Early Antiquity 9780226144672

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Early Antiquity Antiquity

Early Antiquity Early Antiquity I. M. M. Diakonoff DiakonofF Volume Editor Volume Editor

Philip L. L. Kohl Philip Kohl Project Editor

Project Editor

Translated by Alexander Kirjanov

Translated by Alexander Kirjanov

The The University University of of Chicago Chicago Press Press Chicago and and London London Chicago

I. M. M. DIAKONOFF DIAKONOFF is is aa senior senior research research scholar scholar of of ancient ancient history history at at the the I. Institute of of Oriental Oriental Studies, Studies, Leningrad Leningrad Academy Academy of of Sciences. Sciences. Institute PHILIP L. L. KOHL KOHL is is professor professor of of anthropology anthropology at at Wellesley Wellesley College. PHILIP College. The University of Chicago Chicago Press, Press, Chicago Chicago 60637 60637 The University of The University of The University of Chicago Chicago Press, Press, Ltd., Ltd., London London © 1991 1991 by by The The University University of of Chicago Chicago © All rights rights reserved. reserved. Published Published 1991 1991 All Printed Printed in in the the United United States States of of America America 91 00 99 99 98 98 97 97 96 96 95 95 94 94 93 93 92 92 91 00

55 44 33 22 11

Originally published published as as Istoriya IstoriyaDrevnego Drevnego Mira, volume Mira, volume 1: 1: Originally Rannyaya Drevnost', revised edition. ©© 1982, 1989 Chief Rannyaya Drevnost', revised edition. 1982, 1989 Chief Nauka Press. Press. Division Division of of Eastern Eastern Literature, Literature, Nauka Library of of Congress Congress Cataloging Cataloging in in Publication Publication Data Data Library Istoriia drevnego drevnego mira. 1, Rannlala Ranniaia drevnost'. drevnost'. English English lstor'ITa mira. 1, Diakonoff, volume Philip L. Early antiquity / 1 . M. M. Diakonoff, volume editor; editor ; Philip L. Kohl, Kohl, Early antiquity II. project editor. editor, project p. cm. p. cm. Translation Translation of: of: Istorila Istoriia drevnego drevnego mira. mira. 1. 1. Rannlala Ranniaia drevnost'. drevnost'. Includes Includes index. index. ISBN 0-226-14465-8 0-226-14465-8 ISBN 1. 1. History, History, Ancient. Ancient. I. I. D'lakonov, D'Skonov, Igor' Igor' Mikhailovich. Mikhailovich. II. II. Title. Title. D57.I88 1991 1991 D57.188 930—dc20 90-24148 90-24148 930-dc20 CIP CIP © The The paper paper used used in in this this publication publication meets meets @)

the minimum minimum requirements requirements of of the the American American National National the Standard for for Information Information Sciences-Permanence Sciences—Permanence of Standard of Paper for for Printed Printed Library Library Materials, Materials, ANSI ANSI Z39.48-1984. Z39.48-1984. Paper

Contents Contents

Foreword by byPhilip PhilipL.L.Kohl Kohl Foreword Introduction Board by the theEditorial Editorial Board Introduction by

vii Vll

11

General Outline Outline of of the the First First Period Period of of the the History History of of the the 1 General

2 3 4 5 6

7

8 9

Ancient Ancient World World and and the the Problem Problem of of the the Ways Ways of of Development Development I. M. I. M. DIAKONOFF

27 27

The The City-States City-States of of Sumer Sumer I. M. I. M. DIAKONOFF

67 67

Early Early Despotisms Despotisms in in Mesopotamia Mesopotamia I. M. M. DIAKONOFF

84 84

The Old Old Babylonian Babylonian Period Period of of Mesopotamian Mesopotamian History History The N. N. V. KOZYREVA

98 98

Sumerian Sumerian Culture Culture V. K. K. AFANASIEVA

124 124

The The Predynastic Predynastic Period Period and and the the Early Early and and the the Old Old Kingdoms in in Egypt Kingdoms Egypt I. V. VINOGRADOV

137 137

The The Middle Middle Kingdom Kingdom of of Egypt Egypt and and the the Hyksos Hyksos Invasion Invasion I. V. VINOGRADOV

158 158

The The New New Kingdom Kingdom of of Egypt Egypt I. V. VINOGRADOV I.

172 172

The The Culture Culture of of Ancient Ancient Egypt Egypt I. A. I. A. LAPIS

193 193

10 India and the Pre-Urban 10 The The First First States States in in India and the Pre-Urban Cultures Cultures of of Central Central Asia Asia and and Iran Iran G. G. F. IL'YIN and and I. M. M. DIAKONOFF

214 214

11 11 Asshur, Asshur, Mitanni, Mitanni, and and Arrapkhe Arrapkhe N. B. N. B. JANKOWSKA

228 228

12 Mesopotamia B.C. Mesopotamia in in the the Sixteenth Sixteenth to to Eleventh Eleventh Centuries Centuries B.C. V. A. A. JAKOBSON jAKOBsON

261 261

13 The The Hittite Hittite Kingdom Kingdom G. G. G. G. GIORGADZE

266 266

vi vi

Contents Contents

Third and 14 Syria, Phoenicia, and Palestine in the Third

Second Millennia B.C. B.C. I. M. M. DIAKONOFF

286 286

15 The T h e World of of Crete and Mycenae Yu. V. V. ANDREYEV Yu.

309 309

16 Greece of of the Eleventh to Ninth Centuries B.C. B.C. in the Homeric Epics

Yu. Yu. V. V. ANDREYEV

328 328

Phoenician and Greek Colonization Colonization 17 Phoenician

Yu. B. Yu. B. TSIRKIN

347 347

Half of of the 18 India, Central Asia, and Iran in the First Half

First Millennium B.C. B.C. G. G. F. IL'YIN AND I. I. M. M. DIAKONOFF

366 366

T h e First States in China 19 The

T. V. STEPUGINA T. V.

387 387

B.C. Half of of the First Millennium B.C. 20 China in the First Half

T. V. STEPUGINA T. V. STEPUGINA

420 420

Maps Maps Index Index

433 433 441 441

Foreword Foreword PHILIP L. KOHL KOHL PHILIP

On the the English English translation translation On The organization organization and and nature nature of of this this book, book, Early Antiquity,and anditsitsconconThe Early Antiquity, ceptual relation relation to to the the two two remaining remaining volumes volumes in in the the three-volume three-volume ceptual Soviet study study on on The The History Historyofofthe theAncient Ancient World discussed in the World areare discussed in the In-InSoviet troduction. This This Foreword Foreword explains explains some some difficulties difficulties associated associated with with troduction. the English translation of of this this work work and and tries tries to to familiarize familiarize its its EnglishEnglishthe English translation reading audience audience with with certain certain characteristics characteristics of of Soviet Soviet Marxist Marxist hisreading historiography on on antiquity. antiquity. First, First, aa brief brief description description of of the the history history of of the the toriography translation is is required. required. translation Historyofofthe theAncient Ancient first learned learned of of the the three-volume three-volume study study The The History II first World Worldwhile whilevisiting visitingLeningrad Leningrad ininfall fall 1983 1983asasaamember memberof ofan anAmeriAmerican delegation delegation of of archaeologists archaeologists to to the the Soviet Soviet Union. Union. Dr. Dr. l. I. M. M. DiDican akonoff akonoff of of the the Leningrad Leningrad Branch Branch of of the the Oriental Oriental Institute Institute of of the the USSR, Accademy Accademy of of Sciences, Sciences, provided provided the the delegation delegation with with aa single single USSR, copy of of the the first edition of of the the work work and and suggested suggested that that it it would would be be first edition copy worthwhile to to translate translate this this recent recent synthesis synthesis of of his his and, and, primarily, primarily, felfelworthwhile low Leningrad Leningrad colleagues' colleagues' historical historical studies studies of of the ancient world. world. This This the ancient low single copy copy of of the the limited limited first edition ended ended up up gathering gathering dust dust in in my single first edition my library in in Wellesley, Wellesley, dutifully dutifully having having been been set set aside aside in in my my "To "To Do" Do" file file library on collaborative collaborative research research with with Soviet Soviet scholars. scholars. It It might might have have remained remained on there had not had had the the opportunity opportunity the the following following year year to to travel travel to to there had II not Leningrad to participate in the the Rencontre Internationale, Leningrad to participate in Rencontre Assyriologique Assyriologique Internationale, where II again again met met with with Dr. Diakonoff and and discussed discussed with with him him at at where Dr, Diakonoff length his his desire desire to to have have aa major major work work of of his translated into into English. English. length his translated Several possibilities possibilities presented presented themselves, themselves, including including the the recently recently pubpubSeveral lished work primarily written by him: Istoriya drevnego Vostoka: lished work primarily written by him: Istoriya drevnego Vostoka: Zarozhdenie drevneishikh drevneishikh klassovykh klassovykh obshchestv obshchestv ii pervye ochagi rabovlaZarozhdenie pervye ochagi rabovladeVcheskoi tsivilizatsii [The history of the ancient East: birth of the birth of the del'cheskoi tsivilizatsii [The history of the ancient East: TheThe most ancient class societies and the first centers of slave-owning civilimost ancient class societies and the first centers of slave-owning civilization] (Moscow, (Moscow, 1983), 1983), but but he he reaffirmed reaffirmed his his desire desire to to have have the the multimultization] authored three-volume three-volume The The History of the the Ancient World translated, translated, authored History of Ancient World since it it was was in in his opinion more more up-to-date, up-to-date, better better represented represented his his curcursince his opinion rent understanding understanding of of developments developments in in ancient ancient Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, and and rent offered the the inestimable inestimable advantage advantage of of providing providing aa synthetic synthetic overview overview offered to antiquity as as aa whole. whole. Its introductory chapters chapters (see (see the Introduction Its introductory the Introduction to antiquity and Lecture 1, this this volume) volume) attempt attempt to to structure structure and and interpret interpret the the disand Lecture 1, discussed historical historical materials materials according according to to an an explicit, explicit, consistent, consistent, and and exexcussed panded historical historical framework framework as as evolved evolved by by Soviet Soviet scholars scholars in in the the panded

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general Diakonoff believed, believed, would be of general Marxist Marxist tradition, tradition, which, which, Dr. Dr. Diakonoff would be of considerable interest interest to to Western Western readers. readers. considerable In fall fall 1984 1984 the the University of Chicago Chicago Press Press contacted contacted me me about about the the In University of possibility work, which which had then appeared possibility of of translating translating this this work, had by by then appeared in in its its second revised edition the Soviet second revised edition in in the Soviet Union, Union, and and details, details, as as acknowlacknowledged below, concerning edged below, concerning the the translation translation and and editing editing of of the the final final text text eventually were were hammered hammered out out among among the the interested interested parties in Chiparties in Chieventually specago, cago, Leningrad, Leningrad, and and Wellesley. Wellesley. Some Some of of these these details, details, as as well well as as specific of aa general general popular work of of popular work cific problems problems related related to to the the translation translation of this kind, kind, should should be be explicated explicated further. further. All All of of volume 1, Early Early AntiqAntiqthis volume 1, uity, initially initially was was translated translated by Mr. Alexander Alexander Kirjanov and then then enenuity, by Mr. Kirjanov and tered by by Ms. Ms. Daria Daria Kirjanov, Kirjanov, his his daughter, daughter, into into my my file on the the tered file on Wellesley College College mainframe mainframe computer. computer. These These rough rough translations translations Wellesley were then then sent sent lecture lecture by by lecture Dr. Diakonoff Diakonoff in in Leningrad Leningrad for for lecture to to Dr. were corrections and and revisions, revisions, aa process complicated not not only only by by longlongcorrections process complicated distance mail mail service service but also by by the the fact fact that that aa substantially substantially revised revised but also distance third edition, edition, upon upon which which this this English English translation translation is is ultimately ultimately based, based, third appeared in in the the Soviet Soviet Union Union during during the the course course of of this this editing. editing. II then then appeared incorporated the revised and and edited edited text on my word processor processor and and incorporated the revised text on my word mailed the the corrected corrected copy copy once once more more to to Dr. Dr. Diakonoff Diakonoff for for his his final mailed final approval. approval. Though Though necessary, necessary, such such aa laborious laborious procedure procedure is, is, to to say say the the least, least, time-consuming and and helps helps explain explain why why so so few few outstanding outstanding works works of of time-consuming Soviet historical scholarship are are translated. Some particular particular diffidiffiSoviet historical scholarship translated. Some The History Historyofofthe theAncient Ancient World culties beset the translation of the the The translation of World be-beculties beset the cause it it is is intended intended for for aa general general educated educated lay lay audience. audience. First First and and cause fundamentally, the the reading reading publics of different different countries countries differ, differ, and and fundamentally, publics of this fact fact is is particularly striking when when contrasting contrasting the the potential "marthis particularly striking potential "market," if if you you will, for this this book book in in the the Soviet Soviet Union in the the United United will, for Union to to that that in ket," States. A A cursory cursory comparison comparison of of the the reading available for for reading materials materials available States. purchase in aa subway subway stall stall or or street street corner corner kiosk kiosk in in any any major major Soviet Soviet purchase in city with with those those on on sale sale at at equivalent equivalent locations locations in in American American cities cities would would city quickly convince anyone of this difference. The interested Soviet quickly convince anyone of this difference. The interested Soviet reader does not expect a novel approach to the data or the advancereader does not expect a novel approach to the data or the advancement of of aa newall-encompassing new all-encompassing theory theory to to provide the latest perspecment provide the latest perspective on ancient history; a product is not expected to be sold, but tive on ancient history; a product is not expected to be sold, but current knowledge is to be presented in a straightforward, accessible current knowledge is to be presented in a straightforward, accessible form within within an an understood understood and and generally unquestioned theoretical theoretical form generally unquestioned framework. It is for such an audience that The History of theAncient Ancient framework. It is for such an audience that The History of the World was originally written. The English-reading audience is likely to World was originally written. The English-reading audience is likely to be considerably considerably diverse, diverse, consisting consisting of of specialists specialists from from aa range of discibe range of disciplines—anthropology, history, history, Assyriology, Assyriology, classical classical studies, studies, etc., etc., ininplines-anthropology, terested in in aa theoretically theoretically distinctive distinctive materialist materialist interpretation interpretation of of the the terested

Foreword Foreword

IX ix

past—as interested in a general overview to past-as well as university students interested antiquity. antiquity. The T h e expectations of of such potential readers necessarily will differ. differ. As explained explained in the Introduction, this book was not primarily primarily written for specialists; it is not annotated annotated or extensively footnoted footnoted and, not infrequently, controversial controversial theories and interpretations presented infrequently, interpretations are presented just mention mention two examples in as unproblematic, as givens. Let me just fashwhich theories of of American American scholars are cited favorably in this fashion; D. Schmandt-Besserat's Schmandt-Besserat's theory (itself (itself originally based on an idea of P. Amiet) on the use and significance significance of of "tokens" for understanding understanding of the beginnings of of writing (see Lecture 2); and D. McAlpin's thesis that ancient Elamite and the Dravidian language family are cognate (Lecancient ture 10). 10). Scholars Scholars familiar familiar with the literature literature will immediately realize realize ture with the will immediately interpretations are either sharply contested contested or inconthat such interpretations clusively demonstrated. Such controversy controversy also also occasionally occasionally concerns concerns clusively demonstrated.11 Such fundamental questions of of interpretation interpretation and and classification, classification, such such as as the the fundamental questions scale and and nature nature of the private/communal sector in in ancient ancient MesoMesoscale of the private/communal sector potamia. Debates on on some some of these issues also rage within the the Soviet Soviet potamia. Debates of these issues also rage within specialist literature (see below). below). specialist literature (see A related difficulty difficulty is due to the lack of of access to or familiarity with of Western research on particular particular problems. Thus, the latest results of for example, H. Weiss's fundamental fundamental work on the beginnings of of urnorthern Mesopotamia Mesopotamia and his writings on the productivbanism in northern dominantly rainfall-based rainfall-based agriculture in northern ity/unit area of of the dominantly northern Mesopotamia compared with the exclusively irrigation-based irrigation-based agriculMesopotamia compared There is an inevitable lag ture in the south are not presented presented here. 22 There diffusion of of knowledge across still-significant political time in the diffusion across the still-significant frontier that separates Soviet from from Western scholarship, though though fair fair frontier recognition of this fact admits that this temporal gap works recognition of works in the opposite direction as well; indeed, we tend to be far more ignorant ignorant of of recent Soviet Soviet scholarship scholarship on on antiquity antiquity than than they they are are of of our our work. work. In In recent any event, event, one one of of the the primary of this this volume volume is is to to facilitate facilitate any primary purposes purposes of the transmission of knowledge across this unfortunate boundary. the transmission of knowledge across this unfortunate boundary. T h e editor editor of of the English edition, thus, is presented presented with a probThe lem. Should Should one flag such debatable theories by reference reference to the rele1. For For serious serious criticisms the former former theory, theory, see M. J. Shendge, Shendge, "The "The Use Use of of Seals Seals 1. criticisms of of the see M.J. Invention of of Writing," Journal of the Economic and Social History of of the Orient 26, and the Invention Journal of part 22 (1983); (1983); for for reservations reservations concerning concerning McAlpin's McAlpin's thesis, thesis, see see the the thoughtful thoughtful (and (and part of McAlpin's Proto-Elamo-Dravidian: The Evidence and Its Imlargely sympathetic) review of plications by the Dravidian of the American Oriental Dravidian scholar K. V. Zvelebil in the Journal Journal of Society 105, no. 2 (1985). Society e.g., The Origins of of Cities Cities in in Dry-Farming Dry-Farming Syria Syria and and Mesopotamia Mesopotamiaininthe theThird ThirdMilMil2. See, e.g.,· lennium lenniumB.C., B.C.,ed. ed. by byH. H. Weiss Weiss(Guilford, (Guilford, Conn.: Conn.: Four Four Quarters Quarters Publishing Publishing Co., Co., 1986). 1986).

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vant recent research vant opposed opposed literature? literature? Should Should one one note note recent research that that supports or or contradicts contradicts an an interpretation interpretation made made in in one one of of the supports the "lec"lectures"? tures"? In In my my opinion, opinion, two two arguments arguments militated militated against against such such interinterference. First, given the the considerable considerable time and geographic geographic areas areas time and ference. First, given covered in in this collectively written study of of antiquity-literally antiquity—literally this collectively written study covered stretching in in time time from from Neolithic origins to to the the fall fall of of Rome and in in stretching Neolithic origins Rome and space from from the the western western Mediterranean Mediterranean to to East East Asia-no Asia—no single single editor editor space could possibly note all all controversial controversial areas areas of of interpretation. interpretation. Collective Collective could possibly note editorship was not feasible. feasible. Second Second and and more more important, important, the the docudocueditorship was not mentation required required to to address address this this problem would change change the the characcharacproblem would mentation ter of the the work. work. The The introductory introductory chapters chapters of of each each volume and all all ter of volume and the lectures lectures are are clearly clearly synthetic synthetic interpretations interpretations of of aa vast vast corpus corpus of of the data. Final truths never never should should be be expected expected in in history, and intelligent intelligent data. Final truths history, and readers will will immediately immediately recognize recognize that that their their approximation approximation will will be be readers rougher and less less precise precise in in aa generalizing generalizing work of this this kind. kind. In In aa rougher and work of very few few cases cases II took took the the liberty liberty of of noting noting some some relevant relevant research. research. very These always always occur occur in in the the footnotes footnotes and and are are marked marked "Editor's "Editor's note note These (PLK)"; the other, more more numerous instances designated designated "Editor's "Editor's (PLK)"; the other, numerous instances note (IMD)" (IMD)" refer to additions additions made made by the principal principal Soviet Soviet editor, editor, note refer to by the I.M. Diakonoff. I. M. Diakonoff. One must must not not exaggerate exaggerate the the problem; problem; nearly nearly all all of of what what is is prepreOne sented is consensually consensually accepted accepted by by all all historians. historians. For remainder, it it sentedis For the the remainder, should suffice suffice simply simply to to let let the the reader reader beware of these these difficulties difficulties at at beware of should the the outset outset and and seek seek on on his his or or her her own own alternative alternative perspectives perspectives on on parparticular topics of interest. interest. ticular topics of Early Antiquity, volume 1 of of The History of of the the Ancient Ancient World, World,isisaawork work written by by aa group group of of historians historians and and linguists linguists largely largely working working at at the the written Oriental Oriental Institute Institute in in Leningrad. Leningrad. Difficulties Difficulties associated associated with with collective collective authorship are are discussed discussed in in the the Introduction, Introduction, but it is is important important to to authorship but it emphasize emphasize here here that that substantial substantial differences differences of of interpretation interpretation exist exist even within within this this closely closely collaborating collaborating circle circle of of scholars. scholars. Some Some lectures lectures even devote more, more, some some less, less, space space to straightforward political political history history or or devote to straightforward cultural description. description. Others Others focus focus more more intensely intensely on on socioeconomic socioeconomic cultural reconstruction. Such Such diversity diversity in in perspective perspective and and presentation, presentation, of of reconstruction. course, may may constitute constitute more more aa strength strength than than aa liability, liability, and and the reader course, the reader should evaluate evaluate each each lecture lecture on on its its own. own. should The The historical/linguistic historical/linguistic perspectives perspectives of of the the authors authors also also should should be be noted; provides the noted; we we are are told told that that the the study study of of languages languages provides the key key for for penetrating the mental processes world of penetrating the mental processes or or spiritual spiritual world of antiquity, antiquity, whereas archaeological data, data, the the material material culture culture record, record, often often are are whereas archaeological implicitly or or even even explicitly explicitly regarded regarded as as of of relatively relatively limited limited value value for for implicitly reconstructing the socioeconomic structure structure of of ancient ancient societies. societies. Such Such reconstructing the socioeconomic perspective, of of course, course, has has merit merit and and may may indeed indeed be be more more right right than than aa perspective, caveat lector. wrong, but again wrong, but again caveat lector.

