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English Pages 314 [329] Year 2009
DRY SPELLS State Rainmaking and Local Governance in Late Imperial China
Harvard East Asian Monographs 311
DRY SPELLS State Rainmaking and Local Governance in Late Imperial China Jeffrey Snyder‐Reinke
Published by the Harvard University Asia Center Distributed by Harvard University Press Cambridge (Massachusetts) and London 2009
© 2009 by the President and Fellows of Harvard College Printed in the United States of America The Harvard University Asia Center publishes a monograph series and, in coordina‐ tion with the Fairbank Center for Chinese Studies, the Korea Institute, the Reischauer Institute of Japanese Studies, and other faculties and institutes, administers research projects designed to further scholarly understanding of China, Japan, Vietnam, Korea, and other Asian countries. The Center also sponsors projects addressing multidisci‐ plinary and regional issues in Asia. Library of Congress Cataloging‐in‐Publication Data Snyder‐Reinke, Jeffrey, 1969–
Dry spells : state rainmaking and local governance in late imperial China / Jeffrey
Snyder‐Reinke. p. cm. ‐‐ (Harvard East Asian monographs ; 311) Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978‐0‐674‐03334‐4 (cl : alk. paper) 1. Rain‐making rites‐‐China‐‐History‐‐19th century. 2. Religion and state‐‐China‐‐ History‐‐19th century. 3. Local government‐‐China‐‐History‐‐19th century. I. Title. II. Title: State rainmaking and local governance in late imperial China. GN473.6.S69 2009 322ʹ.1095109034‐‐dc22 2008045047 Index by the author Printed on acid‐free paper Last figure below indicates year of this printing 18 17 16 15 14 13 12 11 10 09
For Nicole
Acknowledgments
In the course of researching and writing this study, I have incurred a host of debts, and I express my sincerest thanks to those who have contributed in some way to its completion. My deepest appreciation goes to Jon L. Saari and Kenneth C. Schellhase, whose enthusiasm, encouragement, and scholarship first inspired my interest in China and in the study of history. Without their heartfelt concern for my progress as a student and as a person, I would not be where I am to‐ day. I also extend my warmest thanks to Ernest P. Young and Robert H. Sharf, who over the years have generously given their time and energy, first as teachers and later as members of my dissertation committee. I feel fortunate to have found two mentors who so suc‐ cessfully combine professional rigor and personal grace. I also thank Mark Elliott for his thoughtful comments on the manuscript, for his encouragement in moving ahead with publication, and for his tire‐ less support over the years. James Robson, Donald Sutton, Michael Chiang, James Lee, and an anonymous reader also contributed sig‐ nificantly to the success of the final manuscript by providing numer‐ ous suggestions for how it might be improved. Many thanks also go to Xia Mingfang 夏明方 at the Institute for Qing History, Renmin University, for his help in directing my research while in China. I also express my gratitude to the many scholars who have com‐ mented on this project at various stages over the years: Michael Szonyi, Poul Andersen Philip J. Ivanhoe, Elisabeth Kaske, Daniel Overmyer, David Johnson, Paul Katz, Susan Naquin, Barend ter
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Haar, and C. S. Chang. I also thank my students, many of whom have read the manuscript and offered suggestions about how I could make the text clearer and more accessible to nonspecialists. The staff at the Harvard University Asia Center Publications Office has been most helpful, and their comments and corrections were indispensa‐ ble in polishing the manuscript and bringing it to press. Finally, my wife, Nicole, has provided invaluable material, emotional, and edito‐ rial support over the years, and it is to her that this study is dedi‐ cated. Although these people have all improved this manuscript immeasurably, errors undoubtedly remain. For these, I am solely re‐ sponsible. J.S.
Contents
Figures
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1 Headlines
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Summer 1873: The Itinerant Exorcist / 2 Autumn 1880: Bronze Buddhas and Buried Frogs / 8 Summer 1892: Welcoming the Dragon / 13 The Issues / 17 Organization of the Study / 20
2 A Tradition of Sorts
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Caring for the People / 25 The Mourner: King Xuan’s Lament / 28 The Martyr: King Tang’s Sacrifice / 33 The Magician: Dong Zhongshu’s Rainmaking Method / 38 A Tradition of Sorts / 45
3 An Unruly Order The Qing Ritual Order / 50 The Yu Sacrifice / 52 Public Imperial Rituals / 56 Private Imperial Rituals / 59 The Local Ritual Order / 64 Ordering the World / 68 An Unruly Order / 81
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4 No Sacrifices Withheld
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The Rainmaking Process / 84 Prohibitions and Fasts / 89 Mourners and Martyrs / 95 Working Wonders / 103 No Sacrifices Withheld / 115
5 Master Ji’s Rainmaking Method
6 The Importance of Being Earnest
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The Challenge of Drought / 150 Official Rainmaking Strategies / 151 Competing Rainmaking Strategies / 155 Sincerity and Its Discontents / 162 The Give and Take of Official Rainmaking / 166 The Importance of Being Earnest / 169
7 Departures
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The Man / 122 The Method / 125 The Transmission / 135 Accretions to the Basic Ritual / 142 Conclusion / 146
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Regulation and Standardization / 177 Officials as Orthodox Confucians / 180 Official Rainmaking and Chinese Religion / 183 State Rainmaking and Local Governance / 188
Appendixes A Dong Zhongshu’s Rainmaking Method
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Note to Appendixes B and C
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B Master Ji Shenzhai’s Complete Book of Rainmaking
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C Section on Rainmaking from On Officials and Secretaries Being in the Same Boat Reference Matter
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Notes
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Selected Bibliography
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Index
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Figures
1.1 Map of the Lower Yangzi region during the Qing
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1.2 Map of Shanghai’s walled Chinese city
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1.3 Image of Daoist priest
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1.4 One of Suzhou’s many canals and bridges
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1.5 A busy Shanghai street in the late Qing
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2.1 The victim of a late Qing famine
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4.1 “Report Famine and Receive Punishment”
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4.2 Chen Xingwen “Jumping into the Dragon Pool”
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4.3 “New Marvels in Praying for Rain,” Illustration 1
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4.4 “New Marvels in Praying for Rain,” Illustration 2
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5.1 “Report of Rainmaking”
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5.2 Posthumous Portrait of Ji Shenzhai
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5.3 Illustration of the rainmaking altar
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5.4 Illustration of the pennants and vases to be used
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5.5 Illustrations of the pigs and the star chart
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5.6 Charm to subdue the fire dragon
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6.1 Cholera victims during a famine in China accosting an official
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B.1 Illustration of the altar
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B.2 Illustration of the deity pavilion
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B.3 Illustration of the pennants and vases to be used
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B.4 Diagram of the preceding heaven eight trigram configuration
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C.1 Charm to subdue the fire dragon
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C.2 Illustrations of the pigs and the star chart
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DRY SPELLS State Rainmaking and Local Governance in Late Imperial China
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In the late nineteenth century, powerful forces were transforming the Chinese empire. Popular uprisings had killed millions and disrupted everyday life in many parts of the country; foreign powers were de‐ manding economic and political concessions; and population pres‐ sures were contributing to widespread social dislocation. In the midst of these changes came exigencies of another sort, ones as old as hu‐ man civilization itself. In the last few decades of the century, China suffered a series of natural calamities. Not all were as destructive as the North China Famine, which in the late 1870s claimed the lives of millions of people and impoverished large expanses of the empire. Others were far less severe and occurred in China’s economic and cultural heartland. Three droughts in Jiangsu province—in 1873, 1880, and 1892—sent fleeting shudders through some of the empire’s wealthiest cities and provoked fears of failed harvests, rising prices, and divine judgment. They also precipitated multiple rounds of rain‐ making by local officials.1 Accounts of these activities, gleaned from the headlines of local newspapers, describe anxious officials endeav‐ oring to end the droughts in the only way they knew how, by seek‐ ing divine assistance. In many cases, officials prayed and burned incense to various deities in rather straightforward ceremonies; just as oſten, however, they organized elaborate rainmaking rituals in‐ volving ritual specialists and occult technologies. Although these newspaper reports do not provide comprehensive descriptions of the state’s rainmaking activities, they do give a sense of how local 1
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officials responded to droughts and the ritual techniques available to them. In the process, they open a window through which we can glimpse, however briefly, a strange but essential aspect of Chinese official life.
Summer 1873: The Itinerant Exorcist Shanghai is a city shaped by water. It sits near the confluence of the Huangpu 黃浦 and Yangzi rivers and is only a short boat ride inland from the East China Sea. As one contemporary observer noted, the farmland surrounding mid‐nineteenth‐century Shanghai was “inter‐ sected by many beautiful rivers, and these again joined and crossed by canals, many of them nearly natural, and others stupendous works of art.”2 These waterways fed Shanghai’s port with boats of all sizes, laden with goods from China, Europe, the Americas, and Southeast Asia. The city’s streets were narrow and choked with peo‐ ple, and small businesses such as teahouses, apothecaries, and pawnshops proliferated. In the late nineteenth century, Shanghai ex‐ perienced unprecedented growth, and its borders pushed out for miles in every direction. Before long, the banks of the river were crowded with factories, foundries, and warehouses; the city even had the distinction of lighting its streets with electricity before Lon‐ don did. Farmers from the surrounding area filled the bellies of its residents, while the fruit of the land filled its workshops and mills with raw materials. In a favorable year, life in Shanghai could be prosperous for townsfolk and peasants alike. Yet the city’s fortunes were easily disrupted by natural calamities such as floods, typhoons, and droughts. Such was the case in the summer of 1873, when Shanghai received virtually no rain for two months. Foreign observers noted that north of a line drawn in the vi‐ cinity of Suzhou, rainfall had been excessive, but a drought of increas‐ ing intensity persisted as one moved southward. The southerly winds that typically accompanied the summer monsoon had been blowing particularly hard since the end of July, and as a result, much of the precipitation that usually fell in Jiangsu and Zhejiang provinces was pushing into northern China, with calamitous effects. To the north, Zhili was reporting heavy rainfall, and rivers near Tianjin had overflowed their banks, resulting in outbreaks of cholera. Meanwhile,
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Fig. 1.1 Map of the Lower Yangzi region during the Qing dynasty.
Shanghai had received only a single thundershower in over seven weeks. Although the city had seen an “unwonted series of prosperous years,” the possibility of scarcity began to worry people.3 By the third week in July, officials in Shanghai had begun to or‐ ganize rainmaking activities at the City God Temple, the Dragon God Temple, and the Aloe Wood Pavilion (Chenxiangge 沉香閣). All civil and military officials in the area offered prayers for rain in the morning and again in the aſternoon. In an act of penitential humility, they chose to forgo the use of their sedan chairs and instead walked from the fasting hall, whose “secluded purity enabled them to attain the sincerity necessary to move the gods.”4 Observers reported that
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Fig. 1.2 Map of Shanghai’s walled Chinese city. Government yamens are clustered at the center of the city. The City God Temple is located immediately above them; the Aloe Wood Pavilion is located in the heart of the northwest quadrant of the city. Source: Shanghai xianzhi 上海縣志 (Shanghai county gazetteer) (1882), 1.13–14.
in nearby Suzhou, where the situation was equally dire, the Dragon God Temple was “daily thronged by officials and their retinues” prostrating themselves before the dragon god while Daoist priests and Buddhist monks chanted prayers asking for rain. Crowds of by‐ standers anxiously observed these proceedings, hoping they would prove effective. Here and there small groups of listeners could be seen huddled around storytellers solemnly reciting legends about the exploits of different dragon gods.5 On July 22, local officials in Shanghai issued a proclamation forbid‐ ding the slaughter of livestock and the sale of anything “with feath‐ ers” or having a “fishy smell” such as shrimp or crab. Such prohibi‐ tions were typically the first measures taken during crises. Droughts and other natural calamities, it was thought, reflected heaven’s dis‐
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pleasure with the conduct of human affairs, and prohibitions such as these were instituted to demonstrate the community’s contrition for past misdeeds and a desire to reform its ways. Some townspeople, es‐ pecially those from Guangdong province, who were known for their reverence of the spirit world, closed their restaurants and butcher shops, either out of respect for the gods or because they feared pun‐ ishment by the authorities. However, in the northern part of the city, where the foreign concessions were concentrated, some butchers re‐ portedly remained open despite the prohibition. Newspapers stated that some people gathered together in the market to fast as a group in the hope that this collective expression of sincerity might move the gods to send rain. The atmosphere was likely energized by a rumor circulating in Shanghai about a magistrate in Zhenjiang 鎮江 prefec‐ ture, upstream from Shanghai on the southern bank of the Yangzi River, who died while praying for rain. The magistrate, acknowledg‐ ing that he and the city god were jointly responsible for the sufferings of the people entrusted to their care, took the deity’s image from the protection of its temple and placed it in the scorching sun. Wearing the same kind of clothes and headgear as the deity, the magistrate also exposed himself and refused to eat. Newspapers reported that where‐ as “the city god was only an earthen image and so naturally could not become ill,” the magistrate “was flesh and blood; so aſter fasting and faithfully exposing himself in the sun for seven days, he suffered from the heat and died.”6 Yet none of these measures achieved its intended effect, and officials in the area continued their petitions. In Shanghai, the judi‐ cial subprefect of the Mixed Court, Chen Fuxun 陳福勳, took it upon himself to pray for rain in the International Settlement because there was no Chinese official responsible for that part of the city. Twice daily he walked to the Baoan Situ Temple 保安司徒廟—popularly known as the Hong Temple—to pray before Guanyin.7 The Hong Temple was a small temple located just inside the International Set‐ tlement on Nanjing Road, one of the busiest commercial districts in Shanghai. The temple was one of the city’s most popular. It was nominally Daoist but contained an eclectic assortment of deities. Since the International Settlement did not have a dragon god temple, Chen erected a tablet in front of the image of Guanyin that read “The Dragon King of the Five Lakes and Four Seas Brings Rain” and then
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offered his prayers. It was said that it was “no trouble to do such a small thing for one who has the heart of a father and mother of the people.”8 In Suzhou, the provincial governor had prohibited the slaughter of animals and had been engaged in rainmaking activities for several weeks. Initially, these activities consisted of performing rituals at the Dragon God Temple, but ceremonies were also con‐ ducted at the Guandi Temple and the Surging Waves Pavilion (Cang‐ langting 滄浪亭), a popular garden in the heart of the city. At the pa‐ vilion, officials erected an altar where ten Daoist priests manipulated colored flags while chanting Mongolian scriptures in the manner of “eight trigram bugang 步罡,” a Daoist ritual dance.9 The performance of this “Mongolian prayer method” had to be delayed while the priests were taught how to properly pronounce the text, but it was finally carried out, apparently with no success.10 Meanwhile, in Shanghai, Magistrate Ye Tingjuan 葉廷眷 invited a Daoist priest ( faguan 法官) named Lu Baotai 盧保泰 to conduct a rainmaking ceremony.11 The invitation probably surprised nobody, since it was common practice for local officials to solicit assistance from ritual specialists in their jurisdiction. Successful rainmakers were oſten rewarded handsomely for their efforts. Master Lu was said to have belonged to the “perfected office of Jiangxi province” ( Jiangxi zhenrenfu 真人府), a reference to the Zhengyi 正一 ordination center at Longhu Mountain 龍虎山. At the time, he was living behind the City God Temple, where he was being housed while he exorcised a demon from a local residence. He was invited by the magistrate to make rain because he was said to possess a “profound understanding of the mysterious arts.”12 Master Lu reportedly made a promise in front of the circuit intendant (daotai 道台) to the effect that the area for over 150 li in all directions would receive a heavy rain within fiſteen days. The officials were pleased with this forecast and heartily welcomed his efforts, hoping only that his favorable predictions might come to pass. In addition to receiving 300 ounces (liang 兩) of silver to conduct the ceremony—an extraordinary sum—the exorcist was allowed to hire one of his students. Apparently, he had a pupil who had once been employed at a local temple, where he had performed life‐prolonging and confession rituals, and was now looking for work. Although it was said this went against local custom, the officials were willing to assent, since they had already agreed to hire Master Lu.13
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Fig. 1.3 An illustration of a Daoist priest based on reports by Chinese merchants liv‐ ing in Japan. Source: Nakagawa Chūei 中川忠英, Shinzoku kibun 清俗紀聞 (Recorded accounts of Qing customs) (1799), 13.24. Harvard‐Yenching Library, Harvard Univer‐ sity. Used with permission.
Initially, Master Lu planned to conduct his ritual at the Buddhist Guangfu Monastery 廣福寺 but subsequently settled on the City God Temple. All the arrangements were handled by the county yamen, which ordered yamen runners to erect a large “celestial platform” (gangtai 罡臺), approximately four meters high and six meters wide. The platform was festooned with a long black streamer, and below the platform, the runners placed sixty‐four large jars of water. They also prepared twenty‐eight black pennants, upon which they wrote the characters for the twenty‐eight lunar lodges in white.14 An invita‐ tion was extended to thirty‐two Daoist priests to assist with the rit‐ ual.15 Each of them prepared a hu 笏, a thin wooden board approxi‐ mately half a meter long that was used in Daoist rituals and typically held at chest height. When these arrangements were finalized, preparations were made on August 2 for a three‐day fast at a local teahouse, which temporarily shuttered its doors for business. All
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nonessential employees were sent away, and only those bringing food were allowed in or out. The county provided meals for the poorer laborers who were helping with the preparations. At the doors to the teahouse, “loyal braves” were posted to keep watch and to prevent people from making a racket, in order to “maintain seclu‐ sion and eradicate impurities.”16 On August 3, images of the city god, the officials of hell, and other deities were reverently placed on the altar. Master Lu filled a vase with water, recited an incantation (zhou 咒), and composed a talis‐ man ( fu 符) to command the deities of wind, clouds, thunder, and rain, which he then burned.17 The ritual itself probably took place on the fiſth. It is unclear what the Daoist priests did during the ritual, but Master Lu’s duties involved writing out talismans, reciting in‐ cantations, and standing on the altar and brandishing a sword in various poses. It was said that whenever he moved his sword during the ritual, the water in the vase would change direction or height ac‐ cordingly. If he raised the sword, then the water level would rise; if he lowered the sword, the water level would drop. Both the magis‐ trate and the assistant magistrates were present on the altar and par‐ ticipated in the ritual. Aſter wielding the sword himself, Master Lu gave it to the lead official who was praying for rain—probably Mag‐ istrate Ye—who was also able to alter the water level in the vase. To observers, this confirmed the ritual’s potency, and it was said that as long as the magistrate was sincere and Master Lu expended all his effort, the rainmaking would be successful.18 On August 7, clouds gathered and a northwesterly wind began to blow, suggesting that it might rain within the next few days. Shortly aſterward, a steady rain started to fall. The precipitation was thought sufficient enough that the magistrates liſted the prohibition against slaughtering animals and ordered the altar at the City God Temple dismantled. By August 12, Shanghai had received a welcome down‐ pour, which saturated the ground and marked an end to the drought.
Autumn 1880: Bronze Buddhas and Buried Frogs Nearly eighty kilometers west of Shanghai stands Suzhou, one of the Qing empire’s wealthiest and most sophisticated cities. Suzhou’s relative affluence could be attributed not only to its advantageous geographical location and flourishing silk industry but also to its fer‐
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tile alluvial soil and temperate climate. As one sanguine observer remarked in the mid‐nineteenth century, “The whole country, as far as the eye can reach, is one vast rice‐field, and everywhere the pleas‐ ing clatter of the water wheels falls upon the ear, and hundreds of happy and contented Chinese peasants are seen engaged in the cul‐ tivation of the soil.”19 In a typical year, the visitor to Suzhou would be greeted by lush fields of grain and a profusion of yellow roses and white gardenias in the city’s famous gardens. But 1880 was not a typical year. Sometime in October, it stopped raining. At first, this lack of precipitation was likely little more than an inconvenience. By the beginning of November, however, it still had not rained, and the fields had become dry and scaly “like the cracks of a turtle’s shell.”20 The people and local officials started to feel anxious, since a successful spring crop required a successful fall planting. By the following week, the city’s wells were dry and its rivers were reduced to shallow, muddy streams. In conditions such as this, farmers would have to dig frantically for ground water to irrigate fields normally fed with water pumped from streams and canals.21 Faced with an impending crisis, local officials began to take action. At first, officials did not coordinate their efforts and acted individu‐ ally, probably aſter peasants from the surrounding area had traveled to their respective yamens to report on the lack of rain. Prefectural and county officials responded to these reports by praying for rain in the city, confident their sincerity would reach heaven and “the peo‐ ple’s longing would be fulfilled.” By November 21, however, the situation had deteriorated to the point that Jiangsu Governor Wu Yuanbing 吳元炳, whose yamen was located in Suzhou, issued a proclamation prohibiting butcher shops from slaughtering animals. The proclamation was then passed along to the magistrates of each of the three administrative units headquartered in the city—Wu county 吳縣, Yuanhe county 元和縣, and Changzhou county 長州縣. On the same day, Governor Wu and his subordinates set up an altar in the Xuanmiao Abbey 玄妙觀,22 a large Daoist temple complex near the commercial heart of the city, and held a jiao 醮 ceremony.23 That night, light rain and drizzle were reported in the city. Dense cloud cover persisted throughout the following day, and the wind steadily increased out of the northwest. In fact, it was said that as local officials returned to their yamens, “rain followed their carriages,” a
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sure sign that the officials had achieved a state of sincerity and moved the heart of heaven.24 Unfortunately, this meager amount of moisture could not make up for many weeks of drought. One frustrated Suzhou resident sug‐ gested that the failure of prayers to bring sufficient rain could be at‐ tributed to certain individuals who were breaking the government’s prohibition against selling meat. Despite the fact that the city had erected altars, prohibited the slaughter of animals, and fasted “with utmost sincerity,” some butcher shops were conducting business as usual. One day, yamen runners visited a butcher shop with ties to an elite family, where they found a plate of freshly salted meat.25 Two days later, a newspaper reported that butcher shops were doing a brisk business in salt pork, and the price of duck and chicken had risen so dramatically that both were now difficult to procure. Some vendors boldly hawked their meats at the entrance to the market; others did so surreptitiously from baskets they carried on their shoulders. Not wanting to risk being caught slaughtering animals within the city walls, most butchers did so at hidden locations in the countryside.26 In the meantime, rainmaking activities continued unabated. For over ten days, Governor Wu and his subordinates prayed for rain twice daily at the Xuanmiao Abbey, with no success. On December 6, they began to make their daily visits to the temple on foot. Officials even canceled classes at a local academy so officials could pray for rain.27 Over six centimeters of snow and sleet followed these efforts, but the farmers still longed desperately for moisture. It was reported that all the high officials “harbored secret sorrow for the distressed,” but this did little to bring rain. Some people began to question the effectiveness of the rainmaking methods officials were using. For ex‐ ample, the author of an article in a Shanghai newspaper suggested that officials might be more successful if they employed the “uterus method” of praying for rain (yuebofa 月孛法), a technique used long ago in Suzhou to end a particularly severe drought. In this method, a pregnant or virginal woman ascended the altar with a Daoist priest, began wailing hysterically, and removed all her clothes. She was then placed in a reclining chair and exposed in the hot sun, which was supposed to cause rain to fall.28 Although officials did not take this writer’s advice, they did make plans to alter their rainmaking techniques. Specifically, local
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magistrates expressed an interest in sending envoys to the dragon fen (longze 龍澤) at the White Dragon Mountain Temple to “fetch wa‐ ter” (qushui 取水). Fetching water involved sending an official or an envoy to a particularly efficacious water source, such as a dragon grotto (longdong 龍洞) or dragon pool (longchi 龍池), to fill a vase with water. The envoy then brought the vase of water back to the city and presented it at an altar of some kind so that prayers and in‐ cense might be offered. Local officials also made plans to travel to the Mount Guangfu Monastery 光福山寺—not the same one as in Shanghai—which was located twenty‐five kilometers west of Suzhou on the shores of Lake Tai 太湖, to invite a bronze image of the bodhi‐ sattva Guanyin into the city so they could offer prayers to it. The “Bronze Bodied Guanyin” (tongshen Guanyin 銅身觀音), as she was commonly known, is a cast bronze statue approximately one meter in height that depicts a bejeweled bodhisattva with an oddly elon‐ gated torso and disproportionately short legs. Her right palm is raised in a gesture of reassurance (abhaya mudra), indicating her abil‐ ity to protect the people, and her leſt hand gestures to the earth with an open palm (varada mudra), expressing her willingness to grant the people’s wishes. It is said that a peasant, surnamed Zhang 張, had unearthed the Tang dynasty image from the mud outside the monas‐ tery in the year 1040. Despite having been buried for such a long time, legend has it that the image emerged from the mud with a bril‐ liant golden luster. Shortly aſter it was unearthed, the image proved effective in alleviating a drought in the Suzhou region, thereby earn‐ ing it a central place in subsequent rainmaking events.29 At dawn on the morning of December 11, Governor Wu sent Mag‐ istrate Gao Xinkui 高心夔 of Wu county to retrieve the Bronze Guanyin from Mount Guangfu Monastery and accompany it into the city. That same aſternoon, the image arrived by boat at the Xumen 胥門 dock on the western side of the city, where Governor Wu had led a group of officials to receive it. While holding sticks of burning incense, the retinue of officials knelt reverently for an extended pe‐ riod of time as they waited for Guanyin’s bronze image to come ashore. Once the image was unloaded, it was placed in a green eight‐ man palanquin and was welcomed with great reverence and fanfare into the city. It was housed in the Great Cloud Shrine (dayun ci 大雲 祠) at the Surging Waves Pavilion. Governor Wu had an altar erected and personally led his officials to burn incense and offer prayers for
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rain using a ritual that involved sprinkling water with a willow branch among the participants.30 On the following day, Governor Wu also organized a rainmaking activity that was said to have originated with the eminent general and statesman Hu Linyi 胡林翼 (1812–61).31 At dusk on December 12, Governor Wu ordered yamen runners to dig a hole approximately 15 centimeters wide, 30 centimeters long, and half a meter deep in the northwest corner of the Illuminated Path Hall (Mingdaotang 明道堂), which was located on the grounds of the Surging Waves Pavilion. Aſter the hole was dug, they gathered a single frog and forty‐ nine small pieces of yellow paper that had been cut into squares. On each of the slips of paper, they wrote a small “fire” character (huo 火) in red ink. They then put the pieces of paper into the frog’s mouth and put the frog in the hole, using sand to fill the hole and form a circular mound. Aſterward, they built a brightly colored pavilion around the spot, and over the mound they placed a table. The table held incense and a tablet that read “The Four Lords: Nine Dragons, Eight Rivers, Four Seas, and the Golden Dragon,” which was written in white paint on black paper. Aſter these steps had been completed, the governor ordered Buddhist monks and Daoist priests to ascend the altar and “present a memorial” (baibiao 拜表), a communication to the deities, which was read and burned. The clerics then circumambulated the al‐ tar late into the night, until the third watch. It was reported that pre‐ cisely at that moment, thick red clouds gathered, dumped rain in one burst, and then stopped. However, because the downpour was so brief, the fields received little relief, and Governor Wu continued to offer daily rain prayers as before.32 Over the next few days, it turned cloudy and rained lightly in and around Suzhou. During the fourth night watch on December 15, a seasonable snow—like “mixed pearls and jade”—began to fall. By the following aſternoon, almost ten centimeters of snow had accu‐ mulated. One commentator attributed the precipitation to Guanyin’s supernatural powers and Governor Wu’s ability to move heaven, and he felt confident that the dry weather would not return since the moisture had been brought about by the “limitless power of the Buddha.”33 Again on the morning of the eighteenth, a light rain be‐ gan to fall, and it continued to rain into the aſternoon. By this time, Suzhou and the surrounding countryside had finally received
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Fig. 1.4 One of Suzhou’s many canals and bridges. Courtesy of the Library of Congress.
sufficient moisture to end the drought. In an expression of thanks‐ giving, Governor Wu quickly led his subordinates to the Surging Waves Pavilion to burn incense in front of Guanyin. He then issued a proclamation liſting the prohibition against slaughtering animals.34 Magistrate Gao of Wu county hastily compiled a subscription list so that donors might build a shrine to house Guanyin at the Mount Guangfu Monastery. On the same day, the image was reverently es‐ corted back home.35
Summer 1892: Welcoming the Dragon It is not clear when it stopped raining in Jiangsu in the summer of 1892, but by the middle of June, officials in some areas were already en‐ gaged in rainmaking activities. In Shanghai, the local officials began to fast on June 18. In the Guandi Temple behind the bell tower, they erected a high altar and a multicolored pavilion. In the center of the pavilion, they placed a table below an awning made of yellow cloth. On the awning, they wrote: “Copious moisture and timely rain” (wopei ganlin 渥沛甘霖). On the table, they erected the spirit tablets for various deities, such as the gods of mountains, rivers, thunder, and rain, as well as several dragon gods. They also placed three large bowls of clear water and some willow branches on the table. Inside the pavilion, they also arranged eight tables around which were hung
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eight trigrams in eight different colors. On each of the tables was placed a single “eight trigram vase” into which was inserted a single “eight trigram pennant” made in one of eight colors. Five Daoist priests and one Buddhist monk were employed to perform a ritual with “utmost reverence.” All civil and military officials visited the al‐ tar twice daily, at nine o’clock in the morning and again at four o’clock in the aſternoon, when they conducted some kind of ritual, which probably involved burning incense and reading a prayer. Aſterward, they took their seats as the priests and monk circled the tables three times while holding the eight trigram pennants. The priests and monk then held willow branches and sprinkled water on the altar while chanting scriptures and incantations. It was reported that at the pre‐ cise moment that this was happening, clouds gathered and thunder was heard, and before long it began to rain. The officials’ clothes and caps were thoroughly soaked, but they braved the rain and refused to leave the altar. The heart of heaven was said to have been moved by the officials’ sincere desire that their people be “healed.”36 Ultimately, however, the rainfall must have been insufficient because by the end of July officials were once again organizing rain‐ making activities. The customs daotai had instituted prohibitions against the slaughter of animals and erected altars at the Aloe Wood Pavilion, where the local officials went to burn incense and pray for rain twice daily.37 Aſter a morning visit to the temple a few days ear‐ lier, one official came across a butcher shop hanging high the “corpse of Qin Gui” 秦檜 38—freshly slaughtered meat—as he was returning to his yamen. The official was irate, and when he arrived back at his yamen, he ordered the authorities in Shanghai county to make a thorough investigation of the matter. He also ordered yamen run‐ ners to arrest the proprietor of the offending shop and have his case tried.39 Other townspeople proved to be more reverent. It was re‐ ported that shop owners in the city and suburbs had dutifully erected incense tables outside the doors to their establishments. They placed tablets of yellow paper on the incense tables, wrote “The Spirit Tablet of the Dragon King of the Five Lakes and Four Seas” on tablets, and prayed for plentiful rain.40 Like their counterparts in Shanghai, local officials in the nearby city of Zhenjiang had issued prohibitions against the slaughter of animals and repeatedly made prayers at various altars. They also
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Fig. 1.5 A street in Shanghai’s Chinese city during the late Qing. Courtesy of the Li‐ brary of Congress.
shut the southern gate to the city, a step meant to decrease the active yang 陽 influence in the city and to stimulate the yin 陰—the lack of which was thought to have precipitated the drought in the first place. They had even arranged for the city’s celestial deities (dutian‐ shen 都天神) to be welcomed into the city on July 13. Yet none of these measures caused sufficient rain to fall, and the surrounding area was suffering as well from vast clouds of locusts. At the end of July, local officials took action by dispatching an assistant magistrate to the dragon pond at Mount Hua 華山, over eighty kilometers distant, where magical dragons were said to live. A few days later, the magistrate returned to the city with one of these dragons—
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a lizard approximately five inches long with a square head, a black back, and a red belly—which he carried reverently in an “ancient porcelain vase.” The envoy was met at the entrance to the city by all civil and military officials, who burned incense and made prostra‐ tions to the dragon. The dragon was carried in state into the city, where it was placed on a table behind the city’s examination hall. Over the next few days, officials and their deputies performed in‐ cense‐burning rituals to the dragon. It was said that the officials were planning to select an auspicious day for depositing a small amount of ground tiger bone into the vase. This would so anger or frighten the dragon that it would suddenly expand, breaking the vase. Once free, the dragon would fly into the air, which would cause a heavy rain to fall. It is unclear whether the tiger bone was actually used, but the surrounding countryside did receive a small amount of rain around the first of August. A week later, heavy rains were reported in the region, signaling an end to the drought.41
( These accounts of rainmaking activities, while somewhat fragmented and incomplete, provide an interesting look at an unappreciated as‐ pect of Chinese official life. Although the characters who appear in these headlines—officials such as Governor Wu Yuanbing and Mag‐ istrate Ye Tingjuan—certainly put considerable thought and effort into managing the fiscal and legal affairs of their jurisdictions, they also devoted a good deal of time and energy to conducting commu‐ nity religious observances such as those for rainmaking. On the face of it, it is not surprising that local officials were required to partici‐ pate in these kinds of activities. Other scholars have quite ably de‐ tailed the ritual aspects of Qing rule, especially at the highest levels of government.42 What is surprising, however, is the picture of local officials that emerges when one thinks seriously about the kinds of activities presented above: officials fasting in local teahouses, sharing the stage with itinerant exorcists, kneeling humbly while a bronze Buddha is welcomed into the city, burying frogs in local temples, and traveling miles to catch lizards that then became the objects of their prayers. These activities are all the more remarkable when one considers that they took place not in the hinterlands but in some of the empire’s great urban centers. Indeed, the image presented here is unsettling precisely because it runs counter to the solemn, decorous
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behavior that many have come to associate with officials trained in the Confucian classics. Why exactly did officials organize and participate in these kinds of activities—activities that appear so “unofficial”? Were officials skeptical of these rainmaking practices but conducted them to ap‐ pease their local constituencies? Or did officials see themselves as priests possessing powerful esoteric forms of knowledge that gave them control over the natural world? And how did these activities shape the governance of local communities? The answers to these questions are not simple, nor are they easily accessible. The culture of rainmaking in imperial China was extremely rich and reached back into the far corners of Chinese history. It involved different philosophical and religious orientations, various ideas about how the cosmos operated, and commonly accepted notions about the po‐ tency of human beings, animals, and physical objects. Any attempt to unravel these puzzles must necessarily venture far afield into a thicket of rainmaking lore and unconventional sources. Nevertheless, the trail is worth following because of what it can tell us about our‐ selves, about the dynamics of Chinese communities, and about the desires of those who governed them.
The Issues At first glance, official rainmaking activities appear to have little to do with the larger conceptual issues that currently occupy scholars of Chinese history and religion. Despite the fact that they were per‐ formed almost universally across the Chinese empire by officials at all levels of government, rainmaking activities were quintessentially local phenomena and rarely received attention outside the commu‐ nity. They did not belong exclusively to any one of China’s “three teachings”—Confucianism, Buddhism, and Daoism—and have there‐ fore been neglected by most scholars. Since they were carried out at the lower levels of the bureaucracy, they are generally seen as less important than other imperial court rituals that have received atten‐ tion in more recent scholarship. Moreover, the absence of the explicit ideological content evident in some other state rituals and the lack of strict control by the central government suggest that the state did not consider their proper performance a pressing concern. In short, official rainmaking activities have existed on the margins of most
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scholarly discourse on China and have received the amount of at‐ tention that a phenomenon of only peripheral importance typically receives—not much.43 Despite this lack of attention, this book argues that state rainmak‐ ing activities can shed light on several topics of interest to scholars of late imperial China. To begin with, an investigation of official rain‐ making contributes to our understanding of the religious attitudes and practices of Chinese officials. Although few scholars would now crudely assert that officials were “rational” or “agnostic,” there is still a tendency in the secondary literature to treat officials as though they had deep misgivings about the religious pluralism of local soci‐ ety. Due to their training in the Confucian classics, it is said, officials espoused a doctrinaire Neo‐Confucian outlook that caused them to take a dim view of local religious practices and inspired myriad efforts to reform local society. Although they seldom were able to influence local religious life in the way they desired, officials, it is asserted, remained committed to a model of religious power that op‐ erated according to principles of “official virtue” (de) rather than “magical efficacy” (ling). The accounts of rainmaking described above suggest that these characterizations need to be revised. Officials relied on many different techniques to pray for rain, few of which could be characterized as exclusively Confucian. Indeed, many of the rainmak‐ ing techniques employed by officials resonated with practices that are oſten associated with “popular” religion. Rather than avoiding mar‐ ginalized religious practices, officials eagerly sought them out and in‐ corporated them into their rainmaking. In fact, officials spent a great deal of time and effort compiling, developing, and disseminating rainmaking knowledge. By focusing on the role of officials as propa‐ gators and practitioners of these rainmaking techniques, this study expands our understanding of the religious lives of Chinese officials. By knowing more about officials’ religious commitments, we can more fully appreciate how state ritual operated in Chinese soci‐ ety. In this sense, this study builds on the work of scholars such as Prasenjit Duara, Michael Szonyi, and David Faure who have demon‐ strated convincingly that religion “played a central role in relating the Chinese imperial state to local society.”44 As the rainmaking accounts presented earlier make clear, local officials did not conduct rainmaking activities in isolation. Rather, rainmaking activities were complex social events that occupied the efforts of the entire commu‐
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nity: officials, ritualists, shopkeepers, spectators, and so forth. For this reason, rainmaking activities provide a unique window through which we can examine the role of state ritual in local society. In ex‐ ploring this relationship, earlier studies have emphasized the impor‐ tance of state policies in defining the boundaries of “orthopraxy” or in “standardizing” local religious behavior.45 This study argues that officials’ participation in local religious life was more complicated than other scholars have allowed. Arguments about orthopraxy and standardization are founded on the assumption that local officials faithfully conducted rainmaking rituals prescribed by the central government. As we will see, local officials did not necessarily follow state guidelines on rainmaking and oſten carried out rainmaking ac‐ tivities that were not found in state liturgical texts. In addition, officials conducted rainmaking activities that were of dubious legal‐ ity by venerating deities that were not included in the approved state pantheon. These findings suggest that current understandings of or‐ thopraxy and standardization need to be refined. Similarly, this study raises questions about the relationship be‐ tween state ritual and local governance in late imperial China. Sur‐ prisingly, state ritual has received relatively scant attention in the secondary scholarship on local governance. For example, in three important English‐language studies of local government in late im‐ perial China, fewer than ten pages total are devoted to describing the ritual and religious duties of county magistrates.46 Although this lack of coverage could be interpreted to mean that the religious responsi‐ bilities of local officials were unimportant, this study argues that rainmaking was an integral aspect of local governance. To begin with, rainmaking defined what it meant to be a model official. Over the centuries, a wide range of texts had associated rainmaking with ideals of benevolent rule and good governance. As a result, the up‐ right official was expected to take the sufferings of his people seri‐ ously and do all he could to alleviate their distress during times of drought. Yet these representations of officials were not simply as‐ serted discursively but performed. Indeed, this study argues that rainmaking activities provided one of the most important venues where behavior associated with the ideal of benevolence could be enacted. It was through rainmaking performances that these repre‐ sentations were embodied as officials rendered themselves visible for public consumption. As we will see, the spectacularity of
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rainmaking activities allowed them to be politicized—at times violently—as officials and their constituents contested the trajectory and meaning of state rainmaking activities. It was through these en‐ counters that the relationship between officials and local communi‐ ties was objectified and experienced. As a result, I contend that rainmaking served as one of the key arenas through which the Qing state was culturally constituted at the local level.
Organization of the Study This book comprises seven chapters. The goal of this chapter has been to introduce the reader to some of the rainmaking activities conducted by Qing officials and the issues this study will address. The following chapter, “A Tradition of Sorts,” provides background for this investigation by describing historical antecedents to late im‐ perial rainmaking. The chapter begins by discussing the efforts of early rainmaking exemplars such as King Xuan, King Tang, and Dong Zhongshu. It explains how the exploits associated with these three figures introduced several different modes of official rain‐ making that endured throughout the imperial period—that of the mourner, the martyr, and the magician. From very early in Chinese history, it was common for official rainmaking activities to include demonstrative expressions of concern for the people, a willingness to suffer or sacrifice one’s life, and a wide range of “occult technolo‐ gies.”47 Subsequent generations of Chinese officials emulated the be‐ havior of these early rainmakers and transmitted their rainmaking techniques through their writings and practices. Over time there emerged a tradition of rainmaking in which certain kinds of activi‐ ties came to be seen as appropriate official responses to drought. Yet these rainmaking activities never existed as a rigid ideology that could be easily monitored or policed. In fact, from antiquity, official rainmaking incorporated such a wide variety of different techniques that it suffered from a general incoherence, an incoherence that per‐ sisted into the late imperial period. Chapter 3, “An Unruly Order,” brings this discussion into the late imperial period by addressing how rainmaking was treated in the Qing ritual order. Like its predecessors, the Qing government stipu‐ lated that government officials conduct rainmaking activities during periods of drought. Over the course of the dynasty, the central gov‐
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ernment made a concerted effort to standardize the rainmaking prac‐ tices of the empire, most notably in the rainmaking reforms insti‐ tuted by the Qianlong emperor in 1742. The Qing state described with a fair amount of specificity the kinds of rainmaking activities to be carried out by officials at all levels of the administrative hierarchy. Yet these guidelines appear to have been regularly ignored or “sup‐ plemented” by local officials. Even attempts by statecraſt scholars to prescribe rainmaking practices were plagued by a general confusion among officials as to which rainmaking techniques were proper and effective. This chapter argues that the basic problem was that Qing efforts to define the rainmaking regime narrowly ran counter to the more catholic rainmaking tradition handed down through history. When confronted with the choice of performing either the rain‐ making activities promoted by the state or those advocated by tradi‐ tion, officials usually opted for tradition. The incoherence of the Qing rainmaking regime resulted in a pro‐ liferation of official rainmaking techniques. Chapter 4, “No Sacrifices Withheld,” attempts to catalog the range of techniques employed by Qing officials. It describes dietary practices such as fasts and prohibi‐ tions against the slaughter of animals, feats of endurance, bouts of wailing, accounts of exposure and self‐immolation, and occult tech‐ nologies such as throwing tiger bones into dragon holes, collecting lizards, and burying frogs. It demonstrates that the rainmaking ac‐ tivities of local officials were incredibly diverse and virtually impos‐ sible to categorize. The operating principle appears to have been a verse from the Shijing—“There are no spirits not honored, there are no sacrifices withheld”—which many officials interpreted to mean that officials should pray for rain as widely and ecumenically as pos‐ sible. This chapter shows that far from being doctrinaire in their rainmaking, officials carried out their rainmaking responsibilities with a surprising degree of creativity and flexibility. Chapter 5, “Master Ji’s Rainmaking Method,” provides a detailed description of a rainmaking method developed by a Qing magistrate named Ji Dakui and disseminated widely among local officials in the nineteenth century. Judging from the number of times that Ji’s method was revised and published in the late nineteenth century, it was one of the most popular official rainmaking texts of its time. Yet Ji’s method does not conform to common scholarly conceptions about the form and content of state ritual. The method employed
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clerics, symbols, texts, and ritual implements from several different traditions—Buddhist, Daoist, and Confucian—and it advocated the use of potent oral and visual devices such as talismans, incantations, and various kinds of iconography. As a result, it challenges the no‐ tion that officials eschewed the use of the occult in their religious du‐ ties. Moreover, the care and enthusiasm with which this text was prepared and distributed among officials indicates that many officials took a personal and professional interest in developing new rainmaking technologies. Indeed, this chapter demonstrates that rainmaking was not a peripheral concern for many Qing officials but served as a key site where the goals and methods of governance were articulated and discussed. Chapter 6, “The Importance of Being Earnest,” describes how official rainmaking activities were contested by different social actors. During the nineteenth century, it was not uncommon for elites and commoners to attempt to shape the rainmaking activities of local officials. Sometimes local people suggested rainmaking techniques they considered to be more effective and proper than those initiated by officials; at other times they violently resisted officials they felt were not being “sincere” in their rainmaking. This chapter argues that official rainmaking activities served as a medium through which relations among officials, elites, and commoners were negotiated. Official rainmaking activities provided a venue for local people to manipulate the state ritual system to their own advantage and com‐ ment on the performance of local officials. This finding provides an important corrective to the received view, which emphasizes the efforts of the state to reform local religious practices. Conflicts over official rainmaking suggest that although the state may have at‐ tempted to control the religious practices of local communities, local communities also made an effort to control the religious practices of the state. Chapter 7, “Departures,” brings together different strands of the discussion to suggest ways that the case of state rainmaking alters our view of official religion and its role in local governance. It con‐ tends that received understandings of official religion as a distinc‐ tively Confucian endeavor or as a vehicle for state orthodoxy need to be revised. The state may have issued detailed regulations that out‐ lined its policies on religious affairs, but these regulations cannot be taken as faithful descriptions of official behavior. And although pre‐
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scriptive texts may have promoted certain rainmaking techniques and opposed others, officials frequently ignored these guidelines. The chapter concludes by arguing that official rainmaking provided a venue where the relationship between officials and their constitu‐ ents was established and maintained. As such, I suggest that official rainmaking was instrumental in culturally constituting the Qing state at the local level.
TWO
A Tradition of Sorts
The local officials who labored so diligently to stave off calamity during the droughts that plagued Jiangnan in the waning decades of the nineteenth century did so with an acute awareness of their place in history. Since ancient times, Chinese officials, both high and low, had responded to drought by conducting rainmaking activities in‐ tended to restore the world to its harmonious equilibrium and alle‐ viate the sufferings of the people. Although the particular rainmak‐ ing techniques officials pursued in the nineteenth century differed from those of earlier periods, there were also recurrent patterns of behavior that connected the rainmaking efforts of officials across millennia of Chinese history, in virtually every corner of the Chinese empire. Many of the practices that we saw above—elaborate altar rituals, strenuous processions, and occult technologies featuring frogs and lizards—look remarkably similar to those described in early Chinese texts. In fact, certain rainmakers and rainmaking tech‐ niques achieved such renown over the course of Chinese history that late Qing officials frequently invoked their predecessors in their own performances, either explicitly or implicitly. This persistent tendency to emulate historical models and methods points to an important is‐ sue: the central role that past performances—real or imagined— played in providing Qing officials with a basic repertoire of rainmak‐ ing procedures and routines. Put simply, Qing officials participated in a tradition of rainmaking, and as a result, behaved much as their predecessors had when confronted with drought. This chapter does 24
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not attempt to provide a comprehensive description of early rain‐ making practices; such an undertaking likely would be impossible and is outside the bounds of this study. Rather, this chapter exam‐ ines three of the most often‐cited early rainmaking accounts in an ef‐ fort to identify and explain some modes of rainmaking behavior prevalent in the late imperial period.
Caring for the People The anxiety and distress a Chinese official must have felt when he realized his jurisdiction was entering a period of drought are easy to imagine. At first, the fair weather may have been no concern to him; it may have even been a welcome break from the mud that often ac‐ companied rain in traditional China. Yet with each passing day, he undoubtedly began to wonder when relief would come. At first, the fields would become parched, and thin cracks would form between the cultivated rows. If there were streams or ponds nearby, farmers would begin shuttling back and forth, hauling buckets of precious water to irrigate crops by hand. As those sources of water became depleted, the leaves of plants would begin to yellow at their edges before they eventually grew limp and withered in the midday heat. Food prices would rise, tempers would flare. If the “drought became a disaster” (han wei zai 旱為災), the situa‐ tion could become quite grim. Nineteenth‐century sources record in chilling detail the unrelenting progression of drought and the trail of human misery it often left in its wake. First, people began to feel the pinch of want and malnutrition, at which point they sold their clothes and furniture for a mere trifle. Next, they traded their homes, livestock, and farm implements for food, which by then had become so dear that few people could afford it. People then began to experi‐ ence the symptoms of starvation: open sores, chronic diarrhea, leth‐ argy, and shrinkage of vital internal organs. To stave off hunger, some people ate the bark and leaves off trees. Others bought cakes made of millet stalks, old cotton clothing, and dirt. Although the cakes looked appetizing, they tasted like dust and could not be di‐ gested, causing severe constipation. As the famine progressed, out‐ breaks of typhoid and dysentery ravaged an already weakened population. Refugees fleeing the region were often unable to escape. When they were too weak to walk, they crawled, and when they
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could no longer crawl, they simply died on the road. Entire families committed suicide; others died alone in their houses. Witnesses wrote of seeing men carrying little girls in baskets for sale, and little boys carrying their dying mothers on their backs. In the most ex‐ treme cases, people ate the dead or the dying before their bodies could be picked over by birds and stray dogs. As one observer asked plaintively, “What agony must men suffer before they can lay their hands on the innocent children in order to allay the pangs of hunger; and what of hundreds of thousands on their knees lifting up their hollow cheeks and pleading for very life? Would it not be sorry com‐ fort for them, were I to tell them it is none of my business?”1 A Chinese official could not claim that it was none of his business. For millennia, classic writings on governance had described “model officials” as upright and benevolent leaders. Officials were not sup‐ posed to govern with strict laws and harsh punishments. Rather, they were expected to rule through moral charisma, bending the will of the people to their own “like the wind over grass.” This idealized rela‐ tionship between an official and his people was often conceptualized in familial terms. Officials were likened to “fathers and mothers” who guided, disciplined, and provided for the people under their care; the people were like children who spontaneously expressed their affec‐ tion for those who cared for them. In this view, when officials made the interests of the people their own, the people naturally responded by delighting in their ruler. According to the Mengzi 孟子, “The Book of Poetry says ‘How much the people rejoice in their prince, a parent of the people.’ He likes what the people like and dislikes what the people dislike. This is what is meant by being a parent of the people.”2 The official who truly identified with the needs of his people and earnestly sought to make their interests his own could not help but be moved by the scenes of suffering he witnessed all around him. In fact, the Mengzi states that the feelings an official had for the sufferings of others were evidence that human nature is good. When officials have such feelings, governance will be effortless: [Mengzi] said, “All men have the mind which cannot bear [to see the suffering of] others. The ancient kings had this mind and therefore they had a govern‐ ment that could not bear to see the suffering of the people. When a govern‐ ment that could not bear to see the suffering of the people is conducted from a mind that cannot bear to see the suffering of others, the government of the empire will be as easy as making something go round in the palm.”3
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Fig. 2.1 The victim of a late Qing famine. Source: Walter Kirton, A Silent War—or The Great Famine in Kiangbeh (Shanghai: North China Daily News and Herald, 1907), frontispiece.
By the late imperial period, official and quasi‐official writings such as administrative handbooks were filled with advice on how officials were to “care for the people” (ai min 愛民).4 For example, the late Qing administrative handbook Juguan rixing lu 居官日省錄 (A record for daily reflection while serving as an official) has the following to say under the heading “Caring for the People”: Fathers and mothers have children. They protect them in every respect, and they assist them in their instruction, to the point that they worry about the smallest things and make long‐term plans for them. And this is what is called “caring” (ai 愛). Now, [we] government officials are the parents of the people. The common people look to us for protection and seek from us assis‐ tance. In all things, it is no different from being in a family, whether small misunderstandings emerge or whether the people are suffering hardships
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that they cannot bear. Those who are responsible for the people and the community need not pursue relief measures too broadly, but need only ex‐ amine whether they benefit or harm the lives of the people. If something can provide one bit of relief, then the people will in turn receive one bit of favor. If something that benefits the people is carried out one day earlier, then the people can have one more day of peace. If I stoop to carry out my own [humble] methods and earnestly do the best that I can, and if I view the masses as my own offspring, then even though the four regions are far‐flung, it is as if we are a single household. Thus, caring for the people as one’s own children is entirely good governance. When I can systematically put this into practice, then the creation of prosperity will be boundless.5
This parental ideology demanded that officials behave as though they cared for their people, and most officials, at least on the surface, seemed to take the people’s hardships seriously. In times of drought, officials administered famine relief, relocated refugees, and main‐ tained the peace. These concrete measures were often accompanied by rainmaking activities, which included tangible expressions of grief and public and private declarations of officials’ concern.
The Mourner: King Xuan’s Lament One of the earliest expressions of official distress can be found in an ode known as the “Yunhan” 雲漢 in the Book of Poetry, or Shijing 詩經. This particular ode is a lamentation purportedly composed by King Xuan of Zhou 周宣王 (r. 827–782 BCE) during a prolonged drought. King Xuan was remembered as a model ruler who led a revival of the house of Zhou through his able appointment of ministers and his campaigns against the western barbarians. Although the “Yunhan” does not describe a rainmaking technique per se, it gives voice to sev‐ eral themes that would become central to the official rainmaking tradition, and as we will see in the next chapter, Qing officials often drew inspiration and guidance from its verses. The poem, while long, is worth quoting in full because for millennia it was considered one of the fullest expressions of official grief during times of drought: Bright is the heavenly Han River,6 As it shines and revolves in the sky. The king says, Alas! What crimes rest on present men, So that heaven sends down death and disorder,
A Tradition of Sorts And famine comes again and again? There are no spirits I have not honored, There are no sacrifices I have withheld. My trappings of power have been exhausted. Yet why am I not heard? The drought is so excessive, And we are tormented by the heat. I have not stopped offering sacrifices. From the suburban altar I have gone to the temple hall. To the powers above and below I have made sacrifices and buried offerings. There are no spirits I have not honored. Hou Ji 后稷 is powerless,7 And Shangdi 上帝 remains distant.8 The earth below is wasted and destroyed. Would that it fell only on me! The drought is so excessive, And it cannot be alleviated. It is terrifying and perilous, Like lightning and thunder. Of the dark masses that still remain in Zhou, There will not be a single one left. Shangdi in the lofty heavens Will not allow even me to remain. Why should we not all be afraid That the ancestral line will be extinguished? The drought is so excessive, And it cannot be stopped. It is fiery and scorching, And we have no refuge. All life is drawing to a close! I have none to look up to, none to look round to. The host of princes and former rulers Provide no assistance. Oh, father and mother! Oh, ancestors! How can you be so merciless to us? The drought is so excessive That the hills are parched and the streams are dry. The drought demon exercises its oppression As if burning, as if cooking.
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A Tradition of Sorts My heart shrinks from the heat, It is as if my grieving heart smolders. The host of princes and former rulers Do not listen to me. Shangdi in the lofty heavens, Why do you not grant me release? The drought is so excessive With fear and trembling, I have done all I can to alleviate it. How is it that we are afflicted with this drought? My prayers for the harvest were timely, And I was not late with my sacrifices to the four quarters and the soil. Yet Shangdi in the lofty heavens Thinks nothing of me. We have been reverent to the visible spirits, So there should be no grudge or anger. The drought is so excessive, All is disorganized and there is no governance. The ministers of state are reduced to extremities, And the prime minister is distressed, As are the director of the horse, the commander of the guard, The royal banquet minister, and my attendants. There is no man who has not tried to help; None has refrained for being unable. I raise my head to the lofty heavens. Oh, why am I in such anguish? So, I look to the lofty heavens And its stars sparkle bright. Officers and gentlemen, You have obviously given your utmost. All life is drawing to a close! Do not abandon your duties. Are you praying only for me, Or to bring stability to our ministers of state? I raise my head to the lofty heavens; Oh, when will I be granted relief?9
Several aspects of this poem are worth discussing in more detail, since they reappear frequently in later texts. The first, and perhaps
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most basic, point is that the king is represented as responding to drought, at least in part, through an emotional expression of grief. The king need not have responded in this manner, but the fact that he is depicted as openly mourning the drought and the toll that it is taking on his people and his staff is significant. It highlights a central theme in official rainmaking—the tendency for officials to make themselves objects of pity during their rainmaking activities. This involved not only expressions of mental anguish, such as those of King Xuan, but also physical suffering, a subject explored below. Officials seemed to think that by making themselves pitiable, they would elicit compas‐ sion from deities, who would sympathize with them and send rain. Throughout most of Chinese history, officials incorporated emotional pleas such as this into their rainmaking activities. Second, from the outset the king is concerned with the faults or “crimes” that may have precipitated the drought. Here, the king is expressing in very simple terms what many scholars have observed in Chinese cosmology more generally—that the human and natural worlds were thought to be inextricably linked. Many scholars employ the metaphor of an “organism” to describe the traditional Chinese cosmological view that the universe operates as a unified, interde‐ pendent whole.10 It was believed that all bodies and actions are linked together in a web of causation; a “stimulus” (gan 感) at one point in the universe spontaneously effects a corresponding “response” (ying 應) elsewhere. As explained by Robert Weller and Peter Bol: The concept of [gan‐ying] (literally, “stimulus‐response,” hereafter referred to as “cosmic resonance”) is an ancient and unique element of Chinese cos‐ mology and natural philosophy. In its barest sense, cosmic resonance is a theory of simultaneous, nonlinear causality. It posits that events taking place at the same time, but separated in space, may exert a subtle effect on one another.11
In other words, changes in local phenomena—say, the actions of the ruler—had the power to effect changes in the whole—in this case the weather. Natural calamities, in particular, were thought to be caused by actions that contravened the will of heaven and disrupted the harmonious operation of cosmic forces. For example, the “Hong fan” 鴻範 (Great plan) chapter of the Book of Documents (Shangshu 尚書 or Shujing 書經) states that excessive rains result from the ruler’s lack of discipline, excessive wind from foolishness, excessive cold from poor
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judgment, excessive heat from indolence, and drought from arro‐ gance.12 In the “Yunhan,” King Xuan expresses his concern that per‐ haps he has done something wrong and incurred the wrath of Shangdi or other deities. As we shall see below, this “moral meteor‐ ology” often led to sessions of soul‐searching and acts of contrition during rainmaking activities.13 A third, related point involves King Xuan’s sacerdotal responsi‐ bilities and his relationship to various deities. In the “Yunhan,” the king is portrayed as being especially troubled by the possibility that he has not properly fulfilled his sacrificial obligations. “I have not stopped offering sacrifices” and “my prayers for the harvest were timely” are but two of many such statements. And in one of the most famous lines from the poem, the king says, “There are no spirits I have not honored, there are no sacrifices I have withheld” (mi shen buju, mi ai sisheng 靡神不舉靡愛斯牲). This line is particularly impor‐ tant because it was often repeated later in history by officials during their rainmaking activities. It also points to an apparent contradic‐ tion in the cosmological understanding of how improper behavior caused disruptions in the natural world. Who or what was responsi‐ ble for the weather? Did improper behavior spontaneously result in bad weather, or did deities withhold rain when they were offended or ignored?14 King Xuan appears to be concerned more with the fact that proper sacrifices were carried out rather than to whom or what these sacrifices were directed. Yet the phrase “there are no spirits I have not honored” suggests that perhaps the objects of sacrifices did matter. Certainly, the line implies that the king’s efforts were exhaus‐ tive and that sacrifices were made to all the spirits, ignoring none of them. This reading is supported by the Neo‐Confucian thinker Zhu Xi 朱熹 (1130–1200), who in his commentary to the “Yunhan” ex‐ plained this particular line by “referring to a custom, in times of great calamity, of sacrificing to all spirits, even searching out sacri‐ fices that had fallen into disuse and reviving them.”15 Viewed in con‐ junction with the following line of the poem, “there is no sacrifice I have withheld,” it suggests that the king has expended every effort to include all deities within the scope of his worship. Later, as we will see, this phrase was used to justify the ecumenical worship of many different deities. The picture that emerges from this poem is one in which the ruler, King Xuan, is deeply anguished by the drought consuming his land.
A Tradition of Sorts
33
He fears for his own life and the lives of his people. He engages in a process of self‐examination to determine whether he has done any‐ thing improper to occasion the calamity, and he and his staff exhaust themselves in attempting to ease the drought, primarily by sacrific‐ ing to deities. In the end, however, the drought does not lift, and the king is left to worry when relief might come. ( Officials engaged in rainmaking efforts were confronted with a fun‐ damental question: How exactly should they pray for rain? This question had been answered in many ways over several millennia of Chinese history, and by the late Qing, there was a relatively large body of literature addressing this problem. Rainmaking advice could be found in just about every genre of Chinese literature: local gazet‐ teers, administrative handbooks, official histories, ritual manuals, novels, and even poems. Some of the most influential texts were compilations of rainmaking accounts gathered from a wide range of sources and brought together in one place, compendia such as the Yiwen leiju 藝文類聚 (Collection of literature arranged by category). The Yiwen leiju was compiled in 604 during the Sui 隋 dynasty by a team of compilers led by Ouyang Xun 歐陽詢 (557–641). The text is a general encyclopedia, or leishu 類書, of one hundred juan 卷 of mate‐ rial, divided into forty‐seven topical sections. As one of the earliest compendia of this kind, its discussion of rainmaking is also one of the briefest. The section entitled “Rainmaking” (“Qiyu”) includes four rainmaking accounts in the main body of the text, followed by two appendixes: one “preface”(xu 序) and five “texts” (wen 文). The bulk of the rainmaking section is found in the main body of the text, and its discussion is devoted entirely to two different rainmaking traditions. The first concerns the rainmaking efforts of King Tang 商 湯王, the mythical founder of the Shang dynasty; the second relates to the rainmaking method created by Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒 (179– 104 BCE), the Han philosopher and statesman.
The Martyr: King Tang’s Sacrifice One element that distinguishes King Xuan’s narrative from those in later texts is the fact that the king’s desire for rain remains unre‐ quited. Lengthy rainmaking accounts seldom end on such a dour note. Rather, it became increasingly common after the third century
34
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BCE to find official rainmakers depicted as heroically overcoming physical deprivation and emotional distress to save their communi‐ ties from destruction. Such accounts fit into a much larger body of literary work that describes individuals controlling nature to allevi‐ ate the suffering of the people. For example, Hou Ji 后稷, the master of agriculture under the sage‐king Shun 順, is said to have taught the people how to cultivate crops, thereby saving them from starvation. Likewise, Yi the Archer (Houyi 后羿) is credited with shooting the ten suns out of the sky and rescuing the people from the scorching heat. Perhaps the most famous of these stories is that of Yu the Great (Dayu 大禹), another mythical sage‐king, who labored for ten years without rest to control flooding. In order to complete his work, Yu endured every kind of physical ailment. One source states, “For ten years he did not visit his home, and no nails grew on his hands, no hair grew on his shanks. He caught an illness that made his body shrivel in half, so that when he walked he could not lift one leg past the other, and people called it ‘the Yu walk’.” Another text claims that “his face became pitch black, his bodily orifices and his vital or‐ gans did not function properly, his steps were faltering.”16 This em‐ phasis on physical suffering is important because many early rain‐ making accounts depict officials as subjecting their bodies to all manner of physical pain or, in some cases, as sacrificing their bodies and lives. These portrayals can be seen as complementing the sub‐ stance of King Xuan’s lament, which was to make oneself an object of pity by expressing the mental anguish caused by witnessing the suffering of others. If there is a paradigmatic rainmaking narrative, mentioned in rainmaking texts of all kinds, it is the story of King Tang, the founder of the Shang dynasty. As legend has it, King Tang was a model offi‐ cial and a model ruler. In his campaign to overcome the ruthless and profligate King Jie of the Xia dynasty 夏桀王, he distinguished him‐ self as a wise and capable leader guided by his respect for propriety and his concern for the common people. King Tang’s benevolence and righteousness are exemplified in a story that recalls a particu‐ larly severe drought during his reign:
Long ago, when Tang subdued Xia and ruled all under heaven, there was a great drought and the harvest failed for five years. So, Tang went personally to pray at Mulberry Grove, where he said, “If I alone have sinned, please do not extend [punishment] to the myriad people; if the myriad people have
A Tradition of Sorts
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sinned, let [punishment] fall upon me alone. Do not let the faults of one man cause the spirits of Shangdi to harm the lives of the people.” Thereupon, he cut off his hair, rubbed his hands smooth, and gave his body as a sacrificial beast (yi wei xisheng 以為犧牲) in order to pray for the blessings of Shangdi. Then the people were extremely pleased, for there was a great downpour. Thus, Tang effected a change in the spirits and passed it on to the world of men.17
Another text gives a similar rendition of the story: In the era of Tang there was a severe drought for seven years, and divination was made for humans to be sacrificed to heaven. Tang said, “I will make a divination myself, and I will make myself as a sacrifice on behalf of my peo‐ ple. For is this not what I ought to do?” Then he ordered an official to pre‐ pare a pile of kindling and logs. He cut off his hair and fingernails, purified himself with water, and laid himself on the woodpile in order to be burnt as a sacrifice to heaven. Just as the fire was taking hold, a great downpour of rain fell.18
Other versions of this myth describe King Tang as undertaking a “self‐accounting” (zize 自責), asking whether as a ruler he has failed in the “six matters” (liushi 六事). [The king said], “Is governance not proper? Have the people been harmed? Is the royal house honored? Are women not flourishing? Have there been bribes? Have the meritorious been slandered? Oh, why has it not rained un‐ til now?” Before he was finished speaking, there was a great rain over 1000 square li.19
Here we see again many of the same elements found in King Xuan’s lament: an overriding concern for the well‐being of the common people, the notion that the drought was precipitated by an offense or crime, and a conviction that the proper way to end the drought was through sacrifice. Of course, the account also differs dramatically in that the king is no longer simply presenting sacrifices of food, but is sacrificing himself to atone for unspecified offenses that he or his people have committed. In fact, the second version of the story im‐ plies that the king offers to take the place of other human victims whose sacrifice has been demanded by divination. As Edward Schafer demonstrated in his exhaustive study of ritual exposure in ancient China, exposure and burning played a promi‐ nent role in many early rainmaking efforts. In fact, the earliest rainmaking activities in China, described briefly in oracle bones,
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involved burning female mediums (wu 巫) and crippled or emaci‐ ated people (wang 尪).20 The modern historian Qiu Xigui 裘錫圭 ar‐ gues that the ancient practice of burning people when praying for rain is abundantly reflected in oracle bone inscriptions. He cites ex‐ amples of such phrases as “The yi yang divination: Today we burned, and there was rain” (乙卬卜: 今日 從雨). According to Qiu, the character is generally recognized by scholars as depicting a per‐ son being thrown into a fire.21 Passages in other early texts such as the Liji 禮記 and the Zuozhuan 左傳 have similar references. The scholars Liu Zhixiong 劉志雄 and Yang Jingrong 楊靜榮 say that fe‐ male mediums were sacrificed because they were messengers whose duty it was to communicate with heaven. Through immolation, they could rise to heaven and personally report on the drought and the need for rain.22 The rationale for sacrificing cripples was slightly dif‐ ferent. The character wang is commonly thought to refer to either fe‐ male mediums or to physically deformed people whose faces were forever turned skyward. Afraid that such people might drown if there were ever a flood, heaven withheld rain in an effort to keep them safe. If the wang were eliminated, heaven would once again send rain. Edward Schafer has an intriguing hypothesis, which is shared by Chen Mengjia 陳蒙家, that the character wang 尪 refers to a wang 王, or king, suffering from lameness. This interpretation follows that of Marcel Granet, who made the observation that both King Tang and Yu the Great are depicted as having physical weaknesses, and both sacrificed themselves for the good of their people.23 Thus, burning the wang may refer to the ritual sacrifice of a frail, pathetic king‐shaman.24 Even if this reading is incorrect, there is still an indirect connection be‐ tween the wang and King Tang, since both are held responsible for causing the drought. In the case of wang, a physical deformity has caused heaven to withhold rain; in the case of King Tang, the king has accepted responsibility for the drought, even though the fault may lie with others. In this sense, the sacrifice of King Tang is even more hon‐ orable than that of the wang, since he has voluntarily agreed to accept the blame for the drought, suffering and dying for the sake of others. The king is literally giving his life for his people. The popularity of this story undoubtedly owes much to the pow‐ erful image it evokes. The king, arguably the most powerful person in the realm, shaves his head, cuts his fingernails, and bathes, all in
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37
an effort to transform his own body into that of a humble sacrificial beast. Moreover, this spectacular inversion is carried out not because it will result in wealth or traditional forms of power, but simply be‐ cause it is proper for an official to sacrifice himself for the welfare of his people—“For is this not what I ought to do?” Emphasizing as it does the qualities of selflessness and dedication, the story of King Tang forms an archetype of the model official, one who will work tirelessly, enduring suffering and even death, for the sake of his people. One scholar interprets these accounts in the following way: “[King Tang’s rite of rainmaking] is both penitential and sacrificial; the severe drought was believed to be due to a crime or fault com‐ mitted on earth, and this crime could be expiated only by human sacrifice. . . . In both texts the king performs the ceremonial act of cutting off his hair and fingernails, a mimesis of the ritual of animal sacrifice. Thus the king is both priest and sacrificial victim.”25 Not surprisingly, King Tang’s dramatic actions inspired subse‐ quent generations of Chinese officials in their rainmaking activities. For example, when confronted with a severe drought, the Han dy‐ nasty official Liang Fu 諒輔 is reported to have exposed himself in the hot sun, prayed fervently, and threatened to set himself on fire: Once there was a great drought, and he went personally to pray to the moun‐ tains and rivers. He prayed for successive days, but no rain fell. [Liang] Fu fi‐ nally exposed himself in the courtyard, where he fervently prayed, “I am your appointed assistant, yet still I am unable to admonish in good faith, recom‐ mend the good and refuse the bad, harmonize the yin and yang, and obey the will of heaven. This has caused heaven and earth to be obstructed, the myriad things to be scorched and withered. The people gasp like fish out of water with no way to air their grievances. But the fault is all mine. Today, I, the pro‐ vincial head, have changed my clothes and rebuked myself in order to pray with utmost sincerity for blessings for my people, yet it has not had the de‐ sired effect. Now I dare to make this request: if it does not rain today, I beg that you take my body and put an end to my impropriety.” Then he piled up brush and gathered grasses all around him. He set fire to the edge of the pile so as to burn himself up in it. But just then clouds gathered, darkening the sky, and suddenly a timely rain began to fall so that the whole province was soaked. Later generations called this “utmost sincerity” (zhicheng 至誠).26
A similar story is told of another Han official, Dai Feng 戴封: “There was a great drought, and [Dai] Feng prayed with no result. So he gathered up a pile of brush, sat in the middle of it, and lit himself on
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fire (zifen 自焚). The fire rose up and a great downpour ensued, after which there was a gasp of admiration both near and far.”27 The text says that Dai set himself on fire, and many later scholars seem to agree that he died in the process.28 Schafer compiled a long list of ex‐ amples that extend from the Shang dynasty through the modern pe‐ riod and involve both officials and Buddhist monks such as Fotu‐ deng 佛圖澄 (d. 349) and Bukong 不空 (705–74; Skt. Amoghavajra). The similarity of all these accounts is unlikely to be coincidental and suggests that, from a very early period, the general consensus was that such spectacles were effective rainmaking strategies and a sign of personal virtue.29
The Magician: Dong Zhongshu’s Rainmaking Method Early in Chinese history, other means for dealing with drought emerged alongside those described above. For example, complex dances or rituals were devised to bring rain. The earliest of these was an ancient dance called the yu 雩. The character yu can be found on oracle bones, where it was used interchangeably with the characters wu 舞 and zouwu 奏舞 to refer to dances performed in times of drought to bring rain.30 The exact nature of these early dances re‐ mains unclear, even though the term appears regularly in early texts. One of the best descriptions we have of the early yu comes from the Hou Han shu 後漢書 (History of the Later Han dynasty). In times of drought, the senior officials, drawn up in order of seniority, per‐ form the yu ceremony as a prayer for rain. The yang openings are closed; the officiants don black silk and set up clay dragons. They erect two rows of earthenware figures and dancing youths, which are changed once every seven days in accordance with precedent. The altar of the soil is encircled with bands of scarlet rope and scarlet drums are beaten. After prayers, they give thanks and sacrifice animals, in accordance with the prescribed rite.31
The Tongdian 通典, which was written in the Tang dynasty, describes the yu as an imperial ritual that was conducted at an altar in the southern suburbs of the capital and modeled on an exorcistic cere‐ mony known as the yong 禜.32 It featured “full music” (shengyue 盛樂) and dancing. In the case of a “great drought” (dahan 大旱), medium officials danced, whereas in a “drying drought” (hanhan 旱暵), fe‐
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39
male mediums performed.33 As we shall see in the next chapter, the yu sacrifice was revived in a modified form in the middle of the eighteenth century. However, it is clear from surviving descriptions that the early yu featured many of the same elements as another early rainmaking method, a method attributed to the Han scholar and statesman Dong Zhongshu. Dong Zhongshu hailed from what is now southern Hebei 河北 province. Dong was known as a bit of an eccentric. As a teacher, he is said to have convened classes with his students while seated behind a curtain, so they could not see his face. He was also said to have de‐ voted himself so thoroughly to his studies that he did not so much as look into his garden for more than three years. Apparently, his study habits served him well because he was later appointed to academic posts in the courts of emperors Han Jingdi 漢景帝 (r. 157–141 BCE) and Han Wudi 漢武帝 (r. 141–87 BCE). Dong is perhaps best known for helping to persuade Emperor Wu to institutionalize Confucian teachings as state ideology in 136 BCE, but he was also instrumental in linking the social and political ideology of Confucianism with the metaphysical claims of yin‐yang philosophy.34 Dong’s writings on these matters were preserved in the extant chapters of his most fa‐ mous work, the Chunqiu fanlu 春秋繁露 (Luxuriant gems of the Spring and Autumn Annals).35 The first part of this text contains Dong’s observations on the ethical and political contents of the Chunqiu; the second part is devoted to demonstrating their compati‐ bility with yin‐yang philosophy. It is in this latter section that we find the chapters “Praying for Rain” (“Qiuyu” 求雨) and “Stopping Rain” (“Zhiyu” 止雨). The rainmaking and rainstopping chapters provide an interesting application of Dong’s theories about the universe. Dong argued that the universe has ten constituents: heaven, earth, and humankind; yin and yang; and the wu xing 五行, or “five agents.”36 According to Dong, these ten constituents are in a state of constant flux. As time passes, the yin and yang continually wax and wane—at some times the passive yin principle dominates, and at other times the active yang principle dominates. The most obvious manifestation of this process is the regular changing of the seasons. The yang principle is at its strongest during the summer, but it slowly loses its influence through the autumn until yin finally prevails during the winter. In the spring, the yin principle decreases in influence, and the yang
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principle strengthens. Dong argued that the fluctuation of these two forces occurred on both a micro‐ and a macro‐level within a cycle of processes effected by the “five agents.” The five agents consist of five root categories—wood, fire, soil, metal, and water—which naturally “generate” (sheng 生) one another: wood catches fire, fire reduces to ash (soil), soil forms metals, metal liquefies when melted, and water nourishes wood.37 As the yin and yang fluctuate, the seasons pass through phases dominated by each of these agents: wood is associ‐ ated with spring, fire with summer, earth with late summer, metal with autumn, and water with winter. These five agents correlate with a host of other phenomena, such as the five directions, the five colors, the five creatures, and the five notes.38 There are even nu‐ merical correlates, which represent the five agents according to nine numerical categories, occasionally in the form of a magic square.39 Dong’s rainmaking method incorporates many of the categories described above, including references to the seasons, colors, animals, and directions. Many of these correlations are immediately apparent; others are perhaps more esoteric. Above all else, Dong’s method aimed at restoring the natural world to a state of seasonality. Season‐ ality, as imagined by Dong, consisted of an equilibrium achieved through the proper distribution of yin and yang and possessing a con‐ stellation of corresponding attributes. Since droughts resulted from an excess of yang and shortage of yin, the stated principle behind Dong’s method was to “close all the yang and release all the yin” (bi zhu yang, zong zhu yin 閉諸陽縱諸陰). In essence, Dong’s method is or‐ ganized around the notion that by manually instantiating the qualities of a season such as spring, yin and yang could be manipulated and the seasonality of spring could be restored. For example, Dong’s method is separated into five seasons—spring, summer, late summer, fall, and winter—each of which corresponds to one of the five agents. In each season, the method is altered to incorporate correlates from each of the five agents: numbers (8, 7, 5, 9, 6), directions (east, south, center, west, north), colors (blue‐green, red, yellow, white, black), and ani‐ mals (scaly, feathered, naked, furred, shelled). Each season’s ritual is also performed on a day that begins with one of two of the ten stem notations (gan 干) such as jia 甲 or yi 乙 (the first and second stems), bing 丙 or ding 丁 (third and fourth), wu 戊 or ji 己 (fifth and sixth), geng 庚 or xin 辛 (seventh and eighth), ren 任 or gui 癸 (ninth and tenth); and each ritual involves participants in one of the five stages of
A Tradition of Sorts
41
rise and decline: birth, prime of life, aging, immobilization, and death. In addition, the method incorporates the worship of deities and the use of animals such as frogs and dragons thought to have a special ability to produce rain. Finally, each ritual includes common features such as the participation of female mediums, animal sacrifices, wine and meat offerings, and spoken invocations. To develop just one example, consider the following instructions for rainmaking during the spring:40 During a spring drought, officials should select a water day to pray to the soil and grain (sheji 社稷) and mountains and rivers, and they should have households make sacrifices to their doors (hu 戶). No important trees should be felled or mountain forests cut. A female medium should be exposed [in the sun], and a cripple and snakes should be rounded up. On the eighth day, an open altar (sitong zhi tan 四通之壇) should be erected outside the city’s east gate. It should be eight chi square and should be adorned with eight blue‐green (cang 蒼) silk banners. The deity Gong Gong 共工 should be sacri‐ ficed to with eight live fish, dark wine (xuanjiu 玄酒), clear wine ( juqingjiu 具清酒), and dried meat. A female medium (wu) with pure words and elo‐ quent speech should be selected as the celebrant (zhu 祝). She should fast for three days and wear blue‐green clothing. She should prostrate herself twice and then kneel and make a plea (guichen 跪陳). When finished pleading, she should prostrate herself again twice, then rise. [During her pleading] she says: “Highest Heaven makes the five grains grow and nurtures human beings. But now the five grains are sick with drought, and we fear they may not ripen. So we respectfully offer pure liquor, dried meat, and prostrations so that a soaking rain might fall.” On a jia or yi 甲乙 day, make one large blue‐green dragon eight zhang 丈 long and place it in the center [of the altar]. Then make seven smaller drag‐ ons, each four zhang long, and place them on the east side [of the altar]. They should all face east and be placed eight zhang apart. Eight youngsters should fast for three days, dress in blue‐green garments and dance to them (wuzhi 舞之). The superintendent of the harvest (tian sefu 田嗇夫) should also fast for three days, dress in blue‐green clothing, and stand there. The Altar of Soil (she 社) should be dug out so that it is connected with an irrigation ditch outside the city’s gate. Five frogs should be gathered and placed in a pond, eight chi in diameter and one chi deep, which has been built in the middle of the Altar of Soil. The clear wine and dried meat, the fasting for three days, the wearing blue‐green clothing, the kneeling and prostrations, the plead‐ ing—they all remain the same as before. A three‐year‐old rooster and a three‐year‐old male pig should be roasted under the divine canopy (shenyu 神宇). The people should be ordered to shut
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the south gate of the city and towns and place water outside them. They should also open the north gate to the city and towns, round up one old male pig, and place it outside the north gate. Inside the marketplace they should also place a single male pig. Drums should be beaten, at which point all the pigs’ tails should be roasted. The bones of deceased people should be gathered and buried. A mountain grotto should be opened up (kai shanyuan 開山淵), and firewood should be stacked and burned. Bridges that connect roads should be closed to all traffic, and water ditches should be closed off ( jueduzhi 決瀆之). If you are fortunate and receive rain, then offer a pig, liq‐ uor, salt, and millet. Mats made of rushes should be woven without cutting [the rushes] (yimao weixi wuduan 以茅為席毋斷).
