sea li n d ice s ,a nd r e la t ive

T axa f r om b o th s i te g roup s s how p oo rc o r re la t ion sw i th b u lk d ens i ty a s ad e te rm in ing f a c to r i ne l emen ts u rv iva l , a nd w i th u t i l i ty o f s ke le ta l p a r t s . Sma l l a s semb lage s i ze d ue t o

r ep re sen ta t ion o fd en se e l emen t s p e r s i te . F luv ia l f o rce s a r e u ncon s ide red p a rame te r si nE u ropean a r chaeo log ica ll i t e ra tu re , c on tr ibu t ing t o , a nd c r ea t ing ma ss d ea th a s semb lage s , a nd

t a phono rn ic d e s t ruc t ion i sp ropo sed a st h ed e te rm in ing f a c to r

r ewo rk ing t h e se a s semb lage s o ve r t ime . T he e f ec t s o f h y d rodynam ic f o rce so ns k e le ta lr ep re sen ta t ion w e re d eve loped

b eh ind t h el a ck o fc o r re la t ion b e tween %MAU a nd MGU Ia nd b u lk d ens i ty . T h i s i sa l so t r ue o f t a xa f r om Wre t ton a nd

i ns om ed e ta i l . Af l ume e xpe r imen tw a s i n i t ia ted i nr e spon se t ot h eo f t -c i ted p rem i se t h a tf i ne -g ra ined s ed imen ta ry ma t r ice s

S a lzg i t te r w he re r e a sonab le r ep re sen ta t ion o fm o s t e l emen t s

r e f le c tm in ima lv e loc i ty a t t r i t ion o fa na s semb lage . T he f l ume e xpe r imen tr epl ica ted t h ee f f ec t s o fs l ow -mov ing c u r ren t s o n

w a sn eve r the le s sa s soc ia ted w i th al a ck o fc o r re la t ion w i th b u lk

m ed ium s ized u ngu la te b one s . Winnow ing o ft h ea s semb lage s

p o r t ion o fe a ch a s semb lage b u ta r en o ts u ff i c ien t ly r ep re sen ted

d en s i ty a nd MGUL E lemen t so fh igh d en s i ty f o rm as i gn if ican t

6 4

t oc hange b u lk d en s i ty c o r re la t ion . T h i si sr e f le c ted i nt h el ow

q uan t i ty o f r i bs , w i th l ow i n nom ina te r ep re sen ta t ion .

t a ua nd r ho v a lue s f o rb u lk d en s i ty .

R ang if er s amp le a tS a lzg i t te r , w i th t h e g rea te s t MN I ( 46 ) o f a ny o ft h et a xa , h a s v e ry f ew r i b s i ndeed ,b u tr e la t ive ly g ood

B adg ley ( 1986 ) e f ec t ive ly a r gue s t h a t t h e n a tu re o f ad ea th a s semb lage w i l lp roduce e xpec ted t a phonom ic c ha rac te r i s t ic s .

r ep re sen ta t ion o f p e lv ic r ema in s . T he se e xamp le s c au t ion a ga in s ta ny b road i n te rp re tat ion o fp a t te rn ing ,p a r t icu la r ly w hen

T hu s amo r ta l i ty a s semb lage w h ich h a su nde rgone l i t t le a t t r i t ion

f o rce so fa c cumu la t ion a nd a t t r i t ion h ave n o tb een f a c to red i n to a s semb lage r ep re sen ta t ion . T he o t he r a r chaeo log ica l s i te s i n t h i ss amp le a r et h ou sand so fy ea r so lde rt h an e i the r Wre t ton o r

i sd i s t ingu i shed f r om af l uv ia l ly t r an spo r ted a s semb lage b yt h e a moun to fa r t icu la ted ma te r ia l ,s pa t ia ld i s t r ibu t ion o fe l emen t s , f r equency o fj uven i le r ema in s ,a nd b yp a t te rn so fb one d amage . I nt h i sr e sea rch ,t h et r an spo r ted ,d i s tu rbed s e conda ry n a tu re o f

T he

S a lzg i t te r , a nd i ts hou ld c ome a sn os u rp r i se t h a tt h ep re sence o ff r iab le r i b s a nd p e lv ic p o r t ion s i sn egl ig ib le . A tt he r i sk o f r e pe t i t ion ,t h e a r cha eo log ica ls i te sa r er ep re sen ted p r ima r i ly b y

t h e a r chaeo log ica l a nd p a laeon to log ica ld epo s i t si se v idenced b y t h e f r agmen ta t ion o fs ke le ta l e l emen t s , p reponde rance o f

s ke le ta l e l emen t s o fh igh d en s i ty a nd i nd ica te t h a t f r equen t a t t r i t iona l p roce s se s h ave r ende red t h em i n to d i s tu rbed , s e conda ry d epo s i t s r e ta in ing n o c l ea r e v idence o f h uman c au sa l i ty . B one d en s i ty i n c on junc t ion w i th t a phonom ic a t t r i t ion i st h ec au se o fa ny o bse rved e l emen tp a t te rn ing .

o ld -bone f r ac tu re e dge t y pe s , a nd s ke le ta l e l emen t r e p re sen ta t ion s . T he a r chaeo log ica lf a una la s semb lage s a r ei n e f f ec ti nd i s t ingu i shab le f r om t h ep a laeon to log ica l d epo s i t s i n t e rm s o f d eg ree o f f r agmen ta t ion , r e la t ive s u rv ivab il i ty o f i d en t if iab le e l emen t s , a nd e l emen tr e p re sen ta t ion .

6 . 1 .1 E v idence f o r h um an a c t iv i ty i nt h e S a lzg i t te r a s semb lage i s

Mode l l ing E ar ly Human Adapta t ion i n t he Nor thern Hem i sphere

s ugge s ted b yt h e many f r e sh -bone f r ac tu re s a nd t h ep robab le c u tma rk i d en t if i ca t ion s . C a rn ivo re g naw ing a tS a lzg i t te r i s , h oweve r , a l so v e ry h igh , w h ich m igh t a c coun t f o r t h e h i gh n umbe r o ff r e sh -bone f r ac tu re s . T he i n tac t c ond i t ion o ft h e

Mode l so fh uman a dap ta t ion d ependen to np a t te rn ing o ff a una l e l em en t sa r en o ts uppo r ted b yd a t af r om t h ea r chaeo log ica ls i te s i n t h i s s t udy . E a r ly s i te s h ave u nde rgone s i gn i f ican t mod if i ca t ion s o ve rt ime a nd n ol o nge rr e f lec to rr epre sen tt h e o r ig ina lt h ana tocoeno se . No ri si tl i ke ly t h a tt h e se d i s tu rbance s

S a lzg i t te rb one s a l so s ugge s t s m in ima ld i s tu rbance . T hese r e su l t s d i f f e r f r om L ev ine 's ( 1979 :68 ) c ompa r i son o f

a nd d i s to r t ion sc an b ea ccoun ted f o r ,e l im ina ted , a nd s y s tem ic c on tex t s i n f e r red f r om a ny r e ma in ing p a t te rn ing ( c f . S ch if f e r 1 976 , B in f o rd 1 983 ) . S e t t ing a s ide f o r t h e momen t t h e

F rench a r chaeo log ica la nd p a laeon to log ica le qu id a s semb lage s w he re t h e p a laeon to log ica l a s semb lage s e xh ib i t l e s s f r agmen ta t ion t h an t h ea r chaeo log ica ls amp le ( t he p e rcen tage o fp rox ima l a nd d i s ta l e nd s a nd f r agm en t s i sg rea te r i nt h e

p o ss ib i l i ty t h a t h uman a dap ta t ion may n o t b e t he s o r t o f q ue s t ion w es hou ld b ea sk ing o fe a r ly a s semb lage s ,i ti sw o r th c on s ide r ing a l te rna t ive p o r t raya l so fe a r ly h um an l i f eway s .

a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t ) . B on i f ay ( 1988 ) h a s n o ted as im i la r d i s t inc t ion b e tween a r chaeo log ica la nd p a laeon to log ica lf a una l p re se rva t ion a nd e xp la in si tw i th r e f e rence t oc u l tu ra la c t iv i ty , t h a ti s . ,b u tche r ing a c t iv i t ie sh ave c au sed t h ef r agmen ta t ion i n t h e a r chaeo log ica l s amp le . O ne e xp lana t ion f o r t h e g r ea te r f r agmen ta t ion o f t h e a r chaeo log ica l s amp le s i n t h e se t wo

T he t e nac i ty o ft h eh un t ing mode li nE u ropean a r chaeo log ica l l i t e ra tu re c an b et r aced t oi mp l ic i tw e s te rn b e l ie f s wh ich h o ld t h a t s u rv iva l i n vo lve s h e rcu lean s t reng th a nd t h e a b il i ty t o o ve rcome n a tu re ( Ma r t in a nd Voo rh ie s 1 975 , T anne r 1 988 ,

s t ud ie sm ay b et h a tt h ea r chaeo log ica lm a te r ia lo r ig ina ted f r om

Moo re 1 988 ) . S uch t r a i t s a r es em io t ica l ly l i nked i nw e s te rn

o pen -a i rs i t e s ,w he rea st h ep a laeon to log ica lr ema in sc ame f r om c ave s i te s , a si nL ev ine 's s amp le . D if e rence s i nt a phonom ic

s o c ie ty w i th t h ep ub l ic s phe re ,w i th p ol i t ica la nd s oc ia lc on t ro l , w i th t h e e xp re s s ion o fc u l tu re , a nd w i th a nd rocen t r ic s oc ia l

e nv i ronmen t , s uch a s t h ep re sence /ab sence o fh yd rody nam ic f o rce s a nd a l luv ia l o r c oluv ia l a c t iv i ty , a r e u nexp lo red p o s s ib i l i t ie sf o rt h ep re se rva t iona lt r end so b se rved i nb o th s i te

w h ich i st i ed t o n a tu re , t o p roc rea t ion , e mpa thy , c h i ld ren ,

s t ruc tu re s . T he se e x i s t i no ppo s i t ion t ot h e d omes t ic s phe re w omen , a nd t h e e l de r ly , b u t n o t w i th s oc ia l o r c u l tu ra l e xp re s s ion . T he l a ck o fr e p re sen ta t ion o f t h eo l da nd y oung , a nd o ff ema le s i np reh i s to ry i sp a r t icu la r ly e v iden ti n mu seum

g roups . I ti sa l so p o ss ib le t h a tt h ea r chaeo log ica ls amp le w a s s y s tema t ica l ly e xcava ted -a l b one s , w he the r i d en t if iab le o r u n iden t if iab le , w e re r e ta ined -w he rea s t h e p a laeon to log ica l s amp le r ep re sen t s i d en t if iab le a nd q uan t if iab le s pec imen s

e xh ib i t s a nd i n p opu la r l i t e ra tu re , b u t f i nd s i t s r oo t s i n a r chaeo log ica l i n te rp re ta t ion . One c ou ld c on tend t h a t t h e

c o l lec ted f o rp u rpose s o ft a xonom ic i d en t if i ca t ion .

mode l o fe a r ly h uman sp u r su ing f o rm idab le c r ea tu re s s uch a s t h em ammo th a nd t h er h inoce ro si s emb raced s o le ly b ecau se i t

B in f o rd o b se rved t h a th uman sr emove t h es ame e l emen t sf r om

s uppo r t st h ep ubl i c / techno log ica l /cu l tu ra ls t ruc tu re . C e r ta in ly

ak i l ls i te a sc a rn ivo re s a bandon a t ak i l ls i te , " An ima l sd ot h e

i t sp opu la r i ty i sn o tt ob ef o und i na ny c onc lu s ive e v idence . I n

m a jo rp a r to ft h e i rc on sump t ion a tt h ek i l l ,w he rea s [ human s ] t r an spo r tt h ec on sumab le p a r t s a way f r om t h ek i l lt o ac amp o r

t h i s

r e s idence " H ef u r the rn o te st h a to ne o ft h ec ha rac te r i s t ic so fa c a rn ivo re d epo s i ti st h ep reponde rance o fp e lve s a nd l a ck o f r i bs ,w i th t h er eve r se p a t te rn f o r ah uman t r an spo r ted d epo s i t ( B in fo rd 1 981 :236 -237 ) . Wre t ton , t h e b e s t p re se rved p a leon to log ica l s i te , h a s ap reponde rance o fr i bs a nd s ome i nnom ina te r ema in s i nt h e l a rge B i son p r i scu s s amp le . T he

r e spec t Wh i t ley ( 1992 :72 )

v ehemen t ly n o te s

t h a t

" . .con ten t ion s t h a tp roce s sua l a r chaeo log i s t s ' f o cu s o fs oc ia l i n qu i ry i ss omehow mo re c onc re te ,l e s s a bs t rac t , a nd n o tp a r t o ft h ec ogn i t ive r e a lm . . .a re s imp ly w rong -headed . " C onkey a nd G e ro ( 1991 :13 ) r e i te ra te t h i s c once rn f r om a g ende r p e r spec t ive b y o b jec t ing t o t h e a rgumen t t h a t m e thodo log ica l g aps mu s tb e f i led a nd b reak th rough s made b e f o re t h e a c t iv i t ie s r e la t ed t o " women 's w o rk " c an b e

b ov id a nd e qu id s amp le s a tS a lzg i t te r , t h e w e l l p re se rved a r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage , a l so c on ta in a r e la t ive ly l a rge

i d en t if i ed ; f o r i n s tance , f i nd ing p o l len s amp le s a te a r ly s i te s

6 5

wh ich c an b e e qua ted w i th t h e g ynocen t r ic "Woman t h e

woodwo rk ing , w o rk ing o fb one a nd s t one , a nd h ide a nd s k in

G a the re r " i n te rp re ta t ion . " G iven t h e p rev a i l ing t h eo re t ica l p os tu re o f mo s t c on tempo ra ry a r chaeo logy , e ngende r ing

p repa ra t ion .

E v idence f o r h a f t ing o f s c rape r s u sed i n

a rchaeo logy a lmo s t i mmed ia te ly b ecome s aq ue s t ion o f

w oodwo rk ing a nd p l an tp roce ss ing w a s a l so o b se rvab le . T he se t r ace s i nt u rn p o in t t oi nv i s ib le t e chno log ie sr e la t ing t ow ood ,

m e thod " (i b id . :11 , o r ig ina l i t a l ic s ) .

s k in s , a nd p o ss ib ly p lan t s .

T hey empha s ize t h a t

K ee leys ( 1980 ) c l a s s ic s t udy o f

" f ind ing t h ef ema le "i na r chaeo logy i sn o tt h ep o in tj u s ta st h e re

m ic rowea ro n2 67 l i th ic sf r om Swan scombe s howed e v idence

i sn on e ed t oi d en t i fy ma le p re sence i np reh i s to ry . S uch e f f o r t s

o f w a te r o r a eo l ian s i l t a b ra s ion a nd w ea the r ing o n 2 01

a re a s soc ia ted w i th p o s i t iv i s t /emp i r ic i s t s t ance s t oi g no re o r

s pec im en s . T he r ema in ing 6 6 w e re u npa t ina ted , u nwea the red ,

d i sm i ss a n " a rchaeo logy o f g ende r ( o r a ny s oc ia l t h eo ry )

w i th " ex t rao rd inar i ly s ha rp e dge s . "

b ecau se i td oe s n o t a ppea r t ob e ' t e s tab le - ( i b id . ) . G ende r a r chaeo logy c an b e d e sc r ibed a ss oc ia l a r chaeo logy o n am uch

t r ace s o fu se : t wo r e ta ined e v idence o fu se o nb one o ra n t le r ,

O f t h e se , f ou r s howed

mo re h uman s ca le b e cau se i tc onf ron t s t h e c oncep tua l a nd

a nd t h e o t he r s a r e a s soc ia ted w i th w oodwo rk ing . K ee ley ( 1980 , 1 993 ) a l so e xam ined l i th ic s f r om Hoxne a nd C lac ton .

a na ly t ica li n adequac ie s o fe x i s t ing d i sc ip l ina ry t h eo ry . I td oe s t h i sb ye xam in ing g ende rr e la t ion s a st h ey s t ruc tu re d i scu s s ion s

U sewe a rt r ac e sa r eo fw oodwo rk ing ,h ide s c rap ing a nd c u t t ing , b one c u t t ing , b one c hopp ing a nd b o r ing , a nd p lan t g a the r ing

o fp a s ts oc ie t ie s ( c f . a l so ( c f . a l so Ma r t in a nd V oo rh ie s 1 975 ,

a nd c u t t ing . S ome mea tp o l i she sw e re a l so o b se rved ,p robab ly

Wy l ie 1 985 , T anne r 1 988 , C onkey a nd G e ro 1 991 , G e ro a nd

f r om m ea tc u t t ing .

C onkey 1 991 , Wy l ie 1 991 , Wh i t ley 1 992 ) . . A s s uch , t h e re i s n o

T hu s ,i nt h ea bsence o fr e l iab le d a ta f r om f a una lr ema in sf r om v e ry e a r ly s i t e s i ti sa dv i sab le t os eek a l te rna t ive a pp roache st o

a gen t o r e v idence w h ich w i l l i s o la te g ende r i n a n

a r chaeo log ica l

f r amewo rk .

D ep ic t ion s

o f ma le h un te r s

i n te rac t ing w i th ac a rca s s a r ep u re ly s ymbo l ic c on s t ruc t ion s t h e re i sn oa r chaeo log ica lt e s t imony t ot h ee f ec tt h a t as pe c if i c s ex o ra ge g roup e xc lu s ive ly h un ted o rb u tche red a n ima l s .

l og ica l a nd d eve loped f r amewo rk f o r m ode l l ing p reh i s to r ic a dap ta t ion . A l te rna t ive mode l s o fe a r ly h uman l i feway s , a s o u t l ined i nt h ep rec ed ing p a rag raph s ,h ave t h eg rea te s tc apac i ty

I nt h e a bsence o fr e l iab le d a ta o ne a r ly h uman a dap ta t ion i ti s i mpo r tan t t oc on s ide r amode l o fa dap ta t ion i n dependen t o f a s sump t ion s p a t te rn ing .

r e la ted t o m ea t p rocu remen t

mode l l ing e a r ly h uman a dap ta t ion . A t p re sen t , t h e i d ea s a nd c once rn s o fg ende r t h eo ry i n a r chaeo logy p rov ide t h e m o s t

f o rc on tr ibu t ing t oa nu nde r s tand ing o ff ood p rocu remen t .

a nd f a una l 6 . 1 .2

A l te rna t ive s t o u nde r s tand ing e a r ly n o r the rn

T ime a st he Uncons idered Ho s to fA t tr i t ion

h em i sphe re a dap ta t ion ss hou ld i n vo lve s oc io -cu l tu ra lv a r iab le s o n a na log ic d e r iva t ive s f o r p regnancy a nd g e s ta t ion , t h e

L en se so ff a una l a nd l i th ic ma te r ia l s andw iched b e tween d a ted s ed imen ta ry l a ye r s a r e g ene ra l ly i n te rpre ted a s s i ng le

b i r th ing p ro ce s s ,p a ren ta li n ve s tmen ti no f sp r ing s u rv iva l , a nd h ow t h e se i n f luence t h es t ruc tu r ing o fs ubs i s tence p rocu remen t

r ep re sen ta t ion s . S uch a r chaeo log ica ll a y e r sm ay w e l lb eh igh

a nd s i te l o ca t ion , a r e s ome e xamp le s . Mode l s o fh a rd sh ip , whe re l a rge mamma l s a r e p u r sued a tg rea t e xpend i tu re o f

r e so lu t ion l e n se s o f i nd iv idua l e p i sode s , w i th g ood p re se rva t ion , p a r t icu la r ly f o r y ounge r s i te s . C h rono log ica l

e ne rgy i nh a r sh e nv i ronmen t s ,c ou ld b er ep laced b y mode l s o f

r e so lu t ion i s ,h oweve r ,n ega t ive ly a fec ted b ya b so lu te a ge . T he

n on -adve r s i ty ,m ad ep o s s ib le b yr e spon s ib i l i ty o fa l i nd iv idua l s

c on f l ic tb e tween r e so lu t ion a nd a ge h a sr ecen t ly b een e xam ined

a l ong s ide t e chno -env i ronmen ta l o ne s . A dap t ive mode l sb a sed

d epo s i t iona l

e ven t s

a nd

a s

mean ingf u l

b ehav iou ra l

s ea sona l

u s ing a r chaeo log ica l a nd s ed imen ta ry d a ta f r om t h e Oko te

movemen tt ow a rme rc l ima te s , a sw e l la sf ood p roce s s ing a nd

Membe r o f t h e K oob i F o ra F orma t ion i n n o r thwe s t K enya

s t o rage t e chn ique s .