Foreword Foreword

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Finally, the overall organization lecorganization of the work, the sequence of lectures, should should be mentioned: materials are presented presented roughly in chronological order, though each individual lecture treats separately separately a specific area of early civilization. Thus, fourth through early second second millennia B.C. developments in Egypt are presented after a compamillennia B.C. developments in Egypt are presented after a comparable review review of of the the early early history history of of Mesopotamia Mesopotamia but but before before treattreatrable ments of the beginnings of civilization in South Asia, Central Asia, framework is is logical logical and, and, given given the the colcoland, finally, finally, East East Asia. Asia. Such Such aa framework and, lective authorship, constitutes perhaps the only feasible structure. However, by its very nature this structure tends to minimize historical the interconnections among separate areas; it threatens to obscure the development in which all the sosingle "world historical" process of development socomprehensive history cieties were involved. Thus, paradoxically, this comprehensive of antiquity can be read from from a perspective that stresses the internal internal of evolution of separate societies, each of which finally reaches the same development (see below). typological stage of development fulfills Despite this inherent, if not inevitable, limitation, the work fulfills T h e format format of the lectures, the periodization periodization and its main purpose. The elucidated in the introductory introductory lectures, and the guiding guiding typology elucidated hand Diakonoff and the editorial board board are all responsible for hand of Dr. Diakonoff unified work; the fundamental fundamental goal of presenting presenting the creation of a unified the histories of separate early civilizations as part of an integral or uni(vsemirnaya istoriya) istoriya) is is achieved, despite the versal historical process (vsemirnaya organizational problems associated with collective authorship and organizational framework. Certain questions, however, inevitably emerge and must be addressed. How How are separate early states with their incipient class be anstructures temporally, typologically, and historically related to one ansatisfactory or complete is this canvas that purports to to other? How How satisfactory sketch in broad strokes the main features of the ancient world? What is the vision of the past, the view of history, that permeates this study how does it conform conform to or distinguish itself itself from from an orthodox orthodox and how finally, how stage theory of development? And, And, finally, how does this macrothe overviews overviews of historical collective collective Soviet Soviet overview overview compare compare with with the of historical Western macrohistorians-be macrohistorians—be they they explicitly explicitly Marxist-inspired Marxist-inspired or or not? not? Western Soviet Historiography on Antiquity: Common Problems, Particular Solutions An outside observer attempting to describe any complex "school" or unified corpus of scholarship always confronts confronts the doublerelatively unified edged difficulty difficulty of of disentangling common features, more or less uniof the school, from those characteristics versally shared by adherents of difficulty is particuand concerns specific to individual scholars. This difficulty larly pronounced when generalizations are made concerning Soviet

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scholarship, for for the the Western Western observer observer must must be be aware aware of of and and somehow somehow scholarship, consciously prejudices that consciously correct correct for for stereotypic stereotypic prejudices that permeate permeate Western Western understanding of of all all things things Soviet. Soviet. One One such such grossly grossly inaccurate, inaccurate, albeit albeit understanding all-pervasive, all-pervasive, image image is is that that of of aa monolithic, monolithic, dogmatic, dogmatic, highly highly enentrenched orthodoxy orthodoxy to which everyone everyone submits submits either either through through brainbraintrenched to which washing washing or or coercion. coercion. Whether Whether applied applied to to society society at at large large or or to to aa branch of of scholarship, scholarship, such such as as ancient ancient history, history, this this image image distorts distorts realrealbranch ity, actually actually shedding shedding more more light light on on Western prejudice than than Soviet Soviet Western prejudice ity, practice. Yet, Yet, it it is is also also legitimate legitimate to describe national of rereto describe national traditions traditions of practice. search in in the the historical historical sciences, sciences, and and Soviet Soviet scholars scholars themselves themselves conconsearch sciously refer refer to to "the "the Soviet Soviet school school of of economic economic historians historians of of the the sciously ancient Orient"3-a Orient"3—a phrase phrase that explicitly acknowledges acknowledges the the existence existence ancient that explicitly of such such aa school school and, and, correspondingly, correspondingly, some some commonality commonality of of interest interest of or approach approach that that defines defines it. it. or the features Before Before attempting attempting to to list list some some of of the features characteristic characteristic of of Soviet Soviet writings writings on on antiquity, antiquity, one one first first must must demolish demolish the the aboveabovementioned mentioned caricature. caricature. Soviet Soviet historical historical and and social social science science writings writings abound view, the the articulation articulation abound in in polemic, polemic, sharply sharply contested contested points points of of view, of of which which often often shocks shocks uninitiated uninitiated Western Western readers. readers. As As illustration illustration of of this this penchant penchant for for polemic polemic within within Soviet Soviet historiography historiography on on antiquity, antiquity, one one can can cite cite two two recent recent debates debates that that were were featured featured in in major major Soviet Soviet journals. Vestnikdrevnei drevneiistorii istorii [The journal of ancient history] devoted [The journal of ancient history] devoted journals. Vestnik to the the presentation presentation and and criticism criticism of of aa new, new, detailed detailed linlinseveral issues issues44 to several guistic theory theory purporting purporting to to reconstruct reconstruct Proto-Indo-European Proto-Indo-European lanlanguistic guage and and culture. culture. Disagreements Disagreements ran ran deep deep and and were baldly guage were baldly expressed. Similarly, Similarly, two two recent recent issues issues of of Narody NarodyAzii Aziii iAfriki Afriki[Peoples [Peoples expressed. of Asia Asia and and Africa] Africa] (1984, (1984, nos. nos. 2-3) 2-3) presented presented aa roundtable roundtable discusdiscusof (kruglyistoll stol)onon"the "thestate stateand andlaw lawininthe theancient ancientEast" East"led ledbybyV.V.A.A. sion (kruglyi sion 5 5 Many Jakobson, one one of of the the contributors contributors to to Early EarlyAntiquity. Antiquity. Manyfascinating fascinating Jakobson, issues were were raised raised in in this this discussion, discussion, some some of of which which are are also also discussed discussed issues in The The History Historyofofthe theAncient Ancient World: including origins of law; World: including the the origins of law; the the re- rein 3. Ancient 3. See See I. I. M. M. Diakonoff's Diakonoff's prefatory prefatory remarks remarks to to his his edited edited volume volume in in English English Ancient Mesopotamia (Moscow:Nauka, Nauka,1969). 1969). Mesopotamia (Moscow: 4. 1980, no. no. 3; 1981, no. no. 2; 1982, nos.nos. 3-4; andand 1984, no. no. 2. 2. 4. Vestnik Vestnikdrevnei drevneiistorii, istorii, 1980, 3; 1981, 2; 1982, 3-4; 1984, pubFortunately, these Fortunately, these and and related related articles articles have have been been translated translated into into English, English, initially initially published in Soviet Studies in History 22, nos. 1-2 1-2 (1983), and in Soviet Anthropology and Archeology 22 (1984), V.V. GamArcheology23,23,no. no. (1984),and andsubsequentiyreprinted subsequently reprintedwith withthe theresponse responseofT. of T. Gamkrelidze and and V. V. V. V. Ivanov Ivanov to to I.I. M. M. Diakonoff's Diakonoff's criticisms criticisms in in Journal Journal of of Indo-European Indo-European krelidze Studies13, 13,nos. nos.1-2 1-2 (1985). (1985).An AnEnglish Englishtranslation translationof ofthe thedefinitive definitivestatement statementof ofGamGamStudies krelidze yazyk ii indoevropeitsi: indoevropeitsi:Rekonstruktsiya Rekonstruktsiyai iistorikoistorikothesis, Indoevropeiskii Indoevropeiskii yazyk krelidze and Ivanov's thesis, typologicheskiianaliz analizprayazyka prayazykai protokul'tury i protokuVtury[Indo-European [Indo-Europeanand andthe theIndo-Europeans: Indo-Europeans:AA typologicheskii reconstruction and and aa historical-typological historical-typological analysis analysis of of aa proto-language proto-language and and aa protoprotoreconstruction culture] (2 (2 vols., vols., Tbilisi, Tbilisi, 1984), 1984), is is currently currently being being prepared. prepared. culture] 5. Fortunately, Fortunately, this this was was also also translated translated and and appeared appeared in in Soviet SovietAnthropology Anthropology Archeandand Arche5. ology24, 24,no. no.44(1986); (1986);and and25, 25,no. no.44(1987). (1987). ology

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lationship or relative dependence/independence dependence/independence between religion and ethical and moral norms, on the one hand, and law or legal justice, on the other; culturally based differences differences in the expression of of law, which is defined defined in classic Marxist terms as written codes that express and sanction the interests of of the ruling class. During this discusdifferent source materials, differed differed sharply sion, specialists, utilizing different in their views on fundamental fundamental questions of of interpretation; interpretation; similarly structured presentations with rebuttals in Western jounals may wan in structured comparison to the tone and tenor of of this debate. One of of the major major points of contention in this roundtable discussion on ancient law also forms the major major theoretical question addressed in Early Antiquity: Antiquity:namely, namely,the thedistinctiveness distinctivenessofofhishisthe Introduction to Early torical development in the East relative to the West (i.e., for antiquity—classical Greece and Rome). There is no reason to recapitulate uity-classical of scholarly writings on this seemingly timeless, perenthe history of nially recurring question; the summary in the Introduction sketches its main contours quite adequately, though it also may partially misunfamiliar reader. The Introduction discusses the debate lead the unfamiliar over the distinctiveness of the East, the phenomenon of Oriental despotism, the validity of of the Marxist concept of of an Asiatic mode of of proformulated and today still duction, and so on, as a problem intially formulated of Soviet scholarship.6 In its review of raging primarily within Western scholarship.6 writings on the subject, the Introduction is uncharacteristically mild, intentionally conciliatory, conciliatory, as as it it glosses glosses over over very very real real and and profound profound intentionally differences among Soviet scholars that appear regularly-indeed, regularly—indeed, differences The History ofthe theAnAnwith increasing increasing frequency-in frequency—in their their literature. literature.77 The with History of cient World World aims aims atat presenting presenting developments developments inin antiquity antiquity asas part part of of cient single, unified unified process-the process—the universal universal history history of of humanity; humanity; its its intent intent aa single, is to to emphasize emphasize the the common, common, shared shared features features at at the the expense expense of of the the is particular and, in in so so doing, doing, lump lump together together disparate disparate civilizations civilizations into into particular and, similar typological typological categories. categories. From From this this perspective, perspective, classical classical Greece Greece similar and Rome Rome theoretically theoretically must must resemble resemble ancient ancient Near Near Eastern Eastern civiliand civilizations. The disagreements within Soviet historiography on such fundafunda6. 6. One One might might add add that that today today this this debate debate in in the the West West experiences experiences perhaps perhaps its its clearest clearest manifestation battle raging in the the battle raging over over the the question question of of Western Western scholarship scholarship on on the the East, East, manifestation in the of Orientalism Orientalism or or disciplines disciplines that that took took shape shape under, under, and and presumably presumably the phenomenon phenomenon of by their their association association with, with, Western Western colonial colonial rule, rule, the the resulresulwere permanently affected by were permanently affected tant being that of aa distinctive, distinctive, unchanging, unchanging, and and monolithic monolithic Orient. Orient. See See E. E. W. W. tant image image being that of Said, Orientalism(New (NewYork: York:Random RandomHouse, House,1978). 1978). Said, Orientalism 7. 7. For For aa thorough thorough review review of of the the earlier earlier Soviet Soviet debate debate on on the the Asiatic Asiatic mode mode ofproducof producin the the thirties thirties through through the the sixties sixties and and early early seventies, seventies, see see S. S. P.P. tion from from its its appearance appearance in tion Dunn, The Fall Falland andRise Riseofofthethe Asiatic Asiatic Mode Mode of Production of Production (Boston: (Boston: Routledge Routledge and Kegan and Kegan Dunn, The Paul, 1982). Paul, 1982).

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mental issues of interpretation, real; and mental issues of interpretation, however, however, are are real; and it it is is healthy healthy that they they are are debated debated openly openly in in their their literature. literature. Those Those who who have folthat have followed English translations translations of of several several of of Diakonoff's Diakonoff's major major theoretical theoretical lowed English studies on on the the private/communal private/communal sector sector in in ancient ancient Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, the the studies nature nature of of the the dependent dependent labor labor force, force, and and the the phenomenon phenomenon of of "helots" "helots" in early early antiquity, that his interpretations in antiquity, for for example, example, will will also also realize realize that his interpretations have been been critcized critcized (almost (almost predictably) predictably) by by Soviet Soviet theorists theorists and and histohistohave rians, Georgian scholar scholar G. G. A. Melikishvili, whose whose A. Melikishvili, rians, particularly particularly by by the the Georgian mentioned only discriticisms criticisms are are mentioned only in in passing passing in in the the Introduction. Introduction.8s The The disagreement between these two two scholars scholars continues, continues, as as reflected reflected in in agreement between these Melikishvili's recent summary article article "Ob "Ob osnovnykh osnovnykh etapakh etapakh razvirazviMelikishvili's recent summary tiya drevnego drevnego blizhnevostochnogo obshchestva" [On [On the the basic basic stages stages blizhnevostochnogo obshchestva" tiya of the the development development of of ancient ancient Near Eastern societiesJ,9 societies],9 which, which, among among of Near Eastern other points, attacks the the periodization periodization of of antiquity antiquity presented in The other points, attacks presented in The Historyof ofthe theAncient AncientWorld. World. Other issues of contention include scale History Other issues of contention include thethe scale and significance significance of of the the so-called so-called private/communal sector in in third third miland private/communal sector millennium B.C. B.C. Mesopotamia Mesopotamia and and the the related of the the relative relative lennium related problem problem of size and and dominance dominance of of the temple/state sector sector in in early early Near Eastern the temple/state Near Eastern size irrigation civilizations; civilizations; the the character character of of the the later later military military states states of of the the irrigation second millennium B.C. (or (or Diakonoff's Diakonoff's "third "third way way of of development," development," second millennium B.C. compared with with see Lecture Lecture 1); 1); the the nature of the the classical classical Greek Greek polis nature of polis compared see contemporary and and later later Near Eastern cities; cities; and and property property relations in contemporary Near Eastern relations in classical Greece Greece and and Rome Rome and and how should be distinguished how they they should be distinguished classical from those those present in Near Near Eastern Eastern societies. societies. The The interested interested reader reader from present in should consult consult Melikishvili's Melikishvili's cited cited works and contrast contrast his interpretashould works and his interpretations with with the the overview overview presented in The The History Historyofofthe theAncient Ancient World. presented in World. tions Here, one one should should only only be be aware aware that that the the debate debate on on fundamental fundamental quesquesHere, tions of interpretation interpretation both outside and and within Soviet Union conboth outside within the the Soviet Union contions of tinues and and that that The The History of the the Ancient World provides provides only only aa History of Ancient World tinues particular on aa vast vast corpus corpus of of data, data, aa particular reading set set particular perspective perspective on particular reading forth in in aa logically logically consistent, consistent, economical; economical, and and readable form. forth readable form. If what then If answers answers to to fundamental fundamental questions questions differ, differ, what then unites unites Soviet Soviet Can one refer to historical writings writings on historical on antiquity? antiquity? Can one legitimately legitimately refer to aa Soviet Soviet school of of economic economic historians of the the ancient ancient world? world? !tis It is insufficient insufficient historians of school 8. the Ancient in 8. Contrast, Contrast, e.g., e.g., I. I. M. M. Diakonoff's Diakonoff's "The "The Commune Commune in in the Ancient East East as as Treated Treated in Researchers," Soviet Soviet Anthropology andand Archeology 2, no.2,2no. (1963), and and the Works Anthropology Archeology 2 (1963), the Works of of Soviet Soviet Researchers," "Slaves, andand Archeology 15, nos. SovietAnthropology Anthropology Archeology 15, nos. "Slaves, Helots, Helots, and and Serfs Serfs in in Early Early Antiquity," Antiquity," Soviet 2-3 (1976), with with G. A. Melikishvili's the Most 2 - 3 (1976), G. A. Melikishvili's studies: studies: "On "On the the Character Character of of the Most Ancient Ancient Class Ethnography, ed. ed. by S.byP.S.Dunn and and E. Dunn, IntroductiontotoSoviet Soviet Ethnography, P. Dunn E. Dunn, Class Societies," Societies," in in Introduction vol. 2, vol. 2, pp. pp. 549-73 549-73 (Berkeley: (Berkeley: Highgate Highgate Road Road Social Social Science Science Research Research Station, Station, 1974); 1974); "The Ancient East," SovietAnthropolAnthropol"The Character Character of of the the Socio-economic Socio-economic Structure Structure in in the the Ancient East," Soviet ogy and 15,15, nos.nos. 2-32-3 (1976); andand "Some Aspects of the Question ofthe Socioogy andArcheology Archeology (1976); "Some Aspects of the Question of the Socioeconomic Ancient Near Near Eastern Anthropology and and economic Structure Structure of of Ancient Eastern Societies," Societies," Soviet Soviet Anthropology Archeology 17,17, no. Archeology no.I (1978). 1 (1978). 9. istorii, 1985, no. no. 4. 4. Vestnikdrevnei drevnei istorii, 1985, 9. Vestnik

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simply to label Soviet scholarship on the ancient world as Marxist or to find a common common denominator denominator in historical materialism as an answer to these questions for, at least, two reasons. First, not all Soviet historians probably would be fair to say say that those who are Marxists, though it probably who are not not Marxists, Marxists, have their historical historical researches researches without without are have pursued pursued their indeed often often without referring referring challenging Marx's or Lenin's writings, indeed challenging That is, the debatesdebates— to this paradigm paradigm and its classic literature at all. That vitriolic—that have occurred occurred and continue to rage in the occasionally vitriolic-that the whether or Soviet literature have taken place within recognized limits; whether as self-circumscribed self-circumscribed in the future future not Soviet historical writings will be as whether this silence or is unclear, though it, at least, is questionable whether default by omission will continue as Soviet society evolves and accepts default own internal contradications. and openly debates more of its own Second, as any observer observer of Western Marxism immediately immediately recognizes, not all Marxists, including Soviet historians, interpret interpret Marx and his successors in the same fashion. In the West, tremendous, at times differences exist among scholars professing professing to write irreconcilable, differences may within the Marxist tradition;IO tradition; 10 in the Soviet Union, this tendency may be muted, but it is still possible to detect differences, find differences, and one may find interpretations relatively more deterministic or vulgar materialistic interpretations emphasizing the more voluntaristic, class struggle alongside others emphasizing side of Marxism. The T h e Introduction Introduction to Early Antiquity stresses the shared interests and common of common perspectives of the numerous contributors to The History of the Ancient Ancient World, World, asserting that it was was the conscious decision of the editorial board particular approach board to select scholars sharing a particular approach or oriorientation to historical data. This claim too should be tempered tempered somewhat, at least insofar insofar as it is fair to judge judge the orientation orientation of specific specific contributors in terms of their other other published published works. contributors A. Dandamaev, a contributor contributor to volvolFor example, the views of M. A. ume 2 of The Ancient World, The History of the Ancient World, The The Florescence Florescence of ofAncient Ancient Societies,ononthe theslave-owning slave-owningcharacter characterofofNeo-Babylonian Neo-Babylonianand andAchaeAchaeSocieties, menian societies differ differ markedly from the long-accepted, more orthoof Diakonoff Diakonoff that more or less slavelike dependents were dox position of major exploited labor force throughout all periods of of antiquity. the m~or The contrast is explicitly drawn by Dandamaev in his recently transSlavery in in Babylonia: Babylonia: From From Nabopolassar to Alexander the Great lated Slavery Nabopolassar to Alexander the Great (626-331 B.C): (626-331 B.C.): Slavery never reached in Babylonia such a degree of of developof slave labor as having the leading ment that one can speak of 10. For divisions within within Western Western Marxism, Marxism, see see P. studies: ConsideraConsidera10. For divisions P. Anderson's Anderson's fine fine studies: tions of Western (LonWestern Marxism (London: NLB, NLB, 1976), Arguments within English Marxism (London: NLB, NLB, 1983). NLB, 1980), and In the Tracks Tracks of of Historical Materialism (London: NLB,

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role role in in the the economy. economy. Slave Slave labor labor was was only only one one of of several several types types of forced forced labor labor and and not not always always the the most most significant significant..... . . . That That of there predominance of branch of of there was was no no predominance of slave slave labor labor in in any any branch the Babylonian Babylonian economy economy is is not not the the main main point; more imporimporthe point; more tant is is that that labor labor in in agriculture agriculture was was furnished furnished primarily tant primarily by by free farmers farmers and and tenants tenants and that free labor also also dominated dominated free and that free labor in craft craft industriesY industries.11 in

Certainly, not not all all the the contributors contributors consider consider themselves themselves represenrepresenCertainly, tatives of of aa particular "school," though, though, as as noted, noted, it it is is not not without without inintatives particular "school," terest for for both theoretical and and obviously obviously practical reasons that that nearly nearly terest both theoretical practical reasons all the in Leningrad. Leningrad. Dr. Dr. DiakonofI Diakonoff and and his his edithe contributors contributors work work in ediall torial board have chosen chosen scholars scholars whom whom they they personally have known known torial board have personally have and collaborated collaborated with with for for years. years. Given Given this this context, context, it it would would be be sursurand prising if one one could could not not detect detect certain certain common common themes themes and and frameframeprising if works for for understanding the past characterize the works of of this this works understanding the past that that characterize the works Leningrad circle circle of of historians historians of of the the ancient ancient world. world. Leningrad Even outside outside this this circle, circle, within within Soviet Soviet historiography historiography as as aa whole, Even whole, one can can detect detect aa common common sense sense of of problem, common arena arena of of dedeone problem, aa common bate that unites scholars as as sharply sharply opposed opposed as Diakonoff and and bate that unites scholars as DiakonofI Melikishvili. Here, Here, reference reference to to aa particular reading of of Marx Marx is is approapproMelikishvili. particular reading priate. Melikishvili writes that priate. Melikishvili writes that in order order to to arrive arrive at at aa characterization characterization of of the the socioeconomic socioeconomic in system of of any any society, society, it it is is quite quite important important to to identify identify its its class class system structure, particularly the status status of of the the direct direct producers. producers. structure, particularly the However, one one must must not not forget forget that that the the class class structure structure of of sosoHowever, ciety is is itself itself derivative derivative and and depends depends on on the the division division of of labor labor ciety operative in in that that society-the society—the economic economic base, the fundamenfundamenbase, the operative tal expression expression of of which which is is property relationships..... . . .since tal property relationships since it it is the the economic economic base—the totality of of the the relationships relationships of of prois base-the totality production—that defines aa system system (society), (society), it it will understood duction-that defines will be be understood that one one system system may may be be distinguished distinguished from from another another above above all that all in terms terms of of that that base, of the the relationships relationships of of production, production, in base, of which, in the words of are expressed expressed in in property relathe words of Marx, Marx, are property relawhich, in tions. Proceeding Proceeding from from this this assumption, assumption, researchers researchers are are enentions. 11. by v. 11. Trans. Trans, by V. A. A. Powell, Powell, ed. ed. by by M. M. Powell Powell (co-editor (co-editor D. D.B. B. Weisberger), Weisberger), (DeKalb: (DeKalb: Northern Illinois Illinois University University Press, Press, 1984), 1984), p. p. 660. 660. Also, Also, see see his his review review of of the the slave-owning slave-owning Northern debate in in Soviet Soviet Orientalist Orientalist literature literature through through 1977, 1977, "Problemy "Problemy istorii istorii drevnevostochdrevnevostochdebate nykh obshchestv obshchestv vv trudakh trudakh sovetskikh sovetskikh vostokovedov vostokovedov (1967 (1967-1977 gg.)" [Problems [Problems of of the the nykh -1977 gg.)" history of of ancient ancient Eastern Eastern societies societies in in the the works works of of Soviet Soviet Orientalists Orientalists (1967-1977)], history (1967-1977)], Vestnikdrevnei drevneiistorii, istorii, 1977, 4. For a recent defense of the slave-owning concept Vestnik 1977, no. no. 4. For a recent defense of the slave-owning concept by another contributor contributor to The History theAncient AncientWorld, World, F. Il'yin, "Drevneby another to The History ofofthe see see G. F.G.I1'yin, "Drevnevostochnoe obshchestvo obshchestvo ii problemy problemy ego ego sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoi sotsial'no-ekonomicheskoi struktury" struktury" [Ancient [Ancient vostochnoe Eastern society society and and the the problem problem of of its its socioeconomic socioeconomic structure], structure], Vestnik Vestnikdrevnei drevnei istorii, Eastern istorii, 1983, no. no. 3. 3. 1983,