The spring season was thought to correspond to the agent of wood, the color blue‐green, the easterly direction, the number eight, and scaly beasts. Accordingly, we see in the spring ritual many ele‐ ments that are associated with wood: sacrifices are to be made to the Altar of Soil, which is associated with agriculture, and households are asked to make sacrifices to the door deity, which was typically made of wood. Likewise, the cutting of trees and forests is prohib‐ ited. We also see ritual elements that reflect wood’s association with the number eight: the altar is erected on the eighth day; the altar is eight chi square; it is decorated with eight banners; the pool for frogs is eight chi in diameter; and eight youngsters perform a dance. The construction and spacing of dragons is interesting in this respect. Eight dragons are built, one large dragon and seven smaller ones. In addition, the largest dragon is eight zhang in length, and the smaller dragons are exactly half that size. All of them are placed on the east side of the altar, facing east, and spaced eight chi apart. The colors of the ritual are also coordinated; the dragons are blue‐green, the altar is decorated with blue‐green banners, and all the participants wear blue‐green clothing. Thus, the entire ritual revolves around physi‐ cally instantiating—literally, bringing into being—the qualities of spring.41 Although elements of each ritual are tailored to the specific season, there are also shared ritual components devoted primarily to increas‐ ing the yin and decreasing the yang influence in the city. During each phase of the ritual, the northern gate to the city is opened, the south‐ ern gate is closed, and water is placed outside the southern gate. This practice reflects the understanding that the yang influence is strong‐ est in the south, and yin in the north. Since droughts are an indica‐
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43
tion that the yang influence is overpowering the yin, it is important to shut the southern gate to keep the yang influence out of the city and to open the northern gate to allow the yin influence in. The water placed outside the southern gate acts as a talisman to keep the yang at bay, and the old pig outside the north gate strengthens the yin in‐ fluence. The rooster and male pig are roasted on the altar for the same reason: “in order to open the yin and close off the yang.” Yin and yang were manipulated in other ways as well. One of the more interesting aspects of Dong’s ritual involves digging out the community’s Altar of Soil, she 社, to form a small pool, which is then filled with water from an irrigation ditch and stocked with frogs. The use of frogs in rainmaking activities was an ancient practice that was documented in oracle bone inscriptions and continued throughout the imperial period. Some scholars suggest that this practice origi‐ nated in the behavior of a particular kind of frog, the qingwa 青蛙, which was known to croak prior to the onset of rainy weather. These scholars argue that people mistakenly believed that the vocalization caused rain to fall. Other scholars suggest that the use of frogs in rainmaking can be attributed to an association with female reproduc‐ tion. The uterus was often referred to as a “frog” (wa 蛙), and men‐ struation was referred to as “water” (shui 水), as reflected in the terms xinshui 信水, yueshui 月水, and jingshui 經水.42 Scholars such as Zhao Guohua 趙國華 argue that these two symbols were initially as‐ sociated through their reproductive meanings; frogs and water then became so intimately connected that they began to be used in rain‐ making.43 Whatever the origin of this practice, the placing of frogs in a holding pool in the middle of the city suggests that Dong felt they had powerful yin characteristics that could aid in bringing rain. Finally, dragons play a prominent role in Dong’s method. Along with the practice of burning sacrificial victims, dragons are one of the earliest elements to appear in rainmaking rituals. In fact, there are oracle bone inscriptions in which burning the wang and manufac‐ turing clay dragons appear side by side. Early texts attest to the use of clay dragons to bring rain. The Shanhaijing 山海經 says that rain can be caused by making something in the form of a dragon, and the Huainanzi 淮南子 traces the practice back to King Tang: “When Tang encountered a drought, he made a clay image in the form of a dragon, and since ‘clouds follow the dragon,’ it brought rain.”44 This last reference is the key to understanding why dragons were so
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closely associated with rain. The phrase “clouds follow the dragon, wind follows the tiger” (yu cong long, feng cong hu 雲從龍風從虎) ap‐ pears in the Yijing. It is one of the earliest instances in Chinese in which rainmaking is associated with the dragon, although such as‐ sociations probably date back to the Shang dynasty.45 Considering these associations, it made sense that rainmaking efforts focused on making the dragon appear—by fashioning images of dragons, by employing dragon substitutes, or by forcing dragons out of their lairs. The Huainanzi has an interesting story in which clay dragons and straw dogs were manufactured, decorated in green and yellow, and wrapped in silk. Officials clothed in black garments then offered prayers to the creatures.46 Sometimes “live” dragons were captured and used in rituals. In one rainmaking method used at least as early as the Tang dynasty, lizards—which were commonly associated with dragons—were rounded up and employed in rituals.47 It also became common practice, especially in the late imperial period, to try and “disturb the dragon” by throwing iron objects or tiger bones—both of which dragons were said to fear—into places where dragons were believed to reside. Forced from its lair, the dragon would take flight, bringing with it clouds and rain.48 The importance of Dong Zhongshu’s method to the development of official rainmaking cannot be overemphasized. Due in part to his reputation as a Confucian thinker and statesman, Dong’s rainmaking method achieved a prominence in official circles that remained intact throughout the imperial period. Into the late Qing, his rainmaking method was almost universally admired among officials. We shall see in later chapters that Dong’s method was often recommended by Qing officials, in full or in part. However, official endorsement had unintended consequences. Of‐ ficials who embraced Dong’s rainmaking techniques were implicitly conferring a degree of legitimacy on other practices in which objects, images, or phrases were thought to effect physical changes in the world, occult technologies commonly referred to as “magic.” If bury‐ ing human bones, collecting frogs, burning pigs’ tails, and wearing clothing of a specific color could bring rain, then other similar prac‐ tices might be invoked to bring rain as well. An idea of the variety of techniques available to the official can be seen in texts such as the Song dynasty encyclopedia Taiping yulan 太平御覽 (Imperially re‐ viewed encyclopedia of the Taiping Era), which includes forty
A Tradition of Sorts
45
entries under the heading “Praying for Rain” (“Qiyu”). Nine of the entries describe episodes in which people exposed themselves to the elements and brought rain; many of the remaining entries are de‐ voted to a variety of occult technologies carried out by officials and commoners alike, such as reciting incantations, praying to the stars, plugging up dragon holes and springs, whipping “yin stones,” and smearing blood on the stone statue of a cow.49 The Ming text Daoyu zaji 禱雨雜紀 (Miscellaneous records of praying for rain) presents a total of thirty‐three rainmaking methods, including the beating of drums, the use of talismans and incantations, the gathering of snakes, turtles, frogs, and lizards, and the construction of clay and painted dragons.50 Most are simply reproduced from earlier texts such as the Taiping yulan. As we will see below, officials sometimes appeared to be confused about which rainmaking techniques were effective and proper. This is not surprising when one considers the range of rainmaking methods available to officials and the implicit support that such methods received from authoritative commenta‐ tors such as Dong Zhongshu.
A Tradition of Sorts Most officials in traditional China likely dealt with natural calamities such as droughts at least once in their careers. As a result, they were faced with a practical question that urgently needed to be answered if they were to properly carry out their responsibilities: How do we pray for rain? Each new generation of officials was told of the ex‐ ploits of the great rainmakers of old, men like King Xuan, King Tang, and Dong Zhongshu, whose deeds had been recorded in authorita‐ tive texts and passed down through the centuries. When confronted with drought, each new generation of officials looked to these men for inspiration and guidance in rainmaking. They mourned the hard‐ ship and frustration of a disaster that seemed interminable. They suf‐ fered and sacrificed for others. They performed rituals on altars of pounded earth. These forms of rainmaking were introduced early in Chinese history and remained central to its practice into the twenti‐ eth century. The specifics of the response varied by circumstance, and no two performances were exactly alike. Some officials wept and walked barefoot. Some reflected on their lives and wondered aloud if they might be responsible for the calamity. Some bared their souls
46
A Tradition of Sorts
and their backs to the midday sun. Some molded fantastic creatures out of clay and roasted pigs and roosters under the clear blue sky. Some simply stacked kindling and prepared to end it all. Over time, once inchoate practices gave way to patterns and prin‐ ciples that guided the actions of all those who sought to respond properly and effectively to drought. Words that were spoken once were spoken again, and feats that were performed in the past were performed anew. Eventually, a tradition of sorts began to emerge. According to Edward Shils, “tradition,” in the most basic sense, means “simply a traditum; it is anything which is transmitted or handed down from the past to the present.”51 The accounts of rain‐ making by King Xuan, King Tang, and Dong Zhongshu were tradita in the sense that they formed a body of knowledge transmitted from one generation of officials to the next. One of the primary media for the transmittal of this body of knowledge was authoritative texts. As we have seen, important works such as the Shijing, Liji, and Zuo‐ zhuan include accounts of important rainmakers, as do encyclopedia such as the Yiwen leiju and the Taiping yulan. The twenty‐five dynas‐ tic histories alone contain at least twenty references to the “Yunhan” and the sacrifice of King Tang and more than two hundred refer‐ ences to self‐immolation.52 It would not be an overstatement to say that these stories were repeated thousands of times in various texts throughout the imperial period. Each time that they were read, re‐ membered, and repeated, they contributed to a body of knowledge that officials could draw on when they were deliberating how to pray for rain. The official rainmaking tradition was also transmitted through so‐ cial praxis. In composing their rain prayers, officials would recall the exploits of King Tang or quote passages from the “Yunhan.” In se‐ lecting rituals, they would follow Dong Zhongshu by collecting frogs, making clay dragons, or conducting elaborate altar ceremo‐ nies. In some cases, officials modeled their behavior on one of these exemplars down to the smallest detail. The accounts of Liang Fu and Dai Feng threatening self‐immolation are early instances of this, but there are countless other times when the behavior of these past ex‐ emplars was invoked. Every time these practices were reproduced socially, they reinforced the notion that they were appropriate forms of conduct for officials during times of drought. Audiences came to expect certain kinds of behavior and became more skilled at evaluat‐
A Tradition of Sorts
47
ing their presentation. Likewise, officials became more skilled at their performance—the movements, the speech acts, and the emo‐ tions. The enactment, observation, and retelling of these accounts also served to transmit them through time and space, as generations of officials and audiences participated in their performance. By the late imperial period, official rainmaking constituted a system of practices—a “nexus of doings and sayings”—that exhibited a degree of autonomy and coherence that endured over time.53 Yet there was another, one might even say contradictory, aspect to official rainmaking. Although official rainmaking constituted a sys‐ tem of practices that was “thinly” coherent, it was not rigorously monitored and regulated by the state.54 Although officials possessed a tacit understanding of the rules and schemas that governed the rainmaking tradition and structured their own behavior, for the most part the tradition was not policed. One reason for this is, in my opin‐ ion, that the tradition was simply too diverse to yield easily to con‐ solidation and codification. From very early in Chinese history, model officials of all kinds had been recorded as having adopted such a wide variety of rainmaking techniques that it was virtually impossible to classify them in any meaningful way. As a result, it was difficult to distinguish different techniques on the basis of any single underlying principle. The three primary exemplars examined in this chapter—the mourner, the martyr, and especially the magi‐ cian—supplied the basic building blocks for innumerable variations in rainmaking. We will see in following chapters that Qing officials frequently drew from all these models simultaneously in their rain‐ making efforts; they even created their own methods if they thought they could be reconciled with “ancient practice.” Thus, a degree of fluidity to the rainmaking tradition persisted until the end of the im‐ perial period. One reason that the rainmaking tradition endured likely had to do with the nature of the traditional rainmaking performance. Tradi‐ tional rainmaking accounts possessed a certain quality, one might say an aesthetic, that undoubtedly made them more compelling. The most conspicuous aspect of this aesthetic is the powerful dramatic element present in many rainmaking accounts. The heroic image of King Tang, washed and shaven, perched atop a pile of firewood is a vision that is not easy to forget. The suspense, danger, and drama of these accounts make them affecting for both practitioners and
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A Tradition of Sorts
audiences in a way less spectacular accounts would not be. In addition, these accounts have a moral dimension. For example, the three exemplars discussed here—King Xuan, King Tang, and Dong Zhongshu—were not simply model rainmakers, they were also model rulers and officials. Their rainmaking efforts were certainly commendable, but their personal and professional conduct was ad‐ mirable as well. When officials re‐enacted traditional rainmaking techniques, they were attempting to capture not only the depictive representation—the visual scene—that defined renowned rainmak‐ ing performances but also the emotionality, the intentionality, and the efficacy of the rainmaker. By identifying themselves with these notable men, officials were appropriating their virtue, their author‐ ity, and their success. Thus, one could argue that rainmaking was constitutive of a larger ideal, that of the model official, to which many Chinese officials aspired. To employ Tang’s rainmaking tech‐ nique meant more than just adopting a practical drought‐relief mea‐ sure; it meant that an official was adopting an attitude, a persona. To pray like Tang was in many ways to become Tang. Thus, rainmaking was not only about making rain, although that was certainly impor‐ tant. It was also about being an official. By explicitly or implicitly claiming continuity with the past, officials were attaching themselves to a master narrative about the position of officials in Chinese history and society—as the creators and caretakers of civilization, as shep‐ herds of the people, as controllers of the cosmos. Considering the im‐ portance of rainmaking to official life, it should come as no surprise that the state made various attempts to regulate its practice, an issue we shall explore in greater detail in the next chapter.
THREE
An Unruly Order
The tradition of rainmaking passed down through Chinese history demanded that officials “beg for the lives of the people” during pe‐ riods of drought. It is not surprising, therefore, that rainmaking fig‐ ured prominently in the ritual activities of the Chinese state. As we have seen, early Chinese rulers took it upon themselves to pray for rain, a practice that has persisted into the twenty‐first century.1 Dur‐ ing the Qing dynasty, the state upheld this tradition by obliging the emperor and his subordinates to conduct rainmaking activities on both a regular and an ad hoc basis. Some of these activities were re‐ quired by Qing statute and conducted publicly by the emperor and his deputies; others fell outside the purview of the statutes and were held privately in the imperial household and elsewhere. Although the state attempted to dictate the forms of rainmaking activities car‐ ried out at the local level, as we shall see, these efforts met with only limited success. Local officials, much to the chagrin of the central government, often carried out extra‐statutory rituals. Efforts to rem‐ edy this situation by scholars associated with the statecraft move‐ ment also failed. In the end, all attempts at standardization were stymied by a rainmaking tradition far too diverse and deeply rooted to be easily systematized. This chapter describes the efforts to im‐ pose order on official rainmaking practices in the Qing period and the difficulties these efforts encountered.
49
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An Unruly Order
The Qing Ritual Order Over the years, many scholars have recognized the role ritual played in the administration of the late imperial Chinese state. Charles Hucker has written: “Anyone who works extensively with Ming documents . . . cannot avoid the conclusion that proper government in the Ming was largely a matter of performing the proper rituals.”2 Richard J. Smith has made a similar observation about the Qing, em‐ phasizing the enthusiasm with which the state both articulated and exercised its ritual prerogative.3 Rituals in the Ming and Qing dynas‐ ties were separated into three different categories: grand sacrifices (dasi 大祀), secondary sacrifices (zhongsi 中祀), and tertiary sacrifices (qunsi 群祀). Grand sacrifices performed at the suburban altars in the capital were among the most important ritual events in the empire; these included the emperor’s personal worship of heaven two times a year and his annual worship of the earth. The emperor also par‐ ticipated in grand sacrifices at the Imperial Ancestral Temple (Taimiao 太廟) and the Altar of Soil and Grain (Sheji tan 社稷壇). Held in various forms in every administrative city in the empire, secondary sacrifices were offered to Confucius, the emperors of pre‐ vious dynasties, various sages and meritorious officials, the God of Agriculture (Xiannong 先農), wise men and virtuous women, the spirits of the sun, moon, soil, and grain, and the gods of wind, rain, thunder, clouds, mountains, and rivers.4 Tertiary sacrifices, also held in every administrative city in the empire, were made to deities posi‐ tioned lower in the official pantheon. Some, such as the sacrifices to Guandi 關帝 (the god of war) and Wenchang 文昌 (the god of litera‐ ture), were held in every city; others were made to local deities who had been particularly helpful in the past but could be worshiped only in designated locations throughout the empire. On the face of it, this three‐tiered sacrificial order was quite sys‐ tematic. The state did a thorough job of defining, describing, and monitoring both grand and secondary sacrifices. Qing rulers fol‐ lowed their predecessors in the Ming by publishing detailed admin‐ istrative codes, such as the Daqing huidian 大清會典 (Collected stat‐ utes of the Qing), to govern official behavior. In the case of ritual practices, the Huidian was supplemented by texts such as the Daqing
An Unruly Order
51
tongli 大清通禮 (Comprehensive rituals of the Qing), as well as com‐ pilations such as the Daqing huidian shili 大清會典事例 (Collected statutes and precedents of the Qing) and the Qing editions of the Wenxian tongkao 文獻通考 (Comprehensive collection of documents and studies). The last two texts cataloged the many variations in administrative practice under the Qing, as new practices became in‐ stitutionalized, old practices fell out of use, or irregular practices were carried out on an ad hoc basis. It is not uncommon to find de‐ tailed reports in texts such as the Huidian shili describing rituals con‐ ducted by the emperor—where they were held, who participated in them, what the participants wore, the contents of prayer texts, and so on. In these accounts, little is left to the imagination. Lower levels of the ritual order received less attention. Tertiary sacrifices did not enjoy the same degree of material support from the central government that higher‐level sacrifices did. State ritual texts featured lengthy liturgical guides for the grand and secondary sacri‐ fices, but tertiary sacrifices were rarely accorded the same treatment. In fact, the paucity of liturgical direction for tertiary sacrifices is striking considering the amount of detail provided for higher‐level sacrifices. Typically, the deity of a particular temple would be en‐ tered in the Register of Sacrifices (sidian 祀典) in recognition of the protection or benefits that it had provided in the past—in warding off drought and pestilence, or protecting against rebels, and the like—but the entries seldom describe how the deity was to be wor‐ shiped apart from regularly scheduled worship once or twice a year.5 Even decisions regarding which deities were included in the register seem to have been made inconsistently. A deity in one county seat may have received official recognition, while the same deity in the neighboring county did not. The bulk of deities received no en‐ dorsement at all. As Susan Naquin has written, “It is important to note . . . how circumscribed the list of sponsored gods was. Ming and Qing state religion did not provide for worship of a single Buddha, not for Guanyin, and not for the Jade Emperor.”6 This did not mean that deities outside the register were never worshiped by officials; it did mean, however, that officials risked punishment whenever they did so.
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The Yu Sacrifice State rainmaking rituals reflected the organization of the broader rit‐ ual system. Official texts describe rainmaking sacrifices at all three levels of the ritual hierarchy—grand, secondary, and tertiary. Yet, like other state rituals, those at the higher levels of the ritual order were more thoroughly described. One particular practice, the yu sac‐ rifice, receives the bulk of the attention in these texts. As mentioned in the previous chapter, yu was an ancient term apparently applied initially to any ritual that included both singing and dancing and was intended to bring rain.7 The yu had existed as a formal rainmak‐ ing sacrifice since the Zhou period, although it is unclear exactly what kinds of ritual actions were involved in its performance. By as early as the Jin 晉 dynasty (265–420), however, the yu sacrifice began to take on the form that it would later carry into the Qing. Texts from the time describe it as a rainmaking ritual performed in the southern suburb of the capital city for the deities of soil and grain, mountains, forests, rivers, and moisture. It involved sixty‐four dancers who held feather screens to shade the eyes while they chanted the verses to the “Yunhan.” Minor modifications to the ritual were initiated over the centuries. In the Tang dynasty, the fourth lunar month was desig‐ nated as the proper time for the yu, and in the Song, it began to be performed at the round altar (yuanqiu 圓丘) for imperial sacrifices. The yu was carried out under the Ming, but only during years of drought and not as a regular sacrifice. The Daqing huidian shili states that the first yu sacrifice performed in the Qing dynasty occurred during the fourteenth year of the Shunzhi 順治 emperor (1657) in response to a drought in the envi‐ rons of the capital. The emperor personally prayed for rain at the round altar of the Temple of Heaven after fasting for three days. He was joined in fasting by all his subordinates. The slaughter of ani‐ mals was prohibited, and “all officials and people” (in the capital?) were required to wear light‐colored clothing (dandanse fu 淡淡色服). The emperor himself wore “plain clothes” (sufu 素服) such as those worn for mourning and conducted a “walking and praying ritual” (xing budao li 行步禱禮) by proceeding to the temple on foot instead of in a sedan chair. The emperor observed a number of other prohi‐
An Unruly Order
53
bitions: no imperial insignia were displayed, no music was played, there were no ancillary objects of worship, no wine was drunk, no meat was eaten, and the emperor demonstrated humility and frugal‐ ity in his behavior. The emperor dispatched an official to make sacri‐ fices to the local water deities, deities of soil and grain, and celestial and terrestrial spirits (shenqi 神祇). It was said that before the em‐ peror had time to return to his quarters, there was a heavy rain.8 Subsequent emperors generally followed the rainmaking liturgy established by Shunzhi in 1657. Ritual specialists led the emperor and his officials as they welcomed the spirit of Di 帝, burned incense, and performed several rounds of kneelings and prostrations. Be‐ tween kneelings, the emperor or his officials burned incense, pre‐ sented offerings, and read an invocation aloud. Offerings of wine, fruit, incense, silk, cooked beef, and shredded meat were presented. For the most part, this basic liturgy was followed by both the Shun‐ zhi and the Kangxi emperors, although there were occasional modi‐ fications. For example, the Shunzhi emperor performed a “painful and thorough self‐accounting” (tongzikeze 痛自刻責) when he prayed for rain in 1660, an element missing in his performance three years earlier.9 In 1678, the Kangxi emperor walked to the altar but rode a horse to return to the palace. And during a drought in 1687, he per‐ sonally composed and delivered the invocation himself.10 The most significant step in institutionalizing the yu sacrifice dur‐ ing the Qing was made in 1742, when imperial censor Xu Yisheng 徐 以升 memorialized the Qianlong emperor to suggest that an altar dedicated solely to performing the yu sacrifice be erected within the city walls. Xu opened his memorial with a lengthy history of the yu as described in early texts such as the Zhouli 周禮 and Chunqiu 春秋. Xu argued that the yu sacrifice was performed in virtually all preced‐ ing dynasties, but there was some confusion as to how, when, and why the ritual should be performed. The source of this confusion concerned the timing of the ritual. Xu contended that past emperors had conducted two different kinds of rainmaking sacrifices: the “regular yu” (changyu 常雩) sacrifice carried out annually to prevent drought from occurring and a “great yu” (dayu 大雩) sacrifice con‐ ducted only during times of drought. Xu argued that both were nec‐ essary, and he urged the court to implement certain changes:
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An Unruly Order
In this dynasty, when the ritual order was prepared, the Huidian included a rite for the yu sacrifice so that personal prayers could be offered by the em‐ peror, but an altar [for the yu] still has not been established, even though it is an imperial sacrifice. And even though it is a suburban sacrifice, it includes the gods of clouds, rain, wind, and thunder and positions for the peaks, hills, oceans, and rivers. The [yu] ritual must have a place where [an altar] can be specially erected, so that the prayer ceremony accords with the small‐ est details of sincerity and reverence. Thus, I humbly beg you, august emperor, to order the ritual officials of the court to search widely for canonical references, to carefully research the regulations, and to select a location within the walls of the capital city to erect a yu altar, so that we can carry out the practice whereby “when the dragon appears [in the fourth month] the yu is performed.” Every year a day should be selected to perform the ritual once. If drought or unseasonable weather occurs and rain is scarce, then prayers for rain can also be made to the peaks, hills, oceans, and rivers, as well as all the mountains and rivers that are able to bring rain. Then there is no need to pray at all the individual temples.11
Xu encouraged the court to systematize imperial rainmaking prac‐ tices by erecting a dedicated rainmaking altar in the capital and holding annual rainmaking sacrifices in the fourth lunar month as a preventative measure. If the empire suffered from a drought, a sec‐ ond sacrifice would be performed ad hoc as necessary. In replying to Xu’s memorial, the Board of Ritual redefined how the state should properly conduct its rainmaking activities. It based its new guidelines on Tang precedent, in which prayers for rain were conducted in two seven‐day ritual cycles. The new regulations uti‐ lized the same temporal organization, but established a three‐tier hierarchy of deities to be venerated as drought conditions warranted. In this new system, the emperor conducted a “regular yu” sacrifice some time during the fourth lunar month. These prayers were to be offered on an annual basis, much like other seasonal imperial rituals such as praying for the yearly harvest, as a general prophylaxis against drought. The primary deity to be worshiped was Lofty Heaven, Lord on High (Haotian shangdi). Prayers were conducted at the round altar at the Temple of Heaven and at four auxiliary altars, and a sacrificial feast was offered to the ancestors (liezu 列祖). If drought occurred after the fourth month, then prayers were made at
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55
the altars to the celestial and terrestrial deities and the great year star (taisui 太歲). If after seven days rain had not fallen, prayers were offered at the Altar of Soil and Grain; seven days later they were of‐ fered at the Imperial Ancestral Temple. If it still had not rained, or if it had rained but in insufficient amounts, then the whole cycle was repeated from the beginning. If all these efforts were unsuccessful and the drought became particularly severe, then a “great yu” (dayu 大雩) ritual was performed. The sequence of prayers offered in the great yu differed slightly, with prayers being offered to Lofty Heaven, Lord on High and the ancestors in the Imperial Ancestral Temple first, with no corresponding prayers to the gods of heaven, earth, or the great year star. The great yu must have been viewed as a measure of last resort, since it was performed only twice during the Qing dynasty, in 1759 and 1832.12 Like most grand sacrifices, the regulations on the yu sacrifice pro‐ vided extremely detailed liturgical guidelines for the ritual. The same general recommendations regarding fasting, prohibitions, and ritual offerings used during the Shunzhi reign remained in place through‐ out the dynasty. To these were added comprehensive instructions on the great yu, which featured a performance by sixteen dancing youths (wutong 舞童). These youths wore dark clothing and held feather ba‐ tons while dancing and singing the eight stanzas of a new version of the “Yunhan” that the Qianlong emperor had personally penned for the ritual.13 This dance was to be carried out “in the style of the impe‐ rial dances of Zhou ritual” (Zhouli huangwu zhi shi 周禮皇舞之式), and the dancers’ clothing and the ritual implements were fashioned by the imperial household. Plans were developed to deal with every imagin‐ able contingency. For example, when a drought struck the capital re‐ gion in the spring of 1744, the Qianlong emperor faced a dilemma. It was too early in the year to perform the regular yu sacrifice, but the situation was not yet grave enough to warrant performing the great yu. Yet some action needed to be taken. So, the Board of Ritual ad‐ vised the emperor to pray for rain at the prefectural temples, includ‐ ing the temples for the God of War, the city god, and the dragon god. If these prayers were successful, then animal sacrifices would be of‐ fered as thanks; if they were not, then the regular yu and great yu would be performed as usual.
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Public Imperial Rituals Although the yu sacrifices were the most elaborate rainmaking ritu‐ als ordered by the central government, they were not the most com‐ mon. This is not surprising, since the regular yu was performed every spring, whether conditions warranted it or not, and the great yu was performed only in the direst of circumstances. The vast ma‐ jority of imperial rainmaking activities were held at temples throughout the capital city. During times of drought, the emperor would either go personally to temples to offer prayers and incense or else send an emissary in his stead, often one of the imperial princes. Many of the temples frequented during such ceremonies were built to complement the extensive waterways around the capital and were associated in some way with the dragon god, such as the Black Dragon Pool (Heilongtan 黑龍潭), White Dragon Pool (Bailongtan 白龍潭), and Jade Spring Mountain (Yuquanshan 玉泉山). These temples’ association with waterworks and the dragon god made them logical sites for rainmaking activities.14 Temples rose and fell in popularity over the course of the dynasty. Judging from a cursory examination of the Draft Qing History (Qing‐ shigao 清史稿), the Black Dragon Pool was the preferred imperial rainmaking site throughout most of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries. For example, from 1724 to 1798, the emperor either made personal visits or sent an emissary to the shrine at least once in twenty‐five different years. By the late eighteenth century, imperial rainmaking activities were occasionally held at the Dragon God Temple at Jade Spring Mountain and the Bright Moisture Temple (Guangrunmiao 光潤廟), in addition to those conducted at the Black Dragon Pool Temple. However, by the nineteenth century, it appears that rainmaking activities were most commonly held at the Black Dragon Pool, at a dragon god shrine in the Buddhist Awakened Life Monastery (Jueshengsi 覺生寺), as well as the Jade Emperor shrine at the Daoist Hall of High Heaven (Dagaodian 大高殿 or Dagaoxuan‐ dian 大高玄殿). Imperial emissaries were also sent to dragon temples far outside the capital. Perhaps the best known of these temples was the rain shrine in Handan 邯鄲 county in what is now Hebei province. The shrine was a small temple complex that comprised a sacred well and a spring closely associated with dragons. A temple was constructed
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at the site in 1315 and served as a focal point of rainmaking for cen‐ turies.15 During droughts, local people conducted “fetching water” rituals at the site, in which water from the spring was collected in a vase and worshiped. Iron tablets were also thrown into, and re‐ trieved from, the well and worshiped. The principle behind the be‐ stowal and retrieval of the iron tablets is unclear, although tablets had been used for a similar purpose for at least a millennium.16 In other contexts, “dragon slips” were cast into water sources as part of a ritual for the remission of sins, and it is certainly possible that such meanings persisted in rainmaking, especially considering the per‐ ceived connection between drought and immorality.17 As we will see in the next chapter, items were often thrown into pools where drag‐ ons were said to live, in an effort to make them take flight and cause rain to fall. The most convincing explanation of this phenomenon is given by Poul Andersen, who argues that dragons feared iron because they were associated with the wood element, which in wu‐ xing cosmology was “overcome” by metal.18 Qing emperors began to send emissaries on the 350‐mile journey to the shrine in the mid‐ nineteenth century. These emissaries carried with them iron tablets on which the emperor had written a brief inscription. The official was supposed to travel as fast as he could, both day and night, and to eat nothing but bran along the way.19 After arriving at the shrine, he tossed the iron tablet into the well and removed another tablet that had been stored in the well. The second tablet was then brought back to the capital, where it was placed in the Daoist Hall of High Heaven and worshiped by the emperor.20 Imperial visits to Buddhist monasteries and Daoist temples were common during the late Qing. During times of drought, the emperor or his emissaries would offer incense or prayers and often enlist the assistance of Daoist priests and Buddhist monks, who would chant scriptures in sessions that could last for days. Evidence of this can be found in a memorial from an imperial prince in 1740: “In the past, whenever there has been anxiety about drought, praying several times for rain at the Black Dragon Pool has always brought a re‐ sponse. Now the capital district lacks rain; we request that nine Dao‐ ist priests respectfully pray for rain at the Black Dragon Pool.”21 In 1783 the Qianlong emperor ordered nine Buddhist monks to recite the Great Cloud Wheel Rain Requesting Sutra (Dayunlun qingyu jing 大雲輪請雨經) for seven days and dispatched the imperial princes to
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a Daoist altar erected at the Zhanlisuo 瞻禮所 to pray for rain. There is even evidence that Muslim clerics performed similar duties.22 The catholic nature of these activities is one of the more striking dimen‐ sions of state rainmaking efforts in the Qing. Yet it is also clear that the throne approved of Buddhist and Dao‐ ist involvement only under the supervision of the central govern‐ ment. As reproduced in the Huidian shili, Xu Yisheng’s memorial to the Qianlong emperor says, “As for Buddhist monks and Daoist priests erecting altars and chanting scriptures, this was definitely not ancient practice” (zhi sengdao jiantan songjing, shu fei guzhi 至僧道建壇 諷經, 殊非古制). The Huidian shili elaborates on this point: As for Buddhist monks and Daoist priests erecting altars and chanting scrip‐ tures, during the Song dynasty, they followed [the practice] of praying for rain at monasteries and temples and carrying out their rituals. But this is really not the ancient practice as given in the classics, and their erecting altars to pray for rain should be stopped. Instead, a presiding officer for Buddhist monks who has been selected by the monks, and a presiding offi‐ cer for Daoist priests who has been selected by the priests, should be ordered to lead the monks and priests whenever there is an occasion to fast and make sacrifices. They should be dispatched to those [Daoist] temples (gong 宮) that have demonstrated their protection and to the five [Buddhist] temples (miao 廟) to sincerely chant scriptures and pray. The Board of Ritual should dispatch supervising officials [with them] to observe.23
What is most interesting about this passage is that it differs consid‐ erably from the position taken by Xu in his original memorial: As for Buddhist monks and Daoist priests chanting scriptures, we see in the Zhouli that medium officials (wushi 巫 師 ) and mediums (shenwu 神 巫 ) danced the yu. For this reason, the ancients spoke of “exposing the medium” during years of drought. Likewise, Xuanzi said to Duke Mu of Lu 魯穆公 [in the Liji], “When heaven does not send rain and sacrifices are made, common women should make them, and you should not make them yourself.” Today, the recitation of scriptures by Buddhist monks and Daoist priests to make rain has the same purpose as the mediums [once did].24
As we saw in the preceding chapter, there is overwhelming evidence in early texts that mediums played a central role in ancient rainmak‐ ing activities. Yet, by the Qing, this was no longer the case, and Xu obviously felt that he had to account for this discrepancy. If one
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claimed to be following the rainmaking methods instituted by the sages, and the sages frequently incorporated mediums into their rainmaking efforts, then there must be some explanation as to why the practice was no longer followed. Xu dealt with this apparent con‐ tradiction by claiming monks and priests had assumed the duties once performed by mediums. Judging from the passage above, the central government was less concerned about the involvement of monks and priests per se and more interested in regulating their activities. The throne continued to enlist the assistance of Buddhist monks and Daoist priests in its rainmaking activities until the end of the dynasty. Even though the Qing state was generally supportive of Buddhist and Daoist reli‐ gious institutions, tensions between the state and these religious groups had been a source of controversy and conflict for centuries of Chinese history. Perhaps the central government did not want to af‐ firm the involvement of monks and priests in official rainmaking ac‐ tivities as an “ancient practice” because it did not want to grant Buddhist and Daoist institutions leverage over rituals it considered to be solely within its purview. It is certainly not difficult to find Qing officials who harbored anti‐Buddhist or anti‐Daoist sentiments. Still, it is unclear why the central government decided to take action at this particular moment. It is possible that the heightened supervi‐ sion of clerics was simply the inevitable culmination of centuries of rainmaking “competition” among Buddhists, Daoists, and govern‐ ment officials. There is evidence that such competition—in conduct‐ ing rainmaking rituals and, most important, taking credit for their success—had existed during the Ming dynasty and probably even earlier.25 It could also be that Qing officials simply wanted to ration‐ alize a set of practices that, until this point, had been relatively dis‐ organized and had long remained at the margins of the imperial rit‐ ual order.
Private Imperial Rituals In addition to the public rainmaking activities described above, the emperor also participated in what Evelyn Rawski has called “private rituals,” ceremonies that took place inside the inner court and typi‐ cally concerned “the court as a household, a family writ large.”26
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Most of the court’s private rituals remain unstudied, but there is evidence that emperors and the imperial household conducted pri‐ vate rainmaking activities in addition to those prescribed by statute. One document from the Ming dynasty offers tantalizing clues as to what at least one form of private imperial rainmaking may have in‐ volved. The text is entitled the “Supreme Unity Three Mountain Mu‐ lang Rainmaking Incantation” (“Taiyi sanshan Mulang qiyu zhou” 太乙三山木郎祈雨咒). A copy was kept in the Ming imperial house‐ hold, and it is likely that it remained with the imperial household throughout the Qing.27 The text comprises five sections and appears to be a Divine Empyrean (shenxiao 神霄) meditation text. It opens with an incantation annotated by the Song Daoist master Bo Yuchan 白玉蟾 (1194–1229). Subsequent sections of the text consist of medita‐ tion instructions that the practitioner uses to give rise to clouds (qi‐ yun 起雲), produce lightning (qidian 起電), cause thunder (dong lei 動雷), and gather clouds and bring rain (tuanyun zhiyu 團雲致雨). All these meditations employ various means for making rain. For exam‐ ple, in the section entitled “Giving Rise to Clouds,” the practitioner engages in seated meditation while facing south until various parts of his body begin to sweat. The text says that rain will fall wherever he sweats: if his chest sweats, it will rain to the south; if his left side sweats, it will rain to the east, and so forth. Likewise, in the section entitled “Gathering Clouds and Bringing Rain,” the practitioner en‐ gages in seated meditation and brings the passive yin and active yang vital‐force (qi 氣) from the left and right sides of his body. He then guides them into the heart, where they mix, and then disperses them throughout the entire body, which causes rain to fall. We have no evidence that this section of the text was ever used in the Ming, but we do know that another section of the same text, or one very similar to it, was used in the Qing. The late Qing compiler Xu Ke 徐珂 includes at least two references to a Mulang rainmaking method in his voluminous encyclopedia, Qingbai leichao 清稗類抄 (Classified collection of Qing notes). Xu noted that during a severe drought dur‐ ing the Qianlong reign, the emperor’s mother, Empress Xiaosheng 孝聖, walked to the dragon god shrine inside the imperial quarters to pray personally for rain. In her prayers, she relied on the text of the “Mulang phrases” (Mulangci 木郎詞), which Xu described as consist‐ ing of over thirty verses of three, four, five, and seven characters writ‐ ten in the style of the music once used in the suburban sacrifices dur‐
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ing the Han dynasty.28 Xu also related the story of a “Mulang rain‐ making incantation” (Mulang qiyu zhou 木郎祈雨咒), which somebody brought in manuscript form to the capital from southern Yunnan province in 1870. The manuscript evidently included instructions for how to use the incantation, which Xu described as follows: Pray for rain according to the four seasons. While praying for rain during a spring drought, an altar should be erected outside the east gate, facing east. The other three seasons are also like this [i.e., summer to the south, late summer in the middle, autumn to the west, winter to the north]. On the altar, tablets are erected for three deities. On the left, write, “Tablet for the hon‐ ored deities of wind, clouds, thunder, and rain.” On the middle, write, “Tab‐ let for the divine worthies that bring rain, the Supreme Unity Three Wor‐ thies and Mulang.” On the right, write, “Tablet for the Immortal Ancestor Bo Ziqing [i.e., Bo Yuchan]” (ziqing Bo xianzu 紫清白仙祖). Sacrificial offerings include dark wine, clear wine, vessels of millet, meat, and fruit. Compose one rainmaking memorial text and burn it in front of the city god, and with a sincere heart chant the scripture. Every day it should be chanted on three, four, or five occasions, a total of forty‐nine times for each occasion. If it has not rained in three days, then [chant the incantation] for five days; if it has not rained in five days, then [chant it] for seven days. Then it is said that one will certainly obtain a heavy rain. When it comes time to give thanks for rain, use the sacrificial offerings above.29
Xu’s transcription of the incantation is identical to the copy kept in the Ming imperial household and to versions in other Daoist texts such as the Ten Books for Cultivating Perfection (Xiuzhen shishu 修真 十書).30 Xu did not include the various meditative techniques de‐ scribed in the Ming text, nor does the Ming text include the altar method explained above. Yet the similarity of the texts is remarkable. Although the emperor was unlikely to have engaged in the medita‐ tions included in the Ming text, other members of the imperial household may well have carried them out over the centuries. And the incantation itself was undoubtedly used over the course of two centuries. We will see in the next chapter that this same incantation was reprinted elsewhere in rainmaking texts written or compiled by local officials, which would lend credence to the claim that it circu‐ lated widely in official circles. Xu Ke described yet another set of private rainmaking rituals conducted in the inner court. This one also involved the women of the imperial household, notably the Empress Dowager Cixi 慈禧.
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The following episode likely occurred during a particularly severe drought in 1901: The imperial court also held rainmaking activities. All the empresses and concubines of the imperial family bathed and fasted. The emperor Dezong 德宗 [the Guangxu emperor] prayed at the palace altar wearing at his waist a jade tablet three cun long, upon which was written the two characters zhai‐ jie 齋戒 [fasting].31 All the emperors’ subordinate officials wore them as well. In her ornamentation, the Empress Xiaoqin 孝欽 [Cixi] wore nothing beauti‐ ful; she wore only light gray clothing and nothing ostentatious. The same was true for her headgear and shoes. Food and drink were limited to milk and steamed bread. The rest of the imperial women ate only cabbage and boiled rice. Before praying, the Empress Xiaoqin entered the hall alongside the emperor; a eunuch knelt at the entrance and presented her with a clutch of willow branches. The empress broke off a branch and inserted it into her hair. All the empresses and concubines did the same, and the emperor in‐ serted a willow into his cap. After the willows had been inserted, the eunuch Li Lianying 李蓮英 knelt and reported to the emperor that all the prepara‐ tions were complete. Then the whole company followed the Empress Xiao‐ qin as she walked into a room at the front of her quarters. In the room was placed a table, and on top of the table was a “yellow missive” (huang biao 黃表), a square of jade, a small amount of cinnabar, and two brushes. On a side table sat a vase into which had been inserted a willow branch, and in front of the table was arranged Xiaoqin’s yellow satin mattress. An incense burner that burned charcoal was placed on top of this table. The Empress Xiaoqin took a small amount of sandalwood and tossed it into the incense burner. Then, she knelt on the mattress with the rest of the imperial women kneeling behind her on all fours, reciting silently the prayer, which read: “Rescue, O mercies of Heaven. Quickly grant timely rain and save the lives of your people below. All people bear fault and responsibility [for this calamity], but we pray that you send it down on us.” They recited it silent‐ ly three times, performed the three kneelings and nine prostrations, and exited.32
The ritual as described here was a relatively simple affair, and de‐ spite the social standing of the participants, it likely would have resonated with most Chinese people of the time. Like other more elaborate rainmaking rituals, this one also featured bodily purifica‐ tion through bathing and fasting and the observance of certain absti‐ nences such as the avoidance of rich food and ostentatious clothing. The “yellow missive” was likely a written petition that was used to transmit a communication to one or more deities. Typically, these
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petitions would include a written request, which was read aloud be‐ fore being burned. Presenting petitions of this sort was one of the central ritual acts in Daoism, but it was used throughout China to communicate with the unseen world. The ritual also features rich symbolism, such as the empress’s mattress, which evokes images of fertility, as well as willow branches, which were often used in rain‐ making rituals due to their association with water and springtime. Willows also had a connection to the Bodhisattva Guanyin, who is often pictured holding a willow branch, which she used to alleviate drought. Perhaps the most conspicuous aspect of these private rituals is the role played by imperial women. Gender concerns are addressed fur‐ ther below, in discussions of cross‐dressing and the role of frogs and toads in rainmaking activities. At this point, suffice it to say that women were commonly thought to have an intimate connection with meteorological phenomena such as droughts. However, the re‐ lationship between the two was complicated. On one hand, droughts were often interpreted as resulting from an imbalance in yin and yang, so it made sense that the calamity could be resolved by increas‐ ing the presence of the yin force. Involving women in rainmaking ac‐ tivities was one way to achieve this, and there are many examples in which women played a prominent role in rainmaking—as sacrifices, as participants, and, in the case of deities such as the Bodhisattva Guanyin, as saviors. On the other hand, it was just as common to see women prohibited from rainmaking activities entirely. The reason‐ ing for this is not clear, but it may have been an attempt to preserve the yin force—by, say, requiring women to stay indoors—rather than subjecting them to excessive exposure. It may have also been an at‐ tempt to minimize improper contact between men and women, which was often thought to cause natural calamities. In the case of imperial rituals, we know far too little about the religious lives of imperial women to make any definitive statements regarding their role in rainmaking. However, Evelyn Rawski has demonstrated that although women were banned from participating in all but one of the public state rituals, imperial women took the lead in conducting private rituals; in fact, the ranking woman in the imperial household usually led them.33 Thus, it is difficult to know how to interpret the episodes described above. It could be that the imperial women conducted them because they were considered to be more effective
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rainmakers. It is also possible, however, that they were simply abid‐ ing by a traditional division of labor between inner and outer courts. Of course, the situation is confused further because during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries, political power in the capi‐ tal was essentially held by a woman, the Empress Dowager Cixi. The private rituals within the confines of the inner court point to an important dimension of the Qing ritual order. They indicate that there was a substantial body of rituals and ceremonies conducted or supervised by government officials that was effectively “off the books.” These rituals were not required by statute, they were not specifically endorsed by the state, and they were usually not chroni‐ cled in the public record.34 This does not mean that these rituals were intentionally conducted in secrecy or that they violated Qing law. Rather, they were carried out in a parallel ritual order that existed side by side with the one so meticulously described in Qing liturgical texts. The reason that this is so important is because a similar parallel ritual order existed at lower levels of the Qing bureaucracy. At the local level, there was a split in the Qing ritual order between those rituals that were carefully defined and explained in state liturgical texts, and those that were not. This is especially apparent in irregular rituals performed on an ad hoc basis, such as rainmaking rituals, where the state gave little guidance to officials as to what kinds of rituals they should be conducting. The full range of rainmaking ritu‐ als performed by local officials is explored in the next chapter; here I simply describe the kinds of rainmaking rituals the state explicitly instructed local officials to carry out.
The Local Ritual Order Local officials in late imperial China were required by law to per‐ form a core body of sacrifices approved for the lower levels of the bureaucracy. The Daqing huidian spells out in great specificity when and where these sacrifices were to be conducted. The oldest sacri‐ fices were those performed at the suburban altars. By law, each ad‐ ministrative city was required to erect open‐air altars outside the city gates in the four cardinal directions: the altar of soil and grain in the west, the altar to celestial and terrestrial spirits (shenqi) in the south,35 the altar for abandoned ghosts (li 厲) in the north, and the altar to the God of Agriculture (Xiannong) in the east.36 Sacrifices were per‐
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formed at these altars at various times throughout the year and for various reasons.37 In addition to suburban sacrifices, local officials were also respon‐ sible for making sacrifices at various shrines and temples housed within the district school. Most district cities had educational cam‐ puses called xuegong 學宮, which housed the temple of Confucius (wenmiao 文廟) and many Confucian shrines: the shrine of the rever‐ end sages (chongsheng ci 崇聖祠), the shrine of famous local officials (minghuan ci 名宦祠), the shrine of local worthies (xiangxian ci 鄉賢祠), the shrine of the loyal, righteous, filial, and brotherly (zhongyi xiaodi ci 忠義孝弟祠), and the shrine to the chaste and filial ( jiexiao ci 節孝祠). It was here that the elaborate sacrifices to Confucius and other Confu‐ cian worthies were performed. On the first and fifteenth day of every month, the county magistrate was required to pay a visit to the wen‐ miao to burn incense. In addition, on the first ding 丁 day of the second and eighth lunar months, the magistrate served as the chief celebrant in the biannual sacrifice to Confucius, or the dingji 丁祭. Local officials also made sacrifices at the official temples to popu‐ lar deities such as Guandi, Wenchang, and the city god. These three deities were approved for official worship throughout the empire, and every administrative city had at least one official temple devoted to each of them.38 In the case of the city god, the magistrate orga‐ nized a small group of officials or elites to pay a visit to the temple, reporting on local events and offering prayers for the welfare of the city.39 The city god was especially important to the local community because he was thought to be the supernatural equivalent of the local magistrate. As such, he controlled all the “unseen” happenings within the city. One early Qing administrative handbook describes the relationship between the two in this way: In performing his duty, the magistrate should do everything within the realm of human power, while the city god can go beyond that realm. The magistrate’s duty is to promote welfare and eliminate human evils in soci‐ ety, while the city god’s duty is to bring blessings up on the local population and to avoid natural scourges. However, the magical power of the city god will not manifest itself unless the magistrate offers prayers; the prayers will not be accepted unless the offerer is sincere; and the responsibility of the city god cannot be fulfilled unless communications are kept open between the magistrate and the city god; then the city god will answer his prayer.40
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City gods throughout the empire were credited with performing in‐ numerable miracles on behalf of the community. The deity was often credited with warding off calamity in times of war, pestilence, and drought, and for this reason he was considered by local people to be extremely efficacious. Few concerns were not brought before him for a complete and speedy resolution, and local officials regularly ap‐ pealed to the god to help solve legal and administrative problems.41 In addition to the sacrifices performed in all administrative cities throughout the empire, the central government also sanctioned sacri‐ fices to deities who had proved themselves to be particularly power‐ ful in certain localities. As we saw earlier in this chapter, the Register of Sacrifices featured long and detailed lists of deities singled out for special worship. The worship of local cults took many forms, but of‐ ten included regular appearances by the magistrate or his represen‐ tatives to burn incense and present offerings and prayers. Some of the most popular deities in late imperial China belonged to this cate‐ gory. One of the best examples is the goddess Mazu 媽祖, known of‐ ficially as Tianhou 天后, who was approved for worship in selected cities in Fujian, Jiangsu, Guangzhou, and others along the coast.42 Another example is the spirit of Mount Tai 泰山, popularly known as Dongyue 東岳, whose worship was sanctioned at temples in Tai’an, Nanjing, and Beijing.43 Another regular form of local worship took place at the shrines of local worthies who had been canonized by the state and incorpo‐ rated into the official sacrifices. Every region in China had at least a few shrines devoted to these deified individuals, and it was the re‐ sponsibility of local officials to worship them in the way specified by the official rites.44 Many were worshiped at the Confucian shrines lo‐ cated in the school campus, but others were either honored at the temple to civil and military officials (wenwu gong 文武宮) or at their own shrines. Some particularly worthy officials were even canonized as city gods. One such example comes from Baoshan 寶山 county, Jiangsu, where the spirit of a military officer named Han Cheng who died while fighting Japanese pirates in 1558, was deified as the county’s city god in 1728. Several times in the mid‐nineteenth century he received imperial honors for repeatedly protecting the city against the Taiping armies.45 Although many of these deified in‐ dividuals were former officials, some were civilians. In one case from Zhejiang province, a local temple was dedicated to three brothers
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with the surname Jiang who were commemorated for their dona‐ tions to charitable causes. The emperor bestowed divine titles on all three and required local officials to make regular sacrifices to them.46 Local officials were also required to pray for rain. Rainmaking was no different from the rituals described above, in the sense that certain rainmaking activities were prescribed by the central govern‐ ment. When the imperial sacrifices were fixed in 1742, an order was simultaneously made to the governors and governors‐general—who were asked to forward it to all prefectures, counties, and depart‐ ments—telling them to select a day in the fourth lunar month and perform the regular yu sacrifice every year. Like the imperial ritual, the regular yu required offerings of a sheep, pig, and cow, as well as different kinds of grains and wines. Local officials were specifically told not to conduct the great yu ritual. Instead, they were instructed to pray for seven days at the altar of celestial and terrestrial spirits. Local officials were to fast for two days prior to the ritual, and on the day of the sacrifice they were to wear their court attire (chaofu 朝服). The altar itself was to feature three spirit tablets: one for the clouds, rain, wind, and thunder in the middle; one for the moun‐ tains and rivers of the local jurisdiction on the left; and one for the local city god on the right. The altar also held offerings of a sheep and pig, as well as bolts of silk and different kinds of wine and grains. If rain still did not fall, local officials were to pray for seven days at the altar for soil and grain. This cycle was to be repeated un‐ til rain finally fell.47 From the rainmaking episodes described in Chapter 1, it is clear that local officials did not limit themselves to the rituals prescribed by the state and often conducted rainmaking activities that went “above and beyond the call of duty.” Many local officials either dis‐ regarded the prescribed ritual altogether or, more likely, supple‐ mented it with other rituals of their own, rituals that were not explic‐ itly endorsed by the state. The situation at the local level was complicated by the fact that certain deities such as the city god, Guandi, and Wenchang had been entered into the Register of Sacri‐ fices and were, therefore, legitimate objects of worship throughout the empire. The problem was that, although these deities were en‐ dorsed by the state, the state did not articulate specific rainmaking liturgies for local officials to carry out. As a result, officials often prayed to the city god during times of drought, but they received
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little guidance as to what form their rainmaking activities should take. As far back as the Ming, the state seems to have taken a hands‐ off approach when it came to determining what kinds of rainmaking activities were most effective and most appropriate for officials to perform. In a study of official rainmaking in the Ming, Donald Sut‐ ton says: “Ming officials were expected to deal with drought by rit‐ ual and other means, but during the Ming, unlike the Song, the court did not tell them how or when to do it, or even insist that they do it themselves.”48 A similar situation existed in the Qing. Lacking guid‐ ance from the state, local officials were left to their own devices when it came to formulating and carrying out rainmaking activities.
Ordering the World Despite the state’s inattentiveness, rainmaking was a facet of local governance that many officials considered to be of utmost importance, and it attracted a fair amount of attention in privately published essays, administrative handbooks, and ritual guides throughout the Qing dynasty. The efforts of one particular group of individuals stand out in this regard. From the late eighteenth century, a loosely associated group of intellectuals began to promote the study of sub‐ stantive learning (shixue 實學) in response to what they considered to be the sterile and formalistic requirements of traditional literary studies (wenxue 文學). The “statecraft movement”—as it is now most often called—sought to replace what it saw as the excessively literary orientation of much contemporary intellectual and political dis‐ course with the pursuit of knowledge that could be used to solve practical problems. In the early nineteenth century, much of the movement’s efforts were directed toward addressing various crises that had recently plagued the empire. William Rowe writes: In these years, a number of prominent literati both in and out of govern‐ ment—among them Bao Shichen (1775–1855), Gong Zizhen (1792–1841), He Changling (1785–1848), Wei Yuan (1794–1856), Tao Zhu (1779–1839), and Lin Zexu (1785–1850)—conspicuously turned away from classical scholarship toward a renewed commitment to political action and the detailed study of techniques of institutional reform. They were stimulated to do so by a sense of crisis growing out of the compounding policy debacles of their own and the immediately preceding years: the Heshen corruption scandal and the celebrated protest of Hong Liangji to its incomplete resolution, the devastat‐
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ing and costly White Lotus Rebellion, mounting problems of defense along the northwest frontier, the gradual collapse of the Grand Canal as a usable transportation artery, and the problem of opium imports and silver outflow, which led to the alarming economic depression of the early Daoguang era.49
As part of this “renewed commitment” to political action, the scholar Wei Yuan 魏 源 —at the behest of Jiangsu provincial official He Changling 賀長齡—compiled a collection of essays on a wide variety of practical topics, ranging from famine relief and flood control to taxes and personnel evaluations. The objective was to gather to‐ gether useful information that could be applied directly to immedi‐ ate problems of governance. As such, the collection tended to focus on promoting “technical expertise” on a broad range of topics and what one scholar has called the “piecemeal renovation” of institu‐ tions.50 This compendium, the Huangchao jingshi wenbian 皇朝經世 文編 (This august dynasty’s documents on statecraft), contains the writings of more than 2,000 Qing officials and was published in six‐ teen different editions in the last century of the dynasty. Several essays in the Jingshi wenbian deal with the issue of rain‐ making, and all of them give practical advice on what kinds of rain‐ making activities officials should carry out. In fact, the original ver‐ sion of Xu Yisheng’s memorial on establishing the yu sacrifice was printed in at least two different Jingshi wenbian collections. Like much of the information in this collection, the rainmaking essays are “technical” in that they provide various techniques that the reader could implement in his own jurisdiction. A few of the essays are translated below in part or in full. As we shall see, the attitudes of statecraft scholars toward rainmaking are difficult to classify. Some authors propose specific rituals to be performed; others take an al‐ most antiritual approach to rainmaking. Likewise, some authors em‐ brace occult technologies, and others eschew them. Several common elements are immediately apparent, however. The first is that none of the essays mentions the central government’s guidelines on rain‐ making; the omission suggests they did not loom large in the minds of the authors. Second, the authors tend to prefer methods with a claim to antiquity, especially the verses of the original “Yunhan” and the rainmaking method proposed by Dong Zhongshu. Finally, many of the authors make an explicit link between rainmaking and gov‐ ernment administration, arguing that one cannot succeed without
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the other. The core of successful rainmaking, they claim, is to be faultless as an administrator. Many of these issues are addressed in a lengthy essay published in the first edition of the Jingshi wenbian. It is included in the section devoted to famine relief, and it was written by the famous painter Wang Gai 王槩 (fl. 1677–1705).51 The essay, “An Explanation of the Yu Sacrifice,” is written as a conversation between the author and an imaginary house guest. As the name implies, the bulk of this essay is devoted to a description of the yu. Like Xu Yisheng, Wang traced the historical development of the yu, focusing most of his attention on pre‐Han descriptions. He noted the central importance of the “Yun‐ han” and bemoaned the disappearance of the ancient practices: “Of the ancient [expressions] of worry and pity for drought, there is none like the poem “Yunhan.” The poem consists of eight stanzas of ur‐ gent and bitter wailing because there was nothing else that could be said. There was only prayer. But today’s prayers are not the same as ancient prayers.” If all the ancient methods have disappeared, Wang’s imaginary guest asks, then how should officials properly pray? Wang responded: If one wants to truly perform the yu sacrifice, one should select a water day and erect an open altar outside the northern gate of the provincial or county administrative city. It should be six chi high, and six black flags should be erected on top. The deity Xuan Ming should be sacrificed to with six black dogs, clear wine, and dried meat. Furthermore, on a ren or gui day one should gather pure earth ( jiejing zhi tu 潔淨之土) from the north and construct one large dragon, six zhang long, to be placed in the middle [of the altar]. Five small dragons, each three chi long, should be placed outside [the altar]. They should all face north and be spaced six chi apart. Six Daoist priests (daoshi 道士) and thirty‐six adepts (tongzi 童子) should fast for three days. They should wear black clothing and dance while holding black flags in their hands. The Daoist priests should teach the pupils the “Yunhan” poem. Their singing “la la” should resemble wailing. This is the meaning of the yu, and this singing and wailing is what is called “praying for rain” (qiyu). Officials should lead their subordinates, as well as local gentle‐ men and degree holders, to kneel and worship below the altar. If after seven days it still has not rained, then all the deities from the ju‐ risdiction’s temples and shrines—large and small, near and far—should be seized and brought together on a single altar, where they should be offered reverent sacrifices. The Shijing says, “There is no spirit I have not honored, there is no sacrifice I have withheld.” In the Zhouli, it says that when the
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country experienced an inauspicious famine, they gathered the spirits to‐ gether and made sacrifices to them. If it rained, then [the deities] were re‐ warded with animal sacrifices. If it did not rain, then they were not returned to their shrines. The [deities of] mountains, forests, rivers and swamps are upright and are here only to assist us.