( S te r n 1 993 ) . T he v a r iab le s t h a ti n f luenced t h el o ss o rd i sca rd

f o r

s ub s i s tence

a nd

a dap ta t ion ,

i n co rpo ra t ing

H a rd sh ip s c ena r io s c an f u r the r b e

s ucceeded b y mode l s o fg ene r ic a dap ta t ion ( Tanne r 1 981 :222 )

o fa r chaeo log ica l ma te r ia l s i nt h e Oko te Membe ra r en o tt h o se

w he reby e a r ly h uman s g a the red f o od s tu f f s , k i l led s ma l lg ame , b u tche red f o raged l a rge -mamma l c a rca sse s , a nd e xp lo i ted

w h ich c r ea ted t h e p a t te rned a s soc ia t ion s o f d eb r i s w h ich

f l uv ia le nv i ronmen t s . G a the r ing c omb ine s w i th f l uv ia lr e sou rce p rocu remen tt of o rm t h eb a s i s o ft h es ubs i s tence s y s tem .

t h eP l e i s tocene s ed imen t sc on ta in p a l imp se s t s o fd ebr is ( f auna a nd l i t h ic s )t h a ta ccumu la ted o ve rt hou sand s o fy ea r s a nd d on o t

T he p o ten t ia l f o r mode l s o f g ene r ic a dap ta t ion f i nd s s ome

r ep re sen t s i ng le e ven t s i n t ime . S he f u r the r c r i t ic ize s t h e a pp l ica t ion o f s ho r t t ime -sca le mode l s o f a r chaeo log ica l

e mp i r ica lb a s i s i nt h ea na logue m ic rowea rs t ud ie sw h ich p o in t

i n qu i ry , s uch a st h ei d en t if ica t ion o fh om in id a c t iv i ty a r e a s ,t o

t ot o o lu se i na s soc ia t ion w i th p lan tm a te r ia l s , s ome t ime s w i th

e v idence w h ich d eve loped o ve r t h e l o ng t e rm a nd r ep re sen t s

h ide s , b u tr a re ly w i th f l e sh . M ic rowea ra na ly s i sh a sp rov ided

mo re t h an o ne d epo s i t iona le ven t .

a r chaeo log i s t sh ave s t ud ied . S te rn e f ec t ive ly d emon s t ra te st h a t

i n s igh t si n to t h ef u nc t ion o fs t one t o o l s , a nd ,b ye x ten s ion ,e a r ly h uman a c t iv i t ie s , m a te r ia l s , a nd e ven f unc t iona l a na tomy o f

T he b e t t e rp r e serva t ion o b se rved f o rt h e Wre t ton a nd S a lzg i t te r

e a r ly h uman s . A nde r son -Ge r f aud 's ( 1990 ) s t udy o ft o o l sf r om

f a una l e l emen t s c on t ra s t s w i th t h e f r agmen ted a s semb lage s

F rench M idd le P a laeo l i th ic r ock she l te r s i te s ( Mou s te r ian o f

f r om o lde r s i te s s uch a sf r om NbVn -4 , P rez le t ice , P inedo , o r

A cheu l ian t r ad i t ion , w i th C 14 d a te o f4 0 ,000 B Pf r om h ea r th

A r ido s . D ife rence si np re se rva t ion i lu s t ra te t h a t as i te 's a ge i s

l e ve la tP e ch d el ' Az0 i n c luded a pp rox ima te ly 1 000 r e touched

ac r i t ica ld e te rm in ing f a c to ro f ad epo s i t ' sc ond i t ion . T hu s , i ti s

t o o l s o fw h ich 3 00 s t i l lb o re w el p re se rved m ic rowea rt r ace s .

r e a sonab le t os t a te t h a tt h eo l de r as i te t h eg rea te rt h el i k e l ihood

No t r ace s o fw ea rr e la ted t ot h eu se o fp ro jec t i le s o rb u tche ry

t h a t i ti s n o t a n u nd i s tu rbed a nd p r ima ry d epo s i t .

w e re f o und ,a l though s ome h ave b e en f ound o nl a te rS o lu t rean

g eomo rpho log ica l c hange s wh ich t h e e a r th 's s u r f ace h a s

p o in t sa nd b l ade le t s ( i b id . :399 ) . Wea rt r ace s w e re i d en t if iab le t o a v a r ie ty o f a c t iv i t ie s i n c lud ing p lan t p roce ss ing ,

u nde rgone n o r th o f 4 0° o ve r t h e p a s t 7 00 ,000 y ea r s a r e c on s ide rab le .

6 6

T he

Wh i le a r chaeo log i s t s a cknow le dge t h e g rea t

t ime d ep th f o re a r ly E u ropean s i te s , a nd i n deed s t r ive t owa rd s

t ha t f a una l r ema in s a r e r e f lec t ive o fh un t ing o r o fa ny o t he r

o lde r d a te s f o r h uman p re sence , t h e re r ema in s a n i mp l ic i t

a dap t ive s t ra tegy s uch a s f o rag ing o r s caveng ing .

d i savowa l t h a t g r ea t t ime d ep th i n he ren t ly i mpl ie s e x ten s ive p roce s se so fc hange . P u ta no the rw ay , " p roce s se s o ve rt ime "i s

t a phonom ic me thodo logy i st e s ted wh ich d oe s n o t a s sume

a ni n cong ruou ss t a temen tb ecau se p roce s se sa re t ime ,a nd v i ce v e r sa ( Ba i ley 1 983 :168 ) ;w i th r e spe c tt oe a r ly s i te s ,l o ng te rm t ime f r am e s n eed t o b e a ck now ledged a s n on -s ta t ic i n a g eomo rpho log ica la nd t a phonom ic s en se .

A

c u l tu ra l i n te rven t ion b u t c r i t ica l ly e va lua te s s i te f o rma t ion p roce s se s t o t e s t t h e i ns i tu p rem i se , a s se ss a tr i t ion o ft h e f auna lr ema in s , a nd d raw c ompa r i son s w i th p a laeon to log ica l a s semb lage s . T he r e su l t sd emon s t ra te t h ea b sence o fe v idence f o rc u l tu ra lc au sa l i ty , a nd t h ey r e f lec tt h el i ke l ihood t h a tt h e se s i te s h ave b een d i s tu rbed a nd d i spe r sed b y s ed imen ta ry p re s su re s ,c a rn ivo re g naw ing ,f r eeze thaw a c t ion so ve rt h el o ng

C lea r ly , w e m u s t q ue s t ion w het he r r e sea rch p rob lem s p e r t a in ing t oh un t ing o rt oa dap ta t ion a r et h es o r t so fq ue r ie st o

a nd s ho r tt e rm ,a nd b yrepea ted f l uv ia la c t ion . Mu l t ip le l i ne so f e v idence h ave r e su l ted i n a mode l o f c on s tra in t whe reby

b e made o ft ime s c a le s o ft h eL owe ra nd M idd le P le i s tocene , w he re a na r chaeo log ica ll a ye rm ay w e l lr ep re sen tt h ou sand so f

e x ten s ive t a phonom ic a t t r i t ion o fa r chaeo log ica l a s semb lage s l im i t s t h ep o ss ib le r ange o fi n te rp re ta t ion s o ft h e se d a ta . T he

y ea r s a nd s e ve ra ld epo s i t iona le ven t s . S t e rn ' s ( 1993 )p u rpo se w a s t o e ncou rage t h e e xp lo ra t ion o f t h eo r ie s o f h uman

a s soc ia t ion o ff a una lr ema in sw i th l i th ic t oo l s may b ee n t i re ly f o r tu i tou s a nd c anno tb es hown t ob ec au sa l .

b ehav iou ra l e vo lu t ion o ve r t h e l o ng t e rm . T h i s i s ad if i cu l t p u r su i tw hen f a una l a s semb lage s , a st h o se i nt h i s s t udy , a nd u l t ima te ly f a una ll i th ic a s soc ia t ion s , c anno t b e c on s ide red

P o s t -po s i t iv i s tc r i t ique sp o in tt ot h eh egemony o fa nd rocen t r ic , w e s te rn c oncep tua l iza t ion s o ft h ep a s t a s a n e xp lana t ion f o r e a r ly h uman a dap ta t ion . Mode l so fn on -adve r s i ty a nd g ene r ic

c u l tu ra l ly m ean ing fu l . A tt h ev e ry l e as t , a n a wa rene ss o ft h e f r a i l ty o fe a r ly -s i te d a ta b a se s m ay e ncou rage g rea te r l ow to -

a dap ta t ion a dvoca te c ogn i t ive a pp roache s a nd a na log ica l c on s truc t s f o r r e -def in ing p reh i s to r ic a dap ta t ion . T he se a pp roa che sr emove t h ec on s t r ic t ion o fa s se s s ing e a r ly s i te so n ly i n t e rm s o f mu tua l ly e xc lu s ive , mea t p rocu remen t d ef ined

m idd le r a nge r e sea rch i n u se -wea r a na ly s i s , b one c u tma rk a n a ly s i s ,c au t iona ry a pp roache st ot h ei n te rp re ta t ion o fa nc ien t s i te s ,a nd c ogn i t ive t h eo re t ica la pp roache st ot h es t udy o fe a r ly h uman b ehav iou r .

h un t ing , f o rag ing a nd s caveng ing s chema . I f ,h oweve r ,e a r ly 6 .2

s i te s a r e n o t a s se s sed f o r t a phonom ic d i s tu rbance , w i thou t c r i t ica l i n te rp re ta t ion o f t h e e v idence , t h en c onc lu s ion s c once rn ing h uman a dap ta t ion f a l l w i th in t h e r e a lm o f my th mak ing .

CLOS ING RE MARKS

I n t h i s r e sea rch I e ngage c r i t ica l ly w i th t h e t e ne t s t h a t l i t h icf auna la s soc ia t ion sa r eb ehav iou ra l ly m ean ing fu la te a r ly P le i s tocene n o r the rn s i te s , t h a t e a r ly s i te a r chaeo log ica l d epo s i t sa r ei nu nd i s tu rbed o rn ea r ly u nd i s tu rbed c on tex t ,a nd

6 7

APPENDIX 1 HISTOGRA MS OF SKELETAL ELE MENT REPRESENTATION I N ALPHABETICAL ORDER OF S ITE NA ME

6 8

A r idos — N ISP A l l T axa

Ba fe t f lON 1 0 1 . .1

3

c ran ia lf ragment

4

r i b

f e mur a ha f If ragmen t

t i b ia s ha lt f ragment KED IUM a f f tV ID 1 0 4 1=1 max i l la w ith t aeth

2

mand ib le w ith t ee th l oose t ee th l it p ha lange

1 6

2

2 nd p ha lange

4

l oog l ione a ba f t

E QU I MBOV ID

1

v er tebra lf ragment

E IL II IA8 s p .M N I.1 l oom t ua t h .

r i b a cetabu lar Imp :cent

f emur s ha ft f ragmen t l ongbon• s ha ft t rag .

u n iden t i f ied

4 2

U P00 40 1 1 1 1T AU

c ran ia lf ragmen ts

2

l ong b one ' haf tt r ig .

T ota l E le ments=87 I nc ludes B os/B ison , M ed iu m c erv id , E qu id/Bov id ,E lephas s p . , a nd Unknown t axon

6 9

A rr iaga - N ISP A l l T axa

BOS \ 1 1 130N mand ib le w i th t eeth t horac ic v er tebra p rox i ma lr ad ius C ERV ID WI= 1 s capu la f ragment p rox i ma lr ad ius p rox i ma lu lna p rox ima l me tacarpa l p rox ima ln is iataraa l E QUED \BOV ID c or t ica lv ar iab le

3

t horac ic v er tebrae p rox i ma lu lna

2

pe ed° f rag men ts l ongbana Ma tt f rig . E LEPHAS S P . WI= 1 c ran ia lf ragment

1 82

t horac ic v ar tabra r ib

5 8

2

s capu la f ragmen ts

3

l ongb cm• s ha ft f rag . u h idan t l f .a l i men ts

3 0

E QU ID S P .l i f f 1= 1 t i b ia a ba ft f ragment UN 10 40 1 IN ' LUG c ran ia lf r t spaan ts

0

2

4

T ota l E le ments=131

6

8

1 0

B a lderton — N ISP T ab le 1o f 2

B OS\B ISON M 1 4 1=2 a x is l u mbar v er tebra

2

s capu la hu merus s ha ft

2

p rox ima lr ad ius r ad ius s haft 2 nd p ha lange f e mur s ha ft t ib ia s haft c a lcaneu m p rox i ma l metatarsa l who le metatarsa l C ERVUS E LAPHUS k iN I= 1

8

c ran ia l f rag ments mand ib le f rag ment d ista l h u merus metatarsa ls ha ft D ICERORH INUS S P . b iN I=2 c ran ia l f rag ments manI la

6

t ooth f rag ments s capu la

2

p rox i ma l h u merus

8

hu merus s haft

4

p rox i ma lr ad ius r ad ius s haft

2

who le r ad ius p rox i ma lu lna metacarpa ls haft a cetabu lar f rag ment d ista l f e mur a straga lus

0

2

4

6

8

1 0

Nu mber o f E le ments=56/202 I nc ludes B os\B ison ( B .PR ISCUS & O V IBUS M OSCHATUS r epresented ) , C ERVUS E LAPHUS , a nd D icerorh inus s p .

B a lderton — N ISP V ar ious T axa T ab le 2o f 2

E QUUS C ABAL

=

a c tapub s d ista l h u merus h u meru s dud t

3

a a traga lus me ta tarsa la ba f t

2

who le me tatarsa l d is ta l metapod ia l

2

ma tapod la l s ha f t E L ES 'HAS S P . 1E 1.1 mand ib le

2

t horac ic v er tabra

3

r ibe

1

s capu la h u meru s ,s ha f t

2

Wa t t* ha ft

3

a oetabu lar f rag ment p rox ima l UM* p rox i ma l metapod ia l h ang b one s he f t

1

UM CNO ln iT AL L c ran ia lf ragment c er r ica lv ertebra v er tabra lf ragment

2 3

r ibs h u merus s ha f t d is ta l ma ins

2

p e lv ic f ragment

2 7

l ongbone e nd f rogs l ongbone a ba f t

8 8

Nu mber o f E le ments=146/202 I nc ludes E QUUS C ABALLUS , E lephas s p . , Unknown T axa

7 2

Madr id A reneros S ites \ ISP ( Fuenta d e l aB ru ja , L as M ercedes ,T rans fesa , a nd V i l laverde )

B OS NBC 30 1 4 c ran ia lf ragn aan t

2

c erv ica le ar t a ibra » oapu la p rox i ma lh u meru s i st p ha lange 3 rd p ha lange a cetabu lar f ragmen t p rox ima lt i b ia B ISON M

MUS 1 1 4 1w2

c erv ica lw er tabre w ho la h uman» ; who le r ad ius R od p ha lange who le meta tarsa l G ER M S P .l i t 4 1-3 c ran ia lf ragment

2

a nt ler max ila

2

mand ib le W ‘ Wa l l a t a pper t ooth ,l oose c er v ica lv er tebra v er tebra lI r agmen t d ista lr ad iu s

2

c arpa ls \t ama le

2

w ho le met acarpa l R od p ha lange d is ta l ma tapod ia l D ICERORHD IUS S P . I f tew 1 who le r ad iu s 1 3 .2 1PHAS S P .1 0 4 42 w bo la matapod ia l l onghone s ha ft [ rag . E QUUS S P . mand ib le mand ib le r v ‘t se th

2

u pper t ooth ,l oose

a

l ower t oo th .l oom , t oo th f ragmen t

3

2

4

6

8

1 0

Nu mber o f E le ments=51 I nc ludes B os/B ison , B ISON P R ISCUS , C ervus s p . , D icerorh inus s p . , E lephas s p . , a nd E quus s p .

7 3

M 1V 1-2 ( O ld C row ) N ISP T ab le 1o f 3

A LOPEX L AGOPU8 10 1- 1 t oo th / raimen t 1 3 0 : 1\ 1 3 1SON 18 1— 1

2

c ran ia lf ragments mand ib le

4

l oose t eeth .u pper

5

l oose t eeth .l ower

7

t oo th f ragmen ts r ibs s capu la h u msrus s ha lt p rox i ma lu lna c arpe l s Mar sa la I st p ha lange 3 rd p halange p e lv ic f rag ment p ros t ma l Uh l& f ibu la c a lcine =

7

l ong b one s ha ft f rog . C ASTOR S P . l i N I-2

3

t ooth f ragment. s capu la h u merus c ha tt C ERV ID

1 0 4 1-1

me ta tarsa ls ha lt c l ien t me tapo e t ta l E QUUS S P . 88 1.1 t oo th f ragment h u merus s ha f t d ista l me teearpa l

0

2

4

6

8

1 0

Nu mber o f E le ments = 48/333 I nc ludes A LOPEX L AGOPUS ,Bos/B ison , C astor s p . , C ervus s p . , a nd E quus s p .