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justified in recognizing recogmzmg property relationships as the tirely justified system-forming system-forming element of of a given society.12 society.12 This is developed from a straightforward, straightforward, unambiguous interpretaof Marx's famous "Introduction" to A Contribution ContributiontotothetheCritique Critique tion of of of Political Economy and summarizes thethe orthodox, oror classic, Marxism es-esPolitical Economy and summarizes orthodox, classic, Marxism of antiquity. Certain emphapoused by most Soviet Marxist historians of ses, however, are apparent. The primary task of the historian is to characterize the socioeconomic system a society. Thus, there a concharacterize the socioeconomic system ofof a society. Thus, there is is a concern for definition, a need to construct a typology that reduces the bewildering kaleidoscopic array of of historical data into a manageable, understandable whole. Primary effort effort is expended on defining stages of development and describing their characteristics; less energy is deof of change or how societies evolve from from voted to explaining processes of one developmental stage to another. The Marxism shared by many Soviet historians of of antiquity is certainly not vulgarly materialist in the of reducing social complexity to features of of the environment environment or sense of of of explaining institutions in terms of of the functions they perform perform to solve problems ultimately posed by nature. Nor is theirs a Marxism of production. The general disemphasizing changes in the forces of 13 of archaeological data already has been noted; paragement of noted;13 while mentioned, technological developments are not emphasized relative to the of social social groups groups in in terms terms of of their their access access to to means means to the reconstruction reconstruction of of production. The concern, concern, quite quite properly, is with reconstruction of production. The properly, is with the the recoristruction of direct direct primary primary production, which for for antiquity antiquity always always meant meant agriof production, which agricultural production—thus, emphasis on on the the critical critical variables cultural production-thus, the the emphasis variables of of landownership and and land land use. landownership use. theAncient Ancient World As the reader soon will discover, The History History ofofthe World is is not a speculative accouI:1t account but a rich summary based on the distillation of primary source materials. Most contributors are internationally of known specialists in their fields, and their lectures here detail current historical knowledge. As emphasized in the Introduction, however, often are so incomplete that they cansource materials for antiquity often not serve as the sole basis for reconstruction, and consequently, the of the authors help them fill theoretical perspectives of fill in the lacunae and guide guide them consciously or or not not in in fleshing out their their portraits and them consciously fleshing out portraits of of past societies and and epochs. epochs. One One aid aid frequently frequently employed employed in in this this task task is past societies is the use of of an an evolutionary evolutionary theory theory that its Marxist Marxist origins origins in in F. the use that finds finds its F. 12. A. Melikishvili, the Questions the Socioeconomic Struc12. C. G. A. Melikishvili, "Some "Some Aspects Aspects of of the Questions of of the Socioeconomic Structure of Ancient Near Near Eastern Eastern Societies," p. 26. 26. ture of Ancient Societies," p. to contrast the once-popular 13. 13. It It is is instructive, instructive, for for example, example, to contrast the once-popular summary summary of of ancient ancient history to the fall fall of of Rome What Happened HappenedininHistory, History, written Marxist archaeolohistory to the Rome What written by by thethe Marxist archaeoloPenquin Books, Books, 1954), with that gist gist V. V. Gordon Gordon Childe Childe (rev. (rev. ed. ed. [London: [London: Penquin 1954), with that presented presented here by Soviet Marxist Marxist linguists/historians. linguists/historians. here by Soviet

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Engels, Origin Origin of of the the Family, Family, Private Private Property, Property,and andthe theState. State.For Forthe theWestWestern reader, the terminology associated particular evolutionern reader, the terminology associated with with this this particular evolutionary perspective may have have aa slight slight anachronistic anachronistic ring. example, in in ary perspective may ring. For For example, the read that the second second section section of of Lecture Lecture 1, 1, we we read that "accelerating "accelerating progress progress distinguishes the early class class society society from from barbarism, barbarism, the level that that distinguishes the early the level even the most primitive society even the most developed developed primitive society cannot cannot exceed." exceed." Societies Societies are ranked on an an ascending ascending scala societatis, and it may always are ranked on scala societatis, and it may notnot always be be clear how they can can mutate mutate or or so so transform themselves in in order order to to be be clear how they transform themselves classified at at aa new new evolutionary evolutionary level. classified level. Evolutionary theory also the basis Evolutionary theory also sometimes sometimes serves serves as as the basis for for reconreconstruction when are silent. silent. For For his his controversial controversial interpretation interpretation struction when the the texts texts are of aa large large and and important important private/communal economic sector sector in in third third of private/communal economic millennium B.C. Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, Diakonoff Diakonoff utilizes utilizes aa variety variety of of arguargumillennium B.C. ments, one of of which is based based principally principally on on his his understanding of the the ments, one which is understanding of final stage stage of of advanced advanced patriarchal barbarism: final patriarchal barbarism:

In In the the same same way way as as the the medieval medieval society society inherited inherited certain certain features features of of the the ancient ancient society society structure, structure, the the ancient ancient society society did also certain still more ancient did also inherit inherit certain still more ancient structures structures from from the the society which preceded Arising from primitive presociety which preceded it. it. Arising from the. the primitive preurban, pre-class pre-class society, the ancient not have urban, society, the ancient society society could could not have been divided the numerbeen divided solely solely into into slave-owners slave-owners and and slaves; slaves; the numerically predominant part ically predominant part of of the the population population could could not not fail fail to to had been consist consist of of what what had been inherited inherited from from the the mass mass of of the the population of the pre-class pre-class society mass population of the society..... . . . it it certainly certainly was was aa mass of of personally personally free free persons, persons, at at least least in in so so far far as as the the family family heads 14 heads were were concerned. concerned.14 Although the the texts texts themselves us that that this the case, case, Although themselves do do not not inform inform us this was was the such aa mass mass of of free free citizens citizens theoretically theoretically must must have have continued continued to to exist exist such during the state during the the time time when when the state and and temple temple sectors sectors first first slowly slowly develdeveloped; oped; later later it it was was the the impoverished impoverished members members of of this this citizenry citizenry who who hired themselves themselves out hired out as as laborers laborers for for the the large large centralized centralized economies. economies. The to question this reconstruction, may seem logiThe point point is is not not to question this reconstruction, which which may seem logical basis: aa vision vision cal and and convincing, convincing, but but to to emphasize emphasize its its epistemological epistemological basis: of preclass preclass society society that that is is derived derived ultimately from Engels's Engels's Origin, of ultimately from Origin, though bolstered, though bolstered, of of course, course, with with later later historical historical and and ethnographic ethnographic evidence. evidence. Evolutionary Evolutionary teminology teminology permeates permeates the the created created ordering ordering of of antiqantiquity. uity. We We are are presented presented with with different different "ways "ways of of development" development" along along which which preclass preclass societies societies evolved evolved into into stratified stratified states. states. Mesopotamia Mesopotamia and Egypt Egypt are are thus distinguished and and both are separated separated from from the the and thus distinguished both are military states (Hittite, (Hittite, Mitannian, Mitannian, etc.) etc.) that arose later later outside outside the irmilitary states that arose the ir14. Ancient Near 14. 1. I. M. M. Diakonoff, Diakonoff, "The "The Rural Rural Community Community in in the the Ancient Near East," East," Journal Journalof ofthe the Economic and Social History of of the Orient 28, part part 2 (1985): 122.

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rigated heartlands of rigated of the Nile and Euphrates valleys. On the one from history, transcending transcending strict hand, these types are abstracted abstracted from chronological limits: chronological . . . societies belonging typologically to early antiquity do do ... not necessarily arise only in the chronological chronological framework framework of of the classical ancient ancient Orierit: Orient: in certain places the same tyB.C. andpology can also be traced in the first millennium millennium B.C. and— albeit for a short time—in time-in the first millennium millennium A.D., A.D., as, for for instance, in northern northern and eastern Europe. In the tropics, in mountainous mountainous zones, and in piedmont piedmont regions, the same typology may linger and even reemerge as late as the second I5 half half of of the second millennium millennium A.D. A.D. 15

On and make On the other other hand, specific specific discussions always emphasize and clear that the factor factor of of time-the time—the period period when early states emerge-is emerge—is millennium military states (or crucial. In reference reference to the later second millennium of development), Diakonoff Diakonoff writes that third way of his third the fact that these societies took longer longer to attain the level ofa of a class society and of of civilization gave Egypt and Lower Mesopotamia the time to exert a powerful powerful cultural influence potamia influence on these areas-an areas—an influence influence aimed precisely at strengthening strengthening I6 . the authority of of temples and of of the royal power.16 These "types," thus, are related related to one another another historically (i.e., they mutually influence mutually influence one another), as, undoubtedly, also would be true true for for which we cannot their early ways for areas for cannot adequately adequately reconstruct reconstruct their of development development from from the available historical evidence (e.g., India India and of China). The whether or not an unnecessary unnecessary tension has T h e question arises as to whether fostered between between the historical account and the abstracted abstracted been fostered evolutionary evolutionary types. Are the latter really necessary for writing a uniT h e purpose purpose they serve must be the simplification simplification and versal history? The ordering but their use exacts the price (reinforced ordering of of data, but (reinforced by the organizational framework framework of of the work) of of minimizing the historical relaganizational tionships and interconnections interconnections among the separate societies that transformed of the same transformed themselves into states during the course of "world-historical" time. Marxism and Beyond: The Missing Dialogue The World does notnot concern itself solely with thethe The History Historyofofthe theAncient Ancient World does concern itself solely with reconstruction reconstruction of of socioeconomic socioeconomic systems. systems. Its Its Marxism Marxism is is not not the the crude crude 15. p.46. 15. Lecture Lecture 1, 1, p. 46. 16. p.45. 16. Lecture Lecture 1, 1, p. 45.

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variety base from variety that that cleanly cleanly separates separates phenomena phenomena of of the the base from those those of of the superstructure. superstructure. Some Some of of the the most most fascinating fascinating sections sections attempt attempt to to the reconstruct ancient thought: thought: mythologies, mythologies, worldviews, early systems systems reconstruct ancient world views, early of "proto-ethics," "proto-ethics," and and later later philosophies. philosophies. In In these these sections, sections, ancient ancient of ideology is is not not simply simply reduced to "false "false consciousness," consciousness," though though ananreduced to ideology cient thought thought is is viewed viewed as as related to and and ultimately ultimately derivative derivative of of social social related to cient reality; is, social social experience experience determines determines consciousness, consciousness, more more than than that is, reality; that the reverse. reverse. The The discussions discussions of of how how reality reality colors colors consciousness consciousness and, and, the in turn, turn, is is changed changed by by it it under under the the relatively relatively low low level level of of development development in of productive forces of productive forces in in antiquity antiquity are are insightful insightful and and stimulating. stimulating. Dr.Diakonoff Diakonoff adumbrates adumbrates an anagenda agenda for for aafuture future gengenIn Lecture Lecture 11 Dr. In eration of of historians. historians. As As the the mature mature reflections reflections of of aa great great scholar, scholar, his his eration suggestions deserve attention; as as recommendations for aa suggestions deserve careful careful attention; recommendations for more complete accounting accounting of of the the past past by by aa leading leading Soviet Soviet Marxist Marxist hismore complete historian, whose whose writings over aa long long and and distinguished distinguished career career have have subsubtorian, writings over stantially refined refined and and sustained sustained their their still-dominant still-dominant stage stage theory theory of of stantially successive socioeconomic socioeconomic formations, formations, they they are are of of great great intellectual intellectual ininsuccessive terest. The The attempt attempt is is to to provide comprehensive understandunderstandprovide aa more more comprehensive terest. ing of of the the past than that that obtained obtained from from an an exclusive exclusive focus focus on on the the ing past than interplay between between changes changes in in the the forces forces and and changes changes in in the the relations relations interplay of production. production. of Maintaining by citing Maintaining his his materialism materialism by citing the the well-known well-known dictum dictum that that an becomes aa material mass consciousan idea idea becomes material force force once once it it is is seized seized by by mass consciousness, Diakonoff argues argues for for aa history of emotions emotions that and exexhistory of that utilizes utilizes and ness, Diakonoff tends analytical analytical techniques techniques developed developed by by social social psychologists. Major tends psychologists. Major historical events events of of universal significance, such such as as the the initial initial universal historical historical significance, historical spread of Islam or cannot be adequately exspread of Islam or the the French French Revolution, Revolution, cannot be adequately explained nor deduced deduced from from aa consideration consideration solely solely of of developments developments plained by by nor in the the forces forces and and relations of production. production. Why Why some some movements have relations of movements have in succeeded and and why occurred precisely when and others others failed failed and why they they occurred precisely when succeeded they did did cannot cannot be be explained explained simply simply by consideration of of economic economic by consideration they phenomena. His is is aa call call for for aa historical social psychology, psychology, aa new, phenomena. His historical social new, much more more comprehensive comprehensive history of culture culture that that considers considers everyeverymuch history of thing "that "that.... . . has has an an impact impact upon upon society society and and that that induces induces men and thing men and women to socially socially valid actions."17 women to valid actions."17 These provocative suggestions These thoughtful, thoughtful, provocative suggestions are are offered offered to to future future historians but they historians of of antiquity, antiquity, but they are are of of interest interest to to other other specialists specialists concerned either either empirically empirically or or theoretically theoretically with concerned with macrohistorical macrohistorical dedevelopments: anthropologists, anthropologists, archaeologists, archaeologists, historical historical sociologists, sociologists, velopments: economic historians historians and and historically historically minded minded economists, economists, social social psypsyeconomic chologists, and, and, of course, medieval medieval and and modern modern historians. historians. It It is is imimof course, chologists, possible to to read read this this section section without without reflecting the unfortunate unfortunate reflecting upon upon the possible 17. Lecture Lecture 1, 1, p. 63. 17. p.63.

Foreword Foreword

XXI xxi

of reference reference to trends in contemporary contemporary Western historiogabsence of macrohistorical studies and critiques and. and deraphy and to Western macrohistorical of historical materialism. materialism. fenses of Diakonoff would evaluOne would like to know, for example, how Diakonoff ate the macrohistorical works of Annales historians in of certain French Annales of his called-for called-for historical social psychology. Would Braudel's terms of use of of a plurality of of times from from the longue duree to the event be considered a useful useful or a confused confused and obfuscatory obfuscatory analytical technique for for ordering ordering history on a macroscale? Superficially, Superficially, at least, the wellknown attempts to write histories of of the mentalites mentalites of oi given periods (e.g., the studies of P. Aries) seem to have already of G. Duby, J. LeGoff, P. set in practice Diakonoff's Diakonoff's recommendations recommendations for a more complete complete understanding understanding of of the past. Or Or do they? Would Diakonoff Diakonoff criticize Diakonoff undoubtedly undoubtedly them on fairly obvious materialist grounds? Diakonoff would insist that whether whether one writes an histoire histoire des desmentalites mentalitesor or aa hishisof the sort he envisages, the critica1 critical task is to torical social psychology of of a society at a relate the collective representations or psychology of particular point in time to its social structure, internal contradictions, particular and class class antagonisms. antagonisms. He He would would correctly correctly assert assert that that if if these these connecconnecand of muddled, imprecise tions are not made, the result may be a kind of of ideas in which the mentalites mentalites are viewed either as inexplicahistory of "drift tobly resisting change or teleologically exhibiting a gradual "drift wards enlightenment."IB enlightenment." 18 Diakonoff's discussion of of the limitations of of preIn certain respects, Diakonoff's vious socioeconomic historical research and suggestions for a history of of emotions and a broadened broadened history of of culture seem to anticipate or independently voice many of of the objections articulated articulated by M. Sahlins independently and—to a Marxist purist-disturbing purist—disturbing critique of of in his not-insensitive and-to "practical reason."1919 Conceptual differences, differences, of of course, are manifest. manifest. Sahlins emphasizes the symbolic ordering of of Western (or, here, indusconditioned belief belief in "obtrial) society and its nonreflective, culturally conditioned 18. The The phrase phrase is is M. M. Gismondi's. Gismondi's. See See his his penetrating penetrating analysis analysis of of the the histoire histoiredes des men18. mentalites,ororwhat whathehesarcastically sarcasticallyrefers referstotoasasthis this"new "newapproach approachtotoilluminating illuminatingthe therole roleofof talites, the common common people people in in history." history." See See his his '''The "'The Gift Gift of of Theory': Theory': A A Critique Critique of of the the Histoire Histoire the desMentalites," Mentalites,"Social Social History 10, 2no.(1985). 2 (1985). an extended discussion of the early des History 10, no. For For an extended discussion of the early development of of the the histoire histoiredes desmentalites mentalites in the Annales the divergent emphases development in the Annales and and the divergent emphases given it it by by L. L. Febvre Febvre and and M. M. Bloch, Bloch, see see A. A. Burguiere, Burguiere, "The "The Fate Fate of of the the History History of of MenMengiven talities in in the the Annales,'" Comparative Studies Studies in in Society Society and and History History 24, 24, no. no. 3 3 (1982). (1982). In In aa Annales," Comparative talities personal communication, communication, Dr. Dr. Diakonoff Diakonoff has has informed informed me me that that he he evaluates evaluates the the contricontripersonal bution of of Braudel Braudel and and the the annalistes annalistesinina agenerally generallypositive positivelight. light. bution 19. (Chicago: University of of Chicago 19. See See M. M. Sahlins, Sahlins, Culture Culture and andPractical PracticalReason Reason (Chicago: University Chicago Press, 1976), 1976), as as well well as as his his later later historical historical essays essays on on Polynesia: Polynesia: Historical Metaphors Press, Historical Metaphors andand of the the Sandwich Islands Kingdom (Ann ArMythical Realities: Structure in the Early History of bor: University University of of Michigan, Michigan, 1981), 1981), and and Islands History(Chicago: (Chicago:University UniversityofofChiChibor: Islands ofofHistory cago Press, Press, 1985). 1985). cago

XXll xxii

Foreword

jective" reality jective" reality and and the the dominance dominance of of pragmatic pragmatic activities activities and and seeks seeks aa posed alternatives, historical historical synthesis synthesis of of conventionally conventionally posed alternatives, such such as as strucstructure ture and and history, history, materialism materialism and and idealism, idealism, or or infrastructure infrastructure and and susuperstructure. Diakonoff perstructure. Diakonoff appeares appeares unaware unaware or, or, at at least, least, unconcerned unconcerned with the the problem problem of of subjectivity subjectivity and and never never abandons abandons an an essentially essentially with historical materialist materialist position, position, though though attempting attempting to to extend extend the the traditradihistorical tional reading of of Marx Marx among among Soviet Soviet historians. historians. Nevertheless, certain Nevertheless, certain tional reading points of similarity similarity remain. remain. It It can can be be argued argued that that with with some some modificamodificapoints of tion, Diakonoff's Diakonoff's recommendations might be incorporephrased to to incorpotion, recommendations might be rephrased rate the the anthropological anthropological concept concept of of culture culture initially initially developed developed by by F. rate F. Boas, aa change change that that for for Sahlins Sahlins would would represent represent the the initial, initial, minimally minimally Boas, necessary emendation emendation to to Marx. Marx. If If this this were were attempted, attempted, one one could, could, necessary perhaps, more more clearly clearly detect detect and and understand understand the the differences differences that that sepperhaps, separate aa more more sophisticated sophisticated historical historical materialism materialism from from the the symbolic symbolic arate anthropological or or "culturological" "culturological" approach approach of of Sahlins. Sahlins. anthropological Unfortunately, Unfortunately, this this exercise exercise is is unlikely unlikely ever ever to to be be undertaken, undertaken, for for these disthese possible possible protagonists protagonists carryon carry on totally totally different different scholarly scholarly discourses. Here, Here, one one can can only only note note and and regret regret the lack of of common common conconthe lack courses. ceptual ceptual ground, ground, the the absence absence of of aa shared shared vocabulary vocabulary and and literature literature among scholars scholars concerned concerned with with essentially essentially similar similar theoretical theoretical probamong problems on on either either side side of of the the East-West East-West political divide. The The absence absence of of political divide. lems dialogue is is as as apparent apparent as as it it is is unnecessary. unnecessary. Western Western readers readers of of The dialogue The History ofthe theAncient AncientWorld World appreciate quality historical History of willwill appreciate thethe quality of of historical re-research on oh antiquity antiquity conducted conducted by by Soviet Soviet specialists, specialists, aa fact fact long long recogrecogsearch nized by by ancient ancient Near Near Eastern Eastern scholars. scholars. However, However, when when one one turns turns to to nized broader theoretical theoretical concerns, concerns, an an unfortunate unfortunate vacuum vacuum exists exists in in which which broader Soviet and and Western Western scholars scholars seem seem to to be be either either unaware unaware of of or or out-ofout-ofSoviet date with with each each other's other's works. works. There There are are for for example, example, more more recent recent date Western overviews overviews and and macrohistorical macrohistorical theories than those advanced Western theories than those advanced by Spengler Spengler and and Toynbee Toynbee (as (as intimated intimated in in the the Introduction). Introduction). In In realrealby ity, though, though, the problem is is more more serious serious on on the the Western side, where where the problem Western side, ity, the tendency tendency is is to to dismiss dismiss out out of of ignorance ignorance (including (including the the inability inability to to the read Russian) Russian) Soviet Soviet writings writings as as dogmatic dogmatic and and uninteresting. uninteresting. The The conconread demnation is is not not only only uninformed uninformed but but paradoxical: how can can such such bedemnation paradoxical: how benighted theory produce such quality scholarship? One is reminded of nighted theory produce such quality scholarship? One is reminded of the equally illogical political view that fears a Soviet Union bent on the equally illogical political view that fears a Soviet Union bent on world domination domination while while at at the the same same time time predicts predicts the the imminent imminent colworld collapse of its economy—a thought that inexorably leads one to the to the lapse of its economy-a thought that inexorably leads one gloomy, if realistic, expectation that communication among scholars, gloomy, if realistic, expectation that communication among scholars, as well as politicians, politicians, is is likely likely to to improve improve substantially substantially only only when when the the as well as objective conditions for its persistence themselves change; that objective conditions for its persistence themselves change; that is, is, when both sides sides move move beyond the cold cold war war realities realities of of the the last last forty forty beyond the when both years and and define define aa new new relationship. relationship. Translation Translation of of Early Antiquity,obobEarly Antiquity, years viously represents no such breakthrough, but it does provide us with viously represents no such breakthrough, but it does provide us with aa

Foreword

XXlll xxiii

unified current overview of antiquity and constitutes a small step toward maintaining and extending a sadly underdeveloped dialogue among interested, open-minded scholars and laypersons on the naof long-term historical developments. For the moment, all we ture of should do is simply sit back and enjoy this integrated vision of ancient history presented presented to to us us by by aa group group of of Soviet Soviet specialists. history specialists.