One of the more interesting aspects of this ritual is the way it essen‐ tially repackages the rainmaking method of Dong Zhongshu. The lengthy description of the altar configuration is merely a paraphras‐ ing of Dong’s ritual for praying for rain in winter. All the elements, including erecting the altar, constructing earthen dragons, and sacri‐ ficing six black dogs, are taken directly from Dong. It is also interest‐ ing that no mention is made of the prescribed state rituals for pray‐ ing for rain in the localities. Wang concluded by distinguishing the “substance” of rainmaking from the “expression” or “form” of rainmaking. The ritual described above was the “form” of rainmaking, but the “substance” was inti‐ mately tied to issues of governance: Although this is the form of rainmaking (qiyu zhi wen 祈雨之文), it is not the substance of rainmaking (qiyu zhi shi 祈雨之實). In ancient times, King Tang prayed at Mulberry Grove. He cut his fingernails and his hair. He made himself a sacrifice and said, “Is governance not proper? Have the people been harmed? Is the royal house honored? Are women flourishing? Have there been bribes? Have the meritorious been slandered? Oh, why has it not rained until now?” Later generations of gentlemen would undertake a self‐ accounting for the “seven matters” (qishi 七事). The first was to manage in‐ justice and litigation; the second was to lighten labor service requirements and taxes; the third was to have mercy on widows and widowers; the fourth was to approach the moral and the worthy; the fifth was to dismiss the cor‐ rupt and wicked; the sixth was to unite men and women so that none com‐ plain about being unmarried; the seventh was to reduce luxury and mini‐ mize one’s happiness and to exhaust one’s body for the people. For this reason, when a filial woman was killed in Donghai 東海, there was a drought for three years. Then Prince Yu 于公 went to make sacrifices at her grave, and it rained. This is an example of managing injustice and liti‐ gation. Sang Hongyang 桑宏羊 sought to benefit the state by establishing al‐ cohol taxes and salt and iron monopolies, and so heaven sent down a drought. Bu Shi 卜式 said, “Hongyang is a high minister of the emperor, but he is calculating profit like the petty people. If Hongyang were boiled alive, then maybe heaven would send rain.” This is an example of reducing labor service and taxes. When Zhou Chang 周暢 was serving as a magistrate in
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Heyang 河陽 [in modern Henan province], there was a protracted drought. For this reason, Chang gathered and buried the corpses of more than 10,000 outsiders who had died [with nobody to care for them], and immediately a soaking rain fell. This is an example of having mercy on widows and wid‐ owers. During the Guangwu 光武 reign, Runan 汝南 experienced a severe drought. At the time, Bao Yu 鮑昱 was serving as taishou, and he went per‐ sonally to visit with Gao Huo 高獲 [or Zhou Huo 周獲]. Huo said to imme‐ diately dismiss the heads of the three departments. Yu did so, and the result was a heavy rain. This is an example of approaching the virtuous and wor‐ thy. During the reign of Emperor He in the Later Han there was a drought. So the emperor went to a Luoyang temple to revise a sentence handed down to a criminal, and he knew that [the criminal] had been falsely charged. So [the emperor] received Luoyang’s head official and held him responsible for the errors of his lower‐level officials, demoting him to the position of Henan intendant. Before [the emperor] had arrived back at his quarters, there was a heavy rain. This is an example of dismissing the corrupt and wicked. When Dong Zhongshu was in Jiangdu 江都, there was a terrible drought. He in‐ structed his officials that, for all households more than 100 li distant, proc‐ lamations would be issued to notify the county that wives would be sent to look after the farmers. And it rained. This is an example of uniting men and women. All the followers of Dai Feng and Liang Fu prayed for rain while serving as officials. They exposed themselves in the yamen courtyard and intended to start a fire to burn themselves up, but great rains suddenly fell. This is an example of exhausting one’s body for the people. Now, those who shepherd the people must undertake a self‐accounting to see which of these seven matters he has and which ones he doesn’t. In the profound silence between heaven and human beings, how can one have in‐ fluence but through understanding? Thus, the yu sacrifice is the form of rainmaking, but the seven matters are the substance of rainmaking. The guest said, “In examining the gentleman’s words, the classics and histories can serve as evidence. Please record his words so that they can be dissemi‐ nated to virtuous provincial and local officials as a help in rainmaking.”52
Wang emphasizes here that in order to bring rain, the diligent offi‐ cial must not only perform the proper rituals—the “form” of rain‐ making—but also strive in his official duties to carry out the “seven matters”—the “substance” of rainmaking—which involved such things as managing judicial affairs, encouraging moral behavior, and promoting frugality. The two characters contrasted here, substance (shi 實) and form (wen 文), were central concepts in the statecraft movement. As mentioned above, statecraft scholars privileged “sub‐ stantive learning” (shixue) over “literary studies” (wenxue), and it is
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not entirely surprising to find the distinction applied to rainmaking. Yet it is still puzzling. On one hand, the author went to great lengths to provide a detailed description of what he considered to be a proper rainmaking ritual. Then he immediately turned around and stated that the ritual is wen and not shi. A similar distinction was made by another statecraft scholar in the same collection of essays. In an essay on grain prices, Ye Yuren 葉裕仁 wrote: Now, for a few months it hasn’t rained, and initially seeds could not be sown. The high officials prayed for rain, but for a long time there was no re‐ sponse. I say that heaven is served through shi, not through wen (qie wei shi‐ tian yishi bu yiwen 竊謂事天以實不以文). Erecting altars, rigorously praying, making sacrifices, prohibiting slaughter—these are the wen [of rainmaking]. Relaxing labor service, managing injustice and litigation, holding oneself re‐ sponsible for the “six matters” in the manner of King Tang, regulating one’s crooked behavior (ceshen xiuxing 側身脩行)53 in the manner of King Xuan— these are the shi [of rainmaking].54
The position taken by Ye is more forceful than Wang’s, but it is simi‐ lar in content. Both authors seem to be saying that rainmaking rituals do not operate in isolation, but are intimately connected to proper governance. It is important to note that neither is arguing that the ritual aspects of rainmaking are insignificant. William Rowe cautions against interpreting the statecraft movement and the writings in‐ cluded in the Jingshi wenbian as a one‐sided attack on ritual knowl‐ edge. It emphasized practical learning, “but the Jingshi wenbian was by no means simply materialist and utilitarian. Ritual propriety was taken seriously, as was scholarly practice.”55 Nowhere do these au‐ thors say that prayers should not be offered or rituals should not be performed. They are saying not that ritual is unimportant, but that rainmaking needs to be linked to bureaucratic behavior. The sharp distinction modern scholars might make between ritual perfor‐ mances and “utilitarian” behavior simply did not exist for most Qing officials. Since droughts were often considered to be a message from heaven, a warning of official impropriety, genuine rainmaking should attack the problem not only through ritual but also by striv‐ ing to rectify the behavior of officials. The behavior that these statecraft scholars thought should be rec‐ tified appears variously as the “six matters” or the “seven matters.” The six matters are usually cited in reference to King Tang, who is reported as asking the following questions as he offered himself as a
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sacrifice: “Is governance not proper? Have the people been harmed? Is the royal house honored? Are women flourishing? Have there been bribes? Have the meritorious been slandered? Oh, why has it not rained until now?” Precisely how and why these six questions became transformed into the “seven matters” is unclear, but by the Qing, most commentators seemed to agree that there were seven core responsibilities for the Chinese official, as enumerated by Wang Gai above: managing injustice and litigation, lightening labor service requirements and taxes, having mercy on widows and widowers, approaching the moral and worthy, dismissing the corrupt and wicked, uniting men and women, and exhausting one’s body for the people. It should come as no surprise that this process of voluntary self‐inventory was also promoted by the Qing state. In the regula‐ tions governing the yu sacrifice promulgated in 1742, the Board of Ritual acknowledged the seven matters and singled out the first, managing justice and litigation, for special comment. A thorough examination reveals that the seven matters were carried out in ancient rainmaking, the first of which is managing injustice and litigation. Consequently, injustice and litigation should be quickly dealt with, and cor‐ poral punishment (qiaopu 敲扑) should be temporarily suspended. Since the days devoted to fasting are few, all yamens should [temporarily] suspend the handing out of punishments.56
The issue of unjust punishments appears to have been a special con‐ cern for the Qing court. There are several indications that droughts were thought to result from particularly egregious miscarriages of justice. During the great North China Famine of 1876–79, one censor remarked, “I have heard that if one woman suffers an injustice, for three years there will be no rain.” Another censor wondered whether the drought was caused by “excessive judicial torture,” citing as proof an episode that occurred during the Han dynasty, when a filial wife was unjustly executed.57 Such considerations may account for the state’s frequent reminders to officials to hand out judicial pun‐ ishments carefully. In fact, the state likely benefited from any self‐ policing efforts undertaken by officials, since such efforts would pre‐ sumably make them more vigilant and conscientious. Wang Gai encouraged “those who shepherd the people” to under‐ take a self‐examination to determine if they had been engaged in
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possible misconduct. In most accounts, the official included a self‐ accounting (zize 自責) in his public prayers during rainmaking activi‐ ties. In some cases, officials went even further. In an essay generi‐ cally entitled “Rain Prayer” (“Qiyuwen” 祈雨文) included in the Jingshi wenbian, Han Mengzhou 韓夢周 demonstrated the general spirit of these self‐accountings, zealously swearing an oath in front of the city god that he would uphold the “ten matters.” Alas, since the beginning of summer, rain and moisture have been lacking. I have already prayed to the city god, but since I lack utmost sincerity, the god has rejected my virtue (shen bu wode 神不我德). Yet the people groan with fear. I have made prayers and “there are no spirits I have not honored” (mi shen buju 靡神不舉). I, Mengzhou, am the official who presides over the people. When they grieve or they celebrate, I share it. When they die or are born, I see it. Morning and night I am agitated because there is nothing I do not know [about them]. I submit myself in honor of your faithfulness to offi‐ cials past and present and your efficacy in this jurisdiction. Since the Great Qing received its mandate, impressive and auspicious rituals have been conducted to repay your kindness. I presume to think that the people of each jurisdiction belong to the Son of Heaven, and each appointed official shepherds the people on his behalf. Honorable god, your shelter and protection of the people are boundless, but my own pettiness and vulgarity are immeasurable. Yet I wish to beg for life on behalf of the people, and so I presume to swear an oath of the “ten matters” (shishi 十事) to the deity, so that you may punish [me], the official, and pity the people. May I die and not perish (si qie buxiu 死且不朽) [if any of the following is true]: if I have been greedy for profit and mistreated the people’s livelihood, may you punish me for ten years; if I have been cruel and bitter in my administration of punishments and mistreated the people, may I be punished for ten years; if I have received intercessions [to grant fa‐ vors] and bent the truth, may I be punished for five years; if I have been haughty and indolent, thinking not of the people’s sorrows, and if I have neglected my official duties, may I be punished for five years; if the admini‐ stration of justice has not reached evildoers, the wicked have robbed the good, and the good have had no exemplars, may I be punished for three years; if the agriculture and sericulture the people depend on has not flour‐ ished, may I be punished for three years; if schools have not opened, or if teachers have been insincere, may I be punished for three years; if I have curried favor with those above in a lust for gain or have obstinately thought of being in a position of favor, may I be punished for three years; if those widowers and widows have been treated carelessly and not been cherished,
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causing them to lose heart, may I be punished for three years; if I have al‐ lowed the authority of clerks, runners, or false officials ( jiaguan 假官) to work their cruelty on the powerless, may I be punished for three years. In all there are ten matters. If I personally have any of these, truly this evil conduct is the reason for the unseasonable weather. May the god strike me dead if [I have] accumulated any of these faults or more, and calculate what it adds up to. Then go inform the gods of heaven and earth to eradicate this sickness, revive the people, and send seasonable rains, so that the myriad classes are glorious and bright, the people’s livelihood is vigorous and con‐ stant, and the god’s grace and virtue may extend to generation after genera‐ tion without end. Deign to accept this offering!58
The ideas expressed in this prayer are echoed in other essays con‐ tained in the Jingshi wenbian that deal with rainmaking: a palpable concern for the people, a conviction that unseasonable weather is caused by government mismanagement, and a willingness to put one’s own well‐being at risk for the good of one’s people. Han hum‐ bled himself in front of the city god and asked to be tortured by the deity if he has engaged in inappropriate conduct or ignored his offi‐ cial duties. The prayer includes a list of the “ten matters,” among which the most important—judging from those receiving the most punishment—were corruption, injustice, and neglect. Self‐criticisms or oaths such as this served as a way for officials to admit their shortcomings to deities, but they also served as promises that offi‐ cials made to their constituents. This official was not simply saying he was willing to subject himself to divine punishment to atone for any past activity that may have precipitated the drought. Since these prayers were often read during public rainmaking performances, he was also making a promise to the people—in front of the deity—that he would uphold certain principles of virtuous rule. In many ways, this prayer is a perfect example of the rainmaking model that many statecraft scholars sought to promote. While some statecraft writings provided positive examples of the rainmaking rituals this group of scholars supported, others sug‐ gested what kinds of rainmaking activities were unacceptable. For example, Wang Gai criticized those who followed the rainmaking advice of Daoist priests with their “preposterous talismans and amu‐ lets.” These sentiments are echoed elsewhere in statecraft writings. One particularly thorough explanation of what forms of rainmaking should not be tolerated is provided in an essay entitled “An Explana‐
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tion of Praying for Rain” (“Qiuyushuo” 求雨說) written by Yu Zheng‐ xie 俞正燮 (1775–1840).59 After beginning by describing the laudable rainmaking efforts of King Tang, Yu criticized certain rainmaking practices, such as exposing cripples. Then we have the “itinerant dinner guests” ( youshi shike 游士食客) who coerce gentlemen and stir up trouble. This is what is called “using seductive lan‐ guage to incite the people,” and it contributes to perverse practices. When we look to the classics, we see in the “Yunhan” that sacrifices and the trappings of power were used from suburban altar to temple hall. Ruler and ministers were vigilant and persistent, and so they were successful. When we look to the biographies, we see that Zuo’s Chunqiu says that in the twenty‐first year of Duke Xi there was a severe drought. The duke wanted to burn a female me‐ dium and cripple, but Zang Wenzhong 臧文仲 said, “If heaven wanted to kill them, then it would not have given them life. If they are responsible for mak‐ ing the drought, then burning them will only make it worse. So, put your in‐ ner and outer walls in order, decrease your food consumption, be thrifty and encourage people to mind their affairs, and the lack [of rain] will not be harm‐ ful.” When we look to the annals, we see that Tan Gong 檀弓 says that Duke Mu of Lu wanted to expose a cripple and medium, but Xuanzi said, “To ex‐ pose a sick person when it does not rain is cruel, and to ask foolish women to beseech rain is stupid.” As for moving the marketplace during inauspicious rituals, Mengzi says that during times of drought and flood, the altar of soil and grain should be re‐established. It is said that in ancient times during droughts that the people moved the marketplace, and the altar of soil and grain followed them. However, I have never heard of killing people or killing oneself during drought years, or using strange methods to coerce the deities.
While Yu clearly disapproved of the custom of exposing cripples, he reserved his most trenchant criticism for the practice of self‐ immolation. In Dai Feng’s biography in the Hou Han shu, it says, “While [Dai] Feng was serving as an official in Xihua 西華, there was a severe drought, and he prayed with no result. So he gathered up a pile of brush, sat in the middle of it, and set himself on fire. The fire rose up, and a great downpour ensued, upon which there was a gasp of admiration both near and far.” And in Liang Fu’s biography it says that while [Liang] Fu was serving as the head of Guanghan, there was a severe drought. The taishou prayed but nothing fell. [Liang] Fu exposed himself in the courtyard and cried fervently that heaven and earth had been obstructed and that the blame lay with him. But there was no rain that day, and his body was beyond recognition. He prepared to burn himself. He piled up brush and gathered grass all around him. Before
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the end of the day, there was a heavy rain which soaked the whole province. The world said he aspired to sincerity (zhicheng 志誠).60 Dai Feng was only an official and absurdly imitated King Tang, and so he was already crazy. Liang Fu was a lower‐level official yet had the audacity to make a boastful speech in the provincial yamen about how his body could eliminate the obstruction between heaven and earth, which is why he gath‐ ered brush and set fire to himself. The Later Han was no longer in turmoil, and so the provincial head’s authority was great—indeed, he should have been killed! Lü Buwei’s 呂不韋 Chunqiu, the biography of King An 安王 from Huainan 淮南 [in the Han shu], and Fan Weizong’s 范蔚宗 [version of the Han shu] from the Song all say that it is inauspicious to put people to death. The context for these accounts has been glossed over in hopes of upsetting the relations between higher and lower. It is a clever explanation that cannot be followed. Praying for rain is undertaken for the people. So killing people is not ap‐ propriate. Those who are appointed to be officials must be engaged in the af‐ fairs of the world. Natural calamities happen, and you are bound to experi‐ ence one at some time. It is not appropriate to commit suicide because it does not rain; rather, beseech the gods and properly manage one’s affairs. It is not appropriate to use death to coerce deities; instead they should be asked through ritual. It is not appropriate to diverge from the proper way and use perverse methods for this makes a mockery of the gods. For this reason, there are rules for rainmaking. On the twenty‐eighth day of the fifth month of 1785, the court sent an edict to the Henan provincial governor Bi Yuan 畢沅. Although it was acceptable for Bi Yuan to sincerely pray for rain, he was not allowed to use the perverse “uterus reverse‐altar method” (yuebo fantan 月孛翻壇). This official was to follow the conduct that had been forever revered. On the eleventh day of the sixth month of 1724, an edict was issued to the Board of Ritual: “People’s rainmaking and rainstop‐ ping methods are [carried out] in extreme disregard of proper ritual. I [the Yongzheng emperor] have been praying with sincere heart but still worry that highest heaven will not respond at all. The people have been arbitrarily erecting altars and rounding up deities that are offensive. Worthless Bud‐ dhist monks and Daoist priests conduct absurd rainmaking activities that are none of their business. If one desires to make rain, one should only main‐ tain a sincere heart and make prostrations and prayers. Of what use are all these various methods? Hereafter, other than [the method described] in this edict, it is still permitted to make rain by chanting scriptures in temples. But if one privately (sizi 私自) erects altars and appropriates the name of rain‐ making to conduct these absurd methods, it will be considered ‘using seduc‐ tive language to incite the people’ and prosecuted as a crime. The Board has
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been notified; let word be sent to the Eight Banners and five cities to be rig‐ orously carried out.” The farmers must be notified of this. Disloyal subjects use false rainmak‐ ing to make money, form associations, eat, and be merry. Disorderly people use rainmaking to coerce officials and wealthy households. They delight in selfishness and spread illicit teachings (xiejiao 邪教), all of which the spirits deeply despise. This serves only to exacerbate the drought or flood, which brings the farmers no blessings or protection. But it is hard to speak of this during a crisis, and so the farmers must be taught beforehand to maintain proper decorum (shouli 守禮) while seeking good fortune and to be thor‐ oughly familiar with the dangers of aberrant rituals. Baojia heads and village elders should as always be on guard so that the feelings of those above and below are in agreement. When [the rules of] propriety are clear, then cus‐ toms will be correct.61
Like Wang, Yu was interested in curbing certain kinds of rainmaking practices. In Yu’s view, droughts happen, and there is little officials can do except to “beseech the gods and properly manage one’s af‐ fairs.” Any “distorted methods” used to coerce the gods are unac‐ ceptable. He points to two imperial edicts. One prohibited a provin‐ cial governor from using a highly sexualized rainmaking technique called the “uterus reverse‐altar method,” which was also mentioned in Chapter 1 of this study. The other edict criticizes people who are “arbitrarily erecting altars and rounding up deities that are offen‐ sive” as well as Buddhist monks and Daoist priests who “conduct absurd rainmaking activities that are none of their business.” Yu’s concern here is twofold. First, “false rainmaking” is unacceptable to the gods and may actually prolong the drought. Second, unscrupu‐ lous individuals use these rainmaking methods to cheat people and spread illicit teachings. Yu also took aim at a practice we have seen several times thus far: human sacrifice. The bulk of Yu’s essay is dedicated to correcting what he saw as erroneous views surrounding the role of human sac‐ rifice, especially self‐sacrifice, in rainmaking. He pointed to early texts that decry the practice of exposing female mediums and crip‐ ples. He also provided a different reading of the stories of the Han officials Dai Feng and Liang Fu who threatened suicide in order to bring rain. Yu claimed that Dai and Liang were usurpers who vainly attempted to emulate the actions of King Tang; in doing so, however,
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they overstepped their authority as officials. He even joked that such behavior should have been punished with death. Yu’s position seems to be that threatening self‐sacrifice was acceptable for King Tang but not for others. To do so was to risk “upsetting the relations between higher and lower.” The fact that Yu went to such great lengths to denounce this practice suggests that it happened relatively frequently—frequently enough that Yu devoted the entire fourth paragraph to telling officials they should avoid it.62 Instead of resort‐ ing to these methods, Yu thought people need only maintain a sin‐ cere heart and perform simple rituals involving prostrations and prayers. But was this view shared by most officials, or even most statecraft writers? It should be clear from the essays quoted above that, al‐ though certain themes such as rectifying official behavior appear frequently in statecraft writings, far more divided these authors than united them. Some authors advocated performing elaborate altar rituals; others were in favor of making simple prayers with sincere hearts. Wang Gai hailed the self‐sacrifice of officials such as Dai Feng and Liang Fu as praiseworthy examples of “exhausting one’s body for the people,” but Yu Zhengxie decried them as examples of “up‐ setting the relations between higher and lower.” Similarly, some authors spoke of the “seven matters,” whereas Han Mengzhou al‐ luded to the “ten matters.” And how exactly do other methods fit into this discourse? One statecraft writer, Zhang Pengfei 張鵬飛 ad‐ vocated the ancient practice of throwing a tiger bone into a dragon fen to “disturb the dragon” and bring rain: Methods for rainmaking are many, but those that “disturb the dragon” should be carried out only during a prolonged drought. . . . I have person‐ ally seen the successful performance of this method on three different occa‐ sions in Sichuan. But you have to obtain a genuine tiger bone and throw it into a dragon fen to get an immediate result. It will not work if it is not a [genuine] bone or if the fen does not actually have a dragon in it. I know that at places such as Dragon Gate [Mountain] in Hancheng county [Shanxi], the three river mouths in Zhaoyi county [Shaanxi], the mouth of the Jing River in Gao Ling county [Shaanxi], the Nine Dragon Spring in Dali county [Shaanxi], and the three pools at Taibai Mountain—these places definitely have submerged dragons. Purchase a genuine tiger bone, and inquire into how to carry it out.63
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One can only imagine what Yu Zhengxie would have thought of this, but judging from the tone of his essay, one gets the feeling that he might have disapproved.
An Unruly Order Something was amiss in the rainmaking affairs of the Qing state. The central government had drawn up guidelines for imperial rainmak‐ ing rituals, and it had even gone to the effort of revamping its central rainmaking sacrifice in 1742. As we have seen, the public imperial rituals were well developed, thoroughly explained, and left little to the imagination. Yet even the imperial household appears to have regularly augmented public rituals with private rituals of its own. Similarly, the state had also prescribed a set of rainmaking rituals to be performed at lower levels of the administrative hierarchy. How‐ ever, these regulations were less specific than those provided for rainmaking sacrifices at the highest level, and they appear to have been frequently ignored or “supplemented” by local officials. Begin‐ ning in the nineteenth century, some scholars associated with the statecraft movement attempted to impose some semblance of order on a situation that many seemed to think was quite chaotic. Yet even the attempts of these scholars were hampered by confusion over which rainmaking activities were acceptable and which were un‐ acceptable. The problem with all these attempts to regularize state rainmak‐ ing was those who carried them out were fighting an uphill battle against history and tradition. The official rainmaking tradition, out‐ lined in the preceding chapter, had developed over the course of more than two millennia of Chinese history. It had its own rules and strategies that predated the founding of the Qing dynasty and, in many ways, superseded its authority. As a result, the rules of tradi‐ tion were not the same as the guidelines issued by the state or the suggestions proffered by activist officials. The contradictions and in‐ stability of the official rainmaking regime are most evident in state‐ craft writings, where authors cited canonical texts and historical precedent to promote one particular rainmaking method or another. Citing precedent is a time‐honored practice in the Chinese scholarly tradition, but it is far less effective when an enormous body of litera‐
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ture exists that provides textual support for a wide range of rain‐ making practices: exposing cripples, sacrificing dogs, building earthen dragons, collecting frogs, threatening self‐immolation, recit‐ ing incantations, throwing tiger bones into dragon holes, and so forth. There were few rainmaking techniques that had not been tried by some distinguished official in the past and recorded in an authori‐ tative text. Thus, statecraft scholars such as Yu Zhengxie, who pro‐ moted a relatively narrow definition of official rainmaking, found themselves in the awkward position of having to argue that the re‐ ceived tradition was wrong. Even if such arguments persuaded offi‐ cials to change their views of rainmaking, it is not the kind of change that could have been effected quickly. It is curious that the central government did not weigh in on this matter more forcefully. The imperial edicts cited by Yu Zhengxie suggest that the throne was not happy with the way rainmaking ac‐ tivities were conducted at the local level, at least at certain moments in history. Certainly, the central government was aware of what was happening, considering the many published accounts of local rain‐ making activities. Norman Kutcher has demonstrated that a similar kind of inconsistency existed in late imperial mourning rituals, as state regulations were routinely undermined in practice by emperors and officials. Kutcher suggests that a rhetorical commitment to “Confucian values” compelled the state to issue regulations requir‐ ing officials to leave office and observe a period of mourning. How‐ ever, the state was either unable or unwilling to enforce its own regulations, and the practice of mourning at one’s post continued unabated.64 In the case of rainmaking, it could be that the govern‐ ment knew what was occurring at the local level but lacked the power to enforce its own regulations. It is also plausible that the state refrained from enforcing its own standards in this area because it simply did not know whose rainmaking vision to endorse. Perhaps it was more prudent to leave this area of ritual undefined than to im‐ pose a narrow definition that omitted certain traditions and risked alienating officials and elites—or worse, the people over whom they ruled. The net result of state inaction, however, was the proliferation of official rainmaking activities at the local level, activities described in detail in the next chapter.
SIX
The Importance of Being Earnest
As is clear from the preceding two chapters, official rainmaking was not sealed off from the rest of the world. Rather, it was a thoroughly social activity that involved the entire community—commoners, elites, clerics, and officials. As a result, it was also a thoroughly politi‐ cal activity that embodied the desires of its participants, a medium through which claims were asserted, contested, and resolved. For this reason, official rainmaking speaks to a central issue in the study of Chinese history and religion; namely, the nature of state ritual and the role that the state’s religious practices played in state‐society re‐ lations. Previous studies have emphasized the distinctiveness of state religious practices and the ways these practices were used to shape the local religious landscape; this chapter argues that such characterizations do not tell the entire story. Indeed, a closer exami‐ nation reveals that local constituencies took advantage of official rainmaking activities to assert their own claims against local officials. This suggests that although the state may have attempted to control the religious practices of local communities, local communities also made an effort to control the religious practices of the state. This, in turn, raises important questions about state ritual and local govern‐ ance in the late imperial period.
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The Challenge of Drought As this study and others like it have made clear, drought presented a particular challenge to local communities in late imperial China. Droughts were widely recognized as signaling a departure from the routine of everyday existence and a deviation from life as it was in‐ tended to be lived. No two droughts were the same. Some droughts were severe and lasted years; others were mild in comparison and lasted only a matter of weeks. Some occurred in wealthy regions with ample support systems that allowed them to cope with crisis better; others afflicted poorer areas, decimating their populations and immiserating generations of people. Regardless of the particu‐ larities, all droughts disrupted daily life and highlighted the inde‐ terminacy of social experience. As is the case with crises in general, droughts could call into question existing social and political struc‐ tures and cast doubt on the desirability of their continuing in the fu‐ ture. As Paul Cohen has demonstrated, this indeterminacy produced anxiety among the population, which could ultimately lead to social panic if it persisted.1 Of course, different sectors of the population experienced drought differently. The primary concern for commoners in a largely agricul‐ tural society was that drought would make the planting or harvest‐ ing of crops difficult, if not impossible. Even if a drought did not compromise a farmer’s entire crop, a significant reduction in yields could easily spell disaster for those whose lives hovered precariously above the subsistence level. Some farmers would have difficulty pay‐ ing their taxes and debts, and, if the drought was severe, they would have trouble feeding themselves and their families. When this hap‐ pened, many farmers were forced out of their homes to search for food wherever they could find it. Such situations could easily spin out of control, affecting the entire community, rich and poor alike. During severe droughts, rents went unpaid, agricultural markets were disrupted, and thievery and brigandage proliferated. Although the poor were more vulnerable to these disturbances, wealthy households had much to lose as well. Not only did they risk losing income and property, but they also were expected to contribute gen‐ erously to relief efforts, which while not ruinous, could be quite costly. Thus, drought was something the entire community took se‐ riously and sought to avoid.
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The same thing could be said of local officials. All Chinese offi‐ cials dreaded natural calamities such as drought. Local administra‐ tion became infinitely more complicated when officials had to cope with the fiscal and social problems that often accompanied drought. They had to deal with revenue shortfalls and social dislocation, and they were responsible for directing government relief efforts. All these activities could be time‐consuming and difficult to execute ef‐ fectively. Yet officials had an additional worry: they were often blamed for the onset of natural calamities. It was thought that drought was heaven’s way of expressing its displeasure with the state of human affairs. As a result, any time that an area suffered from drought, the local officials could be held responsible. They could be blamed directly if they were suspected of personal malfea‐ sance such as corruption or indolence, or indirectly if they were per‐ ceived as failing to monitor the behavior of their constituents prop‐ erly. In either case, droughts were inherently delegitimating events, since they challenged the status and authority claims of officials. As a result, droughts presented officials with a potential public relations disaster if they were unable to manage the crisis in an appropriate manner and were blamed personally for the calamity. Most parties clearly had a stake in quickly resolving an ongoing drought. The problem was that not all parties reacted to drought in quite the same way. They had different understandings of the causes of the drought and, consequently, proposed different methods for resolving it. With the stakes so high for everyone involved, different parties sought to assert control over how the crisis should be han‐ dled. In most cases, these efforts took place through the ritualized in‐ teractions of rainmaking activities, as officials and local people con‐ tested different strategies for managing the crisis.
Official Rainmaking Strategies As we have seen, officials were told that they should “care for the people” as if they were their own children. This “parent‐official” ideology demanded that officials do all they could to alleviate the distress of the people by administering famine relief, relocating refu‐ gees, and maintaining the peace. They were also expected to initiate rainmaking activities in an effort to end the drought. As we have seen, official rainmaking activities could be quite diverse and ranged
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from emotional appeals and feats of endurance to various occult technologies. This diversity had its roots in different techniques, symbols, and guides to action that had originated in ancient Chinese practices. Yet, I have argued, this diversity can be attributed at least in part to the attitude of the Qing state, which was relatively un‐ interested in closely monitoring and policing the rainmaking prac‐ tices of local officials. For this reason, it is helpful to think of official rainmaking as be‐ ing “performer‐centric,” rather than liturgy‐driven. In making this distinction, I am interested in drawing attention to a difference be‐ tween rainmaking activities and other official rituals: no single lit‐ urgy governed rainmaking activities from start to finish. No master script provided local officials with detailed instructions about how they should proceed.2 Rather, officials had at their disposal a wide range of ritual elements—a “tool kit”—that they could incorpo‐ rate into their rainmaking. Some of these elements, such as self‐ immolation and altar rituals, originated in ancient practices; others were of more recent provenance. Yet there was no established for‐ mula for arranging these elements during the rainmaking process. That is to say, no fixed procedure stipulated what officials should do and when they should do it. As a result, officials had a remarkable amount of latitude in selecting which ritual elements to employ and, more important, how to carry them out. Thus, each rainmaking event reflected a series of decisions by officials about how they should proceed. This did not mean that an official could pray for rain arbitrarily, employing any rainmaking technique that appealed to his whim and fancy. On the contrary, over time distinct patterns had emerged in official rainmaking, as different techniques were reproduced repeat‐ edly by successive generations of officials. Although this repetition did not lead to the development of detailed scripts followed by all officials, it did create different “strategies for action” that resonated with officials and their constituents. These strategies were not so much detailed blueprints for liturgical conduct as clusters of “sym‐ bols, rituals, and stories” organized around exemplary official rain‐ makers.3 These archetypes have appeared frequently in this study. Officials could, for example, find inspiration in the models of King Xuan, who lamented the persistence of drought and the suffering of
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Fig. 6.1 Cholera victims during a famine in China accosting an official. Source: from Le Petit journal, Paris, March 1907; courtesy of Ann Ronan Picture Library.
his people; King Tang, who, in an act of utter selflessness, threatened to offer himself as a burnt offering; and Dong Zhongshu, whose knowledge of the inner workings of the universe enabled him to manipulate the cosmos and bring rain. The goal of officials who emulated these exemplars was not simply to copy their actions— although this occasionally happened—but to instantiate the emo‐ tionality, intentionality, and efficacy of their performances. The strategies of action favored by many officials can generally be characterized as “heroic,” in the sense that rainmaking often cast of‐ ficials as performing extraordinary, beneficial deeds. The three ex‐ amples discussed above depict rulers and officials as possessing ex‐ ceptional pathos, benevolence, or knowledge. They are represented as powerful protagonists who use their exceptional attributes to bring rain and save their people from certain death.4 These heroic strategies persisted into the late imperial period and inspired genera‐ tions of officials. In virtually all the rainmaking accounts discussed in this study, officials represented themselves as pushing the limits of the ordinary. In some cases, they subjected themselves to bod‐ ily pain and suffering as they engaged in strenuous processions to
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distant sacred sites, long bouts of kneeling, and protracted exposure in the hot sun. In other cases, they employed esoteric forms of knowledge to manipulate individual deities or the cosmos. In all cases, however, officials represented themselves as being indispen‐ sable to the well‐being of the community and as controlling the re‐ sources that could be used to end drought—resources such as ritual knowledge, relationships with deities, and sacerdotal authority. Over time, these resources became so closely identified with offi‐ cialdom that most rainmaking activities—even those organized by commoners—involved official participation of some sort. Officials fasted, burned incense, and conducted “walking and praying” cere‐ monies. They fetched water, exposed themselves to the elements, and threatened self‐immolation. In all these cases, officials assumed an ac‐ tive and direct role in the event, usually by serving as central perform‐ ers in the rainmaking activity. In other cases, official participation was less conspicuous but no less important. Actions such as prohibiting the slaughter of animals, offering a reward for the capture of the “drought demon,” and ordering the city gates shut may have been less spectacular, but these measures also required the involvement of local officials. In a study of Mount Taibai in Shaanxi province, the scholar Zhang Xiaohong 張曉虹 corroborates this finding: One thing is clear, whether in the rainmaking rituals conducted at the main Taibai shrines or in the rainmaking rituals conducted subsequently at satellite Taibai temples, the chief celebrant was always the head of the local government.
In addition to being the chief celebrant at these rituals, Zhang says, Most rainmaking rituals were promoted or organized by the government. All rainmaking activities such as dispatching monks and priests to make of‐ ferings and prayers, making sacrifices to the “efficacious water” at Mount Taibai, fetching efficacious water to bring back, or having officials and peo‐ ple welcome [the water] in the outskirts of town with drums and music—all originated with the government.5
According to Zhang, even small‐scale rainmaking activities were or‐ ganized by officials. Thus, by the late imperial period, it would be no exaggeration to say that officials had become the focal point of the community’s rainmaking efforts.
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Competing Rainmaking Strategies Official rainmaking strategies commanded authority and respect, but an official could never impose them unilaterally on the community. Although rainmaking activities provided an opportunity for an offi‐ cial to assert claims of authority, these claims could be contested by his constituents. In some cases, the contestation began even before the rainmaking. As mentioned above, there was some uncertainty as to when precisely official rainmaking activities should begin. Rain‐ making activities typically commenced when farmers entered the administrative city to “report famine” to local officials or when elites petitioned officials to institute fasts or issue prohibitions against the slaughter of animals. In most cases, we have little information on why officials began to pray for rain. The limited evidence, however, suggests that officials themselves rarely initiated rainmaking activi‐ ties. This may have been simply a procedural issue; farmers pos‐ sessed the most reliable information on the need for rainmaking and customarily took the initiative to request prayers on their behalf. Yet, as earlier chapters have shown, there was a disincentive for officials to acknowledge that a crisis was developing. Because officials could be blamed for crises, they may have tried to downplay the severity of the situation and carry on “business as usual,” hoping that the situation would resolve itself. As we shall see, rainmaking failure brought its own punishments, and the fear that their efforts might not prove successful also may have deterred officials from commenc‐ ing rainmaking activities. Of course, an official could not delay action indefinitely, espe‐ cially in the face of a mounting consensus that a crisis was, in fact, at hand. In an incident mentioned above, farmers in Jiashan 嘉善 county, Zhejiang, entered the county seat to report famine in the countryside and “to scold the magistrate and request his resigna‐ tion” (chitui 斥退). The crowd of farmers knelt outside the magis‐ trate’s yamen and burned incense, pleading with the magistrate to inspect their fields.6 By kneeling in front of the yamen, burning in‐ cense, and begging the magistrate to come out, farmers acknowl‐ edged their dependence on the official while physically demonstrat‐ ing their subordination to him. At the same time, by publicly
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throwing themselves at the mercy of the magistrate, farmers drew at‐ tention to his unresponsiveness and gave the impression that he was unconcerned with the plight of his people. In essence, farmers were using the official ideology of benevolent rule as a weapon against the magistrate by using his purported lack of compassion as a pretext for requesting his resignation. We do not know whether the official eventually complied with the demands of the people, but he was forced to send two subordinates to appease the protesters. Elites could also use their substantial resources to influence when and where rainmaking activities were carried out. In another exam‐ ple discussed above, during the 1880 drought, the head of the Daosheng Hall charity in Hankou, Hubei, invited all the benevolent institutions in the city to present a joint petition to local officials. The petition asked officials to require twenty‐eight business firms in the city to contribute money to a relief fund. It also asked permission to erect an altar in a local temple where Daoist priests could recite scriptures and perform a 49‐day jiao ceremony. In addition, the peti‐ tioners asked the magistrate to issue a proclamation prohibiting the slaughter of animals and the sale of “strong‐smelling” food items, and they demanded punishment of all those who ignored the prohi‐ bitions. The main text of the proclamation eventually issued by the magistrate reads: The weather has been fair, and it has not rained for a long time. The beans and wheat cannot be grown, and there have been many fires. All you mer‐ chants and people are probably equally worried. But if you desire to restore the heart of heaven, you must tend to human affairs. The elites and mer‐ chants (shenshang 紳商) from the area have collected funds to erect a fasting altar at the Shen Family Temple 沈家廟, so that scriptures can be read and repentance rituals might be conducted. And from this office, I will lead the assembly to humbly and sincerely pray for rain. It is ordered that from the twenty‐ninth day of this month to the second day of next month, slaughter will be prohibited. During these three days, all large and small taverns, as well as all establishments that serve cooked food, will temporarily close for business. The buying and selling of fish and shrimp are also forbidden, in order to demonstrate sincerity and purity. Al‐ though yamen runners will be sent out momentarily to observe, it is in‐ tended that this proclamation be respected uniformly by all. If it is discov‐ ered that some are only pretending to observe this prohibition, then they will be arrested and punished. Tremblingly obey this special proclamation!7
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In this particular case, elites used their involvement with charitable institutions as a means to shape official rainmaking in a way they con‐ sidered meaningful. Elites expressed their compassion and concern for the people by collecting funds for relief and by petitioning the magistrate to begin rainmaking activities. They also used their re‐ sources to influence where rainmaking would be conducted and what it would entail—the recitation of scriptures and the performance of a jiao ceremony. In this way, they capitalized on their status as commu‐ nity leaders to determine the content of official rainmaking activities. Elites encouraged activities they considered more proper or more effi‐ cacious and simultaneously secured patronage and influence for insti‐ tutions they supported. The magistrate, however, did not simply con‐ cede all responsibility in the matter to elites. Rather, he issued a proclamation and promised to vigilantly enforce the prohibitions. In the process, he asserted his political power in the community and his formal legal authority over elites, even though at least some of his de‐ cision‐making power was being appropriated by others. Once rainmaking began, people did not sit idly by if they did not agree with officials’ handling of the crisis. Members of the commu‐ nity who felt that officials were performing their duties incorrectly or unenthusiastically would often resist in various ways, either by criti‐ cizing officials or by circumventing their authority altogether. For example, when officials failed to enforce prohibitions, townspeople sometimes took matters into their own hands. During a drought that befell Shanghai in the summer of 1873, officials began conducting rainmaking activities in the third week in July, with no apparent success. On August 7, however, clouds began to gather and a north‐ westerly wind began to blow, suggesting that it would rain within the next few days. Yet, even as relief for the beleaguered city ap‐ peared to be at hand, a mysterious thing happened. The North China Herald reported the event in this way: A fire broke out on Wednesday at 12:25 P.M. at the back of the French Con‐ cession, in the block of Chinese houses lately put up opposite the premises of the Southern Methodist Mission. There was some delay in giving the alarm, which was not rung in the English Settlement till 12:45; and within the interval the whole block had been destroyed, except a thin fringe of rather better houses built on the north side. The houses burned were con‐ structed almost entirely of straw and bamboo, and some idea of the rapidity
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with which they burned may be gathered from the fact that the houses we have referred to as saved, were hardly injured. The blaze seems to have ex‐ ploded and finished; not lasting long enough to catch buildings which re‐ quired a little time to light. All was over, so far as this block was concerned, before any of the Fire Brigade had time to arrive. There was, however, ample work left over for the firemen; the wind had carried showers of sparks across the creek, and set fire to the flimsy houses of scarcely better class on the opposite side. Those who know the neighbor‐ hood will remember that there are two narrow roads leading into the coun‐ try here, one in continuation of the Rue du Consulat, the other nearly oppo‐ site the Gas Works, each crossing the creek by a bridge. The fire caught the houses immediately south of the latter road, and the first Miholoongs who arrived were just in time to throw down a few huts and some fencing, which in five minutes would have carried the flames across the road to the large village stretching away to the Defence Creek. This was saved. The ‘Deluge’ now coming up got to work on the bridge next the fire, while the ‘Victoria’ stood on the bridge near Probst’s garden. And both directed three powerful streams into the burning block through an opening cut by the Miholoongs, No. 1 at the same time drawing water from the Defence Creek, and several other engines giving material aid from the opposite side, on the Rue du Consulat bridge. The heat and smoke were intense, and the stench from burning tallow, pigs, bones, and rubbish, intolerable; several firemen we are sorry to hear were completely overcome and obliged to leave the ground. Fortunately it was soon over; by about 2:15 the fire had been got under; only a dozen or so of houses on this side having been burnt. Even late yesterday afternoon, the smell was sufficiently bad to give an idea of what it must have been at the height of the fire. Those of our readers who know the locality will remember that there is a great straw traffic along this creek, and many of the houses that burned were stuffed with this com‐ bustible. The Chinese say it was one of these which caught fire. There were also some slaughter‐houses in the block; and a number of pigs and sheep in pen; the latter seem to have got loose and were wandering, after the fire, along the Sikawei road; but the pigs were less fortunate or less active, and their carcasses were lying on the ground by the dozen, large and small, while several other poor scorched brutes were lying about in nooks to which they had dragged themselves. The Chinese had a report that one or two little children were killed, and this is not unlikely from the rapidity with which the flames spread.8
On the face of it, there was nothing particularly unusual about this fire. Fires were a constant threat in late imperial Chinese cities, espe‐ cially after a prolonged drought had thoroughly dried thatch and
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bamboo structures. Three days after the event described above, however, another fire started in precisely the same location and de‐ stroyed an even larger area before it was brought under control. Once again, the fire was concentrated around slaughterhouses in the neighborhood behind the French Concession. Rumor had it that the blaze began when a fire lighted in a cattle shed to drive away mos‐ quitoes spread out of control. However, if newspaper accounts from the time are any indication, many people suspected that something far more sinister was afoot. Although they did not entirely discount accidental causes, it is clear they suspected foul play from an un‐ usual class of arsonists: Buddhist priests. The gist of the argument was that Buddhist priests, or individuals inspired by or associated with them, set fire to this neighborhood to protest the butchering of animals in violation of the prohibitions against slaughter issued by local officials. Foreign reporters provided several pieces of evidence to substantiate this charge. First, they noted “the curious fact that both of the recent fires . . . occurred in the same locality, at the same time of day, and that in both a large number of animals intended for human consumption [were] burned.”9 In addition, the prolonged drought had contributed to an “excited state of public feeling amongst a certain class of the Chi‐ nese,” which presumably had pushed disgruntled citizens to take ex‐ treme action. Similarly, they accused the Chinese of fanaticism, citing what appears to have been a recent case in which some individuals had either committed or threatened suicide as a means of ending the drought: “The devotees who were willing to offer their own lives as sacrifices in order to procure rain, are not likely to be deterred from any other means to gain their end.”10 This suggestive line of reason‐ ing proved convincing to many observers. Most communities did, in fact, take prohibitions seriously, and when officials failed to enforce them, individuals and/or groups often did. Since the fate of the en‐ tire community depended on a swift resolution of the crisis, extreme measures were not out of the question. On occasion, officials who did not abide by the prohibitions be‐ came the target of popular outrage. In one case in Zhejiang province, during a period of excessive rainfall, local officials had instituted a fast as they conducted prayers for fair weather (qiuqing 求晴). At this time, a few hundred peasants had entered the city to report their
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hardships to the authorities. When they arrived at the county yamen, the magistrate would not grant them an audience. This angered the crowd, which forced its way into the yamen compound through a wall that had collapsed from the heavy rain. As they approached the kitchen building, they saw that it was full of pigs, sheep, chicken, and ducks, which were being hoarded by the magistrate. The people were indignant, saying that while they were diligently fasting and praying for fair weather, the officials were feasting on prohibited food items. The crowd seized the meat and took it to the audience hall, where most of it was snatched away by the yamen staff. The crowd then took the remaining fish, crab, chicken, and duck to the prefectural yamen and asked the deputy prefect to investigate. The people explained the situation, but the deputy was obliged to cover for the offending offi‐ cial. He ordered the yamen runners to toss the prohibited food into a muddy stream and ordered the peasants to disperse.11 Sometimes people overtly criticized the rainmaking efforts of offi‐ cials. One splendid example of this took place in Canton in 1835. The city had been suffering from a prolonged drought, and the city’s magistrates had instituted all the preliminary measures, prohibiting the slaughter of animals and closing the city gates. Afterward, rain‐ making began in earnest. According to one source, “It was estimated that on one day twenty thousand persons went to a celebrated shrine of the Goddess of Mercy, among whom were the governor and pre‐ fect and their suites, who all left their sedans and walked with the multitude.”12 Unfortunately, these measures did not bring rain to the city. On April 25, the prefect issued the following proclamation: [Pan 潘] the [Guangzhou prefect 廣州府] issues this inviting summons. Since for a long time there has been no rain, and the prospects of drought continue, and supplications are unanswered, my heart is scorched with grief. In the whole province of Canton are there no extraordinary persons who can force the dragon to send rain? Be it known to you, all ye soldiers and people, that if there is any one, whether of this or any other province, priest of such like, who can by any craft or arts bring down abundance of rain, I respectfully request him to ascend the altar (of the dragon), and sincerely and reverently pray. And after the rain has fallen, I will liberally reward him with money and tablets to make known his merits. Speedily comply with the summons. Delay not. A special edict.13
The prefect then constructed a rain altar in the courtyard of his yamen, and a middle‐aged Buddhist priest from Sichuan accepted
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the prefect’s invitation to offer prayers on behalf of the city. The priest stood on the altar for three days with his head uncovered, while he fasted and recited his prayers. He stood alone on the altar, as musicians sat on either side beating drums and gongs. A small ta‐ ble was placed on the altar and held candles and a bowl of clear wa‐ ter. The priest continued to pray for three days, but no rain fell. The prefect decided to end the ceremony at that point due to the number of spectators crowding the yamen. The priest was offered five dollars for his services, but he refused the payment and left. But, then, on May 8, rain began to fall. In thanks, the prefect personally supervised ten married women who burned off a sow’s tail at the southern gate to the city, after which the sow was sent to live at a local temple.14 Aside from the interesting practices accompanying this particular event, what is most striking about this incident is the fact that over the course of two weeks, the residents of the city found reason to mock the prefect, the Buddhist monk, and the rainmaking activities he con‐ ducted. On the day after the prefect’s proclamation was posted, the following bit of graffiti was found written on the wall below it: Guangzhou’s prefect Pan, Usually acts without regard to reason. This morning he prays for rain, and getting no reply, He has issued a proclamation requesting assistance in controlling the Dragon [God]. Signed, a master laugher15
Similar verses commented on the combined efforts of the monk and officials: The fraudulent priest, lascivious and bald, Chanting, drives away the wind, clouds, thunder, and rain. The prayers of the avaricious and corrupt officers, Cause the sun, moon, and stars to shine.16
Another read: Our learned mayor and the daring priest annoy and insult the gods, and increase the crimes of men (by their repeated prayers).17
One singled out the monk for attack: Imperial heaven’s dreadful ire upon our land is shed, In vain we ask for genial rains, the wind is sent instead.
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These verses openly challenged the legitimacy of local officials, especially Prefect Pan, by questioning their competence and moral uprightness. The prefect is described as regularly acting “without regard to reason,” and local officials as a group are labeled “avari‐ cious” and “corrupt.” Similarly, the authors imply that local officials do not know how to pray for rain properly; on the contrary, their ef‐ forts “annoy and insult the gods.” The individuals who composed and publicly posted these verses were subverting the normative claims that officials made through their rainmaking efforts by invert‐ ing their meanings. The common people were, after all, supposed to be “children” who deferred to the knowledge and authority of “par‐ ent” officials, but here they subjected officials to evaluation and cri‐ tique in an “unfilial” effort to assert some control over the situation. By shaping the way that rainmaking activities were perceived, these verses may have sufficiently influenced public opinion so as to force officials to change their rainmaking approach. Sources reported that as the Buddhist priest prayed in the yamen courtyard, he was “the butt of the jeering crowd,”19 and when he offered to pray for yet an‐ other day, Prefect Pan “already sufficiently chagrined, bid him be‐ gone.”20 The prefect likely sensed that his authority was being un‐ dermined, and he was wise to change his course of action. According to one scholar, jokes and complaints such as these can build solidar‐ ity among those privy to them, and if they persist, they often em‐ bolden people to engage in more active forms of resistance.21
Sincerity and Its Discontents More active forms of resistance did occur on occasion. For example, an article in Shenbao on July 19, 1876, described a drought that had for three months gripped the Qingzhou 青州 region. The area had received little rain for over six months, and as a result, the suffering of the people was “beyond description.” Over the course of a few days in June, a thousand peasants from the surrounding countryside assembled together in a mob. Subsequently, they entered a local temple where an official was praying for rain and pleaded with the official to follow them, so that he might “demonstrate his sincerity
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and reverence.” If he failed to comply, they said his prayers for rain would not be effective. The official then accompanied the peasants from temple to temple praying for rain, but none of their prayers was effective. When they had prayed at all the local temples once, the people were still not satisfied, so they forced the official to make two more rounds of prayers at all the temples. Finally, “When the people were convinced that they had fulfilled their duty, they no longer caused a ruckus.”22 It is not clear from this article what tech‐ niques this particular official was using to pray for rain, but for some reason, the audience found fault with his performance. As a result, the community convinced the official—through a show of numbers and, implicitly, a show of force—to change what he was doing and pray in a manner that they deemed appropriate, even though this meant commencing what must have been an exhausting episode of rainmaking. This pattern of behavior appears to have been relatively common in the late imperial period. In his pioneering study of local govern‐ ment in the Qing, the historian Ch’ü T’ung‐tsu noted that during times of drought people often demanded that the magistrate pray for them. They not only expected him to offer prayers to gods approved by the gov‐ ernment, but also to worship any god whom they worshiped and whom they conceived of as presiding over the calamity. To them, the magistrate was the chief priest of the locality. It was not unusual for the local people to take the image of some god to the yamen and demand that the magistrate offer sacrifice to it. When this happened, the official was really in a dilemma. He was not supposed to worship any spirit not listed in the government [Regi‐ ster] of Sacrifices [an offense punishable with eighty strokes of the bamboo], but his refusal to cooperate with the local people would displease them and give them the impression that he was not concerned with their suffering; such an impression might lead to further, serious consequences. Wang Huizu [the author of two popular Qing administrative manuals] reported that the local people once took more than twenty images to his yamen, demanding that he pray to them for rain. He refused, on the ground that these gods were not or‐ thodox. He maintained that his refusal could have led to disturbance had he not already won the confidence of the people.23
Wang may have avoided any “serious consequences,” but many officials were not so fortunate. One account that amply attests to this point was published in Shenbao in the summer of 1877. In the region
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surrounding Changzhou, it was customary during times of drought for people from all the affected villages to organize processions in which they carried the images of deities on bamboo chairs, striking cymbals, beating drums, and flying paper flags. During a drought that summer, the local people conducted a procession to a nearby market town. In the town was a military barracks where a petty offi‐ cial (xunbian 汛弁) was stationed. The people asked the official to burn incense to the deities they were carrying, but the official re‐ fused. Words were exchanged. The official tried to make some ar‐ rests, but the people entered the garrison and ransacked it. Dis‐ tressed, the petty official fled and reported the incident to the Yanghu 陽湖 county magistrate. The magistrate wanted the official to go back and arrest the ringleaders, but the official refused. In the end, the mob attacked other officials and destroyed their yamens (ouguan chaihui yashu 毆官拆毀衙署) before the situation was finally brought under control by the governor. Five people were arrested.24 An even more dramatic example of this kind can be found in the writings of an official named Dai Pan 戴槃 who served in Tongxi 桐溪, Zhejiang, during two different droughts in the mid‐nineteenth century. He left this description of his rainmaking efforts: In the summer after I was appointed to office in Tongxi there was a severe drought. During the fifth month there was no rain, and in the sixth month there was also no rain. As a result the people were suffering greatly; so I de‐ voutly and sincerely prayed for rain. It is an old custom in the city of Tong that when drought is severe, the deities from all the temples are brought to‐ gether in the courtyard of the Huiyun 惠雲 Monastery. Every day people burned incense and offered prayers, and [the courtyard] was crowded with observers, both elites and commoners. When [the drought] became more se‐ vere, the deities were taken out to the drought‐stricken areas and placed in the sun, after which prayers for rain were made. I walked at the rear [of the procession], and when we reached the designated area, I performed the ap‐ propriate worship and prostrations. In a single day, I walked more than 10 li, visiting every temple in the area, [walking] from morning until night over the course of three days. Moreover, deities from each of the jurisdiction’s 173 or 174 wards (tu 圖) were carried into the city on sedan chairs by rural peo‐ ple and brought to me. There were none to which I did not offer prayers and prostrations at some time. After burning incense at a place where elites and commoners had gathered to fast, I became aware of a timeless emotion and intimacy whose general mood was similar to that of a household whose members, fathers and sons, were assembled in a lineage hall. Elites and
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commoners were moved by my sincerity. As the ancients said, “Is it not the case that sincerity moves all things?” Suppose that the world did not suffer calamities and had only ignorant masses. Or suppose that during calamities there were no virtuous officials to soothe and pacify. Without calamity there would be no human hearts to be moved, and calamity could not be turned to serve the art of governance (zhishu 治術).
This passage is interesting for several reasons. The sheer number of deities to which Dai offered sacrifices is remarkable, as is his forth‐ rightness in admitting that he did so. He showed none of Wang Huizu’s reservations about sacrificing to “unorthodox” deities. On the contrary, Dai was clearly proud of his achievements: processing to every temple in the area, walking over ten li each day, and offer‐ ing sacrifices to all the deities brought before him. He also noted the feelings of intimacy and kinship among officials, commoners, and elites that resulted from these rainmaking efforts—feelings that show a remarkable resemblance to what Victor Turner has called “communitas.”25 Perhaps most remarkable is the fact that Dai knew his rainmaking activities had an important effect on local administra‐ tion. He even came close to saying that calamities are a good thing because during calamities hearts are moved, which serves “the art of governance.” Although Dai credited his sincerity with bringing the community together, he also described what could happen if the people were dissatisfied with the efforts of their officials: This year the entire Liang‐Zhe region suffered from drought, but in Jiahu 嘉湖 it was particularly severe. In all areas, people in the countryside began to implement drought relief. But there was nothing the high officials could do to slow its progress, nor anything that the county magistrates could do to stop it. In Jiashu 嘉屬, it became increasingly common for the people to at‐ tack their officials and destroy their yamens (ouguan chaiya 毆官拆衙). Once the drought began, it happened first at Xiushui 秀水 and Haiyan 海鹽, then Pinghu 平湖 and Jiashan 嘉善. Then it continued on at Jiaxing 嘉興 and Shi‐ men 石門. Although the relief efforts continued apace, people in the country repeatedly formed mobs and created disturbances at official yamens (hong‐ nao gongtang 鬨鬧公堂), and again and again there was no peace. Only in my jurisdiction of Tong city was there no incident. I know that the people felt my sincerity, as well as the benefit and urgency of my prayers. From the lat‐ ter third of the fifth month of bingchen [1856] until the middle of the seventh month, whenever it rained it was always on the last day after I had prayed for three days without stopping. Other officials who were asked couldn’t
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have done it; elders who were observing couldn’t have done it; clerks who were responsible also couldn’t have done it. But I scurried about for over forty days under the fierce summer sun, and heaven responded with rain, allowing the area to avoid a total calamity. Although I dare not say that it was my prayers that were effective, you could say that I have no regrets to‐ ward the people of Tong. This is my record.26
This passage demonstrates what could happen when rainmaking ac‐ tivities did not unfold according to plan. Other officials in the area were repeatedly assaulted and their yamens ransacked. What pre‐ vented the same thing from happening in his own district, Dai wrote, is that the people felt his “sincerity,” as well as the “benefit and urgency” of his prayers. Considering what response his rain‐ making efforts might have received, he probably felt a good deal of relief at the outcome.
The Give and Take of Official Rainmaking The stories presented above are instructive because they demon‐ strate the give and take of official rainmaking activities. Although an official may have begun his rainmaking with a particular strategy about how it should be conducted, this line of action could be scruti‐ nized and challenged by his constituents. If they found his methods or attitude wanting in any way, they might recommend changes. As we have seen, people could take matters into their own hands if they felt officials were not being sufficiently earnest in their behavior. In some cases, they voiced their objection to specific techniques an offi‐ cial used to pray for rain; in others they seemed more concerned with his attitude or enthusiasm in carrying out his duties. For the most part, however, these two aspects of rainmaking could not be separated, since an official’s willingness to adjust his rainmaking to conform to the expectations of his constituents was seen as an ex‐ pression of his “sincerity” and vice versa. Although most bouts of of‐ ficial rainmaking were resolved without serious incident, the experi‐ enced official was undoubtedly aware of how important it was to fulfill the expectations of his audience. Yet there were times, as we saw above, when officials were di‐ rectly challenged by the people and asked to modify their rainmak‐ ing. At these moments, officials were presented with a stark decision: to honor their constituents’ requests or to reject them. As Wang
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Huizu attested, the latter option was fraught with peril, since such actions could be interpreted to mean that an official was not con‐ cerned with the sufferings of his people. This could in turn lead to more serious disturbances, as people openly protested an official’s lack of “sincerity.” Clearly, the path of least resistance was for offi‐ cials to comply with these requests. Although technically illegal in some cases—such as when officials worshiped deities not listed in the Register of Sacrifices—officials had to weigh the risk of being reprimanded by the central government against the possibility of alienating their constituents and precipitating social unrest. Judging from the comments of Dai Pan, who unabashedly admitted to pray‐ ing to every single deity brought before him, the risk of being cen‐ sured by the central government for this infraction was quite small. In fact, the central government was likely far more interested in hav‐ ing officials maintain order in their jurisdictions than in making principled, yet unpopular, decisions in their rainmaking. I have a feeling that, when presented with this choice, most officials pru‐ dently chose acquiescence over principle. In fact, most officials probably never allowed a standoff over rainmaking to develop in the first place. The most obvious way to avoid disagreements was simply to anticipate what the people wanted before they asked. In other words, officials could pray for rain ecumenically, in an effort to satisfy the expectations of as many constituents as possible. This is precisely what we have seen throughout this study, as officials employed a host of techniques from various religious traditions, all of which seemed to operate ac‐ cording to different principles. In fact, this is perhaps one reason why officials continually invoked the phrase, “There are no spirits not honored, there are no sacrifices withheld.” This verse from the Shijing provided solid ideological justification for a course of action that also happened to be politically expedient. The way this verse was interpreted, it was not only advantageous to comply with rain‐ making demands but also the epitome of good governance. Thus, in the eyes of many officials, rainmaking should demonstrate flexibility and a willingness to conform to local expectations. It is worth emphasizing that local officials were not simply ac‐ commodating the demands of local communities. There is a risk of seeing the rainmaking activities of local officials as driven solely by the concerns of local people rather than by officials themselves.
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For example, one could argue that officials did not believe in the wide variety of rainmaking techniques that they employed, but were will‐ ing to compromise their own principles in order to satisfy commoners and keep the peace. In this view, officials are seen as sophisticates who fundamentally disagreed with the “superstitious” practices of their constituents, but who had no other choice but to go along with them. The problem with this view is twofold. First, most officials viewed ecumenism not as a capitulation but as the operative principle in rainmaking. One did not grudgingly make sacrifices to the purport‐ edly “absurd” deities of the people; rather, one actively and eagerly incorporated them into one’s rainmaking. Second, officials played a central role in creating and promoting rainmaking techniques. Many rainmaking techniques were actually invented, or at least endorsed, by officials. The best examples of this are Dong Zhongshu’s rainmak‐ ing method—with its clay dragons, collected frogs and snakes, and sacrifices of roosters, pigs, and dogs—and Ji Dakui’s altar method. Most of the other methods we have seen, such as burying frogs, throwing tiger bones into dragon holes, and threatening self‐ immolation, are said to have originated with officials. It simply strains credulity to suggest that these and other elaborate techniques were promoted solely at the behest of local people. We should also keep in mind that officials had much to gain personally and profes‐ sionally from rainmaking. For example, the Fengtai 鳳臺 county gaz‐ etteer tells a story of an official, Wang Tingying 王廷瑛, whose rain‐ making was so efficacious that he became known locally as a “living dragon god” (huolongwang 活龍王).27 Similarly, the prominent official Chen Hongmou was so well‐known for his rainmaking prowess that he was often assigned to drought‐plagued regions.28 Likewise, by the late nineteenth century, Ji Dakui was known in official circles not for his considerable literary output but for his rainmaking method. And although I have not done an exhaustive inventory, it is remarkable how often the biographies of officials include information about rainmaking success. For officials—as for Buddhist monks and Daoist priests—rainmaking success confirmed one’s personal power and authority; failure had precisely the opposite effect. By focusing on the ways in which rainmaking activities were stra‐ tegically manipulated by different parties, we resist the tendency to view ritualized activities as having a single, definitive interpretation.
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In particular, this viewpoint works against the notion that ritual mechanistically effected certain changes in the world—that it “medi‐ ated” or “integrated” social tensions or that it bolstered elite hegem‐ ony. As we have seen, the outcomes of rainmaking activities could vary radically. In many cases, officials’ rainmaking efforts met with success: officials prayed for rain and when rain finally fell, it was at‐ tributed to their efforts. In some instances, the results were nothing short of spectacular. As noted above, when rain fell after a magis‐ trate had exposed himself at a local monastery, the commoners ex‐ pressed their gratitude with shouts of joy. They even prepared a feast for the magistrate, which they served in the monastery.29 Like‐ wise, after Zeng Guoquan had led officials and gentry in threatening self‐immolation, a heavy rain was reported: “As an expression of their thanks, the people burned incense, beat drums, and sounded horns to accompany their leaders back home.”30 Yet we have also seen examples when officials were ignored, mocked, and even as‐ saulted. Thus, it would be wrong to claim that rainmaking always— or even often—accomplished the goals officials set for it.
The Importance of Being Earnest Throughout this study, reference has been made to the role of “sin‐ cerity” (cheng 誠) in the rainmaking process. In fact, in the account presented above, Dai Pan remarked that he was able to keep the peace in his jurisdiction because the people felt the “sincerity” of his prayers. Although this character does not appear in all rainmaking accounts from the period, it appears frequently enough to suggest that both officials and commoners considered the pursuit of “sincer‐ ity” the single most important objective in rainmaking activities. But what exactly did people mean when they said that an offi‐ cial’s rainmaking was “sincere”? The character cheng has been used so widely over the millennia that it resists attempts to render it into English. Over the years, scholars have translated cheng as “sincerity,” “truth,” “perfection,” “veracity,” “realness,” and “integrity.” Donald Munro has described cheng as a “single‐minded devotion to the good” and an “unwavering attempt to realize the specific social vir‐ tues.” He has also described it as “a completeness that contains all natural attributes, none of which is fraudulent or missing.”31 In this sense, it resembles what we might call a steadfast commitment to
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“goodness” or “virtue.” In his full‐length study of the character cheng, An Yanming argues that the key to understanding cheng is knowing that the term is a relational one and refers ultimately to why human beings trust one another. “The core meaning [of cheng] refers to a single question that is raised again and again in people’s daily life. . . . How can a person trust in or get trust from other peo‐ ple?” An explains: In order to enjoy trust from other people, there must be a correspondence be‐ tween my thinking and saying, and between my saying and doing. More‐ over, I need to keep a consistency not only in my thinking, saying, and doing, but also in the relationship among these three. . . . Finally, I should preserve both correspondence and consistency constantly, because this will result in constant trust from other people.32
According to An, to the extent that a person embodied these three different attributes—correspondence, consistency, and constancy— he was called cheng. When a person possessed cheng, he was thought to acquire the ability to influence the people around him. The cheng person had an almost magical ability to attract, inspire, and persuade others to follow him. This power of attraction and persuasion was not limited to the human world; it extended into the spiritual and natural worlds as well. Because human beings and spirits were thought to be similar in nature, a person with cheng was able to at‐ tract the spirits and persuade them to act on his behalf, in the same way that he could inspire human beings to do so. Chinese writers are clear that cheng produced an immediate and automatic effect in the world. People were attracted to the ruler who was perfectly cheng. As a result, they would emulate their leader, and the world would be brought into harmony. As Zhu Xi once put it, “If there is cheng, people must be moved.”33 Conversely, if the people are not moved, then cheng is not present. Therefore, the pres‐ ence or absence of cheng is ultimately determined not by the leader who aspires to be cheng but by an audience that responds to him and thereby confers that quality on him. Individuals who aspire to cheng must somehow demonstrate their “cheng‐ness” to those around them, and they must do so in a manner convincing to their audiences. Likewise, the audience must affirm that individuals possess cheng by actively ratifying these claims, either verbally—by calling the indi‐ vidual cheng—or bodily—by behaving as if he were cheng. At the
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very least, the audience cannot actively resist these claims, since that would essentially undermine the whole process. Thus, the locus of cheng is not in the individual—or in the audience—but in the per‐ formances that mediate the relationship between the two.34 In the case of rainmaking, the concept of cheng introduced yet an‐ other level of ambiguity into a situation that was already quite con‐ fused. After all, how was an official supposed to know if he was be‐ ing cheng? The most basic answer is that he would know he was being cheng when it rained. In theory, rainfall provided concrete evi‐ dence that an official had made all the necessary supplications and that the gods had been moved to end the drought. But the reality was never so simple. In cases, such as those described above, in which official rainmaking activities were mocked or resisted, it is unlikely that people so visibly dissatisfied with their officials would suddenly conclude that the officials had been praying “sincerely” all along. It is much more likely that they would have attributed the rainfall to a collective outpouring of sincerity or to the various rain‐ making methods used rather than to the official themselves. After all, there were so many variables in every rainmaking event that the at‐ tribution of credit or blame was always open to interpretation. For example, when villagers placed their deities on palanquins and brought them to the magistrate to receive sacrifices, and it subse‐ quently rained, who should get credit—the villagers, the deity, the official? It was difficult to say. In those cases in which everybody performed his or her duties properly, it was likely that credit would be shared among all three, but this outcome was in no way assured. Given this uncertainty, the official who aspired to cheng would be successful only if he were able to convince his audience through his performance that he—rather than some other factor—deserved credit for bringing rain. The problem was no single set of practices could be considered definitively “sincere.” Sincerity could refer to almost anything— from the kinds of rainmaking methods employed to their implemen‐ tation. In reality, the content of sincerity was never predetermined; rather, it was emergent in performance as it was negotiated over the course of a drought. Through their rainmaking activities, officials of‐ fered their own interpretations of how the “sincere official” prayed for rain: they instituted fasts and prohibitions, visited various tem‐ ples to burn incense, fetched water, conducted altar rituals, and so
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forth. As they carried out these activities, observers in the audience looked for words, actions, and expressions they interpreted as being “sincere.” As members of the audience attended to the actions of the official, they responded naturally to what they saw. In accounts pre‐ sented above, audiences reacted variously by jeering, applauding, extolling, or criticizing. Depending on the response their rainmaking performances elicited from the audience, officials could then modify their rainmaking accordingly. If they sensed the audience desired a more demonstrative or heartfelt approach, they could provide it. When rain finally fell, it was attributed to the “sincerity” of officials, even though the actual content of his sincerity had been collectively determined. It is worth emphasizing that rainmaking was probably an ex‐ tremely difficult skill for officials to master. Not only was it hard to know what kinds of techniques to employ, but many officials likely had trouble navigating the performative aspects of rainmaking. The nervousness that many officials must have felt was likely com‐ pounded by the fact that rainmaking activities provided one of the few occasions when officials were expected to carry out their duties publicly. As we have seen, rainmaking activities involved public speaking and public presentations, often in front of enormous crowds. In fact, I would suggest that rainmaking activities, along with similar kinds of ritual events, provided the single most important opportu‐ nity for local officials to be seen by their constituents. Although it is impossible to determine how many spectators witnessed these activi‐ ties, officials often conducted rainmaking activities twice daily for days or weeks on end, and many of these activities involved public processions of some sort. In the description provided by Dai Pan above, we can only imagine how many onlookers observed his rain‐ making. Considering how far he walked each day and how many groups of farmers brought their deities in from the countryside for an audience, the number is undoubtedly quite large. During lengthy droughts in more populous cities such as Shanghai, Suzhou, or Nan‐ jing, the number probably ranged into the tens of thousands.35 I can think of no other aspect of local governance that attracted comparable interest or crowds. Events such as these were in many respects the mass media of the time—a venue where people could see their offi‐ cials face to face and assess what kind of men they were.
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In this sense, the importance of rainmaking activities extended far beyond the immediate goal of making rain; they also structured the nature of local governance. During rainmaking activities, officials had a rare opportunity to present themselves publicly as embodying the virtues of benevolence and selflessness, which had for millennia defined the conduct of model officials. Moreover, these virtues were not simply described, but enacted. When officials walked humbly from their yamens to crowded local temples where they read prayers publicly, they were not merely engaging in a discursive exercise. Rather, their rituals and prayers produced a situation that invited onlookers to accept their claims as the creators and caretakers of civi‐ lization, as shepherds of the people, and as controllers of the cosmos. As Andrew Feldherr has written of ancient Roman spectacles, “It was through seeing and being seen that the social relationships of watcher and watched were realized and the status of each defined.”36 At the same time, rainmaking activities provided a unique opportu‐ nity for communities to contest officials’ claims. By professing their “sincerity,” officials exposed themselves to the charge that they were not the virtuous men they claimed to be. In the examples of violence described above, we have no idea whether the commoners disagreed with the rainmaking methods officials used or whether they just dis‐ liked these officials. Commoners may well have used rainmaking “insincerity” as a pretext to express their general dissatisfaction with local officials. Thus, rainmaking may have served as a mechanism through which local people regularly tested the authority of local of‐ ficials—a ritualized referendum on an official’s job performance. For this reason, ritual events such as rainmaking were an impor‐ tant means by which the relationship between officials and their con‐ stituents was established and maintained. During rainmaking activi‐ ties, officials publicly vowed to devote themselves to principles of virtuous rule. When officials failed to live up to these ideals, people could use the opportunity provided by rainmaking activities to reg‐ ister their dissatisfaction. As each party manipulated the rainmaking process, the relationship between officials and their constituents was reshaped and reconstituted. For some officials, this relationship de‐ veloped in a way that they considered acceptable—perhaps even agreeable. For others it was probably less so. Most officials likely had mixed experiences with rainmaking, as some of their efforts met
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with success and others with failure. Yet this is also why official rainmaking activities were so important to local governance. It is precisely because official rainmaking was open to interpretation and manipulation that it remained a sphere of contestation throughout the late imperial period.
SEVEN
Departures
One of the reigning narratives in the study of Chinese history and religion details the purported ascendance and domination of Confu‐ cianism during the later imperial period. The roots of this develop‐ ment are often traced to the Song dynasty, when dramatic intellec‐ tual, political, and economic changes began to radically transform the Chinese social landscape. During this time, Confucianism experi‐ enced a revival of sorts and steadily gained support in intellectual and political circles. The fortunes of the “Neo‐Confucian” movement are said to have been secured in the early fourteenth century when the state adopted Zhu Xi’s influential interpretations of classical Confucian texts as the basis for the official examination system. Ac‐ cording to this narrative, the pre‐eminence of Confucianism as a state ideology was strengthened in the Ming dynasty when stringent social laws and administrative regulations based on Confucian values were issued. This consolidation continued into the Qing, as Manchu conquerors represented themselves as defenders of Neo‐ Confucian orthodoxy in an effort to secure the cooperation of Chi‐ nese elites in governing their new empire. The secondary literature has tended to characterize the history of the later imperial period in terms of the inexorable if sometimes uneven advance of Confucian ideology, an ideology that became ever more deeply rooted among Chinese rulers and elites in the centuries after the fall of the Tang. Confucianism’s march to dominance in the later imperial period is often seen as having taken place at the expense of other religious 175
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traditions, particularly Buddhism and Daoism. For example, Daoism is said to have suffered from benign neglect during the Song dynasty, when elites abandoned Daoist pursuits to dedicate themselves fully to the study of Confucianism. Daoism was then actively persecuted in the Ming and Qing dynasties, as an increasingly Confucianized ruling class began to mistreat Daoist practitioners and dismantle Daoist institutions. Likewise, many of the classic studies on Chinese Buddhism have supported, either implicitly or explicitly, what has become known in the literature as the “decline narrative.” Chinese Buddhism, so the story goes, experienced tremendous growth from the fourth to the tenth centuries, but then entered a period of mate‐ rial and spiritual infirmity. This decline has been attributed to sev‐ eral factors, such as a drop in scholarly and intellectual activity in Buddhism; a tendency toward “syncretism” in the Chan and Pure Land schools; and a lack of interest among elites, who turned away from Buddhism as they began to focus on mastering the Confucian classics. In the most extreme formulations of this narrative, Confu‐ cianism is depicted as winning over the hearts and minds of “scholar‐officials” and as banishing Buddhism and Daoism to the margins of elite religious practice. Recent studies have demonstrated that this narrative has serious shortcomings. Scholars such as T. Griffith Foulk, Robert Sharf, Peter Gregory, and Daniel Getz have shown that many of the claims made about the history of Buddhism after the Tang dynasty simply do not stand up to scrutiny.1 Gregory and Getz’s edited work, Buddhism in the Sung, is perhaps the most comprehensive and sustained attack on the decline narrative. Contributors to this volume demonstrate that claims of intellectual stagnation and elite indifference to Buddhism have been greatly overstated. In fact, Gregory writes, “The growing body of new research . . . suggests that, far from signaling a decline, the [Song] was a period of great efflorescence in Buddhism and that, if any period deserves the epithet of the ‘golden age’ of Buddhism, the [Song] is the most likely candidate.”2 A similar rethinking has also begun in regard to Daoism in the Song. For example, Edward Davis has shown that common scholarly distinctions among Confucians, Buddhists, and Daoists are difficult to sustain in the face of the fre‐ quent borrowing and emulation that characterized the ritual prac‐ tices of elites. By focusing on a group of ritualists that he calls “ritual masters,” Davis demonstrates that the practice of Daoism remained
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central to Chinese religious life throughout the Song dynasty, even among elites and officials.3 Although these studies do a fine job of challenging the decline narrative, they leave unanswered the question of how we are to think about the ascendance of Confucianism in the late imperial pe‐ riod. Even Davis, who is as sensitive to these issues as anybody, ap‐ pears to accept as historical fact “the Confucian elite’s march to so‐ cial and moral preeminence in the Ming and Qing dynasties.”4 In fact, I would argue that there is still a widespread belief that during the Ming and Qing the Chinese state was committed to upholding Con‐ fucian ideologies and practices and tended to shy away from activi‐ ties that fell outside these commitments. This view is particularly conspicuous in scholarship devoted to describing the ritual appara‐ tus of the late imperial state—what scholars have called the “state cult” or “official religion.” The effect of this attitude is twofold. First, scholars have a tendency to characterize official religion as being a largely Confucian institution. Second, they have been inclined to view officials as “orthodox Confucians” who identified closely with the ritual prescriptions of the Chinese state and actively sought to impose them on local communities. The cases of official rainmaking outlined in this study, however, challenge these common characteri‐ zations of official religiosity and official religion.