7 4

M 1V 1-2 ( O ld C row ) N ISP T ab le 2 o f 3

1 CCROFAUNA 1 0 1 1 ..2 mand ib le l u mbar

2

r ibs

2

p rox i ma l h u merus

2

d is ta l h umerus a cetabu lar f ragmen t

2

d is ta lf e rm ir d ista lt ib ia

4

l ong b one s ha ft f rog . u n ident if ied t rag . I LUO IUTHUS S P . NM I- 1

3

l oose t ee th . u pper

1

4

t oo th f ragment t horac ic v er tebra r ib,

4

e oapu la d i s ta l h u merus

8

l ong b one s ha ft f rog . S ANG IVER T A

WD US 10 1=1

3

l oose t e eth .l oser t ooth f rag ment p rox i ma lr ad ius c arpa l s\ la na is d ista l me t acarpa l i st p l ia lange

2

d is ta l me tata rsa l P ANTHERA L SO WO- 1 a a traga lus

0

2

4

6

8

1 0

Nu mber o f E le ments=50/333 I nc ludes M icro fauna ,M ar n muthus s p . , R ANG IFER T ARANDUS , a nd P ANTHERA L EO

7 5

M 1V 1-2 ( O ld C row ) N ISP T ab le 3o f 3

L ARGE UNGULATE

c ran ia l f rag ments

7

t ooth f rag ment

7

7 ertebra lf rag ment

r ibs

1 3

2

s capu la h u merus s haft

9

e tabu lar f rag ment

p e lv ic f rag ment

mgbone s ha ft f rag .

1 90

3

un ident i f ied f rag .

URS ID S P . MN I=1

i st p ha lange a 0

3 2

I

4

1

I

I

6

8

1 0

N u mber o fE le ments=235/333 I n c ludes L arge U ngu la te a nd U rs id s p .

7 6

M 1V 1-7 ( O ld C row ) N ISP T ab le 1o f3

BOS \B ISON UR I.I

7

l oose t ee th a t las v er tebra c erv ica lv er tebra t horac ic v ar tabra s capu la d ista l hu merus d ista lr ad iu s . o arpa ls \ tarsa ls

2

p rox i ma l me tacarpa l d is ta l metacan sa l me tacarpa la ba ft

2

1 st p ha lange

2

n av icu lo-oubo ld

2

p rox ima l me tatar sa l d is ta l m .a tapod ia l C ERVUS S P .l i tN I=1

5

c ran ia l f ragments l oose t ee th h u merus s ha lt a i r traga lus n av icu lo-cubo ld d ista l ma tatarea l D ICERORR INUS S P . 1 1 :N .v1 l oose t ae t / s

2

4

6

8

Nu mber o f E le ments=37/193 I nc ludes B os/B ison , C ervus s p . , a nd D icerorh inus s p .

1 0

M 1V 1-7 ( O ld C row ) \ ISP T ab le 2 o f 3

E QU1D\BOV ID 1 ,N 41 c ran ia l F ragmen ts

4

L oose t ee th a x le v er tebra

2

L i 10 11C iC tv er tebrae

6

v er tebra l f rag men ts r ibs h u merus s ha f t

3

c arpahAta rea la a cetabu lar f ragment

2

p e lv ic f ragment d is ta lf e mur

2

t ib ia s ha f t w ho le Uh l* d iata l me ta laraa l

2

d is ta l matapod la l me tapod la l'ha ft

3

l ongbo w ,e nd f rag . l ongbane s ha ft t rag . C QUUS S P .1 0 4 1.2

9

t ee th f rag men ts a i ls c erv ica lv ert ebra

2

d ista lr ad ius

5

I st p ha lange

3

2 nd p ha lange

2 2

3 rd p ha lange a eetabu lar f ragmen t d is ta lf e mur f e mur s ha ft

4

d isti l Ub la p a ta l la

4

a n traga lue

3

n ar leu lo—cubo ld d ista lr ne tatarea l who le n ietatar m l

4

d is ta l matapod ia l

0

2

4

6

Nu mber o f E le ments=79/193 I nc ludes E qu id/Bov id a nd E quus s p .

8

1 0

M 1V 1-7 ( O ld C row ) \ ISP T ab le 3 o f 3

L ARGE MAMMAL 10 41

c ran ia l f ragment"

2

v e rtebra lf ragments

3

c arpa l s \t ar a la

3

I LU ID IUTHUS S P

N I N I=1

t eeth f reg man ts

4 0

t horac ic v er tebra

ve rtebra lf ragments

r i bs

3

h u merus s ha f t

e arP• 1 \ tana la

3

e cetabu lar f ragments

d is ta lf e mur

l ongbone e nd ! rags .

R ANG IFER T ARANDUS

c ran ia l t rag man ts

URSUS S P .

-1

who le r ad ius

p ros :M IL u lna

UNKNOWN T ARA

c ran ia l fr agmen ts

3

3 rd p ha lange

2

4

6

8

1 0

Nu mber o f E le ments=77/193 I nc ludes L arge M a m ma l , Ma m muthus s p . , R ANG IFER T ARANDUS , U rsus s p . , a nd Unknown T axa

7 9

\bV 1-2 ( O ld C row ) 1 \I SP T ab le 1o f 6

BOS \HLSON

I

5

a kul

8

l oose t aeth ( upper )

4

l oose t eeth ( l ower )

5

t ooth f rag ments

2

c erv ica lv ertebrae t horac ic v er tabrae

2

l u mbar v e rtebrae d ista l hu merus

2

h u merus Ma tt p rox i ma l r ad iu s o arpa la \ tarsa ls

2

p rox i ma l me tacarpa l

2

d is ta l me tacarpa l

4

metacarpa l &e f t who le me taca rpa l 2 nd p ha lange 3 rd p ha lange e a ca tabu lar f ragment

2 2

d is ta lf e mur p rox i ma l Ub ia &a la it ib ia

2

t ib ia a ba f t ° s imme r =

2

d is ta l matapod ia l I on/bone e nd

a

I

a

Nu mber o f E le ments=55/588 B os/B ison

8 0

i \ b\ 7 1-2 ( O ld C row ) N ISP T ab le 2o f 6

C ERVUS S P . IN I -2

4

c ran ia l fr agma n.

2

L 00.0 L oath ,l ower

t ooth f rag ments

7

r ibs

2

h u merus : ha tt

d iata lr ad ium

r ad ius s ha f t

4

a c etabu lar f rag ment

3

p e lv ic f ragment

p rox i ma l t ib ia

a z traga lus

2

meta tarsa l s ha ft

2

p rox i ma l ma tapod ia l

4

d is ta l ma tapod la l

ma tapod ia ls ha ft

3

Mosbore s ha f t

I

0

2

4

6

N u mber o fE le ments=39/588 C ervus s p .

8

1 0

MoV 1-2 ( O ld C row ) MSP T ab le 3 o f 6

l e gU lD\BOV ID 1 1, 1 . .??

4

c ran ia lf ragments

'

t oo th f rag men t» c erv ica lv er tebrae t horac ic v er tebrae

1 4 ,

-

2

l u mbar v a rtebrae s acra lv er tabrae

2 8

v ertebra l f ragments r ibe

1 6

s capu la p rox i ma l h u merus d iata l Mana ma

5

h u merus s ha ft

,

r ad io» » ha f t

1 0

o arpa i e\ L a m l e me tacarpa la ba f t

5

a ce tabu ler f ragment p e lv ic f ragment

2

p rox i ma lf e mu r

4

p ros : ra id t ib ia t ib ia a ba f t c a loana mm t p roxima l me ta taraa l

4

me ta tarsa l s ha f t p rox i ma l metapod ia l

2

& Ma l metapod la l l angban• & ha !I

1 3

2

4

6

Nu mber o f E le ments=103/588 E qu id/Bov id

8

1 0

N I DV 1-2 ( O ld C row ) \ ISP T ab le 4 o f 6

E QUUS S P . 1 t 4 1 2 l oose t ee th . u pper

1 4

5

l oose t eeth ,l ower

i

t ooth f ragmen t,

1 3

a t las a x is l u mbar v er tebras

2

r ibs s capu la d i sta l h u meru s hu merus a ba ft r ad ius a ba ft

6

o urpa l e \t arsa ls

3

p rox ima l me tacarpa l

j

df a ta l me tacarpa l metacarpa la ba ft

2

I s tp ha lange

2

2 nd p ha lange

7

3 rd p ha lange

7

a cx r tabu lar f rag ment p e lv ic f rag ment

2

f a inur a ba f t

4

d ista lt ib ia c a leaneu m a a traga lu e

3

n av Ic t i lo—oubo ld

4

p rox ima l me ta tarsa l who le metatarsa l d ista l i netapod ia l

7

l atera l ma t apod ia l

o

2

4

6

Nu mber o f E le ments=115/58B E quus s p .

8

1 0

\ -b \ 7 1-2 ( O ld C row ) \ ISP T ab le 5 o f 6

MED IUM UNGULATE MI— 1 c ran ia l f ragments v er tebra l f rag men ta , .... ,.. . ... . ...

. .

9

r ibs h u meru» s ha f t

5

c arpa ls\ tarsal s

2

a cetabu lar f ragmant

3

p e lv ic f ragment d is ta lf e mur p rox i ma lt lb la p rox i ma l matapod ia l

6

l ong b on. a lm !t l ong b one a nd I l AMMUTHUS S P . WU— 1 t ooth f ragmen ts

1 57

2

l u mbar v er tab ra• v er tebra lf ragment»

3

r ibs

3

c arpa ls\t arsa ls p a te l la

4

l o r a4 b one s ha ft J on i /bone e nd SMALL UNGULATE l i f t 4 1. .1 t ooth f ragmen t. o arpa lA tarm i l»

I

o

2

4

6

8

1 0

Nu mber o fE le ments .-2 08/588 I nc ludes M ed iu m U ngu late , M a m muthus s p . , a nd Sma l l U ngu late

8 4

N bV 1-2 ( O ld C row ) N ISP T ab le 6 o f 6

UNKNOWN T AXA

c ran ia lf rag men ts

1 7

t oo t b f rag ments

3 6

c ornea lv er tebra

n ac re )v er tebra

2

v ertabra l f ragments

r ibs

5

e arpaN taraa la

ae atabu lar f ragment

d ista l U tda

5

10 114 0000 le a n

a 2

4

6

Nu mber o f E le ments=68/588 Unknown T axa

8 5

8

1 0

N1 DV n

4- N ISP

T ab le 1o f 2

B O : 1V M M UM= I

3

l oose t ee th , u pper

t ooth f rag men ts d is ta l me tacarpa l p rox i ma l me t apod la l C ARN IVORA S P Y IN I•1

t ooth f ragment s

2

C ASTOR S P . MN I-3 t ooth f ragmen ts e acrehceuda l

2

p rox i ma lu lna 3 rd p t ia la ry re C E :RVUS S P . 1 4N 1-3 c ran ia l f ragments max i l la e r \ tf f l th

E QUE MBOV 1D WA- 1 l oose t ee th . U pper I LU INUTH M S P IN 1.2

c nu a ia lt reg man is

w \t ee th

2 6

t ooth f rag men ts

p e lv ic f rag men ts

2

k ongbane s ha f t u r i ldenUhed t ra p .

2

4

6

8

1 0

Nu mber o f E le ments= 1 6/66 I nc ludes B os/B ison , C arn ivora s p . , C astor s p . , C ervus s p . , E qu id/Bov id , M a m mu thus s p .

\bVn-4

N ISP

T ab le 2o f 2

E QUUS S P , IN I • •1 c ran ia lf ragments l oo se t ee th . u pper

7

l ooas t ae t l i ,l ower

3

t oo th f ragmen ts l u mbar v ertebra p rox i ma l h u merus h u merus a ba f t p rox i ma lr ad ius p rox i ma lu lna

2

o arpa tA taree ls

3

I st p ha lange S rd p ha langs a estabu lar f ragmen t d is ta lf e mur d is ta l t ib ia

3

c s i leaneu m d is ta l me ta tarsa l L ARGE M AMMAL UR I- 1 u n i c l imt l f ied f r ig. R ANG ETER T A IL f iNDUS 1 c ran ia lf rag men ts l aces t ee th u pper s capu la d ista lr ad ius c arpa ls‘ tarsa la a s traga ius

0

2

a

I

4

6

a

8

1 0

Nu mber o f E le ments=37/66 I nc ludes E quus s p . , L arge M a m ma l , a nd R ANG IFER T ARANDUS

8 7

P ined ( ) -\ ISP A l lT axa

H OS\B ISON MN I.1 l oose t ee th , u pper l oose t eeth . l ower t oo th f ragments

5

l ongbone s ha f t C ERVUS S P . MN I— 1

2

c ran ia lf ragments mand ib le

4

l oose t eeth , l ower t oo th f rag ments

1 5

metacarpa ls haf t

2

1 3 1 .p ha lange d is ta lt i b ia d ista l metapod la l

6

l ongbone s ha ft who le l ongbone E QUUS S P . MN I= 1

2

l oose t eeth , u pper l oose t eeth . l ower

1 0

t ooth f ragments l ongbone s ha ft H IPPOPOTAMUS t ooth f rag ment P ALAEOLOXODON MN I=1 l oose t eeth , u pper t ooth f ragments UNKNOWN T A / CA

8

t ooth f ragments l ongbone s ha ft

_

o

2

4

6

8

1 0

Nu mber o f E le ments =64 I nc ludes B os/B ison , C ervus s p . , E quus s p . , H ippopota mus , P ALAEOLOXODON A NT IQUUS , a nd Unknown T axa

P rez let ice — N ISP V ar ious T axa — T ab le 1o f 3

B OS \B ISON 1 [ 4 41

5

l oose t ooth . l ower

9

t oo th f ragment c erv ica lv ertebra v er tebra lf rag ment p rox ima l r ad ius d i ata lr ad ius

4

o arpa lA tarea ls l e tp ha lange p rox i ma lf a mur C APREOLUS C APREOLUS IN I= 1 c ran ia lf ragmen ts t oo th f ragment p rox ima lr ad ius C ERVUS E LAP IR IS WN I. •1

3

l oose t ooth ,l ower t oo th f ragmen t t horac lo v e rtebra p rox ima lr ad lus c arpa l . \t arsa l*

2 3

2 nd p ha lange p rc c r i ma lf e mur d iata lf e mur me tapod ia la ba ft l ongbona s ha ft f rag .

2

2

C I MUS S P . IN I. 1 t oo th f ragment C AMS L UPUS

2

1

4

t oo th f ragment D IC OORM IX1 15 S P . 1 f 4 1, 1 l oo se t oo th .l ower t oo th f rag ment f e mur a ba ft

2

4

6

8

1 0

Nu mber o f E le ments=52/153 I nc ludes B os/B ison , C APREOLUS C APREOLUS , C ERVUS E LAPHUS , C ervus s p . , C AN IS L UPUS , a nd D icerorh inus s p .

8 9

P rez let ice — \ ISP V ar ious T axa — T ab le 2 o3

E QU E ITOOV ID N 3C. I

3

mr lia m lf rag ment

r tb

b u ina re• a l ma

p r u l m. 1 m aw ,

mrpa lgUa m W

me louho-c ruba li l

2

e naLapod ia ä

3

. ha il t rue .

r q l 7U1 1 0000 1 1 N3100« 1

2

t d oet l et ro pren

= PEAS F P .1 04 1« I

l oo m t ra th . Me «

2

t ooth b u ms .

Wm .M a t

E QUU l lC P .M I -4

1 0

L oo m t i n s ti . Myer

Wo e i m a m

,

3 0

4 3

wrta lwa l

& Ma i l mi l ieu

a ap ir i a i

2

me

b ig p er äsm ee

3M p lm lam pe

pna l ma lSaw '

-!

a u lo mmu m

a n t mea lw e

1 I 2

8

4

1 0

Nu mber o f E le ments = 70/153 I nc ludes E qu id\Bov id , E QUUS H EM IONUS , E lephas s p . , a nd E quus s p .

9 0

P rez let ice — N ISP V ar ious T axa — T ab le 3 o f 3

M A M MA P 1 100C 1D 1 11 13

1 04.1

t r i ti moto

3

t ooth t ro o p . ..

l ongbono s haf tt rot

u n idos t 1 1 1.4 hot

2

T ROGOS ITH IOSUI

1 04.1

a r tari l l tio

WED

=U NGL ILITZ

v or ta la to lt ropme si

2

Mo wn» mo lt

b ong ing » & to ll t rot .

2

U l la lD S P .1 04.1

t oo th t rso me t

moun tT a t« l o om t o o t h . Wo w

5

t ooth Im port

5

. .Mah n ' boso m

s ompe l .

o orpo loh lano lo

2

ei leme•

dea lL AM

2

1 0 14 1hoWo o l to tt t rig .

a

2

4

6

8

1 0

Nu mber o f E le ments 33/153 I nc ludes MAMMUTHUS P R IM IGEN IUS ,T ROGONTHER IUM C UV IER I , M ed iu m S ize Ungu late , U rsus s p . , a nd Unknown T axon

9 1

S a lzg itter—Lebenstedt N ISP T ab le 1o f 6

8 0 : 3\ i 3L30 / 41 N 1=3

7

c ran ia lf rag reen ta max i l la mand ib le

2 3

w \U ie t l a

1

mand ib le W it eeth l oose Wa l la l ower

3

a Uaa

3

a x l e

4

v ar tabra lf ragment

2 0

r ib p rox i ma lh umerus h u morua s ha lt

2

d is ta lr ad iu m ' r ad ius s ha ft who l e 'r ad ius c arpa l» t area ls

3

p rox ima l me tacarpa l w ho le ma tacarpa l 2 nd p ha lange

2

3 rd p ha lange a ce tabu lar f ragmen t

3

p rox i ma lf emur who le me tatarsa l d is ta l me tapod ia l B ISON P R 19CUS 1 0 1 1.2 a t las

2

c erv ica lv er iabra

3

d isti lk uur ierus d is ta lf emur

2

p rew ar 's 'U lna

3

d is ta lt i b ia

3 2

4

6

8

Nu mber o f E le ments=7 5 / 14 //2450 I nc ludes B os\B ison a nd B ISON P R ISCUS

9 2

1 0

S a lzg itter—Lebenstedt N ISP T ab le 2o f 6

L QUUS 3 P . 1 / 4 1 . .2 c ran ia lf ragn ian ts

1 4

mand ib le w \t ee t h

1 0 2

a t las a x is

7

c er v ica lv arta b ra

5

t horac ic

6

l u mbar IM M• 1

7

s acraho i tuda l

3

v ert ebra lf ragmen ts r ibs

2 6

8

s capu la

3

c i lata l h u merus h u merus s ha ft

5

p rox i ma lr ad lua d ista lr ad ius r ad ium a ba ft o arpa lA tarsa ls

2 5

p rox i ma l i me tacarpa l d is ta l me tacarpa l

2

w ho le me tacarpa l

2

3 rd p ha lange

2 4

p rox i ma lf e mur

3

f e mur s ha ft

4

p rox i ma l Ub la

3

d is ta l Ub ia p at e l la

3

c a l c iansun t a s traga lus

3

p rax i rna l me ta tarsa l

4

metatarea ls ha ft

6

whol e1 , 1 1 1 ( iidar1 1 1

4

l at era l meta tarea l l onsbone s ha ft f rag .

2

I 6

4

Nu mber o f E le ments= 1 44/2450 I nc ludes E quus s p .