Early Antiquity. Many people worked on the English translation of Early Antiquity.A.A. Kirjanov provided a rough translation of the entire volume and completed his task in the time promised. My duties as project director and final editor were immensely simplified by the fact that Mr. Kirjanov's translations were entered into the Wellesley computer by Ms. Ms. Daria Kirjanov, a former student at the College. Initially, I must confess to being somewhat intimidated by the rigorous standards of of editing inDiakonoff; his command of of English and impecsisted upon by Dr. Diakonoff; cable sense of grammar, no doubt, increased ,my jny consternation. Obviously, he is primarily responsible for the standards of consistency and editorial uniformity present in the work. Wellesley College must be acknowledged for the support it provided, especially for covering the expenses of mailing rough and edited drafts to Leningrad; the of the Department of Anthropology's secretary at Wellesley, Ms. help of Ms. Edna Gillis, Gillis, in in the the final final preparation preparation of of Lectures Lectures 11 11 and and 19 19 also also must must Edna be mentioned. Publication would have been impossible without the assistance, indeed indeed encouragement, encouragement, of of the the University University of of Chicago Chicago Press, sistance, Press, particularly of of its its most most able able and and understanding understanding editor editor Ms. Ms. Karen Karen particularly Wilson. II would would also'like also like to to thank thank Dr. Dr. Norman Yoffee at at the the UniverUniverWilson. Norman Yoffee sity of of Arizona Arizona for for his his support support and and for for originally originally suggesting suggesting to to people people sity at the the University University of of Chicago Chicago Press Press that that II actively actively participate participate in in this this at project and Dr. C. C. Lamberg-Karlovsky of Harvard University for critiquing the the initial initial draft draft of of this this Foreword. Foreword. My My wife, wife, Barbara Barbara Gard, Gard, critiquing son, Owen, and daughter, Mira (who was born during the long gestation of of this this work), work), must must be be praised praised for for their their tolerance tolerance of of my my sequestersequestertion ing myself for inexplicably interminable hours in our "computer room." Without Without their their unreasonable unreasonable patience patience and and encouragement encouragement this this room." work would would not not have have appeared. appeared. work And, finally, I wish to acknowledge that it has been a privilege to M. Diakonoff Diakonoff on this project. The breadth of have worked with Dr. I. M. of his erudition and stature as a scholar require no more comment. Once we had had agreed agreed upon upon aa system system of of editing editing and and regularly regularly corresponded, corresponded, we all work proceeded smoothly. I like to believe this was accomplished not only only because because we we shared shared the the same same professional professional goal goal of of producing producing aa not scrupulously accurate accurate and and readable readable translation translation but but also also because because we we scrupulously grew to appreciate each other as colleagues and friends. am most most grew to appreciate each other as colleagues and friends. II am grateful to have had this opportunity. grateful

Introduction Introduction THE EDITORIAL EDITORIAL BOARD BOARD THE

General Remarks Remarks General

The The occasion occasion to to write write this this book book arose arose out out of of work work conducted conducted over over many years years by by aa large large group group of of collaborators collaborators at at the the Oriental Oriental Institute Institute many of the the USSR USSR Academy Academy of of Sciences Sciences and and other other scholarly scholarly institutions institutions of during the the preparation preparation of of the the extensively extensively documented, documented, multivolume multivolume during Istoriya drevnegoVostoka Vostoka [History of the ancient orient]. latter Istoriya drevnego [History of the ancient orient]. As As the the latter publication is is oriented oriented toward toward specialists, specialists, our our editorial editorial board board and and publication group of of authors authors decided decided to to write write the the present present work work in in the the interest interest group of reaching reaching aa broader broader public. public. Directed Directed at at aa wider wider audience, audience, this this work work of examines the the history history of of ancient ancient class class societies societies and and states states that that once once examines existed in in Asia, Asia, Europe, Europe, and and North North Africa Africa as as part part of of the the process process of of the the existed historical development development of of humanity. humanity. Scholars Scholars of of numerous numerous scientific scientific historical and educational educational institutions institutions from from all all parts parts of of the the Soviet Soviet Union Union participarticiand pated in in this this effort. effort. pated Thus, (Early Thus, our our publication, publication, which which will will consist consist of of three three volumes volumes (Early ofAncient Ancient Societies, Societies,and andThe TheDecline DeclineofofAncient Ancient Florescence of Antiquity, The Florescence Societies),isisananattempt attempttotocreate createa ahistorical historicalaccount accountinvolving involvingthe theenenSocieties), tire ancient ancient world. world. It It is is based based on on contemporary contemporary knowledge knowledge and and aa tire clearer understanding understanding not not only only of of the the individual individual features features of of specific specific clearer societies but but also also of of the the general general features features characteristic characteristic of of ancient ancient class class societies societies as as aa whole. whole. We We hope hope that that it it also also will will contribute contribute to to the the solution solution societies of ongoing ongoing theoretical theoretical controversies controversies on on this this subject. subject. The The authors authors beof believe that that the the idea idea that that specific specific ancient ancient societies societies exhibit exhibit an an absolute absolute disdislieve similarity among among themselves themselves has has arisen arisen through through examining examining them them similarity according to to unsuitable unsuitable reference reference scales scales that that are are either either too too restricted restricted according spatially or or too too narrow narrow temporally. temporally. The The authors authors contend contend that that aa comcomspatially prehensive view view of of all all ancient ancient societies, societies, seen seen in in relation relation to to each each other, other, prehensive will reveal reveal general general outlines outlines of of aa .regularity regularity in in the the historical historical developdevelopwill ment of of humanity. humanity. The The readers readers will will judge whether or or not not we we were were ment judge whether right. right. Today's universities universities offer offer separate separate courses courses on on the the specific specific histories histories Today's of of Greece, Greece, Rome, Rome, and and the the ancient ancient Orient. Orient. In In the the case case of of the the Orient, Orient, the courses courses end end abruptly abruptly at at arbitrary arbitrary periods periods in in the the development development of of the the various various Asian Asian or or African African societies, societies, and and their their histories histories are are not not preprethe universal historical historical process. process. Vsemirnaya Vsemirnayais-issented as as integral integral parts parts of of aa universal sented toria [Universal [Universal history] history] (vols. (vols. 1-2, 1-2, Moscow, Moscow, 1955-56) 1955-56) does does permit permit aa toria comparison between between the the more more significant significant societies societies in in the the context context of comparison of universal historical historical development; development; however, however, it it is is too too voluminous voluminous and, and, universal

2 2

Introduction Introduction

therefore, does does not offer aa general general perspective. perspective. Moreover, Moreover, new new data data therefore, not offer have made this this work, work, to to aa considerable considerable degree, degree, obsolete. obsolete. have made Vsemirnayaistoria, istoria, general, comprehensive survey Other than than Vsemirnaya Other nono general, comprehensive survey of of the has appeared the history history of of the the ancient ancient world world has appeared in in the the Soviet Soviet Union. Union. This lack lack is is due due to to the the difficulty difficulty of of treating treating material material covering covering so so many many This societies and and periods (a fact fact that that sometimes sometimes leads leads to to general general textbooks textbooks periods (a societies being written by authors insufficiently insufficiently versed in the the historiography historiography of of being written by authors versed in some of of the the societies societies treated). treated). It It was therefore decided decided to to assign assign the the some was therefore writing of each each section section of of the the book specialists in in particular writing of book to to specialists particular fields. fields. Keeping in in mind mind the the experience experience gained gained in in the the publication publication of of VsemirVsemirKeeping naya istoria, istoria,wewetried triedtotoavoid avoidexcessive excessiveunification unificationofofthe theauthors' authors'texts. texts. naya Thus, the the present publication is is actually actually aa collection collection of of lectures lectures in in Thus, present publication book form, form, read read by different experts, experts, each each in in his his or or her her own own way, way, but but by different book presented so as as to to create create aa general general overview. overview. Without Without supplying supplying expresented so exhaustive data data (because (because the the contents contents of of each each lecture lecture were were determined determined haustive by the specific specific interests, abilities, and and resources of the the individuallecindividual lecby the interests, abilities, resources of turer), such such aa series series should should ideally ideally offer offer aa general general notion notion of of the the subsubturer), ject matter with it deals. The contents contents of are ject matter with which which it deals. The of the the book, book, however, however, are ultimately determined by by the the staff staff of of "lecturers" "lecturers" available. available. Our Our book, book, ultimately determined thus, suffers from from inevitable inevitable gaps, gaps, and and there are some some differences differences in in there are thus, suffers the views views adopted adopted by by the the various various writers on specific specific questions, questions, as as well the writers on well as some some dissimilarities, dissimilarities, for for example, example, in in treating treating cultural cultural questions questions as concerning different different societies. societies. Each Each lecturer lecturer presents or her own her own concerning presents his his or point of of view; and depending depending on on an an author's author's individual individual interests interests and and point view; and preferences, the character character of of the the presentation, as well well as as the the relative relative preferences, the presentation, as emphasis on on the the different different materials materials presented presented (e.g., (e.g., the amount of of ininthe amount emphasis formation on on political, ethnic, or or cultural cultural history history relative relative to to socioecosocioecopolitical, ethnic, formation nomic information), information), changes changes from from lecture lecture to to lecture. lecture. The The editorial editorial nomic board assumes responsibility for the scientific and and methodmethodboard assumes responsibility for the overall overall scientific ological quality quality of of this this book book without agreeing with the ininwithout necessarily necessarily agreeing with the ological dividual authors authors or or particular questions. particular questions. dividual On unanimity among On theoretical theoretical issues, issues, there there is is no no unanimity among Soviet Soviet historians historians below). This This lack (the (the problem problem is is discussed discussed in in more more detail detail below). lack of of agreeagreement naturally naturally is reflected in ment is reflected in our our text. text. The The editorial editorial board board did did not not consider it it possible to impose impose its its own own viewpoint, viewpoint, though though aa general general ediediconsider possible to torial torial statement statement appears appears in in the the introductory introductory chapter chapter to to each each volume. volume. In order order to to ensure ensure aa certain certain degree degree of of structural structural integrity integrity for for the the In book, however, the editorial editorial board board preferred to invite invite scholars scholars to to conconbook, however, the preferred to tribute who who share share most most of of their their theoretical theoretical positions positions and and who who work work tribute within mainstream tradition tradition of of Soviet Soviet scholarship. scholarship. Such Such authors authors the mainstream within the would, we believed, believed, reflect reflect more more or or less less faithfully faithfully the the views views of of the the mamawould, we jority of Soviet Soviet scholars. scholars. However, However, other other opinions opinions on on aa number number of of jority of important theoretical theoretical questions questions do do exist exist among among scholars, scholars, as as we will atatimportant we will tempt to to show show below. tempt below.

Introduction Introduction

33

Notwithstanding is Notwithstanding the the closeness closeness of of their their theoretical theoretical viewpoints, viewpoints, it it is quite understandable understandable that that there there are are disagreements disagreements among among our our auauquite thors, thors, as as an an attentive attentive reader reader will will easily easily discover. discover. Yet, Yet, it it is is important important to to emphasize that that despite despite disagreements disagreements on on minor minor points, points, the the authors authors emphasize based themselves on on similar similar theoretical theoretical premises premises and and had had aa similar similar based themselves understanding of of their their task, task, so so that that these these lectures lectures by by no no means means consticonstiunderstanding tute aa shapeless shapeless collection. collection. Rather, Rather, it it represents represents aa well-defined well-defined entity entity tute whose parts, parts, ultimately, ultimately, are are closely closely knit knit together. together. whose During process, the During the the editing editing process, the editors editors made made various various suggestions suggestions and and asked asked the the authors authors for for certain certain modifications modifications of of their their texts. texts. The The final final decision, decision, nevertheless, nevertheless, lay lay with with the the author. author. In In the the interest interest of of unity, unity, the the editorial editorial board board also also took took the the liberty liberty of of expressing expressing its its own own opinion presented by opinion about about the the material material presented by the the individual individual authorsauthors— namely, namely, in in the the general general theoretical theoretical sections sections preceding preceding each each of of the the three three volumes volumes of of the the work. work. The The editors editors actually actually intervened intervened only only where where the the designed length length of of the the book or other other technical technical considerations considerations warwardesigned book or ranted ranted such such action. action. The The suggestions suggestions and and factual factual corrections corrections of of nunumerous scholars scholars who who read read the the manuscripts manuscripts were were taken taken into into careful careful merous consideration. consideration. publication as book form, Given Given the the character character of of this this publication as lectures lectures in in book form, the the sections are are called called "lectures" "lectures" rather rather than than "chapters." "chapters." There There are are four four sections reasons justifying such aa designation: designation: the the independence independence of of the the secreasons justifying such sections; the the fact fact that that some some of of them them are are actually actually based on lectures delivbased on lectures delivtions; ered universities or ered at at universities or other other institutions; institutions; the the fact fact that that the the amount amount of of material, in in most most cases, cases, fits fits into into the the time time span span normally normally allotted allotted to to aa material, be helpful helpful in lecture; lecture; and, and, finally, finally, the the fact fact that that such such aa format format may may be in using this this book as aa reference reference manual. manual. It It is is necessary necessary to to emphasize emphasize using book as that pretend to that this this book book does does not not pretend to replace replace existing existing textbooks, textbooks, particuparticularly university university texts texts on on Greece Greece and and Rome, Rome, which which develop develop the the material material larly in but fail in more more detail detail but fail to to show show the the position position of of the the societies societies treated treated within the the overall overall human human historical historical process. As we we have have already already within process. As all stressed, stressed, this this book book does does not not claim claim to to be be an an exhaustive exhaustive treatment treatment of of all regions and and problems problems of of the ancient world. world. At same time, regions the ancient At the the same time, the the leclectures, written written independently independently by different authors, authors, partially overlap. tures, by different partially overlap. We hope, hope, nevertheless, nevertheless, that that this this book book conveys conveys an an integral integral and and more more or or We less internally internally consistent consistent view view of of the the ancient ancient world. world. less process, the Convinced Convinced of of the the unity unity of of the the historical historical process, the authors authors considconsidered it it possible to adopt adopt aa single single periodization system for for the the history history ered possible to periodization system of ancient class societies societies and and divided divided the the materials materials into into three three stages, stages, of ancient class constituting three three separate separate volumes. volumes. The The first first stage stage (the (the formation formation of of constituting class class society society and and the the state state and and the the early early forms forms of of this this society) society) encomencompasses long time time span, span, stretching stretching from from the the end end of of the the fourth fourth to to the the passes aa long end of the B.C. The end of the second second millennium millennium B.C. The second second stage stage (the (the florescence florescence of ancient ancient societies societies and and the the highest highest development development of of the the "slave" "slave" econeconof

44

Introduction Introduction

omy) begins with the the introduction introduction of of iron iron at at the the end end of of the the second second and and omy) begins with beginning first millennium beginning of of the the first millennium B.C. B.C. and and lasts lasts throughout throughout the the entire entire first millennium millennium B.C. B.C. The The third third stage stage (the (the decline decline of of ancient ancient societies societies first and the appearance offeatures of features indicating indicating the the transition transition to feudalism) and the appearance to feudalism) occupies approximately approximately five centuries of of the the first millennium A.D. A.D. first millennium occupies five centuries The detailed detailed characterization characterization of of each each stage, stage, of of its its economic, economic, politipolitiThe cal, and and cultural cultural features, features, is is given given in in the the introductory introductory lectures lectures preprecal, ceding each each of of the the three three volumes. volumes. Within Within each each volume volume we we tried tried to to ceding examine the the individual individual countries countries chronologically. chronologically. Each Each volume volume is is subsubexamine ject to aa typological of periodization. As far far as as possible, ject to typological principle principle of periodization. As possible, we we characterized the the various various countries countries according according to to their their respective respective stage stage characterized of historical historical development. development. Expecting Expecting aa wide wide readership readership (i.e., (i.e., students, students, of teachers, and and anyone anyone interested interested in in ancient ancient history), history), the staff of of writers writers the staff teachers, aimed for for simplicity, simplicity, clarity, clarity, and and an an accessible accessible presentation presentation (based (based on on aimed scientific data data available available in in the the early early 1980s). 1980s). scientific Discussion of of Theoretical Theoretical Problems Problems Discussion in Contemporary Contemporary Ancient Ancient Historiography Historiography in Any textbook textbook on on history history in in our our country country is is usually usually preceded preceded by by an an ininAny troductory section defining denning the the subject subject under consideration and and troductory section unger consideration stating the the fundamentals fundamentals of of the the Marxist Marxist approach approach to to history. history. The The stating present work work is is not not aa textbook; textbook; it it is is intended intended for for readers readers with with aa suffisuffipresent ciently high high educational educational background background who who are are sufficiently sufficiently versed in the the versed in ciently fundamentals of of historical historical materialism. materialism. Today, Today, the the Marxist Marxist method method fundamentals maintains aa dominant dominant place place among among Soviet Soviet historians historians and and occupies occupies an an maintains important position all over over the As admitted admitted by many Western Western important position all the world. world. As by many scholars, there there does does not not exist exist in in the the West West any any complete complete and and consistent consistent scholars, theory of of history history regarded regarded as as aa single single process, process, aa theory theory comprehencomprehentheory sive enough enough to to match match that that of of historical historical materialism. materialism. We We will will assume assume sive that the the latter latter is is known known to to the the readers readers and and will will attempt attempt to to acquaint acquaint that them with with those those theoretical theoretical problems problems that that today today remain remain unresolved. unresolved. them The central central questions questions of of the the discussion, discussion, which which some some years ago conconThe years ago cerned Soviet Soviet historians, historians, can can be be formulated formulated in in philosophical philosophical terms terms as as cerned follows: What is the correlation between the general and the particufollows: What is the correlation between the general and the particular in in the the development development of of the the different different societies societies and and civilizations civilizations durdurlar ing the the precapitalist precapitalist period? period? The The question question can can be be rephrased rephrased in in terms terms ing of historical historical science science as as follows: follows: Is Is there there aa single, single, common common path of dedeof path of velopment for for all all precapitalist precapitalist societies societies (unavoidably (unavoidably with with local local varivarivelopment ants), or or are are there there several? several? Of Of course, course, all all Marxist Marxist historians historians adhere adhere to to ants), the concept that, that, in in the analysis, the the relations relations of of production production are are the concept the final final analysis, determined by by the the level level of of development development of of the the means means of of production. production. determined Yet, in theory, theory, it it is is quite quite possible possible to to accept accept that that specific specific local local features features Yet, in of the of production (e.g., those those depending depending on on geographical geographical of the means means of production (e.g.,

Introduction Introduction

55

factors) factors) can can lead, lead, under under certain certain specific specific conditions, conditions, to to peculiar peculiar trends trends in production production relations, relations, thus thus producing producing typologically typologically different different soin societies. cieties. In In its its most most general general form, form, this this question question asks asks whether whether the the "West" "West" (i.e., Europe) Europe) and and the the "East" "East" (i.e., (i.e., virtually virtually the the rest rest of of the the world) world) have have (i.e" been developing developing in in more more or or less less the the same same way, way, or or whether whether the the course course been of development development each each has has followed followed is is radically radically different. different. of The West The idea idea of of aa radical radical difference difference between between the the East East and and the the West hisarose arose in in European European scholarship scholarship long long ago. ago. European European philosophers, philosophers, historians, torians, and and writers writers of of belles-lettres belles-lettres became became interested interested in in the the East East as as early early as as the the seventeenth seventeenth century. century. They They built built their their theories theories on on the the Bible, Bible, on on the the sparse sparse and and not not always always reliable reliable information information of of GraecoGraecoRoman Roman writers, writers, and and later later on on information information acquired acquired from from European European ambassadors ambassadors at at the the courts courts of of Oriental Oriental rulers, rulers, from from travelers, travelers, missionmissionaries, aries, and, and, since since the the middle middle of of the the eighteenth eighteenth century, century, from from colonial colonial functionaries. functionaries. These These theories theories were were used used by by ideologues ideologues of of the the growing growing bourgeoisie bourgeoisie for for their their political political aims. aims. The The attitude attitude toward toward the the political political order order of of the the East East swung swung from from idealization, idealization, which which presented presented the the social social and and state state order order of of Oriental Oriental societies societies (especially (especially of of China) China) as as models models to to be be emulated emulated (L. (L. Levalier, Levalier, Voltaire, Voltaire, F. F. Quesnay), Quesnay), to to sharp sharp condemnacondemnations tions of of and and warnings warnings against against any any attempts attempts to to follow follow these these examples examples (F. De(F. Bernier, Bernier, Ch. Ch. Montesquieu, Montesquieu, and and J. J. Rousseau Rousseau in in France France and and D. D. Defoe in in England). England). On On the the whole, whole, however, however, the the dominant dominant viewpoint viewpoint was foe was that that the the fundamental fundamental difference difference between between the the East East and and the the West West conconsisted in in the the absence absence of of private private property property in in the the Orient. Orient. It It was was assumed assumed sisted that all all the the land land in in that that part part of of the the world world belonged belonged to to the the monarchs monarchs as that a!. their property, property, and and that that this this supreme supreme proprietorship proprietorship was was the the foundafoundatheir tion of of "Oriental "Oriental despotism" despotism" and and of of "general "general slavery." slavery." tion The same point of view, with sundry variations, The same point of view, with sundry variations, predominated predominated in in the the beginning beginning of of the the nineteenth nineteenth century. century. Representatives Representatives of of prepreMarxian Marxian political political economy economy (Adam (Adam Smith, Smith, J. Stuart Stuart Mill, Mill, et et al.) al.) and and philosophy philosophy (G. (G. F. F. W. W. Hegel) Hegel) subscribed subscribed to to this this idea, idea, despite despite informainformation tion available available at at that that time time about about the the existence existence in in many many nations nations of of comcommunity munity relationships, relationships, private private property, property, and and so so on. on. In studying studying the the problems problems of of capitalist capitalist society, society, Marx Marx and and Engels Engels inevinevIn itably itably became became interested interested in in societies societies that that had had not not yet yet reached reached the the level level of capitalist capitalist development-hence, development—hence, their their interest interest in in the the Orient. Orient. HowHowof ever, they they began began studying studying the the Orient Orient only only in in 1853, 1853, with with most most of of their their ever, efforts concentrated concentrated between between 1857 1857 and and 1859. 1859. Their Their opinions opinions stemstemefforts ming from from these these studies studies were were outlined outlined in in aa draft draft of of aa manuscript manuscript by ming by Economic Formations published during Marx's Marx, Precapitalist Marx, Precapitalist Economic Formations (not(not published during Marx's lifetime). The The Preface Preface to to The The Critique CritiqueofofPolitical Political Economy offers a more lifetime). Economy offers a more succinct review review of of this this subject. subject. In In his his analysis, analysis, Marx Marx formulates formulates the the succinct regular succession succession of of modes modes of of production: production: "In "In broad broad outlines outlines Asiatic, regular Asiatic, ancient, feudal, feudal, and and modern modern bourgeois bourgeois modes modes of of production production can can be be ancient,

6

Introduction Introduction

designated as progressive epochs in in the formation of designated as progressive epochs the economic economic formation of sosoThis is is the the first first expression expression of of aa dialectical dialectical materialist materialist view view of of ciety." ciety." lI This history as as aa single single developmental developmental process. conclusion, of of course, course, history process. This This conclusion, was drawn drawn from from the the scientific scientific data data accumulated accumulated up up to to that that time. time. Let Let us us was point out, however, however, that that Marx's Marx's formula formula assumes assumes that that an an "Asiatic" "Asiatic" point out, mode of production precedes precedes the is, the mode of production the ancient-that ancient—that is, the slave-owning slave-owning mode of of production. production. Also Also his his formula formula lacks lacks another another natural natural human human mode developmental stage: stage: the mode of of production. The later later developmental the primitive primitive mode production. The works of of Marx Marx and and Engels Engels developed developed the the fundamental fundamental principles principles of of works as new new data data became became available, available, historical materialism materialism in in more more detail, detail, and and as historical these principles evolved further, further, and and particular features of of historical historical particular features these principles evolved processes were were better understood. better understood. processes Information work of period in quesInformation about about the the work of historians historians during during the the period in question (i.e., (i.e., about about writings writings that that were were used used by Marxist theoreticians), theoreticians), can can by Marxist tion be found found in in special special publications publications dedicated dedicated to to historiography. historiography. Here Here we be we Society;or,or, will only only mention mention the the work work by by L. L. H. H. Morgan: Morgan: Ancient Ancient Society; Re-Rewill searchesin inthe theLine Lineof ofHuman Human Progress Progressfrom fromSavagery Savagerythrough throughBarbarism Barbarismtoto searches (1877). In his Origin of of the Family, Family, Private Property, Civilization (1877); Property, and the State, Engels Engels notes notes that that Morgan's Morgan's book book has has"the "the same same significance significance for for State, the history history of of primitive society as as Darwin's Darwin's theory theory of of evolution evolution has has for for the primitive society biology." Morgan's book was written written from from an an independently independently derived derived biology."22 Morgan's book was materialist position and contained contained considerable considerable data data about about preclass preclass sosomaterialist position and cial structure structure as as well as about about approaches approaches to the emergence emergence of of class well as to the class cial society; that that is, is, about about data data illustrating illustrating the the fundamental fundamental positions positions of of society; historical materialism, materialism, which which could could and and did did lead lead to to further further and and deeper deeper historical studies. studies. We must must point point out out that that after after the the appearance appearance of of the the first first volume volume of of We Capital,the theterm term"Asiatic "Asiaticmode modeof ofproduction" production"disappears disappearsfrom from the the Capital, writings of of Marx Marx and and Engels. Engels. It It is is also also absent absent from from Lenin's Lenin's works works (ex(exwritings cept, of of course, course, in in references references to to the the earlier earlier publications publications of of Marx Marx and and cept, Engels). On On the the whole, whole, the the development development of of historical historical materialism materialism led led Engels). to the the conclusion conclusion that that society society passed passed through through three three consecutive consecutive develdevelto opmental stages stages or or formations formations in in the the precapitalist primitive opmental precapitalist period: period: primitive order, slave-owning slave-owning order, order, and and feudalism. feudalism. order, The end of of the the nineteenth nineteenth century century and and the the first first decades decades of of the the The end twentieth twentieth century century saw saw aa rapid rapid development development of of Oriental Oriental studies studies and and an an accumulation was accumulation of of enormous enormous amounts amounts of of new new information, information, which which was not easy to sort out. Among the the professional of that that time, not easy to sort out. Among professional historians historians of time, there was was no no unified unified conception conception of of history, history, except except for for the the hypothesis hypothesis there of cyclical cyclical development, development, aa theory theory that that was was rapidly rapidly losing losing its its supportsupportof 1. K. Marx and F. Progress F. Engels, Selected SelectedWorks Works(Moscow: (Moscow: ProgressPublishers, Publishers,1973), 1973), 1:504. 2. Ibid., 3:201.