Regulation and Standardization There is no doubt that the late imperial Chinese state expressed an interest in controlling the religious affairs of the empire. In a recent article, David Ownby summarizes this point nicely: “The Chinese state adopted a regulatory attitude toward both institutional and popular religion, which was to characterize its posture for the rest of the late imperial period, and which modern governments have largely carried forward.”5 This regulatory attitude, says Ownby, manifested itself in state attempts to define and enforce the bounda‐ ries of “orthodoxy,” which it did by establishing “a network of state‐ supported cults, and [co‐opting] or otherwise [supporting] local cults whose deities seemed to reflect desired values.”6 In fact, many schol‐ ars have remarked upon the state’s voluminous guidelines on reli‐ gious issues. For example, Romeyn Taylor has described the many “legal instruments of control,” such as detailed ritual calendars,
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liturgical guides, and codes defining religious crimes, that the Ming state used to regulate religion.7 Richard J. Smith builds on these ob‐ servations with a thorough description of the Qing ritual apparatus and the rituals (li) vigorously promoted by the Qing state. “The [Qing] dynasty,” Smith writes, “placed tremendous emphasis on li, copying the Ming ritual system down to the smallest detail, and of‐ ten exceeding its dynastic predecessor in ceremonial exuberance.”8 Evelyn Rawski has contributed to our understanding of this system through her description of Qing court rituals, including Buddhist, shamanic, and private rituals carried out within the imperial house‐ hold.9 Given this extensive documentation, few scholars would dis‐ pute Ownby’s basic assertion that, if nothing else, the late imperial Chinese state demonstrated a preoccupation with producing texts in‐ tended to regulate the religious affairs of the empire. Another dimension of the state’s “regulatory attitude” has, how‐ ever, been more controversial, namely, the effect of state regulations on local society. Historians continue to disagree about the relation‐ ship between the state’s policies on religion and their effect on local religious practices. At the center of this debate are the writings of James Watson, who has argued that the late imperial state’s promo‐ tion of certain forms of religious organization and religious practice led to a high degree of cultural integration in traditional Chinese so‐ ciety. Specifically, Watson argues that the state’s endorsement of cer‐ tain deities played an important role in the standardization of Chi‐ nese religious culture. As Watson explains: At first sight, it is easy to gain the impression that Chinese temple cults are a manifestation of cultural anarchy rather than integration. Literally thou‐ sands of deities were worshiped in temples of every conceivable description throughout the empire. In most parts of China religious activities were not organized by a professional clergy. Local people built their own temples, in‐ stalled their own deities, and ran their own festivals. On closer examination, however, it becomes apparent that the state intervened in subtle ways to impose a kind of unity on regional and local level cults. The mass of peas‐ ants were seldom even aware of the state’s intervention. A surprisingly high degree of uniformity was attained through the promotion of deities that had been sanctioned by the Imperial Board of Rites and reorganized by the em‐ peror himself.10
As we can see in this passage, Watson argues that although a consid‐ erable amount of autonomy was left in local hands, the state was
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able to impose “a kind of unity” on local religious practices by des‐ ignating which deities should be incorporated into the state ritual apparatus. Scholars have challenged Watson’s standardization thesis on dif‐ ferent grounds. Prasenjit Duara, for example, has argued that the state did not so much standardize the myths surrounding the god of war, Guandi as “superscribe” its version over other contending in‐ terpretations of the deity. Duara claims that the state’s efforts to dominate the symbols surrounding Guandi were never fully realized. Instead, the interpretation promoted by the state depended on older interpretations of the deity for its legitimacy; as a result, these older interpretations were always available as a counter‐discourse that could be used to resist state hegemony.11 Michael Szonyi has gone so far as to call standardization an “illusion.” Szonyi argues that the cult of the Five Emperors—an illicit cult occasionally persecuted by the state—was identified with the cult of the Five Manifestations in elite writings such as local gazetteers. In reality, however, the illicit cult was simply renamed to bring it in line with official regulations, and popular worship of the cult continued unabated.12 Kenneth Pomeranz and Richard von Glahn have also commented on the fail‐ ure of the state to control the discourse surrounding the cults of the Goddess of Taishan and Wutong.13 These scholars have contributed to a fuller understanding of the limits of state influence on local communities. Not only do they pro‐ vide important knowledge about individual cults, but they also demonstrate how state regulations variously impacted local com‐ munities. Yet all of them tend to focus on one aspect of this particu‐ lar problem. As I see it, at least four different elements must be pres‐ ent for Watson’s argument about standardization to be successful. The first two elements address whether the state was successful in influencing popular culture and whether this influence led to in‐ creased cultural integration. Most of the studies discussed above ex‐ plore these two issues to differing degrees. They are concerned pri‐ marily with determining whether state influence was real or illusory, and how extensively it was felt across local cultures. Yet there are two additional assumptions in Watson’s analysis that are no less important to the success of his argument. The first is that the state actually had standards it sought to promote. It is, after all, difficult to imagine a successful program of “standardization”
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without well‐defined standards to guide this process. The second assumption concerns how these standards were implemented and enforced. It is not enough that standards exist; they must also be im‐ plemented in a relatively uniform manner. If standards are haphaz‐ ardly applied, the result will be nothing like what Watson envisions. But did the state have well‐defined standards it sought to promote, and were these standards implemented uniformly by officials? These questions have received less attention in the secondary literature, but they are absolutely central to this discussion because they touch on deeply held assumptions about the coherence of state ritual practice and the religious attitudes of Chinese officials.
Officials as Orthodox Confucians In his essay on standardization, James Watson argues that the state was interested not in imposing religious convictions but in dictating the forms and symbols of worship: “One characteristic of the Chi‐ nese political system that does set it apart from other traditions is that state authorities did not try to legislate beliefs. . . . As long as proper ritual forms were observed, including the worship of ap‐ proved deities, the state did not intervene.”14 Watson has developed this idea elsewhere: The essential point to note about Chinese religion is that the imperial state did not try to legislate beliefs. Officials were concerned primarily with the proper practice of worship, reflected most directly in temple building and festival observations. As long as people worshiped in approved temples, they were free to believe anything they wished about the deities housed there. . . . The state stressed form rather than content. There was never any attempt to foster a standardized set of beliefs in Chinese religion.15
In other words, the state was most concerned with orthopraxy (cor‐ rect worship), not orthodoxy (correct belief). Watson argues that or‐ thopraxy “was the principal means of attaining and maintaining cul‐ tural unity,” a unity that contributed to a shared sense of identity in traditional China.16 What concerns me most about Watson’s argument is not what he has to say about rituals and cultural integration in China. Rather, I question his representation of officials and the extent to which they monitored and policed local religious practices. The impression one
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gets when reading these passages is that although the state may not have legislated religious beliefs, officials scrutinized worship in their jurisdictions and actively sought to reform practices that deviated from those prescribed by the state. The assumption, of course, is that officials could distinguish proper from improper religious practices, felt it was in their interest to reform them, and actually took effective steps to do so. This view of officials as “defenders of orthodoxy” is fairly common. There is a general assumption that officials were of‐ ten disquieted by the sundry religious practices they observed in lo‐ cal society and were committed to doing all they could to bring them in line with what they considered proper ritual behavior. Whether we call it orthodoxy or orthopraxy, zealously rooting out bad behav‐ ior is something that we often associate with officialdom. Watson is not alone in this assessment. In the article cited above, Romeyn Taylor presents a view of Chinese officials that shares cer‐ tain elements with Watson’s. Taylor argues that official religion in the Ming was shaped by a constant tug‐of‐war among Daoist clerics, idiosyncratic emperors, local elites, and “Confucian ceremonialists” as to which religious practices should be promoted by the state. Al‐ though Taylor never explicitly defines what he means by “Confucian ceremonialist,” it is fairly clear that he employs the term generally to describe Ming officials. In his view, the official qua ceremonialist was devoted to the transmission and exemplification of the classical tra‐ dition, and as a result, he disdained “popular” religious practices and beliefs:17 The officials staked their claim to governmental authority on their dedica‐ tion to the perpetuation of the classical tradition and on their ability to inter‐ pret that tradition in the then‐approved manner of the [Song] learning. Thus, even while they aimed at comprehensiveness by building popular cults into the official religion, they were compelled by their Confucian commitment to defend it against corruption by nonclassical beliefs and practices.18
Officials are depicted here as thoroughly indoctrinated in the classical tradition—Song Neo‐Confucianism—and as harboring a professional, if not personal, distaste for the corrupting influence of popular reli‐ gious practices. The impression one gets is that Ming officials were agents of orthodoxy, vigilantly defending “their” tradition against corruption from outside elements. This same general picture is sup‐ ported by Richard J. Smith, who says of ritual in the Qing dynasty:
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Within the regular bureaucracy, civil and military officials from grand coun‐ cilors down to county magistrates adhered scrupulously to an elaborate set of ritual rules and regulations covering every conceivable situation. These situations included formal interviews, inspections, banquets and visits, the receipt of imperial edicts, the administration of the civil and military exami‐ nations, local ceremonies such as the community drinking ritual [xiangyinjiu 鄉飲酒], and, of course, the numerous sacrifices undertaken at various levels of government on behalf of the state. Not all such rules and regulations were enforced with equal vigor, but available evidence indicates that even rela‐ tively minor infractions of ritual law were often heavily punished.19
Again, we see that officials are presented as scrupulously upholding Qing ritual regulations, regulations that Smith identifies closely with Confucianism. I do not mean to suggest that Taylor and Smith ad‐ vance simplistic views of state ritual that fail to account for its diver‐ sity and instability. In fact, I see the present study as an attempt to elaborate on many of the insights made by each of these scholars over the years. Yet their treatments do raise crucial questions about what role individual officials, as well as the state more broadly, played in enforcing normative behavior. Considered as a whole, these examples reflect a common tendency to view Chinese officials as orthodox Confucians faithfully defending the state’s ritual regula‐ tions and vigilantly rectifying popular religious practices. Periodically, this characterization of officials spills over into re‐ lated discussions of official religiosity. Official religion, it has been argued, differed from “popular” religion because it operated accord‐ ing to different principles. For example, official religion is said to have relied on “abstract powers,” whereas popular religion featured the use of manipulation, promises, or threats.20 It has also been sug‐ gested that officials were particularly opposed to religious activity in which signs of “extraordinary devotion” or “intense emotions” were manifested.21 Occasionally this distinction between official religion and popular religion is framed in terms of a perceived difference be‐ tween models of virtue (de) and magical efficacy (ling) in Chinese re‐ ligion. For example, Evelyn Rawski has argued that in the “Confu‐ cian rituals” the state used to appeal to its Han Chinese constituency, “kingly virtue” (de) served as the dominant principle of ritual action. It was only in unusual circumstances, such as during droughts, that the state resorted to rituals that operated according to “magical effi‐ cacy” (ling). Because ling practices were associated with “the magical
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powers of deities, which exists irrespective of the de of rulers,” Rawski says they were employed only grudgingly by the state and were not openly acknowledged.22 It is worth noting that the concepts of de and ling as they are used here are represented as applying broadly to two different modes of religious power in China. Official religion, because of its Confucian orientation, operated according to principles of virtue, and popular religion operated according to prin‐ ciples of magic. Kenneth Pomeranz’s comments on this issue are most relevant to this discussion, since he deals specifically with local rainmaking rituals. In his study of the Handan rain shrine, Pomeranz contends that one of the primary differences between official and popular rain ceremonies reflected “a traditional dialectic between two types of ritual power: that of de (official virtue) and ling (magical efficacy).”23 The official model “was one in which the virtue of the person pray‐ ing—though no doubt gained at great cost through years of self‐ discipline—gave him mastery over nature, and conferred quick re‐ sults.”24 The popular model, on the other hand, “involved noise (with drums, firecrackers, etc.), fasting, the presentation of large sac‐ rifices, a crucial pun suggestive of word magic, and mass participa‐ tion over several days.” Pomeranz, too, contends that that these sty‐ listic differences reflected divergent models of efficacy: “While the popular rites emphasized the importance of showing the commu‐ nity’s dedication to the god by taking extreme actions, and located efficacy in the united exertions of the people during the crisis, official rites located efficacy in the accumulated virtue of an individual dis‐ patched from above.”25 Moreover, the village rites, he says, “are no‐ where described in either the Confucian canon or official statutes, and they differed sharply from the ceremonies that gentry and offi‐ cials organized at the county level and above.”26
Official Rainmaking and Chinese Religion Is this an accurate description of the official as “ceremonialist” or of official religion more generally? As this study has demonstrated, of‐ ficials employed a wide range of techniques in their rainmaking. They burned incense to state‐approved deities such as the city god and the dragon god in relatively straightforward rainmaking rituals. But they also employed more unusual methods, such as throwing
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tiger bones into dragon holes, burying frogs, collecting snakes, and constructing dragons out of clay. Their efforts included processions to distant temples and sacred sites and featured feats of endurance such as long bouts of kneeling, wailing, or exposure. They also made frequent use of Buddhist and Daoist deities, clerics, texts, and sym‐ bols. Moreover, official rainmaking typically featured public per‐ formances of some kind, performances that were often demonstra‐ tive and participatory. In short, in their rainmaking activities Chinese officials had recourse to a wide array of techniques that are not easily labeled. For example, official rainmaking activities cannot easily be shoe‐ horned into the models of “official virtue” and “magical efficacy” promoted by some scholars. Even in cases in which official rain‐ making activities drew inspiration from canonical Confucian texts, they do not conform to what many scholars characterize as Confu‐ cian models of religiosity. It is difficult to reconcile self‐immolation— a venerable canonical practice—with the suggestion that official rainmaking eschewed “demonstrative” or “extreme” actions. Self‐ immolation might plausibly fit into a discussion of Confucian eth‐ ics,27 but threats of suicide are not what most scholars have in mind when they characterize official religion as being based on principles of “official virtue.” The model of official virtue is a bad fit as well for other well‐respected rainmaking techniques, such as Dong Zhong‐ shu’s and Ji Dakui’s altar methods. As we have seen, officials fre‐ quently incorporated “magic” of all kinds into their rainmaking, and they appear to have had few reservations about doing so. Indeed, the distinction between models of virtue and magical efficacy, at least as described in the literature, does not appear to be as relevant to this discussion of official rainmaking. Differentiating rainmaking practices according to the de/ling model is impracticable for several reasons. First, the models of rain‐ making that inspired officials were varied and even contradictory. Rainmaking exemplars prayed for rain using a welter of methods, and officials interpreted these efforts differently. For example, some saw the practice of self‐immolation as the purest form of sacrifice; others as the height of folly. In this confused situation, it was clearly difficult for Qing officials to determine which methods were most proper, and there is no reason to think that we modern scholars can succeed where they failed. Second, the efforts to devise, revise, and
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disseminate different rainmaking techniques were inspired by the phrase “There are no spirits not honored, there are no sacrifices withheld.” This prescription was interpreted to mean that officials should pray for rain as ecumenically as possible, searching widely for the most effective means available. This search was described in moral terms, but the techniques used by officials were selected pre‐ cisely because they were ling, a detail that confounds attempts to characterize them as either de or ling. Finally, we must remember that the virtuous rainmaker was not one who prayed in a narrowly defined fashion—say, solemnly and piously. Rather, he was one whom the community adjudged “sincere.” As we have seen, local communities often had their own ideas of how rainmaking should be conducted, and they often urged officials to modify their rain‐ making to accord with local custom. Considering the cacophony of rainmaking activities that often ensued, it would be difficult to pi‐ geonhole them into either of these two categories. In fact, one could argue that the terms de and ling should be dis‐ carded altogether. To begin with, the terms fail on empirical grounds. Many officials in the late imperial period routinely engaged in behav‐ ior that cut across both of these categories. Another objection revolves around the way these two terms have been defined and how they are insidiously related to two other disputed concepts, religion and magic. As we saw above, ling has often been translated as “magical ef‐ ficacy” and associated with a material, externalized mode of behavior. Ling behavior, it is said, is demonstrative, noisy, manipulative, and social. On the other hand, “official virtue” is associated with an interi‐ orized behavior that is solemn, quiet, pious, and intensely personal. These are precisely the kinds of generalizations made over the centu‐ ries about religion and magic; “religion” is routinely characterized as intellectual and spiritual, and “magic” is denigrated as irrational or ritualistic.28 The close correspondence between these terms is unlikely to be coincidental, especially since they are used in the Chinese case to distinguish official and popular religion. One cannot help but feel that officials are being depicted, intentionally or otherwise, as adherents of an intellectualized brand of religious Confucianism, and the masses are being cast as the magical Other. In the same way that definitions of de and ling fall short, it is diffi‐ cult to know how the label “orthodox” might be applied fruitfully to official rainmaking activities. K. C. Liu has said, “Orthodoxy in the
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Chinese tradition had in some way to identify itself with Confucian‐ ism, and heterodoxy had in some way to defy it.”29 But, as we have seen, officials routinely enlisted clerics and worshiped deities from different traditions such as Buddhism and Daoism. They also em‐ ployed customary rainmaking techniques found throughout Chinese society. Consequently, official rainmaking cannot in any meaningful way be labeled a “Confucian” enterprise. Moreover, some official rainmaking activities were technically illegal. For example, rain‐ making rituals that involved venerating deities not included in the Register of Sacrifices were illegal, and any official performing such a ritual could be punished with eighty strokes of the bamboo.30 Yet the apparent frequency with which officials illicitly worshiped deities such as Guanyin and the Jade Emperor calls into question the extent to which officials supported the “orthodox” ritual order. Finally, Qing officials did not seem to be overly concerned about adhering to the state’s guidelines on praying for rain at the local level. Indeed, they appear to have regularly disregarded state guidelines on rain‐ making. At the very least, the activities prescribed in the guidelines were routinely supplemented with other rainmaking techniques, many of which have been documented in these pages. In this sense, one of the more important lessons of this study is that the rainmaking activities actually conducted by local officials could differ sharply from the normative descriptions of these activi‐ ties found in Qing administrative texts. There was frequently a sig‐ nificant discrepancy between written regulations on Qing ritual and their actual application. This discrepancy was also reflected in texts such as local gazetteers, which were usually written by local elites. Although I have not conducted an exhaustive examination of a sin‐ gle locality, my general impression is that many of the rainmaking accounts documented in this study rarely found their way into pre‐ scriptive writings on the subject, except in written critiques of official behavior. When official rainmaking is discussed in local gazetteers, it is often recorded in vague language—“this summer Magistrate Wang prayed for rain”—and fails to mention the techniques officials employed. As a result, these sources often provide an incomplete or inaccurate picture of what official rainmaking entailed. In a recent article, Michael Szonyi suggests that this kind of omis‐ sion occurred quite frequently and argues that elites often overstated the extent to which local religious practices conformed to normative
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ritual texts: “The sources reveal not substantive standardization of either beliefs or practices, but rather claims of standardization, in the form of standardization of labels.”31 Szonyi concludes that, as a way of asserting their own moral leadership, local elites may have inten‐ tionally misrepresented the degree to which local practices were standardized. Elites made such claims, he says, because “the appear‐ ance of standardization buttressed their own view of their transfor‐ mative role in local society. The rhetoric of standardization was thus a way in which the elite spoke about itself, and should not be mis‐ taken for pure empirical description.”32 Szonyi’s distinction between discourse and description is important because it helps explain why some scholars have reached such different conclusions about the na‐ ture of official rainmaking: they rely heavily on local gazetteers. Per‐ haps because they were not written for posterity, newspaper reports provided much more comprehensive descriptions of these events. A comparison of gazetteer accounts and contemporary newspaper re‐ ports makes the discrepancy between the two sources apparent. If Szonyi’s observation about elite discourse is true, it is grounds for approaching gazetteers’ discussions of local religious practices with caution. At the very least, there is reason to believe that gazetteers frequently overstate the extent to which local religious practices con‐ formed to prescriptive texts. One final question is the role of local interests in shaping official practice. In his article on Tianhou, Watson argues that the state “im‐ posed a structure” on local religious practices. He qualifies this posi‐ tion somewhat in his article on orthopraxy, where he points out that “ordinary people (not just state authorities) played a central role in the promotion and perpetuation of a shared sense of cultural identity.”33 Although Watson acknowledges here that commoners were complicit in promoting state interests by patronizing state‐approved temples, it is clear that he tends to see the state as decisively controlling the stan‐ dardization process. In Watson’s view, the state imposed structures, which the people then validated through their worship. As we have seen, however, state interests were never unilaterally imposed on lo‐ cal communities. Rather, local communities had various means at their disposal to shape official practices in a way that they found ad‐ vantageous. And at times this was not a simple reworking of pre‐ scribed ritual forms, but a partial rejection of official authority. For ex‐ ample, when local people forced an official to modify his rainmaking
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to conform to their expectations, they were essentially stripping him of his prerogative of choosing appropriate rainmaking activities for the community. It would be a stretch to say that official rainmaking did not serve the status quo, but examples such as this certainly raise questions as to how precisely it perpetuated state hegemony. This finding is important because it highlights the reciprocal power rela‐ tionship that existed between officials and their constituents. Al‐ though the state may have attempted to “standardize” the religious practices of local communities, communities also made an effort to “localize” the religious practices of the state.
State Rainmaking and Local Governance This last point raises the question of the role of official rainmaking in local governance.34 As we have seen, rainmaking was intimately connected to the rhetoric of rulership in China. Since ancient times, rulers and officials had prayed for rain on behalf of their people. The vocabulary used to describe official rainmaking efforts emphasized the personal anguish and concern an official felt when he witnessed the human suffering that inevitably accompanied drought. It was out of a desire to “care for the people” (aimin) that an upright official ini‐ tiated rainmaking activities. As earlier chapters have demonstrated, this vocabulary of caring served as the cornerstone for a parental ideology in which officials were represented as “fathers and moth‐ ers” to their people. The same kind of affection and obligation that characterized the relationship between parent and child was also said to inform the political relationship between ruler and ruled. The rhetoric about officials as “parents of the people” was accompanied by a similar discourse that referred to officials as “shepherds” of the people. In the same way that children depended on the support of their parents, sheep depended on the wisdom, guidance, and protec‐ tion of their shepherds. According to Michel Foucault, who has re‐ ferred to the shepherd‐flock model of rule as “pastoral power,” the primary job of the shepherd was to “ensure the salvation of his flock” by treating them with kindness and attending to their needs, especially their need for food.35 The rhetoric surrounding official rainmaking, with its portrayal of officials as both parents and shep‐ herds, suggests that rainmaking was not just about bringing rain.
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Rather, it was deeply rooted in notions of rulership and a utopian vi‐ sion of the ideal political community. In light of this, it is understandable that rainmaking figured prominently in programs of governance in China. From early in Chinese history, officials were expected to play a central role in rainmaking activities. As a result, rainmaking came to be closely identified with office and generated an enormous body of literature seeking to explain the methods and motivations of official rainmak‐ ers. Some of these accounts were anecdotal and told dramatic stories of personal heroism or extraordinary powers; others were detailed and systematic explanations of different rainmaking techniques. Re‐ gardless of the form these accounts took, by at least the Song dynasty, rainmaking was seen as an important aspect of Chinese governance. It was described in early texts, codified in state ritual guidelines, fea‐ tured in administrative manuals, discussed by officials in their pri‐ vate lives, and debated among officials in their public writings. As a result, it became a site where both the objectives and the techniques of governance were articulated, organized, and refined. This is most apparent in the statecraft writings of the nineteenth century in which officials considered the relative merits and demerits of different rainmaking techniques. In these debates, authors explicitly linked proper rainmaking and proper rulership: for these writers and for many other officials, the two were inseparable. Good rainmaking was good governance, and vice versa. Perhaps not surprisingly, officials themselves came to identify closely with the role of rainmaker. Stories about successful official rainmakers proliferated, and throughout the imperial period rulers and ruled alike took these accounts seriously. Officials may have quibbled about which techniques were most effective, but few would have disputed the notion that they were responsible for organizing and carrying out rainmaking activities. Some officials, as we have seen, spent considerable time and effort devising new rainmaking techniques, revising old ones, collecting and codifying rainmaking texts, and sharing them with their colleagues. As a result, some offi‐ cials such as Ji Dakui achieved recognition across the empire for their rainmaking expertise. Successful officials were also rewarded in more concrete ways. An effective rainmaker experienced firsthand the joy and gratitude of his people—many of whom had suffered
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indescribable deprivation, been brought to the brink of disaster, and then miraculously been rescued by his efforts. We can only imagine what must have gone through an official’s mind when an arduous bout of rainmaking finally resulted in rain, but it must have been an extraordinarily awe‐inspiring and intoxicating experience: “He had done it! Just like the sages of old, his predecessors over the genera‐ tions, the local officials of renown—he had done it!” Many of the tes‐ timonies presented in this study indicate that officials took personal pride in their rainmaking prowess. The potential for such an experi‐ ence to shape the desires and aspirations of Chinese officials should not be underestimated. Official rainmaking also structured the relationship between offi‐ cials and the people on a fundamental level. As we have seen, most rainmaking techniques placed the official at the center of drought re‐ lief efforts. He was required by law to organize and initiate rain‐ making activities, and he typically served as the chief officiant at community rituals. His rainmaking authority was bolstered by his power to issue proclamations, prohibit the sale and slaughter of animals, arrest individuals who broke the prohibitions, and so forth. The legal instruments of control at an official’s disposal certainly gave him a prominence he may not have otherwise enjoyed. Yet these coercive measures were not solely responsible for the centrality of officials in these events. Villagers throughout the county traveled willingly to the yamen to “report famine.” Once rainmaking com‐ menced, they often brought images into the city to receive worship from the local magistrate, as if the magistrate had himself become a powerful site of pilgrimage. Similarly, elites looked to local officials to initiate rainmaking activities, often submitting written petitions to the yamen in order to prompt him to act. In other words, although officials claimed for themselves a leadership role in rainmaking ac‐ tivities, these claims were also acknowledged and sustained by their constituents. The point to emphasize here is that through this pro‐ cess officials were set apart as “active centers of the social order,” the “loci of serious acts . . . where [a community’s] leading ideas came together with its leading institutions to create an arena in which the events that most vitally affect its members’ lives take place.”36 In many respects, the rainmaking process created the “effect” that offi‐ cials were who they claimed to be—shepherds of a flock that looked to him for guidance and salvation.37 And successful rainmakers
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received compelling confirmation from mysterious and invisible forces that they were indeed the rightful leaders they claimed to be. Yet rainmaking simultaneously empowered the people. The same processes that differentiated an official as a leader created certain expectations among the people that he would effectively manage the crisis—that he would guide and protect his flock. In many cases, of‐ ficials were able to do this, but as we saw in the preceding chapter, rainmaking was an endeavor fraught with difficulty. Because of the parental rhetoric that informed ideas of local governance, officials were always open to the accusation that they were not sufficiently attentive to the needs of the people. A community that wanted to manifest its displeasure with the way an official was handling the crisis could accuse him of being “insincere” in his rainmaking and pressure him to modify his efforts. This pressure ranged from gentle persuasion and suggestions about how rainmaking should take place to outright coercion and the use of force to make officials bow to the demands of their constituents. In an ironic twist, the same processes that constituted an official’s capacity and status as a leader could be turned against him by the people. Even when this hap‐ pened, however, the net effect may have been to strengthen this pa‐ ternal ideology. The people may have used violence to force officials to conform to their expectations of proper official conduct, but it was still an ideal based largely on the rhetoric of the benevolent rule of parent‐officials. Moreover, official responses to pressure from below demon‐ strated a surprising degree of flexibility. As we have seen through‐ out this study, officials employed a range of methods in praying for rain, and they appeared to be relatively willing to accede to various demands made by their constituents. Officials were apparently eager to support what we might call the “spirit” of rainmaking—as em‐ bodied in maxims such as “caring for the people” and “there are no spirits not honored”—even though this might contradict the dictates of the central government. In this sense, the case of official rainmak‐ ing supports observations made by other scholars, such as William Rowe, Philip Huang, and Philip Kuhn, that local governance in the Qing was less a structure than a process “characterized by a shifting body of precedents, a style of action, and most basically an animat‐ ing culture peculiar to itself.”38 In their rainmaking activities, most officials were undoubtedly interested in maintaining control of their
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jurisdictions in the face of mounting anxiety, chaos, and crisis, but they did this in a way that was characterized by a creativity and elas‐ ticity absent in the more formal representations of local state ritual found in official sources. In the case of rainmaking, they were appar‐ ently more willing to depart from formal instructions handed down from the central government than in other spheres of Qing gover‐ nance such as the adjudication of civil law cases.39 Indeed, as we have seen, it was precisely through their flexibility that an official demonstrated his moral leadership and established a relationship with his community. In this vein, I would suggest that rainmaking was unique among community activities in the way it facilitated the construction of the local political order. Rainmaking enabled an official to enact modes of behavior long associated with virtuous governance in China— expressions of concern for the people, sacrifices for the collective, mastery of occult technologies, manifestations of miraculous powers, and so forth. At the same time, it placed the people in a position of serving as the object for an official’s care, protection, and nourish‐ ment, even as it enabled a discourse of dependency that could be used against him. During periods of drought, rainmaking provided a concrete manifestation of the relationship between an official and his constituents, an instantiation of the state writ small. The way an offi‐ cial carried out his rainmaking and the way these efforts were re‐ ceived and redirected by his audience shaped the structure and character of this relationship. If rainmaking went well, then the rela‐ tionship prospered; if it went poorly, then the relationship suffered. It was through rainmaking that this relationship was objectified and negotiated. I am not suggesting that rainmaking was the only me‐ dium through which this relationship was cultivated, but during times of crisis, it was one of the more important ones. For this reason, official rainmaking served as a key mechanism through which the Qing state was constituted at the local level. Scholars such as Timothy Mitchell, Aradhana Sharma, and Akhil Gupta have argued that “the state” cannot be taken as a “distinct, fixed, and unitary entity.” Rather, it needs to be understood as a rei‐ fication that is constructed through both representation and prac‐ tice.40 According to this view, the state is produced through explicit discourses that define the nature of rule, establish the responsibilities of state actors, and promote specific techniques for governing. The
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state also manifests itself in people’s lives through repetitive concrete practices that allow it to be imagined, encountered, and experienced on a regular basis. It is through these representations and perfor‐ mances that the state is constituted as a cultural artifact. As we have seen, Qing rainmaking accomplished all these things. It reaffirmed ideas about Chinese rulership, produced and sustained the distinc‐ tion between officials and their constituents, and substantiated the presence of the state during times of crisis. As a result, the images and metaphors that informed rainmaking not only shaped people’s perceptions and expectations of the state but also influenced to a considerable degree the way the state was enacted at the local level. Moreover, due to its long history in China, rainmaking had become a naturalized fixture of the social and political landscape. As one Qing official laconically remarked, “We are shepherds of the people, and when there is a problem, we pray for it.” The alacrity with which this duty was accepted and discharged indicates the extent to which offi‐ cial rainmaking was seen as the normal and proper course of human events. Although official rainmaking was an important fixture of local so‐ ciety, rituals were carried out by officials in communities throughout the Chinese empire, and we know surprisingly little about how these rituals were performed or received. What is needed in the future, I would suggest, is a more concerted effort among scholars to describe the full range of official ritual practices, especially at the local level. State ritual deserves the same treatment as Buddhism or Daoism, which have benefited greatly from more recent attempts to examine the relationship between practices, institutions, and discourses. Many scholars have made pioneering attempts at doing precisely this. Outstanding studies by Judith Boltz, Joseph McDermott, Evelyn Rawski, Donald Sutton, Thomas Wilson, Angela Zito, and others have enriched our understanding of the religious lives of Chinese of‐ ficials. Far more work needs to be done, however, on describing the religious activities of officials at the lowest levels of the administra‐ tive hierarchy. In addition to rainmaking activities, local officials were responsible for conducting calendrical rituals such as the “es‐ tablishing the spring” (lichun 立春) ceremony, rituals at the suburban altars, biannual sacrifices to deities such as Wenchang and Guandi, banquets for the aged and virtuous, rituals to save the sun or moon during an eclipse, and so forth. In addition, many local officials
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attended birthday celebrations for local deities and participated in temple festivals. If what we have seen with official rainmaking is any indication, there is reason to believe that an examination of such ac‐ tivities will shed further light on the nature of official religion and the symbolic dimensions of local governance in late imperial China.
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As the preceding chapters have shown, official rainmaking practices at the local level were characterized by enormous diversity, a diver‐ sity that resulted in part, I argue, from a relatively strong rainmaking tradition and relatively weak government oversight. This chapter turns away from earlier discussions of the rainmaking tradition and the statutory ritual order to address questions about what rainmak‐ ing activities Qing officials actually performed and how these activi‐ ties fit into conceptualizations of Chinese religion more broadly. In one of the only English‐language studies to address Qing rainmak‐ ing at the local level, the historian Kenneth Pomeranz has provided a pioneering description of official rainmaking. In Pomeranz’s view, official rain prayers exhibited “Confucian austerity” and operated according to principles of virtue, “in which the virtue of the person praying . . . gave him mastery over nature.” He claims that official prayers were usually conducted privately, or with only a few onlookers, and they generally did not feature strenuous physical ex‐ ertion or extreme actions. Official prayers were qualitatively differ‐ ent from “popular” rituals, which Pomeranz describes as “lengthy, participatory, loud, strenuous, and passionate.” Popular rituals fea‐ tured “demonstrative” activities such as fasting and wailing, and they often incorporated occult technologies and featured “unusual” activities such as collecting water in vases, which were then carried in procession and worshiped. The differences between official and popular rain prayers, writes Pomeranz, reflect two different types of 83
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ritual power: official rain prayers operated according to principles of de 德, or “official virtue,” whereas popular rain prayers operated ac‐ cording to principles of ling 靈, or “magical efficacy.” Although these lines could be blurred on occasion, the thrust of Pomeranz’s argu‐ ment is clear.1 But how accurate is this characterization of official rain prayers? The purpose of this chapter is to outline the process and scope of official rainmaking at the local level, in an effort to an‐ swer this question.
The Rainmaking Process How did local officials know when to begin praying for rain? What criteria determined when drought had progressed to the point that rainmaking activities were necessary? As might be expected, officials had different methods for deciding if the weather had been “un‐ seasonable” (qianqi 愆期). For the most part, this appears to have been a relatively subjective process, although there were some broad guidelines that informed these decisions. For example, in the Lun heng 論衡, Wang Chong 王充 (27–91 CE) wrote that there should be wind every five days and rain every ten.2 Weather patterns that fell sufficiently outside these parameters might be construed as unsea‐ sonable, at which point officials could begin praying for rain. Differ‐ ent regions undoubtedly had their own definitions of drought. A folk saying from northern Jiangsu province characterizes three days without rain as a “small drought” and five days as a “great drought,”3 but such a definition likely would not have fit conditions in the more arid north. The Tang dynasty diviner Huang Zifa 黃子發 supplied another cue that officials might have considered. Rain should never fall on the first day—the jiazi 甲子 day—of each of the four seasons. If it rained on this day, then drought was certain to befall the com‐ munity some time during the season. If it did rain on a jiazi day, Huang advised officials to begin rainmaking activities sixty days hence, on the next jiazi day.4 Although these guidelines may have been helpful to some, most officials appear to have taken a more pragmatic approach: they prayed for rain when they were asked. Few people knew better than the average farmer when rain was needed, and most officials appear to have taken their rainmaking cues from peasants. It was standard
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practice for peasants to report problems with crops to the local au‐ thorities. When rain fell short, farmers would “report famine” (bao‐ huang 報荒 or gaohuang 告荒) to local officials, who would respond by initiating rainmaking activities and other relief efforts. Events in Ningbo during the drought of 1892 are typical in this respect. The city had long suffered from a shortfall of rain, and despite several brief showers, rice was either not maturing properly or withering in the fields. As a result, peasants from the surrounding countryside “repeatedly went to the county [yamen] to report.” Shortly thereafter, the magistrate, “concerned for the affairs of the people,” erected an altar and prayed for rain.5 The fact that these peasants had to make more than one visit be‐ fore officials responded to their requests appears to have been fairly common. Local officials maintained busy schedules, and sometimes commoners were forced to apply gentle—or not so gentle—pressure to persuade officials to address their concerns. For example, during the drought of 1873, farmers in Jiashan 嘉善 county, Zhejiang, en‐ tered the city to report famine in the countryside and “to scold the magistrate and request his resignation” (chitui 斥退). A large, noisy crowd knelt outside the gate leading up to the yamen, where they burned incense and begged the magistrate to come out and inspect the fields south of the city. There is no sign that the magistrate did so, but he did dispatch two subordinates to appraise the situation and report back.6 A more startling account of the tensions that reporting famine engendered can be found in the Dianshizhai Pictorial (Dian‐ shizhai huabao 點石齋畫報) in an illustration entitled “Report Famine and Receive Punishment” (“Baohuang shouze” 報荒受責). During a drought in Suzhou, two villagers made their way to the county yamen to report famine. The magistrate just happened to be out praying for rain in the countryside, and when he returned to his yamen, he was exhausted. When he saw the two villagers waiting to ask him to pray for rain on their behalf—thereby making even greater demands on his time—he lost his temper and punished the villagers with 200 strokes of the heavy bamboo. After they had re‐ ceived their punishment, they “held their heads and skulked away in shame” (Fig. 4.1).7 Although peasants were often the first to ask officials to pray for rain, elites also pressured officials to do so. In an episode during the
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Fig. 4.1 ”Report Famine and Receive Punishment.” Source: Fang Shiduo, Dianshizhai huabao, 2: 391–92.
drought of 1880, the head of the Daosheng Hall 道生堂 charity in Hankou invited all the benevolent institutions in the city to present a joint petition to local officials. The petition asked officials to require twenty‐eight business firms in the city to contribute money to a relief fund, as well as for permission to erect an altar in a local temple where Daoist priests could recite scriptures and perform a forty‐ nine‐day jiao ceremony. In addition, it requested that the magistrate issue a proclamation prohibiting the slaughter of animals and the sale of “strong‐smelling” (hunxing 葷 腥 ) food items, and it de‐ manded he punish anyone who ignored the prohibitions. The magis‐ trate granted their requests.8 The same kind of elite activity can be seen in later periods as well. The Shanghai Municipal Archives houses a thick packet of documents relating to a drought in 1936, during which religious institutions and charities petitioned the gov‐ ernment to pray for rain. Yet this kind of involvement appears to have been less common than one might imagine. Although elites in
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Shanghai often sponsored public rituals or processions, they seem to have done so less frequently for “agricultural” activities such as praying for rain. The historian Ye Xiaoqing has remarked, “Some‐ times the magistrate of Shanghai would hold an agriculture‐related ceremony, such as praying for rain, but the participants almost in‐ variably came from the villages. Residents of the settlements and the Chinese city showed little interest in taking part.”9 Once the need for rainmaking had been brought to the attention of local officials, the process became more regularized as officials be‐ gan to shuttle rainmaking requests up and down the bureaucratic hierarchy. County officials who had received reports of drought in their jurisdictions were responsible for informing their superiors of the situation and keeping them apprised of any significant develop‐ ments. As a drought became more severe, rainmaking responsibili‐ ties would move up the administrative hierarchy, from local officials to provincial officials and finally to the emperor himself. This pro‐ gression is explained in Shenbao: Praying for the weather is a part of the local official’s job of caring for the peo‐ ple. The county magistrate deals with local issues in a special capacity. When‐ ever the county encounters drought or flood, the local people approach him before it becomes a calamity, and the magistrate issues orders to stop the slaughter of animals. He then fasts and bathes, erects an altar, and sincerely prays in the county seat. Prayers are first ordered in the county and then the prefecture. If county prayers are ineffective, then the prefect leads a group of officials to sincerely pray in the prefectural capital, so that officials from the county all the way up to the prefecture pray. If all these prayers are ineffec‐ tive, then the governor‐general and the provincial governor instruct all their subordinates from the circuit and prefecture on down to erect altars and pray.10
Sometimes subordinate officials would suggest that their superiors begin praying for rain on behalf of the people. A prominent example of this can be found in 1850. The statesman Zeng Guofan 曾國藩 (1811–72) memorialized the emperor, explaining that rainfall had been scarce in the region surrounding the capital since the beginning of spring, and the peasants were beginning to suffer as a result. Zeng noted that a bad harvest would certainly result if rain was not forth‐ coming. He then suggested that the emperor pray for rain and requested that a directive be sent to all yamens, ordering them to do so as well.11
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Reporting drought could be a risky endeavor for local officials. They had to balance the demand that they present timely informa‐ tion to the throne, with the possibility that they might be blamed for the drought. As we have seen, the principle of “moral meteorology” permeated discussions of rainmaking. It was widely believed that droughts were sent by heaven as a way to warn or punish people for their immoral behavior. As the Qianlong emperor stated in 1738, “If there are repeated disasters and famines in a particular area, then, since the heart‐mind of Heaven is compassionate and loving, this will most certainly not be a case of punishment being sent down without cause.”12 Very often, officials and local people were identi‐ fied as being the “cause” of drought. Qianlong’s successor, the Jiaqing emperor, wrote in a decree: Whenever one sees provincial officials putting government in good order, and the people’s customs being of a good and pure nature, again and again the sunshine and the rain are seasonally appropriate, and the harvests full. But if it so happens that the officials are greedy and corrupt, and the temper of the people is abrasive, then perverse energy‐vitality (qi) will form itself into portents, which is enough to cause disasters. If one reflects and exam‐ ines, this can be substantiated in case after case.13
Perhaps because of the connection between local conditions and drought, emperors often used drought as a pretext to apply pressure to lower‐level officials. The Yongzheng emperor seems to have been particularly enthusiastic in this regard. Yongzheng regularly blamed droughts on the “vexatious commands” of officials or the “degener‐ ate customs” of the people. He then used this evidence to admonish officials to be more vigilant in carrying out their duties. In the words of Mark Elvin, “Yongzheng seems to have been developing moral meteorology into a weapon of psychological terror against both local populations and officials.”14 Despite periodic imperial zeal in ferreting out the causes of drought, few concrete actions appear to have been taken against offi‐ cials who were careless or lackadaisical in their rainmaking activities. Yet it did happen. Elvin cites a case in which an official was im‐ peached in 1747 after he squatted during a ritual at the Temple of Heaven because he was suffering from a headache.15 During a drought in Zhejiang province in 1852, the provincial governor, who was known as an upright and honest official, conducted rainmaking
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activities with the help of a throng of priests. The provincial trea‐ surer, probably in private, suggested that the governor had been dilatory in his performance, contending that these activities should have taken place earlier. The treasurer’s attitude evidently influ‐ enced one of the local magistrates, who took his criticisms to mean that rainmaking activities were no longer required. As a result, the magistrate neglected to issue a proclamation prohibiting the slaugh‐ ter of animals and ordering prayers for rain. Usually, this kind of omission would not have been discovered, but by chance, the gover‐ nor strolled past the wall on which public notices were posted and noticed its absence. When the governor questioned the magistrate about it the following day, the magistrate said that he had, in fact, is‐ sued the proclamation, but that policemen had allowed it to be torn down soon after it had been posted. As a result, the policemen were dismissed from their positions, beaten with eighty strokes of the bamboo, and made to wear the cangue: “The Magistrate however soothed them with hush money—giving about $120 to each.”16 If true, this story would indicate that orders to carry out rainmaking activities were not to be taken lightly.
Prohibitions and Fasts Once they had been asked or ordered to commence rainmaking ac‐ tivities, how did local officials proceed? As indicated above, one of their first steps was to prohibit the slaughter of animals and institute a community‐wide fast. Food has always played a prominent role in Chinese rituals and religious observances. Early Chinese texts such as the Shijing describe how foods such as steamed millet, broiled fat, and boiled mutton were offered to ancestors during sacrificial clan meals.17 Later texts such as the Liji explain in great detail the elabo‐ rate rules of etiquette during the later Zhou period governing the preparation and presentation of meals. These meals often accompa‐ nied various life‐cycle rituals such as capping, marriage, banquet, and mourning ceremonies. In fact, few rituals of importance in Chi‐ nese culture did not involve food in one form or another. Writing about the Song dynasty, Michael Freeman has noted: Scarcely an event or a situation marking a person’s life failed to involve eat‐ ing of some kind. Worship was ritual feeding of the dead or of the gods.
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Birth, marriage, and death were accompanied by food. To travel was to ex‐ perience different kinds of food, to stay home meant the observance of the seasonal food cycle. One might pass beyond the pale of civilization; if that happened, one could tell by the food. Food affirmed the ritual order and the political order. Properly understood, eating attuned one to that greater order of which ritual and politics were a part and insured good health and a long life.18
While what one ate could affirm the ritual and political order, the same could be said for what one did not eat. Abstaining from certain kinds of foods has a long history in China. Early Chinese texts indi‐ cate that dietary abstinences were commonly carried out prior to of‐ fering sacrifices on various occasions, and they remained central to the ritual affairs of all Chinese religious traditions throughout the imperial period. It should come as no surprise, then, that abstinences also played a role in official rainmaking activities at both the impe‐ rial and the local levels. In fact, in almost every drought of any con‐ sequence in the Lower Yangzi region during the late nineteenth cen‐ tury, dietary abstinences accompanied official rainmaking activities. Abstinences took two forms. First, the state implemented prohibi‐ tions against the slaughter of animals and the sale of certain food items. Second, local officials voluntarily abstained from eating all but the simplest foods immediately prior to conducting rainmaking ac‐ tivities. To avoid confusion, I will refer to these as “prohibitions” and “fasts,” respectively. In times of drought, local officials typically implemented prohibi‐ tions a week or so after they had begun praying for rain. In most cases, the slaughter of animals was banned for one to three days; this was followed by a short break to see if the prohibitions achieved their intended effect. In some instances, however, officials imple‐ mented prohibitions for a much longer period of time, ostensibly be‐ cause the drought was so severe and the situation so dire that a hia‐ tus, no matter how brief, could be construed as a lapse in sincerity. In addition to banning the slaughter of animals, these prohibitions typically forbade the sale of certain food items. Prohibitions were usually implemented by local magistrates, although as a crisis be‐ came more acute, the responsibility for issuing prohibitions moved up the bureaucratic hierarchy. For this reason, in more severe droughts it was not unusual for provincial governors to command
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magistrates in their jurisdictions to issue prohibitions against the slaughter of animals and the sale of certain food items. These types of prohibitions are referred to in the sources as “pro‐ hibiting slaughter” ( jintu 禁屠 or jinzhi tuzai 禁止屠宰) or “prohibit‐ ing slaughter and instituting a fast” ( jintu zhaijie 禁屠齊戒). In prac‐ tice, this meant that the slaughter, sale, and consumption of certain animals were banned. As a rule, pork fell under this prohibition, but it often included other animals such as duck, chicken, and fish. (The slaughter of cattle was always forbidden.) In fact, although these prohibitions seem to have been limited in a few cases solely to ani‐ mal products, they most often extended to any “strong‐smelling” (hunxing 葷腥) foods such as garlic, leeks, alcohol, meat, and even broth. For example, in Yangzhou during the drought of 1880, news‐ papers reported: “The officials once again issued a proclamation prohibiting chicken, ducks, fish, and shrimp from entering the city, and onions, garlic, liquor, and wine were once again prohibited. And for the entire period, they sincerely fasted so as to move heaven.” In the same year, officials in Hankou prohibited the slaughter of ani‐ mals and the sale of “strong‐smelling and unclean items” (hunhui zhi wu 葷穢之物) such as “chicken, ducks, fish, shrimp, onions, garlic, etc.”19 And on occasion these prohibitions covered animals “with feathers” or anything with a “fishy smell.”20 In fact, the content of dietary prohibitions appears to have been quite fluid by the Qing, which is not surprising since China had sev‐ eral different traditions of fasting.21 For example, Chinese Buddhists were to avoid the “five alliaceous vegetables” (wuxin 五辛 or wuhun 五葷)—onions, garlic, leeks, scallions, and chives—as well as all forms of animal flesh.22 For Daoists, fasting was only one of many disciplines—respiratory, sexual, alchemical—used to nourish the vi‐ tal principle (yangsheng 養生) and purify the body so as to render it immortal. Like their Buddhist counterparts, Daoists and geomancers traditionally abstained from leeks, shallots, and garlic, but they also avoided rue and coriander.23 They were also told to forgo alcohol and the flesh of the “six domestic animals” (liuchu 六畜)—beef, pork, dog, horse, fowl, and sheep or goats.24 The state also had a tradition of fasting, which was most thoroughly developed in imperial sacri‐ fices. Before performing sacrifices, the emperor and his high officials would fast for three days, during which time they would refrain
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from administering criminal punishments, attending banquets, lis‐ tening to music, entering the female quarters, inquiring of the ill and consoling the bereaved, drinking alcohol and eating hun foods, sacri‐ ficing to the gods, and sweeping tombs.25 Here, hun certainly in‐ cluded animal flesh, and the prohibitions probably extended to the commonly accepted pungent roots, such as garlic, onions, and leeks. When local officials issued prohibitions for their communities, they apparently employed the wider definition of prohibited food items, which included alcohol, meat, and the most commonly avoided vegetables, such as garlic and onions. There are several rea‐ sons why this may have been the case. First, officials may not have known the details of Buddhist and Daoist food abstinences and, for this reason, were forced to settle on a definition that lacked specific‐ ity. It could also be that officials knew about these differences but in‐ tentionally chose to employ a broad or vague definition in order to facilitate enforcement. Certainly, it would have been difficult, if not impossible, to interdict every single food item banned by each of these traditions. Along the same lines, it may have been divisive and politically unpopular for officials to impose prohibitions specified by one tradition to the exclusion of others. Buddhists, for example, may not have responded favorably if officials chose to impose Dao‐ ist prohibitions while disregarding their own. Thus, issuing more vaguely worded prohibitions may have been a conscious attempt to avoid misunderstandings and conflict.26 Perhaps the most important aspect of dietary abstinences con‐ cerned the fasting practices of officials whose duty it was to “beg for life on behalf of the people.” Although officials were expected to par‐ ticipate in the general fasts they instituted for their communities, they were also expected to undergo a period of fasting and purifica‐ tion immediately prior to conducting rainmaking activities. The his‐ torian Thomas Wilson contends that fasting practices, at least as they are described in Confucian ritual texts, were intended to purify the mind and body of the supplicant through a two‐stage process.27 Dur‐ ing the first stage, the “working abstinence” (sanzhai 散齊), the sup‐ plicant first bathed and changed his clothes. Then he carried out his official duties while avoiding prohibited activities, noted above, such as administering criminal punishments, attending banquets, listen‐ ing to music, entering the female quarters, inquiring of the ill and
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consoling the bereaved, drinking alcohol and eating hun foods, sacri‐ ficing to the gods, and sweeping tombs.28 The working abstinence was supposed to “fix” or “settle” (ding 定) the mind of the supplicant by removing distractions that could disturb his concentration, so as to bring order to his thoughts and actions. The second stage of this process, the “strict fast” (zhizhai 致齊), was intended to unify the mind and body in an attitude of undivided concentration. Once mind and body were properly ordered, the supplicant achieved a state of purity. As Wilson explains, “Purity in Chinese sacrifice is a state of complete devotion to the spirit realized by abstaining from those responsibilities and defiling things that will distract the sacri‐ ficer from concentrating on the imminent sacrifice and prevent him from seeing the hidden spirit at the altar.”29 The administrative handbook Juguan rixing lu describes what offi‐ cial fasting meant in the context of Qing rainmaking: When rain and sun are unseasonable, the five grains do not grow and the people experience pestilence. At times like these, officials hold prayer activi‐ ties in their jurisdictions. They prohibit slaughter and [the sale of] alcohol so that calamity might be feared and extravagance reduced. They fast to the utmost in order to cleanse their bodies and express their reverence. In the three days prior to erecting altars, they purify their hearts and entertain rev‐ erent thoughts. All women and men in the magistrate’s family avoid hun foods and alcohol in order to collectively assist their master while he exam‐ ines his faults and repents of his transgressions.30
Several aspects of this passage are noteworthy. First, it provides a suc‐ cinct account of how officials were to fast and what purpose fasting served. They were to avoid alcohol and hun foods, purify their hearts, and entertain reverent thoughts. The goal was to attain “utmost sin‐ cerity,” which would bestow efficacy on their rainmaking efforts. This passage also highlights the central role that self‐examination and self‐reproach played in official fasting regimens. The text states variously that an official was to “examine his faults” (xinggqian 省愆) and “repent of his transgressions” (huizui 悔罪). It had long been a central concern of Confucian practitioners—and Buddhists and Dao‐ ists as well—to be vigilant about monitoring one’s thoughts and ac‐ tions. The profound person ( junzi 君子) engaged in an unceasing process of self‐examination, evaluation, and rectification. This was especially true for the ruler—or in our case, his deputies—since an
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official’s personal character was supposed to have a transformative effect on the people, “like wind blowing over the grass.” Fasting was intended to make this process more fruitful by clarifying and focus‐ ing the mind and making the practitioner more sensitive to his own failings and his relationship with others. Indeed, the unremitting ex‐ amination supposed to take place during fasts was not simply an iso‐ lated exercise intended to improve one’s own character. Rather, it was thought that the natural corollary to self‐watchfulness was a heightened awareness of the outside world and an identification with the way of heaven.31 In this sense, self‐examination and self‐ reproach can be seen as an integral part of the rainmaking process. This passage also suggests that fasting was not simply a personal issue but extended to the official’s household as well. As explained above, it was likely that this principle was intended to minimize the official’s exposure to potentially distracting behavior, but it may also be that an official’s household was seen as an extension of the offi‐ cial’s own person, which would make fasting for the entire group necessary. Both interpretations suggest that an official risked being polluted if he came into contact with impure people or activities. In fact, the administrative handbook excerpted above stated that offi‐ cials fasted in order to “cleanse their bodies and express their rever‐ ence.” The same concern was seen in Chapter 1 of this study, where we saw that officials often fasted to “maintain seclusion and eradi‐ cate impurities.”32 Similarly, the fasting halls in which officials pre‐ pared themselves prior to rainmaking were said to possess a “se‐ cluded purity that enabled them to acquire the sincerity necessary to move the gods.”33 The emphasis placed on isolation and purity in of‐ ficial fasting practices shows a remarkable similarity to the prepara‐ tions made for animal offerings presented in imperial sacrifices, such as those made to Confucius. For example, in the biannual sacrifices to Confucius, the sacrificial animals were separated from their herds and placed in special cleaning pens a month prior to being slaugh‐ tered. On the day prior to the sacrifice, they were shaved, slaugh‐ tered, and doused with boiling water. One cannot help but think of King Tang in this context, as he “cut off his hair and fingernails, pu‐ rified himself with water, and laid himself on a woodpile in order to be burnt as a sacrifice to heaven.”34
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Mourners and Martyrs Once officials had prepared themselves by fasting, they began to pray for rain. Initially, officials conducted rather straightforward rituals at various temples in their administrative seat. Typically, this involved visiting one or several temples twice daily, once in the morning and once in the afternoon. Officials used different means for getting to the temples. Some officials rode in sedan chairs; others walked from their yamens. Eschewing the use of the sedan chair was a particularly conspicuous way for officials to demonstrate humility and reverence. To this end, officials would also “wear mourning clothes to conduct their business,” and occasionally officials and commoners alike would wear mourning clothes and walk together to the temple.35 Once at the temple, they would usually burn incense, perform prostrations to the deity, and read a prayer. Officials usually offered prayers to deities known for being especially effective in bringing rain. The city god or other deities in the Register of Sacri‐ fices were sometimes the first to be visited, but this was not al‐ ways—or even usually—the case. Officials appear to have most often venerated the deity that local residents considered to be effective at bringing rain, and this differed by locality. In Hankou and Anqing, the dragon god seems to have been favored; in Suzhou, Daoist and Buddhist deities were preferred; in Shanghai, the city god and the eclectic group of deities housed in the Hong Temple were worshiped. A description of rainmaking activities in Fuzhou by Justus Doolittle in the mid‐nineteenth century provides a fine picture of what official rainmaking initially entailed in that particular city: Some [officials], in ordinary cases, go twice per day, and usually on foot, carrying a stick of lighted incense before them, to a famous temple on one of the hills in the city, and there burn incense before the idol representing the Pearly Emperor Supreme Ruler [i.e., the Jade Emperor] (the chief divinity of the [Daoist] religion). This burning of incense is accompanied with three kneelings and nine knockings. At the same time, a company of [Daoist] priests are employed to repeat formulas and perform worship according to their custom on such occasions, the grand object of which is to procure rain. These mandarins also proceed to burn incense before the image of the God‐ dess of Mercy belonging to a temple located on the same hill. A company of
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Buddhist priests are engaged at the same time in reciting their classics and in worshiping, according to their customs, for the purpose of facilitating the ar‐ rival of the needed rain.36
Most official rainmaking activities began in this manner. Glancing through periodicals such as Shenbao during periods of drought, one can find scores of references that repeat essentially the same se‐ quence of events: a region suffers from drought, officials prohibit slaughter and institute abstinences, and then they erect an altar at the temple of a deity, burn incense, and offer prayers. If rain had not fallen after one or two weeks, however, officials began to increase the intensity of their rainmaking activities. They did this in a number of ways. At first, they may have simply ad‐ justed the basic rainmaking procedures presented above. Sometimes a visit to a distant temple in the hot sun was sufficient. In 1824, the governor of Anhui province, Tao Xu, wrote the following description of his rainmaking activities: In the summer of the 4th year of [Daoguang] it did not rain for a long time. I prayed and my prayer was answered, but the rain was not sufficient, so on the 11th day of the 6th month, I and my officials went to the side of the spring [called the Well of Heaven, where the dragon god lives] and prayed. The sun was very hot. I rode from [Jixian guan] for more than ten li before I arrived at the [ci–shrine], which was in ruins. Among the tiles and the moss I knelt in prayer. Afterward, I walked about three li to the stone of the White Horse on the top of the mountain, where I made obeisance to the Well of Heaven. As I went back to the city the air was full of dust and my heart was heavy, for what could I do for the people when the god was angry with me? But just as I reached the city rain began to fall, and by the time I reached my yamen, the roads were full of mud. The people were pleased. I myself had traveled seventy li under the hot sun before the rain came, and I had also sent two officials to pray. The rain came as an echo to our prayers. Alas, the people suffered from flood last year and they had not yet fully recovered. If this rain had not come, what would have happened? When I thought of this, I kept in mind the gift of the god.37
Sometimes officials carrying out these pilgrimages walked barefoot with their heads uncovered as a sign of their reverence and humility. Often when officials escalated their rainmaking activities, they did so by implementing special measures, such as gathering all civil and military officials together to burn incense, or by conducting other procedures that augmented the standard rainmaking model. During
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the 1880 drought, the governor of Anhui province twice ordered his subordinates to prohibit the slaughter of animals and pray for rain, but to no avail. Consequently, he instituted a “special fast and bath” and once again prohibited the slaughter of animals. He then erected an altar at the dragon god temple and proceeded with all the local officials to burn incense and offer silent prayers.38 As we saw in Chapter 1, if officials chose not to make pilgrimages to distant shrines, they could also invite deities into the city, as was done with Guanyin on several occasions. If small adjustments in the rainmaking formula were unsuccessful, then local officials would increase the variety and intensity of their supplications. A typical example of this escalation can be found in the efforts of Prefect He Tiesheng 何鐵生 in Yangzhou during the drought of 1880. By the beginning of November, it had been several ten‐day periods since the city had received any precipitation. In re‐ sponse, local officials instituted prohibitions and erected altars to pray for rain. But by the third week in November, rain still had not fallen. Local officials then decided to erect an altar at the Zhanhua Temple 湛華宮 because, when pronounced with a local accent, the name of the temple sounded like zanhua 贊化, “assistance.”39 Tradi‐ tionally, the community had erected a “five direction” altar, such as that used by Dong Zhongshu, at the City God Temple. However, a previous magistrate of Jiangdu county had found this particular altar ineffective and had advocated the use of an “eight trigram” altar. So, an eight trigram altar was erected at the Zhanhua Temple. Prefect He once again issued a proclamation prohibiting chickens, ducks, fish, and shrimp from entering the city and prohibiting the sale of onions, garlic, and wine. All then waited for “the silent protection of the heart of heaven.”40 When, after a week, no rain had fallen, Prefect He ordered that the southern gates to the city be closed as a means of blocking the yang influence and bolstering the yin. According to Shenbao, Prefect He, incense in hand, led all his subordinate officials with “utmost sincer‐ ity and reverence” to the rain altar, where they knelt and prostrated themselves for a lengthy period of time.41 Prefect He prostrated him‐ self on the ground and “cried mournfully” (tongku 慟哭), begging for the lives of his people.42 Observers were “moved to tears” during the performance, certain that his sincerity would penetrate the heart of heaven. As a final measure, Prefect He spent a night inside the
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temple, probably that same night.43 The peoples’ hopes were fulfilled later when rain fell and soaked local fields. But soon thereafter, fair weather returned. The drought lasted until the end of December. Prefect He’s methods were rather tame compared to other rain‐ making techniques occasionally employed by local officials. For ex‐ ample, it was not unknown for officials to tie or chain themselves up during their rainmaking activities. A source from the early twentieth century describes these supplications: Cases have been known in [Guangdong] province—and probably others— where [the provincial governor] dressed in mourning robes, with chains around his neck and his ankles fettered as a sign of humility, proceeded to the [Dragon God] Temple escorted by his fellow citizens. There he [kow‐ towed], burned incense, offered up a written prayer to the god, and placed upon his altar banners with the characters for Rain, Thunder, Lightning, and Wind upon them, in honour of the [dragon god’s] satellites.44
The practice of being tied or chained and paraded through the streets was common in many religious processions during the late imperial period. In parades for various deities, commoners dressed up in reddish‐brown clothing, similar in color to the clothes once worn by criminals in China, and they often wore chains, shackles, or even the cangue as they walked.45 Buddhist pilgrims were also known to have walked to and from sacred sites with hands and feet shackled with chains, which were stored in Buddhist temples for precisely this purpose.46 Consequently, when local officials allowed themselves to be shackled and paraded around town, it coincided with familiar modes of religiosity in late imperial China. Being chained resonates with another rainmaking phenomenon, which involved binding the image of deities such as the city god with chain or rope and dragging it into the hot sun. There was a general be‐ lief that deities had the best interest of the people at heart and would not allow them to suffer needlessly. If a deity did not send rain, it was often interpreted to mean that the deity was unaware of the people’s hardships. Dragging the deity from its shaded shrine into the hot sun allowed the deity to experience the sufferings of the people firsthand. Because both officials and deities were seen as being responsible for protecting the local community, we often see officials exposing them‐ selves along with deities in an effort to bring rain. Wolfram Eberhard
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translated a folktale from Hangzhou in the Qing dynasty that refers to this practice: [The governor] got up, washed, and without eating he told his servants to fetch the deity of the city. Then the living man and the plaster image were placed together on chairs and fastened with chains like criminals. A huge crowd gathered to see the spectacle, since they believed the governor was sacrificing himself for his people. The governor explained, “In this world, I am the ruler of this province, and in the underworld, he is ruler. But since he does not care that men are dying of thirst, I have had both of us placed out in the sun to see which collapses first, his plaster body or my body of flesh and blood.” These words were greeted with wild applause.47
Although there is no way to confirm whether this actually oc‐ curred, there is sufficient anecdotal evidence to suggest that officials engaged in these kinds of dramatics fairly regularly. For example, an article that appeared in Shenbao includes references to both mourn‐ ing and exposure practices. In the summer of 1876, Yangzhou was suffering from drought. In response, Prefect Ying 英 erected altars to pray for rain. On the evening before he prayed, he bit open his finger (zi jiang zhitou chipo 自將指頭囓破) and used his own blood to com‐ pose a prayer text. The practice of writing oaths and scripture texts in blood has a long history in China. Through self‐mutilation and blood writing, a person was able to demonstrate a willingness to en‐ dure physical pain for the sake of others.48 On the following day, Prefect Ying went to the temple to present the document. He first made what appears to be a rather straightforward prayer. When he was finished, he prostrated himself on the ground and “cried pain‐ fully” (tongku 痛哭), begging for the lives of the people. The other of‐ ficials, secretaries, and clerks present joined him as he cried, and all of them carried on like this for two days. Finally, there was a heavy rain, which everyone attributed to the prefect’s sincere heart. During the same drought, the magistrate of Haizhou 海州 took the city god to a mountain monastery where he exposed himself and the god’s image under the hot sun for three days, refusing even to drink water. Eventually, there was a heavy rain. The text says that all the com‐ moners were grateful and welcomed the official’s success with shouts of joy. In order to reward the official, they prepared for him a feast, which they served inside the monastery. “The magistrate was extremely happy, and he raised a glass and drank deeply.” The
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people escorted the city god back to his temple with drums and music.49 Local officials also exposed themselves in more traditional ways. A dramatic example of this occurred the spring of 1877. At the height of the North China Famine, Zeng Guoquan 曾國荃 (1824–90), the brother of eminent statesman Zeng Guofan, assumed office as the governor of Shanxi province. Upon arriving at his new post, Gover‐ nor Zeng ordered his officials to make daily pilgrimages on foot to the local temple to pray for rain. They complied, but more than a month later, their efforts still had not produced the desired effect. As a last resort, Zeng issued an order to the provincial capital requiring all officials of the rank of magistrate and higher, and all degree hold‐ ers above the rank of linsheng 廩生 to gather at the temple of the Jade Emperor to pray for rain. The next morning, the group proceeded en masse to the shrine. When they arrived, they piled a flammable mix‐ ture of dried brush and gunpowder in the middle of the temple courtyard. Then, Governor Zeng read a petition that he had com‐ posed. In it, he admitted that “the sincere officials have not been good (buliang 不良) and this has brought about a reprimand (qian 譴) [from heaven],” and he asked heaven to have compassion on the people during this time of desperate need. In exchange, he asked that heaven take his own life and the lives of the others as a propitia‐ tory offering. At that point, he and his officials knelt on top of the pile of brush to await their fate. For two days and two nights, they did not eat or drink, nor did they sleep. On the morning of the third day, it was reported that a wall of clouds emerged on the horizon. When the crowd looked up into the sky, they saw “what appeared to be the undulating form of the dragon god skirting the edge of the approaching cloud bank.” Its scales and fins flashed in and out of view, brilliant like lightning, and its thin black tail trailed behind. Gradually, the clouds obscured the sun, and lightning and rain ap‐ peared in the distance. In an instant, an abundant rainfall began that lasted for three days. As an expression of their thanks, the people burned incense, beat drums, and sounded horns to accompany their leaders back home.50 Local officials might even commit suicide in extreme cases. As noted in Chapter 1, during the 1873 drought, a magistrate in Zhen‐ jiang prefecture was said to have died after exposing himself and the city god while praying for rain.51 Another example, which occurred
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during the North China Famine, involved the suicide of Magistrate Yu Zhongde 于鍾德. Yu Zhongde, a jinshi degree holder from Yun‐ nan province, was appointed to the magistracy of Fenxi 汾西 county in Shanxi province in the summer of 1877. Yu’s biography in the lo‐ cal gazetteer portrays him as a model upright official who was truly concerned about the welfare of his people. Naturally, he was greatly distressed by the suffering he witnessed around him. It was said that he personally traveled to the areas hardest hit by the famine and tended to the needs of refugees. During his brief tenure, he is said to have subsisted on a diet of noodles mixed with gravel and a coarse rice gruel that was reportedly poisonous. Even so, he blamed himself for being wasteful and felt that his relief measures had been carried out in vain. In desperation, he hanged himself in the temple of the God of Literature in the spring of 1878. The local gazetteer remem‐ bered his sacrifice by saying, “He gave his life for his people.”52 Although it would be inaccurate to characterize Yu’s actions as a “rainmaking activity,” it is certainly plausible that Yu thought his suicide would bring rain, and it was likely interpreted in this way by his constituents. At the very least, his suicide embodied a pervasive ethos in rainmaking, which centered around a willingness to suffer or give one’s life for the sake of others. The scholar Zhou Zhiyuan 周致元 has argued that local officials in the Ming dynasty “very of‐ ten used physical self‐mortification to demonstrate their sincerity” during their rainmaking. After describing an episode of exposure that took place in the Ming, he remarks: “From this we can see that while praying for rain, this county magistrate had to endure physical pain that the average person would have difficulty enduring.”53 Many of the more strenuous rainmaking activities local officials car‐ ried out, such as exposing themselves, kneeling for long periods of time, walking for long distances, being tied up or shackled, writing documents in blood, and threatening suicide, were an attempt to demonstrate their willingness to endure humiliation or physical pain for the people. The accounts of traditional rainmakers such as King Tang, Dai Feng, and Liang Fu reflect this ethos, as do later reports such as the one about Zeng Guoquan presented above. The statecraft essay written by Yu Zhengxie discussed in the preceding chapter, in which he warned officials against killing people to pray for rain, suggests that threatening or committing suicide may have been far more prevalent among officials than we might imagine.
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Fig. 4.2 Chen Xingwen, “Jumping into the Dragon Pool.” Source: Wu Youru, Wu Youru huabao, 15: 19.