9 3

3 8

I 1 0

S a lzg itter—Lebenstedt

I SP

T ab le 3 o f 6

C OEL 4 3DONTA

s capu la

3

who le r ad ium

1

f e mur & ha ft UM W/THUS

3 4

c ran ia lf rag men ts

3

v er tebra lf ragmen ts

t

r ibs

8 4

e napu la

6

d isti l bu tnarus p rox i ma lr ad ius m ew l s ha ft

2

p rox i ma lu lna u lna s ha ft

2

who le u lna o arpa l\ tarsa l

2

l et p ha lange

2

3 rd p ha lange p rox i ma lf e mur

2

p rox ima l Ub ia t i b ia s ha ft p a ta l la

2

n ae lcu lo-cubo id l ongbone ' , ha ft f rag .

4

f i bu la

4 2

1

4

6

1 0

Nu mber o f E le ments=5/156//2450 I nc ludes C OELODONTA A NT IQU ITAT IS a nd MAMMUTHUS P R IM IGEN IUS

9 4

S a lzg itter—Lebenstedt N ISP T ab le 4o f 6

c ran ia lf rag ment

3 5 1

a nt ler

1 2 3

2 5

mand ib le

1 9

max i l la

2 8

max i l la w \t eeth mand ib le w \t eeth

_

1 4

a x is

2 9

c erv ica lv er tebra t horac ic

1 0 2 1 0

s acrahcauda l

—

8

r ib s capu la p rox i ma l hu merus d is ta l hu merus hu merus s ha ft

5 9 _

3 3

_ _ 7

who le hu merus

3 5

p rox i ma lr ad ius

1 8

d is ta lr ad ius

1 3

r ad ius s ha ft

1 0

who le r ad ius p rox i ma lu lna u lna s ha ft who le u lna c arpah tarsa l

1 59

2 1

a t las

1 4

_ _ 1 2

1 5 a 1 0

' I 2 0

I 3 0

R ANG IFER T ARANDUS — MN I=46

9 5

. 4 0

5 0

S a lzg itter—Lebenstedt

I SP

T ab le 5 o f 6

9

p rox ima l metacarpa l

4 9

w ho le me tacarpa l

1 0

l a tera l me tacarpa l l e tp lu lange

1 0 2 2 9

2 nd p ha lange

2 8

3 rd p ha lange

3 9

a cetsbu lar f ragmen t

1 3

p a lv ic f rag mant w ho le n no m ina te

_ 1 5

p rox i ma lf e mur

3 5

d is ta lf e mur f e mur ' ha ft w ho le f e mur , --

p rox i ma l Ub ia

7 2

d is ta l Ub la Ub la s ha f t

7

w ho le t ib ia m i les :mu m

5

4 7

a s trageha

7

2 1

n aw ieu lo-eubo ld

3 9

p rox i ma l me tata na l d is ta l me ta taraa l

7 3 4 3

me tatarsa l s ha f t

2 4

who le me tatarsa l me tapod ia l a ba ft s ho ls metapod ia l

_ 1 0

3 0

2 0

Nu mber o f E le ments=2032/2450 R ANG IFER T ARANDUS c ont inued

9 6

4 0

50

S a lzg itter—Lebenstedt \ ISP T ab le 6 o f 6 J uven i le E le ments

B OS \B ISON t horac ic v er tebra r ib E QUUS SP . t iN lv 1 l u mbar v ertebra d is ta lf e mur p rox i ma l U lan d is ta l Uh l* PR 1 IL IGENR JS I dN I=1 a t las s acra l\ cauda l

1 7

v e rtebra lf rag ment s capu la p rox i ma l hu marua p rox i ma lr ad ius d is ta lr ad lue p eh r lo f rag ment who le f e mur

2

who le t ib ia f i bu la p a te l la l ongbone e nd l ongbone s ha ft f rag . R .T ARANDUS UN I-4 c erv ica lv ertebra

1 0

t horac ic

6 0

p rox i ma l hu merus d iata l hu merus who le hu merus d ista lr ad ius who le r ad ius who le u lna w ho le me tacarpa l

4

4

l e tp ha lange d ista lf e mur

1 3

who le f e mur p rox i ma l Ub ia

I I 1 4

d ista l Ub ia Was a ba ft wha t. t ib ia o a loaneu m

1 0

p rox ima ln is ta tarea l d ista l me tatar sa l who le n is tatarea l d is ta l matapodta l

2

4

6

8

1 0

Nu mber o f E le ments=212/2450 I nc ludes B os/B ison , E quus s p . , M AMMUTHUS P R IM IGEN IUS , a nd R ANG IFER T ARANDUS

9 7

S wansco mbe — N ISP T ab le 1o f 2

3 190N B ONASUS I NN I=7 . «,PMA t m.. 1 . M ea l me tacarpa l

2 2 7

l et p ha lange 3 rd p ha lange

1 4

a s traga lu s n av icu lo-cubo id who le me tatana l

2 3

d is ta li nc tapod ia l 90 : 3 \1 1 ISON 1 1 4 1=6

5

c arv ica lv ert ebra

_ 1 0

t horac ic l u mbar

3

I

3

;

e acra l‘cauda l v er tebra l f rag ments r ib

4

e r _apu la d ista lh u merus

9

p rox i ma lr ad ius di sta lr ad iu s p ro idma lu lna

2

p rox i ma l me tacarpa l

2 8

2 nd p ha lange

4

a ce tat ru lar f ragment p roxima lf e mur p rox i ma lt ib ia

7

d is ta l t ib ia p ate l la n av icu lo-cubo id

2

d ista l me tatarsa l

2

who le me tata rsa l

2

p rox i ma l matapod ia l d is ta l mr tepod ia l

2

4

6

Nu mber o f E le ments=104/372 I nc ludes B ISON B ONASUS a nd B os\B ison

8

1 0

Swansco mbe

MSP

T ab le 2o f 2

B OS T AURUS MN I-2

4

n av icu lo-aubo ld C ERVUS S P . RN I-7 a t las

7

a x ia

7 1 5

c erv ica lv er tabra

1 0

t horac ic

2 6

l u mbar a acrshcauda l

2

v er tabra l f ragmen ts

8

r ibs c opu la

1 7

d ista lh u merus

1 0 6

p rox i ma lr ad ius

3

d is ta lr ad ius who le r ad ius

2

p rox i ma lu lna

5

I st p ha lange

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APPEND IX 2 : DESCRIPT ION OF FLUME EXPER IMENT A n i n comp le t e e qu id s ke le ton ( f o r i n s tance , t h e f emu r , i n nom ina te , a nd s ome s ma l le r c a rpa l s a nd t a r sa l s m i s s ing ) , a pp rox ima te ly f o r ty y ea r s o l d , w a s u sed i nt h ef l ume e xpe r imen t . T he e xpe r imen t s t o ok

w i th n os i nk ing . -When p l aced i n to t a nk w i th i t sl o ng a x i sp e rpend icu la rt o w a te r f l ow a 9 00 t u rn w a s made w i th in 1 . 5 me t re s o f e n t e r ing wa te r , w i th t h eb l ade h ead ing d own s t ream ( 10 / 10 t i me s ) .

p l ace i nA ugus t 1 990 i nt h e F l u id a nd Hyd rau l ic s L ab , E ng inee r ing D epa r tmen t , Memo r ia lU n ive r s i ty o fN ew found land . A 9m ( 32 f e e t ) l o ng f l ume t a nk , 4 3 .5 c m ( 17 .4 i n ) w ide w a s u sed w i th i t ss i de sa nd b o t tom c ov e r ed i ng r a t ing t og i ve as l igh tl a ge f fe c t . I nt h i st a nk , 1 00% v o lume o fw a te rf l ow e qua l s 5c ub ic f e e t / second .

S esamo id -S ank i ne ach o ft e nt r i e sa nd moved a l ong b o t tom . S ome r o l l ing c aused b yt a nk g r a t ing .

S ke le ta l e l emen t b ehav iou r w a s o bserved a tv a ry ing v e loc i t ie s a nd w a te r d ep th s i n b o th s a tura ted a nd u nsa tura t ed c ond i t ion . E a ch o bserva t ion w a s r epea ted t e n t ime s . I nt h e u nsa tura ted c omponen t , o b serva t ion sw e re made o ve rs eve ra ld ay s t oe n su re t h a t ab one w a s a lway sd ry . T he f o l low ing s e c t ion d e t A i ls t h e e f f ec t so fw a t e rd ep th , wa te r v e loc i ty , b one c ond i t ion ( i . e . s a tura ted o r u nsa tura t ed ) , a nd

T ho rac i cv e r teb ra -L ong a x i so fb one p l aced i n to t a nk p e rpend i cu la rt ow a te r f l ow . E a ch t ime ( 10 / 10 ) t h ec en t rum s ank t ob o t tom wh i le t h e t r an sve r se p roce s s r ema ined s u spended a nd s l igh t ly

e l emen t t y pe o n t h e b ehav iou r o f e a ch s ke le ta l e l emen t i n w a t e r

a head . T urn f r om p e rpend icu la r p o s i t ion t o t r ansve r se p roce s s h ead ing d own s t r eam w a s m ade w i th in 1 . 5 m o f e n te r ing w a te r .

c u r ren t s . DESCRIPT ION OF RESULTS

-T h ree t ho rac i c v e r teb ra w i th s hor te r t r an sve r se p roce s s f l oa ted o n s u r fa ce w i th t r an sve r se p roc e s s p o in t ed

A . Unsa tura ted S ke le ta lE lemen ts

d own s t r eam o n ly 5 / 10 t ime s ,a nd c en t r um l e ad ing t he o the r 5 0% o ft h et ime .

I . Wa te rd ep th a tb o th e nd so ft a nk = 1 5 c m . 4 0% v o lume o f w a te r( 2f e e t / second ) . T ib ia H umer us

-b o rne a l ong o n s ur face , n o s i nk ing ,n ot u rn ing -b o rne a l ong o n s u r fa ce , n o s i nk ing , n ot u rn ing

Me ta ta r sa lw i thou ts pl in tb one -P l a c ed i n to w a te rw i th l o ng a x i sp e rpend i cu la rt ol e ng th o f t a nk . W i th in o ne m e t re o fe n te r ing w a t e rt h e me ta ta r sa l a d jus ted i n to a p o s i t ion whe re t h e d i s ta l e nd h ead s d own s t r eam ( 10 / 10 t i me s ) . I mmed ia te ly t h e r ea f te rt h eb one r e s t so nt a nk b o t tom ,w i th n of u r the r movemen t .

Wa te rd ep th a te n t ry g a te = 8cm . Wa te rd ep th a te x i tg a t e =9cm . V o lume o f wa te ri s1 5% ( 9i n che s / second ) .

Me ta ta r sa lw i th s p l in tb one -T h i s b one e xecu te s at u rn t op rox ima l e nd h ead ing

S pe ed o fw a t e r mea sured w i th awa te rf l ow me t re : C en t re s u r fa ce = 5 5 cm / se c ; C en t r e b o t tom = 4 5 -5 0 c m / sec , a ve rag ing 6 0 c m / se c .

d own s t ream ( 10 / 10 t i me s ) . T u rn i sc omp le t ed w i th in t wo m e t re so fe n te r ing w a te ra nd t h en b one c ea se s movemen t . T h i sd i f f e rence i no r i en ta t ion f r om t h e me ta ta r sa lw i thou ta s pl in t b one i sp robab ly b ecause t h e s pl in tb one make st h e p rox ima le nd h eav i e r .

A ve rage s peed a l ong s i de so ft a nk = 3 0 -4 0c m / se c . T ib ia

-P l a ced i n to f l ume w i th l e ng th p a ra l le lt ol e ng th o ft a nk a nd w i th d i s ta le nd p o in t ing d owns t ream . T h i sp o s i t ion r e su l t s i nt e ndency t of l i p 1 800 s o t h a tp rox ima le nd i sl e ad ing ( 8 / 10 t i me s ) . T ib ia s a nk t ot h eb o t tom e ach t ime b e fo re b eg inn ing t o move . -When p l a ced i n to w a te rw i th i t s l e ng th p e rpend i cu la rt o

C a l caneum -Mov e ss moo th ly a l ong b o t tom w i thou tr o l l ing ,w i th c o rpus c a l cane if i r st I ts h i f ted t ot h i sp o s i t ion e a ch o ft e nt ime s . A st raga lus -R o l l sa l ong b o t tom .

t a nk , t h e t i b ia wou ld make a 9 0 d eg . t u rn , w he reby t h e p rox ima l e nd p o in ted d owns t ream . T h i s movemen t w a s c omp le ted w i th in t wo me t re s o f e n t e r ing w a te r ( u sua l ly

A bo rea l mand ib le s e c t ion w i th t e e th -T e e th " ancho r " b one t ob o t tom o ft a nk a nd t h ea scend ing r amus h a s at e ndency t o f l oa t t owa rd s s u r face . N o d own s t r eam movement Once w a te r logged ( a lmos t i mm ed ia te ly a f te rs ubme r s ion ) ,e n t i re b one r e s t so nb o t tom . N om ovemen te xcep tt h a tr amus s h i f t st ot h ed own s t r eam d i r ec t ion .

w i th in 1 . 5 m . ) . H ume rus -P l a ced i n to f l ume p a ra l le lt ol e ng th o ft a nk w i th d i s ta le nd p o in t ing d owns t ream . T he b one w i l lf l i p s ot h a tp rox ima l e nd h ead sd owns t ream b u tt h i st u rn i ss ome t ime si mpeded b y t h e s i ze o ft h e b one i n an a r row t a nk ( 2 / 10 c omp le te t ur n sa nd 8 / 10 a t temp t st o make c omp le te 1 800 t ur n ) . B one d rag s a l ong b o t tom , g e t s c augh t e a s i ly i nm e sh a nd

S kul

-S i nk s t o b o t tom o f t a nk u pon e n te r ing w a te r w i th n o f u r the r movement

s t op s mov ing i n ap os i t ion p a ra l le lt ot a nk l e ng th . B . S a tura ted S k e le ta lE lemen t s -P l a ced i n to w a te r p e rpend icu la r t ot a nk . F ul 9 00 t u rn c omp le ted w i th in t wo me t re s o f e n te r ing w a te r ( 10 / 10 t i me s ) , w i th p rox ima le nd h ead ing d owns t ream . S capu la

E lemen t sw e r ek ep ti nf r e sh w a t e rf o rf ou rh ou r sp r io rt oc ommenc ing e xpe r imen t .

-P laced i n to f l ume w i th l e ng th p a ra l le lt ol e ng th o ft a nk , a r t i cu l a re nd h ead ing d own s t ream . B one f l i p ss ot h a tb l ade

I .

V o lume o fw a te rf l ow i s1 5% o r 9i n che s / second ( 100% =

5c ub ic f t . / sec . ) . G a te s o pen . R ema in ing c ond i t ion s t h es ame a sf o r t h eu nsa tura ted b one t e s t s .

p o in t sd own s t ream ( 10 / 10 t ime s ) . S capu la f l oa t so ns u r fa ce

1 04

T ib ia

-E l emen tp l ac ed i n to w a te rp e rpend i cu la rt ol e ng th o ft a nk .

Me ta ta r sa lw i thou ts p l in tb one

A f te r t h ree t of our r o l l s i ts h if t s t op a ra l le lp o s i t ion w i th in

-P la ced i n to w a te rp e rpend icu la r ly t ol e ng th o ft a nk . T he

o ne me t re o fe n te r ing w a t e r . T hen i tmove s s l ow ly a l ong b o t tom w i th p rox ima le nd p o in t ing d owns t ream 8 / 10 t ime s ,

e l emen tf i r s ts i nk st ot a nk b o t tom ,r o l l s , a nd s h i f t st op a ra l le l p o s i t ion w i th d i s ta le nd f i r s t( 8 / 10 t ime s ;p rox ima le nd f i r s t 2 / 10 t ime s ) w i th in t wo me t re s o f e n te r ing wa te r . T he

d i s ta le nd p o in t ing d owns t ream 2 / 10 t ime s .

e l emen ts t op s mov ing a f te rt u rn i sc omp le ted . H ume ru s -P laced i n to wa te rp e rpend icu la r t ol e ng th o ft a nk . F i r s t , Me ta ta r sa lw i th s p l in tb one

t he b one e i the r r o l l s o rd rag s ( u sua l ly b o th ) a l ong b o t tom g r a t ing . T hen at u rn t op arale l( t o l e ng th o ft ank ) p o s i t ion

-P la ced i n to w a te rp e rpend i cu la rt ot ank l e ng th . E lemen t

i se xecu ted w i th in t h ree me t re so fe n t e r ing w a te r . T hen t h e

s i nk s t o b o t tom , r o l l s , a nd s h i f t s t o ap o s i t ion whe re

h umer us e i the r c on t inue s o r d i s con t inue s movemen t

p r ox ima le nd i sp o in t ing d own s t ream ( 8 / 10 t ime s ; d i s ta le nd f i r s t 2 / 10 t ime s ) . T he se s h i f t sa r ec omp le ted w i th in t h ree

d epend ing o n wh i ch e nd i sp o in t ing d owns t ream . When t h e d i s ta l e nd p o int s d own s t re am ( 8 / 10 t ime s ) movemen t c on t inue s .

m e t re so fe n t e r ing w a te ra nd t h en movemen tc ea se s .

When t h e p rox ima l e nd p o in t s d own s t r eam

( 2 / 10 t i me s )t h e r ei sn of u r the r movemen ta f te rt h i sp o s i t ion

-When e l emen ti sp l a ced i n to wa te rp a ra l le lt ot a nk l e ng th , w i th p rox ima le nd f i r s t , i ts i nk si mmed ia te ly w i th n of u r the r

i sa s sumed .

movemen t . Me ta ta r sa lw i thou ts p l in tb one T ib ia

-E lemen tp l aced i n to w a te rp e rpend i cu la rt ol e ng th o ft a nk .

-P la ced i n to wa te r p e rp end i cu la r t o t a nk l e ng th .

T he

I ti mmed ia te ly d ropped t ob o t tom o ft a nk ,r oled t wo t ot h ree

e l emen tr ema in ss l igh t ly s u spended o ve rb o t tom o ft a nk a nd

t ime s , a nd s h i f ted t op a ra l le lp o s i t ion w i th in . 7 5 me t re s o f e n t ry p o int T hen i ts t opped mov ing . I ne a ch o ft e n t r i e s , i t

mov ing i nc u r ren t , o cca s iona l ly b ounc ing o f ft h e b o t tom .

s h i f ted t o ad i s ta lh eade rp o s i t ion .

p rox ima l e nd f i r s t (1 0 / 10 t ime s ) w i th in t wo me t re s o f

E lemen t s h i f t s t o ap o s i t ion p a ra l le l t ot a nk l e ng th , w i th e n te r ing w a te r . I tc on t inue s mov ing , s k imm ing o ve r t a nk b o t tom w i th l i t t le d rag .

A t la s

-R o l l sa l ong b o t tom , move se a s i ly .

S capu la

-P l ac ed i n to wa te rw i th l o ng a x i sp e rpend i cu la rt ol e ng th o f t a nk . Upon e n te r ing w a t e r i t i mmed ia t e ly s h i f t s t o

S capu la

-S h i f t s i mmed ia te ly t o ab l ade f i r s tp o s i t ion a nd c on t inue s mov ing .

b l ade -f i r s t p os i t ion ( d i s ta l e nd l e ad ing ) , t h en i ts i nk s t o b o t tom a nd c ea s ing f o rwa rd movemen tw i th in o ne me t re o f

A t la s

e n te r ing w a te r( 10 / 10 t ime s ) .