Introduction Introduction

7

ers. According According to to this this hypothesis, hypothesis, development development occurred occurred from from primiprimiers. tive feudalism feudalism to to Graeco-Roman Graeco-Roman capitalism, capitalism, from from capitalism capitalism back to tive back to feudalism, from from there there to to aa new new capitalism, capitalism, and and so so on. on. This This hypothesis hypothesis feudalism, presented by by Eduard was was most most vividly vividly presented Eduard Meyer Meyer in in the the several several volumes volumes of of his History ofAntiquity Antiquity(published (publishedbetween between1884 1884and and1902; 1902;numerous numerous his History of reeditions appeared until the A reeditions appeared until the middle middle of of the the twentieth twentieth century). century). A somewhat similar similar cyclical cyclical theory theory was suggested by Oswald Spengler Spengler somewhat was suggested by Oswald (The Decline of his theory, (The Decline of the the West, West, 22 vols., vols., 1918-23). 1918-23). Based Based on on his theory, Spengler present "the Spengler thought thought it it possible possible to to present "the spiritual spiritual form, form, duration, duration, rhythm, meaning, rhythm, meaning, and and product product of of the the still still unaccomplished unaccomplished stages stages of of our Western Western history." However, Spengler'S Spengler's predictions predictions did did not not come come our history." However, true. In In the the West West the the views views of of the the philosophers W. Dilthey, Dilthey, B. B. Croce, Croce, true. philosophers W. and R. R. Collingwood Collingwood became most important. important. They They thought thought that that hisand became most history could could be be understood only insofar insofar as as it it is is made made comprehensible comprehensible by tory understood only by professional working on on specific specific problems; nothing more more professional historians historians working problems; nothing can reasonably reasonably be expected. Most Most historians historians limited limited themselves themselves to to the the can be expected. accumulation of of new new data. data. accumulation That the the cyclical cyclical theory theory of of history history is for explaining explaining That is unsatisfactory unsatisfactory for the latest latest events events of of world world history history soon soon became evident. It It followed followed the became evident. from this this that that its its explanation explanation of of any any stage stage of of history history could could be be quesfrom questioned. This This lack lack of of satisfaction satisfaction contributed contributed to to aa great great degree degree to to the the tioned. rise rise among among Russian Russian historians historians of of an an interest interest in in the the Marxist Marxist theory theory of of the process, which the historical historical process, which had had already already had had its its adherents adherents in in Russian Russian academic academic circles circles as as early early as as the the 1890s 1890s to to 1910s 1910s (e.g., (e.g., N.1. N. I. Sieber Sieber and and A. I. Tyumenev). Tyumenev). This This interest interest continued continued to to grow grow in in the the 1920s 1920s and and A.1. 1930s, began to rest of 1930s, when when historians historians began to seek, seek, along along with with the the rest of the the intelliintelligentsia, their their niche niche in in the the emerging emerging Soviet Soviet society. society. gentsia, A A general general interpretation interpretation of of newly newly acquired acquired data data from from the the perspecperspective tive of of the the fundamentals fundamentals of of historical historical materialism materialism was was urgently urgently rerequired. After After long long discussions discussions in in which different solutions solutions were were quired. which different suggested within the framework framework of of Marxist Marxist theory, theory, aa general general interintersuggested within the pretation proposed in V. V. V. Struve Struve (originally, (originally, aa student student pretation was was proposed in 1933 1933 by by V. of E. E. Meyer) Meyer) in in his his address address "Problem "Problem of of the the Origin, Origin, Development, Development, and and of Decline his arDecline of of Slave-Owning Slave-Owning Society Society in in the the Ancient Ancient Orient" Orient" and and in in his article ticle "Plebeians "Plebeians and and Helots." Helots." Struve's Struve's outstanding outstanding erudition erudition (he (he used used Egyptian, Mesopotamian, Mesopotamian, and and classical classical sources) sources) allowed allowed him him to to supsupEgyptian, port the conclusion conclusion that that ancient ancient Oriental Oriental society, society, despite despite all all its its specific specific port the features, belonged to the the slave-owning slave-owning type. type. This This theory theory was was not not imimfeatures, belonged to mediately accepted. accepted. One One of of Struve's Struve's most most active active opponents, opponents, A. A. I. I. mediately Tyumenev, learned learned Sumerian Sumerian in in order order to to verify verify this this conclusion. conclusion. For For Tyumenev, fifteen years years he he investigated investigated Sumerian Sumerian administrative administrative and and economic economic fifteen documents; his findings, however, however, can can be regarded as as not not fundamenfundamendocuments; his findings, be regarded tally disagreeing with those of of Struve. Struve. tally disagreeing with those From then then on, on, especially especially during during the the postwar postwar period, the concept concept of of From period, the

8

Introduction Introduction

the slave-owning slave-owning character character of of ancient ancient Oriental Oriental society society was was dominant dominant the This viewpoint viewpoint affirms affirms the the unity unity of of the the uniamong Soviet Soviet historians. historians.33 This among universal historical historical process, leaving no no ground ground for for the the "Europe-centered" "Europe-centered" versal process, leaving and "Orient-centered" "Orient-centered" concepts concepts of of universal universal history. history. Almost Almost all all the auand the authors of of our our book book have have worked worked in in the the tradition tradition established established by by Struve Struve thors and Tyumenev. Tyumenev. and In the West during during this this period and slightly slightly later, later, Arnold Arnold Toynbee's Toynbee's In the West period and theory was most most popular. popular. He He presented presented itit in in the the ten ten theory of of universal universal history history was (1934-57). According According totoToynbee, Toynbee, volumes of of his his A Study of of History volumes A Study History (1934-57). "civilizations"—twenty-one in in number-successfully number—successfully emerged emerged and and "civilizations"-twenty-one grew in in response response to to certain certain sociocultural sociocultural "challenges," "challenges," under under the the grew leadership of of creative creative minorities. minorities. Civilizations Civilizations declined declined when when the the leadleadleadership ers failed failed to to act act according according to to the the demands demands of of the the historical historical situation. situation. ers Actually, Toynbee's Toynbee's theory theory is is simply simply an an elaborate elaborate rationalization rationalization of of the the Actually, popular notion notion that that history history is is aa multicolored multicolored kaleidoscope kaleidoscope of of irregular irregular popular events. Despite Despite aa number number of of useful useful ideas ideas and and acute acute observations, observations, events. Toynbee's theory, theory, on on the the whole, whole, has has made made little little impact impact on on the the discipline discipline Toynbee's of history.4 history.4 Lately, Lately, however, however, the the necessity necessity of of regarding regarding the the historical historical of process as as aa series series of of identical identical stages stages in in all all parts parts of of the the world world has has also also process been recognized recognized in in the the West; West; human human history history is is now now currently currently subsubbeen divided into into pre-urban, urban, and and industrial industrial societies. pre-urban, urban, societies. divided The postwar period saw saw an an even even more more active active development development in in OrienOrienThe postwar period tal tal and and African African studies. studies. Recently Recently collected collected data data naturally naturally required required new theoretical theoretical generalizations, generalizations, since since the the new new facts facts did did not not always always fit new fit the two the old old historical historical schemes. schemes. When When such such aa situation situation arises arises in in science, science, two solutions solutions are are possible; possible; either either the the old old theories theories must must be be adjusted adjusted or or modified, or if this theories must must be be substituted. modified, or if this is is not not feasible, feasible, new new theories substituted. (The latter latter solution solution may may also also consist consist of of aa return return to to older, older, formerly formerly re(The rejected theories that that now now appear appear more more consistent consistent with with the the new new evijected theories evidence.) Many Marxist Marxist historians historians considered, considered, and and still still consider, consider, that that dence.) Many new facts facts do do not not require require revision revision of of existing existing theories, theories, particularly of new particularly of the theory theory of of ancient ancient society society as as slave-owning. slave-owning. More More accurate accurate definidefinithe tions are all all that that is is required. required. This group of of historians historians accepts accepts the the exisThis group existions are tence of of multiple multiple development development variants variants in in ancient ancient society society similar similar to to tence 3. The most complete complete defense of this this perspective on ancient ancient history history can can be be found found in in 3. The most defense of perspective on

G. Narody Azii G. F. F. I1'yin, Il'yin, "Rabstvo "Rabstvo ii drevnii drevnii Vostok" Vostok" [Slavery [Slavery and and the the ancient ancient Orient], Orient], Narody Aziii i

Afriki, 1973, no. no. 4. 4. AfTiki, 1973, 4. 4. Perhaps, Perhaps, one one also also should should mention mention the the theory theory of of hydraulic hydraulic (irrigation-based) (irrigation-based) OriOriental civilizations civilizations that that was was popular in the the West West about about the the same same time. time. According According to to this this ental popular in theory, the the complete complete monopoly monopoly of of state state economies, economies, supposedly supposedly typical typical of of the the Orient, Orient, theory, was aa form form of of state state socialism. socialism. Regardless Regardless of of the the obvious obvious political political bias bias of of this this theory, theory, we we was may state that it was was largely largely mistaken, mistaken, since since most most of the ancient ancient Oriental societies were were may state that it of the Oriental societies not based based on on irrigation, irrigation, and and their their state state economies economies usually usually coexisted coexisted with with the the private! private/ not communal economic economic sector. sector. Today, Today, this this theory theory essentially essentially has has been been abandom~d. abandoned. communal

Introduction Introduction

99

those, those, for for example, example, that that characterized characterized nineteenth-twentieth nineteenth—twentieth century century capitalism between the capitalism (except (except that that during during antiquity antiquity the the differences differences between the variants pronounced). They variants were were more more pronounced). They do do not not regard regard the the variants variants as as different by different different socioeconomic socioeconomic formations formations characterized characterized by different modes modes of production but merely merely view view them as variants variants of of one one and and the same of production but them as the same ancient mode mode of of production. production. Hence, Hence, they they adhere adhere to to the the position that ancient position that emphasizes the the "unity "unity of of human human historical historical development." development." Most Most of of the the emphasizes authors of of this this book book belong belong to to this this group. group. authors On On the the other other hand, hand, many many scholars scholars considered considered and and still still consider consider that that views about about ancient ancient Oriental Oriental societies societies is is necessary necessary aa radical radical revision revision of of views in in order order to to overcome overcome the the danger danger of of overschematization overschematization and and dogdogmatism. matism. Several Several works works criticizing criticizing the the slave-owning slave-owning view view of of ancient ancient Oriental published. In Oriental societies societies have have been been published. In addition, addition, the the concept concept of of an an Asiatic Asiatic mode mode of of production, production, which which was was based based on on an an early early work work of of Marx and Marx and which which was was popular popular in in the the 1920s, 1920s, has has again again become become aa subject subject of of discussion. discussion. The The first first works works supporting supporting this this latter latter concept concept appeared appeared in in print print at at the the end end of of the the 1940s, 1940s, but but debate debate started started in in our our country country only only after after the the 1964 journal Pensee, Pensee, 1964 publication publication of of the the French French Marxist Marxist theoretical theoretical journal which contained several Asiatic mode which contained several articles articles on on the the Asiatic mode of of production. production. Chesnaux, for for example, example, wrote wrote that that the the Asiatic Asiatic mode mode of of production production J. Chesnaux, "is characterized characterized by conjunction of of the the productive productive activity activity of of village village "is by aa conjunction communities with with the the economic economic intervention intervention of of the the state state authorities, authorities, communities the state state simultaneously simultaneously both both exploiting exploiting and and ruling ruling these these commucommuthe nities." In brief, he he defined defined this this mode mode of of production production as as "despotic"despoticIn brief, nities." cum-village community." community." According According to to Chesnaux, Chesnaux, the the fundamental fundamental cum-village difference between the the Asiatic Asiatic despotic state and and other other precapitalist precapitalist difference between despotic state states consists consists in in the the fact fact that that the the former former "is "is itself itself the the organizer organizer of of prostates production." The The main main contradiction contradiction of of such such aa society society is is not not between between duction." classes but but between between the the state state and the communities. communities.55 Subsequently, Subsequently, classes and the Chesnaux revised revised his his views. Chesnaux views. In journal Narody Narody Azii Aziii iAfriki Afrikipublished published the thetheses theses In 1965, 1965, the the Soviet Soviet journal of of two two French French Marxist Marxist scholars, scholars, the the Africanist Africanist J. Suret-Canal Suret-Canal and and the the theoretician theoretician M. M. Godelier, Godelier, as as well well as as Struve's Struve's responding responding thesis. thesis. This This publication actually triggered triggered new new discussions discussions among scholars in in our our publication actually among scholars country. The The controversy controversy developed developed in in two two directions. directions. The The first first was was aa country. more profound study of of the the classic classic Marxist-Leninist Marxist-Leninist writings writings in order more profound study in order to demonstrate demonstrate that that Marx, Marx, Engels, Engels, and and Lenin Lenin actually actually adhered adhered consisto consistently to to the the "Asiatic "Asiatic mode mode of of production" production" concept. concept. These These attempts, attempts, tently however, must must be regarded as failures, since since in in their their later writings, as be regarded as failures, later writings, as however, 5. According According to to Marxist Marxist philosophy, philosophy, any any process is moved moved by some main main inner inner concon5. process is by some tradiction. For For example, example, capitalist capitalist development development is is moved moved by by the the contradiction contradiction between between tradiction. the class. the capitalist capitalist and and the the working working class.

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Introduction Introduction

already already mentioned, mentioned, Marx Marx and and Engels Engels never never again again referred referred to to this this conconcept. cept. Moreover, Moreover, the the fundamental fundamental Marxist Marxist work work on on the the subject subject belongs belongs among these these later later writings, writings, namely, namely, The The Origin Origin of ofthe theFamily, Family,Private Private among Property, andthe theState, State,which whichwas waswritten writtenbybyEngels Engelson onthe thebasis basisofof Property, and Marx;s Marx's own own notes. notes. The The other other side side of of the the controversy controversy was was supported supported by by aa number number of of authors authors who who criticized criticized the the slave-owning slave-owning concept concept of of ancient ancient Oriental Oriental society, society, proposing proposing their their own own models models and and using using supporting supporting data data from from their particular particular areas areas of of expertise expertise without without always always paying attention to to their paying attention materials from from other other regions. regions. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, many many of of these these authors' authors' materials publications were were based based on on secondary secondary and and even even tertiary tertiary sources. sources. publications We cannot cannot enumerate enumerate all all the the participants participants in in this this debate debate or or all all their their We arguments. We shall shall only only mention mention the the most most typical typical and and important important ones. ones. arguments. We First all, we we must must note note that that the the concept concept of of an an Asiatic Asiatic mode mode of of proproFirst of of all, duction duction implies implies that that aa special special structure structure (or (or "formation") "formation") existed existed paralparallel lel to to the the slave-owning slave-owning structure structure (formation). (formation). This This particular particular developdevelopmental mental path path was was determined determined by by special special geographical geographical conditions, conditions, particularly particularly by by the the need need for for artificial artificial irrigation. irrigation. It It generated generated the the cencentralized tralized power power of of aa despotic despotic ruler ruler and and was was also also the the cause cause of of the the longlongterm term preservation preservation of of the the primitive primitive community, community, which which was was subject subject to to soexploitation. exploitation. Although Although private private property property did did not not appear appear in in such such societies, cieties, it it is is assumed assumed that that the the existence existence of of the the Asiatic Asiatic mode mode of of proproduction duction is is "everlasting" "everlasting" (apparently (apparently since since the the disintegration disintegration of of the the primitive primitive community community order?). order?). E. E. S. S. Varga Varga supported supported this this view,6 view,6 and and Struve admitted admitted the the validity validity of of the the above-mentioned above-mentioned theses theses (with (with cercerStruve tain caveats), caveats), though though as as applied applied only only to to the the early early period period of of antiquity. antiquity. tain More More complex complex structures structures were were also also proposed. proposed. L. L. S. S. Vasil'ev Vasil'ev and and I. A. A. Stuchevskii Stuchevskii proposed proposed their their own own concept concept of of aa "secondary" "secondary" formaforma1. tion; tion; that that is, is, aa formation formation positioned positioned between between the the primitive primitive order order and and According to to these these authors, authors, aa society society emerging emerging from from the the capitalism.7 According capitalism.' posprimitive primitive order order can can proceed proceed along along one one of of three, three, almost almost equally equally possible, paths: paths: slave slave ownership, ownership, feudalism, feudalism, or or the the Asiatic Asiatic order order (the (the last last sible, combining combining features features of of the the first first two). two). The The actual actual path path is is not not deterdetermined by by the the developmental developmental level level of of the the forces forces of of production production (it (it is mined is about equal equal in in all all cases.) cases.) but but by the type type of of community, community, which, which, in in turn, turn, about by the is determined determined mainly mainly by by environmental environmental conditions. conditions.88 is 6. Ocherki Ocherki po po problemam problemampolitekonomii politekonomiikapitalisma kapitalisma[Essays [Essayson onthe thepoliticoeconomic politicoeconomicprobproblems of of capitalism] capitalism] (Moscow: (Moscow: Nauka. Nauka, 1964). 1964). lems 7. 7. "Tri "Tri modeli modeli vozniknoveniya vozniknoveniya dokapitalisticheskikh dokapitalisticheskikh obshchestv" obshchestv" [Three [Three models models for for the origin origin of of precapitalist precapitalist societies]. societies], Voprosy Voprosyistorii. istorii, 1966, the 1966. no.no. 6. 6. 8. recent work work Istoriya Istoriya drevnego [History of the ancient Orient]. 8. In In his his recent drevnegoVostoka Vostoka [History of the ancient Orient], vols. 1-2 (Moscow: (Moscow: Nauka. Nauka, 1985). 1985), L. L. S. S. Vasil'ev bases his his arguments. arguments, on on the the one one hand. hand, vols. 1-2 Vasil'ev bases on Hegel Hegel and and early early Marxian Marxian work work and. and, on on the the other. other, on on social social anthropology anthropology and and conconon tends that that all all class class societies societies are are stagnant stagnant except except those those based based on on private private property property in in the the tends means of of production. production, as. as, for for example. example, ancient ancient Greece. Greece. Not Not distinguishing distinguishing between between sovmeans sov-

Introduction Introduction

11 11

A similar perspective perspective is is advanced advanced in in aa number number of of writings writings by by the the A similar prominent Soviet historian historian and and philologist, G. A. A. Melikishvili. Melikishvili.99 In prominent Soviet philologist, G. In Melikishvili's opinion, opinion, the the most most common common manifestation manifestation of of precapitalist precapitalist Melikishvili's The slave-owning slave-owning order order appears appears only only in in exexclass society is is feudalism. feudalism. The class society ceptional cases cases (Phoenicia, (Phoenicia, Greece, Greece, Rome), Rome), culminating culminating in in aa return return to to ceptional the main main road; road; that that is, is, to to feudalism. feudalism. During During the the early early developmental developmental the stages of of aa class class society, society, the Asiatic mode mode of of production production can can also also come come the Asiatic stages into existence. existence. This This mode mode of of production production is denned by as aa is defined by Melikishvili Melikishvili as into "protofeudal" complex complex of of exploitation exploitation methods. methods.1019 "protofeudal" Although Melikishvili's Melikishvili's view view differs differs from from the the one one adopted adopted in in this this Although book, it is nevertheless nevertheless close close to to it in many many respects. respects. We We actually actually agree agree it in book, it is with him him on on the the existence existence of of various various types types of of development development within within the the with framework feaframework of of ancient ancient society. society. However, However, we we try try to to stress stress common common features, defining denning the the different different types types of of ancient societies as ways of ancient societies as ways of develdeveltures, opment opment of of one one and and the the same same ancient ancient mode mode of of production. production. Melikishvili Melikishvili puts more more emphasis emphasis on on the the distinguishing distinguishing characteristics, characteristics, which which he he puts considers considers different different production production structures. structures. Yet Yet Melikishvili Melikishvili emphaemphasizes, to to aa greater greater extent extent than than we we do, do, the the similarity similarity between the mode mode sizes, between the of of production production of of antiquity antiquity and and that that of of the the Middle Middle Ages. Ages. To To us us the the difdifference in in this this case case is is more more substantial. substantial. (At the same same time, time, doubtless doubtless (At the ference meno one no one could could dispute dispute the the fact fact that that ancient ancient society society differs differs less less from from medieval society society than than both both differ differ from from capitalism; capitalism; capitalism, capitalism, in in other other dieval words, by aa sharper words, is is separated separated from from feudalism feudalism by sharper break.) break.) The picture picture of of world world history drawn by by another another Soviet Soviet historian historian and and The history drawn philosopher, V. P. P. Ilyushechkin, Ilyushechkin, seems seems to to us us oversimplified. oversimplified.11II He He studstudphilosopher, V. ies the the forms forms of of exploitation exploitation attested attested in in antiquity antiquity and and in in the the Middle Middle ies Ages and and concludes concludes that that the the number number of methods of of exploitaexploitaof possible possible methods Ages ereignty and property, Vasil'ev asserts that only state property existed in all other ancient and medieval societies. 9. "K voprosu 0o kharaktere drevneishikh klassovykh obshchestv" [On the problem of the nature of of the most ancient class societies], Voprosy Voprosyistorii, istorii, 1966, "Kharakter of 1966, no.no. 11;11; "Kharakter sotsial'no-ekonomicheskogo stroya na drevnem Vostoke (Opyt stadial'no-tipologichesstadial'no-tipologichessotsial'no-ekonomicheskogo klassifikatsii klassovykh obshchestv)" [The nature of of the socioeconomic formation formation in koi klassifikatsii classification of of class societies)], the ancient Orient (An attempt at a typological-stage classification Narody Aziii iA/riki, Afriki,1972, 1972,lio. no.4;4;"Nekotorye "Nekotoryeaspekty aspektyvoprosa voprosa0osotsial'no-ekonomichessotsial'no-ekonomichesNarody Azii of kom stroye drevnikh blizhnevostochnykh blizhnevostochnykh obshchestv" [Some aspects of the problem of Vestnikdrevnei drevneiistorii, istorii, the socio-economic formation in ancient Near Eastern societies], Vestnik 1975, no. 2; and others. 1975, 10. It should be noted that G. G. Giorgadze, one of of the authors of of this book and different types of of ancient societies Melikishvili's pupil, adheres to the theory that the different of production. cannot simply be reduced to varieties of the same slave-owning mode of 11. See See his Sistema vne-ekonomicheskogo vne-ekonomicheskogoprinuzhdeniya prinuzhdeniya i iproblema problemavtoroi vtoroiosnovnoi osnovnoistadii stadii obshchestvennoi evolyutsii [The system of extraeconomic coercion problem obshchestvennoi evolyutsii [The system of extraeconomic coercion andand the the problem of of major stage of of social evolution] (Moscow: Nauka 1970); Sistemy Sistemyi istruktury struktury the second major chastnosobstvennicheskoyekspluatatsii ekspluatatsii[Systems [Systemsand andstructures structuresofofprecapiprecapidoburzhuaznoy chastnosobstvennicheskoy talist exploitation by private proprietors] (Moscow: Nauka 1980).