The practice of threatening or committing suicide was not con‐ fined to officials. There seems to have been a general consensus that rain could be obtained through sacrificial suicide. For example, the Dianshizhai Pictorial includes at least two separate accounts of com‐ moners committing suicide to pray for rain. In one, a young woman, surnamed Yang 楊, threw herself off a bridge into a dragon pool be‐ cause another woman, surnamed Shi 施, was said to have done the same thing in 1879 in order to bring rain.54 In another article, a man named Chen Xingwen 陳興文 threw himself into a dragon hole near Wenzhou 溫州 (Fig. 4.2). After walking to the dragon hole in a rain‐ making procession, he stood up in front of the crowd of people and said, “I am already old, so how can I excessively cherish my life? To‐ day, I am willing to throw myself into the dragon hole to petition the dragon king. Please return and tell my family not to think of me.”55 When he finished speaking, he threw himself into the water. The commoners who were present hailed from several different villages, and they said that if Chen were successful, then they would contrib‐
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ute money to a temple built in his honor. It turns out that it did, in fact, rain, and a temple was built on the shores of Lake Tai to com‐ memorate his sacrifice.56
Working Wonders Of course, officials did not simply rely on trials of physical endur‐ ance to make rain. As rainmaking efforts intensified, they also incor‐ porated increasingly complex occult technologies into their rainmak‐ ing activities. This included traditional altar rituals of the sort promoted by Dong Zhongshu, as well as the manipulation of objects or animals thought to possess a special relationship with rain, such as bones, snakes, frogs, and dragons. The last two accounts of sacrifi‐ cial suicide discussed above point to the continued importance of dragons in rainmaking activities. Throwing oneself into a dragon hole was merely one way of inducing the dragon to leave its abode, take flight, and cause rain to fall. We saw earlier with the Handan shrine that iron objects could be thrown into dragon holes. Officials were also known to use tiger bones for the same purpose. Chapter 1 referred to an episode in 1892 in which a lizard was caught and placed in a vase, after which ground tiger bone was to be sprinkled in, causing the dragon to break the vase and fly into the air. The Shanxi scholar Liu Dapeng 劉大鵬 recorded an account of officials throwing a tiger bone into a dragon hole in 1906. Liu wrote that after a prolonged drought, officials had sent deputies to the Jinci 晉祠 temple in Shanxi to “fetch water” and pray for rain. After praying with no result, an official was sent to the Nanlao Spring 難老泉 to toss a tiger bone into the spring because “it was said that the spring had a dragon, and by tossing in the bone, the tiger and dragon would struggle with one another, producing rain.” But, alas, it did not rain, and Liu bemoaned the fact that the officials had become “laughingstocks.”57 A Beijing newspaper reported: A letter from Shanxi says, “From spring through summer, Shanxi has been suffering from an extraordinary drought. On the evening of May 26, 1906, a small amount of rain fell, but it was less than two cun. A swath of land in the south of the province even suffered from a hailstorm which damaged in‐ numerable farm fields. The farmers are utterly without resources and look for assistance, but no good method has yet been found. But the high officials, in appeasing public sentiment and fulfilling their duties, were extremely
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earnest. It is said they urgently went about their business. They prayed to the end with no time even to eat; they sent emissaries to some location to fetch holy water; and they even sent a magistrate to Handan to fetch an iron tablet.” Recently, however, there has been an extremely ridiculous, extremely strange event. About forty li to the southwest of the provincial capital, there is a place called Jinci. The mountain has a living spring, and all the ignorant people say that there are a few powerful dragons that live under the spring. When some high official heard of this, he immediately had a tiger bone thrown into the spring. It was said that the dragon and tiger would struggle, causing it to rain. Is this not ridiculous, and truly strange? When rainfall is scarce, it is because the air is too dry. And if there are no forests or lakes, then when clouds form they are quickly blown away; so bringing rain is very difficult. Now, a tiger bone has been thrown into the spring. Let me ask, does the spring really have a dragon? If it does, and it encountered the tiger, then why in the end did rain not fall?58
The views of this author are puzzling. He clearly found the practice of throwing tiger bones into the spring “ridiculous.” Yet he appeared to have little problem with borrowing an iron tablet from a dragon well in Handan county or fetching “holy water” and bringing it back to the drought‐stricken area. It would appear that his primary objec‐ tion has to do with beliefs about the existence of dragons, since only the “ignorant” would believe that dragons reside in the spring. It also sounds as though the author was unfamiliar with this prac‐ tice, even though throwing tiger bones into dragon holes had a long history in official rainmaking. The practice is first mentioned in a Song dynasty text, the Taiping guangji 太平廣記 (Wide gleanings made in the Taiping era), and it is reproduced in later compilations such as the Daoyu zaji. According to the Daoyu zaji, “To the west of Xuzhou 徐州 is a stone pool fed by the River Sha. If a tiger bone is placed in the middle of the pool, it can bring clouds and rain.”59 One Qing source states that this method was used in the capital when‐ ever there was drought.60 In fact, the practice was even immortalized by the Song dynasty poet Su Dongpo in a poem entitled “Raise the Reclining Dragon” (“Qi fulong xing” 起伏龍行).61 Several similar practices were carried out in the Qing. For example, one collection of “strange occurrences” records an episode that purportedly took place in 1750 in which commoners killed a dog, obtained its blood, and tossed the blood into a well to bring rain.62 Another source re‐ lates the story of a Qing prefect who prayed for rain at a dragon fen
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but obtained only a small amount of rain. So, he wrote a seven‐ character jue 絕 poem and tossed it into the fen, and a heavy rain fol‐ lowed.63 One source records that poisonous plants, ashes, pieces of wood, and stones were thrown into dragon fens to induce rain.64 In some cases, officials employed dragon substitutes. As we have seen, this practice dated at least as far back as the Tang dynasty. In the episode with the ground tiger bone discussed above, an assistant magistrate from Zhenjiang was dispatched to Mount Hua to fetch a lizard and bring it back into the city, where it was welcomed with great fanfare. It was then placed in a temple and worshiped by all civil and military officials. A local gazetteer from the Nanjing area gives this description of the lizards of Mount Hua: During a drought year, prayers for rain are made. First, prayers are made at the Dragon King Temple, and if there is no response, then prayers are made at the dragon pool, which is efficacious. The pool is on Mount Hua, below the Baijing Terrace 拜經台. In it, there are lizards (xiyi 蜥蜴) that swim around the cracks in the rocks. They have four feet, five claws, black backs, red bellies, heads like dragons, and tails like a loach fish. A person is ap‐ pointed to catch them with both hands, but they cannot be carried away. If they are taken away, then on the way back home wind and lightning will commence, and one will have to return to the pool. The east pool is more ef‐ fective than the west pool.65
In another example discussed in the next chapter, officials praying for rain in Nanjing during the late nineteenth century arranged for twelve “four‐footed snakes”—the common name for the xiyi—to be gathered in a large cauldron. After placing the lizards in the vessel, they had four youngsters dress in blue‐green clothing and red scarves and stand around the cauldron striking its sides and calling out for rain.66 This technique—or one very similar to it—had existed for at least a millennium. The ninth‐century text Youyang zazu 酉陽雜 俎 describes a comparable rainmaking technique: “Take four water‐ lizards, and after having filled two earthen jugs with water, put two of the lizards in each. Then cover the jugs with wooden lids, place them in two different quiet spots, prepare seats before and behind them, and burn incense. If you then have more than ten boys, ten years old or younger, day and night incessantly strike the jars with small green bamboo sticks, it certainly will rain.”67 Lizards were the most common dragon substitute, but snakes and frogs were often incorporated into official rain prayers as well. As
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noted above, frogs were thought to have an intimate connection with rain because of their association with water and fertility. Snakes had been associated with dragons since at least the beginning of the first millennium CE, perhaps because of their association with Buddhist snake deities, or nagas. For example, in Dinghai 定海 county, Zhe‐ jiang province, the local gazetteer states that during prolonged droughts, the people manufactured dragons out of grass. The drag‐ ons were taken to the local dragon fen, where they were placed all around the shoreline. Then a prayer was made, and they were burned. From the water emerged snakes, frogs, and insects. These were captured and taken to the local officials, who knelt and wor‐ shiped them “as if they were gods.”68 The most celebrated incident of snake worship, at least in the late nineteenth century, featured the eminent statesman Li Hongzhang 李鴻章 (1823–1901). No longer ago than 1872, a magistrate, after making unsuccessful efforts to combat a flood which menaced the city of [Tianjin 天津], drowned himself. His sacrifice caused the waters to subside, and he himself became a water spirit, taking the form of a small snake. This little creature, found by a peas‐ ant and immediately recognized as an incarnation of the Rain God, was car‐ ried in state to [Tianjin] and placed in the [Dragon God] Temple. The whole civil administration, headed by the famous Viceroy [i.e., governor], [Li Hong‐ zhang], came to do him honour. Later, Li memorialized the Throne to grant the serpent a special honorific title according to historical precedents—a re‐ quest duly complied with by the Sovereign.69
Henri Doré describes a similar incident that he personally wit‐ nessed in Anhui province. A snake was found and was taken “with the greatest care” to a local shrine, where it was worshiped by the entire community. The salt commissioner (yandao 鹽道) accompanied the people in a procession to the shrine, where he burned incense and offered prostrations to the snake. Eventually, a permanent tem‐ ple was erected in its honor.70 Again, snake and frog worship had its counterpart in folk practices. The Sui’an 遂安 county gazetteer states that whenever the people encountered drought, they captured frogs, snakes, and small insects (xiaochong 小虫) and put them in vases. They placed willow branches over the top of the vases—calling it “pure water”—and then they brought them back to the community and offered them sacrifices.71 The rainmaking power of dragons also figured prominently in “fetching water” (qushui 取水) rituals, which have already been men‐
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tioned several times in this study. In essence, fetching water entailed going to a place where the “true body” (zhenshen 真身) of the dragon was said to reside, collecting water in some kind of a container, usu‐ ally a vase, and returning to one’s community where prayers were made to the water for a period of time. According to Yuan Li 苑利, the scholar who has done the most research in this area, the water was typically brought back to the dragon god temple, which Yuan calls the village’s “headquarters for rainmaking activities.”72 After it rained, the water was returned to its source. Although fetching wa‐ ter was a common practice in folk rainmaking, it figured promi‐ nently in official rainmaking as well. For example, in the summer of 1878, the governor of Henan province, Li Henian 李鶴年, dispatched an emissary to a dragon hole to fetch water: “The deputy purified [himself] and fasted and went to the Blue Dragon Hole (Qinglong‐ dong 青龍洞) in Xiuwu 修武 county, Huaiqing 懷慶 prefecture, to fetch water. He returned to the provincial city where [the water] was presented with sacrifices.”73 Similar accounts of fetching water can be found in Anyang and Suzhou during the drought of 1880. In An‐ yang, the provincial governor ordered a deputy official to go to Dragon Mountain and retrieve water from Dragon Spring. He was told to bring the water back into the city, where it was to be offered sacrifices inside the dragon god shrine. Afterward, the governor fasted and personally led all civil and military officials to the dragon god temple to burn incense.74 In Suzhou, officials were sent to fetch water at the White Dragon Pool as Guanyin was being brought into the city from the Guangfu Monastery.75 It should come as no surprise that local officials escalated their rainmaking efforts by appealing to these kinds of rainmaking tech‐ niques. We have seen that one of the central principles in rainmaking was to “open the yin and close off the yang.” Local officials at‐ tempted to do this in various ways. As discussed in Chapter 2, the Confucian scholar and statesman Dong Zhongshu articulated one of the more comprehensive altar methods designed to manipulate yin and yang. The evidence suggests that Dong’s rainmaking method was carried out relatively frequently during the Qing. For example, in 1754, Wang Youpu 王又樸, an official who gained renown for his popularization of Kangxi’s sixteen Sacred Edicts, published an anno‐ tated version of the rainmaking section of the Chunqiu fanlu.76 Wang stated that this rainmaking method had been “carried out through
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the generations until the present” and that when he took office in northern China in 1740, it was used by local officials during two suc‐ cessive drought years with great success. He had used it himself three times, and it had always been successful.77 As noted in the pre‐ vious chapter, Dong’s method was promoted by several statecraft scholars who considered it to be a particularly effective and appro‐ priate rainmaking technique. For example, Xu Wenbi 徐文弼 cites two different occasions on which he carried out Dong’s method. Whether praying for rain or for sun, he advised his readers, “Rely on Dong [Zhongshu’s] method, and you will certainly have much suc‐ cess.”78 Similarly, Zhang Pengfei attested to the efficacy of this method: “When it comes to the rainmaking method included in [Dong Zhongshu’s] Chunqiu fanlu, its principle never fails (bushuang 不爽). If one reverently carries it out with a sincere heart, then there will definitely be a response.”79 Although these officials testified that they had carried out Dong’s method on numerous occasions, third‐person accounts of the ritual are very difficult to find. Perhaps people simply did not find it to be particularly noteworthy. We do, however, have one description of rainmaking activities during a drought in Shanxi in 1902 that shows the distinctive contours of Dong’s method: A nearby provincial city had erected altars in twenty‐four different loca‐ tions, and every day the local officials went to burn incense. Outside the southern gate to the city, they had also erected a “seven dragon altar.” On the altar were seven dragons made of paper pasted together in fantastic shapes. In addition, various kinds of “drought dragons” (hanlong 旱龍) such as frogs and “mosquito hogs” (wenzhu 蚊豬) were caught and killed. And the people created a “dragon army” consisting of twelve youngsters who wore criminal attire. Upon the altar was placed a sow as well as iron imple‐ ments used to sear the sow’s tail in a hot fire. Every temple burned paper money. An official proclamation instructed the people to capture the “drought demon” (hanba 旱魃), called the “grave tiger” (muhu 墓虎) in local custom, for which a substantial reward would be given. Along the streets were scattered individuals who were fetching water from wells and putting it into jars in order to grow willows or to make offerings to water gods. In order to stimulate the heavenly yin principle, bells were sounded and drums beaten in the bell tower, so that the assistance of the rain gods might be enlisted. Many, many methods were used, all sufficient in themselves, yet the supplications went unanswered.80
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What is described at the beginning of this passage clearly reflects the technique that Dong outlined in the Chunqiu fanlu: A “seven dragon altar” was erected outside the southern gate to the city, frogs were collected, drums were beaten, and a sow’s tail was burned on the al‐ tar. All these elements correspond to Dong’s instructions for rain‐ making in the summer. Although we have no way of knowing ex‐ actly what happened during this episode, it is certainly plausible that Dong’s entire ritual was carried out as he specified. Yet other elements of these rainmaking activities were not part of Dong’s method. For example, Dong’s rainmaking method did not stipulate that the southern gate to the city be shut, even though the origins of this practice were often traced to him. This technique was used as early as the Han dynasty and was mentioned in Dong Zhongshu’s biography in the Han shu.81 As it appears there, the southern gate was to be shut and the northern gate was to be opened as a way of letting in the yin and repelling the yang. Fires were to be prohibited throughout the city for the same reason, since fire was as‐ sociated with the yang. During the Qing dynasty, local officials often implemented this measure once their initial rainmaking efforts had proved ineffective.82 Even in the imperial capital, the emperor would occasionally order that the city’s gates be shut. In 1807, for example, the Jiaqing emperor ordered the capital’s three southern gates—the Zhengyang 正陽, Xuanwu 宣武, and Chongwen 崇文 gates—to be closed for a few days because of a prolonged drought.83 An even more interesting aspect of this passage is the proclama‐ tion that local officials issued instructing the people to find the “drought demon” and promising a substantial reward for its discov‐ ery. The “drought demon” (hanba or hanbo) was first mentioned in the “Yunhan,” in the famous line “the drought demon exercises its oppression” (hanba wei xu 旱魃為虗). In early Chinese texts such as the Maoshi dawen 毛詩答問 and the Shenyijing 神異經, the drought demon is described variously as a kind of human‐like creature with eyes on top of its head. It was commonly believed that droughts were caused by the demon, and if it could be caught and killed, the drought would lift. The Shenyijing says, In the southern regions there is a person about two or three feet long, bare of body, with eyes on top of its head. Its running is like the wind, and it is named [Ba]. In the country where it appears, there is a great drought, and
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there is red (naked) earth for a thousand li. Its alternate name is [Ge]. If he who encounters it captures it and throws it into a cesspool it will die, and the calamity of drought will abate.84
By the Qing, the meaning of hanba had shifted somewhat, and it usu‐ ally referred to a skeleton or a cadaver. For example, in his Yuewei caotang biji 閱微草堂筆記 (Notebook from the Thatched Cottage of Close Scrutiny), the Qing scholar Ji Yun 紀昀 wrote: “The [hanba] is in fact always a cadaver. If it exhumed and burned, this will often cause it to rain.”85 The modern scholar Yuan Li says that in northern China, it was widely believed that the drought demon was a desic‐ cated corpse that possessed a magical ability to attract moisture. Ac‐ cording to Yuan, commoners believed that the drought demon de‐ sired to moisten its dry bones, and in so doing, it sucked all of the moisture out of the surrounding region, causing a drought.86 Barend ter Haar claims the corpses of elderly women were often identified as drought demons because they were associated with infertility and a lack of yin. Ter Haar explains that these female “zombies” were thought to replenish their fluids by feeding off the fertility of the sur‐ rounding area.87 For this reason, it was common during droughts for people to search the area for a grave that looked wet. In the account given above, the local officials who offered a reward for finding the drought demon were likely initiating a popular search for this ca‐ daver. Once a damp grave was found, local officials would lead a group of people to the site where they would open the coffin and expose the corpse. Typically, the decedent’s family members would be asked to witness the exhumation. When the crowd was satisfied that a hanba had, in fact, been found, they would exorcise the demon using one of many techniques. Sometimes they would expose the corpse in the hot sun for three days, after which it was burned. Peo‐ ple were also known to bind the corpse with rope before plowing it into the ground. The most common method for dealing with these demons, however, appears to have been disinterment and dismem‐ berment. Barend ter Haar notes that often the crowd would immedi‐ ately set upon the corpse, pull it apart, smash the skull, and beat the remains into a pulp.88 In so doing, the community hoped to restore yin and yang to their natural equilibrium. Local officials would occasionally engage in other unusual at‐ tempts to balance yin and yang. A particularly vivid example of this
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Fig. 4.3 ”New Marvels in Praying for Rain,” Illustration 1. Source: Fang Shiduo, Di‐ anshizhai huabao, 8: 1382–83.
comes from the Dianshizhai Pictorial in two illustrations entitled “New Marvels in Praying for Rain” (“Qiyu xinqi” 祈雨新奇; Figs. 4.3 and 4.4). According to the caption on the illustrations, the area around Nanjing had long been suffering from drought. After local officials had prayed for rain on multiple occasions with little suc‐ cess, their rainmaking “became increasingly strange.” The prefect of Jiangning 江寧 ordered his staff to capture four frogs, write the char‐ acter for “fire” (huo 火) on their backs four times, and tie them to the side of the main hall of the yamen. On the side of the main hall, a tablet to the dragon god was also erected. The prefect then donned his official clothes, ascended the main hall of the yamen, and in‐ spected the preparations. He then ordered yamen runners to take the frogs forty‐nine paces outside the city’s southern gate, where they were to dig a hole and bury them, in accordance with the “words of the sorcerer” (shushi zhi yan ye 術士之言也). A similar method, de‐ scribed in Chapter 1, was used by Jiangsu Governor Wu Yuanbing during the 1880 drought.
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Fig. 4.4 ”New Marvels in Praying for Rain,” Illustration 2. Source: Fang Shiduo, Di‐ anshizhai huabao, 8: 1384–85.
While this was going on, residents and shopkeepers obtained lengths of yellow paper upon which they wrote various four‐ character phrases, such as “the shangyang dances,” and posted them along the city’s main thoroughfares.89 They also employed painters to paint pictures of dragons and enlisted ten youths to construct a dragon out of clay. The clay dragon was built on a door that had been taken off of its hinges. The youths used chicken eggs for the dragon’s eyes, pottery shards for its spine, and the spiral shells of mollusks for its scales. Once they were finished, the dragon was car‐ ried in procession. Two youths held yellow pennants and led the procession, and two others sounded a bell as they followed behind the group. All the other youths carried willow branches, which they used to sprinkle water along the way. In an attempt to “reduce the yang and stimulate the yin,” several “pretty men” (meinanzi 美男子) dressed in women’s clothing, and several women dressed up as members of the Eight Banners (Fig. 4.4). Officials also ordered mili‐ tiamen (bingyong 兵勇) to pour water from Lake Yuanwu 元武湖
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over the city wall in the vicinity of one of the northern gates, Jubaomen 聚寶門. Ostensibly, this was done to strengthen the power of yin, which was associated with the northerly direction. This episode of cross‐dressing again points to the highly sexual‐ ized nature of many drought‐relief measures. Since at least the time of Dong Zhongshu, women had played a prominent role in rainmak‐ ing activities. The principles that informed their involvement appear to have differed, depending on the rainmaking technique used. For example, we have seen that the use of frogs in rainmaking has been attributed to their association with menstruation and fertility. Droughts were also linked to a shortage of sexual activity among men and women in any given region, and floods were associated with sexual excess. For this reason, Dong Zhongshu suggested that during droughts men and women should come together and “attend to things,” while during floods they should abstain from intercourse altogether. The sexualized nature of rainmaking activities is most apparent in the “uterus rainmaking method” discussed several times in this study, which called for a pregnant woman or virginal girl to be exposed publicly in the nude. While I have found no evidence that officials carried this ritual out, we do know they were asked to do so by the public and cautioned against doing so by the state. That such requests and warnings were even made suggests that it was at least within the realm of possibility. In cases of cross‐dressing, the objective of incorporating women appears to have been to balance yin and yang. Dong Zhongshu stated explicitly that the objective of rainmaking was to open the yin and close off the yang, and in order to do this, he stipulated that during times of drought “men should be concealed, and women should be gentle and happy.”90 In some cases this translated into having men stay indoors and having women expose themselves nude.91 In this particular episode, we can surmise that “pretty men” are being dressed in women’s clothing in order to feminize their yang charac‐ teristics, thereby minimizing their effects on the environment. The actions of the women are puzzling, since we would expect that if the goal were to bolster the yin, the qualities of the women would have been accentuated, not hidden. It could be that the mere presence of women, even in drag, was thought to be sufficient to augment the yin. Similarly, we have no explanations as to why women dressed as bannermen. Were Manchus thought to be more yang? As northerners,
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were they associated with yin? Unfortunately, the sources fail to provide us with an adequate explanation of the motivations behind these practices. Although it is difficult to ascertain precisely why some of these measures were carried out, it is undeniable that women played a conspicuous role in rainmaking activities. Whether in their capacity as ritualists or performers, or in the symbolism of fertility and pro‐ duction, gendered behavior and meanings figured prominently in rainmaking from the earliest periods of Chinese history. Their persis‐ tence into the late imperial period is remarkable when we consider that the state frowned on the use of female performers in public ritu‐ als, such as funerals, and female participation in official rituals had been virtually eliminated by the nineteenth century. One possible explanation for this anomaly is that these features endured because of the way that droughts were commonly understood. Since drought was understood as resulting from a lack of yin in the universe, the most obvious way to correct this deficiency was by granting women—or symbols associated with women—a more prominent role in rainmaking. It is also plausible that the ancient origins of many rainmaking techniques helped to perpetuate elements that ei‐ ther were not present in more recent rituals or had been marginal‐ ized over time. One important implication of the gendered nature of rainmaking is that it challenges some of the ways scholars have conceptualized official ritual in the late imperial period. In particular, Angela Zito has argued that rituals performed in honor of the city god in late imperial China gave concrete expression to abstract concepts of filial‐ ity (xiao 孝) present throughout Chinese society. In Zito’s analysis, county magistrates—as rulers of the local area and subordinates to the emperor—occupied a pivotal position in the state bureaucracy homologous to the position occupied by sons in the cult of ancestors. In the same way that sons performed sacrifices for their male ances‐ tors, so magistrates performed sacrifices on behalf of the emperor. As Zito puts it, “The magistrate was an official son of the impe‐ rium.”92 She sees sacrifices performed by magistrates as instantiating the father‐son relationship, which served to reproduce filiality throughout Chinese society. Zito may be correct in her interpretation of sacrifices to the city god, but the case of rainmaking suggests that official rituals may
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have been characterized by more than simply a male‐centered filial‐ ity. As we have seen, local officials were expected to offer sacrifices and read invocations during rainmaking activities, but it is worth emphasizing that in the earliest rainmaking rituals these duties were often performed by female mediums. This is also true of practices such as exposure and self‐immolation that may have originally in‐ volved the burning of women. As a result, officials were in many cases re‐enacting behavior long associated with female ritualists, which at the very least complicates the claim that official rainmaking was exclusively male in orientation. We also know that female dei‐ ties such as Guanyin figured prominently in official rainmaking ac‐ tivities and that these activities routinely incorporated sexualized behavior and symbolism. Taken in isolation, these observations would not be terribly persuasive, but when considered as a whole, a case might be made that official rainmaking activities do not fit the male‐centric model described by Zito. One aspect of this line of reasoning that I find particularly intrigu‐ ing is the possibility that some modes of official behavior associated with the “father‐mother ideology”—caring for the people, nourish‐ ing them, expressing heartfelt concern—were inspired primarily by maternal models of compassion. These stereotypes are succinctly captured in the popular phrase “stern father, compassionate mother” ( fuyan muci 父嚴母慈) but can also be seen in the rhetoric of feeding and caring that permeated late imperial discourse on motherhood. Indeed, the image of the harried official rainmaker who subjects himself to pain and deprivation as he labors ceaselessly to ease the sufferings of his “children” has much in common with late imperial descriptions of virtuous mothers.93 If so, official rainmaking may have been as much about being a good mother to the people as it was about being a good father.
No Sacrifices Withheld The rainmaking activities described above complicate the arguments presented at the beginning of this chapter that official rain prayers in the Qing exhibited “Confucian austerity” and were performed pri‐ vately or with few onlookers. It is true that officials often incorpo‐ rated elements such as fasting or incense‐burning into their rainmak‐ ing activities, and these actions could certainly have a solemn, or
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austere, quality to them. At the very least, official rainmaking activi‐ ties did not typically show signs of the “noisy,” raucous behavior that occasionally accompanied popular rain processions. This point was not lost on contemporary observers, such as Justus Doolittle, who remarked that officials “seldom or never appear parading the streets in idol processions, as do the common people while praying for rain.”94 Yet this does not mean that official rainmaking was a private or semi‐private affair, as has been suggested. To begin with, virtually every rainmaking activity conducted by local officials was carried out to a certain extent in public—simply making visits to a local temple was a public event. In many cases, local officials posted proc‐ lamations that detailed their rainmaking activities. In fact, officials had to publicize their rainmaking activities in some way, lest people think they were shirking their responsibilities and not praying dili‐ gently to end the drought. Yet even when elements of official rain prayers were carried out in relative seclusion they were still quite conspicuous. We saw in Chapter 1, for example, that in 1873 officials in Shanghai fasted alone in a popular local teahouse. In order to do this, however, the teahouse closed for business, all employees were forced to leave, and guards were posted at the doors. Thus, even in the rare cases when rainmaking activities were hidden from view, they were hardly a secret. Putting aside for a moment the public aspects of rainmaking, the numerous accounts of rainmaking presented throughout this study of the animated and dramatic behavior of officials challenge the no‐ tion that official rain prayers exhibited anything akin to “Confucian austerity.” Proceeding on foot to the temple with incense in hand was certainly more solemn than other rainmaking techniques avail‐ able to officials, but even this simple practice could appear quite spectacular depending on how local officials chose to carry it out. Regular incense‐burning rituals took on a radically different nature when officials walked in shackles under the hot sun, delivered prayers written in their own blood, or cried for days in front of their constituents. Even in cases where rainmaking was more reserved, it is not clear what this quality has to do with Confucianism. We have seen what kinds of rainmaking accounts are found in canonical sources—those of King Xuan and King Tang, for example—and “austerity” is not the first word that comes to mind. In fact, the
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rainmaking tradition, described in Chapter 2, was nothing if not strenuous and passionate. One might even argue that it was the Con‐ fucian tradition that introduced and authorized many of the arduous physical feats and extreme actions that scholars often associate with popular religion.95 Indeed, looking at the theatricality of official rainmaking, one is reminded of Meir Shahar’s observation about antinomian behavior in Chinese religion that “extraordinary powers were inextricably linked to extraordinary behavior.”96 And what about “magical efficacy”? As is apparent from the dis‐ cussion to this point, officials regularly employed occult technologies in their rainmaking activities: closing the city gates, collecting vari‐ ous animals for worship or burial, tossing objects into dragon lairs, manufacturing dragon substitutes, burning sows’ tails, ordering corpses to be exhumed, and so forth. Therefore, the virtue‐magic di‐ chotomy has less applicability to official rainmaking than some scholars have suggested. Even activities that might not be considered “magical,” such as burning incense to deities, were not necessarily based on the “virtue” of the celebrant, as has been claimed. This is‐ sue is discussed more below. At this point, suffice it to say that rain was seldom—if ever—thought to be caused by an official’s virtue. In fact, the character usually translated as “virtue,” de, rarely appears in rainmaking accounts or rainmaking prayers, except when officials confess that they have not been virtuous (bude 不德). On the contrary, rain was thought to be brought about through “sincerity,” cheng 誠, which, I argue below, does not necessarily preclude the use of occult technologies and spectacular displays. Rather than avoiding these practices, most local officials took their cue from those famous lines of the “Yunhan” that read: “There are no spirits I have not honored, there are no sacrifices I have withheld.” As we saw earlier, this ancient verse was most often interpreted to mean that in times of crisis, offi‐ cials should go out of their way to worship all spirits, “even searching out sacrifices that had fallen into disuse and reviving them.”97 In prac‐ tice, this verse encouraged a “promiscuous impulse” in officials to do whatever they could to please the people and bring rain. We will return to some of these issues in later chapters, as we be‐ gin to delve into the social and political aspects of official rainmak‐ ing. Before we do, however, it is worth taking a detailed look at a single rainmaking method in more depth, one that was developed, promoted, and carried out by Qing officials. In the early nineteenth
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century, a new rainmaking technique was devised by a magistrate named Ji Dakui, and by the end of the dynasty, it had achieved a substantial following among local officials. Many versions of this rainmaking method were published during the nineteenth century, making it the most widely published rainmaking manual in the Qing dynasty. Ji’s rainmaking method was organized around a complex altar ritual that included Buddhist and Daoist scriptures, Yijing nu‐ merology, talismans, and incantations. As one of the most‐well‐ developed rituals of its kind, it provides a unique window into the mind and methods of the official rainmaker. Ji’s method is the focus of the next chapter.
Appendixes
APPENDIX A
Dong Zhongshu’s Rainmaking Method
During a spring drought, officials should select a water day to pray to the soil and grain (sheji 社稷) and mountains and rivers, and they should have households make sacrifices to their doors (hu 戶).1 No important trees should be felled or mountain forests cut. A female female medium should be exposed [in the sun], and a cripple and snakes should be rounded up. On the eighth day, an open altar (si‐ tong zhi tan 四通之壇) should be erected outside the city’s east gate. It should be eight chi square and should be adorned with eight blue‐ green (cang 蒼) silk banners. The deity Gong Gong 共工 2 should re‐ ceive sacrifices of eight live fish, dark wine (xuanjiu 玄酒), clear wine ( juqingjiu 具清酒), and dried meat. A female medium (wu 巫) with pure words and eloquent speech should be selected as the celebrant (zhu 祝).3 She should fast for three days and wear blue‐green clothing. She should prostrate herself twice and then kneel and make a plea (guichen 跪陳). When finished pleading, she should prostrate herself again twice, then rise. [During her pleading] she should say: “High‐ est Heaven makes the five grains grow and nurtures human beings. But now the five grains are sick with drought, and we fear they may not ripen. So we respectfully offer pure liquor, dried meat, and pros‐ trations so that a soaking rain might fall.”
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On a jia 甲 or yi 乙 day, make one large blue‐green dragon eight zhang 丈4 long and place it in the center [of the altar]. Then make seven smaller dragons, each four zhang long, and place them on the east side [of the altar]. All of them should face east and be placed eight zhang apart. Eight youngsters should fast for three days, dress in blue‐green garments, and dance to them (wuzhi 舞之).5 The super‐ intendent of the harvest (tian sefu 田嗇夫) should also fast for three days, dress in blue‐green clothing, and stand there.6 The Altar of Soil (she 社) should be dug out so that it is connected to an irrigation ditch outside the city’s gate. Five frogs should be gathered and placed in a pond, eight chi in diameter and one chi deep, which has been built in the middle of the Altar of Soil. The clear wine and dried meat, the fasting for three days, the wearing blue‐green clothing, the kneeling and prostrations, the pleading—all of them remain the same as before. A three‐year‐old rooster and a three‐year‐old male pig should be roasted under the divine canopy (shenyu 神宇).7 The people should be ordered to shut the south gates of the city and towns and place water outside them. They should also open the north gates to the city and towns, round up one old male pig, and place it outside the north gate. Inside the marketplace they should also place a single male pig. Drums should be beaten, at which point all the pigs’ tails should be roasted. The bones of deceased people should be gathered and bur‐ ied. A mountain grotto should be opened up (kai shanyuan 開山淵), and firewood should be stacked and burned. Bridges that connect roads should be closed to all traffic, and water ditches should be closed off ( jueduzhi 決瀆之). If you are fortunate and receive rain, then offer a pig, liquor, salt, and millet. Mats made of rushes should be woven without cutting [the rushes] (以茅為席毋斷).8 When praying for rain in the summer, the officials should select a water day [to pray], and households should make sacrifices to the stove (zao 竈). The land should not be worked, but wells should be dug. A large kettle ( fu 釜) should be exposed on the altar, and mortars and pestles on the road for seven days. An altar seven chi square should be erected outside the south gate of the city, and it should be decorated with seven red silk banners. The deity Chi You 蚩尤 should be offered sacrifices of seven red roosters, dark wine, clear wine, and dried meat.9 The celebrant (zhu 祝) should fast for three days and wear red clothing. She should make prostrations, kneel, and present the
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blessing just as in the instructions for spring. On a bing 丙 or ding 丁 day, make one large red dragon seven zhang long and place it in the middle [of the altar]. Six smaller dragons, each three zhang five chi long, should be placed seven chi apart on the south side of the altar facing south. Seven stalwart young men should fast for three days, dress in red clothing, and dance. The superintendent of works (sikong sefu 司空嗇夫) should also fast for three days, dress in red clothing, and stand there. The Altar of Soil (she 社) should be dug out so that it is connected with an irrigation ditch outside the city’s gate. Five frogs should be gathered and placed in a pond, seven chi square and one chi deep, which has been built in the middle of the Altar of Soil. Then wine and dried meat are offered. Then the celebrant fasts, puts on red clothing, and prostrates, kneels, and pleads just as before. A three‐ year‐old rooster and male pig are rounded up and roasted under the deity canopy of the open altar, in order to open the yin and close off the yang, just as in the spring. In late summer, prayers should be made for assistance from the mountains and hillocks (shanling 山陵). For ten days the officials should move the marketplace outside the southern gate to the city, and for five days men should be prohibited from entering the market. Households should make sacrifices in the middle of the house (zhongliu 中霤), and no work on the land should be undertaken. A female medium should be brought to the side of the market, where she should be tied up and covered ( jiegai 結蓋). An open altar should be erected in the center [of the market] and decorated with five yel‐ low silk banners. The deity Hou Ji 后稷 should be sacrificed to with five female [missing character],10 dark wine, clear wine, and dried meat. The celebrant fasts for three days and wears yellow clothing; the remainder is like the spring sacrifice. On a wu or ji 戊己 day, make a large yellow dragon five zhang in length and put it in the cen‐ ter of the altar. In addition, make four smaller dragons, each two zhang five chi long, and place them on the south side of the altar. All of them should face south and be placed five chi apart. Five adult men (zhangfu 丈夫) should fast for three days, dress in yellow cloth‐ ing, and dance to them. In addition, five elderly men should also fast for three days, dress in yellow clothing, and stand there. Moreover, the Altar of Soil should be connected to an irrigation ditch outside the city walls. Frogs and a pond five chi square and one chi deep— everything else is the same as before.
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In autumn, the female medium and cripple should be exposed for nine days. Fires should not be started, and people should not cook in metal utensils. Families should make sacrifices at their gates (men 門). An open altar, nine chi square, should be erected outside the city’s west gate and decorated with nine white silk banners. The deity Shao Hao 少昊 should be sacrificed to using nine wooden fish made of the Paulownia tree, dark wine, clear wine, and dried meat.11 They [the sacrificers] should wear white clothing; the rest is just like spring. On a geng 庚 or xin 辛 day, make a large white dragon nine zhang long and place it in the middle [of the altar]. In addition, make eight small dragons, four zhang five chi long, and place them on the west side of the altar. All of them should face west and be placed nine chi apart. Nine widowers (guanzhe 鰥者) should fast for three days, dress in white garments, and dance to them. The inspector of horses (sima 司馬) should also fast for three days, dress in white garments, and stand there. Frogs, and a pond that is nine chi square and one chi deep—everything else remains the same as before. In the winter, dance to the dragons for six days, and pray for the assistance of famous mountains. Families should make sacrifices at the well; do not block the water. An open altar should be erected outside the city’s northern gate. It should be six chi square and deco‐ rated with six black silk banners. The deity Xuan Ming 玄冥 should be sacrificed to using six black dogs, dark wine, clear wine, and dried meat.12 The celebrant should fast for three days and dress in black garments. The celebrant’s ritual remains the same as in spring. On a ren 壬 or gui 癸 day, make a large black dragon six zhang long and place it in the middle [of the altar]. In addition, make five small dragons, three zhang long, and place them on the north side of the altar. All of them should face north and be placed six chi apart. Six elderly men should all fast for three days, dress in black garments, and dance to them. The military officer (wei 尉) should also fast for three days, dress in black garments, and stand there. The frogs and pond are all the same as in spring. In all four seasons, a water day must be selected. When making the dragons, one must select pure earth to make them.13 Cover them up, and when the dragons are complete, reveal them. In all four seasons on a geng 庚 or zi 子 day, all the officials and people should come to‐ gether to attend to things (ouchu 偶處).14 For the most part, when seek‐ ing rain, men desire to hide and women desire peace and happiness.
Note to Appendixes B and C
In order to give some idea of the similarities and differences among the different editions, I present two versions of Ji Dakui’s rainmak‐ ing text in Appendixes B and C. The first text (Appendix B), Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu 紀慎齋先生求雨全書 (Master Ji Shenzhai’s complete book of rainmaking), was published in Hang‐ zhou in 1898 in a two‐fascicle edition. The first fascicle has the ritual texts, and the second contains a complete version of the Yunlunjing. Only the first fascicle is translated below; an abstract of the sutra is provided. This edition was selected for translation because it has some of the most interesting front matter of any of the editions; the prefaces and introduction are particularly illuminating. The second text (Appendix C) was included in an enlarged edi‐ tion of Guanmu tongzhou lu 官幕同舟錄 (On officials and secretaries being in the same boat), an administrative manual (guanzhen 官箴) for local officials, published in Suzhou in 1884 by a prominent yamen secretary (muyou 幕友) named Fei Shanshou 費山壽. The rainmaking section of the text did not appear in Fei’s original text, which was published in 1879, but was appended when it was re‐ issued five years later. This particular text was selected for transla‐ tion because it includes a range of techniques and illustrations found nowhere else.
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Note to Appendixes B and C
For the most part, both texts were relatively straightforward and presented no real difficulty in translating. Some portions, however, were quite challenging, especially the unpunctuated prefaces and prayer texts. Where my translations are tentative, I include the origi‐ nal Chinese to assist the reader. Notes have been provided where necessary to explain terms or concepts that may be unfamiliar.
APPENDIX B
Master Ji Shenzhai’s Complete Book of Rainmaking Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu 紀慎齋先生求雨全書
Preface 序 In the days of Yao 堯, there were ten suns that withered grass and tree. [King] Tang [of the Shang dynasty] saw seven years of drought so hot that stones melted and metal fused. The reign of King Xuan of Zhou was called a “restoration” (zhongxing 中興), but [even then] the weather was hot and muggy, and poets sang the “Yunhan.” From this we know that there are good times and bad, droughts and floods, which no era can avoid. When the six ceremonies (liudian 六典) were revised during the Tang dynasty, the regular yu sacrifice (changyu 常雩) was classified as a tertiary sacrifice (qunsi 群祀), and the great yu (dayu 大雩) was a sacrifice performed during crises. But [the ritu‐ als eventually] strayed away, and talk of them was forbidden (xiang‐ shuai er weiyan zhi 相率而諱言之). As a result, they are absent from the ritual system of sacrifices handed down by the former kings and have not been revised. So, the methods used to ward off drought and
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strengthen resistance to disharmony on behalf of the people were unremarkable. The empire had one Altar of Soil and Grain, and there were altars of soil and grain in each administrative city. These were the basis on which the lives of the people were entrusted [to rulers], and whenever there was a problem, prayers were made there. The ancient rituals were like this. Even though county magistrates may be assigned to remote posts, they have accepted the Son of Heaven’s mandate to care for his peo‐ ple. So, how can they not take it seriously? Although I had no talent, I was appointed to office in Shandong—in Laiwu 萊蕪, Guancheng 觀城, and Boping 博平—three appointments in all. I had to prognos‐ ticate about the weather and toil wearily alongside the peasants. Whenever I experienced a calamity, I led my people and prayed for them. But the methods I used to pray for rain were never taken lightly, [and they were never] disrespectful or irregular. Those [offi‐ cials] who are pure and sophisticated and are respectful of resources have no [rainmaking] texts of the kind that Master Ji Shenzhai has compiled. His method uses the great Yijing as its organizing princi‐ ple and lays bare all its profound meaning. For this reason, it is quite extraordinary. The method for configuring the altar employs Fu Xi’s eight trigrams. The arrangement of the positions is according to the “six children” trigrams (liuzi 六子) of qian and kun.1 The colors of its pennants match the “inserted stems” (najia 納甲) and “inserted mu‐ sical notes” (nayin 納音).2 The complex movements of its participants back and forth are the subtle workings of the universe. The qian and kun pennants perform the crossings toward one an‐ other, whereas the dui, gen, zhen, and xun pennants only occasionally perform the crossing.3 The kan pennant is the primary crossing pen‐ nant. The numbers of each position correspond to the numbers of the six directions and the pennants displayed. So, all the representations of the eight pure trigrams and their fifty‐six variations are provided in it. Only the li [pennant] is fixed and does not move, since the sun rules this season and its heat needs no assistance.4 This is the power of its harmonization! All the pennants in the other six positions are directed toward qian and kun and come from them. There is a theory that says that the method of the trigram varia‐ tions did not originate with Confucius, but that the Duke of Zhou had already made a connection to sun 損. He said: “When three peo‐ ple journey together, they [are bound to] lose one. When one person
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journeys by himself, he [is bound to] gain a companion.”5 These are the changes of the “six children” trigrams. All of them emerge from qian and kun, and they do not come, as it is said, from fu 復, gou 姤, lin 臨, and dun 遯.6 Cheng Yi’s 程頤 [1033–1107] Yizhuan 易傳 (Com‐ mentary on the Yijing) actually advocates this. However, that text does not have the insights of the diagrams in Zhu Xi’s “original meanings” (benyi zhi tu 本義之圖), and I suspect that it still has prob‐ lems.7 For this reason, I follow the expertise of Master [Ji Shenzhai’s] theory of changes. In addition, a thorough knowledge of his method results in a quick response. This text should be cherished and stored like an ancient map of the world (guqiutu 古球圖). In the Master’s method, one is supposed to chant the Yunlunjing, but [the sutra] was never included in [earlier] texts. I consulted many of my colleagues, and all regretted that they had not seen it, even though they had desired to for years. In the summer of 1867 in Kaifeng, my prefecture borrowed a handwritten copy [of the sutra] and began to compile and revise it. The language of the Buddhist scripture was very difficult, and it was hard to read. It included the pronunciation but no characters, which made the pronunciations difficult to interpret, yet easy to chant. I know that it is unavoidable that [the sutra text included in this manual] still has flaws, but regardless of how many it has, it is only fitting that [the manual] be a complete text. So, those who want to use it will not have to go to all the difficulty of finding [the sutra]. Is this not a great benefit to those who devote themselves to the needs of the people? Some say that the Master’s lixue 理學 is known all over China, but when they examine the style of this ritual, they say that it reflects the beliefs and practices of Daoist priests and Buddhist monks. Can we say this? I would respond by saying the yu 雩 involved sacrifices and music to the red emperor [in the south] to pray for rain. In the Zhouli 周禮, it describes the duties of the officer of sorcery (siwu 司巫) by saying, “If during the year there is a great drought, then he should lead the sorceresses (wu 巫) in dancing the yu sacrifice.” At the time, female sorceresses (nüwu 女巫) were a type of official. During great calamities throughout history, supplications have been made through singing and crying. Moreover, there were dance masters (wushi 舞師) who taught village dance officials (liwu 里舞) to conduct dances during periods of drought.
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Can it be that the sages could not move heaven through their sin‐ cerity but, rather, were forced to rely on the efficacy (ling) of sor‐ cerer’s spells to achieve their success? The spirits transformed them, and the people acted properly toward them. Herein lies its profound application. Although today’s monks and priests cannot prove that they have achieved nirvana, the nine streams [of teaching] belong to one house. So how is this different from using female mediums and village dance officials? If the labels “Daoist priest” or “Buddhist monk” are used to describe the Master, then the terms “female me‐ dium” or “village dance official” can be used to describe the Duke of Zhou! We are the shepherds of the people, and when there is a problem we pray for it. It is rooted only in a desire to relieve crisis, ward off famine, and resist disharmony, and one dare not take the duty lightly. One must deeply scrutinize one’s sincerity, and if one finds favor, one might be effective. Now, when the sun, moon, and stars are clear overhead, causing disharmony and discord, grief can be turned into sweet rains, agita‐ tion can be turned into peaceful breezes, and sincerity can prolong the lives of the people. If we have this method and do not use it, can great prosperity reach the oceans? This was the Master’s hope, and it is our desire as well. It is said: “For a thousand years, soldiers may not be used, but there cannot be a single day when they are not pre‐ pared.” And so it is with this book; I have compiled and revised it with this hope. Six year of Tongzhi 同治 [1867], sixth month Qiantang 錢唐 [Hangzhou], by Shu Enxu 殳恩煦
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A Record of Ji Shenzhai’s Rainmaking Text 紀慎齋求雨文記 The Master was from Linchuan 臨川 in Jiangyou 江右 [Jiangxi]. He obtained his xiaolian 孝廉 degree and was appointed to office in Hezhou 合州, Sichuan. In everything, he had a reputation for capable administration. He was deeply into the Yijing and could predict the future (neng zhi weilai shi 能知未來事). As a rule, people have heard of his deeds and scholarship but have never seen the man. This spring it did not rain. We prayed repeatedly, but the rain did not come. The magistrate of Changsha 長沙, Chen Bingchu 陳秉初, was a student of the Master and brought forth this rainmaking text. Its principles are derived from the Xici 繫辭 [commentary on the Yi‐ jing].8 Its altar configuration corresponds to the “preceding heaven” (xiantian 先天) trigrams and involves crisscrossing it in a specific se‐ quence. I know that his understanding of the Yijing is subtle and the application of it vast because on the twenty‐fifth day of the fourth month, I erected an altar according to the ritual, and the next day dense clouds covered the sky. It brought rain that lasted for five nights—enough for a thorough soaking. How wondrous! How could the response be like that? Looking at the Master’s writings, there is the Guanyi waibian 觀易 外編 (Supplement on the Yijing), which includes his thoughts about the Yellow River Chart (Hetu 河圖) and the Luo River Writ (Luoshu 洛書). He is an expert at synthesizing and penetrating the powers of the universe in order to explain their mysteries. He makes manifest what previous men did not make manifest and details what previous men did not detail. His other works, such as the Laozi yueshuo 老子約 說 (A concise explanation of Laozi), are vast, and when they are col‐ lected, they should be disseminated. His commentaries on the an‐ cient poems and Classics are very thorough, and there are no minu‐ tiae they do not scrutinize. In the books he read, the books he recorded, and in all his various writings, he aspires to be a saint or worthy, and his scholarship is a return to truth. When I read his texts, it is like seeing the man. The ancients were thoroughly versed in the subtleties of Yijing nu‐ merology (Yi shu 易數), but they did not know why their lixue 理學 worked the way that it did. The efficacy (ling 靈) of the rainmaking
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text is found in the efficacy of its numbers, and true efficacy follows only this principle. I heard that the Master had retired, and for the last twenty years of his life his mind was calm as he tirelessly lectured his students every day. When he was over ninety years of age, he knew that the time had finally come, and at the appointed time he was immortal‐ ized. Alas! The Master can be called a spirit (shen 神) whose creative numen (zaohua ling 造化靈) has become a star. How can I even guess at his transformation? [Magistrate Chen] Bingchu wanted this text to remain in this age, and he wanted to pay respect to his teacher by disseminating his text widely. I am happy to do so on his behalf. Daoguang dingwei year [1847], first day of the fourth month Recorded by Xu Zechun 徐澤醇 at the Studio of Preserving Intelligence (Cunxingzhai 存惺齋) in Hunan
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General Guidelines for the Revised Edition 重刊凡例 This text was first published by Xu Gongqin 徐恭勤9 while serving as governor‐general in Changsha, Hunan, and again by Prefect Xu Wei‐ xuan 徐偉軒 in Shandong. Both included the “Record of the Rain‐ making Text” [presented above], but they did not include the Yunlunjing. So those who acquired the text and desired to carry out [the ritual], but were in backwards or out‐of‐the‐way places and could not buy or otherwise find the Buddhist text, were always at a loss. Now, we have appended the Yunlunjing at the back to save the difficulty in finding it. This book has long had three diagrams for the vase, pennant, and altar configurations. But the method for crisscrossing ( jiao chuan) the altar could never be mastered, despite the earnest efforts of Buddhist monks and Daoist priests, who were forever making mistakes in their steps. Here, we have included a diagram of the jiao and chuan for further elucidation. The Yunlunjing is transcribed from the scripture stored in the Im‐ perial Household (Neifu 內府), since this text is rarely found else‐ where. Now that we have sought out and found an authentic text, we dare not keep it to ourselves. The characters in this Buddhist text are very unusual, and in some instances, [the text includes] sounds [that are to be chanted] but lacks [corresponding] characters. So, there are really two sets of characters that have to be read together to obtain the correct pronunciation, and when read quickly, they caused one to be tongue‐tied and to stammer. Here, the pronuncia‐ tions have been carefully explained. In addition to specifying initials and finals ( fanqie 反切), the original pronunciations have also been included. When it comes to passages with sounds but no characters, rhyming characters are used to explain the subtleties of pronuncia‐ tion. As for how they are incorporated into the text, whenever read‐ ing notations have the same vowel sounds, [the sound is represented by] the same character that was used in the notation that preceded it. After they have been explained, if the sound appears later in the text then notations are not given again, in order to avoid repetition. In addition, in those passages that tend to be more difficult or unclear,
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Fig. B.1 Illustration of the altar. The three individuals carrying the pennants are Dao‐ ist priests. Source: Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu, juanshang, 5a.
we have not refrained from providing detailed advice [on how we think it should be read]. Accordingly, it is our hope that the refined gentleman (daya junzi 大雅君子) need not rely on the vulgar chanting habits of Buddhist monks and Daoist priests. When the ancients printed texts, they did not use punctuation. But in the Ming dynasty, interpretation of the classics flourished and [punctuation] became more popular. Here, we have inherited this practice and used it to separate sentences, so in reading we do not continue on with the ridiculous chanting methods of Buddhist monks.
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The rainmaking text says that after the Daoist adepts have sprin‐ kled water, they alternate with Buddhist priests reciting the Yunlun‐ jing, which has been divided into seven sections. The original print‐ ing [of Ji’s manual] did not include the sutra; so it is impossible to refer to how Master Shenzhai had divided all the sections. According to a detailed reading of the text’s meaning, the first sec‐ tion should start at “Thus have I heard . . .” and end at [the dharani] a‐bi‐pi‐ye‐a‐luo 阿陛毗耶阿邏.” [This section first] states that all the dragon kings assemble in the Great Cloud Wheel Hall and venerate the Buddha, vowing to manifest their divine powers and save all liv‐ ing beings. In all, this is recited nine times so that clouds can spread out to fill the void. Then the Buddha bestows dharanis10 that order rainfall in Jambudvipa.11 This is the first section. From “Names can extinguish all (hao neng mie yiqie 號 能 滅一 切) . . .” to “. . . the five grains mature,” the Buddha, who desires to end the suffering of all living beings, first eliminates the suffering of all the dragons and their retinues. [This is done] by reciting the names of all the tathagatas and venerating them, so that all can be lib‐ erated and obtain peace and happiness. This is the second section. From “Then saha 娑婆 . . .” to “. . . ba‐he‐la 巴呵喇,” the dragon kings obtain the dharani verses, and all the tathagatas vow to save all living beings and to use their power to make rain fall in Jambudvipa. The Buddha praises them and allows them to receive the divine spells (shenzhou 神咒). This marks the beginning of the core rainmak‐ ing text. This is the third section. From “Rely on Jnana‐sagara Vairocana 智海毗盧 12 . . .” to “. . . shulu shulu shahe 舒嚕舒嚕莎呵,” the dragon kings obtain the resolve of the tathagatas to bring rain, but the Buddha still fears that it will be insufficient. In all [the spell] is repeated twelve times to induce [the fall of rain], and a “hastening talisman” is written on a divining altar. This is the fourth section. From “All the heavens . . .” to “. . . sha‐na‐di ma‐he‐na‐sai 沙納隄嘛 呵納塞,” while the dragon kings are bringing rain, the Buddha once again asks the deva kings, the sovereign shakra, the tathagatas, and the arhats to lend their divine power in assistance. [The Buddha] is afraid that the multitude of dragon kings cannot uniformly ascend to heaven and bring rain. This dharani is sent out twice. Another dharani is recited saying that all living beings rely only on the merit of the tathagatas to eliminate all hindrances, and they do not take refuge in
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confession and repentance. The heaven‐sent calamity cannot rely solely on the power of the dragon kings for its elimination. This is the fifth section. From “Eliminate all the obstructions to rain . . .” to the mantra “xi‐ da‐ha‐yan‐du‐da‐la 西達哈烟闍答喇” all those in the Great Cloud Wheel Hall venerate the Buddha. Then the multitude of dragon kings sends out an order bringing rain, thereby carrying out the Buddha’s will to save all living beings. However, the Dragon King Gloriously Encircled by Clouds as Vast as the Zhuangyan Ocean 無邊莊嚴海雲威德輪蓋龍王 then summons an infinite number of lesser dragon kings to assist. At this point, the core rainmaking text ends. It can be said the Buddha spares nothing in his compassion and protection. This is the sixth section. From “At the time when the world reverently recites this dha‐ rani . . .” to “. . . execute the bowings,” the recitation and altar rain‐ making method receives overflowing waves of characters from the multitude of dragon kings. This is the seventh section. All of the sections above have been divided according to a careful rendering of the text and thus avoid the irregularities of a task done hastily, but I do not know how Master Shenzhai’s original edition was divided. Outside the altar area, one must also erect a “deity pavilion” (shenpeng 神棚) to serve as a support base for the altar, but the origi‐ nal text did not include this. To the north of the god’s temple, a pa‐ vilion should be reverently erected [see Fig. B.2]. Inside the pavilion is placed one table, one incense table, one ding 鼎 vessel, one incense box, two candlesticks, a table for reading the prayer, a table for un‐ furling the pennants, two tables for holding the Buddhist and Daoist scriptures—one on the right and one on the left. Next, the bell, drum, cymbals, stone chimes, flutes, and wooden fish should be arranged there, since it is said that the ancients used “abundant music” (sheng‐ yue 盛樂) in the great yu sacrifice. Those who are planning on con‐ ducting [the ritual] could not draw one, and so a diagram has been added for reference. As for the deities who are worshiped during rainmaking, the preface of the Shijing states that prayers for grain were made to Shangdi, who was called “Shangdi in the Lofty Heavens” (huangtian shangdi 皇天上帝). Over time, there was a succession of leaders, a to‐ tal of five emperors in all. They are venerated in the suburban sacri‐
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fices, which has positions for all the five emperors. Zheng Kang‐ cheng 鄭康成 [i.e., Zheng Xuan 鄭玄]13 took from the Zhouli and the apocryphal Book of Rites (Li wei 禮緯) [the names] Ling Weiyang 靈威仰, Chi Biaonu 赤熛怒, Han Shunuo 含樞紐, Bai Zhaoju 白招拒, and Zhi Guangji 汁光紀 and called them the Emperors of the Five Spirits (wujing zhi di 五精之帝).14 Tang rainmaking methods were originally based on the Yueling 月令 [“Monthly Ordinances” in the Liji]. In the second month of summer, the authorities were ordered to make sacrifices on behalf of the people to the mountains, rivers, and myriad streams, and magistrates were ordered to perform the yu sacrifice. As a result, the sacrificial methods that princes and minis‐ ters performed to benefit the people were called “yu” and they were one of the honored sacrifices made during droughts—one of the “six honored ones” (liuzong 六 宗 ) [i.e., cold, heat, sun, moon, stars, drought]. In addition, it was said that anything that could ward off great calamity and great suffering should also receive sacrifices. As the poem “Yunhan” says, “There are no spirits I have not honored, no sacrifices I have withheld.” Thus, Shangdi is the lord of rainmak‐ ing, but other deities, such as those of mountains, rivers, soil and grain, wind and clouds, thunder and rain, as well as the Confucius temple ( fumiao 夫廟)—all those that feed a region and protect its people—are also venerated. Zheng Xuan suggested that the Five Emperors were guilty of believing in divination and false scriptures, but in recent times, folk rainmaking (minjian qiyu 民間祈雨) increas‐ ingly appeals to deities such as Guandi and the city god, thereby bringing it into accord with the ancient principles of “warding off ca‐ lamity” and “there is no god I have not honored.” So, it was no over‐ sight that [Ji Dakui’s] original text did not specify which deities are to be venerated. If ritual is to follow propriety, then it should follow custom. Listen to the sages and proceed [making up one’s own mind], and this should be satisfactory. The original text did not specify where the altar should be placed. According to the explanation handed down in Du Yu’s 杜預 [222–84] collected writings, the “cloud gate” is the Lu’nan gate. So, in the Analects when the former Confucians danced the yu sacrifice, they did so in the south. Furthermore, in his commentary on the Yueling, Zheng Xuan said the altar was erected next to the southern suburb. From the Han to the Jin, this was always followed. However, Em‐ peror Wu of the Liang dynasty thought that because rain belonged
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to the yin category, to seek it in the south was a grave error. Since the east was not “the abundant yang” (shengyang 盛陽) but was rather the beginning of “giving birth” (shengyang 生養), then it was appro‐ priate to pray for rain in the east. So in the fifth year of datong 大同, he built a temple within the imperial fields [to the east]. The ancients also had those who prayed in the west and the north and idiots (yu 愚) who thought that prayers could be made in all four directions. Emperor Wu of the Liang was the one who said it was done in the east. The notion that the southerly direction was favor‐ able to the fire god first appeared in the country of Lu, was spread by Han Confucians, and was later explained in Xu’s 許氏 Shuowen [ jiezi] 說文解字. The emperor of the north is called Yuanming 元冥. But the west is the mother of dui and water, when considered in light of the meaning of the five agents mutually overcoming one another. [It follows then that] any direction you choose [to place the altar] is acceptable, and this was undoubtedly the plan of the original text. When the ancients made their sacrifices, they did not neglect in their celebrations to have a person to direct them, so that the officials did not [perform their rituals] on the spur of the moment, bringing shame [to themselves]. The protocol for the bowings, ascendings, and descendings are handed down in the classics and rituals. When entering the imperial sacrificial temple, you should ask of every ele‐ ment whether it was possessed by the sages, and if you do not know, then you should be cautious. In this enlarged ritual, on the last day the altar is erected, employ one ritual assistant (zanlisheng 贊禮生) to make the announcements and to direct it. He should hold his breath and listen in the middle of the altar and watch the steps to ensure that they conform to the liturgy, in order to promote order. How could a well‐informed gentleman sneer at this?
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Table of Contents for the Revised Edition of Master Ji Shenzhai’s Complete Book of Rainmaking Written by Ji Dakui Shenzhai of Linchuan Initially edited by Shu Enxu of Hangzhou Revised by Hu Yuyan of Jiande 建德 [county, Zhejiang]
Upper Fascicle 卷上 Explanation of the Diagram for Arranging the Altar 安壇圖說 Illustration of the Pure Vase 淨瓶圖 Illustration of the Pennant 旗式圖 Individual Illustrations of the Eight Trigram Pennants 八卦旗分圖 Illustration of the Altar 神壇圖 Diagram for Adjusting the Pennants on the Altar 神壇調旗圖 Illustration of the Deity Pavilion 神棚圖 Diagram of the Jiao and Chuan Movements 交穿旗圖 Altar Ritual 壇式 Method for Adjusting the Pennants 調旗法 Method for Dismantling the Altar 散壇 Rainmaking Text for the Preceding Heaven Altar Taken from the Yi‐ jing Commentary 先天壇易傳祈雨文
Lower Fascicle 卷下 Great Cloud Wheel Rain Requesting Sutra 大雲輪請雨經 Abstract of the Ritual 儀注
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Upper Fascicle 卷之上
Invocatory Text for Erecting the Altar While Praying for Rain 設壇祈雨祝文 The people have urgent business, the most important of which is farming. When grain is in ear,15 it is fed by the summer sun and cul‐ tivated with hoe and plow. It longs for clouds and rain, as seed is scattered and seedlings are separated. To protect the planting and harvesting, we rely on the virtue of Shangdi, who attends to the wel‐ fare of all living things. I presume to think that the dragon god is in charge of bringing rain. So, I have respectfully selected an auspicious day and reverently erected an altar ( fatan 法壇). I beg for the protec‐ tion of all living beings that the drought demon be driven away and that heavy rains and sweet moisture be sent far and wide to soak the entire region. The “three farmers” (sannong 三農) will rejoice at the thick clouds and await their fertilization.16 Will you take pity and help to “carry out virtue and earnestly seek more” (shudewuzi 樹德務 滋)17 and deep beneath you sprinkle moisture with willows? Even if while compassionately praying in the Mulberry Grove you send down your judgment [on me], all living things will be filled with happiness that they no longer need to worry that the rice will wither. Accordingly, I lead my fellow officials to sincerely pray that the deity is efficacious and comes to accept this sacrifice. Deign to accept this offering!
Invocatory Text as Thanks for Rainfall While Praying for Rain 祈雨謝降祝文 The myriad things nourish. Food is of utmost importance for the people, and so agricultural work is undertaken everywhere.18 When the farmwork had just started, the farm fields began to suffer from drought. So, we made supplications and prayers and begged for re‐ sults (ling). We received heavy rains, sweet moisture, and a deluge from heaven. As a result, farmwork is being done in all the sur‐ rounding fields. The formation of clouds is a result of the great vir‐ tue that cares for all living beings. Thus, we made requests and
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Fig. B.2 Illustration of the “deity pavilion.” The pavilion contained an altar that held offerings and spirit tablets, as well as ritual implements such as a drum, a bell, and a chime. Source: Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu, juanshang, 6a.
received a response. From this time, the seasons have been harmo‐ nized, rain is no longer unseasonable, and the harvest will be abun‐ dant. We have experienced the deity’s blessings and kindness, which all the people have felt deeply. So, we have selected a propitious moment to humbly extend our thanks for your favors and ask you to approach the high altar, where we humbly hope that you will find pleasure in the fragrance [of our offerings]. Deign to accept this offering!
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Explanation of the Diagram for Arranging the Altar 安壇圖說 Above the altar is placed a table for spirit tablets, and on top of this is placed a bushel basket full of rice into which the eight pennants are initially inserted. To the left and right are scripture tables fanned out in a semicircle.19 Daoist priests on both sides recite scriptures in front of the spirits. According to the preceding heaven eight trigram configuration, arrange eight tables [on the altar]. On each table place a clean vase full of water with willow branches inserted in them. Af‐ terward, burn incense in front of the spirits and unfurl the flags. Place them into the vases on the eight tables according to the follow‐ ing method. The two Daoist priests performing the “exchanges” ( jiao) enter the altar. One stands at true south in the qian position, and the other stands at true north. Each of them grasps the pennant in his hands and, holding it at chest height, walks toward the other. This [move‐ ment] is called the “exchange.” The one Daoist priest performing the “crossings” (chuan) enters the altar and stands at true west in the kan position. He grasps the kan pennant in his hands and walks perpen‐ dicularly [to the other two]. This [movement] is called the “cross‐ ing.” All [the pennants] are exchanged in this manner according to the sequence given below. In all, [the priests] enter and exit the altar three times [see Fig. B.3]. When finished, they place the pennants back into their vases, exit the altar, and perform prostrations. They then change positions with three young Daoist adepts, who enter the altar holding bowls of water in their left hands and willow branches in their right. In the same ritual described above, they make six ex‐ changes and six crossings at each of the positions, while sprinkling water with the willow branches.
Altar Ritual 壇式 In placing the eight tables, use a compass to establish the positions of the preceding heaven eight trigrams. On top of each table, place a large, clean vase full of water into which willow branches have been inserted. Make eight pennants of various colors that are 1 chi 6 cun from top to bottom and 2 chi 4 cun from base to tip [Fig. B.4]. For the
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staff use a pole of green bamboo 3 chi 6 cun long. The qian pennant is dark purple; dui is white; li is red; zhen is blue; xun is green; kan is black; gen is light yellow; and kun is dark yellow. On each of the pennants, reverently write the characters qian, kun, and so forth. Write the four characters kun, li, gen, and dui in black; write the four characters qian, kan, zhen, and xun in white. Incense burning and prayer rituals are conducted [by officials]. When they are completed, the pennants are unfurled in front of the spirits. Unfurl qian first and strike the stone chime (qing) once; unfurl dui second and strike the chime twice; unfurl li third in silence; un‐ furl zhen fourth while beating the drum; unfurl xun fifth while strik‐ ing the wooden fish; unfurl kan sixth while sounding bell and drum; unfurl gen seventh with one strike of the bell; and unfurl kun eighth while striking the bell three times. Two Daoist priests take turns making prostrations and then enter the altar. According to the preceding heaven eight trigram positions, one Daoist priest takes hold of the four pennants qian, dui, li, and zhen: qian first, dui second, li third, and zhen fourth. The other Daoist priest takes the pennants xun, kan, gen, and kun: xun fifth, kan sixth, gen seventh, and kun eighth. Each of them is then placed in proper order in their respective vases. When completed, [the Daoist priests] exit the altar and make prostrations. All the entering and exiting takes place in the southwest, between the qian and xun positions. In front of the spirits, four Daoist priests recite the tiandi dingwei 天地定位 scripture text while two strike the bell and drum, one note for every character.20 Then two “exchanging” Daoist priests enter the altar. One stands at true south in the qian position, the other stands at true north in the kun position. Each takes hold of his pennants and, holding them at his chest, walks toward the other. The qian pennant goes to the kun position, and the kun pennant goes to the qian posi‐ tion. This is called one “exchange” ( jiao). They then return to their original positions, completing a second exchange. In this way, they perform the exchange six times. When finished, one Daoist priest who has been standing still [during all this] enters the altar and stands at true west in the kan position, taking the kan pennant in his hand. [The Daoist priests] standing with the qian and kun pennants again perform the exchange six times. Each time [an exchange is per‐ formed], the kan pennant moves to the li position to make one cross‐ ing. When the exchange is repeated, the kan pennant makes a return
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Fig. B.3 Illustration of the pennants and vases to be used. Note the dragon imagery on the pennant. The character qian is painted in a small circle at the middle of the pen‐ nant. In some versions of the ritual, the actual three‐line image of the trigram qian was painted. Source: Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu, juanshang, 3a–b.
crossing back to its original position, making two crossings.21 In all six exchanges and six crossings are performed. When finished, the qian pennant is moved [counterclockwise] to the dui position, the kun pennant moves [counterclockwise] to the gen position, the kan pennant moves [counterclockwise] to the xun position, and six exchanges and six crossings are performed. Then qian moves to li, the kun pennant moves to the kan position, the kan pennant moves to the qian position, and exchanges and crossings are performed. Then qian moves to zhen, kun moves to xun, kan moves to the dui position, and exchanges and crossings are performed. Then qian moves to kun, kun moves to qian, and the kan pennant moves to the li position, and exchanges and crossings are performed. Then qian moves to gen, kun moves to dui, kan moves to zhen, and ex‐ changes and crossings are performed. Then qian moves to kan, kun moves to li, kan moves to the kun position, and exchanges and cross‐ ings are performed. Then qian moves to xun, kun moves to zhen, kan moves to the gen position, and exchanges and crossings are per‐
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Fig. B.4 Diagram of the preceding heaven eight trigram configuration with an expla‐ nation of how exchanges and crossings are performed, where actors were to enter and exit the altar, and which direction they were to circumambulate the altar. Source: Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu, juanshang, 6b.
formed. Finally, qian makes it back to the qian position, kun moves back to kun, and kan moves back to kan to make one [counterclock‐ wise] revolution. At every position the exchanges and crossings are performed six times. In this way three revolutions are made. When the scripture is chanted down to the “he” 呵 characters, the qian, kun, and kan pennants exit the altar in order, and on the outside they quickly circumambulate the altar three times, moving from xun and
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kan [counterclockwise] toward dui and qian. When finished, they re‐ enter the altar in the proper order and perform the exchanges and crossing as in the ritual above, while the Daoist priests recite the tiandi dingwei scripture text. In all, they enter and exit the altar three times, performing exchanges and crossings at each position and cir‐ cumambulating the altar just as described above. Upon completion, [the Daoist priests] place all the pennants back into their respective vases, exit the altar, and perform prostrations in front of the spirits. They then change places with three young Daoist adepts who enter the altar carrying willow branches in their left hands and bowls of water in their right. They perform the exchanges and crossings in the same fashion as above, sprinkling water [with the willow branches] all the while. In the same way, they enter and exit the altar a total of three times. Then they exit the altar and per‐ form prostrations in front of the spirits. Once again they change posi‐ tions, this time with Buddhist monks who chant one section of the Yunlunjing. After [one section has been chanted], Daoist priests again enter the altar and perform the exchanges and crossings just as in the preceding rituals. The Buddhist monks and Daoist priests alternate in this manner without stopping. This method, entering and exiting three times, was used continu‐ ously until 1819 when it was modified. [In the modified version] during the first set, the qian and kun pennants perform the exchange while the kan pennant does the crossing. During the second set, the dui and gen pennants do the exchange while the kan pennant does the crossing. During the third set, the zhen and xun pennants per‐ form the exchange while kan performs the crossing. Qian and kun are the primary exchange pennants, and dui, gen, zhen, and xun occa‐ sionally perform the exchange. The kan pennant is always the pri‐ mary crossing pennant and never changes. The exchanges and cross‐ ings are done until “he” is chanted. Then the priests exit the altar, circumambulating to the right [clockwise] from qian and dui to kan and xun, quickly circling the altar three times. When it comes to do‐ ing the crossing with the willows, it is the same as the original form. Each position does six exchanges and six crossings but only moves around the altar once. The method for adjusting the pennants noted below remains the same. This method and the original form can both be used, but this method is more esoteric (zhoumi 周密).
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Method for Adjusting the Pennants 調旗法 If it does not rain on the day the altar is erected, and it does not rain the following day, then on the third day the pennants should be ad‐ justed. The four scripture‐reading Daoist priests strike the wooden fish while chanting the four characters tian‐di‐yin‐yun 天 地 氤 氳 [heaven and earth and the generative powers] without stopping. Then two Daoist priests who have been doing the exchanges and crossings make prostrations, rise, and enter the altar. First, they move to the qian and kun positions, perform one exchange, two ex‐ changes, three exchanges. Then the qian pennant is placed in the kun vase [where it should now be located], and the kun pennant is placed in the qian vase. Next, they go to the dui and gen positions, take hold of the pennants, and perform three exchanges. Then the dui pennant is placed in the gen vase, and the gen pennant is placed in the dui vase. The li and kan pennants are then taken, and the exchange is performed three times, after which the li pennant is placed in the kan vase and the kan pennant is placed in the li vase. The zhen and xun pennants are then taken and the exchange is performed three times, after which zhen is placed in the xun vase and xun is placed in the zhen vase. When all eight pennants have been adjusted, then it is fin‐ ished. [The Daoist priests] exit the altar and make prostrations in front of the spirits. Then four “crossing” Daoist priests recite the tiandi dingwei scrip‐ ture text as before. Two Daoist priests enter the altar and stand at the kun and qian positions. Another Daoist priest enters the altar and stands at the kan position at true east. All of them take a pennant and perform the exchanges and crossings six times. Next, they move to the gen and dui positions and perform six exchanges and six cross‐ ings, just as in the original ritual. Exchanges and crossings are per‐ formed at all eight positions. When [the characters] he have been chanted [in the scripture text], they exit the altar and quickly circle it once. In all, they enter and exit three times. The Daoist adepts then enter and exit three times, closely following the original ritual. If a saturating rain is obtained, then it is necessary to return the pennants [to their original positions] while chanting the tiandi ding‐ wei scripture text without stopping. Two Daoist priests perform three exchanges, returning the qian and kun pennants [to their
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respective vases]; [they then do the same for] dui and gen, li and kan, zhen and xun. Then the scripture text should be read once while only the wooden fish is being struck and the bell and drum are sounded. Two Daoist priests should then perform the exchange six times empty‐handed—just the exchange not the crossing. Next they move to dui‐gen, then li‐kan and zhen‐xun—rotating through all eight posi‐ tions—for a total of six exchanges and no crossings. When [the chanting] reaches the he characters, then they exit the altar and circle it three times. Then they move in front of the spirits and perform prostrations. Afterward, they dismantle the altar.