- Moves a l ong t a nk b o t tom w i th s ome s uspens ion i n c u r ren t .

A s traga lus

Me ta ta r sa lw i th s p l in tb one a t ta ched

-S i nk sa nd mov e ss l ow ly a l ong b o t tom w i th f r equen ts t ops .

-P la ced p e rpend icu la rt ol e ng th o ft a nk . E lemen ts i nk s t o b o t tom o ft a nk & t h en r o l l sa l ong b o t tom , c omp le t ing a9 00 t u rn t o ap o s i t ion p a ra l le l w i th l e ng th o f t a nk w i th in t wo

A x i s

-Move sa l ong b o t tom e a s i ly b u tw i th s ome d rag .

me t re so fe n ter ing wa te r . Once t u rned , w i th p rox ima le nd T ho rac i cv e r teb ra w i th s hor ts p inous p roce s s , i . e .# 12

f i r s t( 9 / 10 t ime s ) , a l l movemen tc ea se s .

-Move se a s i ly a l ong t a nk b o t tom w i th s l igh ts uspens ion . A st raga lus -S ink s t ob o t tom , r o l l ss l ow ly , w i th much d rag .

T ho rac i cv e r teb ra w i th l o ng s p inous p roce s s -Move s e a s i ly i nc u r ren t . S peed o f wa te rp reven t s e nd t o

A x i s

-S ink s , t h en r o l l sa l ong b o t tom , mov ing e a s i ly .

e nd t ur n ing a nd c en t rum i sa s l i ke ly t o b e l e ad a s t he s p inous p roce s s .

S e samo id -S ink s t ob o t tom a nd s t op s mov ing w i th in . 7 5 me t re s o f S e samo id -S i nk sa nd d rag sf o rwa rd a l ong b o t tom .

e n try . C a l caneum

M . V o lume o fw a te r4 5% ( 2 .25 f e e t / second ) . Wa te rd ep th i nc en t ra l

-S ink s t o b o t tom , r o l l s u neven ly a nd c e a se s movemen t

t a nk a r ea i s1 9 .5 cm . Ob se rva t ion sw e re made a tt h i si n c r ea sed wa te r

w i th in o ne me t re o fe n t ry .

v o lume f o rb one s wh i ch h ad e xh ib i t ed l i t t le movemen tp rev ious ly . Me ta ta r sa lw i th s p l in tb one

T ho ra c i c w i th s hor tt r ansve r se p roce s s ,i . e .# 14 -B o rne e a s i ly , w i th c on t inuous b ounc ing o f fb o t tom .

-S i nk s t ob o t tom ,r o l l s , s h i f t st op a ra l le lw i th in t wo me t re s a nd s t op s . G r ea t e r wa te rs p eed s eems t oi n c r ea se c hance o f

T ho ra c i c w i th l o ng t r ansve r se p roce s s , i . e . # 3 -C en t rum s i nk st ob o t tom w i th s p inous p roce s s s uspended .

e i the r e nd h ead ing d own s t ream f i r s t .

D i s t a l e nd f i r s t o n

8 / 11 t r i e s ,a nd p rox ima le nd f i r s to n 3 / 11 t r i e s .

Move se a s i ly w i th s p inous p roce s sl e ad ing . Me ta ta r sa lw i thou ts p l in tb one I .

Wa te r v o lume s e t t o 3 0% ( 1 .5 f e e t / se cond ) .

-P la ced i n to wa te rp e rpend i cu la r ly t ol e ng th o ft a nk . T he

B one s s a tura ted .

e l emen tf i r s ts i nk st ot a nk b o t tom ,r o l l s , a nd s h i f t st op a ra l le l

Wa te rd ep th w a s 1 3 .5 cm .

p o s i t ion w i th d i s ta le nd f i r s t( 8 / 10 t ime s ;p rox ima le nd f i r s t H ume r us -P l a ced i n to wa t e rp e rpend i cu la rt ol e ng th o ft a nk . E l emen t

2 / 10 t ime s ) w i th in t wo me t re s o f e n te r ing wa te r .

r o l l s af ew t u rns i nt h e p e rpend i cu l a r p o s i t ion b u t w i th in

T he

e l emen ts t op s mov ing a f t e rt u rn i sc omp le ted .

t h ree me t re s o fe n try i ta d jus t s s ot h a tt h ep rox ima le nd i s h ead ing d own s t r eam ( 10 / 10 t ime s ) . B or ne m idcur ren tw i th

T ib ia

-P l a ced i n to wa te r p e rpend i cu la r t o t a nk l e ng th .

T he

e l emen tr em a in ss l igh t ly s u spended o ve rb o t tom o ft a nk a nd

o cca s iona lb ounc ing a l ong b o t tom .

mov ing i nc u r ren t , o cca s iona l ly b ounc ing o f ft h e b o t tom .

1 05

E lemen t s h i f t s t o ap o s i t ion p a ra l le l t ot a nk l e ng th , w i th p rox ima l e nd f i r s t (1 0 / 10 t ime s ) w i th in t wo me t re s o f e n te r ing wa te r . I tc on t inue s mov ing , s k imm ing o ve r t a nk b o t tom w i th l i t t le d rag .

NOTE : I fl o ngbone sa r ep l a ced i n to w a te rp a ra l le lt ol e ng th o ft a nk a t t h i sw a te rs peed , t h ey d o n o tn ece s sa r i ly s i nk t ob o t tom ,r o l l ,b ounce o f f b o t tom , e t c . , b u t move d own s t ream i n o r ig ina l e n t ry p o s i t ion s l igh t ly b e low s u r fa ce .

1 06

PLATES 1-9

1 07

P LATE 1 :

PHOTO SHO WS END OF S TR IAT ION AND BONE S URFACE ADJACENT TO I T . S L IGHTLY OUT OF FOCUS BUT I RREGULAR PROF ILE , AND SMOOTH ING OF CHANNEL APPARENT . REMA INDER OF S TR IAT ION WAS ERODED AND SHO WED NO DEF IN IT ION . CERVID 1 ST PHALANGE WITH F RESH FRACTURE ( CATALOGUE # 11074 )F ROM TRANSFESA -V ILLAVERDE DEPOS IT OF THE MADR ID ARENEROS COLLECT IVE SAMPLE .

1 08

P LATE 2 :

S TEREO -PA IR OF S TR IAT ION WH ICH HAS BEEN ERODED . NOT POSSIBLE TO I DENT IFY CAUSE . E LE MENT I S A MA MMUTHUS R IB FROM SALZG IT 1hR ( CATALOGUE # 648 ) . P ITT ING MAY BE DUE TO S TRUCTURE OF PROBOSC ID BONE .

1 09

P LATE 3 :

S TR IAT ION WH ICH HAS POOR DEF IN IT ION DUE TO SURFACE D ISTURBANCE , ROUNDED CROSS -SECT ION -NOT POSSIBLE TO I DENT IFY CAUSE . EQUID 1 ST PHALANGE WITH GNA W MARKS AND F RESH FRACTURE FROM S ITE OF MLVL -7 ( CATALOGUE # 82 )

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I L I 30011 , 2 00 /

P LATE 4 :

X 40 .0

. 60nu i

S TEREO -PHOTO OF P ROBABLE S ED I MENTARY ABRAS ION WITH M ID S ECT ION AND END OF MARK ING . NOTE ROUNDED CROSS -SECT ION , I NCONS ISTENT EDGE DEF IN IT ION . F RO M UN IDENT IF IED BONE FRAG MENT F ROM S ITE MLVL -7 ( CATALOGUE # 72 ) .

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•

P LATE 5 :

ä 0e 15 :. : 2o v

1 1 1 1 1

1

1 1 1 1

X 2, 2 1 .0

1

1 1 1

i

t

1 .20m i n

TOP -GNA WMARK . NOTE W IDTH OF CHANNEL , POOR EDGE DEF IN IT ION . BOV ID R IB WITH FRESH FRACTURE FRO M HEAVILY GNA WED A SSE MBLAGE O FL ITTLE OA ICLEY ( CAT .# 3 3A ) . BOTTO M -CLUSTER OF SALZG ITTER CUT MARKS ON EQU ID THORAC IC VERTEBRA ( CAT .# E54 ) . CLOSE -UPS I N RE MA IN ING S TEREO -PA IRS .

12

P LATE 6 :

S TEREO -PA IR OF CROSSED S TR IAT IONS ON TOP R IGHT OF P LATE 5 ( R IGHT PHOTO ) . NOTE ASYMMETR IC V -SHAPED CROSS -SECT IONS , SUGGEST IONS OF I NTERNAL S TR IAT IONS AND SHOULDER E FFECT .

13

P LATE 7 :

S TEREO -PA M OF SMALL , S HARP S TR IAT ION ON L EFT OF P LATE 5( R IGHT PHOTO ) . NOTE A SY M METR IC V -SHAPED CROSS -SECT IONS , S UGGEST IONS OF I NTERNAL S TR IAT IONS AND SHOULDER E l i .FECT .

14

P LATE 8 :

S TEREO -PA IR OF S TR IAT ION S ECOND FRO M R IGHT OF CLUSTER SHO WN I NP LATE 5( R IGHT PHOTO ) . TH IS I S THE F AINTEST MARKING I N THE CLUSTER AND L ESS DEF INED THAN OTHERS . THERE I S S O ME SUGGEST ION O F AN A SY MMETR IC CROSS -SECT ION .

15

P LATE 9 :

S TEREO -PAIR OF S TR IAT ION AT H IGH MAGNIF ICAT ION SHO W ING SUGGEST ION OF A SY M METR IC CROSS -SECT ION ,I NTERNAL S TR IAT IONS , AND POSSIBLE " CURL " OF BONE ALONG L EFT EDGE . F RO M R ANG IFER T IB IA SHA H WITH FRESH F RACTURE F ROM S ALZG ITTER ( NO CAT .e .

16

B IBL IOGRAPHY

A a r i s -So ren sen ,K . 1 983 A nE xamp le o fT aphonom ic L o s si n aMe so l i th ic F auna l A s semb lage . I nA n ima l s a nd A r cha eo l ogy : 1 .H un t er sa nd T he ir P r ey ,J .C lu t ton B rock a nd C . G r ig son , e d i to r s . BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 63 ,p p .2 43 -247 . A be l , 0 . 1 935 V or z e i t l iche L eben spur en . J ena , G u s tav F i sche rV e r lag . A gu i r re , E . 1 974 C o loqu io I n t e rnac iona l S obr e B io s t ra t igraf ia C on t inen ta ld e lN eogeno S uper ior y

B in f o rd ,L .R . 1 978 N unam iu tE thnoarchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk , A cadem ic P re s s .

C ua t er r za r io I n f e r ior 1 974 ,G u ia 7 . 10 ,D ep re s s ion d e G ranad a( Mad r id ) ,p p . 1 75 -211 . A nde r son -Ge r f aud , P . 1 990 A spec t s o f B ehav iou r i n t h e M idd le P a laeo l i th ic : F unc t iona l A na ly s i s o fS t one T oo l sf r om S ou thwe s tF rance . I nT he Emergenc eo f

b ehav iou r . J ou rna lo fA n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 4 :292 - 3 27 . B in f o rd , L .R . , a nd LB . B e r t ram 1 977 B one F requenc ie s a nd A t t r i t iona l P roce s se s . I nF or T heo ry B u i ld ing i n A rchaeo logy ,L .R .B in f o rd ,e d i to r ,p p . 7 7 -156 . B lumen sch ine , R . J . 1 986 E ar l y H om in id S caveng ing

Modern H uman s , P . Me l ia r s , e d i to r . I t haca , N ew Y o rk ,C o rne l lU n ive r s i ty P re s s ,p p . 3 89 -418 . A nd r ew s ,P . ,a nd J .C ook 1 985 N a tu ra lm od if ica t ion st ob one s i n at empe ra te s e t t ing . Man 2 0 :675 -691 . A ugu s te , P . 1 988 E tud e d e s R e s te s O s seux d e s G rand s Mamm if e re sd e sN iv eaux D ,D 11 1B a se . L eG i semen t P a l eo l i th ique m oy en d eB iache -Sa in t -Vaa s t , V o l . 1 , M mo i r e s d e l aS oc ig tg P rea s tor ique F rança i se , T om e2 1 : 1 33 170 . A ugu s te , P . 1 992 E tude A rcheozoo log ique d e s G rand s Mamm i f e re d u S i t e P le i s to cene Moy en d e B iache Sa i n t -Vaa s t ( P a s -de -Ca la i s , F rance ) : A ppo r t s B io s t ra t ig raph ique e t P a le thnog raph ique s . L 'An thropo log ie ,T om e9 6 (1 ) :4 9 -70 . B adg ley ,C . 1 986 C oun t ing I nd iv idua l si n Mamma l ian F o s s i l A s semb lage sf r om F l uv ia lE nv i ronmen t s . P ALAIOS , p p .3 28 -338 . B a i ley ,G .N .1 983 C oncep t so fT ime i nQ ua te rna ry P reh i s to ry . A nnua lR ev iew o fA n thropo logy 1 2 :165 -192 . B ehm -B lanck e , G . 1 960 A l t s te inze i t l iche R a s tp lä tze i m T rave r t ingeb ie tv on T auba ch , We im a r ,E h r ing sdo r f . A l tT hür ingen ,B and I V . B eh ren sm ey e r ,A .K . 1 975 T he t a phonomy a nd p a laeoe co logy o fP l io -P le i s tocene v e r teb ra te a s semb lage s o fL ak e

B inf o rd ,L .R . 1 981 B one s : A nc ien tm en a nd m odern m y ths . N ew Yo rk ,A cadem ic P re s s . B inf o rd , L .R . 1 983 . W ork ing a tA rchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk , A cadem ic P re s s . B in fo rd , L .R . 1 984 F auna l R ema in s f rom K la s ie s R iver Mou th .L ondon a nd N ew Y o rk ,A cadem ic P re s s . B in f o rd ,L .R . 1 985Human a nce s to r s : C hang ing v i ew s o ft h e i r

O ppo r tun i t i e s : I mp l ica t ion so fC arca s sA va i lab i l i ty i nt h eS er enge t ia nd N gorongoro E co sy s tems . BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s2 83 . B lumen sch ine ,R .J . 1 987 C h a ra c te r i s t ic so fa nE a r ly H om in id S caveng ing N iche . C ur r en t A n thropo logy 2 8 (4 ) : 3 83 -408 . B oaz , N .T . , a nd A .K . B eh ren sm eye r 1 976 H om in id t a phonomy : T ran spo r to fh uman s ke le ta lp a r t si na n a r t if i c ia lf l uv ia t i le e nv i ronmen t . Amer ican J ourna lo f P hy s ica lA n thropo logy 4 5 (1 ) :53 -60 . B on i f ay , M . -F . 1 988 L au t re p reh i s to i re . . .Rema rque s s u r l e s f a une s c on tempo ra ine s d u t r ä s v i eux P a leol i th ique f r anga i s . A rchaeozoo log ia 1 (1 ,2 ) : 1 81-188 . B on i f ay ,E . , a nd M . -F .B on i f ay ,R .P ana t ton i ,J . -J .T u rce l in 1 976 S o le iha c( B lanzac ,H au te L o i re ) , Nouveau S i te P reh i s to r ique d ud ebu td uP l e i s to cene Moy en . B u l l . S oc . P re z i s t .F rança i se .7 3 :2 93 -304 . B onn ich sen , R . 1 978a B one T echno logy a s aT aphonom ic F ac to r : A n I n t roduc to ry S t a temen t . C anad ian J ourna lo fA n thropo logy 2 (2 ) : 1 37 -144 . B onn ich sen , R . 1 978b C r i t ica l a r gum en t s f o r P le i s tocene A r t i f ac t s f r om t h e O ld C row B a s in , Y ukon .

A

P re l im ina ry S t a temen t . I nE ar l y Man i n Amer ica f rom a C ircum -Pac if ic P er spec t ive . A .L . B ryan ,

R udo lph , K eny a . B u l l e t in o f t h e Mu seum o f C ompara t ive Z oo logy 1 46 (10 ) : 4 73 -578 . B eh rensm eye r , A .K . 1 978 T aphonom ic a nd e co log ic i n f o rm a t ion f r om b one w ea the r ing . P a laeob io logy 4 2 : 1 50 -162 . B eh ren sm ey e r , A .K . 1 983 P a t t e rn s o f N a tu ra l B one D i s t r ibu t ion o nR e cen tL and S u r f a ce s : I mp l ica t ion s f o r A rchaeo log ica lS i te F o rm a t ion . I nA n ima l s a nd A r chaeo logy : 1 .H un t e r sa nd T he ir P r ey ,J .C lu t ton B rock a nd C . G r ig son , e d i to r s . BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 63 ,p p .9 3 -105 B eh ren sm ey e r ,A .K . ,a nd D .E .D e chan tBoa z 1 980 T he r e cen t b one s o f Ambo se l i P a rk , K eny a , i nr e la t ion t oe a s t A f r ican p a laeoe co logy . F o s s i l si nt h e Mak ing ,A .K . B eh ren smey e r , A .P . H i l l , e d i to r s . C h icago , U n ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s ,7 2 -93 . B eh ren sm ey e r , A .K . , K .D . G o rdon a nd G .T . Y anag i 1 986T ramp l ing a s ac au se o fb one s u r f a ce d amage

e d i to r , D epa r tmen t o fA n th ropo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f A lbe r ta ,O cca s iona lP ape r 1 :1 02 -118 . B onn ich sen , R . 1 979 P l e i s tocene b on e t e chno logy i n t h e B er ing ian R e f ug ium . A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o f C anada P ape r8 9 , Me rcu ry S e r ie s ,N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man ,O t tawa . B onn ich sen , R . 1 982 B one T echno logy a s aT aphonom ic F ac to r : A n I n t roduc to ry S t a tem en t . C anad ian J ourna lo fA n thropo logy 2 (2 ) : 1 37 -144 . B onn ich sen , R . , a nd M . H . S o rg , e d i to r s

1 989 B one

Mod ü ica t ion .P eopl ing o ft h e Am e r ica sP ubl ica t ion s . C en te rf o rt h eS tudy o ft h eF i r s t Am e r ican s ,I n s t i tu te f o r Qua te rna ry S tud ie s ,U n ive r s i ty o f Ma ine . B o s in sk i ,G . 1 967 D ie m i t te lpa läol i th i sche F o rm eng ruppe u nd d a s P rob lem i h re r g eoch rono log i schen E ino rdnung . F undamen ta . Monograph ien z ur U rge sch ich t e . R e ihe A ,B and 4 . Bo s in sk i , G . 1 988 K ä r l ich . R öm i sch -German i sche s

a nd p seudo -cu tm a rk s . N a tur e3 19 : 7 68 -771 . B e t t inge r ,R .L . 1 991 H un t er -Ga ther e r s ,A rchaeo log ica la nd E vo lu t iona ry T heor y . N ew Y o rk ,P l enum P re s s .

Z en t ra lmu seum -F or schung sber e ich A l t s t e inze i t . E xkur s ion a m1 0S ep t ember 1 988 .