12 12

Introduction Introduction

tion was was limited the application of one one or or another tion limited and and the application of another depended depended on on differences historical conditions. this, Ilyushechkin differences in in specific specific historical conditions. From From this, Ilyushechkin that all precapitalist societies deduces deduces that all precapitalist societies constitute constitute aa single single "precapitalist "precapitalist the same formation," formation," or or "the "the second second stage stage of of social social evolution." evolution."1212 At At the same the author virtually ignores the forms time, however, time, however, the author virtually ignores the forms of of property property in in the means means of production-especially land property. But the of production—especially land (real) (real) property. But only only the combination the form the combination of of the form of of property property in in the the means means of of production production with prowith the the form form of of exploitation exploitation determines determines the the dominant dominant mode mode of of proplace in historical process. process. Moreover, duction duction and and its its place in the the historical Moreover, the the author author fails to consider consider the the development development of of ideas, proideas, which which depends depends on on the the profails to cessual development of socioeconomic socioeconomic history. It is is well well known known that that an an history. It cessual development of idea becomes aa material material force possesses the the consciousness idea becomes force as as soon soon as as it it possesses consciousness of the masses; but ideational structure structure typical of antiquity antiquity is is quite quite of the masses; but the the ideational typical of dissimilar from from that of the also means means that the that of the Middle Middle Ages, Ages, which which also that the dissimilar incentives for for mass different. mass behavior behavior were were different. incentives new formations been postulated Finally, Finally, we we also also mention mention that that new formations have have been postulated (though without sufficiently (though without sufficiently convincing convincing argumentation) argumentation) during during the the course by Yu. Yu.1. course of of this this discussion discussion (e.g., (e.g., by I. Semenov). Semenov). role, Participants variously interpret Participants in in this this debate debate variously interpret the the character, character, role, and the factors that are to the the theory and significance significance of of the factors that are fundamental fundamental to theory of of historical materialism. materialism. Such include property property in the means means of of historical Such factors factors include in the production (especially land); the the character character of of exploitation: exploitation: economic production (especially land); economic the market, where the the labor becomes aa commodity) (via (via the market, where labor force force becomes commodity) and and noneconomic (by (by compulsion); compulsion); and and the correlation of of these facnoneconomic the correlation these two two factors (i.e., forms forms of of property and exploitation): exploitation): whether persons property and whether the the persons tors (i.e., exploited are are deprived deprived of of property property in in the means of of production or not. not. the means production or exploited In our our view, view, property property as as aa relationship relationship of of classes classes must must not not be confused In be confused with simple physical especially in in the case when when the the posthe case poswith simple physical possession, possession, especially sessor cannot cannot legally legally dispose dispose of of the object in in his his own own interest interest and and at at the oqject sessor Our position is that the character character of of aa society society is is determined determined by will.13 will. IS Our position is that the by the mode of of production, which is is realized realized in in the developmental level level the mode production, which the developmental of means of is achieved and reflected of the the means of production production and and is achieved and reflected (on (on the the sosocial level) in in the of property. This relation both the character character of property. This relation determines determines both ciallevel) the character of of the exploitation and and the class structure structure of of the society. the character the exploitation the class the society. We our position in agreement agreement with of historihistoriWe believe believe our position to to be be in with the the tenets tenets of cal materialism and that opposing theories offered clear clear ananthat opposing theories have have not not offered cal materialism and swers to to the problem of of the correlation of of these. these decisive decisive factors factors in in the correlation swers the problem ancient societies. societies. ancient 12. 12. Ilyushechkin's Ilyushechkin's precapitalist precapitalist formation formation or or second second stage stage of of social social evolution evolution correcorresponds to or urban sponds to the the preindustrial preindustrial or urban society. society. 13. That is, property can be defined that an use, possess, possess, and 13. That is, property can be defined as as an an object object that an owner owner can can use, and dispose his own own interest his own own will, will, and exclude any proprietor dispose of of in in his interest and and at at his and can can exclude any non nonproprietor from using, possessing, possessing, or disposing of. from using, or disposing of.

Introduction Introduction

13 13

We will will not We not offer offer further further detailed detailed presentation presentation of of the the views views and and ararguments produced opponents of of the slave-owning formation formation in in the the guments produced by by opponents the slave-owning ancient but will will limit the fundamental ancient Orient Orient but limit ourselves ourselves to to outlining outlining the fundamental directions by the to familiarize directions taken taken by the discussion. discussion. Those Those desiring desiring to familiarize themthemto V. Nikiforov's book selves with its Vostoki i selves with its course course are are referred referred to V. N. N. Nikiforov's book Vostok vsemirnaya [The East and world history] (Moscow, 1975). This vsemirnayaistoriya istoriya [The East and world history] (Moscow, 1975). This work thorough and, the whole, whole, well-argued work contains contains aa thorough and, on on the well-argued analysis analysis of of all viewpoints expressed all the the viewpoints expressed in in the the discussion, discussion, as as well well as as aa comprehencomprehensive bibliography. In recent years, years, this this debate has subsided. sive bibliography. In recent debate has subsided. Its Its main main utility lay in the fact that many of participants (as as historians utility lay in the fact that many of the the participants (as well well as historians not take part in the arguwho who did did not take aa direct direct part in the the discussion) discussion) subjected subjected the arguments their proposed historical constructions ments used used to to support support their proposed historical constructions to to aa new thorough analysis, redefining their where necessary. new thorough analysis, redefining their concepts concepts where necessary. not all history of However, However, obviously, obviously, not all the the questions questions of of the the history of the the ancient ancient world resolved. Uncertainty Uncertainty and world have have been been resolved. and incompleteness incompleteness in in our our views are due due mainly mainly to unequal quality quality and and quantity quantity of of informainformaviews are to the the unequal tion regarding different periods periods and and countries, countries, as as well as to an uneven uneven tion regarding different well as to an elaboration of of some some trends of the elaboration trends of the historical historical process. process. The wealth of the entire The greatest greatest wealth of documented documented data data about about the entire period period of of antiquity, the beginning of class class civilizations civilizations to start of of the antiquity, from from the beginning of to the the start the medieval point out medieval era, era, comes comes from from the the Near Near East. East. We We would would like like to to point out that taxonomic rank that the the taxonomic rank of of early early antiquity antiquity and and late late antiquity antiquity remains remains there four taxonomically equivalent uncertain. Were Were there uncertain. four taxonomically equivalent stages stages of of one one precapitalist society Ages, precapitalist society (early (early antiquity, antiquity, late late antiquity, antiquity, early early Middle Middle Ages, or were two consequent consequent formations-an late Ages) or late Middle Middle Ages) were there there two formations—an anancient cient and and aa medieval medieval one, one, each each of of them them subdivided subdivided into into an an early early and and aa been assumed in this this book)? book)? Or Or is is one late has been late stage stage (as (as has assumed in one dealing dealing with with three consequent three consequent precapitalist precapitalist formations: formations: early early antiquity, antiquity, late late antiqantiquity, the Middle we arrive uity, and and the Middle Ages? Ages? Here Here we arrive at at an an important important theoretical theoretical in our We difficulty, difficulty, which which is is due due to to aa certain certain vagueness vagueness in our constructions. constructions. We still the mechanisms which aa society still actually actually do do not not know know the mechanisms by by which society passes passes from one one form another, nor can we even establish establish whether whether the the from form to to another, nor can we even change change in in each each case case is is from from "formation" "formation" to to "formation" "formation" or or whether whether it it is less less important. important. is Naturally, because because of historical information Naturally, of the the vast vast amount amount of of historical information that that students many authors students of of the the ancient ancient Near Near East East have have amassed, amassed, many authors of of our our book have used kind of book have used Near Near Eastern Eastern data data as as aa kind of standard. standard. But, But, in in the the future, when our future, when our knowledge knowledge of of the the anciem anciem :;ocieties societies in in India, India, China, China, Central Asia, Iran, Egypt, Egypt, and and other other African African countries countries attains attains the the Central Asia, Iran, same present knowledge Near East, same scientific scientific level level as as our our present knowledge of of the the Near East, Greece, and and Rome, Rome, we we hope hope that that historical historical science science will will advance advance withGreece, without the for extrapolations extrapolations from from data data acquired acquired in in one one region to out the need need for region to other regions. regions. other

14

Introduction Introduction

The Problem of Sources Sources for for Ancient Ancient History History The Problem of Sources of of information information on on the the history history of of the the ancient ancient world world are are manimaniSources fold. In In aa number number of of cases, cases, more more information information is is available available from from certain certain fold. early periods from epochs epochs much much closer closer to to our our own own time. These than from time. These early periods than sources, however however abundant, abundant, are are incomplete, incomplete, aa fact fact that that presents sources, presents seserious difficulties difficulties for for the the objective objective study study of of ancient ancient history. history. rious The history of The history of ancient ancient Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, from from the the beginning beginning of of the the B.C. to to the the beginnings beginnings of of the the Christian Christian era era (first (first cencenthird millennium millennium B.C. third tury tury B.C. B.C. to to first first century century A.D.), A.D.), is is reconstructed reconstructed from from original original contemcontemporary texts, written written on clay, porary texts, on clay clay tablets tablets and and other other objects objects made made of of clay, stone, and and metal. metal. The The script script is is called called cuneiform, cuneiform, and and the writing sysstone, the writing system is aa complex, complex, "word-syllabic" "word-syllabic" one. one. The The quantity quantity of of cuneiform cuneiform tem is texts is is enormous-hundreds enormous—hundreds of of thousands, thousands, their their number number increasing increasing texts every year year as as aa result result of of new new archaeological archaeological excavations. excavations. Yet Yet it it would would every be wrong wrong to to think think that that these these discoveries discoveries give give aa completely completely satisfactory satisfactory be view of of ancient ancient Mesopotamian Mesopotamian society, society, of of its its life life and and historic historic events. events. view Royal inscriptions inscriptions praise praise the gods and and the king and and inform inform us us of of the the the gods the king Royal temples he built built (and, (and, less less frequently, frequently, other other structures). structures). The The inscripinscriptemples he tions of Hittite Hittite and and Assyrian Assyrian kings relate only only their their military triumphs; kings relate military triumphs; tions of their accounts accounts are are very very much much biased. (Defeats are, are, of of course, course, ignored.) ignored.) their biased. (Defeats Texts recording recording laws laws are are incomplete incomplete in in terms terms of of the the social social relations relations Texts regulated by by them them and, and, as as often often as as not, not, are are poorly poorly preserved; moreregulated preserved; moreover, such such texts texts have have not not been been recovered recovered for for all all historical historical periods periods and and over, all countries. countries. Religious-literary Religious-literary texts texts are are mostly preserved only only in in all mostly preserved fragments. They They are are difficult difficult to date and and usually usually illustrate illustrate only only the the fragments. to date official ideology. ideology. It It is is rarely extract from from them them any any inforinforofficial rarely possible possible to to extract mation about about the the real real life life and and views views of of the the population. population. AdministraAdministramation tive-economic texts, texts, which which represent represent the the vast vast majority majority of of the the available available tive-economic cuneiform material, material, originate originate from from state state economies economies or or the the economies economies cuneiform of government government employees, employees, merchants, merchants, and and others. others. Again, Again, the the result result is of is one-sided view view of of society. society. It It is is not not surprising surprising that that historians historians believed believed aa one-sided for aa long long time time that only state state or or temple economies existed existed in in Mesofor that only temple economies Mesopotamia during the third millennium B.C. Texts recording private potamia during the third millennium B.C. Texts recording private legal contracts contracts appear appear on on those those relatively relatively rare rare occasions occasions when when the the solegal social relations were in the process of change and when verbal contracts cial relations were in the process of change and when verbal contracts based on on customary customary law law were were inadequate inadequate for for aa number number of of reasons. reasons. based The periods that are illustrated by numerous written documents The periods that are illustrated by numerous written documents alalternate with with centuries centuries from from which which not single written written document document has has ternate not aa single reached The Hittite Hittite civilization, civilization, which existed in in Asia Asia Minor Minor durdurreached us. us. The which existed ing the second millennium millennium B.C. B.C. and and also also used used the cuneiform script, script, ing the second the cuneiform left us us only only one one royal royal archive, archive, containing containing accounts accounts of of royal royal victories, left victories, treaties between between states, states, legislative legislative texts, texts, instructions instructions to to employees, employees, and and treaties innumerable magic magic rituals-but rituals—but not not aa single single document document dealing dealing with with innumerable

Introduction Introduction

15

the private lives the private lives of of men men and and women. women. From From the the second second half half of of the the first first millennium parchment, potmillennium B.C., B.C., when when such such new new writing writing materials materials as as parchment, pottery sherds sherds (ostraca), (ostraca), and and papyrus came into into use use in in the the Near Near East, East, tery papyrus came practically no documents documents have have reached reached us; us; parchment parchment and and papyrus papyrus practically no disintegrate rapidly, rapidly, and and inscriptions or sherds sherds rub rub off off or or fade fade disintegrate inscriptions in in ink ink or with the the passage passage of of time. time. with Let Let us us now now turn turn to to the the archaeological archaeological remains remains from from the the ancient ancient Near East. East. Until Until recently, recently, extensive extensive excavations excavations were were conducted conducted only only Near on beginning of on temples temples and and palaces. palaces. Before Before the the beginning of the the twentieth twentieth century century the unearthed sites of of ancient ancient towns towns were were razed razed in in search search of of tablets tablets the unearthed sites and and statues statues and and other other "art" "art" objects. objects. Later Later excavations excavations in in Mesopotamia Mesopotamia and parts of by architects. and other other parts of the the Near Near East East were were conducted conducted by architects. ConConsequently, began emerging sequently, the the cities cities began emerging with with more more clarity clarity (although (although residential residential houses houses still still attracted attracted only only minimal minimal attention), attention), but but the the circircumstances utensils and tabcumstances surrounding surrounding such such finds finds as as domestic domestic utensils and even even tablets lets remained remained mostly mostly unrecorded. unrecorded. For For aa long long time, time, the the excavations excavations of of towns towns and and cities cities did did not not proceed proceed stratum stratum by by stratum stratum to to lay lay bare bare the the remains of of the the different different periods. periods. Even Even today, today, many many pottery pottery fragfragremains ments, bones of ments, bones of domestic domestic animals, animals, and and other other artifacts artifacts are are sometimes sometimes discarded—materials that that could could provide provide clues clues to to aspects aspects of of the the daily daily discarded-materials life and and the the diet diet of of the the inhabitants. inhabitants. Yet, Yet, even even when when the the excavations excavations are are life conducted in in the the best possible way, way, archaeology archaeology without without the the support support conducted best possible of written written records records cannot cannot provide complete picture of the the social social of provide aa complete picture of structure or or the the spiritual spiritual culture culture of of aa past society. While While archaeoloarchaeolostructure past society. gists were gaining gaining on-the-job training in in the the mastery mastery of of the the complex complex gists were on-the-job training digging techniques techniques necessary necessary to to furnish furnish proper material for for histoproper material histodigging rians, they they often often managed managed to to destroy destroy many many interesting interesting sites. sites. As As aa rule, rule, rians, early archaeologists archaeologists dug dug the the best ancient sites, sites, and and after after early best preserved preserved ancient having destroyed destroyed them, them, they they left left less less significant significant sites sites to to the the next next gengenhaving eration of scientists, whose methods were more sophisticated. eration of scientists, whose methods were more sophisticated. The The history history of of Egypt Egypt has has its its own own sources. sources. The The vast vast majority majority of of writwritten material material is is represented represented by prayers and and invocations invocations recorded on ten by prayers recorded on the walls walls of of tombs tombs and and on on funeral funeral stelae stelae (at (at times times with much embelembelthe with much lished, though though standardized, standardized, biographies biographies of of the the deceased). deceased). In In relarelalished, tively rare rare cases, cases, inscriptions inscriptions dedicated dedicated to to the the exploits exploits of of pharaohs pharaohs tively were engraved engraved on on temple temple walls. walls. More More important important even even than than the the ininwere scriptions are are the the wall wall paintings and reliefs reliefs illustrating illustrating the the religious religious scriptions paintings and ideas of of ancient ancient Egyptians, Egyptians, who who imagined imagined the the afterlife afterlife to to be be aa copy copy of ideas of their earthly earthly existence. existence. In In these these pictures, we find find numerous numerous scenes scenes of their pictures, we of everyday life, life, although although it it is is difficult difficult to to use use them them to to re-create the social social everyday re-create the aspects of of this this life. life. The The texts texts written written on on the the well-known well-known Egyptian Egyptian papaaspects pyri stem stem from from relatively relatively later later times times (second (second millennium and espepyri millennium and espeA.D.). A A few few cially first first millennium millennium B.C. B.C. through through the the first first millennium millennium A.D.). cially ostraca containing containing economic economic and and legal legal information information have have survived. survived. ostraca

16

Introduction Introduction

The first first code code of of law law was was found found recently recently but but has has not not yet yet been been fully fully The published. published. It was was mainly mainly religious, literary, and, and, occasionally, occasionally, scientific scientific subjects subjects It religious, literary, that that were were recorded recorded on on papyri, papyri, although although documents documents originating originating from from state administrative administrative institutions institutions have have also also come come down down to to us. us. (Most (Most of of state them are are from from the the end end of of the the second second through through the the first first millennium millennium them B.C., as as well well as as from from the the Hellenistic Hellenistic and and Roman Roman periods.) periods.) A A relatively relatively B.C., small number number (except (except for for later later periods) of legal legal contracts contracts also also exist. exist. small periods) of Keeping in in mind mind that that scholars scholars understand understand Egyptian Egyptian texts texts with with less less acacKeeping curacy than than they they do do the the Babylonian Babylonian texts, texts, one one may may say say that that reconreconcuracy struction of of socioeconomic socioeconomic life life in in ancient ancient Egypt Egypt is is aa very very difficult difficult struction matter, and and much much remains remains unclear. unclear. Art Art experts, experts, as as well well as as comcommatter, paratively narrowly narrowly oriented oriented philologists, more success success in in their their philologists, have have more paratively efforts than than economic economic historians. historians. efforts The The smaller smaller the the number number of of documental documental sources, sources, the the more more difficult difficult it is is to to reconstruct reconstruct the the history history of of aa society. society. Documental Documental sources sources have have it two two invaluable invaluable advantages. advantages. First, First, they they are, are, as as aa rule, rule, contemporary contemporary with events they relate and, and, thus, more objective accounts with the the events they relate thus, provide provide more objective accounts of is of what what really really occurred. occurred. Second, Second, given given that that the the number number of of texts texts is sufficiently large large and and that that we we can can ascertain ascertain that that the the large or small small sufficiently large or number number of of aa certain certain type type of of document document reaching reaching us us is is not not the the result result of of the fortuitous fortuitous conditions conditions under under which which these these documents documents were were found, found, the we can can draw draw conclusions conclusions as as to to whether particular social social phenomephenomewe whether aa particular non was was common common or or unusual unusual during during the the period period in in question. question. non With regard to to the the so-called so-called narrative narrative sources sources (both (both purely literary With regard purely literary works and and works works by by ancient ancient historians), historians), it it is is important important to to realize realize that that works they do do not not inform inform us us of of actual actual facts facts but, but, rather, rather, only only of of what what the the auauthey thors, or the group to to which they belonged, thought about about the the subthe group which they belonged, thought subthors, or ject. Though such such information information is is certainly certainly useful useful to to the the historian, historian, ject. Though we can can rarely rarely check check the the correctness correctness of of the the data data transmitted transmitted by by aa narnarwe rative source. source. Details Details describing describing sundry sundry events events and and quotations quotations of of proprorative nouncements made made by by historical historical figures figures are, are, in in particular, particular, nearly nearly nouncements always fictitious. fictitious. always The The history history of of Palestine Palestine is is known known almost almost exclusively exclusively through through narnarrative sources, sources, although although recently recently discovered discovered archaeological archaeological data data can, can, rative to to some some extent, extent, be be used used in in checking checking their their validity. validity. The The narratives narratives have have been preserved preserved in in the the Bible-the Bible—the holy holy scriptures scriptures of of the the Jewish Jewish and and been Christian religions. religions. The The Bible is not not aa book an entire entire library conChristian Bible is book but but an library containing aa number number of of writings writings dating dating from from the the twelfth twelfth to to the the second second taining centuries B.C. (Old Testament) and from the first to the second cencenturies B.C. (Old Testament) and from the first to the second cenA.D. (New Testament). The Bible includes mythological and turies turies A.D. (New Testament). The Bible includes mythological and leglegendary accounts accounts relating relating to to the the creation creation of of the the world world and and to to the the life life of endary of the peoples peoples in in and and around around Palestine Palestine (mainly (mainly Jews). Jews). It It also also includes includes the criminal, civil, civil, and and ritual ritual legislation; legislation; prosaic prosaic historical historical accounts accounts (these (these criminal,