Method for Dismantling the Altar 散壇法 The ritual for dismantling the altar is for all the Daoist priests to strike the wooden fish while chanting the eight characters feng‐tiao‐ yu‐shun wu‐fu‐min‐an 風 調 雨 順 物 福 民 安 [with seasonal weather things are in plenty, and the people are at peace]. They then enter the altar and circle it three times on the inside, moving in a counter‐ clockwise direction. When completed, pennants one through eight should be taken up in the proper order. Then the priests should exit the altar and go before the spirits where they should use paper and silk cord to burn [the pennants].
Rainmaking Text for the Preceding Heaven Altar Taken from the Yijing Commentaries 先天壇易傳祈雨文 “Heaven above [represented by the qian trigram] and earth below [represented by the kun trigram] are set in their positions [of mutual opposition] (tiandi dingwei 天地定位).22 Mountains up high [repre‐ sented by the gen trigram] and moisture down low [represented by the dui trigram] are animated by the same qi. Lightning [represented by the zhen trigram] and wind [represented by the xun trigram] are locked in mutual struggle. Water [represented by the kan trigram] and fire [represented by the li trigram] restrain and complement one another. The eight trigrams are interdependent and interpenetrat‐ ing.”23 “Lightning arouses all things, wind scatters them. Rain mois‐ tens all things, the sun dries them. Gen pacifies all things, dui de‐
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lights them. Qian governs all things, kun preserves them.”24 “What is called divine is that which speaks of the marvelous propagation of the myriad things. Of that which arouses the myriad things, nothing does so as rapidly as lightning. Of that which stirs the myriad things, nothing does so as quickly as the wind. Of that which dries the myr‐ iad things, nothing does so with the same intensity as the sun. Of that which delights the myriad things, nothing delights as much as moisture. Of that which moistens the myriad things, nothing mois‐ tens as much as water. Of that which ceases and commences the multiplication of the myriad things, there is none equal to gen. So, water and fire do not commingle, and wind and lightning do not mutually repel one another. Mountains up high and moisture down low are animated by the same qi, and this produces the changes that forms the myriad things.”25 “In the same way, the hard and soft mu‐ tually clash, and the eight trigrams mutually agitate one another. They are moved by thunder and lightning and moistened by wind and rain. The sun and moon move in their courses, and the seasons progress in their time. The way of qian forms the male, and the way of kan forms the female. Qian controls the whole of creation, and kan completes the creation of the myriad things. Qian is approachable and knowable, and kan is succinct.”26 “As for qian, it expresses its ap‐ proachability to all people. As for kan, it expresses its succinctness to all people.”27 “[As the Tuanzhuan 彖傳 says:] “How Great! Qian’s primordial [qi] is the seed of all creation, which governs the universe. The movement of clouds and the fall of rain produce the myriad things and bestow their form. In time, the sun moves in its course from beginning to end through the six directions [from low to high, from east to west, facing north and south], as it is piloted through the sky by six dragons”28 . . . he, he, he 呵呵呵.
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Lower Fascicle 卷之下
Great Cloud Wheel Rain Requesting Sutra 大雲輪請雨經 Note: The compiler of Ji’s rainmaking manual claims that the copy of the Great Cloud Wheel Rain Requesting Sutra (Da yunlun qingyu jing) that appears in the second fascicle of the Qiuyu quanshu was found in the imperial household. The Taishō canon (Taishō shinshū daizōkyō 大正新修大藏經) includes two texts with the title Da yunlun qingyu jing (T. 989 and 991). It also contains two texts similar to the sutra but titled differently (T. 992 and 993) and one that explains the altar method that was to accompany the sutra (T. 990). The Taishō text that most closely resembles the one included here—although it is not identical—is T. 991. According to the Bussho kaisetsu daijiten 佛書解說 大 辭 典 (Great dictionary of Buddhist works with explanations), T. 991 consists of two fascicles translated by Nalanda Yasa (Nalianti yeshe 那連堤耶舍) in 585 CE during the Sui dynasty.29 It was enlarged in the Qing dynasty during the Qianlong period, and it was eventu‐ ally published in 1782.30 Due to its length, the sutra is not translated here in its entirety. The sutra opens in the Great Cloud Wheel Hall, where the Buddha appears surrounded by an assembly of greater and lesser dragon kings, bhiksus, and bodhisattvas. The dragon kings venerate the Buddha by offering all manner of gifts, including flowers, incense, jewelry, silk, and clothing. They then dance around the Buddha, singing him praises and spinning around him in a circle. The dragon kings then pray a common prayer. Afterward, “sea clouds” (haiyun 海雲) assemble around the Buddha, offering many gifts of their own. When the dragon kings are finished, the Buddha asks them to be seated. At this point, one of the dragon kings, the Dragon King Glo‐ riously Encircled by Clouds as Vast as the Zhuangyan Ocean, rises and addresses the Buddha, asking him how the dragon kings might avoid earthly calamities. The Buddha, recognizing that this question originated in the king’s compassion for sentient beings, offers to be‐ stow on the dragon kings dharani that, when recited, have the power to bring rain. The Buddha then recites a long list of these dharani. To lend assistance to the dragon kings, the Buddha continues by invok‐
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ing the names of all the tathagatas, who resolve to devote themselves to bringing rain. Fearing that this still will not be sufficient, the Bud‐ dha then asks the deva kings, the sovereign shakra, the tathagatas, and the arhats to lend their divine power in assistance. More dharani are recited. Finally, all those present venerate the Buddha, after which the dragon kings send out an order to bring rain.31 The concluding section of the sutra is devoted to describing the specifications and construction of the altar space and the altar method itself. Since the specifications and techniques described in the sutra were not the same as those described in Ji’s method, there is little reason to de‐ scribe them in full here. The altar method that the sutra describes was used into the twen‐ tieth century. A sense of what this Buddhist rainmaking ritual may have looked like in the Qing can be seen from a lengthy, yet fascinat‐ ing, description provided by Lewis Hodous:32 During a prolonged drought in some districts of China, when the heat opens gaping cracks in the fields and the grain is drying up, the populace may visit their highest official and apprise him of the dire situation. He often forbids the slaughter of all animals for three days and, in case rain has not thereby come, he goes in person or sends a deputy to the nearest monastery to direct the monks to pray for rain. (a) The Altar.–On such an occasion the great hall of the Law may be used for the ceremony. Quite often a special altar is erected in an enclosure near the monastery on a platform one foot high and twenty‐five feet on each side, overspread by a tent of green cloth. In the center seats are arranged for the presiding monk and his assistants. On each of the four sides of the altar is placed an image of the Dragon King who is supposed to control the rain. If an image is not obtainable a piece of paper inscribed with the name of the dragon may be used. Flowers, fruits and incense are spread before the im‐ ages. On the doors of the tent are painted dragons with clouds. The tent and altar are green and the monks wear green garments, because green belongs to the spring and suggests rain. For this ceremony the monks prepare them‐ selves by abstinence and cleansing. The presiding monk is one of high moral character and religious fervor. While some monks recite appropriate sutras, two others look after the offerings, the incense, and the sprinkling of water during the ceremony to suggest the coming of rain. The services continue day and night, being conducted by groups of monks in succession. (b) The Prayer Service.–The ceremonial is opened by a chant as follows: “Pearly dew of the jade heavens, golden waves of Buddha’s ocean, scatter the lotus flowers on a thousand thousand worlds of suffering, that the heart
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of mercy may wash away great calamity, that a drop may become a flood, that a drop may purify mountains and rivers. We put our trust in the Bodhi‐ sattvas and Mahâsattvas that purify the earth.” The chant ended, a monk takes a bowl of water and repeats thrice: “We put our trust in the great merciful [Guanyin] Bodhisattva.” Then follows the chant: “The Bodhisattva’s sweet dew of the willow is able to make one drop spread over the ten directions. It washes away the rank odors and dirt. It keeps the altars clean and pure. The mysterious words of the doctrine will be reverently repeated.” This chant ended, the monks intone incantations of [Guanyin], quite un‐ intelligible even to them, but of magical value. While these are being uttered, the presiding monk and his attendants walk around the altar, while one of them with a branch sprinkles water on the floor. This symbolizes the cleans‐ ing of the altar and of the monks from all impurities which might render the ritual ineffective. When the perambulating monks have returned to their place, while the sprinkler continues his duties, the monks repeat the words: “We put our trust in the sweet dew kings, Bodhisattvas and Mahâsattvas.” The Bodhisattvas have now come to the purified altar and while the ab‐ bot offers incense to them, the monks repeat the words: “The fields are de‐ stroyed so that they resemble the back of a tortoise. The demons of drought produce calamity. The dark people* pray earnestly while crops are being de‐ stroyed. We pray that abundant, limpid liquid may descend to purify and refresh the whole world. The clouds of incense rise.” *A term denoting the Chinese. This plaint is repeated thrice and is followed by an invocation: “Whole‐ heartedly we cast ourselves to the earth, O Triratna, who dost exist eternally in the realm of dharma of the ten directions.” The leader remains quiet a long time with his eyes closed, visualizing the Buddhas, the Bodhisattvas, the dragon kings, and the saints, all with their heavenly eyes and ears knowing that this region is afflicted with drought, that an altar has been constructed and that all have come to make petition. This meditation is regarded as of chief importance. It is followed by an announcement to the effect that the su‐ tra praying for rain was given by the Buddha, that a drought is afflicting the land, that the altar has been erected in accordance with the regulations and that prayer is being made for rain. But fearing that something may have been overlooked, the magic formula of “the king of light who turns the wheel” is read seven times so as to remedy such oversight. The altar having thus been cleansed of all impurities, the rain sutra is opened and the one hundred and eighty‐eight dragon kings are urged by name in groups of ten to take action. The formula is as follows: “We with our whole heart invite such and such dragon kings to come. We desire that the heart and wisdom which knows others intuitively will move the spirits
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above to obey the Buddha, to take pity on the people below and to come to our province and send down sweet rain.” When the dragons have all been duly invited, the monks chant suitable magical formulas, while the leader sits in meditation visualizing these dragon kings and their tender solicitude for the people in distress. The mon‐ astery bell is sounded and the wooden fish is beaten, while drums and cym‐ bals add their effect. The whole is intended to draw the attention of the dragon kings to the drought. Then the fifty‐four Buddhas are invited in a similar manner in groups of ten, the sixth group consisting of four. A similar form of address is used and similar magical formulas are recited with the noisy accompaniment. The ceremony concludes by the expression of the hope that the three jewels (Buddha, the Law and the Community of Monks) and the dragon kings will grant the rain. Upon the altar are four copies of an announcement to the dragon kings and Buddhas. On the first day three copies are sent to them through the flames, one to the Buddhas, one to the dragon kings and one to the devas. One copy is read daily and then sent up at the thanksgiving ceremony. The announcement is as follows: “We put our trust in the limitless, reverent ocean clouds, the dragons of august virtue and all their host, all dragon kings and holy saints. Their august virtue is difficult to measure. In accord with the command of Buddha they send liquid rain. May their quiet mercy descend to the altar; may they send down purity and freshness, spreading over the ten directions. We put our trust in the company of dragon kings of the clouds, the saints and the Bodhisattvas.” The offerings are made only in the morning inasmuch as the Buddhas, following ancient custom, are not supposed to eat after the noonday meal. Great care is taken that the altar shall not be desecrated by any one who eats meat or drinks wine. The magic formulas of great mercy are uttered or the name of [Guanyin] is repeated a thousand times. The monks, take turn in these services which continue day and night until rain comes.
While there is no way of knowing how often Buddhist rainmaking rituals resembled that described above, it is helpful to see how this particular sutra was used in another context.
Abstract of the Ritual 儀注 All those with responsibilities should attend to their affairs. [Officials] go to the worship position. Present incense. Return to the position. Kneel. Knock the head. Knock the head. Knock the head. Rise. Knock the head. Knock the head. Knock the head. Rise. Knock the head. Knock the head. Knock the head. The ritual ceases. The pennants are
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unfurled. One Daoist priest goes before the deities to manage the pennants. The qian pennant is unfurled. The stone chime is sounded once. The dui pennant is unfurled. The stone chime is sounded twice. The li pennant is unfurled. Silence. The zhen pennant is unfurled. The drum is beaten. The xun pennant is unfurled. The wooden fish is struck. The kan pennant is unfurled. The bell and drum are sounded together. The gen pennant is unfurled. The bell is sounded once. The kun pennant is unfurled. The bell is sounded thrice. The Daoist priest finishes managing the pennants. [Two Daoist priests] knock their heads and enter the altar. They place the pennants according to the preceding sequence. The pennant placing ceases. They exit the altar. They go before the deities and knock their heads. The bell and drum are sounded. The sutra is chanted. The jiao pennant priests enter the altar [and take the qian and kun pennants]. They perform the jiao and then stop. The kan pennant Daoist priest enters the altar. They all perform the jiao and chuan. They exit the altar and circumambulate the altar three times to the left [in a counterclockwise direction]. They [enter the altar and] perform the jiao and chuan. They exit the altar and circumambulate the altar three times to the left. They [enter the altar] and perform the jiao and chuan. They exit the altar and cir‐ cumambulate the altar three times to the left. Then they stop. They enter the altar. They place their pennants in the vases. They exit the altar. They go before the deities and [knock] heads, while the Daoist adepts enter the altar. The Daoist adepts perform the jiao and chuan while sprinkling water [with the willow branches]. They exit the al‐ tar and circumambulate it three times to the left. They enter the altar. They perform the jiao and chuan while sprinkling water. They exit the altar and circumambulate it three times to the left. They enter the altar. They perform the jiao and chuan while sprinkling water. They exit the altar and circumambulate it three times to the left. They en‐ ter the altar. They place the willow branches and water vases at the kan position. They exit the altar. They go before the deities and knock their heads. They finish. The bell and drum are sounded. [Officials] take their positions. Kneel. Knock the head. Knock the head. Knock the head. Rise. Knock the head. Knock the head. Knock the head. Rise. Knock the head. Knock the head. Knock the head. Rise. The rit‐ ual ends.
FIVE
Master Ji’s Rainmaking Method
In the summer of 1876, large swaths of northern China began experi‐ encing the first hints of distress from a prolonged drought, a drought that would eventually take the lives of millions and become one of the most devastating natural disasters in human history. The North China Famine was centered in the poor, dry hills of Shanxi province, but the drought that preceded it was also felt in the cosmopolitan commercial cities along the Yangzi River. For over forty days, the Nanjing region received little, if any, rain. Crops withered in the fields, precipitating a rise in the price of desperately needed food‐ stuffs. To help avert an impending crisis, an official in Nanjing, Fan Xianmei 藩憲梅, issued a proclamation prohibiting the slaughter of livestock and ordered that an altar be erected in the City God Tem‐ ple, so that prayers for rain might be offered. It was reported that Fan’s rainmaking belonged to a “newly acquired method” of pray‐ ing for rain. According to the Shanghai periodical Shenbao: Within the altar, positions were established that corresponded to the eight trigrams, and at each of these positions was placed a square table. Upon each of the tables was placed a single vase of clean water, into which a single willow branch had been inserted. In addition, at each position, one of five colored flags [was inserted into each vase]. Ten Buddhist monks and Daoist priests carried scriptures in their hands. In the first part of the ceremony,
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they recited the scriptures aloud in their entirety. In the next part, they re‐ cited them while quickly moving through each of the stations. It was said that on the same morning that the ritual was performed, a light rain fell. By early afternoon dense clouds of moisture had gathered, which promised to drop their nourishing rains.1
A decade later, a similar ritual was performed in Nanjing and re‐ ported in the Dianshizhai Pictorial. The illustration accompanying the article shows several officials humbly ascending the steps of the Dragon God Temple (Fig. 5.1). The temple is flanked by two smaller pavilions. In one, Buddhist monks sit and chant scriptures; in the other, a group of Daoist priests perform rituals in an elaborately con‐ figured eight trigram altar. The caption to the picture reports that in Shangyuan 上元 county it had not rained for quite some time, and an altar had been erected in the middle of the Dragon God Temple be‐ hind the county yamen so that prayers might be offered. In front of the temple’s main hall, an elevated platform was erected. Images of the eight trigrams were painted on pennants and spaced evenly at sta‐ tions around the perimeter of the platform. At each of these stations, willow branches and five colored flags were arranged, either in vases or perhaps on the wall of the platform. The caption says that sandal‐ wood and incense were burned, while Buddhist monks and Daoist priests ascended the platforms to chant scriptures and perform rituals (zuofa 作法). Below the main hall, the illustration shows a large caul‐ dron full of water into which had been placed twelve “four‐footed snakes,” or lizards. Four children wearing dark clothing and red scarves stand around the cauldron. The caption says that these chil‐ dren beat the side of the cauldron with their hands as they call down wind and rain. The dragon god, the caption notes, has the ability to bring wind and rain, a talent this ritual purportedly makes manifest.2 Late nineteenth‐century sources indicate that many officials throughout China increasingly turned to this “eight trigram” ritual to assist them in rainmaking. Although some of these references fail to identify the ritual by name, the details enable us to trace them to a set of rainmaking rituals created by a Qing official named Ji Dakui 紀 大奎 and disseminated by later generations of scholars and officials. Judging from the number of times this method was published in the nineteenth century, it is likely that Ji’s ritual was one of the most widely used official rainmaking techniques of its time. For this
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Fig. 5.1 ”Report of Rainmaking.” The eight trigram altar is on the left; Buddhist monks chant scriptures in the pavilion on the right. Source: Cai Erkang, Dianshizhai huabao, 戊四 (1885), 26.
reason, the various extant editions of this text serve as valuable sources for studying official attitudes toward rainmaking. As far as I know, no other collection of official rainmaking texts from the late imperial period has a comparable body of supporting documenta‐ tion. The detailed explanations and illustrations of the ritual give a level of description that is unique among rainmaking texts. In addi‐ tion, testimonials from local officials who personally used the method and recommended it to others provide a more subjective view of official rainmaking than many of the third‐person reports that we have seen thus far. As a result, these texts shed light on ques‐ tions about the religiosity of Chinese officials, as well as their use of occult technologies and “popular” ritual forms. This chapter pro‐ vides a brief introduction to Ji Dakui and his method; translations of two different versions of his rainmaking text can be found in Ap‐ pendixes B and C.
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The Man Ji Dakui (zi Xiangchen 向辰, hao Shenzhai 慎齋) was born in Lin‐ chuan 臨川, Jiangxi, in 1746 (Fig. 5.2). From a very early age, it is said that he revealed a thorough understanding of the Yijing, which he would later demonstrate through his many writings on the subject. It is said that when he was still a child, he once asked his father, “What are you studying?” His father replied, “I am studying the Yijing.” The younger Ji said, “Only studying the Yijing? Through heaven and earth, one studies the Yijing; through the Yijing, one studies the mind; and through the mind, one studies heaven and earth.”3 Such precocity would have delighted his father as much as it clearly pleased later generations of Ji’s admirers. After earning a gongsheng 貢生 degree in 1778, Ji was employed as a copyist on the Sikuquanshu 四庫全書 project. In 1786, his abilities took him to Shandong prov‐ ince, where he served as magistrate of Shanghe 商河, Qiu 邱, Chan‐ gle 昌樂, Xixia 棲霞, Fushan 福山, and Boping 博平 counties. He then moved to Sichuan, where he served as magistrate of Shifang 仕邡 and Hezhou 合州. Ji distinguished himself in his suppression of re‐ bels and bandits, and it is reported that he was respected and cher‐ ished by the people. He is said to have taken his own food with him whenever he traveled into the countryside, even sharing it with his servants. During the annual lantern festival, he is reported to have ordered the phrase “When officials are pure, the people are happy” (guanqing minle 官清民樂) written on lanterns on all the city streets, something that greatly pleased the townsfolk. In Shifang, the county in which he spent the most time, Ji “was thought to be a living city god.” In Hezhou, he was venerated at the local shrine to worthy officials.4 As his appointment to the Sikuquanshu project indicates, Ji was considered by many to be a gifted scholar, but it is unclear where he fit into the intellectual trends of his day. One biographer neatly summarized Ji’s ambiguous position in the tradition when he said that Ji espoused a “pure” Cheng‐Zhu 程朱 orthodoxy yet dabbled in the ideas of “form and number” (xiangshu 象數) that originated with the Song philosopher Shao Yong 邵雍 (1011–77).5 However, even a brief glance at Ji’s literary oeuvre reveals that he had more in com‐ mon with Shao Yong than with the orthodox Neo‐Confucians. Much
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Fig. 5.2 Posthumous portrait of Ji Shenzhai. Source: Ji Shenzhai quanji, 27.1a.
of Ji’s scholarship was devoted to Yijing studies, Daoism, and nu‐ merology. Some of his writings, such as Guanyi waibian 觀易外編, are filled with esoteric analyses of the Yellow River Chart and Luo River Writ (Hetu Luoshu 河圖洛書). His Shixue beiyu 仕學備餘 is devoted entirely to prognostication and includes theories and advice for local officials on how to successfully incorporate divination into their ad‐ ministration of local affairs. Those who harbored suspicions about Ji’s intellectual interests likely would have looked askance at the company he kept, especially with Daoists and Buddhists. We have evidence that Ji studied with
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the celebrated inner alchemist Fu Jinquan 傅金銓 while he was serv‐ ing as an official in Sichuan. Fu was a well‐known representative of the Jingming 淨明 school of Daoism, which had been prominent in the Song and Yuan dynasties but continued in the Qing as part of the Longmen 龍門 branch. Fu was known as an important disseminator of Daoist practices and authored several texts on inner alchemy for women.6 The Ba 巴 county gazetteer says that Fu “had many follow‐ ers, among whom the most famous was Ji Dakui from Linchuan, who at the time was serving as magistrate of Hezhou.”7 Ji was also intimately involved with Buddhism. In a posthumous biography of Ji, Yang Xiling 楊錫齡 justified Ji’s use of Buddhism in his rainmak‐ ing. Yang explained that “when one encounters drought, one should pray for rain while honoring all deities” (literally, “pray for rain so that ‘there are no spirits not honored’” qiuyu mi shen buju 求雨靡神 不舉). According to Yang, Buddhist deities had been worshiped widely ever since Buddhism had arrived in China, which meant it was fitting that they be incorporated into rainmaking activities. Yang thought that Ji was particularly well suited to carry out this charge: “At Buddhist temples, the master [Ji] spread the name of the Buddha (xuan fohao 宣佛號), chanted Buddhist scriptures (song fojing 誦佛經), and performed Buddhist rituals (yan fofa 演佛法). This is the meaning of ‘there are no spirits not honored’ (mi shen buju).”8 Contacts such as these were not unusual for local officials, who often cultivated rela‐ tionships with elites of all stripes, but they do help to explain the ca‐ tholicism that we find in Ji’s rainmaking method. Although Ji’s writings and contacts may have made him a slightly unconventional official, they likely made him more convincing as a rainmaker. At the time, the mastery of abstruse learning of the kind in which Ji specialized was thought to reflect a profound under‐ standing of the inner workings of the universe. A scholar such as Ji who could comment so thoughtfully on traditional Chinese cosmo‐ logical principles was believed to possess an almost magical aware‐ ness of the world and the forces that animated it. With such knowl‐ edge, it was thought, came the power to manipulate the universe in ways unavailable to the average person. One of the most frequently reproduced prefaces to Ji’s method reads: I know that his understanding of the Yijing is subtle and the application of it vast because on the twenty‐fifth day of the fourth month, I erected an altar according to the ritual, and the next day dense clouds covered the sky. It
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brought rain that lasted for five nights—enough for a thorough soaking. How wondrous! How could the response be like that?9
The esteem in which Ji was held can be seen in statements about his preternatural understanding of the Yijing as a child and his other spiritual gifts. For example, the same preface remarks, “His under‐ standing of the Yijing was deep, and he could predict the future (neng zhi weilai shi 能知未來事).” This commentator also suggested that Ji foretold his own death, after which he experienced some kind of transfiguration: I heard that the master had retired, and for the last twenty years his mind was calm as he tirelessly lectured his students every day. When he was more than 90 sui old, he knew that the time had come, and at the appointed time he was immortalized. Alas! This master could be called a spirit, his creative numen (zaohualing 造化靈) a star. Alas! How can I even speculate as to his transformation?10
Ji actually died when he was in his eighties, not his nineties, but such eulogies reflect the admiration others had for Ji’s skills. The fact that he also had solid academic and bureaucratic credentials conveyed a seriousness and technical expertise that distinguished his method from others that were used at the time. Certainly this helps to ex‐ plain why Ji’s rainmaking method was so palatable to the officials who later played a central role in its publication and dissemination.
The Method Ironically, there is little indication that Ji wanted his rainmaking technique to be published and disseminated in the way that it even‐ tually was. In fact, Ji’s writings suggest he employed several differ‐ ent rainmaking techniques in his own lifetime, and there is no reason to believe that he considered one of these methods more efficacious than the others. The following rainmaking rituals give a sampling of the various techniques contained in Ji’s collected works: the “nine star” method ( jiuxing 九星), the “nine mansion thunderstorm” method ( jiugongleiyu 九宮雷雨), the “cloud wheel” method (yunlun 雲輪), the “preceding heaven inserted musical notes” method (xian‐ tian nayin 先天納音), the “revolving nine mansion swastika” method (zhuan jiugong wanzi 轉九宮卍子), and the “preceding heaven altar swastika” method (xiantian tan wanzi 先天壇卍子). These methods
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had some elements in common, but they also differed considerably. For example, the “cloud wheel” method called for the names of eight Buddhas to be written in white on black tablets and arranged in the “preceding heaven” eight trigram configuration (xiantian bagua 先天 八卦).11 Afterward, the eight trigrams were painted on black pen‐ nants and placed at eight stations around the perimeter of the altar. Then, the names of the eight Buddhas were invoked, and excerpts from the Yijing were read.12 The “revolving nine mansion swastika” method, on the other hand, called for a Buddhist monk to hold a bowl full of water in his left hand and a willow branch in his right as he sprinkled water on an altar arranged in the shape of a swastika. As the monk moved through nine stations, six monks chanted “trust in Amitaba” (namo amituofo 南無阿彌陀佛) while kneeling with their hands clasped. Other monks played the flute, beat a drum, and struck a bell. When the chanting was completed, Daoist priests re‐ cited a scripture text and then performed an elaborate “nine mansion reverse circle” ritual ( jiugong huihuan 九宮回環), in which colored flags were moved through four sets of nine numbered stations.13 The rainmaking method that eventually became closely associated with Ji was commonly referred to as an “eight trigram altar” method. The newspaper report that opened this chapter provides a relatively accurate summary of what the method entailed. First, an altar was constructed on a “spacious and pure area” outside one of the city gates.14 In its basic form, the altar consisted of eight square tables arranged in a circle with the tables spaced evenly every forty‐five degrees—at the four cardinal directions (north, south, east, west) and at each of the intermediate points (northwest, northeast, southwest, southeast). Each position in the circle corresponded to one of the eight trigrams that constituted the preceding heaven eight trigram configuration (Fig. 5.3). Typically, the boundaries of the altar were established by running a rope around the perimeter of all the tables, leaving only one open‐ ing between two of the tables through which ritualists could enter and exit the altar. Large vases were then filled with clean water and placed on each of the eight tables. Willow branches were inserted into the vases, and often bowls of water were placed on the tables alongside the vases. Colored pennants were constructed, and the characters for the each of the eight trigrams were written on them:
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Fig. 5.3 Illustration of the rainmaking altar in Guanmu tongzhou lu, 2.55b.
In placing the eight tables, use a compass to establish the positions of the preceding heaven eight trigrams. On top of each table, place a large, clean vase full of water into which willow branches have been inserted. Make eight pennants of various colors that are 1 chi 6 cun from top to bottom and 2 chi 4 cun from base to tip [Fig. 5.4]. For the staff use a pole of green bamboo 3 chi 6 cun long. The qian pennant is dark purple; dui is white; li is red; zhen is blue; xun is green; kan is black; gen is light yellow; and kun is dark yellow. On each of the pennants, reverently write the characters qian, kun, and so forth. Write the four characters kun, li, gen, and dui in black; write the four characters qian, kan, zhen, and xun in white.15
Outside the altar, three small tables were arranged to hold spirit tablets, scripture texts, and grain offerings. Ritual implements such
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Fig. 5.4 Illustration of the pennants and vases to be used. Note the dragon imagery on the pennant. The character qian is painted in a small circle at the middle of the pen‐ nant. In some versions of the ritual, the actual three‐line image of the trigram qian was painted. Source: Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu, juanshang, 3a–b.
as a drum, bell, and stone chime were also set up outside the circle of tables: To the left and right of the spirit table place two scripture tables so they are fanned out (bazixing 八字形). Place a scripture folio and a wooden fish on each table. Hang a bell next to the table on the left and place a drum next to the table on the right. Arrange a rug between the two tables to serve as a spot for worship (baiwei 拜位).16
The spirits worshiped during the ritual differed. One version de‐ scribes the spirit tablets as follows: The middle tablet reads “The Supreme Lofty Fu Xi” (Taihao Fu Xi 太昊伏犧); the left reads “Immortals and Masters Who Bring Rain” (xingyu xianshi 行雨 仙師); the right reads “The Spirit of the Local Dragon God” (benjing longwang shen 本境龍王神).17
One version of Ji’s method states that officials should appeal to the deities acceptable to their local communities; another recommends that spirit tablets for Fu Xi, King Wen, the Duke of Zhou, and Confu‐ cius be placed on the altar.18
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The ritual commenced when officials burned incense and offered prayers. Then, the pennants were unfurled and placed in each of their respective vases. The ritual itself involved manipulating these pennants around the altar in a specific sequence. Daoist priests were employed to perform these movements. These movements called for three priests to carry the pennants through a series of “exchanges” and “crossings”: The two Daoist priests performing the “exchanges” ( jiao 交) enter the altar. One stands at true south in the qian position, and the other stands at true north. Each of them grasps the pennant in his hands and, holding it at the chest, walks toward the other. This [movement] is called the “exchange.” The one Daoist priest performing the “crossings” (chuan 穿) enters the altar and stands at true west in the kan position. He grasps the kan pennant in his hands and walks perpendicularly [to the other two]. This [movement] is called the “crossing.” All [the pennants] are exchanged in this manner ac‐ cording to the sequence given below.19
The “sequence” varied in different versions of the text. In one of the most common versions, Daoist priests took the pennants from north, south, and west (qian, kun, and kan) and performed the crossings and exchanges six times while a text cobbled together from the standard commentaries of the Yijing was chanted. When the priests had com‐ pleted six exchanges, they moved in a counterclockwise direction to the adjacent position, grasped a new pennant, and performed the ex‐ changes and crossings all over again. They proceeded in this manner until three full revolutions through all the altar stations had been completed. When they finally returned to their original positions, they grasped the pennants, exited the altar, and circumambulated it three times in a counterclockwise direction. They then re‐entered the altar and performed the crossings and exchanges for three more revolutions. When the priests had exited and re‐entered the altar a total of three times, they exited the altar and made prostrations in front of the deities. Then Daoist adepts (daotong 道童) entered the al‐ tar and went through this sequence from the beginning, but instead of manipulating the pennants, they sprinkled water with willow branches through all the positions. When they had entered and ex‐ ited the altar three times (just as the Daoist priests had done before them), the Daoist adepts exited the altar and performed prostrations. After they were done, Buddhist monks chanted one section of the Great Cloud Wheel Rain Requesting Sutra (Da yunlun qingyu jing 大雲輪
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請雨經). The text specified that the ritual should be conducted, with minor modifications, continuously until rain fell. As is apparent from this brief description, Ji’s rainmaking method was an amalgamation of many different elements. It fused aspects of China’s three canonical traditions—Buddhism, Daoism, and Confu‐ cianism—with what we might call “customary” rainmaking practices widely observed across the entire spectrum of Chinese society. To de‐ velop briefly just one example of these “customary” elements, most of Ji’s contemporaries would have understood practices such as filling vases with water and willows and sprinkling water on the ground with tree branches as acceptable remedies for ending drought. For ex‐ ample, one early twentieth‐century source describes several popular rain processions that included aspersing water, wearing willow gar‐ lands, and placing willows in vases. Consider the following descrip‐ tion of one such procession in Gansu province in 1926: From the 1st moon, the country‐folk coming from different directions pa‐ raded the main thoroughfare of [Hezhou] to the noise of gongs, each wear‐ ing a willow‐branch on his head and carrying an incense‐stick and a piece of paper. These companies of rain‐makers proceeded to the dragon temple, and also to the city‐god’s temple, where the antique rites were gone through, while all classes of male population of the city turned out to make their peti‐ tions known to the rain god. [Kangs], or earthen jars filled with water, and with willow branches inserted therein, were placed in front of shops; while ropes with slips of paper containing rain‐prayers were stretched across the principal streets.20
The same activities can be found in other Qing sources.21 Rainmak‐ ing in the imperial household could even include such elements. As noted in Chapter 3, for example, imperial women who engaged in private rainmaking rituals in the imperial household inserted willow branches into their hair and into vases on the altar. Thus, it would not be an exaggeration to say that the use of willows was an almost universally accepted rainmaking practice. The same can be said of other elements in Ji’s method, such as the chanting of scriptures, the use of colored flags, and the incorporation of the eight trigrams. All these practices were so common in Chinese religion that they would have found acceptance among a broad swath of the population. At the same time, Ji’s method boasted a rarified tone that was heightened by its use of canonical scripture texts, Daoist and Bud‐ dhist ritualists, and highly technical altar movements. Many of the
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participants may not have understood the texts they chanted or fully appreciated the significance of the various ritual actions. The many correspondences the ritual incorporated were extremely complicated. For Ji, like Dong Zhongshu before him, the universe consisted of an endless complex of correspondences that encompassed forces such as yin and yang, the four seasons, the five agents (wuxing 五行), the six principal directions, the eight trigrams, the ten stems and twelve branches (ganzhi 干支), the twenty‐four climatic periods ( jieqi 節氣), the twenty‐eight constellations (ershibagong 二十八宮), and so forth. Only participants and observers with specialized knowledge of the kind possessed by Ji would have been able to decipher the inner workings of the ritual. But this seemed to have mattered little to those who were instrumental in disseminating and performing the method. The impression one gets from reading the many prefaces to Ji’s method is that officials had stumbled upon a wonderful machine, which they did not fully understand, but whose buttons and dials were awesome in their complexity. Considering the intricacy of the ritual, it is not surprising that of‐ ficials often provided different interpretations of how precisely the ritual worked. One writer, for example, highlighted the importance of its numerical categories: “The ancients were thoroughly versed in the subtleties of Yijing numerology, but they did not know why their lixue 理學 worked the way that it did. The efficacy of [Ji’s] rainmak‐ ing text is found in the efficacy of its numbers, and true efficacy fol‐ lows only this principle.”22 Another writer took a more holistic view: His method uses the great Yijing as its organizing principle and lays bare all its profound meaning. For this reason, it is quite extraordinary. The method for configuring the altar employs Fuxi’s eight trigrams. The arrangement of the positions is according to the “six children” trigrams (liuzi 六子) of qian and kun. The colors of its pennants match the “inserted stems” (najia 納甲) and “inserted musical notes” (nayin 納音). The complex movements of its participants back and forth [mirror] the subtle workings of the universe.23
One writer cited the importance of sprinkling water on the altar; an‐ other said that this ritual fell into the same categories as others that “disturbed the dragon.” Yet another writer compared Ji’s method of treating drought to the way that acupuncture is used to treat illness: When a drought strikes, the movement of the yin and yang has been tempo‐ rarily obstructed, and one should use a method to decrease the yang and
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stimulate the yin and thus bring them back into harmony and cause rain. Some are skeptical that such a small altar can have any use since heaven and earth are so vast. How can it possibly harmonize the qi of yin and yang? They do not know that droughts are localized calamities that do not cross over the boundaries of a single corner in a single region. [In the same way,] if there is a blockage in a person’s blood or nervous system, it does not exceed the symptoms of a single vein or acupuncture point, so that those who can per‐ form acupuncture or who can cauterize the acupuncture point are able to treat [the illness]. Thus, a point scarcely the size of a mustard seed is able to harmonize completely the entire body.24
It should come as no surprise that all these authors had slightly dif‐ ferent explanations for the mechanism behind the ritual’s efficacy. The cosmology of correspondences upon which the ritual is based was susceptible to almost endless interpretation. Whereas one practi‐ tioner may have attributed the method’s efficacy to the eight tri‐ grams, and another to its use of numbers, both interpretations—and many more—were in fact justifiable. How exactly did this ritual figure into rainmaking activities as a whole? There is no way to answer this question definitively because officials performed the ritual in different ways and in different loca‐ tions. For example, in the two newspaper reports that opened this chapter, one official conducted the ritual at a city god temple, and the other at a dragon god temple. One appears to have performed a relatively straightforward version of the ritual; the other supple‐ mented his ritual by having children collect lizards and place them in a cauldron. In the prefaces translated in the appendixes, we see that officials often used the ritual in conjunction with other rainmak‐ ing techniques. According to these officials’ reports, they led “walk‐ ing and praying” processions (budao) and “fetched water” in con‐ junction with Ji’s ritual. The following description gives some idea as to how Ji’s method was used by officials: In the spring of 1847, all parts of Hunan went without rain for fifty days. Spring plantings were delayed, and the people were greatly distressed. The governor selected officials to proceed to Mount Heng and Lake Dongting to fetch water (qingshui 請水), erect altars, and lead officials in walking and praying processions. Changsha Magistrate Chen Bingchu produced his teacher, Master Ji Shenzhai’s, rainmaking text and asked that the ritual be performed at the prefectural yamen (dafu 大府). On the following day, a vast blanket of thick clouds covered the entire area, and it rained through the day
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and into the night. It continued this way for five days, both near and far, and the rainfall was copious. So the shoots emerged in time and the harvest was abundant. You could say it was miraculous (kewei shenyi 可謂神矣)!25
In this case Ji’s method appears to have been carried out along with other activities, but there may have been others who relied solely on this ritual in their rainmaking activities. We will see below that there were also many different versions of the ritual text, with different al‐ tar configurations, texts, and participants. Thus, each performance of this method had its own peculiarities and defies generalization. A detailed, “behind the scenes” description of how the ritual was performed is available for at least one case. For weeks in the spring of 1870, Li Xingrui 李興銳, who was serving as an official in Zhili, had been praying for rain. In a diary entry dated the twenty‐third day of the fourth month, Li stated his intention to erect an altar in his private residence to perform “Master Ji Shenzhai’s ‘preceding heaven crisscrossing‐flag rainmaking method.’ ” He asked an associ‐ ate, Tang Bocun 唐伯存, to explain it to him and entrusted all the rit‐ ual preparations to the yamen staff. On the following morning, Li and Tang supervised the construction of the altar. They then taught ten Daoist priests and Daoist adepts to chant the scriptures and ex‐ change the pennants, and by afternoon they had “a general under‐ standing” (lue neng tongxiao 略能通曉) of how to perform it. That evening, Li bathed and then reverently wrote out a spirit tablet for the dragon god and composed a prayer text to open the altar. The following morning, Li erected the spirit tablet and prayed for rain. For the entire day, he “led Daoist priests while they chanted scrip‐ tures and exchanged pennants . . . correctly carrying it out a total of eight times.” For each of the next four days, he spent the entire day at the altar, overseeing the ritual. It appears that both elites and offi‐ cials took turns burning incense at the altar and supervising the ac‐ tivities. Once the ritual had been performed continuously for five days, he temporarily paused to receive prefectural‐ and county‐level envoys who had been sent to Baoyang 抱陽 mountain in Hebei prov‐ ince to fetch water and to receive an iron tablet from Handan county, which had recently arrived in the city. For reasons he did not explain, Li never resumed the ritual.26 Again, this is only one official’s version of events, but it does ex‐ plain how Li prepared for the ritual and carried it out. Several as‐ pects of his account are worth noting briefly. First, it is interesting
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that Li does not introduce Ji or his text in his diary entries. It could be that Li simply did not want to spend the time to write a full de‐ scription of the man and the method. Yet it could also be that Ji was sufficiently well known that he needed no introduction. Second, it is remarkable that Li erected the altar in his private residence rather than in public. This can be interpreted in several different ways. Per‐ haps Li did not want to perform the ritual in public because he thought it would not be well received by his constituents. Or per‐ haps the private ritual was directed not toward the people as a whole but to the elites, clerics, and other officials who participated in its performance. One could also make the argument that the private nature of the performance had nothing to do with the audience and simply reflected Li’s own personal religious commitments. Third, the time and effort that Li invested in his rainmaking, not to mention the frequency and variety of his efforts, during this single drought in Zhili are impressive. According to his diary, on the fif‐ teenth day of the fourth month he went to the City God Temple to “accompany a procession to receive water,” referring to a ceremony to welcome envoys who had been sent to “fetch water” from an effi‐ cacious water source. An altar was erected at the temple, which Li visited for the next four days to offer prayers. On the twenty‐second, he accompanied a procession to “receive water” once again, this time at the Guandi temple. On the twenty‐third, he again went to the Guandi temple to pray for rain. From the twenty‐fourth to the twenty‐ninth, he performed Ji Dakui’s ritual in his private residence. On the morning of the first day of the fifth month, he dressed in mourning clothes and proceeded to the Dragon Mother Temple (Longmu gong 龍母宮), where the water that official envoys had “fetched” from Baoyang mountain was placed along with an iron tablet from Handan. He made prayers at the Dragon Mother Temple in mourning attire again that afternoon and twice the following day. In addition, beginning on the second day of the fifth month, he per‐ formed worship at a private altar (sitan 私壇) twice each day, morn‐ ing and night, for three days. On the ninth day of the month, Li’s di‐ ary entry reads as follows: “From the sixteenth day of the fourth month until now, we have fetched water twice [from Qingyuan 清苑 county, 30 li distant]; Baoyang mountain once [50 li distant]; and re‐ trieved an iron tablet from the Handan well [800 li distant]. In addi‐ tion, I have closed the southern gate and opened the ancient wells at
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places such as the Great Compassion Hall (Daci ge 大慈閣) and the Revenue Bureau (Shuiwuju 稅務局). But none of my prayers has been answered. I do not know now what crimes I have committed against heaven!”27
The Transmission Although Ji may never have intended for his method to be codified and distributed in the way it eventually was, it is clear that many lo‐ cal officials found something worthwhile in his approach to rain‐ making. It is difficult to determine how many officials heard about Ji’s method or came into contact with it. It is even more difficult to assess how they felt about it—whether they agreed with its princi‐ ples or found it to be efficacious. There is, however, one objective measure by which we might tentatively gauge its popularity—the text’s publication history. It stands to reason that the more often and the more widely a text was published, especially by private parties, the more it was considered to be valuable in some respect. We can assume that the text filled some particular need in the current litera‐ ture and that it was directed toward a substantial readership. It could also be that the text had commercial value, and publishers ex‐ pected to sell many copies. So, how popular was this text? Judging from its publication his‐ tory, it is safe to say that Ji Dakui’s rainmaking method was a big hit. No less than nine editions of Ji’s text published in various formats during the second half of the nineteenth century are extant. The ear‐ liest of these editions, entitled Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu wen 紀慎齋 先生求雨文 (Master Ji Shenzhai’s rainmaking text), was published in 1859 in Henan.28 Yet there were certainly editions circulating prior to this. Several of the editions contain prefaces written by officials in Hunan in 1847, which suggests that at least one copy of the text made its way from Hunan to Henan some time between 1847 and 1859. One edition, entitled Qiuyu jing 求雨經 (Rainmaking classic), contains a preface penned by an official in Gansu in 1873, yet the title page gives a publication date of 1898. According to the title page, this particular text was printed from the “stored printing blocks of the Gansu provincial treasurer” (Gansu fanshu cangban 甘肅藩署藏板), which suggests that this edition may have sat in a yamen collection for over two decades before it was finally issued in the form we have
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now.29 In addition to the editions mentioned above, there were sepa‐ rate editions published in Luoyang,30 Zhili,31 Chengdu,32 Suzhou,33 Yangzhou,34 and Hangzhou35 between 1873 and 1898. The sheer geographical scope of these publishing efforts raises questions about how these texts were transmitted. Again, the earliest prefaces that we have are those written in Hunan in 1847. These prefaces describe, in at least one case, how officials came across the text and made the decision to have it published. According to these accounts, there was a drought in the area around Changsha 長沙, Hunan, in the spring of 1847. Local officials prayed repeatedly for rain, but without success. Finally, the magistrate of Changsha, Chen Bingchu 陳秉初, produced a rainmaking text written by his “teacher,” Ji Dakui. Local officials conducted the ritual as prescribed, and it rained the following day. Considering the quick and marvel‐ ous response, Chen is said to have expressed his desire to dissemi‐ nate the text widely, but he died before he could do so. As a result, the task fell to his fellow officials, who arranged to have a copy of Ji’s rainmaking method published.36 This testimony highlights the important role that officials played in moving the text from manuscript to publication. The basic chain of events described above was repeated several times in the history of this text: drought strikes an area; somebody providentially pro‐ duces a copy of Ji’s text; its technique is carried out with great suc‐ cess; and it is eventually published so that others might benefit from its contents. To give one such example, the individual responsible for publishing the 1874 Luoyang edition was an official named Zhang Xing 張星. In his preface to this edition, Zhang complained that the only rainmaking methods handed down to him were those such as collecting snakes, throwing bones into dragon holes, or roasting pigs. Zhang wrote that during the spring and summer of 1874, it hadn’t rained for “several tens of days.” Officials were distraught and re‐ peatedly led “walking and praying” processions, but with little suc‐ cess. Zhang then remembered that he had long held a copy of Ji’s rainmaking text in his personal library. Unfortunately, Zhang had lent the manuscript to a friend who had wanted to copy it. So, he sent a messenger to the friend’s house—a journey of around thirty miles—to retrieve the text and bring it back. The next day, he per‐ formed the ritual, and shortly thereafter it rained. Zhang was so im‐
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pressed with the results that he had the manuscript engraved into woodblocks so that it might be widely disseminated.37 After the text was published, it often experienced a life of its own. A sample of the labyrinthine channels through which the text trav‐ eled can be seen in the following example. Shu Enxu 殳恩煦, an offi‐ cial who served in Shandong and Henan provinces, wrote that he and his fellow officials had heard of Ji’s method but could not carry it out because they did not have copies of the Great Cloud Wheel sutra. In the summer of 1867, Shu finally borrowed a handwritten copy of the sutra from an acquaintance in Kaifeng 開封 so that he could in‐ clude it in a revised edition of Ji’s text, which he apparently pub‐ lished shortly thereafter.38 This revised edition later fell into the hands of an official named Sun Guan 孫觀 in Shucheng 舒城, Anhui, who successfully used the ritual during a drought in 1876. Im‐ pressed with its efficacy, Sun reprinted an expanded version of the text later that year in Zhili.39 Shu’s edition was also obtained by Hu Yuyan 胡裕燕 and used as the basis for yet another revised edition, published in Hangzhou in 1898.40 As these examples suggest, official networks appear to have played a major role in the dissemination and publication of this text, as officials told their colleagues about the method, obtained copies of the text, and then had it published. Gérard Genette’s work on paratextuality is useful in examining the many variations and editions of these texts. Genette argues that “paratexts”—titles, prefaces, commentaries, and other devices—serve as “thresholds of interpretation” that play a key role in shaping the social history of a text by both reflecting and influencing how and why it is read. For example, Genette contends that titles play an im‐ portant function in defining a text by identifying the work, designat‐ ing a subject matter, and “tempting” the public to buy it.41 In Ji Da‐ kui’s method, we see these functions at work. Various editions of the text define the subject matter as “rainmaking” and identify Ji by name as a “master,” which was undoubtedly a way to convince a readership of his personal rainmaking authority. Efforts to entice the public can be seen clearly in later editions of the text that declare it to be “revised” or “complete”—or as modern advertisers might put it, “new and improved!” The titles also suggest a subtle shift in the text’s status over time. In early editions the method is usually re‐ ferred to simply as a “text” (wen) or “essay” (pian), but later editions are labeled “classics” ( jing) or “complete books” (quanshu), thereby
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conferring on the method respectability and thoroughness. These techniques may have helped to pique readers’ interest in the text and stimulate demand from officials. Judging from the numerous editions of the text, as well as the numerous handwritten manuscripts that were apparently circulating among officials, it is clear that many local officials were interested in acquiring, using, and sharing Ji’s rainmaking text. Why? The most basic answer is that these officials thought Ji’s method worked. Each edition of Ji’s text is prefaced with appreciative testimonials from of‐ ficials who had successfully employed his method. These officials frequently use terms such as “wondrous” and “marvelous” to de‐ scribe the speed and thoroughness of its results. Although firsthand accounts of the method’s efficacy were persuasive in their own right, many of these testimonials were written by relatively high‐ranking or well‐known officials, which likely made them even more compel‐ ling. One of the prefaces reprinted in virtually all extant editions of Ji’s text was written by Xu Zechun 徐澤醇 ( jinshi 1820, d. 1858). Xu was a prominent Qing official who served variously as governor of Shandong province, governor‐general of Sichuan, and the president of the Board of Ritual (Libu shangshu 禮部尚書).42 Xu’s endorsement undoubtedly bestowed a prominence on the method that it other‐ wise would not have enjoyed. Other prefaces were written by Lufei Quan 陸費瑔 (1784–1857), who served as a magistrate in Hubei and Zhili before being appointed governor of Hunan, and Wan Gong‐ zhen 萬貢珍 (fl. 1820–50), who, in addition to serving as provincial treasurer in Jiangxi, was also an accomplished calligrapher and painter.43 By vouching for the work’s effectiveness, these testimonials strengthened its “illocutionary force” by conferring an air of reliabil‐ ity and prestige on the text, which likely increased its popularity.44 Other officials were attracted to Ji’s method because it reflected what they considered to be a more decorous and standardized form of rainmaking. As one commentator remarked: Whenever a calamity is experienced, the methods one uses to pray for rain are not to be taken lightly, [and they should not be] disrespectful or irregular. Those [officials] who are pure and sophisticated and are respectful of re‐ sources have no books of the kind that Master Ji Shenzhai has compiled. His method uses the great Yijing as its organizing principle and lays bare all its profound meaning. For this reason, it is quite extraordinary.45
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This general view was echoed by another writer who commented on the fact that Ji’s method does not employ “unorthodox rituals.” One virtue of this method is that it does not employ any unorthodox rituals ( fangwai keyi 方外科儀). Rather, it gathers phrases from the appendixes of the Yijing and employs exchanges and crossings of the generative forces (yinyun jiaochuan 絪縕交穿). A second virtue is that it nourishes the living qi (chang‐ yang shengqi 長養生氣) by using willow branches to sprinkle water, and it appropriates the indisputable truth of heaven by employing three Daoist adepts (daotong 道童). In providing relief, it treats noble and base, near and far with undivided heart. It invites the divine blessings of the emperor to rescue the indispensable masses. Can this kind of concern be trifled with?46
As this passage demonstrates, this official was clearly impressed with Ji’s application of the Yijing. In fact, officials unanimously praised Ji’s method for its dependence on the Yijing—both in its principles and its texts. Yet, as we can see here, it was not simply the use of the Yijing that made it attractive. It also “nourished the living qi” and treated all people with “an undivided heart.” Moreover, its use of Daoist adepts reflected the “indisputable truth of heaven.” But not all officials were as enthusiastic about the method’s incor‐ poration of Daoist priests and Buddhist monks. In at least three cases, provisions were made for the ritual to be performed by Confucian students. Two editions include a note written in 1864 that reads: When using this method, one does not have to hire monks and priests. Whenever one encounters drought, family tutors (shushi 塾師) can follow this method and carry it out. They should reverently write out spirit tablets for the gods of mountains, rivers, wind, clouds, thunder, and rain. [For the pennants,] they use the colors for the eight palace flags (bagong qi 八宮旗), and they make them out of paper not cloth.47 They establish the altar as it is described earlier and appoint four pupils (xuetu 學徒) to chant scriptures. Two more pupils perform the exchanges and one performs the crossings. Three young students (xiaoxuesheng 小學生) sprinkle water with willows, en‐ tering and exiting the altar three times. Then four pupils chant Confucius’s Classic of Filial Piety (Xiao jing 孝經) once, reciting it character by character while sounding a bell and drum for each syllable. When the chanting is fin‐ ished, the exchanges and crossings should be performed as described [in the original ritual], moving back and forth without stopping. In everything, sin‐ cerity and reverence are paramount, since this principle (li 理) [i.e., sincerity] is most important in harmonizing yin and yang, and this kind of behavior
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(shi 事) [i.e., reverence] is most important in moving the gods. When one is clear about our Confucian principles (wu ru zhi li 吾儒之理) and our Confu‐ cian practice (wu ru zhi shi 吾儒之事), peace and righteousness will prevail. When ceremony is pure and the heart is sincere, there is nothing that will not be moved by one’s earnestness.48
As mentioned above, the edition published in Gansu in 1873 also employed Confucian students and stipulated that spirit tablets to Fu Xi, King Wen, the Duke of Zhou, and Confucius be placed on the al‐ tar.49 Both of these examples suggest that at least some officials were uncomfortable using Buddhist monks and Daoist priests in their rainmaking, even though, as we have seen, this was relatively com‐ mon throughout the late imperial period. This uneasiness is also re‐ flected in one preface, whose author goes to great lengths to defend Ji against accusations of impropriety for employing monks and priests: Some say that the Master’s lixue 理學 is known all over China, but when they examine the style of this ritual, they say that it reflects the beliefs and practices of Daoist priests and Buddhist monks. Can we say this? I would re‐ spond by saying the yu 雩 involved sacrifices and music to the red emperor [in the south] to pray for rain. In the Zhouli 周禮, it describes the duties of the officer of mediums (siwu 司巫) by saying, “If during the year there is a great drought, then he should lead the mediums (wu 巫) in dancing the yu sacrifice.” At the time, female mediums (nüwu 女巫) were a type of official. During great calamities throughout history, supplications have been made through singing and crying. Moreover, there were dance masters (wushi 舞 師) who taught village dance officials (liwu 里舞) to conduct dances during periods of drought. Can it be that the sages could not move heaven through their sincerity but, rather, were forced to rely on the efficacy (ling) of mediums’ spells to achieve their success? The spirits transformed them, and the people acted properly toward them. Herein lies its profound application. Although to‐ day’s monks and priests cannot prove that they have achieved nirvana, the nine streams [of teaching] belong to one house. So how is this different from using female mediums and village dance officials? If the labels “Daoist priest” or “Buddhist monk” are used to describe the Master, then the terms “female medium” or “village dance official” can be used to describe the Duke of Zhou!50
It is unclear who was making such accusations, but it was something on the minds of at least a few of the officials who published and dis‐
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seminated Ji’s text. What is striking about their concern is that they appear to have had little problem with other elements of the ritual— such as the eight trigram altar—which can hardly be considered ex‐ clusively Confucian. Yet these officials may have been driven by more than a simple appreciation of the method’s effectiveness or propriety. One of the connections that is particularly tantalizing—although it is also un‐ abashedly speculative—is that Ji’s text was promoted by the “state‐ craft” movement as a preferred rainmaking method for local‐level officials. There are several reasons for thinking this might have been the case. First, as we saw in Chapter 3, the central government took a relatively hands‐off approach to monitoring and policing the rain‐ making activities of local officials, which meant that local officials were often left to their own devices in carrying out rainmaking ac‐ tivities. As a result, rainmaking was one aspect of local governance that received a fair amount of coverage in statecraft compendia such as the Huangchao jingshi wenbian. Although Ji’s method is not in‐ cluded in any of these compendia, other writings by officials who promoted the text were. For example, essays by both Xu Zechun and Lufei Quan were included in various editions of the compendia, and Ji Dakui himself contributed six essays to the Huangchao jingshi wen‐ bian, all of which are devoted to the topic of “ritual administration” (lizheng 禮政).51 In addition to this literary association, there is a geo‐ graphical connection as well. Hunan province, especially the area around Changsha in the Xiang 湘 River valley, was a center of “sub‐ stantive learning” (shixue 實學) and the statecraft movement during the Daoguang reign (1821–50).52 Although it may be a coincidence, the fact that the first published edition of Ji’s text was used and pro‐ moted by local officials—some of them known to have statecraft connections—during a drought in Changsha in 1847, suggests that the text may have been promoted as part of a broader intellectual and political program. A final piece to this puzzle attests to this text’s popularity among officials during the late nineteenth century. Again, the evidence is scant, but there is reason to believe that some officials were promot‐ ing Ji’s text through official channels. Beginning in the eighteenth century, some provinces began to issue collections of legal cases and regulations, known as shengli 省例, that related only to that province.
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One of these collections from Jiangsu province includes the follow‐ ing proclamation: From Provincial Treasurer Tan 譚, a proclamation: Be it known that since this winter there has for too long been fair weather and the farmers long desperately for rain, the governor’s yamen has ordered the official printing bureau to publish an edition of Master Ji Shenzhai’s rainmaking text and have it distributed. I have now received a printing of the text, and it is in‐ cumbent upon me to order it re‐sent to so‐and‐so immediately, in accor‐ dance with the practice of at all times endeavoring to sincerely pray for rain in hopes of stimulating the blessings of heaven. This order is of utmost im‐ portance. Sixth year of Guangxu (1880), first month, sixteenth day.53
In effect, this proclamation ordered that copies of the text be distrib‐ uted to local officials in Jiangsu province, with the implicit sugges‐ tion that it be performed. This is the only such proclamation of which I am aware, but it would not be surprising to find that similar proclamations were issued elsewhere in the empire. We do know that Ji’s text was issued by an official publishing house in at least one other case: the Yangzhou edition of the text was published in 1881 by the Huainan Printing Bureau (Huainan shuju 淮南書局). The impor‐ tance of these official endorsements cannot be overestimated, since they ensured that the text was promptly distributed with the impri‐ matur of the provincial authorities. They also testify to the wide‐ spread acceptance Ji’s method had achieved in official circles.
Accretions to the Basic Ritual Because Ji’s method was published independently over the course of several decades, different editions of the ritual are not identical. In most editions, the differences are relatively minor. Each edition in‐ cludes from one to four prefaces, a description of the ritual move‐ ments, and illustrations of the altar, pennants, and vases used in the ritual. Most of the editions also include several prayer texts to be employed during the ritual. There are minor discrepancies in the configuration of the altar, in the design of the pennants, and in offi‐ ciants’ movements at the altar. For the most part, however, the basic structure and content of the ritual are the same in all texts. There are two notable exceptions to this general rule, however. The first concerns the use of Confucian students and texts, as
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Fig. 5.5 Illustrations of the pigs and the star chart that were to be painted on the east and west sides of the altar, respectively. The star chart contains the bi constellation (the wishbone‐shaped constellation near the center of the illustration) and others nearby. Source: Guanmu tongzhou lu, 2.52a–b.
described above. The second involves accretions to the standard text, which began to appear in later editions as the text was revised and enlarged over time. One text that includes many of these accretions is the Guanmu tongzhou lu 官幕同舟錄 (On officials and secretaries being in the same boat), whose rainmaking section is translated in its entirety in Appendix C. This text was an administrative manual (guanzhen 官箴) for local officials published in Suzhou in 1884 by a prominent yamen secretary (muyou 幕友) named Fei Shanshou 費山 壽. This text either incorporates into the text proper or appends to it talismans, incantations, and illustrations. These are some of the most interesting features of these later texts. The Guanmu tongzhou lu, for example, calls for two images to be painted on the western and east‐ ern sides of the altar: one depicts a herd of “white‐hoofed” pigs, the other is a star chart of the constellation bi 畢 (see Fig. 5.5). Both im‐ ages can be traced to an ode in the Shijing, which reads: “There are pigs with white hooves that wade through streams. The approach of the moon to bi will bring heavy rain showers.”54 These images were
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Fig. 5.6 Talisman to subdue the fire dragon. The incantation is printed along the left side of the illustration. Source: Guanmu tongzhou lu, 2.51a.
likely painted on the altar to graphically represent the association of the pigs and the constellation in an effort to hasten rain. The Guanmu tongzhou lu also gives instructions for using a “talis‐ man to subdue the fire dragon” (zhenya huolong fu 鎮壓火龍符; Fig. 5.6). Use a wooden board one chi three cun three fen long and one cun three fen wide. In cinnabar, write the talisman and recite the incantation that accom‐ panies it. When finished, dig a hole two or three chi deep in front of the southern altar, and bury [the board]. Place a jar filled with water and willow branches on top to weigh it down. At the altar of thanksgiving, take [the board] out and use paper and silk to burn it.55
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The talisman is accompanied by an incantation reading, “fire dragon, go into the earth a thousand chi.” The instructions for the incantation are: Circulate your refined qi (yunshen 運神), then face the talisman and silently recite [the incantation] once. Again move a single breath of celestial qi (gangqi 罡氣) and exhale on the talisman. The celestial qi should be exhaled from the qi circulated from the cinnabar field (dantian 丹田).56
Finally, the Guanmu tongzhou lu includes a “failsafe method” for praying for rain said to have been developed by the statesman Hu Linyi, which involved burying a frog in the yamen courtyard: You must choose a ren or gui day and erect an altar in the northwest corner of the yamen’s main hall. Dig one small square hole, one chi deep. Take four new earthenware tiles and place them vertically around the perimeter of the inside of the hole. Then take one large frog and a slip of yellow paper that has been cut into a one cun square. Using cinnabar, write the “fire” character (huo 火) forty‐nine times on the paper in the five directions. Stuff the paper in the frog’s mouth, place the frog in the hole, and cover the hole with an‐ other earthenware tile. Then take soil and bury it all completely. Next, take one clean square lacquer table and place it over the hole. On top [of the table] place a spirit tablet upon which has been written “Dragon King of the Four Seas, Nine Rivers, and Eight Streams.” If every morning and evening, you burn incense, perform rituals, and sincerely offer petitions for three days, you will obtain timely rain. Although what is written above is all that was passed down, you should also order that [a statement saying,] “Recently such‐and‐such high official performed [the ritual] and consequently ob‐ tained its wondrous fulfillment” be published in the press.57
There are other examples of officials supplementing Ji’s basic text with additional rainmaking techniques. For example, in the Chong‐ kan Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu 重刊紀慎齋先生求雨全書, the editor Sun Guan appended two additional texts that did not appear in the earliest surviving versions: a full copy of the Great Cloud Wheel sutra and a copy of a rainmaking incantation. This incantation, the Mulang qiyu zhou 木郎祈雨咒, is the same one discussed in Chapter 3. Sun included instructions for executing the incantation, so that offi‐ cials could use it in conjunction with Ji’s ritual.58 The fact that au‐ thors felt compelled to include these additional techniques along with Ji’s method confirms a phenomenon seen elsewhere in this study—officials “stacked” their techniques by performing more than
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one rainmaking method simultaneously or in quick succession. The general attitude seemed to be that if one ritual was good, then two rituals must be better.59
Conclusion As one of the most popular official rainmaking methods in the nine‐ teenth century, Ji Dakui’s ritual can tell us much about official atti‐ tudes toward rainmaking. One of the most conspicuous aspects of Ji’s ritual concerns the extent to which it incorporates elements from several different religious traditions. It employs texts from the Yijing and the Great Cloud Wheel sutra; ritual specialists from both Bud‐ dhism and Daoism; and symbolism from widespread rainmaking customs. Moreover, some versions of the method include potent vis‐ ual and oral devices such as talismans, incantations, and iconogra‐ phy. Although some commentators voiced their displeasure with certain elements of this method, there seems to have been a general consensus that such borrowings were acceptable—and perhaps even desirable. This confirms a tendency seen elsewhere in this study— officials demonstrated their willingness to pray for rain as ecumeni‐ cally as possible. It also belies the notion advanced by some scholars that official rainmaking was a distinctively “Confucian” endeavor. In fact, it would be difficult, if not impossible, to identify any aspects of this method that were exclusively Confucian. This method also raises important questions about the use of oc‐ cult technologies by Chinese officials. Ji’s method is organized around the notion that changes in the physical world could be ef‐ fected by chanting specific words and performing a sequence of movements in and around a powerful ritual site. In some cases, this basic formula was supplemented by other techniques such as talis‐ mans, incantations, and other “recipes” for bringing rain. It is worth emphasizing that Ji’s method was not new in this respect. In fact, we might think of Ji’s method as part of a long tradition of altar rituals that began with Dong Zhongshu in the Han dynasty. This method was in many ways the most recent manifestation of a venerable pas‐ time, in which officials researched and developed new technologies to incorporate into their rainmaking activities. As a result, Ji’s method casts doubt on the assertion that official religion either es‐ chewed the use of such practices or operated according to principles
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inimical to them. Indeed, this method is a testament to the ways in which widespread rainmaking symbols could be reorganized and redeployed in innovative ways by officials. Although many of the practices incorporated into Ji’s method could be found throughout Chinese culture, the ways in which these practices were framed and justified by officials were unique. Pro‐ moters of Ji’s method were careful to defend their use of the occult by tracing practices back to authoritative texts and individuals. For example, the moral imperative to pray for rain was located in the “Hong fan” and the “eight objects of good government” (bazheng). The efficacy of Ji’s method was frequently traced back to the power of the Yijing and the Xici commentary. The use of Buddhist monks and Daoist priests was likened to the use of sorceresses, which was said to have begun with the Duke of Zhou. Even iconography such as paintings of the star chart and pigs on the altar was justified by re‐ ferring to verses from the Shijing. But although the stories that offi‐ cials told about their rainmaking were distinctive, we should be care‐ ful to distinguish discourse from practice. There is little doubt that officials understood their techniques as having a reputable pedigree and that they did all they could to frame their methods in ways that made them more meaningful. But this does not necessarily mean that the practices were, in fact, qualitatively different from those used by commoners. As we have seen in the last two chapters, offi‐ cials incorporated many practices into their rainmaking that were shared across the expanse of Chinese society. Thus, it was not the practices themselves that made official rainmaking distinctive but the stories officials told about these practices. Indeed, claims about the “otherness” of official rainmaking should be interpreted in light of Pierre Bourdieu’s observation that distinction must be asserted most rigorously in situations where similar practices run the risk of being mistaken for one another.60 Finally, these texts are some of the clearest evidence we have that rainmaking was a central component of official literary and profes‐ sional practice. As we have seen, this method first circulated infor‐ mally through personal networks in manuscript form and subse‐ quently was printed in various locations throughout the empire. It was even printed by an official publishing house and distributed to all officials in Jiangsu province. It is unlikely that officials would have spent so much time compiling and revising this method if they
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did not consider it to be proper or efficacious. Indeed, the frequency with which officials recommended this technique to their colleagues highlights how seriously and enthusiastically local officials dis‐ charged their rainmaking responsibilities. Officials clearly had a per‐ sonal and professional interest in developing and distributing this kind of knowledge. These texts provided a medium through which officials could demonstrate their concern for the well‐being of their constituents, their mastery of esoteric learning, and their power over the natural world. In addition, the many prefaces, commentaries, and revisions that accompanied these texts connected far‐flung net‐ works of officials and provided a venue where they could debate the desirability of different rainmaking techniques. Thus, Ji Dakui’s rainmaking method served as a site where the goals and methods of government could be articulated and refined. Of course, these obser‐ vations would be far less remarkable if Ji’s method had not been so popular among local officials. The extraordinary efforts made to re‐ vise and disseminate this method confirm the extent to which offi‐ cials considered rainmaking an integral aspect of local governance.