17

B a s in s l c i ,G . ,T .v an K o l f scho ten ,E .T u rne r 1 988 M ie senhe im

C ook ,

I :D ie Z e i td e rH omo e r ec tu s . A ndernacher B e i t räge 2 :2 4 -56 . B o s in sk i , G . , K .K röge r , J . S chä f e r , a nd E . T u rne r 1 986 A l t s te inze i t l iche S ied lung sp lä tze a uf d em O s te i f e l V u lkanen . J ahrb . R öm i sch -German i sche s Z en t ra lmu seum 3 3 : 9 7 -130 . B ra in , C .K . 1 970 N ew F ind s a t t h e S wa r tk ran s

B r i ta in a nd N or thw e s t E urope , D .A . R o e , e d i to r . B r i t i sh A rchaeo log ica l R epo r t s , BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s No .2 96 ,p p . 1 43 -163 . C oxon ,P . ,A .R .H a l l ,A .L i s te r ,A . J .S t ua r t 1 980 N ew E v idence o n t h e V e r teb ra te F auna , S t ra t ig raphy a nd P a laeobo tany o ft h eI n te rg la c ia lD epo s i t sa t Swan ton Mo r ley , No r f o lk . G eo logy Magaz ine 17 (6 ) : 5 35 5 46 . C rade r , D .C . 1 983 R ecen tS ing le -C a rca s s B one S ca t te r s a nd

A u s t ra lop i thecu s S i te . N a tur e2 25 : 112 -1119 . B ra in , C .K . 1 976 A R e in te rp re ta t ion o ft h e Sw a r tk ran s S i te a nd I t s R ema in s . S ou th A f r ican J ourna lo fS c ienc e 7 2 : 1 41-146 . B ra in , C .K . 1 981 T he H un ter s a nd t h eH un ted .U n ive r s i ty o f C h icago P re s s ,C h icago . B ra in ,C .K . 1 989 T he E v id ence f o rB one Mod if ica t ion b yE a r ly H om in id si nS ou the rn A f r ica . I nB one Mod if ica t ion , R .B onn ich sen a nd M .H . S o rg ,e d i to r s .C en te rf o rt h e S t udy o ft h eF i r s t Am e r ican s ,I n s t i tu te o fQ ua te rna ry S t ud ie s ,U n ive r s i ty o f Ma ine ,O rono , Ma ine . B randon , A . , M .G . S umb le r 1 988 A n I p sw ich ian F luv ia l D epo s i ta tF u lbeck ,L inco ln sh i re ,a nd t h eC h rono logy o f t h e T ren t T e r race s .

J . 1 986 T he a ppl ica t ion o f S cann ing E lec t ron M ic ro scopy t o T aphonom ic a nd A rcha eo log ica l P rob lem s . I nS t ud ie s i nt h e U pper P a laeo l i th ic o f

t h eP rob lem o f" Bu tche ry 'S i te i nt h eA rcha eo log ica l R e co rd . I nA n ima l sa nd A rchaeo logy : H un t er sa nd T he ir P rey , J .C lu t ton -B rock a nd C . G r ig son , e d s . O x fo rd , BAR I n t e rna t iona lS e r ie s ,p p .107 142 . D ah lbe rg ,F . ,e d i to r 1 981 W oman t h eG a ther er . N ew H aven , Y a le Un ive r s i ty P re s s . D a r t , R .A . 1 957 T he O s teodon tok e ra t ic C u l tu re o f A u s t ra lop i thecu s p rome th iu s . T ran svaa l Mu seum Memo i r , No . 1 0 .

J ourna l o f Q ua ternar y

D a rw in , C . 1 900 J ourna lo f aJ ourney A round t h e W or ld . L ondon ,T .N e l son a nd S on s . D iaz , M . , A . P e rez -Gon za lez 1 979 E s t ud io G eo lög ico d e l a

S c ience 3 :1 27 -133 . B rewe r , D . J . 1 992 Z ooa rchaeo logy Me thod , T heo ry , a nd G oa l s . A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry , V o lum e4 , M .B . S ch i f f e r , e d i to r . T uc son , T he

T e r raza d eP inedo . I nE lY ac im i en to A che l en se d e P inedo ( T o ledo ) , M .A . Q ue ro l a nd M . S an ton ja , e d i to r s . M in i s te r io d eC u l tu ra ,D i recc ion G ene ra ld e l P a t r imon io ,A r t i s t ico ,A rch ivo s Y Mu seo s , Mad r id . D od son , P . 1 973 T he S ign if ican ce o f Sma l l B one s i n P a leoe co log ica l I n te rp re ta t ion . C on t r ibu t ion s t o G eo logy 1 2 (1 ) : 1 5 -19 .

U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re s s ,p p . 1 95 -244 . B ro thwe l l , D . 1 976 F u r the r E v idence o fB one C hew ing b y U ngu la te s : T he S heep o fN o r th R ona ld say ,O rkney . J ourna lo fA rchaeo log ica lS c ience 3 (2 ) : 1 79 -182 . B unn , H . , J .W .K . H a r r i s , G . I s aa c , Z . K au fu lu , E . K ro l l , K . S ch ick , N . T o th , a nd A .K . B eh ren smey e r 1 980 F x J j50 : A nE a r ly P l e i s toc ene S i te i n No r the rn K enya .

D oug la s -Ham i l ton ,L . ,a nd 0 . Doug la s -H am i l ton 1 975 Among t h eE l ephan t s ,L ondon ,H a rv i l lP re s s . E f remov ,J .A . 1 940 T aphonomy . New B r anch o fP a leon to logy . P anamer ican G eo log i s t7 4 :8 1 -93 .

W or ld A rchaeo logy 1 2 (2 ) : 1 09 -136 . B unn ,H .T . ,a nd E .M .K ro l l 1 986 S y s tema t ic b u tche ry b yP l io P le i s tocene h om in id s a tO lduva i G o rge , T anzan ia . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 2 7 (5 ) : 4 31-452 . B reu i l ,H . ,a nd R .L an t ie r 1 965 T he Men o ft h e O ld S t one A ge . L ondon ,G eo rge C .H a r rap & C o . C ha se , P . G . 1 986 T he H un ter s o f C ombe G r ena l : A pproache s t o M idd l e P a l eo l i th ic S ub s i s t enc e i n E urope . BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s2 86 . C ha se , P . G . 1 989 H ow D if f e ren t w a s M idd le P a laeo l i th ic S ub s i s tenc e ? AZ oo a r cha eo log ica lP e r spe c t ive o nt h e M idd le t o Uppe r P a laeo l i th ic T ran s i t ion . I n T he

F a r rand , W .R . 1 985 R ock she l te r s a nd C ave S ed imen t s . A rchaeo log ica lS ed imen t s i nC on t ex t . P eopl ing o f t h e Am e r ica s S e r ie s ,V o lume 1 ,p p .2 1-39 . F e jf a r , 0 . 1 957 E in ige B e i sp ie le d e r B enagung F o s s i le r K nochen . A n thropozo ikum 7 :1 45 -149 . F e j f a r ,0 . 1 969 H uman R ema in sf r om t h eE a r ly P l e i s toc ene i n C ze cho s lovak ia . C ur r en t A n thropo logy 1 0 (2 -3 ) : 1 70 173 . F ied le r , L . , a nd K . H i lbe r t 1 987 A rchäo log i sche

H uman R evo lu t ion , P . Mela r s a nd C . S t r inge r , e d i to r s . P r ince ton , P r ince ton Un ive r s i ty P re s s , p p . 3 21-337 . C o l to r t i , M . , M . C rem a sch i , M .C . D e l i ta la , D . E su , M . F o rna se r i , A . McPhe r ron , M . N ico le t t i , R . v an O t te r loo , C . P e re t to , B . S a la , V . S chm id t , a nd J . S ev ink 1 982 R eve r sed Magne t ic P o la r i ty a ta nE a r ly

U n t e r suchung se rgebn i s se d e r m i t t e lpa läol i th i schen S t a t ion i nE de r ta l -Buh len ,K r . Wa ld eck -F rank enbe rg , e i n V o rbe r ich t . A rchäo log i sche s K or r e spondenzb la t t1 7 (2 ) : 1 35 150 . F reeman J r . , L .G . , a nd K .W . B u tz e r 1 966 T he A cheu lean S ta t ion o f T o r ra lba ( Spa in ) : AP rog re s s R epo r t . Q ua t ernar ia 8 :9 -21 . F r id r ich , J .1 989 P r ez l e t i ce :

Al ow er P a laeo l i th ic S i t e i n

L ow e rP a la eo l i th ic s i t ei nC en t ra lI t a ly . N a tur e ,V o l . 3 00 , 1N ovembe r 1 982 : 1 73 -176 . C oneybe a re ,A . ,a nd G .H ayne s 1 984 O b se rva t ion s o nE lephan t Mo r ta l i ty a nd B one s i n Wa te r H o le s . Q ua terna ry

C en t ra lB ohem ia ( E xcava t ion s1 969 -1989 ) . F on te s A rchaeo log ic iP ragen se s ,V o lum e1 8 . F r i son ,G .C , a nd L .C .T odd 1 986 T he C o lby Mammo th S i t eT aphonomy a nd A r chaeo logy o f aC lov i s K i l l i n

R e search 2 2 : 1 89 -200 . C onk ey ,M .W . ,a nd J .M .G e ro 1 991 T en s ion s ,P lu ra l i t ie s ,a nd E ngende r ing A rchaeo logy : A n I n t roduc t ion t o Women a nd P reh i s to ry . I n E ngender ing

N or the rn W yom ing . A lbuque rque , N ew Mex ico , U n iv e r s i ty o fN ew Mex ico P re s s . G amb le ,C . 1 979 H un t ing S t ra teg ie s i nt h eC en t r a lE u ropean P a laeol i th ic . P roceed ing so ft h eP r ehi s tor ic S oc i e ty 4 5 : 3 5 -52 .

A rchaeo logy , J .M . G e ro & M .W . C onkey , e d s . Ox f o rd ,B a s i lB lackwe l l ,p p .3 -30 .

18

G amb le , C . 1 986 T he P a laeo l i th ic S e t t l emen t o fE urope . C amb r idge ,C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . G amb le , C . 1 987 Man t h e S hove le r : A l t e rna t ive Mode l s f o r M idd le P l e i s tocene C o lon iza t ion a nd O ccupa t ion i n

H ayne s , G . 1 983a F requenc ie s o f S p i ra l a nd G reen -bone F ra c t u re so nU ngu la te L imb B one si n Mode rn S u r f ace A s semb lage s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty :4 8 (1 ) : 1 02 -114 . H ayne s , G . 1 983b A G u ide f o r D if e ren t ia t ing Mamma l ian C a rn ivo re T axa R e spon s ib le f o r G naw D amage t o H e rb ivo re L im bB one s . P akob io logy 9 (2 ) : 1 64 -172 . H ayne s , G . 1 988 L ong i tud ina l S t ud ie s o fA f r ican E lephan t D ea th a nd B one D epo s i t s . J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica lS c ienc e 1 5 : 1 31-157 . H ayne s ,G . 1 990 T he Moun ta in sT ha tF a l lD own : S t ud ie so f Mammo th s , Ma s todon s , a nd E l ephan t s . U npub l i sh ed Manu sc r ip t ,o nf i l ea tt h eD epa r tmen to f Z oo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge . H e l le r , F . 1 983 D ie H öh len ru ine H una s b e i H a r tmann sho f ( L andk re i sN ü rnbe rge rL and ) : E ine p a läon to log i sche u nd u rge sch ich t l iche F und s te l le a u s d em S pä t -R i s s . Q uar tär B ib l io thek , B and 4 , B onn , L udw ig R öh r sche id V e r lag . H i l l , A .P . 1 975 T aphonomy o f c on tempo ra ry a nd l a te C enozo ic e a s t A f r ican v e r teb ra te s . U npubl i shed P h .D .t h e s i s ,U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon . H i l l ,A .P . 1 976 O nc a rn ivo re a nd w ea the r ing d amage t ob one . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 1 7 (2 ) :335 -336 . H i l l , A .P . 1 980 E a r ly p o s t -mo r tem d amage t ot h er ema in s o f s om ec on t empo r a ry e a s tA f r ican mma l s F o s s i l si n t h e Mak ing , A .K . B eb ren smeye r a nd A .P . H i l l , e d i to r s . C h icago , U n ive r s i ty o f C h icago P re s s , 1 31-155 . H i l l ,A . ,A . Wa lk e r1 972 P ro cedu r e si nV e r teb ra te T aphonomy , n o te so n aU ganda M iocene F o s s i lL o ca l i ty . J ourna l o ft h eG eol ogi ca lS oc ie ty o fL ondon 1 28 : 3 99 -406 . H owe l l ,F .C . 1 966 O b se rva t ion s o nt h eE a r l ie rP ha se s o ft h e

N o r the rn L a t i tude s . P l e i s tocene O ld W or ld : R eg iona lP er spec t ive s ,0 .S oi f e r ,e d i to r . N ew Y o rk , P l enum P re s s ,p p . 8 1-98 . G au t ie r , A . 1 987 T aphonom ic G roup s : H ow a nd Why ? A rchaeozoo log ia I ( 2 ) :4 7 -52 . G e ro , J .M . , a nd M .W . C onkey , e d s . 1 991 E ngend er ing A r chaeo logy . Ox fo rd ,B a s i lB la ckwe l l . G ha leb , B . 1 983 T he S po t ted H y aena : A l te re r o fB one -A Z ooa rchaeo log ica l A na ly s i s o f Two E a s t A f r ican B one A s semb lage s . Unpub l i shed M .Sc . T he s i s , I n s t i tu t eo fA rchaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fL ondon , G if f o rd ,D . 1 981 T aphonomy a nd p a laeoeco logy : Ac r i t ica l v i ew o fa r chaeo logy 's s i s te rd i sc ip l ine . A dvance si n A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry , M .B .S ch i f f e r , e d i to r .V o lume 4 ,4 65 -538 . G i lch r i s t , R . 1 991 C a se S tudy i n G ende r A rchaeo logy . S em ina r , D epa r tmen t o f A rchaeo logy , C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty . G i ra rd , C . , a nd F . D av id 1 979 A p ropo s d e l a c ha s se s pec ia l i see a u P a leo l i th ique Moy en : L ' examp le d e Mau ran . B u l l . S oc . P rgh i s t .F rança i se 7 9 : 1 -12 . G iu sbe r t i ,G . ,a nd C .P e re t to 1 991 E v idence sd el aF ra c tu ra t ion I n ten t ione l le d 'O s semen t sA n im aux a vec Moe l le d an s l eG i sem en td e" La P ine ta "d eI s e rn ia ( Mo l i se ) ,I t a l ie . L 'An thropo log ie 9 5 (4 ) : 7 65 -778 . G ray son ,D .K . 1 984 Q uan t i ta t ive Z ooarchaeo logy . A cadem ic P re s s ,I n c . G ray son , D .K . 1 989 B one T ran spo r t , B one D e s t ruc t ion , a nd R eve r se U t i l i ty C u rve s . J ourna l o fA r chaeo log ica l S c ienc e 1 6 (6 ) :6 43 -652 . G reen ,H .S . ,a nd C .B .S t r inge r , S .N .C o l lcu t ,A .P .C u r ran t ,J . H ux tab le , H .P . S chwa rcz , N . D ebenham , C . Emb le ton , P .B u l l ,T . I . Mo l le son , R .E . B ev in s 1 981 P on tnewydd C ave i n Wa le s -a n ew M idd le P l e i s to cene H om in id S i te . N a tur e2 94 :7 07 -713 . G ro te ,K . ,F .P reu l 1 980 D e rr n i t te lpa läo l i th i sche L age rp la tz i n S a lzg i t te r -Leben s ted t , V o rbe r ich tü be r d i eG rabung u nd d i e g eo log i sche U n te r suchung 1 977 . N achr i ch t en a u sN ied er sach sen s U rge sch ich t e ,B and 4 7 ,p p :7 7 -106 . G u th r ie , R .D . 1 984 T he E v idence o f M idd le -W i scon s in P eop l ing o fB e r ing ia : A n E va lua t ion . Q ua t e rna ry R e search 2 2 (2 ) : 2 31-241 . H anson , C .B . 1 980 F luv ia l T aphonom ic P roce s se s : Mode l s a nd E xpe r imen t s . F o s s i l s i n t h e Mak ing , A .K . B eh ren sm ey e r , A . H i l l e d i to r s . C h icago , C h icago U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,p p . 1 56 -181 . H ayne s , G . 1 980a E v idence o f c a rn ivo re g naw ing o n P le i s tocene a nd r e cen t m amma l ian b one s .

L owe r P a laeol i th ic . Amer ican A n thropo log i s t 6 8 (2 ,2 ) : 8 8 -20 1 . I ngo ld , T . 1 986 T he A ppropr ia t ion o fN a tur e . Manche s te r , Manche s te rU n ive r s i ty P re s s . I s aac , G .L . 1 971 T he D ie t o f E a r ly Man : A spec t s o f A rchaeo log ica l E v idence f r om L owe r a nd M idd le P le i s tocene S i te s i nA f r ica . Wor ld A r chaeo logy 2 : 2 78 -299 . I s aa c , G . L . 1 978 T he F ood S ha r ing B ehav io r o fP ro tohuman H om in id s . S c i en t if ic Amer ican 2 38 (4 ) : 9 0 -108 . G .L . 1 983 B one s i n C on ten t ion : C ompe t ing E xp lana t ion s f o r t h e J ux tapo s i t ion o f E a r ly P le i s tocene A r t i f ac t s a nd F auna lR ema in s . A n ima l s a nd A rchaeo logy : I . H un t er s a nd T he ir P rey , J . C lu t ton -B ro ck a nd C . G r ig son , e d i to r s . BAR I n te rna t iona lS e r ie s 1 63 ,p p .3 19 . I s aa c ,G .L . 1 984 T he A rchaeo logy o fH umanO r ig in s : S tud ie s

I s aa c ,

o ft h eL owe rP l e i s tocene i nE a s tA f r ica 1 971-1981 . I n A dvanc e s i n W or ld A rchaeo logy , V o l . 3 , F . Wendo r f ,e d i to r . N ew Y o rk ,A cadem ic P re s s ,p p . 1 . 8 7 .

P a laeob io logy 6 (3 ) :341-351 . H ay ne s ,G . 1 980b P reybone sa nd P reda to r s : P o ten t ia lE co log ic I n f o rma t ion f r om A na ly s i s o fB one S i te s . O SSA 7 : 7 5 -97 . H ay ne s ,G .1 981 B one Mod if ica t ion sa nd S ke le ta lD i s tu rbance s b y N a tu ra l A genc ie s : S tud ie s i n No r th Am e r ica . U npub l . P h .D . , t h eC a tho l ic U n ive r s i ty o f Am e r ica , Wa sh ing ton ,D .C .