Introduction Introduction

17

can be verified to to aa substantial substantial degree degree by by comparing comparing them them with with ararcan be verified chaeological well as chaeological data, data, as as well as with with Assyrian, Assyrian, Babylonian, Babylonian, and and Egyptian Egyptian royal inscriptions inscriptions and, and, occasionally, occasionally, even even with with documents); documents); religious religious royal and secular secular poetry; fragments of of epic epic poems; poems; religious and secular secular and poetry; fragments religious and didactics; rhythmical (prophetic) sermons-actually sermons—actually often often didactics; rhythmical religious religious (prophetic) speeches speeches on on political political events events of of the the day day (these (these can can also also be be substantiated substantiated by historical information information from from other by historical other Near Near Eastern Eastern countries); countries); ficfictional this diverse material is tional stories; stories; and and more. more. Clearly, Clearly, this diverse material is of of quite quite ununequal historical value, but but with with the the aid aid of of historical criticism, biblical biblical equal historical value, historical criticism, great deal reliable information. Unfortunately, the texts provide aa great texts provide deal of of reliable information. Unfortunately, the almost complete complete lack lack of of documental documental sources sources severely severely limits limits the the ininalmost vestigation of of ancient ancient Palestine, Palestine, despite the fact fact that that the the number vestigation despite the number of of documents has, in the the past past few few years, increased, especially especially with with the the documents has, in years, increased, sensational discovery discovery of of the the Dead Dead Sea Sea scrolls, scrolls, dating dating from from around around the the sensational to the the second second century century A.D. second century century B.C. second B.C. to A.D. The historiography of presents aa very DeThe historiography of India India presents very difficult difficult problem. problem. Despite the the flourishing flourishing of of numerous numerous sciences sciences in in ancient ancient India-philosoIndia—philosospite phy, phy, mathematics, mathematics, astronomy, astronomy, grammar, grammar, and and others-the others—the science science of of history history did did not not come come into into being being... The The ancient ancient religious religious hymns, hymns, the the Veda, ritual-legislative ritual-legislativecollections, collections,epics, epics,and and philosophical philosophicaland andother other Veda, treatises that that have reached us us can can be be dated dated only only with with the the greatest greatest diffidiffitreatises have reached culty. Although there are are some some royal inscriptions carved carved in stone (dat(datculty. Although there royal inscriptions in stone ing from from aa time time not earlier than than the the third third century century B.C.), B.C.), in in most ing not earlier most cases, cases, they are are not not very informative. Documental Documental sources sources are are completely completely they very informative. lacking. In In the the past half-century, Indian Indian archaeology archaeology has has made made great great past half-century, lacking. progress. One One of of its its major major successes successes was discovery of of the the ancient, ancient, progress. was the the discovery previously unknown Indus Indus civilization, which existed existed during during the the third third civilization, which previously unknown and second second millenia B.C. Unfortunately, its written texts consist consist only only and millenia B.C. Unfortunately, its written texts of very brief inscriptions inscriptions on on seals seals and and other other such such items; items; they they are are of very brief insufficient to decipher the script. The structure of the grammar can insufficient to decipher the script. The structure of the grammar can be ascertained, but are unable the words. words. be ascertained, but we we are unable to to read read the The ancient history history of of China exclusively on The ancient China is is based based almost almost exclusively on narnarrative historical literature rative sources. sources. In In contrast contrast to to India, India, historical literature flourished flourished in in China. with the secChina. Nevertheless, Nevertheless, it it only only covered covered the the period period starting starting with the second half of first millennium millennium B.C., historians of ond half of the the first B.C., although although historians of that that time time had access access to to more ancient records, which have have not not reached us. InInhad more ancient records, which reached us. scriptions from earlier periods periods are preserved on on bronze bronze vessels scriptions from earlier are preserved vessels of of various kinds; kinds; divinatory various divinatory texts, texts, dating dating from from the the second second millennium millennium B.C., are are also also inscribed inscribed on on sheep sheep shoulder shoulder blades, blades, turtle turtle shells, shells, etc. etc. We B.C., We also have ancient hymns hymns and and legends, legends, but but they they have reached us us in in ververalso have ancient have reached sions written down much much later later than than the original compositions. compositions. There There sions written down the original are numerous numerous philosophical, philosophical, scientific, scientific, economic, treaare economic, and and military military treatises, but but until lately, there there were were scarcely scarcely any any documentary documentary sources sources until lately, tises, available. Despite Despite the the fact fact that that important important discoveries already available. discoveries have have already

i8 18

Introduction Introduction

been made, made, the the archaeology archaeology of of China China is is still still in in its its initial initial phase. phase. The The been most most sensational sensational discovery discovery was was that that of of the the tomb tomb of of the the first first Chinese Chinese emperor, Ch'in Ch'in Shih Shih Huang-ti, Huang-ti, which which remained remained hidden hidden throughout throughout emperor, antiquity. It It was was surrounded surrounded by by an an entire entire army army of of realistically realistically and and antiquity. brightly colored colored terra-cotta terra-cotta warriors warriors of of the the imperial imperial guard guard with with all all the the brightly details details of of their their arms, arms, clothing, clothing, and and horses' horses' accoutrements. accoutrements. Less Less sensasensational finds finds also also promise promise aa considerable considerable increase increase in in our our knowledge knowledge tional about about ancient ancient China. China. Much Much has has also also been been accomplished accomplished in in the the historihistorical criticism criticism of of the the written written sources. sources. cal Until Until recently, recently, the the most most ancient ancient period period of of Greek Greek history history could could be be studied only only from from nontextual nontextual archaeological archaeological objects; objects; just few dedestudied just aa few cades ago, ago, the the mysterious mysterious Mycenaean Mycenaean word-syllabic word-syllabic writing writing of of the the seccades second half half of of the the second second millennium millennium B.C. B.C. was was deciphered. deciphered. But But the the texts texts ond appeared to to be be accounts accounts of of the the palace palace household, household, and and for for aa number number of of appeared reasons, scholars scholars believe that the the Greeks Greeks of of that that time time did did not not record record reasons, believe that anything else. else. In In addition addition to to archaeological archaeological materials, materials, the the next next period period anything is illuminated illuminated by by epics, epics, which which were were composed composed during during the the eighth eighth to to is seventh centuries centuries B.C. B.C. and and are are attributed attributed to to Homer: Homer: The The Iliad Iliadand and The The seventh Odyssey,These Thesepoems poemspose posea most a mostcomplex complexproblem problemininhistorical historicalcriticritiOdyssey. cism: how how to to separate separate the the poet's poet's imagination imagination from from historical historical reality. reality. cism: Almost no no original original documents documents written written on on perishable perishable materials materials and and Almost contemporary have reached contemporary with with the the events events described described have reached us us from from Greece Greece and Rome. However, two two fortunate fortunate circumstances circumstances neutralize neutralize this this and Rome. However, drawback. First, the Greeks Greeks (and (and later later the the Romans) produced aa very very drawback. First, the Romans) produced rich and and most most diverse diverse narrative narrative literature, literature, including including some some remarkremarkrich able works works of of history history that that will will be be frequently frequently quoted quoted in in our our book. book. able Thucydides (ca. (ca. 460-396 460-396 B.C.) B.C.) can can rightly rightly be regarded as as the the founder founder Thucydides be regarded of scientific scientific historical historical criticism. criticism. Unfortunately, all these these writings writings have have of Unfortunately, all reached us us only only in in the the form form of of medieval medieval copies copies or or on on papyri, papyri, mostly mostly reached A.D. They They have have required required aa huge huge from Egypt, Egypt, of of the the first first centuries centuries A.D. from amount of of critical critical work. work. Second, Second, in in Greece Greece and and later later in in countries countries ininamount fluenced by by Greek Greek culture culture (essentially (essentially the the entire entire Near Near and and Middle Middle fluenced East and and the the Roman Roman Empire), Empire), it it was was customary customary to to record record on on stone stone all all East sorts of private and social events. Among these inscriptions we can sorts of private and social events. Among these inscriptions we can find aa detailed detailed account account of of the the reign reign of of Augustus Augustus written written by the Roman Roman find by the himself, as as well well as as aa few few heartfelt heartfelt words words in in memory memory of of aa emperor himself, emperor slave's concubine; concubine; or or an an enormous enormous customs customs tariff tariff on on international international slave's trade, as as well well as as the the record record of of aa private private sacrifice sacrifice to to aa deity. deity. In In some some trade, cases private private deeds deeds were were also also reproduced reproduced on on stone. stone. A A large large number number of of cases documentary materials materials from from the the times times of of Graeco-Macedonian Graeco-Macedonian and and documentary Roman rule rule have reached us us on on papyri papyri from from Egypt. Egypt. Numerous Numerous legisRoman have reached legislative records records and and legal legal commentaries commentaries (mainly (mainly Roman) Roman) have have also also been been lative preserved (again (again as as medieval medieval copies). preserved copies).

Introduction

19

Today's history and Today's scholars scholars of of Greek Greek and and Roman Roman history and of of culturally culturally and and politically related countries countries (including (including the the ancient ancient Black Sea littoral) littoral) politically related Black Sea have great advantage advantage over over those those researching the Oriental Oriental countries, countries, have aa great researching the because the the sources sources for for Greek Greek and and Roman Roman history history began began to to be studied be studied because about four hundred hundred years earlier. The The result is aa truly truly enormous enormous acabout four years earlier. result is accumulation of of scholarly scholarly work and historical historical criticism. criticism. However, However, new new cumulation work and discoveries and and interpretations interpretations of of old old materials materials continue continue to to appear appear discoveries every year. year. every Graeco-Roman archaeology archaeology has has achieved achieved brilliant results. Everyone Everyone Graeco-Roman brilliant results. is is familiar familiar with with the the excavations excavations of of Pompeii-the Pompeii—the city city that that perished perished under under hot hot ash ash during during aa volcanic volcanic eruption eruption in in the the first first century century of of the the Christian era. was preserved preserved almost including inscriptions Christian era. It It was almost intact, intact, including inscriptions (graffiti) on on the the walls of the the houses. Other discoveries discoveries are are equally equally fasfas(graffiti) walls of houses. Other cinating and and successfully successfully complement complement the the abundant abundant written sources. cinating written sources. Modern science science has has developed developed underwater underwater archaeology, archaeology, making making Modern remains of well as possible possible the the discovery discovery of of the the remains of sunken sunken cities, cities, as as well as virtuvirtually intact ships that with all all their their freight freight two thousand ally intact ships that went went down down with two thousand years ago. years ago. field of historical linguistics In In the the last last few few years, years, the the field of comparative comparative historical linguistics has advanced reasonably hope has advanced considerably. considerably. We We may may reasonably hope that that this this source source reconstruction not not only will enable us to will enable us to make make at at least least aa partial partial reconstruction only of of the the material culture of of humanity humanity far material (archaeological) (archaeological) culture far beyond beyond the the range range of of written history but also valwritten history but also of of its its mentality, mentality, its its ideology ideology and and cultural cultural values, and ues, and certain certain social social features. features. The The migration migration routes routes of of the the speakers speakers of of the the most most ancient ancient languages languages are are still still hard hard to to reconstruct. reconstruct. However, However, it it seems seems that that aa collaboration collaboration of of linguists linguists with with archaeologists, archaeologists, physical physical discoveries in genetics, have anthropologists anthropologists (who, (who, using using the the latest latest discoveries in genetics, have made progress), palaeobotanists, palaeobotanists, palaeozoologists, histomade spectacular spectacular progress), palaeozoologists, historians of the the climate, climate, and and others others will will enable enable us us to to create create aa base for the the rians of base for science science of of ethnogenesis ethnogenesis(the (thestudy studyofofthe theorigins originsofofnations). nations).Let Letususnote note that finding finding the the origin origin of of aa nation nation implies implies the the discovery discovery of of its its three threedisdisthat tinct roots: the the history history of ofitsitsphysical physicalanthropological anthropological characteristics; characteristics; tinct roots: the history history of of its its language; language; and and the the history history of of its its culture. culture. We We very very the rarely information about about all all three. three. rarely have have information This replace aa comprehensive This brief brief survey survey cannot, cannot, of of course, course, replace comprehensive sumsumming provide at ming up up of of research research based based on on ancient ancient sources. sources. But But it it may may provide at least an approximate approximate idea least an idea about about the the character character of of the the sources sources that that served served as as aa basis basis for for the the lectures lectures in in our our book, book, about about the the degree degree to to which be regarded which the the reported reported facts facts can can be regarded as as reliable, reliable, and and about about the the obstacles confronted confronted by scholars in in their their historical historical research. research. obstacles by scholars In In addition addition to to the the difficulties difficulties in in studying studying these these sources, sources, we we must must mention the the philological philological difficulties. difficulties. Historians Historians investigating investigating the the ananmention cient cient world world cannot cannot afford afford to to work work with with materials materials prepared prepared for for them them

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by historians themby philologists philologists or or archaeologists. archaeologists. It It is is crucial crucial that that the the historians themnecessary paspasselves selves read read in in the the original, original, sort sort out, out, and and interpret interpret the the necessary sages of of ancient ancient texts. texts. They They must also learn learn to to interpret interpret the the results must also results of of sages archaeological excavations. excavations. archaeological The historical sources recorded in The ancient ancient historical sources are are recorded in many, many, often often complex complex writing systems systems designed designed for for dozens dozens of of languages, languages, some some of of which are which are writing not yet yet well well understood. writing systems have not not been been fully denot understood. Some Some writing systems have fully deciphered, so so that that their their interpretation interpretation is is controversial. controversial. The The languages languages ciphered, themselves were always changing changing and and are are still still changing, changing, so so that that fifth fifth themselves were always century B.C. B.C. Latin Latin differed differed considerably considerably from from the the Latin Latin of of the the first first century B.C. to to the the first first century century A.D., A.D., and and the the latter latter was was notably notably distinct distinct century B.C. century from medieval medieval Latin, Latin, which, in turn, turn, was was different different from from Renaissance Renaissance from which, in Latin. Akkadian, Akkadian, which which existed existed for for two and aa half half millennia, millennia, and and Chitwo and ChiLatin. nese, which existed existed for for three three and and aa half half millennia, millennia, were, were, of of course, course, nese, which subject to to still still more more drastic drastic change. change. subject To To end end with with the the problem problem of of sources, sources, it it is is worthwhile worthwhile to to dwell dwell upon upon the following following question: question: Is Is it it not not aa fact fact that that the the sources sources reach us acthe reach us acwe may cidentally, so so that that we may miss miss the the more more important important ones? ones? To To this this cidentally, legitimate question question there there is is no no unequivocal unequivocal answer. answer. Some Some countries countries legitimate and and some some epochs epochs are, are, one one can can assume, assume, elucidated elucidated satisfactorily. satisfactorily. Thus, Thus, we know know more more about about Rome Rome under under Emperor Emperor Augustus Augustus than than about about we seventeenth-century Russia. Russia. Our Our knowledge about, say, say, the the time time of of seventeenth-century knowledge about, Nebuchadnezzar II II or or about about the the Old Old Babylonian Babylonian Period Period is is considerconsiderNebuchadnezzar able but fragmentary. We We know name hundreds hundreds and and thousands thousands of of but fragmentary. know by by name able few. Of Of other other epochs epochs we know, alas, persons and and the the life life histories of aa few. persons histories of we know, alas, next to nothing, and considerable considerable errors errors in in reconstruction reconstruction are are posnext to nothing, and possible and and even even probable. However, we can be sure that that human society probable. However, we can be sure human society sible lives and and develops develops in in accordance accordance with certain uniform uniform socioeconomic socioeconomic with certain lives and sociopsychological sociopsychological laws. laws. Therefore, Therefore, with with great great caution, caution, we may and we may sometimes allow allow ourselves ourselves to to extrapolate extrapolate from from the the known without too too sometimes known without great aa possibility possibility of of falling falling into into error. error. In In any any event, event, there there is is no great no sciscience that that does does not not have its share share of of unknown or erroneously erroneously ininhave its unknown or ence terpreted facts. Science is a way to truth, a gradual approach to it; terpreted facts. Science is a way to truth, a gradual approach to it; complete, absolute truth is unattainable. complete, absolute truth is unattainable. narrative art, History History first first emerged emerged in in antiquity antiquity as as aa genre genre of of narrative art, and and it still still retains some features features of of its its literary literary origin. origin. There There is is nothing nothing it retains some wrong in historian to present aa living living picpicwrong in this, this, so so long long as as it it allows allows the the historian to present ture of of the the past past not not only only to to the the reader's intellect but also to to the the reader's reader's ture reader's intellect but also imagination. However, However, aa subjective-emotional subjective-emotional approach approach to to the the facts facts of of imagination. history can can do do incalculable incalculable harm harm to to science science and and to to society. society. One One must must history deduce from from the the fact fact what happened, not not what what the the historian historian deduce what really really happened, thinks ought ought to to have The scientist's scientist's task task is is the the objective objective have happened. happened. The thinks facts; emotions emotions induced induced by facts are are antithetical antithetical to to science. science. cognition of of facts; by facts cognition Thus, the readers readers of of our our book must clearly clearly understand that it it does does Thus, the book must understand that

Introduction Introduction

21 21

not contain not contain absolute absolute and and final final truths truths but, but, rather,just rather, just what what can can be be said said about about the the different different subjects subjects involved involved on on the the basis basis of of present-day present-day knowledge. Development not stop; knowledge. Development of of the the historical historical sciences sciences does does not stop; our our ideas about about the the past are changing changing and and will will continue continue to to do do so. so. Maybe Maybe it it ideas past are is the the gradual revealing of makes history is gradual revealing of truth truth that that makes history so so fascinating. fascinating.

Problems Problems of of Ancient Ancient Chronology Chronology Anyone will probably Anyone approaching approaching the the study study of of ancient ancient history history will probably ask, ask, How does does one fix the the time time at at which which aa particular event in How one fix particular event in ancient ancient hishistory place? How tory took took place? How reliable reliable are are the the assigned assigned dates? dates? In In the the specialist specialist numerous disagreements literature, literature, one one actually actually finds finds numerous disagreements as as to to the the dates dates of not to of individual individual events events and and entire entire ancient ancient epochs, epochs, not to mention mention the the apapproximate nature of proximate nature of the the datings. datings. The The difficulties difficulties in in establishing establishing the the chronology of ancient history are due absence of adequate syssyschronology of ancient history are due to to the the absence of adequate year reckoning tems tems of of year reckoning in in most most ancient ancient lands, lands, as as well well as as to to the the characcharacter not always ter and and condition condition of of many many sources, sources, which which are are not always dated dated and and which frequently frequently cannot cannot be dated even even by circumstantial evidence evidence which be dated by circumstantial which the (such references to (such as as references to events events for for which the dates dates are are known known from from other writing peculiarities). other sources sources or or spelling spelling and and writing peculiarities). peSuch Such is is the the case case especially especially with with the the dating dating of of the the most most ancient ancient periods of in riods of oriental oriental societies. societies. The The establishment establishment of of the the chronology chronology in ancient by the was no ancient oriental oriental history history is is complicated complicated by the fact fact that that there there was no single reference reference point point from from which which to to count count the the years. Each country country single years. Each had its own, own, very very imperfect imperfect way way of of determining determining elapsed elapsed time. time. had its Thus, Thus, in in the the Mesopotamian Mesopotamian states states it it was was customary, customary, at at one one time, time, to to designate according to to some some important important event event that that took took place place designate aa year year according during year designations during that that year. year. Lists Lists of of such such year designations (date (date formulae) formulae) were were kept. Sources Sources mention mention such such dates dates as, as, for for example, example, the the year when aa kept. year when certain building was was erected, year of certain building erected, the the year of aa war war against against aa certain certain tribe, tribe, and so so forth. forth. In In other other cases, cases, the the years years were were counted counted according according to to the the and duration In Assyria, duration of of the the reign reign of of each each king. king. In Assyria, the the count count was was kept kept by the limmu. by the annual annual tenures tenures of of certain certain functionaries-the functionaries—the so-called so-called limmu. Scholars by the Scholars also also refer refer to to these these Assyrian Assyrian functionaries functionaries by the Greek Greek word word eponym.InInorder ordertotocorrelate correlateevents eventsthat thatoccurred occurredatatdifferent differenttimes, times,itit eponym. was necessary necessary to to compile compile lists lists of of all all the the dating dating formulae formulae (names (names of was of years) or lists of eponyms, or enumerations of kings with the lengths years) or lists of eponyms, or enumerations of kings with the lengths of their their reigns. reigns. Such Such lists lists could could be be interrupted interrupted by wars or or enemy enemy conconof by wars quests of of the the capital capital city, city, and and they they could could contain contain both accidental and and quests both accidental intentional errors: errors: approximation of numbers and exclusion exclusion of of some some intentional approximation of numbers and names, as well as of of entire entire dynasties dynasties that, that, for for political political reasons, were names, as well as reasons, were not considered desirable desirable to mention. not considered to mention. Such be correlated with our Such records records can can be correlated with our own own chronological chronological system system only when they can can be related at at some some point (better yet, yet, at at several) several) to to only when they be related point (better

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Introduction Introduction

firmly dated dated astronomical astronomical events, events, the the dates dates of of such such events events depending depending firmly entirely the laws reliable referentirely on on the laws of of celestial celestial mechanics. mechanics. The The most most reliable reference points points are are solar solar eclipses. eclipses. That That is is why all historical historical events events that that why all ence took place in in the East startiiii starting^ from from 1073 1073 B.C. B.C. are are usually usually dated dated took place the Near Near East with an average average error error no no larger larger than one to two years. years. Less Less reliable reliable with an than one to two are references references to other astronomical astronomical time time measurements, measurements, such such as are to other as those based based on on the the quite quite imperfect imperfect ancient ancient observations observations of of the planet those the planet Venus. This This particular is used used to date events events in in the history particular reference reference is to date the history Venus. of Babylonia Babylonia from from the the twenty-fourth twenty-fourth to to the the sixteenth sixteenth centuries centuries B.C. of B.C. After aa series series of of corrections corrections that that resulted resulted in in lowering lowering the the proposed proposed After dates, we we are are left left with with aa probable probable error error of of sixty-four sixty-four years, years, forward forward or or dates, backward, for the the end end of of the the period period in in question, question, and and up up to to one one hunhunbackward, for dred years years for for its its beginning. Historians have have agreed agreed to to assign assign aa concondred beginning. Historians ventional date, date, 1792-1750 1792-1750 B.C., B.C., to to the the reign reign of of King King Hammurapi Hammurapi of of ventional Babylon, from from which which the the dates dates of of other other events, events, preceding preceding or or followfollowBabylon, ing, are are calculated calculated based based on on their their distance distance in in time time from from Hammurapi's Hammurapi's ing, rule. This This dating dating system system is is called called the the middle middle chronology. chronology. rule. When aa certain certain local local chronology chronology has has aa point of astronomical astronomical referreferWhen point of ence, it it may may also also help help to to establish establish absolute absolute dates dates for for the the ancient ancient chronchronence, ological systems systems of of other other countries. countries. This This determination determination depends depends on on ological finding synchronisms synchronisms between between them; them; that that is, is, historically historically verified verified ininfinding dications that that two two specific specific public public figures, figures, one one from from each each country, country, were were dications contemporaneous or or indications indications of of battles, battles, wars, wars, and and agreements agreements becontemporaneous between the countries. A A chronological chronological system system based only on on synsyntween the two two countries. based only chronisms with with another another system system (as (as are are the the chronological chronological systems systems of of chronisms ancient Asia Asia Minor, Minor, Palestine, Palestine, and and other other areas) areas) is is less less accurate accurate than than aa ancient system directly directly tied tied to to the astronomical time time scale. scale. system the astronomical An An additional additional difficulty difficulty in in establishing establishing an an exact exact chronology chronology for for the ancient New East is is that the year year used in that was mostly mostly the ancient New East that the used in that region region was not 12 not solar solar (approximately (approximately 365 365 days) days) but but lunar-solar, lunar-solar, consisting consisting of of 12 months, successive months months alternating alternating between between 29 29 and and 30 30 days, days, months, with with successive amounting to aa total total of amounting to of 354 354 days days in in aa year. year. The The deviation deviation from from the the natural calendar calendar was was compensated compensated for for by by intercalating intercalating leap leap months, months, natural first first irregularly irregularly and and then, then, since since the the sixth sixth century century B.C., B.C., according according to to aa rigorously applied applied system. system. rigorously Today, Today, our our chronology chronology is is strictly strictly correlated correlated with with astronomical astronomical time. time. Small errors errors caused caused by by the the somewhat somewhat imprecise imprecise coincidence coincidence between between Small the civil civil and and the the astronomical astronomical year year are are corrected corrected by adding one one day day the by adding during leap leap years. during years. In Egypt, Egypt, time time was was counted counted by by the the length length of of reign reign of of each each pharaoh, pharaoh, In and the the count count was was renewed renewed with with each each new new ruler. ruler. A A list list of of pharaohs pharaohs and indicating the the duration duration of of their their reigns reigns has has not not reached reached us us in in its its comcomindicating plete form; it it also also contains contains gaps gaps owing owing to to scribal scribal errors. errors. Moreover, Moreover, plete form;