APPENDIX C
On Officials and Secretaries Being in the Same Boat Guanmu tongzhou lu 官幕同舟錄
Section on Rainmaking, 2.45a–60b
A Record of Ji Shenzhai’s Rainmaking Text 紀慎齋求雨文記 1 The Master was from Linchuan 臨川 in Jiangyou 江右 [Jiangxi]. He obtained his xiaolian 孝廉 degree and was appointed to office in Hezhou 合州, Sichuan. In everything, he had a reputation for capable administration. He was deeply into the Yijing and could predict the future (neng zhi weilai shi 能知未來事). As a rule, people have heard of his deeds and scholarship but have never seen the man. This spring it did not rain. We prayed repeatedly, but the rain did not come. The prefect (daling 大令) of Changsha 長沙, Chen Bingchu 陳秉初, was a student of the Master and brought forth this rainmak‐ ing text. Its principles are derived from the Xici 繫辭 [commentary
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on the Yijing]. Its altar configuration corresponds to the “preceding heaven” (xiantian 先天) trigrams and involves crisscrossing it in a specific sequence. I know that his understanding of the Yijing is sub‐ tle and the application of it vast because on the twenty‐fifth day of the fourth month, I erected an altar according to the ritual, and the next day dense clouds covered the sky. It brought rain that lasted for five nights—enough for a thorough soaking. How wondrous! How could the response be like that? Looking at the Master’s writings, there is the Guanyi waibian 觀易外 編 (Supplement on the Yijing), which includes his thoughts about the Yellow River Chart (Hetu 河圖) and the Luo River Writ (Luoshu 洛書). He is expert at synthesizing and penetrating the powers of the uni‐ verse in order to explain their mysteries. He makes manifest what previous men did not make manifest and details what previous men did not detail. His other works, such as the Laozi yueshuo 老子約說 (A concise explanation of Laozi), are vast, and when they are collected, they should be disseminated. His commentaries on the ancient poems and classics are very thorough, and there are no minutiae they do not scrutinize. In the books he read, the books he recorded, and in all his various writings, he aspires to be a saint or worthy, and his scholar‐ ship is a return to truth. When I read his texts, it is like seeing the man. The ancients were thoroughly versed in the subtleties of Yijing numerology (Yi shu 易數), but they did not know why their lixue 理學 worked the way that it did. The efficacy (ling 靈) of the rainmaking text is found in the efficacy of its numbers, and true efficacy follows only this principle. I heard that the Master had retired, and for the last twenty years of his life his mind was calm as he tirelessly lectured his students every day. When he was over ninety years of age, he knew that the time had finally come, and at the appointed time he was immortal‐ ized. Alas! The master can be called a spirit (shen 神) whose creative numen (zaohua ling 造化靈) has become a star. How can I even guess at his transformation? [Magistrate Chen] Bingchu wanted this text to remain in this age, and he wanted to pay respect to his teacher by disseminating his text widely. I am happy to do so on his behalf. Daoguang dingwei year [1847], first day of the fourth month Recorded by Xu Zechun 徐澤醇 at the Studio of Preserving Intelligence (Cunxingzhai 存惺齋) in Hunan
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Original Preface 原序 Looking back to antiquity, we find in the “Hong fan” 鴻範 [“Great Plan” chapter of the Shujing] that there are “eight objects of good government” (bazheng 八政), the first of which is “food” (shi 食).2 Furthermore, the eighth of the “various verifications” (shuzheng 庶徵) [a division of the “Hong fan”] is called “rain” (yu).3 So, the people’s livelihood is directly tied to seasonable weather and the proper growth of the grains. It is the duty of the authorities in ordinary times to be fearful and cautious, to consider how to cultivate proper governance, and to summon gentle breezes and fertilizing rains. And when one encounters the signs of calamity, the virtuous and righ‐ teous devote all their energy to nourishing the people by urgently pursuing methods that can bring rain. This spring, the farmwork had begun and all parts of Hunan were prospering, when it did not rain for twenty days. Prayers were made repeatedly to the local deities of wind, clouds, and grain. It rained, but not enough to soak the ground. In an effort to expand the meth‐ ods used for rainmaking, Magistrate Chen of Changsha produced a rainmaking text that was written by his teacher, Master Ji Shenzhai. Its actions involve making “exchanges” ( jiao 交) and “crossings” (chuan 穿) with the eight trigrams, and its texts are taken from the Xici.4 The principles that give rise to spirit and matter, as well as the things all people use, come from the changes. The changes are the ul‐ timate energy (zhijing 至精), the ultimate alternations (zhibian 至變), and the ultimate spirit (zhishen 至神) of all under heaven. Consequently, [Magistrate Chen] ordered altars to be erected ac‐ cording to the specifications and led his officials in walking and praying (budao) processions. He first dispatched officials to fetch wa‐ ter (qushui) at both Mount Heng 衡山 and Lake Dongting 洞庭湖. They spent only one night so that the wind and rain could circulate. [The rituals] were spaced evenly over the course of five days and five nights, after which they finally concluded. The seed beds were soaked, and the year’s harvest was timely. The correspondence be‐ tween heaven and people is like sound and its echo—the principle of the changes is so wondrous! As for praying to the jurisdiction’s mountains and rivers to bring clouds and rain, the ancients established the yu sacrifice in all its perfect details for the sake of the people. “Mountains up high and
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moisture down low are animated by the same qi. Lightning and wind are locked in mutual struggle.”5 From this, the transformation of the changes (yi) created the myriad things. As for its changes the [“Hong fan” section of the] Shujing says, “Some stars love the wind, some stars love the rain” (xing you hao feng, xing you hao yu 星有好風 星有好雨), and they mutually confirm one another.6 The Master was deeply into the Yijing and served meritoriously in the world. The prefect published his text and asked me to write the preface because I know the language of numbers and was inclined to do so. Originally, I could not agree with [this method’s] dark and mysterious words; so I ignored it and treated it lightly—until I [learned of] the Master’s scholarship and righteous deeds and the reason for [the method’s] miraculous nature, and Hunan’s provincial judge (lianfang 廉訪), who believed that it was authentic, explained it to me in detail. Daoguang dingwei year [1847], seventh month Hunan Governor Lufei Quan
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[Next Preface] Methods for praying for rain appeared first in the Liji. By the Han dynasty, Dong Zhongshu had explained its ritual in detail—blue dragons and green jade, gathering snakes and burning hogs—so that “there were no spirits not honored, no sacrifices withheld.” Later people imitated it and carried [his ritual] out, but it was hard to be sure whether it was effective or ineffective. In the spring of 1847, all parts of Hunan went without rain for fifty days. Spring plantings were delayed and the people were greatly distressed. The governor selected officials to proceed to Mount Heng and Lake Dongting to fetch water (qingshui 請水), erect altars, and lead officials in walking and praying processions. Chang‐ sha Magistrate Chen Bingchu produced his teacher’s, Master Ji Shen‐ zhai, rainmaking text and asked that the ritual be performed at the prefectural yamen (dafu 大府). On the following day, a vast blanket of thick clouds covered the entire area, and it rained through the day and into the night. It continued this way for five days, both near and far, and the rainfall was copious. So the shoots emerged in time and the harvest was abundant. You could say it was miraculous (kewei shenyi 可謂神矣)! The Master had a deep understanding of the principles of the Yi‐ jing. In this method, the alternations of its correspondences and the intricacies of its numerology are deeply embedded in the study of the preceding heaven configuration. As the Yijing says, “To under‐ stand numbers and know the future is called ‘prognostication’ (zhan 占); comprehending the principles of the alternations is called ‘atten‐ tiveness’ (shi 事); and what yin and yang do not fathom, this is called spirit (shen 神).”7 If it were not perfect in all manner, then how could its [results] be like this? Magistrate Chen desired to disseminate [this text] widely, in order to rescue the world (zheng sishi 拯斯世). But since he died, I was asked to contribute this preface. I say that when people are dis‐ tressed and frantic, one must plead to the deities for their lives. If not, then there will be no small anguish. When one brings about an ur‐ gent sincerity, the heart is utterly dependent (biyou suo fuli 必有所附 麗). So sincerity must start by assuming responsibility and making offerings (zhuan qie zhi 專且摯). The spring at Mount Heng and the
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water at Lake Dongting both [reflect] this principle of dependence ( fuli 附麗). As for the principles of the waxing and waning of yin and yang and the movements of motion and rest, opening and closing— the deities understand them and their marvelous application. It is only fitting that copious rains fall and, like the correspondence be‐ tween a sound and its echo, make manifest to everybody their re‐ sponsive favor. Therefore, as it is handed down in ancient texts, the origin of these matters lies in the methods for moving the marketplace (xishi 徙市) and disturbing the dragon (raolong 擾龍) found in all cities, and these [methods] are what the numerology school (shushu jia 術數家) serves. Nevertheless, in the end [these other methods] do not trust in the ef‐ ficacy of the Yijing to obtain the correctness of their principles. By knowing the language of numbers, he can bring it about. Daoguang dingwei [1847], first day of the eighth month Hunan Chang‐Bao 長寶 censor, gazing above and anxious for rain (tiaoshang jiaoyu 苕上蕉雨), Yang Bingkun 楊炳堃
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[Final Preface] To use practical means in governance ( jingshu congzheng 經術從政) to be of some benefit is what all we officials who seriously consider these issues eagerly desire.8 When I was appointed to office, the em‐ peror ( jun 君) ordered me to care for his people. When they starve, it is if I starved them ( ji you ji ji 飢猶己飢).9 So, when there is constant sun or constant rain, I cannot remain indifferent. In spring of Dao‐ guang dingwei [1847], southern Chu 楚 was suffering from a severe drought, and crops could not be planted. Officials, elites, and com‐ moners alike were worried, and heaven was worshiped by every means imaginable. A broad request went out for prayers to be made. At that time, Changsha Magistrate Chen produced official Ji Shen‐ zhai’s Yijing studies rainmaking method, which he had collected. All officials of the rank of governor and below amassed their sincerity and conducted the ritual as prescribed. It rained hard, and the au‐ tumn harvest was abundant. Magistrate Chen’s invocatory texts and all the pictures for erect‐ ing the altar were entrusted to me after he died. I feel the good [rainmaking] methods and ideas that have been passed down over the ages are not disseminated [in times] when there are no calamities; and when there are calamities they are not carried out. Instead, they remain with officials where they make little difference. One virtue of this method is that it does not employ any unorthodox rituals ( fang‐ wai keyi 方外科儀). Rather, it gathers phrases from the appendixes of the Yijing and employs exchanges and crossings of the generative forces (yinyun jiaochuan 絪縕交穿). A second virtue is that it nour‐ ishes the living qi (changyang shengqi 長養生氣) by using willow branches to sprinkle water, and it appropriates the indisputable truth of heaven by employing three Daoist adepts (daotong 道童). In providing relief, it treats noble and base, near and far with un‐ divided heart. It invites the divine blessings of the emperor to rescue the indispensable masses. Can this kind of concern be trifled with? For this reason, I have respectfully arranged the dates, recorded how [the method] was carried out, and its effective results. In so doing, I have shown the benefit of practical means ( jingshu 經術), just like Magistrate [Ji] Shenzhai, and passed them along. The administrator of Changsha prefecture in Hunan, Lei Chengpu 雷成樸
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Failsafe Method to Pray for Rain 求雨奇方 10 While Hu Linyi was serving as the intendant of the Guidong 貴東 circuit, he dictated to Prefect Yan Boya 嚴伯雅 (Xikang 錫康) a “fail‐ safe method to pray for rain.”11 It is said that while [Yan] was prefect in Libo 荔波 in Guizhou 貴州, he and Hu were close friends. [The method] is recorded here so that it might be tried out. You must choose a ren or gui day and erect an altar in the north‐ west corner of the yamen’s main hall. Dig one small square hole, one chi deep. Take four new earthenware tiles and place them vertically around the perimeter of the inside of the hole. Then take one large frog and a slip of yellow paper that has been cut into a one cun square. Using cinnabar, write the “fire” character (huo 火) forty‐nine times on the paper in the five directions. Stuff the paper in the frog’s mouth, place the frog in the hole, and cover the hole with another earthenware tile. Then take soil and bury it all completely. Next, take one clean square lacquer table and place it over the hole. On top [of the table] place a spirit tablet upon which has been written “Dragon King of the Four Seas, Nine Rivers, and Eight Streams.” If every morning and evening, you burn incense, perform rituals, and sin‐ cerely offer petitions for three days, you will obtain timely rain. Al‐ though what is written above is all that was passed down, you should also order that [a statement saying,] “Recently such‐and‐such high official performed [the ritual] and consequently obtained its wondrous fulfillment” be published in the press. I think that sun, rain, droughts, and floods are alike controlled by a mysterious power. In ancient times, the sage‐kings prayed for rain and fair weather by never transgressing the bounds of the cultivated person and by seeking the heart of heaven. How can a frog restore the life‐giving skies? The words of sorcerers (shushi 術士) even the ignorant dare not believe! But I was reading Shenbao and saw that this method had once been effective, and so I have recorded it here.12 I think that during prolonged droughts when it has not rained, and the peasants have expressed their distress, officials can beg for life on their behalf. By praying sincerely with this method, they can stimu‐ late heaven’s desire to bring rain and cause pests that are embedded in the fire characters to disturb the dragon god by way of the frog,
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which flees into the water from the land. I once heard an old‐timer say, “For three seasons, it did not rain in Wu 吳. The rice shoots were withered. So I bought several large turtles, tied them to a tiger bone, and tossed them outside the Pan Gate 盤門 in the river below Five Dragon Bridge [in Suzhou] because there is a dragon cave there. This causes [the bone] to enter the water so the dragon and tiger will struggle, thereby disturbing the dragon’s will. In the end this will bring great thunder and rain.” The principle [with the frog] is the same.
Guidelines for Selecting Auspicious and Inauspicious Dates for Praying for Fair Weather and Praying for Rain Are Below 祈晴禱雨選擇宜忌日期列後 While praying for fair weather: stick to taiyang (宜太陽), yuebo (月孛), qiluo (奇羅), zaohuo (燥火), and shengxuan (昇玄) days—it is necessary to check the [proper] directions (須查方向). Avoid tiange (忌天隔), huoge (火隔), huangwu (荒蕪), shousi (受死), shengui (神鬼), and subse‐ quent days (隔日). While praying for rain: one should [select] yichou 乙丑, bingzi 丙子, renzi 壬子, renshen 壬申, guichou 癸丑, guisi 癸巳, and guiwei 癸未— the water days of the “inserted musical notes”; shen 申, zi 子, and chen 辰 which belong to the water authority; and [days] when the rain [stars] jinshui 金水, xieren 血刃, yuebo 月孛, and ziqi 紫炁 inter‐ mix (all the above are stars of thunder). [Select also days that belong to] the Supreme Unity Water Star directions (太乙水星方): On the ziwu 子午 day, face the zi 子 direction; on the yinshen 寅申 day, the wu 午 direction; on the sihai 巳亥 day, the you 酉 direction; on chouwei 丑未 day, the yin 寅 direction; on the chenxu 辰戌 day, the hai 亥 direction. By facing the ruler of the prayer, there will be rain. [And select days that correspond to the stars] taijiang 台將, yuebo 月孛, turu 土溽, tiangang 天罡 (which are governed by thunder).13 Avoid days when the Lord of Wind dies ( fengbo si 風伯死)—jiazi 甲子 days—and the Master of Rain dies (yushi si 雨師死)—gengchen 庚辰 days. In addition, [avoid] beginning on ren 壬, shen 申, gui 癸, and you 酉 days, and days when the daming shuige Black Emperor dies (又壬申癸酉日大明水隔黑帝死開日).14
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Fig. C.1 Talisman to subdue the fire dragon. The incantation is printed along the left side of the illustration. Source: Guanmu tongzhou lu, 2.51a.
Talisman to Subdue the Fire Dragon 鎮壓火龍符 The incantation reads: Fire dragon, go into the earth a thousand chi [Fig. C.1]. [Instructions for using the incantation and talisman]: Circulate your refined qi (yunshen 運神), and then face the talisman and si‐ lently recite [the incantation] once. Again move a single breath of ce‐ lestial qi (gangqi 罡氣) and exhale on the talisman. The celestial qi should be exhaled from the qi circulated from the cinnabar field (dantian 丹田).15 Use a wooden board one chi three cun three fen long, one cun three fen wide. In cinnabar, write the talisman and recite the incantation that accompanies it. When finished, dig a hole two or three chi deep in front of the southern altar, and bury [the board]. Place a jar filled with water and willow branches on top to weigh it down. At the al‐ tar of thanksgiving, take [the board] out and use paper and silk to burn it.
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[Picture of Pigs] Paint this picture on the east side of the altar [Fig. C.2].16
Fig. C.2 Illustrations of the pigs and the star chart that were to be painted on the east and west sides of the altar, respectively. The star chart contains the bi constellation (the wishbone‐shaped constellation near the center of the illustration ). Source: Guan‐ mu tongzhou lu, 2.52a–b.
Bi Xiu 畢宿 17 Examining the eight stars of the bi xiu, they are 76 degrees from the pole, 17.40 degrees from the celestial equator (chidao 赤道), and 16 degrees along the solar ecliptic (huangdao 黃道). The Shiji 史記 says that bi consists of four thousand charioteers (chezhu 車主), who, while hunting the moon, clashed with the great stars of bi. When the great general of the charioteers died, [bi] could unleash winds and rain like the seven suns (主大將死, 若七日有風雨可解). In addition, Zhang Heng 張衡 says that bi is a celestial horse (tianma 天馬).18 Gan (Gan shi 甘氏) says, “Ruling the yin and rain of the streets and alleys is the Master of Rain of heaven.” The Shijing says, “The approach of
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the moon to bi will bring heavy rain showers.”19 The standard com‐ mentary says that bi belongs to the qi of metal and so governs yin, controlling the wife of wood (mufei 木妃) in the east. Since the qi of wood makes rain, bi [by extension, actually] causes rain. Stars do not have desires (shihao 嗜 好 ); rather, qi of like categories mutually stimulate one another. When these are illuminated and the changes are moved, then it will rain. If the moon approaches bi and it does not rain, it is because north and south do not share the same path (明 而易動則雨, 亦有月躔畢而不雨者, 以南北不同道也). Of the seven xiu of White Tiger in the west, only bi is as close [to the constellations] kui 奎, lou 婁, wei 胃, and mao 昴 as [to the constellations] shen 參 and zui 觜. Its form resembles a snared rabbit (zhangtu 張兔 [outstretched rabbit]). When painting this star chart on the west side of the altar, paint the white‐hoofed pigs on the east side of the altar. Close the south door to the altar, and welcome the Master of Rain in the north.
Explanation of Forming the Altar and Praying for Rain 結壇祈雨圖說 Select a spacious and pure area to construct the altar, and erect three spirit tablets [on a spirit table] as shown in the picture to the right. The middle tablet reads “The Supreme Lofty Fuxi” (taihao Fuxi 太昊 伏犧); the left reads “Immortals and Masters Who Bring Rain” (xing‐ yu xianshi 行雨仙師); the right reads “The Spirit of the Local Dragon God” (benjing longwang shen 本境龍王神). In front [of the tablets] are arranged an earthenware brazier and a stone chime. Place a bushel‐ box filled with rice [on the table] into which eight pennants have been inserted. The poles of each pennant should be made of green bamboo three chi six cun long. The pennant itself should be one chi six cun tall and two chi four cun from end to end. The color of the pennants is deter‐ mined according to the eight trigrams: the qian pennant should be deep purple (daiqing se 黛青色) with “qian” written in white; the dui pennant should be white with “dui” written in black; the li pennant should be red with “li” written in black; the zhen pennant should be blue‐green (bise 碧色) with “zhen” written in white; the xun pennant should be green (luse 綠色) with “xun” written in white; the kan pen‐ nant should be black with “kan” written in white; the gen pennant should be light yellow (danhuang se 淡黃色) with “gen” written in
On Officials and Secretaries Being in the Same Boat
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black; the kun pennant should be dark yellow (shenhuang se 深黃色) with “kun” written in black. All pennants should be made in the proper colors and inserted into the bushel in front of the spirits. To the left and right of the spirit table place two scripture tables so they are fanned out (bazixing 八字形). A scripture folio and a wooden fish are placed on each table. A bell is hung next to the left‐hand ta‐ ble, and a drum is placed next to the right‐hand table. A rug is placed between the two tables to serve as a spot for worship (baiwei 拜位). In front of the worship position, use a compass to establish positions for the preceding heaven (xiantian 先天) eight trigram ar‐ rangement. According to the preceding diagram, place eight tables in a circle and use a measuring line to connect them, leaving only the space between qian 乾 and xun 巽 as a place to enter and exit the altar. On each table, place one clean vase, into which a willow branch has been inserted, and one bowl of water next to each vase. The forma‐ tion of the altar is complete.
Explanation of the Movements on the Altar While Praying for Rain 祈雨行壇說 Every day, officials and degree‐holders (guanshen 官紳) go to the al‐ tar to conduct rituals, burn incense, and offer prayers. When finished, they return to their positions.20 A single Daoist priest goes before the spirits to make prostrations. He then rises and asks for the pennants to be unfurled. Two Daoist priests take turns making prostrations. They then unfurl the qian pennant first, striking the stone chime once [as they do so]. They unfurl dui 兌 second, striking the chime twice. They unfurl li 離 third without striking the chime. They unfurl zhen 震 fourth and beat the drum. They unfurl xun fifth, striking the wooden fish. They unfurl kan 坎 sixth, striking both bell and drum. They unfurl gen 艮 seventh, striking the bell once. They unfurl kun 坤 eighth, striking the bell thrice.21 Next, four Daoist priests move to the scripture‐reading position where they sound the bell and drum and recite the scripture text, which reads:22 “Heaven above [represented by the qian trigram] and earth below [repre‐ sented by the kun trigram] are set in their positions [of mutual opposition] (tiandi dingwei 天地定位). Mountains up high [represented by the gen trigram]
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and moisture down low [represented by the dui trigram] are animated by the same qi. Lightning [represented by the zhen trigram] and wind [repre‐ sented by the xun trigram] are locked in mutual struggle. Water [represented by the kan trigram] and fire [represented by the li trigram] restrain and com‐ plement one another. The eight trigrams are interdependent and interpene‐ trating.”23 “Lightning arouses all things, wind scatters them. Rain moistens all things, the sun dries them. Gen pacifies all things, dui delights them. Qian governs all things, kun preserves them.”24 “What is called divine is that which speaks of the marvelous propagation of the myriad things. Of that which arouses the myriad things, nothing does so as rapidly as lightning. Of that which stirs the myriad things, nothing does so as quickly as the wind. Of that which dries the myriad things, nothing does so with the same inten‐ sity as the sun. Of that which delights the myriad things, nothing delights as much as moisture. Of that which moistens the myriad things, nothing mois‐ tens as much as water. Of that which ceases and commences the multiplica‐ tion of the myriad things, there is none equal to gen. So, water and fire do not commingle, and wind and lightning do not mutually repel one another. Mountains up high and moisture down low are animated by the same qi, and this produces the changes that forms the myriad things.”25 “In the same way, the hard and soft mutually clash, and the eight trigrams mutually agi‐ tate one another. They are moved by thunder and lightning, and moistened by wind and rain. The sun and moon move in their courses, and the seasons progress in their time. The way of qian forms the male, and the way of kan forms the female. Qian controls the whole of creation, while kan completes the creation of the myriad things. Qian is approachable and knowable, while kan is succinct.”26 “As for qian, it expresses its approachability to all people. As for kan, it expresses its succinctness to all people.”27 [As the Tuanzhuan 彖傳 says:] “How Great! Qian’s primordial [qi] is the seed of all creation, which governs the universe. The movement of clouds and the fall of rain produce the myriad things and bestow their form. In time, the sun moves in its course from beginning to end through the six directions [from low to high, from east to west, facing north and south], as it is piloted through the sky by six dragons.”28 . . . he, he, he 呵呵呵.
For every character of this scripture text that is chanted, the bell and drum are struck once. At the end, the three he characters are chanted in a long, drawn‐out fashion while the bell and drum are sounded vigorously, and then it ends. The tiandi dingwei [scripture] is recited again in its entirety from the beginning, a total of six times. The [four] recitation priests are in charge of all of this. When the tiandi dingwei scripture starts to be chanted, the three other Daoist priests who will perform the “altar crossing move‐
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ments” (chuan 穿) enter the eight trigram altar. One stands at true south and takes hold of the qian pennant, one stands at true north and take holds of the kun pennant. [These two] exchange [pennants] with [the priest] on the opposite side [of the altar]. The other priest stands at true west and grasps the kan pennant, crossing through the middle [of the altar]. Every time that the qian and kun pennants are exchanged ( jiao 交), the kan pennant makes one crossing (chuan). They go around, back and forth, without counting how many times they do so. When they reach the point [in the scripture] where the he 呵 characters are chanted, then they quickly exit the altar. From the qian and dui positions they circumambulate the altar [counterclock‐ wise] until they reach the kan and xun positions—one revolution for three he characters. In all, they circumambulate the altar three times. When the tiandi dingwei scripture text is recited again, they once again enter the altar. They return the qian and kun pennants to their vases and take hold of the two dui and gen pennants. They stand in the southeast and northwest corners. When they exchange [pen‐ nants], the kan pennant stands at its normal position and does the “normal crossing” (zhengchuan 正穿). When the three he characters are chanted, they exit the altar and circumambulate as before. They wait until the tiandi dingwei scripture is again recited, after which they enter the altar and return the dui and gen pennants. They take hold of the two zhen and xun pennants, stand at the northeast and southwest corners, and make their exchanges. The kan pennant [again] does the “normal crossing.” When the he characters are chanted, they circumambulate the altar and return the pennants to their vases. They exit the altar, perform prostrations, and return [to their positions]. Daoist priests again recite the tiandi dingwei scripture, while three Daoist adepts enter the altar and, in the same way as before, they stand at the three qian, kun, and kan positions. They take hold of the willow branches and the water bowls and perform the exchanges and crossings while sprinkling water, in the same way as those who carried the pennants. When the he characters are chanted, they also exit the altar and sprinkle water with the willow branches they carry. They take qian and kun first, they take dui and gen second, and they take zhen and xun third—only kan does not move. They do it again as before. In all they cross and circumambulate three times, when they stop. Together with the previous Daoist priests, they cross and
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circumambulate a total of six times, while the recitation priests chant the tiandi dingwei scripture a total of six times. They all make prostra‐ tions and return to their positions. Buddhist monks chant one section of the Yunlunjing. When they are finished, the Daoist priests again cross the altar as in the preceding ritual. The monks and priests al‐ ternate without stopping.
[Method for Adjusting the Pennants] If it has not yet rained after two days, then on the third day a method is used to adjust the pennants. The four Daoist priests return to the scripture‐chanting positions. They chant the four characters “tiandi yinyun” 天地絪縕 [heaven and earth and the generative powers]29 without stopping, while striking the wooden fish in response. Two Daoist priests approach the worship position, where they perform prostrations. They rise, enter the altar, and take hold of the qian and kun pennants. They perform three exchanges, and then they insert the qian pennant into the kun vase and the kun pennant into the qian vase. Next, they take the dui and gen pennants and perform three ex‐ changes, after which they are each put in the other’s vase. They take the li and kan pennants and then the zhen and xun pennants, perform three exchanges each, place each in the other’s vase just as before, until all the eight trigrams have been moved. They then exit the altar, perform prostrations, and rise. Four Daoist priests sound the bell and drum while chanting the tiandi dingwei scripture text. Three oth‐ ers enter the altar, take the pennants, and perform the exchanges and crossings. The Daoist adepts then take the willows and do the ex‐ changes and crossings—all as in the previous ceremony. If sufficient rain is obtained, then officials and elites should ap‐ proach the altar and perform ritual. After they are finished thanking the gods, the Daoist priests return the pennants. Four of them ap‐ proach the scripture table and recite “tiandi yinyun” while striking the wooden fish as before. Two Daoist priests enter the altar, take the qian and kun pennants, perform three exchanges, and return the pennants to their original vases. [The same is done with the pennants] dui and gen, li and kan, zhen and xun—three exchanges are performed and they are returned to their original vases. The tiandi dingwei scrip‐ ture is again recited once, but the wooden fish is not struck and the
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bell and drum are not sounded. Then two Daoist priests move to the qian and kun positions and perform six exchanges empty‐handed. Dui and gen, li and kan, zhen and xun all perform six exchanges with‐ out any crossings. When the he characters are chanted, they exit the altar, circumambulate three times, go before the spirits, perform prostrations, and rise. Afterward, the altar is dismantled.
[Method for Dismantling the Altar] In the ritual for scattering the altar, all the Daoist priests strike the wooden fish while chanting the eight characters “feng‐tiao‐yu‐shun wu‐fu‐min‐an” 風調雨順物富民安 [with seasonal weather things are in plenty and the people are at peace] without stopping. In succes‐ sion, they enter the altar, and from qian and dui to kan and xun, make three counterclockwise circumambulations [of the inside] of the altar. They then exit the altar, and from kan and xun to dui and qian, they make three clockwise circumambulations [of the outside] of the altar. They once again enter the altar and make three counterclockwise cir‐ cumambulations. All [the circumambulations] are performed unhur‐ riedly. In all, nine circumambulations are made. According to the se‐ quence of qian, dui, li, zhen, xun, kan, gen, kun, [the priests] take the pennants and exit the altar. They approach the spirits and burn [the pennants], and they take away the spirit tablets, vases, tables, bell, drum, brazier, chime—all the implements. The altar performance is complete.
[Praying for Fair Weather] According to these principles, this [method] can also be used to pray for fair weather. However, change [the spirit tablet for] the master of rain to the god of sunlight (riguang zunshen 日光尊神), and [the spirit tablet for] the dragon king to the god of Mars (yinghuo zunshen 熒惑 尊神). Incense is inserted into the vases, and willow branches are not used. When the pennants are unfurled, unfurl li third while sound‐ ing the bell and drum; unfurl kan sixth to silence without striking [the bell or drum]. The text to be chanted [is the same], but the few sentences after “The movement of clouds and the fall of rain . . .” should be changed to “The sun and moon are beautiful in the
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sky, the grains, grasses and trees are beautiful on the earth, the sun and the moon are beautiful in their regularity, and they transform all under heaven.” The he characters are chanted as before. When ex‐ changing the pennants, use the li pennant to perform the horizontal crossings (chuan), and do not move the kan pennant. When the Dao‐ ist adepts enter the altar, they take the incense from inside the qian and kun vases to perform the exchanges; the incense from the li vase is used for the horizontal crossings. After exiting the altar, the in‐ cense is held while circumambulating the altar. When the altar ritual concludes, Buddhist monks chant the Huoche jing 火車經 (Fiery char‐ iot sutra) in sections. If fair weather has not returned in two days, the pennants should be adjusted on the third day, using the li pennant for the exchanges and crossings, but the rest is the same as in pray‐ ing for rain.
Invocation for Praying for Rain 祈雨祝文 The sage‐kings held grain in high esteem, and the virtuous states‐ men made rain when the heavens were hot and dry. Who will call out the smooth words that will bring forth the abundant rains? Dur‐ ing summer, there has been wind as the brand‐new shoots await moisture. We humbly pray and strike stones to bring forth clouds and a deluge of rain. The green paddy embankments will contain the moisture, and the fertile shoots will see themselves renewed. There will be green waves in the fields, and the harvest of grain will be abundant. Deign to accept this offering!
Invocation for Hastening Rain 催雨祝文 The “eight objects of good government” (bazheng 八政) [in the “Hong fan”] begin with “eating.” The ancient emperors enlightened the farmers, when there were ten suns and there was no rain and no grain, virtuous ministers mourned drought. If they were sparing of their favors, or were second‐rate [officials], how could they have be‐ stowed the blessings of moisture? We humbly pray that the clouds from the western suburbs not be idle, but descend on the southern fields. All people rejoice in the fertilizing rains, but [now] their gasps are intolerable. May the wading pigs appear soon (yuxi zaoxian 浴狶 早見).30 Deign to accept this offering!
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Invocation for Thanksgiving for Rain 謝雨祝文 We rely on the soil and the deities’ virtue in harmonizing [the ele‐ ments]. Our longing has been soothed with clouds and rain, and so our thank offerings should also be plentiful. This year’s harvest will be celebrated because rain has fallen like jade and pearls. The people will rejoice in the year because of abundant rice and grain, and musi‐ cal instruments and drums will be sounded. The god of agriculture is wondrous! There is rice in the fields, and farmers celebrate. With sincerity and genuineness, we respectfully respond to the kindness and protection of the deity. Deign to accept this offering!
Invocation for Praying for Fair Weather 祈晴祝文 The sun is obscured by clouds and yin, and at the myriad wells, the depressing rains are lamented. When the sun shines forth with its brightness, the “three farmers” will sing verses about seeing the sunlight. But it is difficult to put an end to the mounting rains. While we should wait for seasonable weather, we humbly conduct this melancholy ritual in order to clear the skies. The sun is about to rise and radiate its brightness downward, like [the spreading branches] of a tree. Xi He 羲和 [the mythical charioteer of the sun] drives the sun [and brings about] a fiery sunrise, so that everybody can take comfort while basking in its radiance. And with full baskets of grain we will sincerely face the sun.
Invocation for Hastening Fair Weather 崔晴祝文 The leak in the heavens is difficult to mend, and we desperately watch wave after wave of attack. The yang stone has been beaten. Perhaps the people’s reverence has not been seen, even though their sacrifices have been abundant, enough to again fill the irrigation ca‐ nals. We humbly pray that the clouds return to Mount Tai 泰岳 and are securely locked away in the cloud vessel (yunnang 雲囊), so the sun can bathe all the pools in sunlight. Behold the early rising sun that makes all things reproduce. We gaze upon the growing sunlight as the six curtains are lifted and not even the smallest clouds are sent to adorn the skies.
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Invocation for Thanksgiving for Fair Weather 謝晴祝文 On the day of sacrifice in the imperial palace, there is only humility as sacrifices are made to the “six honored ones.” The emperor is the source of the dawn, and his countenance illuminates the nine regions. Only when one proceeds by respecting li 離 can the mist that ob‐ scures the sun be eliminated completely, so that there is no miserable wind or bitter rain, as when the difficulty of winter gives way to spring. “When [moisture] feels the sun’s heat, it dissolves” (xian yue xiao 晛曰消) and “when [moisture] feels the sun’s heat, it flows away” (xian yue liu 晛曰流) as [the sun] dwells [in the sky like] a clear mirror.31 With sincerity and genuineness, we respond to the har‐ mony of yang. Deign to accept this offering!
Reference Matter
Notes
For complete author names, titles, and publication data for the works cited here in short form, see the Selected Bibliography, pp. 283–304.
Chapter 1 1. “Rainmaking” is a loose translation of the Chinese term qiuyu 求雨, or “seeking rain.” In this study, it is used to denote the rituals, prayers, or other activities employed as methods to cause rain to fall. Other Chinese terms for the same kinds of activities are qiyu 祈雨 and daoyu 禱雨, “praying for rain,” and xingyu 行雨 or zhiyu 致雨, “bringing rain.” Chinese sources use these terms interchangeably, a practice that I follow here. The terms “official rainmaking” and “state rainmaking” refer to rainmaking activities orga‐ nized or conducted by government officials. 2. Fortune, Three Years’ Wanderings in the Northern Provinces of China, 122. 3. North China Herald, Aug. 16, 1873, 134. 4. Shenbao 3: 94 (July 28, 1873). 5. North China Herald, July 26, 1873, 71. 6. Shenbao 3: 101 (July 30, 1873). 7. Hong was written variously as either 紅 or 虹. 8. Shenbao 3: 113 (Aug. 2, 1873). See also North China Herald, Aug. 9, 1873, 107. 9. Poul Andersen (Pregadio, Encyclopedia of Taoism, 237) explains: “The term bugang refers to [Daoist] ritual walks or dances, which follow the basic cosmic patterns such as the various arrangements of the eight trigrams that are passed through in the sequence of the numbers from 1 to 9 arranged so as to form the so‐called ‘magic square.’ ”
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10. Shenbao 3: 125 (Aug. 6, 1873). 11. During the Ming and Qing dynasties, these faguan traveled through‐ out the Lower Yangzi region performing rituals and ordinations. They be‐ longed to the lineage centered around Longhu Mountain, which by the Qing dynasty was the most common Daoist lineage. See Vincent Goossaert’s com‐ ments in Pregadio, Encyclopedia of Taoism, 702–4. 12. Shenbao 3: 101 (July 30, 1873). 13. Shenbao 3: 125 (Aug. 6, 1873). 14. The twenty‐eight lunar lodges of the zodiac had been a feature of Chinese astronomy since the ancient period. Each of the lodges (xiu 宿) cor‐ responded to a constellation in the night sky. Each lodge was associated with an animal and an element and was used to number the days of the month. See Christopher Cullen’s explanation in Pregadio, Encyclopedia of Taoism, 1115–18. 15. Doolittle (Social Life of the Chinese, 1: 249) described how these ar‐ rangements were usually made: “This class of priests is under the control of a head man, who is a priest himself, but who has been appointed to the office he holds by imperial authority, having a title and a button of rank. The mandarins, if they have occasion for the services of these priests in saving the sun or moon when eclipsed, or in praying for rain in a time of drought, etc., have only to apply to their head man, who has the authority to insure the atten‐ dance of the requisite number at the time and place appointed.” 16. Shenbao 3: 117 (Aug. 4, 1873). 17. Ibid. 18. Shenbao 3: 137 (Aug. 9, 1873). 19. Fortune, Three Years’ Wanderings in the Northern Provinces of China, 255–56. 20. Shenbao 17: 553 (Nov. 16, 1880). 21. Moule, The Chinese People, 68–69. 22. The temple was also known as Yuanmiao Abbey 元妙觀. 23. A jiao is an offering ritual, often lasting many days, through which a community renews its relationship to its tutelary deity. These rites were either performed on a regular basis as a rite of renewal or during times of thanksgiving or crisis. For an early yet still influential study of the jiao, see Lagerwey, Taoist Ritual in Chinese Society and History. 24. An allusion to Zheng Hong 鄭弘 of the Later Han dynasty who was so able an official that rain followed his carriage as he traveled during a drought. Shenbao 17: 553 (Nov. 16, 1880). 25. Xinbao, Dec. 2, 1880, 4. 26. Ibid., Dec. 4, 1880, 3. 27. Ibid., Dec. 6, 1880, 3. 28. Ibid., Dec. 11, 1880, 4; see also ter Haar, Telling Stories, 285.
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29. See Yang Xiaodong, Guangfu, 10–11. 30. See Xinbao, Dec. 8, 1880, 4, and Dec. 14, 1880, 3; Shenbao 17: 677 (Dec. 17, 1880). 31. For Hu Linyi, see ECCP, 1: 333–35. 32. Xinbao, Dec. 15, 1880, 4. 33. Shenbao 17: 685 (Dec. 19, 1880). 34. Xinbao, Dec. 20, 1880, 4. 35. Shenbao 17: 693 (Dec. 21, 1880). 36. Ibid., 41: 403 (July 2, 1892). This is an accurate description of a rain‐ making ritual created in the early nineteenth century by the official and scholar Ji Dakui 紀大奎 (1746–1825). See Chapter 5 below. 37. Shenbao 41: 606 (Aug. 2, 1892) and 41: 612 (Aug. 3, 1892). 38. Qin Gui was a statesman during the Song dynasty responsible for the death of the famous general Yue Fei 岳飛 in 1142. Thus, the term is oſten ap‐ plied to those who have been traitorous. 39. Shenbao 41: 585 (July 30, 1892). 40. Ibid., 41: 612 (Aug. 3, 1892). 41. See North China Herald, July 29, 1892, 160; Shenbao 41: 641 (Aug. 7, 1892). 42. See, e.g., McDermott, State and Court Ritual in China; Rawski, The Last Emperors; R. J. Smith, “Ritual in Ch’ing Culture”; and Zito, Of Body and Brush. 43. There is little secondary scholarship that deals directly with the issue of state rainmaking practices in late imperial China. By far the most comprehen‐ sive English‐language study is Jing Anning’s book on the Water God’s temple in the Guangsheng Monastery in Shanxi province, which describes rainmak‐ ing rituals depicted in the monastery’s Yuan dynasty murals. The scholar Zhou Zhiyuan 周致元 analyzed the religious and political dimensions of state rainmaking during the Ming in a recent article, and Liu Yangdong 劉仰東 wrote an excellent description of the rainmaking in the Qing. In addition, Evelyn Rawski provided a relatively detailed look at the rainmaking prac‐ tices of Qing emperors in a recent book. At least two studies in English ad‐ dress the rainmaking practices of local officials. Kenneth Pomeranz wrote a provocative article on rainmaking rituals carried out by officials and com‐ moners at the Handan 邯鄲 rain shrine in Hebei province. More recently, Donald Sutton penned an excellent study of the rainmaking efforts of local officials during a drought in Yangzhou during the Ming dynasty. 44. Faure, Emperor and Ancestor, 13. 45. See, e.g., Watson, “Standardizing the Gods”; idem, “Rites or Beliefs?”; see also Chapter 7. 46. Ch’ü T’ung‐tsu, Local Government Under the Ch’ing; Watt, The District Magistrate in Late Imperial China; Nimick, “The County, the Magistrate, and the Yamen in Late Ming China.”
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47. I have employed the term “magician” primarily for alliterative pur‐ poses: the phrase “mourner, martyr, and occultist” simply does not have the same ring. Since, however, there are problems with the term “magic,” I try to avoid it. Throughout this study, I employ the term “occult technologies” to refer to those practical methods used to cause rain to fall that were eso‐ teric or beyond normal understanding. Although this term is not indigenous to China, the category of behavior it describes does map rather neatly on to a wide range of practices that were commonly grouped together under the heading of rainmaking “methods” ( fa 法) in Chinese sources. On the check‐ ered history of the term “magic,” see Styers, Making Magic.
Chapter 2 1. The descriptions of famine given here are found in Report of the Com‐ mittee of the China Famine Relief Fund, 1–37. For other vivid descriptions, see Bohr, Famine in China and the Missionary; Edgerton‐Tarpley, Tears from Iron: Cultural Responses to Famine in Nineteenth Century China; and P. Cohen, His‐ tory in Three Keys, 69–89. 2. Wing‐tsit Chan, Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, 92. 3. Ibid., 65. This particular passage immediately precedes Mengzi’s fa‐ mous example of a child about to fall into a well, which he used as evidence that human nature is good. This suggests that Mengzi considered respond‐ ing to suffering to be a natural human reaction. For a more complete discus‐ sion of this particular “thought experiment,” see Ivanhoe, Confucian Moral Self Cultivation, 23–34. 4. Although ai 愛 is often translated “love,” a more precise rendering would actually be “caring.” 5. Wuertong’a, Juguan rixing lu, 2.11a. Unless otherwise noted, all transla‐ tions are by me. 6. The term yunhan refers to the Milky Way, a cloudy band of stars that was thought to be a heavenly reflection of the earthly Han River; see Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, The She King, note on the first stanza. 7. Hou Ji, the god of millet, was a patron god of agriculture and the mythical founder of the Zhou people. For a detailed description of the my‐ thology surrounding Hou Ji, as well as a translation of an ode in the Shijing that records the founding of the Zhou people, see Birrell, Chinese Mythology, 54–58. 8. Shangdi is often translated “High God” or “Most High” and refers to an important deity that became closely identified with universal kingship, and later emperorship, in early China; see Schwartz, The World of Thought in Ancient China, 20–40.
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9. For a different translation of this poem, see Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, The She King, 528–34; see also the translation in Karlgren, The Book of Odes. 10. As Robert Sharf (Coming to Terms with Chinese Buddhism, 79) explains, “Joseph Needham seems to have been the first to employ the metaphor of the ‘organism’ to capture the holistic Chinese view of a single, interdepen‐ dent universe, and the ‘organismic’ model has been widely accepted and employed by Western sinologists ever since. In order to bring Chinese cos‐ mology into better focus, Needham drew a sharp contrast between the Chi‐ nese vision of organic unity and Western conceptions of invariant ‘laws of nature’: ‘The Chinese world‐view depended upon a totally different line of thought [than that of the West]. The harmonious cooperation of all being arose, not from the orders of a superior authority external to themselves, but from the fact that they were all parts in a hierarchy of wholes forming a cosmic pattern, and what they obeyed were the internal dictates of their own natures.’ The organismic view entails the notion that localized phenomena affect the state of the whole, and the state of the whole is reflected in local phenomena.” See also Needham, “Human Laws and Laws of Nature in China and the West,” 230. 11. Weller and Bol, “From Heaven‐and‐Earth to Nature,” 314. It should be noted that the concept of ganying is quite old, although the term itself was first used by Xunzi. I am indebted to P. J. Ivanhoe for pointing this out. 12. Sharf, Coming to Terms with Chinese Buddhism, 88. 13. This term was coined by Mark Elvin in his article “Who Was Respon‐ sible for the Weather?” 14. Most Chinese commentators speak as if both were true, and Benjamin Schwartz (World of Thought in Ancient China, 372) offers an interesting ex‐ planation as to how such an interpretation is possible: “All ‘organismic’ thinking in China remains quite capable of incorporating [the manifold nu‐ minous spirits and deities present in nature]. Built into the system, in fact, is the notion that the indwelling spirits of mountains and rivers and the ances‐ tral spirits must continue to be the recipients of ritual honors which are their due. Indeed, if they do not receive proper ritual attention, this may again disorder the harmony of the entire system. The performance of the proper sacrifice to a mountain spirit may be simultaneously regarded as ‘an act of religious piety’ toward the spirit or as a ‘magical’ act designed to maintain the geomantic harmony of the spatial world.” 15. Legge, The She King, note to line 7, 529. 16. All these stories can be found in Birrell, Chinese Mythology, 72–73, 77– 78, 82–83. 17. Lüshi chunqiu, “Shun min” 順民, 9.3b–4a.
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Notes to Pages 35–39
18. A passage from the Huainanzi 淮南子 as translated in Birrell, Chinese Mythology, 86. 19. From Qian Qi, Daoyu zaji, 1. The “six matters” are discussed in the next chapter. 20. See Schafer, “Ritual Exposure in Ancient China.” 21. Liu Zhixiong and Yang Jingrong, Long yu Zhongguo wenhua, 245. 22. For a detailed discussion of the history and meaning of burning fe‐ male mediums, see ibid., 245–46. 23. Schafer (“Ritual Exposure in Ancient China,” 161) includes the follow‐ ing quotation from Granet: “Witches have a virtue which renders them powerful. Their power lies in the fact of their being emaciated or quite dried up. Now, it happens that two of the founders of royal dynasties, Tang the Victorious and Yu the Great, are represented in history as dried‐up beings. Both inaugurated their reigns by sacrificing themselves for the good of their people, the one to put an end to drought, the other to stop a flood.” 24. Mediumship and sorcery in China are often referred to as the “Yu walk” or the “pace of Yu” (Yu bu 禹步), which identifies the lameness of Yu the Great with shamanic powers more generally. See Andersen, “The Prac‐ tice of Bugang.” See also Schafer, “Ritual Exposure in Ancient China,” 161; and Julius N. Tsai, “The Transformations of Myths Concerning Yu the Great into Daoist Narrative and Ritual.” 25. Birrell, Chinese Mythology, 87. 26. Hou Han shu 後漢書, 111.11a. 27. Ibid., 7b; the stories of Liang Fu and Dai Feng can also be found else‐ where, such as the “Praying for Rain” section of the Taiping yulan, 11.3a–b. 28. See Chapter 3 below. 29. The issue of self‐immolation in Buddhism and to a lesser extent Dao‐ ism and indigenous Chinese traditions is addressed in J. A. Benn, “Burning the Buddha.” Benn claims that Buddhist self‐immolation was an apocryphal practice that mimicked some of these earlier indigenous examples. By the Song, however, there is reason to believe that the tradition of self‐ immolation was so deeply entrenched in Buddhist, Daoist, and official tradi‐ tions that it can properly be considered a universal Chinese practice. 30. Zhan Yinxin, Shenling yu jisi, 356–57. 31. Hou Han shu, 5.1a; translation from Loewe, “Cult of the Dragon and the Invocation for Rain,” 200. 32. Schafer (“Ritual Exposure in Ancient China,” 133) says that the char‐ acter yong “is defined in [Xu Xuan’s] 徐鉉 Shuo wen [說文] as an exorcistic ceremony against various natural calamities, including drought.” 33. Liu Zhixiong and Yang Jingrong, Long yu Zhongguo wenhua, 247. 34. Wing‐tsit Chan, Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, 271–73.
Notes to Pages 39–42
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35. There has been some speculation as to whether Dong actually wrote this text or whether it was compiled several centuries after his death. Even if the text is not authentic, it appears that it had been published and was circu‐ lating fairly widely by the end of the Later Han dynasty. For purposes of this study, I will proceed as if he is the author. See Loewe, “Cult of the Dragon and the Invocation for Rain,” 196. 36. For the most accessible overview of Dong’s cosmological thought, see Fung Yu‐lan, A Short History of Chinese Philosophy, 193–95. 37. There were also formulations for how the five agents “overcome” (sheng 勝) and “complete” (cheng 成) one another. 38. For a lengthy and detailed discussion of these correlations, see Gra‐ ham, Yin‐Yang and the Nature of Correlative Thinking, 1–70. 39. The importance of numerical categories are reiterated by Dong, as can be seen in chap. 56 of the Chunqiu fanlu. See Wing‐tsit Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, 280–82; a helpful encyclopedic guide to numerological is‐ sues, especially as they relate to the Book of Changes (Yijing 易經), is Nielsen, A Companion to Yi jing Numerology and Cosmology. Nielsen includes pictures and explanations of the magic square. 40. For a full translation of Dong’s ritual, see Appendix A. For glosses of the terms used in this passage and identifications of the gods mentioned here, see notes 1–8 to Appendix A, pp. 276–77 below. 41. It should be noted that Dong’s ritual is similar to another early rain‐ making ritual, called the Divine Farmer’s Book of Praying for Rain (Shennong qiuyu shu 神農求雨書). The method appears in the Yiwen leiju, but it is likely much older. The similarities between the two texts are remarkable. The full text has been translated by Robert Hendricks (“Fire and Rain,” 102): “In the Spring and Summer, if there’s a rain day and it doesn’t rain, if it’s a jia or yi 甲乙 day order the making of blue dragons; also, put fire dragons in the eastern direction and have young lads dance in front of them. If it’s a bing or ding 丙丁 day and it doesn’t rain, order the making of red dragons in the southern direction, and have young adult men dance in front of them. If it’s a wu or ji 戊己 day and it doesn’t rain, order the making of yellow dragons, and have young adult men dance in front of them. If it’s a geng or xin 庚辛 day and it doesn’t rain, order the making of white dragons; also put fire dragons in the western direction, and have old men dance in front of them. If it’s a ren or gui 壬癸 day and it doesn’t rain, order the making of black dragons in the northern direction, and have old men dance in front of them. If you’ve done all this and it still doesn’t rain, then stay inside, then order mediums to invoke their gods and expose them (曝之). If you’ve exposed them, and it still doesn’t rain, then pile up firewood on a sacred mountain, beat on the drums (擊鼓), and burn them (焚之).”
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Notes to Pages 43–49
42. For an interesting article on this subject, see Zhu Xuezhong, “Dong Zhongshu de kaiyang qiuyu yu nüxing xiuyu de renleixue jingyan.” 43. These debates are covered in Wanyan Shaoyuan, Zhongguo fengsu zhi mi, 552. 44. Liu Zhixiong and Yang Jingrong, Long yu Zhongguo wenhua, 247. 45. Marshall, The Mandate of Heaven, 141–42. 46. See Loewe, “Cult of the Dragon and the Invocation for Rain,” 199. 47. Liu Zhixiong and Yang Jingrong, Long yu Zhongguo wenhua, 252. An account from the sixth century includes a description of one particularly marvelous method: “Specialists from the western regions who are capable of uttering spells and incantations stand at the side of a deep pool and perform the Steps of Yu (Yu bu). As soon as they breathe out, a dragon emerges, float‐ ing on the water, measuring several tens of feet in length. When the special‐ ist breathes out again, the dragon promptly shrinks to a few inches, and it is then collected and placed inside a vessel. There may be as many as four or five and they are fed with water, sparingly. When there is news of an area that is afflicted by drought, the dragons are taken there to be sold, and a sin‐ gle one may fetch some tens of units of gold. When the vessel is opened, a dragon is let loose into a pool. The specialist performs the Steps of Yu once more; as he breathes out, a dragon measuring several tens of feet in length emerges, and shortly the rain clouds rise up from all directions” (Qian Qi, Daoyu zaji, 8; translation from Loewe, “Cult of the Dragon and the Invoca‐ tion for Rain,” 203). 48. The practice of throwing “dragon slips” into pools can be traced to early Chinese history and played a prominent role in imperial rituals in the Tang and Song dynasties. For more information, see Chavannes, “Le Jet des dragons.” 49. Taiping yulan, 11.3a–7a. 50. Qian Qi, Daoyu zaji, 1–14. 51. Shils, Tradition, 12. 52. The two hundred examples cover all cases of self‐immolation, not just those associated with rainmaking. 53. See Schatzki, Social Practices, 89. 54. On the issue of coherence, see Sewell, “The Concept(s) of Culture,” 48–52.
Chapter 3 1. In one of the more recent examples, the president of Taiwan, Chen Shuibian 陳水扁, offered prayers for rain during a protracted drought in spring 2002. Rainmaking activities had previously been conducted by lower‐
Notes to Pages 50–56
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level officials, including the magistrate of Miaoli county (People’s Daily, May 9, 2002; and Taipei Times, Mar. 5, 2002). 2. See Hucker, The Traditional Chinese State in Ming Times, 67–68. 3. R. J. Smith, “Ritual in Ch’ing Culture,” 284–85. 4. These sacrifices were held in every administrative city, except for those to the emperors of previous dynasties and to nature deities. The latter were included in the sacrifices made at the altars for celestial and terrestrial spirits; see ibid.; see also Qinding daqing huidian shili, 357.35a–36a. 5. The Register of Sacrifices was simply a running catalog of deities identi‐ fied as deserving special honors. This typically included “enfeoffment” ( feng 封) by the state when a deity was entered into the register and the conferral of additional honors for meritorious service on a deity already in the register. The Huidian shili usually lists the name of the deity, when and where it was to be worshiped, and in some cases with what kinds of offerings. It also notes any special instructions, such as whether the prayer text to be read during worship was to be written by the Hanlin academy, as was sometimes the case. The Huidian shili also includes important documents, such as copies of memo‐ rials from local officials when a deity was entered into the register, although the Wenxian tongkao seems to be more complete in this regard. 6. Naquin, Peking, 69. 7. These are the three elements that distinguish the yu, according to Xiang Bosong, Zhongguo shui chongbai, 222–23. 8. Daqing huidian shili, 338.1a–1b. 9. Ibid., 4b. 10. Ibid., 6a. 11. Ibid., 9a. 12. Rawski, The Last Emperors, 227. 13. This is an interesting addition by the Qianlong emperor, perhaps an effort to put his personal imprimatur on the yu sacrifice. The eight stanzas of the new poem are unlike those of the original “Yunhan” and do not contain important lines such as “there is no spirit I have not honored, there is no sac‐ rifice I have withheld.” The new yu regulations issued in 1742 required that Qianlong’s version of the “Yunhan” be used in the regular sacrifice, but there is little evidence to suggest that it was. In all the discussions of the “Yunhan” in the many rainmaking texts (see below), Qianlong’s version of the poem is never mentioned. 14. Susan Naquin (Peking, 329–30) says: “Seven new Dragon‐god temples were added to the rites—a consequence of the intensified management of the waterway system around Peking and the construction of the suburban villas: at Black‐Dragon Pool (Heilongtan, added in 1738), Jade Spring Hill (1751), Kunming Lake (1812), White‐Dragon Pool (1813), and two others within the villas (1817). These became important sites for prayers for rain.”
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Notes to Pages 57–65
15. For a brief history of the shrine, see Pomeranz, “Water to Iron, Wid‐ ows to Warlords.” 16. For an example of a similar practice that dates to the Song, see Cha‐ vannes, “Le Jet des dragons.” 17. See C. Benn, The Cavern‐Mystery Transmission, 69–71. 18. Andersen, The Demon Chained Under Turtle Mountain, 71–75. 19. A. H. Smith, Village Life in China, 170. 20. Williams, “Agricultural Rites in the Religion of Old China,” 47. 21. Rawski, The Last Emperors, 224. 22. Ibid., 225. 23. Daqing huidian shili, 338.12a. 24. Xu Yisheng, “Qing li yu tan shu” 請立雩壇疏 (A statement requesting the establishment of the yu altar), Huangchao jingshi wenbian, j. 55, “Lizheng” 禮政 (Ritual administration), 2.8a–9b. 25. Sutton, “Prefect Feng and the Yangzhou Drought of 1490,” 40. 26. Rawski, The Last Emperors, 264. 27. The text is currently held in the National Library, Beijing, rare books collection, document number 0508. 28. Xu Ke, Qingbai leichao, 17.43. 29. Ibid., 74.26. 30. The Xiuzhen shishu was a sixty‐volume Daoist compendium, which features a large collection of inner alchemy writings. It was compiled some time in the late thirteenth or early fourteenth century and was closely asso‐ ciated with Bo Yuchan and his followers. A copy of this incantation can be found in juan 42. See Lowell Skar’s explanation in Pregadio, Encyclopedia of Taoism, 1118–19. 31. Small jade tablets just like the one described can still be seen on exhi‐ bition in the Forbidden City in Beijing. 32. Xu Ke, Qingbai leichao, 17.45. 33. Rawski, The Last Emperors, 266. 34. Ibid., 264. 35. The altar to wind and clouds, thunder and rain, mountains and rivers, walls and moats ( fengyun leiyu shanchuan chenghuang 風雲雷雨山川城隍) was renamed the “altar to celestial and terrestrial spirits” in 1811. 36. The altar to the God of Agriculture was added to the suburban sacri‐ fices in 1726 (Romeyn Taylor, “Official Altars, Temples, and Shrines”). 37. Sacrifices were made at all the suburban altars. Biannual sacrifices were made at the altar of grain and soil on the middle wu 戊 day of the sec‐ ond and eighth months, at the altar to celestial and terrestrial spirits on the first wu day during the same months, and at the altar to the God of Agricul‐ ture on the middle hai 亥 day of the second month. Regular prayers for rain were also made on the first xing 幸 day of the fifth month; irregular prayers
Notes to Pages 65–68
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could be made at the altars either to soil and grain or to the God of Agricul‐ ture as needed. Ritual implements differed according to the kind of sacrifice, as did liturgies. Many local gazetteers provide these kinds of details in the chapters that deal with ritual; see, e.g., Rugao xianzhi, j. 10. 38. The God of Literature, God of War, and the city god occasionally had more than one temple dedicated to their honor. According to C. K. Yang (Re‐ ligion in Chinese Society, 440, 445), Qinghe county, Hebei province, had forty‐ two temples dedicated to Guandi, and Baoshan county, Jiangsu, had ten city god temples. 39. Shryock, “The Temples of Anking and Their Cults,” 98–99. 40. Huang Liuhong, A Complete Book Concerning Happiness and Benevolence, 512. 41. One essay on Qing statecraft explains: “If there is ever a drought, and they are reduced in their extremity to making prostrations and supplications, it will happen only before the city god. If there are ever exhibitions for wel‐ coming the spirits, or alms given by the people after a great terror, it will happen only before the city god. In those cases where there are complaints filed, cases lodged, illness or death, reprimands by the underworld, or crimes confessed before the law (lifa shuzui 麗法輸罪), there is nobody who does not rush off to the city god. Marvel at the majesty of his temple, the splendor of his ceremonial dress, and the richness of his offerings. Through‐ out the year, whether cloudy or clear, morning or night, there is always a ca‐ cophony of incantation [at the city god temple] and almost never an idle day. When compared to the “spring prayers and autumn thanks” or solitary shrines that have only tenuous associations (geci xi si 割祠繫絲) and use sac‐ rificial animals instead of drums, it is ten or one hundred times busier” (Qin Huitian 秦蕙田, “Chenghuang kao” 城隍考 [Study of the City God temple], Jingshi wenbian, 55.14b–15a). See also C. K. Yang, Religion in Chinese Society, 157, 177; and Shryock, “The Temples of Anking and Their Cults,” 110–11. 42. Daqing huidian, 36.2a. 43. For a general discussion, see Romeyn Taylor, “Official Altars, Tem‐ ples, and Shrines,” 96–97. 44. For a thorough treatment of these shrines in the Song dynasty, see Ellen Neskar, “The Cult of Worthies: A Study of Shrines Honoring Local Confucian Worthies in the Sung Dynasty (960–1279)” (Ph.D. diss., Columbia University, 1993). 45. Baoshan xian xuzhi 寶山縣續志 (1921), 3.19. 46. Qingchao xu wenxian tongkao, 158.9127–28. 47. See Daqing huidian shili, 357.35a–36a. 48. Ming practices are distinguished here from those in the Song, when the court did issue edicts specifying rituals to be performed to the dragon god and even provided officials with a manual entitled Prayers for Rain and
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Notes to Pages 69–82
Snow, which is no longer extant (Sutton, “Prefect Feng and the Yangzhou Drought of 1490,” 20). 49. Rowe, Saving the World, 139. 50. Chang Hao as quoted in ibid., 139. 51. Wang Gai was a contemporary of the Renaissance man Li Yu 李漁 (1611–80), and along with his brothers Wang Shi 王蓍 and Wang Bai 王臬, he made a name for himself as a poet and landscape artist. For information on his relationship with Li Yu, see ECCP, 1: 497. 52. Wang Gai 王槩, “Yu shuo” 雩說 (Explanation of the yu sacrifice), Huangchao jingshi wenbian, j. 45, “Huangzheng” 荒政 (Famine administra‐ tion), 5.11b–12b. 53. A line from the preface of the “Yunhan.” 54. Ye Yuren 葉裕仁, “Shang Wang Xiaolian Fangbo lun dong cao zhe jia shu” 上 王 曉 蓮 方 伯 論 冬 漕 折 價 書 (Letter to Provincial Treasurer Wang Xiaolian discussing lowering prices on winter grain transport), in Sheng Kang 盛康, ed., Huangchao jingshi wenxubian, j. 317, “Fuyi” 賦役 (Taxes and levies), 4.71a. 55. Rowe, Saving the World, 139. 56. Daqing Huidian shili, 338.9b. 57. P. Cohen, History in Three Keys, 74. 58. Han Mengzhou 韓夢周, “Qiyu wen” 祈雨文 (Rain prayer), Huangchao jingshi wenbian, j. 45, “Huangzheng” 荒政 (Famine administration), 5.13a. 59. Yu Zhengxie was a distinguished official and scholar from Anhui province who was involved in the compilation of the 1818 edition of the Daqing huidian. His writings touch on a wide range of subjects, and he is es‐ pecially known for his liberal ideas about women. See ECCP, 2: 936. 60. This is an interesting pun made by Yu. The original text says that peo‐ ple considered Liang’s action to be of “utmost sincerity” (zhicheng 至誠) not “aspiring to sincerity” (zhicheng), as Yu relates it. 61. Yu Zhengxie 俞正燮, “Qiuyu shuo” 求雨說, Huangchao jingshi wenxu‐ bian, j. 46, “Huangzheng” 荒政 (Famine administration), 26a–27b. 62. Yu was not the first person to criticize this practice. The Ming author Fang Peng 方鵬 (“Dai Feng daoyu zifen”) criticized Dai Feng for actually carrying out his threat and committing suicide. When King Tang had made himself a sacrifice, he had “only undertaken a self‐accounting” and the re‐ sult was that he was spared. Dai had actually gone through with the practice, which Fang considered to be unfilial. 63. Zhang Pengfei 張鵬飛, “Xiu Guanzhong shuili yi” 修關中水利議 (Views on repairing the water conservancy of the Shaanxi plain), Huangchao jingshi wenxubian, j. 118, “Shuili” 水利 (Water conservancy), 2.16b. 64. See Kutcher, Mourning in Late Imperial China, esp. chap. 4.
Notes to Pages 84–91
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Chapter 4 1. Pomeranz, “Water to Iron, Widows to Warlords,” 73, 73, 65. 2. Wang Chong as cited in Taiping yulan, 11.2. 3. Tao Siyan, “Qiyu saoqing zhitan,” 246. 4. Huang Zifa, Xiangyu shu, 35.9b–10a. 5. Shenbao 41: 642 (Aug. 7, 1892). 6. Ibid., 3: 113 (Aug. 2, 1873). 7. Fang Shiduo, Dianshizhai huabao, 2: 391–92. 8. Shenbao 17: 661 (Dec. 13, 1880). 9. Ye Xiaoqing, The Dianshizhai Pictorial, 205. Ye notes that residents of Beijing continued to celebrate agricultural festivals, which suggests that these practices differed by location. 10. Shenbao 17: 641 (Dec. 8, 1880). 11. Liu Zizhong, Zeng Guofan quanji, 3.941–42. 12. Elvin, “Who Was Responsible for the Weather?,” 228. 13. Quoted in ibid., 230. 14. Ibid., 226. 15. Ibid., 216. 16. North China Herald, Mar. 5, 1853. 17. For a complete description, see Paper, The Spirits Are Drunk, 31–33. 18. Freeman, “Sung,” 163. 19. Shenbao 17: 661 (Dec. 13, 1880). 20. Ibid., 3: 94 (July 28, 1873). 21. It not clear whether distinctions among Buddhist, Daoist, or Confu‐ cian fasting traditions were ever made during community fasts during times of crisis, but such distinctions appear to have been lost by the late imperial period. 22. According to the Surangama Sutra, “Eating these five alliaceous vege‐ tables cooked will stimulate sexual desire and eating them raw will generate anger. Those who eat these vegetables, even though they may be able to re‐ cite all the sutras, will be disgusting to all heavenly beings and immortals of all directions because of their offensive smell and will be shunned by them. The hungry ghosts will lick their lips and therefore they will always remain with those ghosts” (Yifa, Origins of Buddhist Monastic Codes in China, 55–56). 23. Stuart, Chinese Materia Medica, 28. 24. They also avoided the “three detestables” (sanyan 三厭), which in‐ cluded the “heavenly detestable,” wild goose; the “earthly detestable,” dog; and the “aquatic detestables,” carp, eel, and freshwater turtle. They were also prohibited from consuming the flesh of animals associated with their astrological sign, as well as the signs of their parents, “in order to thank
266
Notes to Pages 92–98
one’s parents for the kindness they showed in raising them” (Cai Lanrong, “Tan Zhongguo de zongjiao yinshi jinji,” 2). 25. See Li Wen, “Qingdi de zhaijie yu jisi,” 42. 26. Not all people were equally enthusiastic about following the prohibi‐ tions, and occasionally the fasts and prohibitions created conflict in the community. See Chapter 6 below. 27. Wilson, “Sacrifice and the Imperial Cult of Confucius.” 28. Li Wen, “Qingdi de zhaijie yu jisi,” 42. 29. Wilson, “Sacrifice and the Imperial Cult of Confucius,” 276. 30. Wuertong’a, Juguan rixing lu, 5.9a–b. A virtually identical passage can be found in Huang Liuhong’s administrative handbook, A Complete Book Concerning Happiness and Benevolence (516). Huang says an official should “control his thoughts and fast and pray as a manifestation of his sincerity” and “purify his thoughts and actions.” Similarly, his family “should abstain from eating meat and drinking wine to assist the chief offerer in repenting of his sins.” 31. For a complete discussion of Confucian self‐watchfulness, see Tu Wei‐ ming, Centrality and Commonality, esp. 26–27, 108–9. 32. Shenbao 3: 117 (Aug. 4, 1873). 33. Ibid., 3: 94 (July 28, 1873). 34. Thomas Wilson (“Sacrifice and the Imperial Cult of Confucius,” 280) has commented on these similarities: “The function of the separation of the victim from the rest of the herd and the lengthy period of cleansing in a spe‐ cial pen is not explained in the ritual manuals. The cleansing of victims and bathing of sacrificers prior to the ceremony suggest a parallel that may be conducive to semiotic analysis, although I refrain from doing so, but at the very least these acts imply a purification through reverence in the act of bathing.” Although Wilson is hesitant to push this connection further, it is clear from the administrative manuals cited above that officials and observ‐ ers interpreted these acts in precisely this manner, as a purification process. The similarities to King Tang are especially striking. 35. Gaoyou zhouzhi 高郵州志, j. 6, quoted in Tao Siyan, “Qiyu saoqing zhi‐ tan,” 243; Lianjiang xianzhi 連江縣志 (1933 ed.) in Zhongguo difangzhi minsu ziliao huibian, lower volume on eastern China 華東卷下, 1208. 36. Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, 2: 120–21. 37. Shryock, The Temples of Anking and Their Cults, 120. 38. Shenbao 17: 601 (Nov. 28, 1880). 39. Xinbao, Nov. 24, 1880, 4. 40. Ibid. 41. Shenbao 17: 605 (Nov. 29, 1880). 42. Ibid., 17: 621 (Dec. 3, 1880). 43. Ibid., 17: 625 (Dec. 4, 1880).
Notes to Pages 98–104
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44. Bredon and Mithrophanow, The Moon Year, 343. 45. Ye Xiaoqing (The Dianshizhai Pictorial, 191) describes a city god pro‐ cession in Shanghai in the late nineteenth century: “The procession, the main event in the ceremony, followed. By seven o’clock, the participants would form into groups, such as artisans, carpenters, butchers, yamen runners, lo‐ cal constables, and so on. They wore costumes related to their trades—for example, butchers dressed as executioners. Some of the participants in the procession were costumed as criminals, with red clothes and white trousers, with handcuffs and fetters or wearing the wooden collar, or carrying a long wooden strip on their backs indicating that they were to be beheaded. Male criminals walked; children were carried on shoulders, while women were carried in uncovered sedan chairs.” 46. Edkins, Chinese Buddhism, 271. 47. Eberhard, Folktales of China, 114. 48. For an excellent overview of this practice, see Kieschnick, “Blood Writing in Chinese Buddhism.” 49. For both stories, see Shenbao 9: 77 (July 24, 1876). 50. Xu Ke, Qingbai leichao, 74.27–28. 51. Shenbao 3: 101 (July 30, 1873). 52. Cao Xian and Jia Zhijun, comps., Fenxi xianzhi (Fenxi county gazetteer), 1881, 4.13b–15a; cited in Andrea Janku’s paper “Integrating the Body Politic.” 53. Zhou Zhiyuan, “Mingdai junchen daoyu de zongjiao chanshi,” 24. 54. Fang Shiduo, Dianshizhai huabao, 6: 1048. There may be a wordplay present in the first story, since the character shi can also refer to the Sanskrit term dāna, or “charity,” which was considered to be one of the six Mahāyāna Buddhist pāramitā, or perfections. Since the giving of one’s life was consid‐ ered to be the highest form of charity, it could be that this story was either fabricated or generalized. I am indebted to Bob Sharf for bringing this point to my attention. For more information, see Ohnuma, “The Gift of the Body and the Gift of the Dharma.” 55. Cai Erkang, Dianshizhai huabao, 竹二 (1892), 91. 56. There are actually two different pictures that depict Chen’s sacrifice. The first is from the Dianshizhai Pictorial; the second is from the artist Wu Youru’s collected works (see ibid.; and Wu Youru, Wu Youru huabao, 15: 19). 57. Liu Dapeng, Jinci zhi, 1075. 58. Ibid., 1076. The letter cited in the article was written on June 17, 1906. 59. Qian Qi, Daoyu zaji, 12. 60. Tanzheshan xiuyun si zhi, 1.74a. 61. The poem refers to rainmaking activities that took place at a mountain, Yunlong 雲龍, in Xuzhou 徐州, where Su was stationed as an official. Most of the poem is spent discussing the drought and the powers of the dragon
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Notes to Pages 104–10
said to reside at the mountain. The character xing refers to a Tang dynasty poetic form. I am indebted to Grace Shen for clarifying these points. 62. Qingliang daoren, Tingyu xuan biji, 4: 90. 63. Chu Renhuo, Jianhu ji, 1.4b. 64. Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, 119. 65. Xinjing beicheng 新京备乘 as quoted in Zhongguo difangzhi minsu ziliao huibian, upper volume on eastern China 華東卷上, 352. 66. Cai Erkang, Dianshizhai huabao, 戊四 (1885), 26. 67. Quoted in Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, 119. 68. Dinghai xianzhi 定海縣志 (1924 ed.) as quoted in Zhongguo difangzhi minsu ziliao huibian, middle volume on eastern China 華東卷中, 817. 69. Bredon and Mithrophanow, The Moon Year, 348–49; see also A. H. Smith, Chinese Characteristics, 297; and idem, Village Life in China, 169. 70. Doré, Researches into Chinese Superstitions, 5: 690. 71. Sui’an xianzhi 遂安縣志 (1930 ed.) as quoted in Zhongguo difangzhi minsu ziliao huibian, upper volume on eastern China 華東卷上, 634. 72. Yuan Li, “Huabei diqu qiyu huodong zhong qushui yishi yanjiu,” 97. 73. Shenbao 12: 470 (Apr. 11, 1878). 74. Ibid., 17: 621 (Dec. 3, 1880). 75. Ibid., 17: 673 (Dec. 16, 1880). 76. See ECCP, 1: 329. 77. Wang Youpu, Chunqiu fanlu, 5b. 78. Xu Wenbi, “Qi qingyu fa” 祈晴雨法 (Methods of praying for fair weather and rain), Huangchao jingshi wenbian, j. 45, “Huangzheng” 荒政 (Fam‐ ine administration), 20.12b. 79. Zhang Pengfei 張鵬飛, “Xiu Guanzhong shuili yi” 修關中水利議 (Views on repairing the water conservancy of the Shaanxi plain), Huangchao jingshi wenxubian, j. 118, “Shuili” 水利 (Water conservancy), 2.16b. 80. Xu Ke, Qingbai leichao, 17.43–44. 81. Han shu, j. 56, “Dong Zhongshu,” zhuan 26, 2525. 82. Two representative examples of this can be found during the 1880 Jiangnan drought. In both Wuhan and Yangzhou, the southern gate to the city was shut for a few days. As it was explained in Shenbao 17: 545 (Nov. 14, 1880) and 17: 605 (Nov. 29, 1880): “Because the heat of the day is directed against the southern exposure, temporarily shutting the south gate can raise the yin force.” 83. Xu Ke, Qingbai leichao, 58.25. 84. Quoted in Schafer, “Ritual Exposure in Ancient China,” 163. 85. Ibid., 166. 86. Yuan Li, “Huabei diqu qiyu huodong zhong hanba yu zhan hanba yi‐ shi,” 117. 87. Barend ter Haar, Telling Stories, 282–98.