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I s aa c , G .L . , D .C . C rade r 1 981 T o Wha t E x ten t We re E a r ly H om in id s C a rn ivo rou s? A n A r chaeo log ica l P e r spe c t ive . I n Omn ivorou s P r ima t e s , R .S .O . H a rd ing a nd G .T e lek i ,e d i to r s . C o lumb ia ,C o lumb ia Un ive r s i ty P re s s ,p p . 3 7 -103 . J ame s ,S .R . 1 989 H om in id U se o fF i re i nt h eL owe ra nd M idd le P le i s tocene : T he E v idence . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 3 0 (1 ) : 1 26 .

J enn ing s , J .N . 1 985 K ar s t G eomorpho logy . L ondon , B a s i l B la ckwe l l . J ohn son , E . 1 983 A F ram ewo rk f o r I n te rp re ta t ion i nB one T echno logy . I nC arn ivore s , H uman S cavenger s & P reda tor s : AQ ue s t ion o fB one T echno logy . G .M . L eMo ine a nd A .S . Ma cEa che rn e d i to r s . P roceed ing s o f t h e F i f teen th A nnua l C ha cmoo l C on f e rence . C a lga ry , T he A rchaeo log ica l A s so c ia t ion o f t h e U n ive r s i ty o fC a lg a ry ,p p .5 5 -94 J ohn son ,E . 1 985 C u r ren tD eve lopmen t si nB one T e chno logy . A dvanc e s i nA rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory , M .B .S ch if f e r ,e d i to r . V o lume 8 ,p p . 1 57 -226 . K ee ley ,L .H . 1 980 E x per imen ta lD e t erm ina t ion o fS t one T oo l U se s . C h icago a nd L ondon , T he U n ive r s i ty o f C h icago P re s s . K ee ley ,L .H . 1 993 T he U t i l iza t ion o fL i th ic A r t i f a c t s . I nT he L ow e rP a l eo l i th ic S i t ea tH oxne , E ng land ,R .S i nge r , B .G . G lad f e l te r , J . J . Wyme r , e d i to r s . U n ive r s i ty o f C h icago P re s s ,p p . 1 29 -138 . K le in , R .G . 1 982 A ge ( mo r ta l i ty ) P rof i le s a s a Mean s o f D i s t ingu i sh ing H un ted S pec ie sf r om S cavenged O ne s i n S tone A ge A rchaeo log ica l S i te s . P a l eob io logy 8 (2 ) : 1 51-158 . K le in ,R .G . 1 987 R econ s t ruc t ing h ow E a r ly P eop le E xp lo i ted A n ima l s : P rob lem sa nd P ro spec t s . T he E vo lu t ion o f H uman H un t ing , M .H . N i teck i a nd D .V . N i te ck i , e d i to r s . P l enum P re s s ,p p . 1 -46 . K le in ,R .G . 1 989 Why D oe sS k e le ta lE lemen tR ep re sen ta t ion D if e rB e tw een Sma l le ra nd L a rge rB ov id sa tK la s ie s R ive r Mou th a nd o t he rA rchaeo log ica lS i te s? J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica lS c ience 6 :3 63 -381 . K le in ,R .G . 1 989 T he H uman C ar eer . C h icago ,U n ive r s i ty o f C h icago P re s s . K le in schm id t ,A . 1 953 D ie Z oo log i schen F unde d e rG rabung S a lzg i t te r -Leben s ted t 1 952 . E i s z e i ta l t er u nd G egenwar t ,B and 3 :1 66 -188 . K le in schm id t ,A . 1 965 D ie Mechan ik d e rS ed im en tbewegung i nK le inen F l u s s r innen . J ahr e shef td e s V er e in sf ür v a t er länd i sche N a turkunde i n W ür t t emberg , 1 20 : 1 26 -184 . K och , C . 1 989 T aphonomy : AB ib l iograph ic G u id e t o t h eL i t e ra tur e . P eopl ing o ft h e Ame r ica sP ub l ica t ion s , O rono ,C en te rf o rt h eS t udy o ft h eF i r s t Am e r ican s . K oppe l , T . 1 992 T he P eop l ing o fN o r th Am e r ica . C anad ian G eograph ic , S ep t . /Oc t . ,p p .5 4 -65 . K re tzo i ,M . ,a nd L . Wr te s 1 965 U ppe rB iha r ian ( I n te rm inde l ) P ebb le I ndu s t ry O ccupa t ion i n We s te rn H ung a ry .

L eak ey , R . a nd R . L ew in 1 992 O r ig in s R econs id er ed : I n S earch o f W ha t Mak e s U s H uman . N ew Y o rk , D oub leday . L ee ,R .B . ,I .D eVo re ,e d i to r s 1 968 Man t h e Hun t er . C h icago , A ld ine -A the r ton . L ev ine ,M . 1 979 A rcha e ,o -zoo log ica lA na ly s i s o fH o r se B one A s semb lage s . U npub l i shed P hD . t h e s i s , D ep t . o f A rchaeo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fC ambr idge . L i s te r , A .M . , A . B randon n . d . AP re Ip sw ich ian C o ld S tage Mamma l ian F auna f r om t h e B a lde r ton S and a nd G rave l ,L inco ln sh i re . Unpubl i shed manu sc r ip t . L i s te r ,AM ,J .M . McG l ade , AJ .S t ua r t 1 990 T he E a r ly M idd le P l e i s tocene V e r teb ra te F auna f r om L i t t le O ak ley , E s sex . P h i lo soph ica l T ransac t ions o f t h e R oya l S oc ie ty o fL ondon B ,3 28 : 3 59 -385 . L opez , F . , e d i to r 1 990 C ommun icac ione s d e l aR eun ion d e T af onom ia y F o s i l izac ion . Depa r tam en to d e P a leon to log ia , F a cu l tad d e C ienc ia s G eo lög ica s , U n ive r s idad C omp lu ten se d e Mad r id , Mad r id . L ove joy ,C .O . 1 985 T he O r ig in o f Man . I nP r ima t eE vo lu t ion a nd H uman O r ig in s , R .L . C iochon & J .G . F l eag le , e d s . Men lo P a rk , B en jam in /Cumm ing s P ubl i sh ing C o . d e L um ley , H . n . d . L e s P r em ier s Hab i tan t s d e L 'Europe : 1 , 500 ,000 -1 00 ,000 A n s . P ub l i6 a vec l ec oncou r sd e l aS oc i6 ti d e s Am i sd u Mu se ,e d el ' Homm e . d e L um ley , H . 1 975 C u l tu ra l E vo lu t ion i n F rance i n i t s P a laeoeco log ica l S e t t ing Du r ing t h e M idd le P le i s tocene . I nA f t er t h eA u s t ra lop i thec ine s , K .W . B u tze r ,G .L l .I s aa c ,e d i to r s . Mou ton ,p p .7 46 -808 . L yman ,R .L . 1 984 B rok en B one s ,B one E xped iency T oo l s ,a nd B one P seudo too l s : L e sson f r om t h e B la s t Z one A round Moun t S t . H e len s , Wa sh ing ton . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 9 (2 ) :3 15 -333 . L yman , R .L . 1 985 B one F requenc ie s : D if f e ren t ia lT ran spo r t , I n S i tu D e s t ruc t ion , a nd t h e MGU I . J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica lS c ience s 1 2 : 2 21-236 . Ma i , D .H . , a nd D . Man ia , T . Nö tzo ld ,V . T oepf e r ,E .V lce l c , W . -D . H e in r ich 1 983 B i l z ing s leben I : H omo E rec tu s - s e ine K u l tur u nd s e in e Umw e l t . V e röf f en t l ichungen d e s L ande smu seum f ü r V o rge sch ich te i nH a l le ,B and 3 6 . Man ia , D . , a nd V . T oep f e r , E . V lcek 1 980 B i l z ing s l eben I : H omo e r ec tu s -s e ine K u l tur u nd s e ine Umw e l t . V e röf f en t l ichungen d e s L ande smu seu rn s f ü r V o rge sch ich te i nH a l le ,B and 3 2 . Man ia , D . , a nd T . Webe r 1 986 B i l z ing s leben I I : H omo

C ur r en tA n thropo logy 6 :7 5 -87 . K reu tze r ,L .A . 1 992 B i son a nd D e e rB one M ine ra lD en s i t ie s : C ompa r i son s a nd I mp l ica t ion s f o rt h eI n te rp re ta t ion o fA r cha eo log ica lF auna s . J ourna lo fA r chaeo log ica l S c ience 1 9 :2 71-294 . K roge r , K . 1 987 D ie F o r t se tzung d e r A rbe i t en a u f d em P la id te r -Humm e r ich . A rchäo log i sche s K or r e sponden zb la t t 1 7 : 1 3 -30 . L ambe r t ,D . 1 989 T he C ambr idge G u ide t oP r eh i s tor ic Man . C amb r idge ,C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . L av i l le ,H . ,J . -P .R igaud ,J .S acke t t 1 980 R ock S he l t er so ft h e P er igord :

G eo log ica l

A rchaeo log ica l S ucce s s ion . P re s s .

S t ra t igraphy

a nd

e rec tus - s e ine K u l tur u nd s e ine Umw e l t . V e röf f en t l ichungen d e s L ande smu seum s f ü r V o rge sch ich te i nH a l le ,B and 3 2 . Man ia ,D . ,a nd M .T homa e1 988 N euma rkNo rd i mG e i se l ta lE in V o rbe r ich t ü be r m i t te lpa läol i th i sche B e f unde . A u sgrabungen u nd F unde 3 3 (4 ) : 1 74 -178 . M a r sha l l ,L .1 989 B one Mod if ica t ion a nd " The L aw so fB u r ia l . " I nB one Mod if ica t ion , R . B onn ich sen a nd M . S o rg , e d i to r s. ( 1s t I n te rna t iona l B one Mod if ica t ion C on f e ren ce ,P roceed ing s ) . O rono , Ma ine ,C en te rf o r t h eS t udy o ft h eF i r s t Ame r ican s . Ma r t in ,M .K . , a nd B .V oo rh ie s 1 975 F ema l eo ft h eS pec ie s . N ew Y o rk ,C o lumb ia Un ive r s i ty P re ss .

L ondon , A cadem ic

1 20

McG rew , W .C . 1 981 T he F ema le C h impanze e a s aH uman E vo lu t ion a ry P ro to type . I nW oman t h eG a ther er . F . D ah lbe rg ,e d i to r ,p p .35 -74 . Me tca lf e , D . , K .T . J one s 1 988 A R e con s ide ra t ion o fA n ima l

P fe if f e r ,L .1 912 D ie S t e inze i t l ich T echn ik u nd i h re B ez iehungen z ur G egenwar t . J ena ,G u s tav F i sche r . P op l in , F . 1 978 A pe rçu s u r l ag rande F aune P l e i s tocene d u G i semen tP a leo l i th ique d eB ia che -Sa in t -Vaa s t( Pa s d e -Ca la i s ) . B u l l e t in d eL 'A s soc ia t ion F rança i se P our L 't tude d u Q ua t erna ir e , No s . 5 4 -55 -56 :6 0 -65 . P o t t s ,R . ,a nd P .S h ipman 1 981 C u tma rk s Made b yS t one T oo l s o nB one sf r om O lduva iG o rge ,T anzan ia . N a tur e2 9 : 5 77 -580 . P re s s , W .H . , B .P . F lanne ry , S .A . T euko l sky , a nd W .T . V e t te r l ing 1 989 N umer ica l R ec ipe s : T he A r t o f S c ien t if ic C ompu t ing . C amb r idge , C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . Q ue ro l ,M .A . ,M . S an ton ja 1 979 E lY ac im i en to A che l en se d e

B ody -Pa r t U t i l i ty I nd ice s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 5 3 : 4 86 -504 . Moo re , H . 1 988 F em in i sm a nd A n thropo logy . P o l i ty P re s s , C amb r idge . Mo r lan , R .E . 1 978 E a r ly Man i nN o r the rn Y ukon T e r r i to ry P e r spe c t ive s a so f1 977 . I nE ar l y Man i n Ame r ica f rom aC ircum -Pac if ic P er spec t ive , A .L . B ry an e d . E dmon ton , C anada , A rchaeo log ica l R e se a rche s I n te rna t iona l ,O cca s iona lP ape r sN o . 1 ,D epa r tmen t o fA n th ropo logy ,U n ive r s i ty o fA lbe r ta . Mo r lan , RE . 1 980 T aphonomy a nd A rchaeo logy i nt h e U pper P l e i s toc ene o f t h e N or thern Y ukon T er r i tor y : A G l imp se o ft h eP eop l ing o ft h eN ew W or ld . N a t iona l Mu seum o f Man Me rcu ry S e r ie s , A rchaeo log ica l S u rvey o fC anada P ape rN o . 9 4 . O t tawa , N a t iona l Mu seum so fC anada . Mo r lan , R .E . 1 983 S p i ra lF ra c tu re s o nL imb B one s : Wh ich o ne s a r e A r t if ic ia l? I n A Q ue s t ion o f B one

P inedo ( T o l edo ) . Mad r id ,M in i s te r io D eC u l tu ra . R igaud ,J . -P . ,J . F . S imek 1 987 " A rm sT oo S ho r tT oB ox W i th G od " : P rob lem s a nd P ro spec t s f o r P a leo l i th ic P reh i s to ry i n Do rdogne ,F rance . I nT he P l e i s toc ene O ld Wor ld , 0 . S o f te r , e d i to r . N ew Y o rk , P l enum P re s s ,p p .4 7 -62 . R ing ro se ,J .T . 1 993 B one C oun t s a nd S ta t i s t ic s : AC r i t ique . J ourna lo fA rchaeo log ica lS c ience 2 0 : 1 21-157 . R iv e ro ,J .1 990 R aw Ma te r ia l sf r om A r ido s I( Mad r id ,S pa in ) : T he i r S ou rce , S upp ly a nd U se . I nL e S i l ex d e s a

T echno logy , G .M . L eMo ine , A . S . MacEache rn , e d i to r s . P roceed ing s o f t h e F if t een th A nnua l C ha cmoo lC on f e rence . C a lga ry ,T he A rchaeo log ica l

G enese äL 'Ou t i l . C ah ie r s d u Q ua te rna i re N o . 1 7 , A c te sd uV ieme C olooque i n te rna t iona ls u rl eS i lex , p p .4 61-465 .

A s so c ia t ion o ft h eU n iv e r s i ty o fC a lg a ry ,p p .241 -269 . Mo r lan , R .E . 1 984 T owa rd t h eD ef in i t ion o fC r i te r ia f o rt h e • R e cogn i t ion o f A r t if i c ia l B one A l te ra t ion s . Q ua t ernary R e search 2 2 : 1 60 -171 . Mo r lan , R .E . 1 986 P l e i s tocene A rchaeo logy i n O ld C row B a s in : AC r i t ica lR eapp ra i sa l . I nN ew E v idence f or

R oeb roek s ,W . 1 985 A rchaeo log ica lR e sea rch a t Maa s t r ich t B e lvede re p i t : AR ev iew . I n Maa s t r ich t -Be l vd ar e : S t ra t igraphy , P a laeoenv ironmen ta nd A rchaeo logy o ft h eM idd l ea nd L a te P le i s tocene D epo s i t s ,T .V an K o l f scho ten a nd W . R oeb roek s , e d i to r s . Medede l ingen R i jk s G eo log i sche D ien s t3 9 -1 : 1 09 18 .

t h e P l e i s tocene P eop l ing o f t h e Amer ica s , A .L . B ry an , e d i to r . O rono ,C en t e rf o rt h eS t udy o fE a r ly Man ,p p .2 7 -48 . Mo r lan , R .E . n . d .a L a te O lyo r ian ( I rv ing ton ian ) Mamma l s f r om E a s te rn B e r ing ia . U npub l i shed MS i na ut ho rs p o s se s s ion . Mo r lan , R .E . n . d .b B i son B one F ragm en ta t ion a nd S u rv ivo r sh ip : AC ompa ra t ive Me thod . J ourna lo f A rchaeo log ica lS c ienc e ,i np r e s s . Mo r lan , R .E . , D .E . N e l son , T .A . B rown , J . S . V oge l , J . R . S ou t hon 1 990 A cce le ra to r Ma s sS pec t rom e t ry D a te s o nB one sf r om O ld C row ,N o r the rn Y ukon T e r r i to ry . C anad ian J ourna lo fA rchaeo logy 1 4 :7 5 -92 .

R u s ,I .1 983 E lP a leo l i t ico e ne lV a l le d e l Manzana re s . R ev i s ta d eA rqueo log ia 3 2 : 7 15 . R us , I .1 987 H i s to r ia d e l aI nve s t iga c ion . I n 1 30 A r lo s d e A rqueo log ia Madr i l ef ia . R ea l A cadem ia d eB e l la s A r te s d eS an F e rnando , C omun idad d e Madr id , p p . 2 2 -43 . R u s , I . , L .G . V ega 1 984 A r r iaga P rob lema s d e u na D ef in ic ion A c tua ld el o sS ue lo sd eO cupa c ione s . I n P r ime ra sJ o rnada sd e Me todo log ia d eI nve s t igac ion P r eh i s tor ica , S or ia , 1 981 . Mad r id , M in i s te r io d e C u l tu ra ,p p .3 87 -404 . S adek -Koo ro s , H . 1 975 I n ten t iona l F rac tu r ing o f B one :

Mu s i l ,R . ,a nd K V a l loch 1 968 S t ran ska s k a la : I t s Mean ing f o r P l e i s to cene S tud ie s . C ur r en tA n thropo logy 9 : 534 5 39 . My e r s , T .B . , a nd M .R . V oo rh ie s , R . G . C o rne r 1 980 S p i ra l F ra c tu re s a nd B one P seudo too l s a tP a leon to log ica l S i te s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 5 (3 ) : 4 83 -490 . N e l son , D .E . , R .E . Mo r lan , J . S . V oge l , J .R . S ou thon , C .R . H a r ing ton 1 986 N ew D a te s o n N o r the rn Y ukon

D e sc r ip t ion o f C r i te r ia . I n A rchaeozoo log ica l S t ud i e s ,A .T . Ca son ,e d i to r .N ew Y o rk ,E l sev ie r ,p p . 1 39 -150 . S an ton ja , M . 1 976 I ndu s t r ia s d e l P a leo l f t ica I n f e r io r e n l a

A r t i f a c t s : H o locene N o tU ppe rP l e i s tocene . S c ienc e 2 32 :7 49 -751 . O lsen , S .L . , a nd P . S h ipman 1 988 S u r f ace Mod if i ca t ion o n B one : T ramp l ing v e r su s B u t che ry . J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica lS c ience 1 5 : 5 35 -553 . O v ey , CD . ,e d i to r . 1 964 T he S wan scombe S ku l l : AS u rvey o f R e sea rch o n a P l e i s tocene S i te . R oya l A n thropo log ica l I n s t i tu t e o f G r ea t B r i ta in a nd I r e land . O cca s iona lP ape rN o .2 0 .