Introduction Introduction

23

there there was was another another shortcoming shortcoming in in this this list list that that led led to to unjustified unjustified chronological extensions: extensions: reigns reigns of of pharaohs pharaohs who who ruled ruled simultanesimultanechronological ously (coregents, (coregents, as as well well as as contemporaneous contemporaneous kings, kings, each each governing governing ously part of of the the country country during during periods periods of of political political division) division) are are presented presented part as Mesoas sequential. sequential. (The (The same same happens happens sometimes sometimes in in the the king king lists lists of of Mesopotamia.) As the estimate estimate of of dates dates during during the the third third millenmillenpotamia.) As aa result, result, the nium nium B.C. B.C. oscillates oscillates within within aa 300-year 300-year range. range. It It isisonly only at at the the beginning beginning of of the the second second millennium millennium B.C. B.C. that that the the estimates estimates improve improve to to the the range range of of one one or or two two decades. decades. The The dating dating becomes becomes reliable reliable from from the the middle middle of of B.C. on. on. the first first millennium millennium B.C. the The The situation situation with with the the dating dating of of ancient ancient Indian Indian history history is is very very poor. poor. The reason reason is is the the nature nature of of the the preserved preserved sources. sources. Not Not aa single single exexThe ample of of historical historical work work in in the the proper proper sense-be sense—be it it chronicle, chronicle, historihistoriample cal account, account, or or treatise-is treatise—is available available from from this this region. region. Nor have any any cal Nor have royal archives archives or or any any other other official official written written documents documents yet yet been been discovdiscovroyal ered. Virtually Virtually the the only only dated dated sources sources available available for for ancient ancient India are ered. India are inscriptions on on stone stone and and metal. metal. But But even even these these are are few few and and stem stem inscriptions from aa relatively relatively late late time, time, beginning beginning with with the the third third century century B.C. B.C. Let Let from us remember remember that that the the oldest oldest dated dated written written sources sources of of Egyptian Egyptian and and us Mesopotamian history history (although (although these these dates dates are are only only approximate) approximate) Mesopotamian are B.C. . are from from the the third third millennium millennium B.C. In In contrast contrast to to Indian Indian sources, sources, those those of of China China contain contain numerous numerous dates. This This is is because because China, China, like like Greece Greece and and Rome, Rome, is is one one of of the the few few dates. ancient countries countries where where historical historical works works were were written. written. Ancient Ancient China China ancient has left left us us chronicles, chronicles, dynastic dynastic histories, histories, and and valuable valuable generalizing generalizing hishas historical torical books. books. In In his his voluminous voluminous work work Shih Shih Chi Chi[Historical [Historicalnotes], notes],SsuSsuma Ch'ien Ch'ien (145-87 (145-87 B.C.), B.C.), the the prominent prominent historian historian of of ancient ancient China, China, ma paid great great attention attention to to chronology. chronology. This This work, work, which which encompasses encompasses the the paid time from from the the mythological mythological creation creation of of the the world world to to the the end end of of the the time second century century B.C., B.C., gives gives aa chronological chronological outline outline of of ancient ancient Chinese Chinese second history. However, However, the the basis basis for for the the system system of of dating dating that that Ssu-ma Ssu-ma history. Ch'ien and and other other Chinese Chinese authors authors use use is is often often unclear. unclear. Therefore, Therefore, Ch'ien their dates are are not not always always quite quite reliable. reliable. their dates The situation situation with with the the chronology chronology of of Greek Greek and and Roman Roman history history is The is quite satisfactory satisfactory because because of of the the great great number number of of historical historical works works that that quite have reached reached us us and and that that contain contain sufficiently sufficiently reliable reliable datings. datings. These These have works were were based based on on several several different different chronological chronological systems. systems. Thus, Thus, aa works system of of dating dating after after yearly yearly tenures tenures of of certain certain high high state state functionfunctionsystem aries (the (the system system also also known known from from Assyria) Assyria) was was used used in in Athens, Athens, where where aries years were were counted counted by by archon archon eponyms. eponyms. In In Rome Rome the the year year count count was was years based on on the the yearly yearly terms terms of of consuls. consuls. Partial Partial records records of of archons archons and and based consuls inscribed inscribed on on stone stone have have been been preserved. preserved. Furthermore, Furthermore, there there consuls was aa pan-Greek pan-Greek year year count count based based on on the Olympiads—festivals that that was the Olympiads-festivals

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Introduction Introduction

bound together the the union union of bound together of Hellenic Hellenic communities. communities. The The Olympiads Olympiads took place place regularly regularly every years. The Olympiad occurred, took every four four years. The first first Olympiad occurred, 14 according to to Greek Greek legend, legend, in in 776 776 B.C. B.C.14 according Later, their year Later, the the Romans Romans established established their year count count from from the the legendary legendary date the foundation The Roman historian Marcus Marcus Terendate of of the foundation of of Rome. Rome. The Roman historian Terentius Varro (first the foundation tius Varro (first century century B.C.) B.C.) dated dated the foundation of of Rome Rome to to the the third year year of the sixth that is, to 754-753 third of the sixth Olympiad; Olympiad; that is, to 754-753 B.C. B.C. Attempting Attempting to determine the foundation Varro utilized utilized synto determine the the date date of of the foundation of of Rome, Rome, Varro synthe year year count based on terms of chronisms between the chronisms between count based on the the office office terms of consuls consuls with the the Greek Greek count count based on the the Olympiads. Olympiads. with based on Claudius Claudius Ptolemaeus, Ptolemaeus, the the great great Greek Greek mathematician mathematician and and astronoastronomer of the second the Greek chronology with with A.D., connected connected the Greek chronology mer of the second century century A.D., the Babylonian, Babylonian, which, which, as as mentioned mentioned above, above, has has an an exact exact astronomical astronomical the point of reference. Moreover, point of reference. Moreover, the the Graeco-Roman Graeco-Roman chronology chronology has has number of of other other independent independent astronomical astronomical points points of of reference. reference. aa number Ptolemaeus's references to Ptolemaeus's "Canon" "Canon" includes· includes references to several several astronomically astronomically identifiable solar solar eclipses. eclipses. identifiable Beginning with sixth to fifth centuries centuries B.C., a new independent Beginning with the the sixth to fifth B.C., a new independent historical namely, coins. Numishistorical and and chronological chronological source source appears, appears, namely, coins. Numismatics is is aa field field of of scholarship scholarship devoted devoted to the study study of of coins coins from from the the matics to the point metallic content, weight, area point of of view view of of their their metallic content, weight, area of of diffusion, diffusion, the the declared and actual face face value, inscriptions (called (called legends), legends), and and declared and the the actual value, inscriptions the character of of depicted depicted objects objects and and persons, persons, including including portraits of the character portraits of the heads of state state who who issued issued the coin. During During archaeological archaeological excavaexcavathe heads of the coin. tions, coins are are often found that have inscriptions inscriptions of of kings kings known from tions, coins often found that have known from narrative sources (and (and sometimes sometimes unknown), and in in aa number number of of cases cases narrative sources unknown), and the portrait portrait on on the coin can can be identified with with already already known the the coin be identified known sculpsculptural Such coins coins constitute constitute aa link link between archaeological tural portraits. portraits. Such· between archaeological data and and the data of of the inscriptions and and narrative sources. Besides, data the data the inscriptions narrative sources. Besides, numismatics supply supply diverse diverse historico-economic, historico-economic, politico-geographic, politico-geographic, numismatics and other other data data to to the is especially especially important important for for periperiand the historian. historian. This This is ods on on which other sources sources cast cast little little light. light. ods which other In the sixth proA.D., the the Italian Italian monk monk Dionysius Dionysius Exiguus Exiguus proIn the sixth century century A.D., posed chronological system system based on the of Jesus Jesus Christ. Christ. posed aa new new chronological based on the birth birth of point of orientation he he used used the the date date for the foundation For For his his point of orientation for the foundation of of Rome. proposed December the 753d Rome. Dionysius Dionysius proposed December 25 25 of of the 753d year year after after Rome's the date birth. Accordingly, Rome's foundation foundation as as the date of of Jesus' Jesus' birth. Accordingly, the the founfoundation of of Rome dated in in the of dation Rome began began to to be be dated the year year 753 753 before before the the birth birth of 14. be mentioned the first 14. It It should should be mentioned that that the the legendary legendary character character of of the first Olympiad Olympiad does does not in in any any way way invalidate invalidate the the correctness correctness of the Olympiad-based chronology. It not of the Olympiad-based chronology. It is is imimportant that the initial which the the years years are portant that the initial point point from from which are counted counted be be defined defined at at some some defidefinite point. There There is no need need for reference point point to to correlate nite astronomical astronomical point. is no for such such aa reference correlate with with any any real real historical historical event. event. The The date date of of any any event event calculated calculated from from an an astronomical astronomical referreference point can be recalculated recalculated into ence point can easily easily be into our our chronological chronological system. system.

Introduction Introduction

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Christ. Christ. Now Now it it is is agreed agreed that that Dionysius Dionysius made made an an error error and and that, that, in in rereality, Jesus Jesus must must have have been been born born aa few few years years earlier, earlier, perhaps perhaps in in the the ality, fourth or or even even fifth fifth year year before before our our era. era. fourth The DThe new new year year count count "from "from the the birth birth of of Christ"-A(nno}. Christ"—A(nno). D(omini).—did not not take take root root immediately. immediately. During the entire entire Middle Middle (omini}.-did During the Ages it it coexisted coexisted with with the the biblical biblical tradition tradition of of counting counting years years "from "from Ages Gradthe creation creation of of the the world" world" adopted adopted earlier earlier in in Christian Christian nations. nations.15 the 15 Gradually, the the calculation calculation in in years years from from the the birth birth of of Christ Christ or, or, more more corcorually, rectly, from from the the beginning beginning of of our our era era was was accepted accepted in in many many countries, countries, rectly, including Russia. Russia. A A significant significant portion portion of of the the world's world's population population uses uses including this system, system, which which is is also also universally universally accepted accepted in in history. history. Other Other chronchronthis ological systems systems also also exist, exist, but but there there is is no no need need to to discuss discuss them them here. here. ological In In recent recent times, times, historians historians have have relied relied on on an an archaeological archaeological method method to establish establish absolute absolute dates dates with with the the aid aid of of radioactive radioactive carbon carbon dating. dating. to Carbon Carbon dating dating is is based based on on measuring measuring the the concentration concentration of of radioactive radioactive carbon carbon in in excavated excavated artifacts. artifacts. For For instance, instance, aa felled felled tree tree ceases ceases to to take take up up the the radioactive radioactive 14 14 isotope isotope of of carbon, carbon, and and thus, thus, the the time time when when the the tree was was cut cut can can be be determined determined according according to to our our present present chronologichronologitree cal scale. scale. Unfortunately, Unfortunately, radioactive radioactive carbon carbon dating dating is is imprecise, imprecise, leadleadcal ing to to unavoidable unavoidable errors, errors, which which sometimes sometimes amount amount to to tens tens and and even even ing hundreds of of years years and and which which preclude preclude its its application application to to cases cases that that hundreds 16 At At the the present present time, time, aa potentially potentially imimrequire more more accurate accurate dating. dating.16 require portant absolute absolute dating dating method method called called thermoluminescence thermoluminescence is is being being portant developed for for ceramics, ceramics, as as well well as as other other physical physical methods methods such such as as developed archaeomagnetism. archaeomagnetism. For the the time time being, being, however, however, all all dates dates for for ancient ancient Near Near Eastern Eastern hishisFor tory B.C. and and for for Europe Europe and and tory earlier earlier than than the the second second millennium millennium B.C. China earlier earlier than than the the middle middle of of the the first millennium B.C. B.C. remain remain ununChina first millennium certain; certain; they they only only provide provide relative relative orientation. orientation. The The situation situation is is even even worse for for India, India, where where even even the the dates dates in in the the first first millennium millennium B.C. B.C. are are worse frequently approximate approximate and and inaccurate, inaccurate, because because they they are are primarily primarily frequently based on on objects objects imported imported from from other other countries countries with with aa better better estabestabbased lished chronology chronology or or on on late late king king lists lists of of doubtful doubtful accuracy accuracy or or on on eslished establishing that that certain certain literary literary works works influenced influenced certain certain others, others, rather rather tablishing than the the reverse. reverse. Generally Generally speaking, speaking, the the farther farther away away aa territory territory is than is from ancient ancient Mesopotamia, Mesopotamia, the the less less accurate accurate is is its its chronology chronology and and the the from more recent recent its its reliable reliable datings. datings. more 15. During During the the Middle Middle Ages, Ages, the the mythological mythological date date of of the the creation creation of of the the world world 15. based on on the the biblical biblical legends legends was was calculated calculated in in various various ways. ways. The The Greek Greek Orthodox Orthodox based church adopted adopted the the year year 5508 5508 B.C., B.C, and and the the Anglican, Anglican, the the year year 4004 4004 B.C. B.C. church 16. 16. Most Most of of the the radiocarbon radiocarbon dates dates relevant relevant to to the the history history of of the the ancient ancient world world need need to be be recalibrated recalibrated by by adding adding aa certain certain correction correction factor factor based based upon upon dendrochronologidendrochronologito cally determined determined dates. dates. The The radiocarbon radiocarbon dates dates for for ancient ancient history history are are too too young young due due to to cally past variations variations in in the the production production of of radioactive radioactive carbon carbon in in the the earth's earth's atmosphere. atmosphere. past

1 General General Outline Outline of of the the First First Period Period of the History History of the Ancient Ancient World of the of the World and Problem of Ways and the the Problem of the the Ways of of Development Development I. M. DIAKONOFF DlAKONOFF

Preconditions Preconditions for for the the Formation Formation of of the the First First Class Class Society Society The Homo separated The genus genus Homo separated out out of of the the rest rest of of the the animal animal kingdom kingdom sapienssapiens, sapiens, roughly two two million million years years ago. ago. Our Our species, species, Homo roughly Homo sapiens hashas at least existed existed at least since since the the end end of of the the Middle Middle Palaeolithic, Palaeolithic, some some forty forty thousand years. years. From From his his ancestors, ancestors, who who belonged to more. more ancient ancient thousand belonged to human species, species, Homo sapienssapiens sapiens inherited ability produce human Homo sapiens inherited thethe ability to to produce simple tools tools for for labor. labor. But But for for thirty thirty thousand thousand years years of of history, history, huhusimple mans, with with the the aid aid of of the the tools tools they they made, made, still still derived derived benefits benefits solely solely mans, from nature, nature, just like their their ancestors; ancestors; for for thirty thirty thousand thousand years, years, they they from just like did not not sow sow or or reap. reap. Their Their means means of of sustenance sustenance were were gathering gathering wild did wild plants, and fishing, fishing, all all of of which which are are activities activities that are cercerhunting, and that are plants, hunting, tainly work. work. In In order order to to exist, exist, however, however, it it was was not not sufficient sufficient for for them them tainly to merely merely produce the necessary necessary work work tools: tools: they they had had to to be be rereto produce the produced. But they could not reproduce the products they had exproduced. But they could not reproduce the products they had extracted from from nature. nature. For For this this reason, reason, the the life life of of human human groups groups tracted (communities usually usually based on kinship) kinship) depended largely on on environenviron(communities based on depended largely mental conditions, conditions, such such as as climate, climate, on on the the abundance abundance or or scarcity scarcity of of mental game, and and on on pure luck. Successes Successes alternated alternated with with periods of hunger; hunger; game, pure luck. periods of mortality was was very very high, high, especially especially for for children children and and the the elderly. elderly. The The mortality surface of of the the enormous enormous planet planet was was inhabited inhabited by by very very few few people, people, and and surface if their their number number increased at all, all, it it did so very very slowly; slowly; indeed, indeed, somesomeif increased at did so times it it may may have have even even decreased. decreased. times This situation situation changed changed about about ten ten to to twelve twelve thousand thousand years years ago, This ago, when when in in certain certain ecologically ecologically favored favored regions, regions, some some human human commucommunities learned learned to to plant plant grain, grain, ensuring ensuring their their year-round year-round food food requirerequirenities ments, and to raise raise sheep, sheep, goats, goats, and and cattle, cattle, allowing regular ments, and to allowing for for regular consumption of of meat, meat, as as well well as as for for provision of milk milk and and cheese cheese consumption provision of (curds). The The domestic animals also also provided leather, which which was was supesupe(curds). domestic animals provided leather, rior to to that that from from hunted hunted animals, animals, and and supplied supplied wool, wool, which which people people rior learned to to spin spin and and weave. weave. Soon Soon after, after, humans humans were were able able to to abandon abandon learned

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I. /. M. Diakonoff Diakonoff

cave dwellings, dwellings, twig twig and and mud mud huts, huts, or or dugouts dugouts and and to to live live in in permapermacave nent houses houses made made of of clay clay or or clay-coated clay-coated rocks rocks and, and, later, later, of of adobe adobe nent bricks. Community Community life life became became safer: safer: the the mortality mortality rate rate decreased decreased bricks. somewhat. Population Population growth, growth, though though never never exceeding exceeding about about 0.01 0.01 somewhat. percent, became became noticeable noticeable from from generation generation to generation, and and the the percent, to generation, first farmers farmers and and livestock livestock herders herders began began to to expand expand gradually gradually over over first the earth's earth's surface. surface. the The The first first humans humans to to achieve achieve these these successes successes inhabited inhabited the the North North Temperate Zone Zone of of the the Eastern Eastern Hemisphere. Hemisphere. This This was was the the epoch epoch Temperate when was not yet over when the the great great Ice Ice Age Age was not yet over in in northern northern Europe Europe and and Asia, Asia, but to to the the south south of of the the glacial glacial zone zone the the cold cold dry dry climate climate of of the the but Pleistocene had had passed. passed. A A significant significant portion portion of of the the Eurasian Eurasian landlandPleistocene mass was was covered covered by by pine pine forests, forests, separated separated from from the the glacial glacial zone zone by by aa mass Greece, Asia Asia Minor, Minor, and and most most zone of of tundra. tundra. The The peninsulas peninsulas ofltaly, of Italy, Greece, zone of China China were all covered covered with deciduous forests. forests. The The expanse expanse of of were all with deciduous of North Africa, Africa, Arabia, Arabia, and and other other Near Eastern regions regions as as far far as as northnorthNorth Near Eastern ern China China (covered (covered today today by by dry dry steppes steppes or or scorched scorched deserts) deserts) was ern was mostly mixed mixed forest forest and and steppe. steppe. Farther Farther to to the the south, south, in in Africa, Africa, southsouthmostly ern India, India, southern southern China, China, and and Indochina, Indochina, lush lush tropical tropical forests forests were were ern growing. growmg. The partly partly wooded wooded steppe steppe regions regions were were the the most most favorable favorable areas areas The for for human human life, life, but but not not everywhere everywhere even even in in this this zone zone were were the the condiconditions sufficiently sufficiently conducive conducive for for aa transition transition to to agriculture agriculture and and livestock livestock tions raising. A A region was suitable suitable when it offered offered wild wild grains grains appropriate appropriate when it raising. region was for consumption consumption and and later later for for artificial artificial sowing sowing (as (as documented documented by for by N. I. I. Vavilov Vavilov in in 1926), 1926), as as well well as as wild wild animals animals that that could could be be domestidomestiN. cated. The The first grains harvested harvested in in their their wild wild state state (aided (aided by by wooden wooden first grains cated. or bone bone sickles sickles with with embedded embedded flint and later later cultivated cultivated were were or flint blades) blades) and barley and and einkorn einkorn and and emmer emmer wheat. Wild stands stands of of barley and these these wheat. Wild barley and barley early wheats grew in in the uplands of of Asia Asia Minor, Minor, Palestine, Palestine, Iran, Iran, and and early wheats grew the uplands southern Turkmenia, Turkmenia, as as well well as as in in northern northern Africa. Africa. Other Other cereals cereals were were southern domesticated later. later. Though Though it it is is difficult difficult to to determine determine where where this this phephedomesticated nomenon occurred occurred for for the the first time, it it is is certain certain that that cereals cereals were were nomenon first time, B.C. in in PalesPalesalready being sown between between the the tenth and eighth eighth millenia millenia B.C. tenth and already being sown tine, in in Asia Asia Minor, Minor, and and on on the the western western slopes slopes of of the Iranian uplands. uplands. the Iranian tine, In Egypt, Egypt, along along the the Danube Danube River, River, in in the the Balkans, Balkans, and and in in southern southern In Turkmenia, grains were being sown no later than the seventh to sixth sixth Turkmenia, grains were being sown no later than the seventh to millennia B.C. At about the same time, these regions saw the domesmillennia B.C. At about the same time, these regions saw the domestication of goats goats and and sheep. sheep. (Late (Late Palaeolithic Palaeolithic hunters hunters had had tamed tamed dogs dogs tication of much earlier.) Cattle and, sporadically, pigs were domesticated later. much earlier.) Cattle and, sporadically, pigs were domesticated later. The standard standard ofliving of living improved improved even even more more during during the the eighth eighth to to sixth sixth The millenia B.C. when people learned to make polished stone tools, woven millenia B.C. when people learned to make polished stone tools, woven baskets, woven woven fabrics, fabrics, and and fired fired pottery, pottery, which which permitted permitted better better food food baskets, preparation and storage. preparation and storage.

General Outline

29 29

With the the disappearance disappearance of of the the northern northern glaciers, glaciers, the the climate climate in in the the With temperate Hemisphere gradually temperate zone zone of of the the Northern Northern Hemisphere gradually became became drier. drier. Foothill Foothill agriculture agriculture depended depended less less and and less less on on natural natural rain rain irrigation irrigation and and more more on on damned damned brooks brooks channeled channeled to to the the fields. fields. For For aa long long time, time, the the population population of of the the northern northern and and southern southern forest forest zones zones was was still still very very scanty scanty and and was was not not able able to to adopt adopt the the achievements achievements of of the the inhabiinhabitants tants of of the the forest-steppe forest-steppe and and the the steppe-uplands; steppe-uplands; with with the the tools tools then then available, available, it it was was still still impossible impossible to to clear clear forests forests for for tilling tilling the the land. land. Archaeologists attribute attribute significant significant technological technological progress progress to to three three Archaeologists important important periods: periods: to to the the final final stage stage of of the the Old Old Stone Stone Age-the Age—the sapienssapiens sapiens began prevail; Upper Palaeolithic-when Palaeolithic—when Homo Upper Homo sapiens began to to prevail; to to the the Mesolithic Mesolithic Age, Age, which which in in the the temperate temperate zone zone coincides coincides with with the the development of of agriculture agriculture and and animal animal husbandry; husbandry; and and to to the the Neodevelopment Neolithic lithic Age, Age, which which saw saw the the development development of of polished polished stone stone implements implements and the the invention invention of of weaving weaving and and pottery. pottery. But But even even the the most most adadand vanced Neolithic Neolithic communities communities of of northern northern Africa, Africa, the the Near Near East, East, and and vanced the Middle Middle East East were were unable unable to to reach reach the the level level of of production production necesthe necessary for for the the creation creation of of aa civilization. civilization. The The goal goal of of their their agricultural agricultural sary production and and animal animal husbandry husbandry was; was, as as before, before, solely solely to to ensure ensure the the production survival survival of of the the community community and and its its members. members. Reserves Reserves were were accumuaccumulated only only for for extreme extreme emergencies, emergencies, such such as as unexpected unexpected natural natural disasdisaslated ters. Working Working the the soil soil with with hoes hoes made made of of stone stone or or horn horn was was very very ters. arduous, even even in in the the softest softest of of soils, soils, and and provided provided very very meager, meager, alarduous, although reliable, reliable, nutrition. nutrition. Domesticated Domesticated goats goats and and sheep sheep still still supsupthough plied only only small small quantities quantities of of wool wool and and milk. milk. Dairy Dairy products products and and milk milk plied had to to be be consumed consumed quickly, quickly, because because long-term long-term storage storage methods were had methods were unknown. It It was was only only in in Asia Asia Minor, Minor, Syria, Syria, and and Palestine Palestine that that during during unknown. the eighth eighth to to sixth sixth millennia millennia B.C., B.C., there there arose arose wealthy wealthy villages villages with with the considerable populations populations and and sometimes sometimes even even surrounded surrounded by by walls walls considerable (which means means that that there there was was something something to to protect!). protect!). These, These, however, however, (which were exceptions, exceptions, and and the the oldest oldest of of these these cultures-Jericho cultures—Jericho in in Palestine Palestine were and