Me se ta E spa r io la . T raba jos d eP r eh i s tor ia 3 3 : 1 211 64 . S an ton ja , M . , N . L öpez -M ar t fnez , A . P e rez -Gonzä le z 1 980 O cupac ione s A che len se s e n e l V a l le d e l J a rama ( A rganda , Mad r id ) . A rqueo log ia yP a l eoeco log ia , V o lum e 1 , S e rv ic io s d e E x t en s ion C u l tu ra l y D ivu lgac ion ,D ipu tac ion P rov inc ia ld e Mad r id . S an ton ja ,M . ,A .Q ue ro l 1 980 C a rac te r i s t ica sd el aO cupac ion H umana e n l o s S ue lo s A che len se s d el aT e r ra za d e A r ido s ( A rganda , Mad r id ) . I n O cupac ione s A che len se s i n e l V a l l e d e l J arama .

1 21

Mad r id ,

P ub l ica c ione s d e l a E xce len t i s ima D ipu ta c ion P rov inc ia ld e Mad r id ,p p .3 21-336 . S an ton ja ,M . ,a nd P .V i l la 1 990 T he L owe rP a leo l i th ic o fS pa in a nd P o r tuga l . J ourna lo fW or ld P r eh i s tor y4 (1 ) : 4 5 9 0 . S an ton ja G om e z ,M . 1 976 I ndu s t r ia sd e lP a leo l i t ico I n f e r io re n l a Me se ta E spa i lo la . T raba jo s d e P r eh i s tor ia 3 3 : 1 2 1-164 . S ch ä f e r ,J .1 9 87 D e ra l t s te inze i t l iche F undp la tz S chwe in skopf K a rme lenbe rg , G em . B a s senhe im , K re i s May en K ob lenz . A r chäo log i sche sK or re spondenzb la t t 1 7 : 1 12 . S ch ick , K .D . 1 986 S t one A ge S i t e s i n t h e Mak ing : E xper imen t s i nt h eF orma t ion a nd T ran sf orma t ion

E v a lua t ion U s ing M ic ro scop ic T echn ique s . J ourna l o fA rchaeo log ica lS c ienc e 1 0 :4 65 -474 . S ho t ton ,F .W . ,A .S .G oud ie , DJ .B r igg s ,H .A .O sma s ton 1 980

o fA rchaeo log ica lO ccur r ence s . BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s3 19 . S ch ick , K .D . , H . T o th , E . D ae sch le r 1 989 A n E a r ly P a la eon to log ica lA s semb lage a sA rchaeo log ica lT e s t C a se . I nB one Mod if ica t ion ,R .B onn ich sen a nd M . S o rg ,e d i to r s . O rono , Ma ine ,C en te rf o rt h eS tudy o f t h e F i r s t Am e r ican s , U n ive r s i ty o f Ma ine , p p . 1 21-

A che l en se d eP inedo ( T o l edo ) ,M .A .Q ue ro la nd M . S an ton ja , e d i to r s . M in i s te r io d eC u l tu ra ,D i re cc ion G ene ra l d e l P a t r imon iao , A r t i s t i co , A rch ivo s y Mu seo s , Mad r id . S pe th , J .D . 1 983 B i son K i l l s a nd B one C oun t s : D ec i s ion

1 38 . S ch if f e r , M .B . 1 976 . B ehav iora l A rchaeo logy . N ew Y o rk , A cadem ic P re s s . S chwa rcz , H .P . , R . G rün , A .G . L a tham , D . Man ia , & K . B runna cke r 1 988 T he B i lz ing s leben A rchaeo log ica l S i te : N ew D a t ing E v idenc e . A r chaeome t ry 3 0 (1) : 5 1 7 . S ep t , J . 1 992 A rchaeo log ica l E v idence a nd E co log ica l P e r spec t ive s f o r R e con s t ruc t ing E a r ly Hom in id

S p ie ss , A .E . 1 979 R e indeer a nd C ar ibou H un t er s : A n A rchaeo log ica l S tudy . N ew Y o rk a nd L ondon , A cadem ic P re s s . S tae sche ,U . 1 983 A spec t s o ft h eL i f eo fM idd le P a laeol i th ic H un t e r si nt h eN .W .G e rm an L ow land s ,B a sed o nt h e

C rome r ian I n te rg lac ia l D epo s i t s a tS ugwo r th , n ea r O x f o rd , E ng land , a nd t h e i r r e la t ion t ot h e P l a teau D r if to ft h eC o t swo ld s a nd t h eT e r race S equence o f t h e U ppe r a nd M idd le T ham e s . P h i lo soph ica l T ran sac t ion so ft h eR oya lS oc ie ty o fL ondon B ,2 89 : 5-86 . S ib rava , V . , e d i to r 1 979 E r f o r schung d e r p l e i s tozänab lage rungen a u fd em H üge l May K opec b e iP r ez le t ice ( NO -Rand v on P rag ) . A n t ropo zo ikum 1 2 : 5 7 -137 . S o to , E . 1 979 E s tud io P a leon to l6g ico . I n E l Y ac im ien to

Mak ing b yA nc ien t Hun ter s . C h icago ,U n ive r s i ty o f C h icago P re s s .

S i te S a lzg i t te r -Leben s ted t . I n A n ima l s a nd A r chaeo l ogy : I .H un ter sa nd T he ir P r ey ,J .C lu t ton B rock a nd C . G r ig son , e d i to r s . BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 63 ,p p .173 -181 . S t ee le , D .G . , a nd D .L . C a r l son 1 989 E xcava t ion a nd

S ub s i s tence B ehav io r . A rchaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heory , V o lum e 4 ,M .B . S ch if f e r , e d i to r . T uc son , T he U n ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re s s ,p p . 1 56 . S ev in l c ,J . ,a nd E .H .H ebeda ,H .N .A .P r iem ,R .H .V e r schu re 1 981 A N o te o na nA pp rox ima te ly 7 30 ,000 y ea ro l d Mamma lF auna a nd A ssoc ia ted H uman A c t iv i ty S i te s N e a rI s en i ia ,C en t ra lI t a ly .J ourna lo fA rchaeo log ica l S c ienc e8 :1 05 -106 . S hac Idey , M .L . 1 978 T he B ehav iou r o f A r te f ac t s a s S ed imen ta ry P a r t ic le s i n aF luv ia t i le E nv i ronmen t .

T aphonomy o f Mammo th R ema in sf r om t h eD uewa l l N ewbe r ry S i te , B razo s C oun ty , T exa s . I n B one Mod i f ica t ion , R . B onn ich sen a nd M . S o rg , e d i to r s . C en te r f o r t h e S tudy o ft h ef i r s t Am e r ican s , O rono , Ma ine ,p p .4 13 -4 30 . S t e l c e l i s ,M . ,a nd 0 .B a r Jo se f ,T .S ch ick 1 969 A rchaeo log ica l E xcava t ion s a t ' Ube id iya , 1 964 -1966 . T he I s rae l A cademy o fS c ience s a nd H uman i t ie s . S te rn , N . 1 993 T he S t ruc tu re o f t h e L owe r P l e i s tocene A rchaeo log ica l R eco rd - A C a se S t udy f r om t h e K oob i F o ra F o rma t ion . C ur r en t A n thropo logy 3 4 ( 14 ) :2 0 1-224 . S t ine r , M .C . 1 990 T he U se o f Mo r t a l i ty P a t te rn s i n A rchaeo log ica l S tud ie s o f H om in id P reda to ry

A r chaeome t ry 2 0 (1 ) : 5 5 -61 . S h ipman ,P .1 981a L i f eh i s to ry o f af o s s i l : A n i n t roduc t ion t o t a phonomy a nd p a laeoeco logy . C amb r idge ,H a rva rd U n ive r s i ty P re s s . S h ipman , P . 1 981b A pp l ica t ion s o f S cann ing E le c t ron M i c ro scopy t oT aphonom ic P rob lem s . A nna l s o ft h e N ew Y ork A cademy o fS c ience s 3 76 : 3 57 -386 . S h ipman , P . 1 983 E a r ly H om in id L i f e s ty le : H un t ing a nd

P a t t e rn s . J ourna lo fA n thropo log ica lA r chaeo logy 9 (4 ) : 3 05 -351 . S topp ,M .P . 1 988 A T aphonom ic A na ly s i s o ft h eH oxne S i te F auna l A s semb lage . U npub l . M .Ph i l . t h e s i s , D epa r tm en t o f A rchaeo logy , Un ive r s i ty o f C amb r idge .

G a the r ing o rF a rag ing a nd S caveng ing? A n ima l sa nd A r chaeo logy : 1 .H un t er sa nd T he ir P rey ,J .C lu t ton B rock a nd C . G r ig son , e d i to r s . BAR I n te rna t iona l S e r ie s 1 63 ,p p .31-49 . S h ipman , P . , a nd J . P h i l l ip s -Con roy 1 977 H om in id t o o l -mak ing v e r su sc a rn ivo re s c aveng ing . Amer ican J ourna lo fP hy s ica lA n thropo logy 4 6 (1 ) :77 -86 . S h ipman , P . , a nd J .R o se 1 983a E a r ly H om in id H un t ing , B u t che r ing , a nd C a rca s s -P roce s s ing B ehav io r s : A pp roa che s t o t h e F o s s i l R eco rd . J ourna l o f

S topp , M .P . 1 993 T aphonom ic A na ly s i s o f t h e F auna l A s sem b lage . I nT he L ow er P a l eo l i th ic S i t ea tH oxne , E ng land , R . S i nge r , B .G . G lad f e l te r , J . J . Wym e r , e d i to r s . C h icago , Un ive r s i ty o fC h icago P re s s , p p . 1 38 149 . S t u a r t , AJ . 1 986 W r e t ton ,N o r f o lk . Unpubl i shed p ape ro nf i l e ,

A n thropo log ica lA rchaeo logy 2 :5 7 -98 . S h ipman , P . , a nd J .R o se 1 983b E v idence o fB u tche ry a nd H om in id A c t iv i t ie s a tT o r ra lba a nd Amb rona : A n

Z oo logy D ep t . ,U n ive r s i ty o fC amb r idge . S u t cl if e , A . J . 1 964 T he Mamma l ian F auna . I n T he S wan scombe S ku l l : AS ur vey o fR e search o n a P l e i s toc ene S i t e . R oy a lA n th ropo log ica lI n s t i tu t eo f

1 22

G rea t B r i ta in & I r e land , C .D . O vey e d i to r . O cca s iona lP ape rN o .2 0 ,p p . 8 5 -106 . S u tc l if f e , A . J . 1 970 S po t ted H y aena : C ru she r , G nawe r , D ige s te ra nd C o l lec to ro fB one s . N a tur e2 27 (5263 ) : 110 -1113 . S u t c l if e ,A . J . 1 973 S im i la r i ty o fB one sa nd A n t le r sG nawed b y D ee r t oH uman A r te f ac t s . N a tur e2 46 (5433 ) : 4 28 4 30 . S u tc l if f e , A .J . 1 977 F u r the r N o te s o n B one s a nd A n t le r s C hewed b yD ee r a nd O the r U ngu la te s . D eer 4 (2 ) : 7 3 -82 . S zabo , B . J . , D . C o l l in s 1 975 A ge s o fF o s s i l B one s f r om t h e B r i t i sh I n te rg la c ia lS i te s . N a tur e2 54 :6 80 -682 . T anne r , N .M . 1 981 O n B ecom ing Human . C amb r idge , C amb r idge U n ive r s i ty P re s s . T anne r , N .M . 1 988 B ecom ing H uman , O u r L ink s w i th O u r P a s t . I n W ha t i sa n A n ima l? , T . I n go ld , e d i to r . L ondon ,U nw in H yman L td . ,p p . 1 27 -140 . T h iem e , H . , a nd S . V e i l 1 985 Un te r suchungen z um em ze i t l ichen E le f an ten Jagdp la t z L eh r ingen ,L dk r . V e rden . D ie K und e3 6 : 1-58 . T homa s ,D .H . 1 971 O nD i s t ingu i sh ing N a tu ra lf r om C u l tu ra l B one s i nA rchaeo log ica lS i te s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 3 6 (3 ) : 3 66 -371 . T ho r son , RM . , RD .G u th r ie 1 984a R ive rI c ea s aT aphonom ic A gen t : A n A l te rna t ive H ypo the s i s f o r B one " A r t i f ac t s " . Q ua terna ry R e search 2 2 (2 ) : 1 72 -188 . T ode , A . 1 982 D er A l t s t e inze i t l iche F undp la t z S a l zg i t t er L eben s ted t . C o logne ,B öh lau V e r lag . T o r re s ,T .d e ,A .G randa l , R .C obo 1 990 C ompa rac ion E n t re A spec to s T a f onom ico s d eD o s Y ac im ien to s d eO so d el a sC ave rna s( U r su ss pe laeus R o s . -He in ) : C ueva E i ro s ( T r ia ca s T e la -Lugo ) yT ro skae ta ' Ko -Kobea ( A taun -Gu ipuzcoa ) . I n C omun icac ione s d e l a R eun ion d e T af onom ia yF os i l izac ion . C on f e rence P r oceed ing s . Mad r id ,D epa r tmen to fP a laeon to logy , U n ive r s idad C omp lu ten se d e Mad r id ,p p . 3 63 -368 . T uf f reau , A . , J . S omme , J . C ha l ine , A .V . Munau t , J . -F . P in ing re , F . P op l in , J . J .Pu i segu r , B . V and e rm ee r sch . 1 977 D e ra l tpa läo l i th i sche F undp la tz B iache-Sa in t-Vaas t ( Nordf rank re ich ) . A rchäo log i sche sK or r e spondenzb la t t7 :1 7 . V a lo ch , K . 1 969 A pe rçu d e sP rem ie re sI ndu s t r ie se nE u rope . I nL e sP r emi e r e sI ndu s t r ie sd eL 'Europe ,K .V a loch , e d i to r . N ice , U n ion I n te rna t iona l d e s S c ience s P ith i s to r ique s e tP ro toh i s to r ique s ( Coloque V D1 ) , p p .178 -183 . V a loch , K . 1 984 E a r ly P a laeo l i th ic i n Mo rav ia , C zecho s lovak ia . P roceed ing s o f t h e P r eh i s tor ic S oc i e ty 5 0 :63 -69 . V a loch , K . , L . Smo l ikova , A . Z eman 1 978 T he M idd le P l e i s tocene S i te P r ib ice I i n S ou th Mo rav ia

V i l la , P .1 990 T o r ra lba a nd A r ido s : E lephan tE xp lo i ta t ion i n M idd le P l e i s tocene S pa in . J ourna l o f H uman E vo lu t ion 1 9 (3 ) : 2 99 -309 . V i l la , P . , a nd J .C ou r t in 1 983 T he I n te rp re ta t ion o fS t ra t if ied S i te s : A V iew f r om U nde rg round . J ourna l o f A rchaeo log ica lS c ienc e 1 0 :2 67 -281 . V oo rh ie s ,M .R . 1 969 T aphonomy a nd P opu la t ion D ynam ic s o f a n E ar ly P l iocene V er t ebra t e F auna , K nox C oun ty ,N ebra ska . C on t r ibu t ion st oG eo logy ,S pe c ia l P ape r N o . 1 , U n ive r s i ty o f Wyom ing , L a ram ie , Wy om ing . Wa e ch te r ,J . d 'A . 1 97 1 Swan scombe 1 970 . P roc eed ing so ft h e R oya lA n thropo log ica lI n s t i tu t eo fG r ea tB r i ta in & I r e land f or 1 970 ,p p .4 3 -50 . Wa smund , E . 1 926 B iocoeno se u nd T hana tocoeno se : B io soz io log i sche S t ud ie ü be rL eben sgeme in schaf t en u nd T o tenge se l l scha f ten . A rch iv f ür H yd rob io log ie 1 7 : 1 116 . We ige l t , J . 1 927 R ezen t e W irbe l t ier le ichen u nd i h r e P a laeob io log i sche B edeu tung . L e ipz ig , Max Weg . We s t ,R .G . ,C .A .D ick son ,J .A .C a t t ,A .H . We i r ,B .W . S pa rk s 1 974 L a te P l e i s tocene D epo s i t sa t Wre t ton ,N o r f o lk . P h i losoph ica lT ran sac t ion so ft h eR oya lS oc ie ty o f L ondon B ,2 47 : 1 85 -212 . Wh i t ley , D .S . 1 992 P reh i s to ry a nd P o s t -Po s i t iv i s t S c ience . Me thod a nd T heo ry i nA rchaeo logy ,M .B . S ch if e r , e d i to r . T uc son , Un ive r s i ty o fA r izona P re s s ,p p .5 7 1 00 . W i l son , M .V .H . 1 988 T aphonom ic P roce s se s : I n f o rma t ion L o ss a nd I n f o rma t ion G a in . G eosc ience C anada 1 5 (2 ) : 1 31-148 . Wo lf f , R .G . 1 973 H yd rodynam ic S o r t ing a nd E co logy o fa P l e i s toc ene Mamma l ian A s semb lage f r om C a l i f o rn ia ( U .S . A . ) . P a laeogeography , P a la eoc l ima to logy , P a laeoeco logy 1 3 : 9 1-10 1 . Wy l ie , A . 1 985 T he R ea c t ion A ga in s tA na logy . I nA d vanc e s i nA r chaeo log ica l Me thod a nd T heo ry ,V o l .8 ,M .B . S ch if f e r , e d . O r lando ,F lo r ida ,A cadem ic P re s s ,p p . 6 3 -111 . Wy l ie ,A . 1 991 Why i st h e re n oA rchaeo logy o fG ende r? . I n E ngender ing A rchaeo logy , J .M . G e ro & M . W . C onkey ,e d s . O x f o rd ,B a s i lB la ckwe l l ,p p .3 1-56 . Wy rn e r ,L T . 1 964 E x cava t ion sa tB a rnf ie ld P i t , 1 955 -1960 . I n T heSwanscombe S k u l l : AS ur vey o fR e search o na P l e i s tocene S i t e . R oy a lA n th ropo log ica lI n s t i tu te o f G rea t B r i ta in & I r e land , CD . O vey e d i to r . O cca s iona lP ape rN o .2 0 ,p p .19 -30 . Wyme r , J . J . 1 983 T he L owe r P a laeol i th ic S i te a tH oxne . P roceed ing so ft h eS uf f o lk I n s t i tu te o fA rchaeo logy a nd H i s to ry , XXXV (3 ) : 1 69 -189 . Z ap f e , H . 1 939 L eben s spu ren d e re i sze i t l ichen H öh lenhy äne :

( Cz echo s lovak ia ) . A n thropo log ie XV I (3 ) : 2 29 -241 . V i l la , P . 1 982 C on jo inab le P i ece s a nd S i te F o rma t ion

D ie U rge sch ich t l iche B edeu tung d e r L eben s spu ren k nochen f re s sende r R aub t ie re . P a laeob io log ica 7 : 11-146 .

P roce s se s . Amer ican A n t iqu i ty 4 7 (2 ) : 2 76 -290 . V i l la , P . 1 983 T er ra Ama ta a nd t h e M idd l e P l e i s tocene A rchaeo log ica l R ecord o f S ou the rn F rance . U n ive r s i ty o fC a l i f o rn ia P ub l ica t ion si nA n th ropo logy ,

Z ih lman , A .L .1981 Wom en a s S hape r s o f t h e H uman A dap ta t ion . I nW oman t h e G a ther er , F .D ah lbe rg , e d i to r .Y a le U n ive r s i ty P re s s ,p p .7 5 -120 .

V o lume 1 3 .

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