Notes to Pages 110–22
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88. Ibid., 288, 296. 89. The shangyang 商羊 was a mythical, bird‐like creature whose presence was thought to accompany rain. For a list of other four‐character phrases commonly used during rainmaking activities, see Doolittle, A Vocabulary and Hand‐Book of the Chinese Language, 664. 90. Mu‐chou Poo, In Search of Personal Welfare, 116–17. 91. See Visser, The Dragon in China and Japan, 120. 92. Zito, “City Gods, Filiality and Hegemony in Late Imperial China,” 341. 93. See, e.g., Ping‐chen Hsiung, A Tender Voyage, 107–10, 128–45. 94. Doolittle, Social Life of the Chinese, 2: 121. 95. The de‐ling dialectic does as much of a disservice to popular religion as it does to official rainmaking. In the same way that official rain prayers were often strenuous and passionate, popular religion was often solemn and operated according to principles of virtue and sincerity. In the case of rain‐ making, I was particularly struck by a photograph (Bredon and Mithro‐ phanow, The Moon Year, 342), likely dating from the early twentieth century, which shows a handful of peasants kneeling in front of a quiet pool while praying for rain. The scene appears quite peaceful and demonstrates that popular practices could also be solemn affairs. Similarly, although concepts such as “sincerity” are often associated with official rainmaking, it figured no less prominently in popular rain prayers; see Pomeranz, “Water to Iron, Widows to Warlords,” 72. 96. See Shahar, Crazy Ji, 43. 97. See Chapter 2, note 15 above.
Chapter 5 1. Shenbao, July 19, 1876. 2. Cai Erkang, Dianshizhai huabao, 戊四 (1885), 26. 3. Qingshi liezhuan 清史列傳, “Xunli zhuan” 循例傳 (Biographies of model officials), j. 2, 75.40b. 4. Hechuan xianzhi, 38.25–26. 5. In the eyes of many contemporaries, these two schools of thought— those of Cheng‐Zhu and Shao Yong—were probably difficult to reconcile. Shao Yong was a well‐respected thinker, but one whose own intellectual standing was ambiguous. Not only was Shao educated by a Daoist, some‐ thing that sullied his pedigree as a Confucian scholar, but he was also criti‐ cized for spending too much of his time discussing cosmology, rather than social or moral issues. As a result, many writers did not include Shao in the orthodox Neo‐Confucian line of transmission. See Wing‐tsit Chan, A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy, 482–83.
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Notes to Pages 124–30
6. For a longer biography of Fu and his influence on Qing Daoism, see Esposito, “Daoism in the Qing,” 634. 7. Quoted in Qing Xitai, Zhongguo daojiao, electronic edition, http://www. tianyabook.com/zongjiao/cndaojiao1/119.htm. 8. Ji Shenzhai xiansheng quanji, 27.5a. 9. Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu, ji 記, 1a. 10. Ibid., 1b. 11. The term “preceding heaven,” also known as the “directional posi‐ tions of Fu Xi’s eight trigrams” (Fu Xi bagua fangwei 伏羲八卦方位), refers to a circular arrangement in which the positions for the eight trigrams are asso‐ ciated with the compass points. The first visual representation of this con‐ figuration appeared in the Song dynasty and is traced to a passage that ap‐ pears in the Shuo gua 說卦, one of the seven standard commentaries on the Yijing. Zhu Xi’s commentary on the relevant passage from the Shuo gua reads: “Master Shao [Yong] says, ‘These are the positions of Fu Xi’s eight tri‐ grams. Qian 乾 is in the south, kun 坤 is in the north, li 離 is in the east, and kan 坎 is in the west. Dui 兌 resides in the southeast, zhen 震 resides in the northeast, xun 巽 resides in the southwest, and gen 艮 resides in the north‐ west. Thus the eight trigrams interchange with each other and form the 64 hexagrams. This is what is called the study of preceding heaven’ ” (passage quoted in Nielsen, A Companion to Yi jing Numerology and Cosmology, 265). For an illustration of a preceding heaven altar, see Fig. 5.3 (p. 127). 12. Ji Shenzhai xiansheng quanji, 16.7a–8b. 13. Ibid., 17.61b–62a. 14. Fei Shanshou, Guanmu tongzhou lu, juanxia 卷下, 56a. 15. Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu, juanshang 卷上, 7a. 16. Fei Shanshou, Guanmu tongzhou lu, juanxia 卷下, 56a. 17. Ibid. 18. Qiuyu jing, 2a. 19. Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu, juanshang, 11a–b. 20. Bredon and Mithrophanow, The Moon Year, 344–45. 21. Henri Doré (Researches into Chinese Superstitions, 5: 689) reported that “popular” rainmaking in Jiangsu and Anhui often included processions, during which “a man carries suspended at the extremities of a pole two buckets of water. With a green branch, he sprinkles it on the ground crying out: ‘the rain comes, the rain comes.’ ” Recall also that Chapter 1 of this study includes an episode in 1880 when officials erected an altar to pray for rain and used a willow branch to sprinkle water among the participants (Shenbao 17: 677 [Dec. 17, 1880]). Chapter 4 relates two similar incidents. During a drought in Shanxi in 1902, it was reported that “along the streets were scattered individuals who were fetching water from wells and putting it into jars in order to grow willows or to make offerings to water gods.” In
Notes to Pages 131–38
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addition, the Sui’an county gazetteer states that whenever the people en‐ countered drought, they captured frogs, snakes, and small insects and put them in vases. They placed willow branches over the top of the vases— calling it “pure water”—and then they returned to the community and of‐ fered them sincere sacrifices. See Xu Ke, Qingbai leichao, 17.43–44; and Sui’an xianzhi (1930 ed.) as quoted in Zhongguo difangzhi minsu ziliao huibian, upper volume on eastern China 華東卷上, 634. 22. This passage is included in a preface that appears in both of the trans‐ lations in the Appendixes; cf. Fei Shanshou, Guanmu tongzhou lu, 10.45a. 23. Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu, 1.1b–2a. See notes 1 and 2 to Ap‐ pendix B, below, for an explanation of the terms used in the quotation. 24. Qiuyu jing, 1a–1b. 25. Fei Shanshou, Guanmu tongzhou lu, juanxia, 47a. 26. For all these entries, see Li Xingrui, Li Xingrui riji, 15–16. 27. Ibid., 18. 28. Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu wen (Henan, 1859). One fascicle with illus‐ trations. 29. Qiuyu jing (preface dated 1873). One fascicle with illustrations. 30. Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu wen (Luoyang, 1874). One fascicle with il‐ lustrations. 31. Chongkan Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu. Two fascicles with illus‐ trations. 32. Ji gong qi yu wen in Tianrang ge congshu 天壤閣叢書 (Chengdu, 1883). One fascicle with illustrations. 33. Fei Shanshou, Guanmu tongzhou lu; Jiangsu shengli. 34. Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu wen (Yangzhou, 1881). One fascicle with il‐ lustrations. 35. Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu (Hangzhou, 1898). Two fascicles with illustrations. 36. Fei Shanshou, Guanmu tongzhou lu, 10.45a. 37. Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu wen (Luoyang, 1874). 38. See Shu’s preface to Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu below. 39. This episode is described in Sun’s preface to the Chongkan Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu. 40. The text that Hu finally compiled was Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quan‐ shu (Hangzhou, 1898). 41. See Genette, Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation, 76. 42. See Xu’s lengthy biography in the “high ministers” (“Dachen”) sec‐ tion of the Qingshi liezhuan, 41.34a–38b. 43. Lufei Quan was adopted, which is why he has a two‐character sur‐ name. For his biography, see Qingshi liezhuan, 43.33b. For Wan’s biography, see Guochao shuhuajia bilu, 3.18a.
272
Notes to Pages 138–47
44. Genette, Paratexts: Thresholds of Interpretation, 10–11. 45. Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu, xu 序, 1b. 46. Fei Shanshou, Guanmu tongzhou lu, juanxia, 48b. 47. Apparently referring to pennants with the “hexagrams of the eight palaces” (bagong gua 八宮卦) written on them. This refers to a classification system developed by Jing Fang, who divided the sixty‐four hexagrams into eight different groups, each of which was headed by one of the “eight pure hexagrams.” A pure hexagram was one in which the hexagram was formed by combining two identical trigrams—yielding essentially the eight trigrams in hexagram form. See Nielsen, A Companion to Yi jing Numerology and Cos‐ mology, 1. 48. Ji gong qiyu wen (Chengdu, 1883), 11a; see also Qiu yu pian in Xujing tianshi 虛靖天師, ed., Ling ji bao zhang 靈笈寶章 (Shanghai, 1936), 20–21. 49. Qiuyu jing, 2a. 50. Ji Shenzhai xiansheng qiuyu quanshu, xu 2b–3a. 51. Five of the essays deal with ancestral lineages (zongfa 宗法); the sixth appears to have something to do with how to determine the intercalary (run 閏) months. See Huangchao jingshi wenbian, j. 58, “Li zheng” 禮政 (Ritual ad‐ ministration) 5, “Rules for Lineages” upper chapter 宗法上, 1.2a–4b; and j. 69, 禮政 16, “Proper Customs” lower chapter 正俗下, 19a. 52. For more on this connection, see Rowe, Saving the World, 145–51. 53. Jiangsu shengli, 16a–26a. I thank Chuck Wooldridge for bringing this source to my attention. 54. Part II, book 8, no. 8. See Needham’s explanation in Science and Civili‐ sation in China, 3: 468. 55. Fei Shanshou, Guanmu tongzhou lu, juanxia, 51b. 56. The cinnabar field is one of three locations in the body used in the practice of inner alchemy. 57. Fei Shanshou, Guanmu tongzhou lu, juanxia, 49a–b. 58. The incantation itself consists of 37 seven‐character phrases. Accord‐ ing to the instructions provided, officials were to erect an altar outside one of the city gates or in a “pure” ( jiejing 潔淨) location. Various offerings were presented to the gods of wind, clouds, thunder, and rain; the spirit of Bo Yuchan; and the “Mulang Supreme Unity Three Mountain deities and wor‐ thies that bring rain” (Mulang taiyi sanshan xingyu shenxian 木郎太一三山行雨 神仙). To execute the incantation, officials were told to burn a prayer text in front of the local city god—as a kind of oath—and “with sincere heart” chant the incantation forty‐nine times on three, four, or five occasions each day. They did this for three, five, or seven days, when they would “certainly ob‐ tain a great dispensation of sweet rain.” 59. For a discussion of this tendency, see Dean, Lord of the Three in One, 24. 60. Bourdieu, Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste.
Notes to Pages 150–69
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Chapter 6 1. See P. Cohen, History in Three Keys, 72–73. 2. For an excellent analysis of the differences between liturgy‐centric and performer‐centric rituals, see Atkinson, The Art and Politics of Wana Shaman‐ ship, 14–15. 3. For a discussion of strategies of action, see Swidler, “Culture in Action.” 4. Cf. Atkinson, The Art and Politics of Wana Shamanship, 269–70. 5. Zhang Xiaohong, “Minjian xinyang zhong de zhengfu xingwei,” 477. 6. Shenbao 3: 113 (Aug. 2, 1873). 7. Ibid., 17: 661 (Dec. 13, 1880). 8. North China Herald, Aug. 9, 1873. 9. Ibid. 10. Ibid. 11. “Jintu xiaohua” 禁屠笑話 (Making a mockery of prohibitions against slaughter), in Cai Erkang, Dianshizhai huabao, 未二 (1890), 16. 12. S. W. Williams, The Middle Kingdom, 2: 204. 13. Chinese Repository, 3 (Apr. 1835), 577; cf. Canton Register 8, no. 17 (Apr. 28, 1835). 14. Canton Register 8, no. 19 (May 12, 1835). 15. The Chinese text reads: 廣州太守有潘公, 平時作事理毋通, 今朝求雨無 靈應, 仍然出示請拘龍. Both text and translation can be found in Chinese Re‐ pository 3 (Apr. 1835), 577. 16. Canton Register 8, no. 18 (May 5, 1835). 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid. The shangyang 商羊 was a mythical “one‐legged waterfowl” that served as a portent for rain. 19. S. W. Williams, The Middle Kingdom, 2: 204. 20. Chinese Repository 3 (May 1835), 46. 21. See McFarland, “Resistance as a Social Drama,” 1263–67. 22. Shenbao 9: 61 (July 19, 1876). 23. Ch’ü T’ung‐tsu, Local Government in China Under the Ch’ing, 165. 24. Shenbao (Sept. 1, 1877). 25. Turner (The Ritual Process, 96) defines communitas as “a generalized social bond that has ceased to be and has yet to be fragmented into a multi‐ plicity of structural ties.” 26. Dai Pan, Liang Zhe huanyou jilue, 153–55. 27. See Feng Junjie, Shanxi xiqu beike jikao, 453. 28. See Rowe, Saving the World, 97. 29. Shenbao 9: 77 (July 24, 1876). 30. Xu Ke, Qingbai leichao, 74.27–28.
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Notes to Pages 169–79
31. See the discussion in An Yanming, “The Idea of Cheng (Integrity),” 10–11. 32. Ibid., 24–25. 33. Ibid., 33. 34. The same relational aspect has long been observed with charisma. Charisma only exists when it is recognized by a group and subsequently imputed or attributed to an individual. As Thomas Csordas (Language, Cha‐ risma, and Creativity, 138) has noted, the mere passive recognition of cha‐ risma is insufficient. As with cheng, people must be moved and inspired to actively impute or attribute charisma to an individual through their words or deeds. Otherwise, charisma fails to develop. 35. We saw that in Canton in 1835, it was estimated that 20,000 worship‐ ers visited a popular Guanyin temple on the day when local officials walked there to offer prayers for rain. When we consider all the people who saw of‐ ficials make the trip to and from the temple, as well as those who were pres‐ ent at the temple when they arrived, this single event was likely witnessed by thousands of spectators. In a drought that lasted for weeks and saw offi‐ cials walking through busy city streets in processions to multiple temples, it is not unreasonable to think that tens of thousands of people could be in‐ volved. 36. Feldherr, Spectacle and Society in Livy’s History, 13.
Chapter 7 1. See Foulk, “Myth, Ritual, and Monastic Practice in Sung Ch’an Bud‐ dhism”; Sharf, “What (If Anything) Is Ch’an / Pure Land Syncretism”; Greg‐ ory and Getz, Buddhism in the Sung. 2. Gregory, “The Vitality of Sung Buddhism,” in idem and Getz, Bud‐ dhism in the Sung, 2. 3. E. Davis, Society and the Supernatural in Song China. 4. Ibid., 7. 5. Ownby, “A History for Falun Gong,” 225; italics in the original. 6. Ibid., 226. 7. Romeyn Taylor, “Official and Popular Religion and the Political Or‐ ganization of Chinese Society in the Ming,” 132–33. 8. R. J. Smith, “Ritual in Ch’ing Culture,” 285. 9. Rawski, The Last Emperors, 197–294. 10. Watson, “Standardizing the Gods,” 293. 11. Duara, “Superscribing Symbols.” 12. See Szonyi, “The Illusion of Standardizing the Gods”; and idem, “Making Claims About Standardization and Orthopraxy in Late Imperial China.”
Notes to Pages 179–92
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13. See Pomeranz, “Orthopraxy, Orthodoxy, and the Goddess(es) of Tai‐ shan”; and von Glahn, The Sinister Way, 204. 14. Watson, “Standardizing the Gods,” 323. 15. Watson, “Rites or Beliefs?,” 95–96. 16. Ibid., 84. 17. Romeyn Taylor, “Official and Popular Religion and the Political Or‐ ganization of Chinese Society in the Ming,” 156–57. 18. Ibid., 130. 19. R. J. Smith, “Ritual in Ch’ing Culture,” 293. 20. Romeyn Taylor, “Official and Popular Religion and the Political Or‐ ganization of Chinese Society in the Ming,” 129. 21. See Johnson, “Actions Speak Louder Than Words,” in idem, Ritual Opera, Operatic Ritual, 25. 22. Rawski, Last Emperors, 229–30. 23. Pomeranz, “Water to Iron, Widows to Warlords,” 65. 24. Ibid., 73. 25. Ibid., 75. 26. Ibid., 73. 27. See, e.g., the description of self‐sacrifice in Nivison, “ ‘Virtue’ in Bone and Bronze,” 21–23. 28. For an in‐depth description of this phenomenon, see Styers, Making Magic. 29. Kwang‐ching Liu, “Introduction: Orthodoxy in Chinese Society,” in idem, Orthodoxy in Late Imperial China, 1. 30. See Ch’ü T’ung‐tsu, Local Government Under the Ch’ing, 311n188; see also Daqing lüli, 279. 31. Szonyi, “Making Claims About Standardization and Orthopraxy in Late Imperial China,” 44–45. 32. Ibid., 66. 33. Watson, “Standardizing the Gods,” 81. 34. This discussion relies on Mitchell Dean’s excellent analysis of gover‐ nance in Governmentality, 9–39. 35. Foucault, Politics, Philosophy, Culture, 62. 36. Geertz, “Centers, Kings, and Charisma,” 122–23. 37. See Lincoln, Authority, 4–11; see also Mitchell, “Society, Economy, and the State Effect.” 38. Rowe, Saving the World, 449. See also Kuhn, Soulstealers; and Philip Huang, Civil Justice in China. 39. See Philip Huang, Civil Justice in China, 16–18. 40. Sharma and Gupta, The Anthropology of the State, 8, 9–27; see also Mitchell, “Society, Economy, and the State Effect.”
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Notes to Pages 197–98
Appendix A 1. The sacrifice to the hu was one of the “five sacrifices” (wusi 五祀) made to the five deities (wushen 五神) of the household: the door, gate, well, stove, and middle of the house (zhongliu 中霤). There was a specific ritual carried out to each of these deities, which included positioning the deity in different places and presenting different kinds of offerings. For a description of these rituals, see the commentary by the Qing scholar Su Yu 蘇輿 (d. 1914), to Chunqiu fanlu yizheng, 426, 431, 432, 435. 2. Like many early Chinese deities, Gong Gong is associated with many stories. He is often portrayed as a mischievous deity and is said to have stirred up the floodwaters during the time of Shun and Yu, or to have knocked down one of the pillars that held up the sky. He is also known as the minister for public works during the time of Yao. 3. The assumption here is that the wu was, in fact, a woman; it may have been a man. 4. During the Qin and Han, one chi was the equivalent of 23.1 cm, or nine inches. One zhang comprised ten chi, making a single zhang 2.31 meters long. This would mean that the dragon being constructed here was over 18 meters, or 50 feet, in length. For details on imperial Chinese measurements, see Wil‐ kinson, Chinese History, 238. 5. Michael Loewe (“The Cult of the Dragon and the Invocation for Rain”) argues that the dragons placed on the altar are made of wood and covered in fabric. He seems to think that the dragons would need to be moved during the dances. From my reading, however, the dragons do not move during the dance. Clearly, Loewe is interpreting the phrase wuzhi 舞之 as “dance them,” i.e., the youngsters should fast for three days, dress in blue‐green clothing, and dance the dragons (by moving the dragons around). I interpret wuzhi to mean “dance to them.” There is evidence that by the Qing both interpreta‐ tions are valid. In Chapter 4, we saw that in a performance of Dong’s ritual in 1902, paper dragons were used; but there is another source from 1880 that refers to “Dong Zhongshu’s Chunqiu fanlu clay dragon method” 董仲舒春秋 繁路土龍法 (Wanguo gongbao, Jan. 1, 1880, 6973). For me, the decisive factor in interpreting the sentence as referring to clay dragons is the last paragraph of Dong’s text, which says that pure earth should be used to make all of the dragons. 6. Su Yu (Chunqiu fanlu yizheng, 429) interpreted this as meaning this duty is shared among the farmers as part of their labor service. 7. Loewe (“The Cult of the Dragon and the Invocation for Rain,” 209–10) interprets this passage to mean that several roosters and pigs were sacrificed at several different shrines: “Three year old cocks and three year old pigs are chosen and burnt at the shrines of the four corners.” I interpret the passage
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as meaning that a single rooster and a single male pig are to be burned un‐ der a single deity canopy. 8. I have followed the interpretation of Su Yu in Chunqiu fanlu yizheng. 9. Chi You was a deity best known for inventing metal weapons. In an‐ other story, Chi You is said to have battled with the Responding Dragon (Yinglong 應龍), who was responsible for a drought, and commanded the deities of wind and rain to send rain. See Birrell, Chinese Mythology, 132–34. 10. In later editions, the character that appears is zhun 肫, “gizzards.” 11. Shao Hao is a deity that is occasionally identified as one of the Five Emperors (wudi 五帝) in place of the Yellow Emperor. He is closely associ‐ ated with the easterly direction. 12. Xuan Ming was a deity associated with one of the nine stars of the big dipper. 13. Because this set of instructions comes last and gives other general in‐ formation about the ritual (e.g., the days on which is to be held), I interpret this passage to mean that all the dragons are to be constructed of pure earth. This interpretation is supported by Su Yu (Chunqiu fanlu yizheng, 436), who explains this line by providing many classical reference that explain the use of “clay dragons,” tu long 土龍. 14. This is a line that Loewe (“The Cult of the Dragon and the Invocation for Rain,” 210) interprets as meaning that men and women of all classes should come together and have sexual intercourse. He says, “This final in‐ junction can readily be explained as a means of inducing natural harmony between yin and yang forces, and thus procuring the seasonal fall of rain. It may be contrasted with injunctions elsewhere to abstain from sexual inter‐ course at the vernal equinox and at the summer and winter solstices; these last two occasions were characterized as times when yin and yang were in ac‐ tive contention to achieve dominance.”
Appendix B 1. The “six children” refers to either the six trigrams—those other than qian and kun—that constitute the eight trigrams, or the six “pure hexagrams” (chun gua 純卦) of the same name. In a system developed by Jing Fang 京房 (77–37 BCE), a prominent Han dynasty scholar of the Yijing, the six pure hexagrams can also be associated with the twenty‐four solar intervals ( jieqi 節氣), the twelve branches of the sexagenary ganzhi 干支 cycle, and the twelve months. Here, the term refers to the latter. See Nielsen, A Companion to Yi jing Numerology and Cosmology, 164. 2. The “inserted stems” refers to the system of correspondences in which the eight pure hexagrams are correlated with the stems and branches of the sexagenary cycle. Depending on which system one follows, the eight pure
278
Notes to Pages 204–11
hexagrams are either correlated with the ten stems—qian and kun each being counted twice—or else each of the six lines of the eight pure hexagrams—in addition to the ten stems—is correlated with one of the twelve branches and the five agents. The “inserted musical notes” are also part of this system, but they correlate the sexagenary cycle with the five notes of the ancient musical scale. The colors of the flags to which this passage refers are as follows: the qian pennant is dark purple; dui white; li red; zhen blue; xun green; kan black; gen is light yellow; and kun dark yellow. Bent Nielsen remarks: “Around this correlation system developed an exceedingly complicated and virtually im‐ penetrable maze of further correlations and technical terms which was pri‐ marily intended for divination purposes.” For descriptions of this system and two helpful tables that nearly succeed in making it comprehensible, see Nielsen, A Companion to Yi jing Numerology and Cosmology, 180–83. 3. Although the author used the term chuan here for “crossing,” the tech‐ nical term for this movement between qian and kun is jiao, or “exchange.” 4. The trigram li is associated with fire and the summer season. 5. This passage is the third line from the forty‐first hexagram, sun 損, but I am unsure what the relationship with the Duke of Zhou is. I assume that this line was attributed to him at some point. 6. The twenty‐fourth, forty‐fourth, nineteenth, and thirty‐third hexa‐ grams, respectively. 7. Referring to Zhu Xi’s famous commentary on the Yijing, the Benyi, or Zhouyi benyi 周易本義. Zhu’s work contained many diagrams to which the author may be referring. 8. Xici refers to the Xici zhuan, or “attached remarks.” The Xici zhuan comprises the fifth and sixth of the “ten wings” (shiyi 十翼), which are the ten standard commentaries on the Yijing. The ten wings are the upper and lower chapters of the Tuan zhuan 彖傳, the upper and lower Xiang zhuan 象傳, the upper and lower Xici zhuan 繫辭傳, the Wenyan 文言, the Shuogua 說卦, the Xugua 序卦, and the Zagua 雜卦. Of these ten, the two chapters of the Xici zhuan are arguably the most important of the commentaries on the Yijing. Bent Nielsen (A Companion to Yi jing Numerology and Cosmology, 258) writes: “[The Xici zhuan] is the most important of The Wings and one of the most important texts on the changes at all. Indeed, its importance reaches beyond the studies of the Changes to most other areas of Chinese philo‐ sophical thought, especially metaphysics and cosmology.” 9. Xu Zechun’s posthumous temple name. 10. The term used here, tuoluoniju 陀羅尼句, is simply a transliteration of the Sanskrit dharani, but elsewhere in this introduction other terms, such as zhou or shenzhou, are used to describe similar verses. The question arises, therefore, as to whether these other verses are dharani, mantra, or both. Robert Sharf (Coming to Terms with Chinese Buddhism, 337n3) states: “In gen‐
Notes to Pages 211–20
279
eral, dharani are regarded as potent condensations of scriptures and teach‐ ings, used as mnemonic devices as well as for their apotropaic properties. Mantras are often shorter, are more likely to have discernible if garbled se‐ mantic content, and typically function as invocations of deities or their pow‐ ers. . . . However, such distinctions were often ignored in East Asia, where dharani and mantra were both referred to as ‘talismans’ or ‘spells’ (zhou or shenzhou).” Although the phrases included in this sutra appear to conform to Sharf’s definition of mantra—as invocations of deities or their powers—it is fairly clear that the terms tuoluoniju, zhou, and shenzhou are used inter‐ changeably here. 11. The southernmost of the four great continents in traditional Indian Buddhist cosmology, referring to the human world. 12. Literally, the “wisdom ocean Vairocana.” Vairocana was originally the Indian word for “sun” and refers to a Buddha that was especially prominent in Huayan Buddhism. 13. Zheng Xuan (127–200) was one of the most influential scholar‐officials in the Later Han dynasty. According to Nielsen (A Companion to Yi jing Nu‐ merology and Cosmology, 334), he “has had a tremendous impact on his pos‐ terity,” especially “in the study of diagrams (tu 圖) during the early Song dynasty.” 14. Zheng Xuan is well known for his formulation of the “five emperors.” In his commentary to the Zhouli, Zheng associated the five principal direc‐ tions of the suburban sacrifices—north, south, east, west, and middle—with the “deities of the five directions” Zhuan Xu 顓頊, Yan Di 炎帝, Tai Hao 太昊, Shao Hao 少昊, and Huang Di 黃帝, respectively. Each was also associated with a specific color: respectively, black, red, green, white, and yellow. 15. Referring to the sixth month. 16. The “three farmers” refers to all farmers: those who farm the plains (pingdi nong 平地農), the mountains (shan nong 山農), and the marshes (ze nong 澤農). 17. A quotation from the Shujing. 18. The phrase used here, minshi wei xian 民食為先, is a modification of the phrase “The people are the root of the country, and food is the heaven of the people” 國以民為本, 民以食為天. 19. According to the front matter of this edition, the spirit tablets, ritual implements, and offerings were to be placed in a “deity pavilion” outside the altar proper. See Fig. B.2. 20. This text is referred to as the tiandi dingwei scripture for the remainder of the text; the name is taken from the first four characters of the text. It is translated below under the name “Rainmaking Text for the Preceding Heaven Altar Taken from the Yijing Commentaries.” 21. The text actually reads “three”; this is likely a scribal error.
280
Notes to Pages 224–33
22. These first four characters are used to identify this scripture—i.e., the tiandi dingwei scripture text. 23. This passage is from the Shuogua 1.3. 24. Shuogua 1.4. 25. Shuogua 1.6. 26. Xici 1.1. 27. Xici 2.1. 28. Yijing 1.1 (qian 乾). The Tuanzhuan refers to the first two of the ten wings, commentaries that were traditionally attributed to Confucius and of‐ ten incorporated into the text of the Yijing itself. See Nielsen, A Companion to Yi jing Numerology and Cosmology, 239. 29. A very similar text (T. 989) was later translated by the renowned Buddhist rainmaker Bukong 不空 (Skt. Amoghavajra) in the eighth century. 30. See Bussho kaisetsu daijiten, 7: 212–14. 31. Cf. Beal, A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese, 416–23. 32. Hodous, Buddhism and Buddhists in China. See also the description given by J. J. M. de Groot in chap. 8 of his Code du Mahāyāna en Chine.
Appendix C 1. This is the same preface that appears in the previous translation. 2. The “Hong fan,” or “Great Plan,” is a chapter of the Shujing, or Book of Documents. It is a guide to model government and is organized into nine dif‐ ferent categories, which are intended to serve as guidelines for rulers and of‐ ficials. The third of the nine categories is known as the “eight objects of gov‐ ernment” (bazheng 八政), which are food (shi 食), commodities (huo 貨), sacrifices (si 祀), the administration of works (sikong 司空), the administra‐ tion of instruction (situ 司徒), fighting crime (sikou 司寇), hospitality (bin 賓), and military affairs (shi 師). See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 4, The Shoo King, Pt. V, 327. 3. The eighth of the categories of good government in the “Hong fan” is called the “various verifications” (shuzheng), which are meteorological phe‐ nomena thought to result from the proper administration of the state. There were six “verifications”—rain, sunshine, heat, cold, wind, and seasonable‐ ness. As the text of the “Hong fan” says, “When the [first] five come all com‐ plete, and each is in its proper order, even the various plants will be abun‐ dantly luxuriant. Should any one of them be either excessively abundant or excessively deficient, there is evil” (translation from Legge, The Shoo King, Pt. V, 339). 4. Actually an incorrect statement. Although its principles may have been derived from the Xici, its texts actually come from both the Shuogua and Xici commentaries.
Notes to Pages 234–41
281
5. This passage is from the Shuogua 1.3. 6. Part of the commentary on the “various verifications,” this phrase is probably best understood in terms of the sentence that follows: “Some stars love the wind, some stars love the rain. The courses of the sun and moon give winter and summer. The course of the moon among the stars gives wind and rain” (translation from Legge, Shoo King, Pt. V, 342). 7. A passage from the fifth section of the upper chapter of the Xici (Xici 1.5). 8. The following section is indented in the original. 9. Paraphrasing Mengzi 4b.29, where Mengzi speaks of the benevolence of Yu, the founder of the Xia dynasty, and Hou Ji, the mythical figure who gave agriculture to the people: “When somebody starved, [it was as if Hou Ji] himself starved them” 天下有飢者, 猶己飢之也. 10. Literally translated, the heading would read “marvelous method for praying for rain,” but qifang can also mean an “unfailing prescription,” which is why the heading is rendered this way. Either interpretation is pos‐ sible. See Mathews’ Chinese‐English Dictionary, 67. 11. On Hu Linyi, see ECCP, 1: 333–35. 12. From what I can tell, this method was never recorded in Shenbao; it was, however, recorded in Xinbao (Dec. 15, 1880, 4) and has been discussed earlier in this study. 13. The parenthetical phrases in this passage are actually set off with smaller type in the original. 14. The translation of this passage is tentative. 15. The cinnabar field is one of three locations in the body used in the practice of inner alchemy. 16. The symbolism of the illustration is interesting. We know from the paragraph on the bi xiu (below) that the illustration was of a “herd of white‐ hoofed pigs” (baidi zhongshi 白蹢眾豕), which was to be painted on the east side of the altar, opposite the star chart of the bi xiu. Both of these images can be traced to an ode in the Shijing, which reads: “There are pigs with white hooves that wade through streams. The approach of the moon to bi will bring heavy rain showers.” According to Mao, pigs were fond of wading in streams immediately prior to the fall of rain. So, the illustration, by visually instantiating the white‐hoofed pigs, was attempting to replicate the relation‐ ship between the pigs and rain. 17. The bi xiu, or bi “lodge” or “lunar mansion,” was one of the twenty‐ eight circumpolar constellations that were used by Chinese astronomers to divide the sky into twenty‐eight equal sections. All these xiu were located close to the celestial equator (i.e., the horizon) and were used as important reference points in mapping the heavens. These twenty‐eight xiu were also grouped into four “palaces” (gong 宮) that corresponded to the cardinal
282
Notes to Pages 241–50
directions of the compass—north, south, east, west. These palaces were simi‐ larly associated with four animals of different colors: a black tortoise (xuanwu 玄武) in the north, a vermilion bird (zhuniao 朱鳥) in the south, a blue dragon (canglong 蒼龍) in the east, and a white tiger (baihu 白龍) in the west. Bi was the nineteenth xiu and was located in the western quadrant, which is why the star chart is painted on the west side of the altar. 18. Zhang Heng (78–139) was a famous mathematician and astronomer in the Later Han dynasty. 19. See Legge, The Chinese Classics, vol. 5, She King, Pt. II, Book VIII, 422. 20. Unfortunately, the text does not specify where “their positions” might be, and this is not clarified later in the text. 21. These are the pennants that correspond to each of the eight trigrams. 22. This text is cobbled together from different parts of the Yijing and its commentaries. I have used Yang Hongru, Yijing daodu, as a guide in translat‐ ing this text. 23. This passage is from the Shuogua 1.3. 24. Ibid., 1.4. 25. Ibid., 1.6. 26. Xici 1.1. 27. Ibid., 2.1. 28. Yijing 1.1 (qian 乾). The Tuanzhuan refers to the first two of the ten wings, commentaries that were traditionally attributed to Confucius and of‐ ten incorporated into the text of the Yijing itself. See Nielsen, A Companion to Yi jing Numerology and Cosmology, 239. 29. From the Xici. 30. See note 16 to this section. 31. A passage from the Shijing. Cf. Legge, She King, Pt. II, Book VII, 406.
Selected Bibliography
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Qing Xitai 卿希泰. Zhongguo daojiao 中國道教 (Chinese Daoism). Shanghai: Zhishi chubanshe, 1994. Song Zhaolin 宋兆麟. “Shuishen jisi yu Zuojiang yan bihua” 水神祭祀與左江 崖壁畫. (Water god sacrifices and the Zuojiang cliff paintings). Zhongguo lishi bowuguan guankan 中國歷史博物館館刊 1987, no. 10: 9, 20–25. Tao Siyan 陶思炎. “Qiyu saoqing zhitan” 祈雨扫晴摭談 (Discussions on pray‐ ing for rain and clearing the weather). Nongye kaogu 農業考古 1995, no. 3: 242–47. Teng Zhanneng 滕占能. “Cixi de longwang miao ji qiuyu huodong” 慈溪的 龍王廟及求雨活動 (Cixi’s dragon god temple and rainmaking activities). Zhongguo minjian wenhua 中國民間文化 1992, no. 5: 69–79. Wang Hui 王暉. “Long ke zhaoyun zhiyu de xingneng chengyin kao” 龍可 招雲止雨的性能成因考 (Study on the origins of the dragon’s capacity to summon clouds and stop rain). Renwen zazhi 1992, no. 3: 87–93. Wang Shui 王水. “Jiangnan shuishen xinyang yu shuiji minsu” 江南水神信仰 與水祭民俗 (Belief in water deities and folk water sacrifices in Jiangnan). Zhongguo minjian wenhua 1995, no. 2: 116–31. Wanyan Shaoyuan 完顏紹元. Zhongguo fengsu zhi mi 中國風俗之謎 (The mys‐ teries of Chinese customs). Shanghai: Shanghai cishu chubanshe, 2002. Xiang Bosong 向柏松. Zhongguo shui chongbai 中國水崇拜 (Chinese water worship). Shanghai: Sanlian shudian, 1999. ———. “Zhongguo shui chongbai qiyu qiu fengnian yiyi de yanbian” 中國水 崇拜祈雨求豐年意義的演變 (Changes in the meaning of water worship, rainmaking, and prayers for good harvests in China). Zhongnan minzu xueyuan xuebao 1995, no. 3: 73–76. ———. “Zhongguo shui chongbai yu gudai zhengzhi” 中國水崇拜與古代政治 (Water worship and ancient government in China). Zhongnan minzu xue‐ yuan xuebao 1996, no. 4: 53–57. Yang Hongru 楊鴻儒. Yijing daodu 易經導讀 (A guided reading of the Yijing). Beijing: Huawen chubanshe, 2001. Yang Xiaodong 杨晓东. Guangfu 光福 (Guangfu [monastery]). Suzhou: Gu‐ wuxuan chubanshe, 1998. Yuan Li 苑利. “Huabei diqu qiyu huodong zhong hanba yu zhan hanba yishi” 華北地區祈雨活動中旱魃與斬旱魃儀式 (Drought demons and beheading drought demon rituals in rainmaking activities in northern China). Sixiang zhanxian 思想戰線 27, no. 3 (2001): 116–17. ———. “Huabei diqu qiyu huodong zhong qushui yishi yanjiu” 華北地區祈雨 活動中取水儀式研究” (Research on water fetching rituals in rainmaking activities in north China). Minzu yishu 63, no. 6 (2001): 96–121. ———. “Huabei diqu qiyu yaoci yanjiu” 華北地區祈雨谣辭研究 (Research on rainmaking ditties in northern China). Sixiang zhanxian 28, no. 3 (2002): 126–29.
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———. “Shai longwang qiyu yishi yanjiu” 晒龍王祈雨儀式研究 (Research on sunning the dragon god in rainmaking rituals). Minjian wenhua 2001, no. 1: 67‐69. Zhan Yinxin 詹鄞鑫. Shenling yu jisi 神靈與祭祀 (Deities and sacrifice). Su‐ zhou: Jiangsu guji chubanshe, 1992. Zhang Xiaohong 張曉虹. “Minjian xinyang zhong de zhengfu xingwei: yi Shaanxi diqu Taibaishan xinyang wei lie” 民間信仰中的政府行為: 以陜西 地區太白山信仰為例 (Government behavior in folk beliefs: using the beliefs of Mt. Taibai in the Shaanxi region as an example). In Ziran zaihai yu Zhongguo shehui lishi jiegou 自然災害與中國社會歷史結構 (Natural disasters and the history of the formation of Chinese society). Shanghai: Fudan daxue chubanshe, 2001, 469–87. Zhou Zhiyuan 周致元. “Mingdai junchen daoyu de zongjiao chanshi” 明代 君臣禱雨的宗教闡釋 (A religious interpretation of official rain prayers in the Ming dynasty). Anhui daxue xuebao 26, no. 1 (Jan. 2002): 22–27. Zhu Xuezhong 朱學忠. “Dong Zhongshu de kaiyang qiuyu yu nüxing xiuyu de renleixue jingyan” 董仲舒的開陽求雨與女性誘雨的人類學經驗 (The anthropological experience of Dong Zhongshu’s “open the yin” rainmak‐ ing and the female inducement of rain). Xueshu yuekan 1999, no. 6: 66–71. Zhu Yaren 朱亞仁. “Quanzhou diqu shuishen chongbai guanjian” 泉州地區 水神崇拜 管見 (Humble observations on the worship of water deities in the Quanzhou region). Dongnan wenhua 1990, no. 5: 219–22.
Secondary Japanese Sources Akita Shigeaki 秋田成明. “Usai ni tsuite” 雩祭について (On the yu sacrifice). Shinagaku 10 (1942–43, special issue): 21–34. Andō Tomonobu 安藤智信. “Hokusōki ni okeru inyōka no kikkyō kafuku‐ setsu to Bukkyō: sōrei, takujitsu, tochijin, kiu wo megutte” 北宋期における 阴陽家の吉凶禍福說と仏教: 葬礼—択日—土地神—祈雨をめぐって (Bud‐ dhism and geomantic theories of fate and fortune during the Northern Song dynasty: Differences over funerals, selecting days, earth deities, and rain prayers). Ōtani gakuhō 64 (1984): 32–44. Bussho kaisetsu daijiten 佛書解說大辭典 (Great dictionary of Buddhist works, with explanations). 12 vols. Daitō shuppansha, 1933–36. Fujita Tadashi 藤田忠. “Kandai usai ni tsuite no kōsatsu” 漢代雩祭について の考察 (Investigation of the yu sacrifice in the Han dynasty). Kokushikan daigaku bungakubu jinbun gakkai kiyō 21 (1988): 83–99. Fukino Yasushi 吹野安. “Chūgoku kodai shiukō” 中国古代止雨考 (Study on rain‐stopping in ancient China). Kokugakuin zasshi 82, no. 10 (1981): 1–14.
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Ikeda Suetoshi 池田末利. “Jōdai Shina no seiu girei ni tsuite” 上代支那の請 雨儀礼について (Rainmaking rituals in the former Chinese dynasty). Shūkyō kenkyū 宗教研究 133 (1952): 63–66. Izushi Yoshihiko 出石誠彦. “Jōdai Shina no kambatsu to seiu” 上代支那の旱 魃と請雨 (The drought demon and rainmaking in the former Chinese dynasty). Shikan 8 (1935): 13–51; reprinted in Izushi Yoshihiko, Shina shinwa densetsu no kenkyū 支那神話傳說の研究 (Research on Chinese myths and legends). Tokyo: Chuo Kōronsha, 1973, 445–89. ———. “Jōdai Shina no kōzui setsuwa ni tsuite” 上代支那の洪水説話について (Tales of floods in the former Chinese dynasty). Tōyō gakuhō 19, no. 3 (1931); reprinted in Izushi Yoshihiko, Shina shinwa densetsu no kenkyū 支那 神話傳說の研究 (Research on Chinese myths and legends). Tokyo: Chuo Kōronsha, 1973, 267–323. Kageyama Terukuni 影山輝国. “Kandai ni okeru saii to seiji: saishō no saii sekinin o chūshin ni” 漢代における災異と政治—宰相の災異責任を中心に (Natural disasters and governance during the Han dynasty, focusing on the prime minister’s responsibility for calamities). Shigaku zasshi 90, no. 8 (1981): 46–68. Kōchi Hitoshi 高知尾仁. “Josei to ame to shinsei” 女性と雨と神性 (Feminin‐ ity, rain, and divinity). Ajia afurika gengo bunka kenkyū 6 (1973): 165–214. Narumiya Kazō 成宫嘉造. “Chūgoku kodai no u ni tsuite” 中国古代の雩に ついて (The ancient Chinese yu sacrifice). Birin ronshū 美林論集 5 (1978): 1–14. Naruse Yoshihiro 成瀨良德. “Kiu girei oboegaki naga to yume” 祈雨儀礼覺 書—ながと夢 (Notes on rainmaking rituals: nagas and dreams). Buzan kyōgaku taikai kiyō 豐山教学大会紀要 9 (1981): 111–25. Ōbuchi Ninji 大渊忍爾. Chūgokujin no shūkyō girei 中国人の宗教儀礼 (The religious rituals of the Chinese people). Tokyo: Fukutake shoten, 1983. Sawada Mizuho 澤田瑞穗. “Kanbatsu to miira” 旱魃とミイラ (Drought demons and mummies). Tenri daigaku gakuhō 76 (1971): 1–15. Shigehara Hiroshi 繁原央. “Chūgoku no suijin sōtōdan” 中国の水神争鬥譚 (Discussions of competition among Chinese water deities). Chūgoku bun‐ gaku no sekai 6 (1983): 227–53. Takizawa Toshiaki 瀧澤俊亮. “Ryūda to kiu no shūzoku ni tsuite” 龍蛇と祈 雨の習俗に ついて (Dragon‐snakes and rainmaking customs). Tōhō shūkyō 20 (1962): 18–34. Ueda Shin 上田信. “Amagoi to minshū” 雨乞いと民眾 (Rainmaking and the masses). Rōhyakushō no sekai Chūgoku minshūshi nooto 1 (1983): 1–8.
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Sources in Western Languages Ahern, Emily Martin. Chinese Ritual and Politics. Cambridge: Cambridge Uni‐ versity Press, 1981. An Yanming. “The Idea of Cheng (Integrity): Its Formation in the History of Chinese Philosophy.” Ph.D. diss., University of Michigan, 1997. Andersen, Poul. The Demon Chained Under Turtle Mountain: The History and Mythology of the Chinese River Spirit Wuzhiqi. Berlin: G + H Verlag, 2001. ———. “The Practice of Bugang.” Cahiers d’Extreme‐Asie 5 (1989–90): 15–53. Asad, Talal. Geneaologies of Religion. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Atkinson, Jane Monnig. The Art and Politics of Wana Shamanship. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1989. Beal, Samuel. A Catena of Buddhist Scriptures from the Chinese. London: Trub‐ ner and Co., 1871. Bell, Catherine. “Acting Ritually: Evidence from the Social Life of Chinese Rites.” In Richard K. Fenn, ed., The Blackwell Companion to Sociology of Re‐ ligion. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2001, 371–87. ———. “Performance.” In Mark C. Taylor, ed., Critical Terms for Religious Studies. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1998, 205–24. ———. Ritual: Perspectives and Dimensions. New York: Oxford University Press, 1997. ———. Ritual Theory, Ritual Practice. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1992. Benn, Charles. The Mystery‐Cavern Transmission: A Taoist Ordination Rite of A.D. 711. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1991. Benn, James A. “Burning the Buddha: Self‐Immolation in Chinese Bud‐ dhism” Ph.D. diss., University of California, Los Angeles, 2001. ———. “Where Text Meets Flesh: Burning the Body as an Apocryphal Prac‐ tice in Chines Buddhism.” History of Religions 37, no. 4 (1998): 295–323. Bilsky, Lester James. The State Religion of China. 2 vols. Taibei: Oriental Cul‐ tural Service, 1975. Birrell, Anne. Chinese Mythology: An Introduction. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1993. Black, Alison H. “Gender and Cosmology in Chinese Correlative Thinking.” In Caroline Walker Bynum, ed., Gender and Religion: On the Complexity of Symbols. Boston: Beacon Press, 1986, 166–95. Blodget, Henry. “Prayers of the Emperor for Snow and Rain.” Chinese Recor‐ der 15, no. 4 (1884): 249–53. Bohr, Paul Richard. Famine in China and the Missionary: Timothy Richard as Re‐ lief Administrator and Advocate of National Reform, 1876–1884. Cambridge: East Asian Research Center, Harvard University, 1972.
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Boltz, Judith. “Not by the Seal of Office Alone: New Weapons in Battles with the Supernatural.” In Patricia Ebrey and Peter Gregory, eds., Religion and Society in T’ang China. Honolulu: University of Hawai’i Press, 1993, 241– 305. Bourdieu, Pierre. Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste. Trans. Richard Price. London: Routledge, 1984. Bredon, Juliet, and Igor Mithrophanow. The Moon Year: A Record of Chinese Customs and Festivals. Shanghai: Kelly & Walsh, 1927. Canton Register. 16 vols. 1827–43. Canton. Chan, Ping‐leung. “Chinese Popular Water‐God Legends and the Hsi yu chi.” In Essays in Chinese Studies Presented to Professor Lo Hsiang‐lin. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University Press, 1970, 299–317. Chan, Wing‐tsit. A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy. Princeton: Princeton Uni‐ versity Press, 1963. Chavannes, Edouard. “Le Jet des dragons.” Memoires concernant L’Asie orien‐ tale 3 (1919): 55–220. Chinese Repository. 20 vols. 1832–51. Chow, Kai‐wing. Imagining Boundaries: Changing Confucian Doctrines, Texts, and Hermeneutics. Albany: State University of New York Press, 1999. ———. The Rise of Confucian Ritualism in Late Imperial China: Ethics, Classics, and Lineage Discourse. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996. Ch’ü T’ung‐tsu. Local Government in China Under the Ch’ing. Cambridge: Har‐ vard University Press, 1969. Clayton, George A. “Where the River God Lies Buried: A Chinese Nature Study.” East of Asia 3 (1904): 87–91. Cohen, Alvin P. “Coercing the Rain Deities in Ancient China.” History of Re‐ ligions 17, no. 3/4 (1987): 244–65. Cohen, Paul A. History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth. New York: Columbia University Press, 1997. Committee of the China Famine Relief Fund. The Famine in China. London: C. Kegan Paul and Co., 1878. Crapanzano, Vincent. “Rite of Return: Circumcision in Morocco.” In Werner Muensterberger and L. Bryce Boyer, eds., The Psychoanalytic Study of So‐ ciety. Hillsdale, NJ: Analytic Press, 1981: 9: 15–36. Csordas, Thomas. Language, Charisma, and Creativity: Ritual Life in the Catholic Charismatic Revival. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2001. Davis, Edward. Society and the Supernatural in Song China. Honolulu: Univer‐ sity of Hawai’i Press, 2001. Davis, Mike. Late Victorian Holocausts: El Niño Famines and the Making of the Third World. New York: Verso, 2001. Dean, Kenneth. “China’s Second Government: Regional Ritual Systems in Southeast China.” In Wang Ch’iu‐kui 王秋桂, Chuang Ying‐chang 莊英章,
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Gerritsen, Anne Tjerkje. “Gods and Governors: Interpreting the Religious Realms in Ji’an (Jiangxi) During the Southern Song, Yuan, and Ming Dy‐ nasties.” Ph.D diss., Harvard University, 2001. Gill, Sam D. Native American Religious Action: A Performance Approach to Reli‐ gion. Columbia: University of South Carolina Press, 1987. Goffman, Erving. “The Nature of Deference and Demeanor.” In idem, Inter‐ action Ritual: Essays on Face‐to‐Face Behavior. Chicago: Aldine, 1967, 47–96. ———. Presentation of Self in Everyday Life. Garden City, NY: Doubleday, 1956. Graham, A. C. Yin‐Yang and the Nature of Correlative Thinking. Singapore: In‐ stitute of East Asian Philosophies, National University of Singapore, 1986. Gregory, Peter, and Daniel Getz, eds. Buddhism in the Sung. Honolulu: Uni‐ versity of Hawai’i Press, 2001. Grimes, Ronald L. Readings in Ritual Studies. New York: Prentice Hall, 1996. Groot, J. J. M. de. Code du Mahāyāna en Chine. New York: Garland Publishing, 1980 (1893). Grootaers, Willem A., Li Shih‐yu, and Wang Fu‐shih. The Sanctuaries in a North‐China City. A Complete Survey of the Cultic Buildings in the City of Hsuan‐hua (Chahar). Melanges Chinois et Bouddhiques, vol. 26. Bruxelles: Institut Belge des Hautes Etudes Chinoises, 1995. Haar, Barend J. ter. “Local Society and the Organization of Cults in Early Modern China. A Preliminary Study.” Studies in Central & East Asian Reli‐ gions 8 (1995):1–43. Henderson, John. Development and Decline of Chinese Cosmology. New York: Columbia University Press, 1984. Hendricks, Robert G. “Fire and Rain: A Look at Shen Nung (the Divine Farmer) and His Ties with Yen Ti (the ‘Flaming Emperor’ or ‘Flaming God’).” Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies 61, no. 1 (1998): 102–24. Hevia, James. Cherishing Men from Afar: Qing Guest Ritual and the Macartney Embassy of 1793. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1995. Hill, David. “A Record of the Famine Relief Work in Lin Fen Hien.” Chinese Recorder 11, no. 4 (July–Aug. 1880): 260–69. ———. “Famine Diary, 1878.” Methodist Missionary Society Archives, Lon‐ don. ———. “Famine Notes and Distribution.” Methodist Missionary Society Ar‐ chives, London. Ho Ts’ui‐p’ing. “Ritual Literalized: A Critical Review of Ritual Studies on the National Minorities in Guangxi, Guizhou, Hunan and Sichuan.” In Daniel L. Overmyer, ed. (with the assistance of Shin‐yi Chao), Ethnog‐ raphy in China Today: A Critical Assessment of Methods and Results. Taibei: Yuan‐Liou, 2002, 135–55.
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Hodous, Lewis. Buddhism and Buddhists in China. New York: Macmillan, 1924. ———. Folkways in China. London: Arthur Probsthain, 1929. Hsiao Kung‐chüan. Rural China: Imperial Control in the Nineteenth Century. Seattle: University of Washington Press, 1960. Hsiung, Ping‐chen. A Tender Voyage: Children and Childhood in Late Imperial China. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2005. Huang, K’uei‐yuen, and J. K. Shyrock. “A Collection of Chinese Prayers.” Journal of the American Oriental Society 49, no. 2 (1929): 128–55. Huang Liuhong. A Complete Book Concerning Happiness and Benevolence: Fu‐ hui ch’uan‐shu, a Manual for Local Magistrates in Seventeenth‐Century China. Trans. Djang Chu. Tuscon: University of Arizona Press, 1984. Huang, Philip. Civil Justice in China: Representation and Practice in the Qing. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1996. Hucker, Charles. The Traditional Chinese State in Ming Times. Tucson: Univer‐ sity of Arizona Press, 1961. Hummel, Arthur, ed. Eminent Chinese of the Ch’ing Period (1644–1912). 2 vols. Washington, DC: US Government Printing Office, 1943. Hymes, Robert. “A Jiao Is a Jiao Is a? Thoughts on the Meaning of a Ritual.” In Theodore Huters, R. Bin Wong, and Pauline Yu, eds., Culture & State in Chinese History: Conventions, Accommodations, and Critiques. Stanford: Stan‐ ford University Press, 1997, 129–60. ———. Way and Byway: Taoism, Local Religion, and Models of Divinity in Sung and Modern China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 2002. Ivanhoe, Philip J. Confucian Moral Self Cultivation. New York: Peter Lang, 1993. Janku, Andrea. “Integrating the Body Politic: Official Perspectives on the Administration of Relief During the ‘Great North China Famine.’ ” Paper presented at the Association of Asian Studies annual conference, 2004. Jensen, Lionel. Manufacturing Confucianism: Chinese Traditions and Universal Civilization. Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1998. Jing, Anning. The Water God’s Temple of the Guangsheng Monastery: Cosmic Function of Art, Ritual, and Theater. Leiden: E. J. Brill, 2001. Johnson, David. “Confucian Elements in the Great Temple Festivals of South‐ eastern Shansi in Late Imperial Times.” T’oung Pao 83, no. 1–3 (1997): 126– 61. Johnson, David, ed. Ritual Opera, Operatic Ritual: “Mu‐lien Rescues His Moth‐ er” in Chinese Popular Culture. Berkeley, CA: International Workshop on the Mu‐lien Operas, 1987. Johnson, David, Andrew J. Nathan, and Evelyn S. Rawski, eds. Popular Cul‐ ture in Late Imperial China. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1985. Karlgren, Bernard. The Book of Odes. Stockholm: Museum of Far Eastern An‐ tiquities, 1950.
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Index
Aloe Wood Pavilion (Chenxiangge 沉香閣), 3–4, 14 Altar of soil and grain (Sheji tan 社稷壇), 50, 55, 64, 77; in Dong Zhongshu’s rainmaking method, 41–43, 198–99, 204 Awakened Life Monastery (Jue‐ shengsi 覺生寺), 56 Bagua, see Eight trigrams Baoan Situ Temple 保安司徒廟, 5 Black Dragon Pool (Heilongtan 黑龍潭), in imperial rainmaking, 56–57 Blue Dragon Hole (Qinglongdong 青龍洞), 107 Bo Yuchan 白玉蟾, 60–61, 262n30, 272n58 Bodily deformities: and exposure practices, 34–36; in Dong Zhong‐ shu’s rainmaking method, 41, 197, 200; statecraft writings against exposing cripples, 77–79; associated with shamanic powers, 258n24 Book of Changes, see Yijing
Book of Documents, see Shangshu Book of Poetry, see Shijing Book of Rites, see Liji Bourdieu, Pierre, 147 Bright Moisture Temple (Guang‐ runmiao 光潤廟), 56 Budao 步禱, see Walking and praying ritual Buddhas and bodhisattvas, 11–13; not included in Register of Sacrifices, 51; incorporated into Ji Dakui’s method, 124–26; invoked in Cloud Wheel Sutra, 211–12, 226–29. See also Guanyin Buddhism: and self‐immolation, 38, 258n29; in imperial rainmaking, 58–59; fasting traditions, 91–93, 265n22; Ji Dakui’s association with, 123–24; decline in late imperial period, 176–78; and self‐sacrifice, 267n53; explana‐ tion of dharani and mantra, 278n10. See also Buddhist ritualists Buddhist ritualists, employed in imperial rainmaking, 57–59;
305
306
Index
negative official attitudes toward, 78–79, 140; involvement in Ji Dakui’s method, 126–30 passim, 205–6, 209–10, 227–29, 246–48 Bugang 步罡, 6, 253n9 Bukong 不空, 38, 280n29 Caring for the people (ai min 愛民), 25–28; in statecraft writings, 73– 79 passim; expressions during drought, 151; as a governing ideology, 188–93 passim; in Ji Dakui’s method, 204, 237. See also Father‐mother ideology; Pastoral power Chen Bingchu 陳秉初, 132, 136, 207, 231, 235 Chen Fuxun 陳福勳, 5 Chen Shuibian 陳水扁, 260 Cheng 誠, see Sincerity Chenghuang 城隍, see City god Ch’ü T’ung‐tsu, 163, 255n46 Chunqiu 春秋 (Spring and autumn annals), 53; in statecraft writings, 77–78 Chunqiu fanlu 春秋繁露 (Luxuriant gems of the Spring and Autumn Annals), 38–45 passim, 107–9, 197–202 City god (chenghuang 城隍): expos‐ ing 5, 98; in imperial rainmaking 55; in local community, 65–66; swearing oaths in front of, 75–76; and concepts of filiality, 114; in Ji Dakui’s method, 122; associa‐ tion with county magistrate, 263n41 Cixi 慈禧, empress dowager, 61–64 passim Classic of Filial Piety, see Xiao jing Closing the city gates, 42, 97, 109, 117, 134, 160, 268n82
Confession and penance: in King Xuan’s lament, 28–33; in King Tang’s sacrifice, 34–37; associa‐ tion with bureaucratic behavior, 35, 71–76, 80; in imperial rain‐ making, 53; associated with casting dragon slips, 57; in fasting, 93–94, 266n30; wearing plain clothes for mourning, 95; officials being tied or chained, 98; confessing lack of virtue, 117, 135; repentance rituals, 156; in Cloud Wheel Sutra, 212 Confucianism: and Dong Zhongshu, 44; shrines and temples, 65–66; associated with statutory order, 82; linked to official rainmaking 83, 115–16; fasting in Confucian sacrifices, 92–93; use of images, 139–41; rise of, in late imperial period, 175–77; associated with orthodoxy, 180–83 Csordas, Thomas, 274n34 Dai Feng 戴封, 37–38, 46; praised by statecraft scholars, 72; criticized, 77–80, 264n62 Dai Pan 戴槃, 164–66, 167–72 passim Dances for rain: yong sacrifice, 38; in Dong Zhongshu’s method, 41– 42, 198–200, 276n5; and the yu sacrifice 52, 55, 58, 70, 140; dance officials, 205–6; bugang 253n9; in Shennong qiuyu shu, 259n41 Daoist ritualists: employed as ritual officers, 6–8; involved in impe‐ rial rainmaking, 57–59; pro‐ moted by statecraft writers, 70; negative attitudes toward, 76–79; Ji Dakui’s association with, 123– 24; incorporation into Ji Dakui’s method, 125–48 passim, 203–49
Index
passim; success tied to rain‐ making, 168. See also Bo Yuchan Daoyu zaji 禱雨雜紀 (Miscellaneous records of praying for rain), 45, 104 Daqing huidian 大清會典 (Collected statutes of the Qing), 50–52, 64 Daqing huidian shili 大清會典事例 (Collected statutes and prece‐ dents of the Qing), 51–55 passim, 64, 67 Daqing tongli 大清通禮 (Compre‐ hensive rituals of the Qing), 51 Dayunlun qingyu jing 大雲輪請雨經 (Great cloud wheel rain request‐ ing sutra), 226–29; in imperial rainmaking, 57; in Ji Dakui’s method, 129–30, 137, 145–46, 211–12 Dean, Mitchell, 275n34. See also Governmentality Dianshizhai huabao 點石齋畫報 (Dianshizhai pictorial), 85–86, 102, 111–12, 120–21 Divination, 35, 38, 43, 123, 213 Dong Zhongshu 董仲舒, 33, 38–45, 46–48 passim, 97, 103, 107–9, 146, 197–200; in statecraft writings, 69–72 passim; and gender 113; as an heroic archetype, 153; and models of efficacy, 184 Doré, Henri, 106 Dragons: welcoming the dragon, 15–16; use in early rainmaking, 41–45; dragon god temple in imperial rainmaking, 56; casting dragon slips, 57; association with nagas, 106 —, clay, 38; in Dong Zhongshu’s method, 41–46 passim; in state‐ craft writings, 70–71; in popular
307
rainmaking, 112; paper dragons, 108–9 —, disturbing the (raolong 擾龍), 44, 236, 238–39; using tiger bone, 16, 44, 80, 103–5, 239; using iron, 44, 56–57, 103–4; jumping into dragon lairs, 102–3. See also Dragon lairs —, lairs, 11; dragon pools in the capitol, 56–57; site for rain‐ making activities, 44–45, 56–57, 102–7 passim. See also Dragon substitutes —, substitutes: lizards, 16, 41, 44–45, 103–5, 120, 132; snakes, 41, 105–6; in Dong Zhongshu’s method, 41, 197, 235. See also Dragons, clay Drought, causes of: balance of yin and yang, 15, 40, 42–43, 63; linked to immorality, 31–32, 35– 37 passim, 71–76 passim, 79, 88– 89, 161 Drought demon (hanba or hanbo 旱魃), 29; identifying and destroying, 108–10 Ecumenism: as modeled by King Xuan, 32; as seen in imperial rainmaking, 58; and principles of de and ling, 117, 185; in Ji Dakui’s method, 146; operative principle in rainmaking, 167–68. See also There are no spirits not honored, there are no sacrifices withheld Efficacy: popular and official models compared, 83–84, 115–17; the role of sincerity, 169–72; virtue and magic, 183–85. See also Magic; Sincerity; Virtue Eight trigrams (bagua 八卦): eight trigram bugang, 6; eight trigram altar method, 14, 97, 119–48
308
Index
passim, 203–50 passim; preceding heaven eight trigram configura‐ tion, 126, 270n11; “six children” trigrams (liuzi 六子), 131, 204, 277n1; “inserted stems and notes” (najia 納甲 and nayin 納音), 131, 204, 277n2 Emotions in rainmaking: model of King Xuan, 28–33; suffering of King Tang, 36–37; performative aspects, 45–48, 151–54, 169–72; in imperial rainmaking, 52–53; in statecraft writings, 70; crying on behalf of the people, 97–98, 99. See also King Tang of Shang; King Xuan of Zhou; Spectacle; Yunhan Exposure, examples from the Qing, 5, 98–101, 169; of women, 10, 63– 64, 113–15; early examples, 35– 38; in Dong Zhongshu’s method, 41–42, 197–200 passim; associa‐ tion with Buddhist monks and Daoist priests, 58; exposing the drought demon, 110. See also Self‐immolation Famine, 25–26; moral imperative to prevent, 26–28; reporting, 84–86. See also North China Famine Fan Xianmei 藩憲梅, 119 Fasting (zhaijie 齋戒), 4–5, 89–94; in Dong Zhongshu’s method, 41; in imperial rainmaking, 52–53, 62. See also Prohibitions against slaughter Father‐mother ideology, 6; link to famine and rainmaking, 25–28; officials as mothers, 114–15; performance of, 188–94. See also Caring for the people; Pastoral power
Faure, David, 18 Fei Shanshou 費山壽, 143, 201, 231– 50 passim Feldherr, Andrew, 173 Fetching water (qushui 取水), 11, 106–7; at the Handan Shrine, 57; at the Jinci temple, 103–4; in conjunction with Ji Dakui’s method, 132, 134–35, 233, 235; officials as organizers, 154 Filiality: state ritual as embodiment of, 114–15 Five agents (wu xing 五行): in yin and yang cosmology, 39–40; in Dong Zhongshu’s method, 39– 45 passim, 197–200 passim; in Ji Dakui’s method, 131–32 Food, see Fasting; Prohibitions against slaughter Foucault, Michel, 188–89 Foulk, Griffith, 176 Frogs, 12, 103, 108–9, 111, 145, 238; in Dong Zhongshu’s method, 41–46 passim, 197–200 passim; association with fertility, 43. See also Gender Fu 符, see Talismans Fu Jinquan 傅金銓, 124 Ganying 感應 (cosmic resonance), 31–32, 257nn10–11 Gao Xinkui 高心夔, 11 Geertz, Clifford, 190, 275n36 Gender: and female mediums, 36– 37; in Dong Zhongshu’s method, 41–46 passim, 197–200 passim; in statecraft writings, 77–79; women as drought demons, 109–10; cross‐dressing, 112–13; sexualized nature of rainmaking, 113–15; defense of use of female mediums, 140. See also Exposure;
Index
Filiality; Frogs; Mediums; Yin and yang Genette, Gérard, 137–38 Getz, Daniel, 176 God of Agriculture, see Xiannong God of Literature, see Wenchang God of War, see Guandi Governmentality, 188–93 “Great Plan,” see “Hong fan” Gregory, Peter, 176 Guandi 關帝 (God of War), 6, 13, 134; in the local ritual order, 50, 65, 67; in imperial rainmaking, 55; and superscription, 179 Guangfu Monastery 廣福寺, 7, 107 Guanmu tongzhou lu 官幕同舟錄 (On officials and secretaries being in the same boat), 142–46, 231–50 Guanyin 觀音, 5, 11–13, 95; not included in Register of Sacrifices, 51; association with willows, 63; and gender, 63, 115; illicit wor‐ ship of, 186; in Buddhist rain‐ making, 227–29 Han Jingdi 漢景帝, 39 Han Mengzhou 韓夢周, 75–76, 80 Han Wudi 漢武帝, 39 Handan rain shrine 邯鄲, 56–57, 103–4, 133–34 He Changling 賀長齡, 68–69 He Tiesheng 何鐵生, 97–98 Hetu Luoshu 河圖洛書 (Yellow River chart and Luo River writ), 123, 207, 232 “Hong fan” 鴻範 (Great plan), 31– 32, 147, 233–34, 248, 280n2 Hong Temple 紅廟 or 虹廟, 5, 95 Hou Han shu 後漢書 (History of the Later Han dynasty), 38, 77 Hou Ji 后稷 (Master of Agriculture), 29, 34, 199, 256n7, 281n9
309
Hu Linyi 胡林翼, 12, 145, 238 Hu Yuyan 胡裕燕, 137, 215 Huainanzi 淮南子, 43, 258 Huang Zifa 黃子發, 84 Huang, Philip, 191 Huangchao jingshi wenbian 皇朝經世 文編 (This august dynasty’s doc‐ uments on statecraft), 68–81 passim, 141, 263n41 Hucker, Charles, 50 Incantations (zhou 咒), 8, 14, 45, 60– 61, 82, 272n58, 278n10; in Ji Da‐ kui’s method, 143–46, 228, 240 Insects, 106 Jade Emperor (Yuhuang dadi 玉皇 大帝), 51, 56, 95, 100, 186 Ji Dakui 紀大奎, 21, 119–48 passim, 203–50 passim; reputation of, 168, 189; relation to virtue model of efficacy, 184 Ji Yun 紀昀, 110 Jiao 醮 ceremony, 9, 86, 156–57, 254n23 Jing Fang 京房, 272, 277 Jingming 淨明 school of Daoism, 124 King Jie of Xia 夏桀王, 34 King Tang of Shang 商湯王: as a model rainmaker, 33–38; simi‐ larity to animal sacrifices, 37, 94, 266n34; association with clay dragons, 43; centrality to rain‐ making tradition, 45–47; aesthe‐ tic power of sacrifice, 47–48; in statecraft writings, 71–79 passim; relationship to suicide, 101; and characterization of official rain‐ making, 116; self‐sacrifice as a rainmaking strategy, 153. See also
310
Index
Model rule; Self‐Immolation; Suicide King Xuan of Zhou 周宣王, 28–33, 73, 203; centrality to rainmaking tradition, 45–47; performative appeal of lament, 47–48; mourn‐ ing as a rainmaking strategy, 152–53. See also Emotions in rain‐ making; Model rule; Spectacle Kuhn, Philip, 191 Kutcher, Norman, 82 Li Henian 李鶴年, 107 Li Hongzhang 李鴻章, 106 Li Xingrui 李興銳, 133 Li Yu 李漁, 264n51 Liang Fu 諒輔, 37, 46, 258n27; in statecraft writings, 72, 77–80; self‐sacrifice, 101. See also Self‐ immolation; Suicide Liji 禮記 (Book of rites), 36, 46, 58, 89, 213, 235 Liu Dapeng 劉大鵬, 103 Liu Yangdong 劉仰東, 255n43 Lizards, 15–16, 103–5, 120, 132; association with dragons, 44–45. See also Dragon substitutes Longhu Mountain 龍虎山, 6, 254n11 Lu Baotai 盧保泰, 6–8 Lufei Quan 陸費瑔, 138, 141, 234, 271n43 Lun heng 論衡, 84 Magic: association with “magical efficacy” (ling 靈), 84, 117, 182–85; problems with the term, 184–85, 256n47 Mediums: in early rainmaking, 36– 42 passim; association with Bud‐ dhist monks and Daoist priests, 58–59; criticized in statecraft writings, 77, 79; associated with
officials, 115; condoned, 140; in Dong Zhongshu’s method, 197– 200. See also Exposure; Gender Mencius, see Mengzi Mengzi 孟子, 26, 77, 256n3, 281n9 Mitchell, Timothy, 192. See also State effect Model rule: and father‐mother ideology, 26–28; model rulers as rainmakers, 37, 48; link between rainmaking and bureaucratic behavior, 35, 71–76, 80; rainmak‐ ing as a performance of ruler‐ ship, 173–74, 188–93. See also Caring for the people; Father‐ mother ideology; Pastoral power Mount Guangfu Monastery 光福山寺, 11, 13 Mount Tai 泰山, 66, 154 Mulang rainmaking incantation 木郎祈雨咒, 60–61, 145–46, 257n58 Naquin, Susan, 51, 261n14 North China Famine, 1, 74, 100– 101 Oaths: swearing in front of city god, 75–76; writing in blood, 99 Orthodoxy, 23; and Ji Dakui’s method, 122, 139; and popular pressure, 163–65; associated with Confucianism, 175–88 passim Ouyang Xun 歐陽詢, 33 Paratextuality, 137–38 Pastoral power, 48, 206; in statecraft writings, 72–75; and local governance, 188–93. See also Caring for the people; Father‐ mother ideology; Model rule
Index
Paternalism, see Caring for the people; Father‐mother ideology; Pastoral power Pigs, 108–9, 136, 161; in Dong Zhongshu’s method, 41–43, 198– 99; in yu sacrifice, 67; in Ji Da‐ kui’s method, 143–44, 147, 241– 42, 248 Performance, 46–48, 166–74 passim; and relationship to liturgy, 151– 54. See also Spectacle Pomeranz, Kenneth, 83–84, 179, 183 Popular pressure, 85, 155–74, 191– 91 Praying for fair weather (qiuqing 求晴), 39, 78, 159–60; using Ji Dakui’s method, 238–39, 247, 249–50 Prohibitions against slaughter, 4–6, 7–21 passim, 89–94, 156; break‐ ing prohibitions, 10, 158–60; in imperial rainmaking, 52, 55. See also Fasting Qingbai leichao 清稗類抄 (Classified collection of Qing notes), 60–62 Qingshigao 清史稿 (Draft Qing history), 56 Rainmaking, illicit, 51, 163, 186 Rawski, Evelyn, 59, 63, 178, 182–83, 193 Register of Sacrifices (sidian 祀典), 51, 66–67, 95, 167, 186, 261n5 Reporting famine (baohuang 報荒 or gaohuang 告荒), 85, 155, 190 Round altar (yuanqiu 圓丘), 52, 54 Rowe, William, 68, 73, 191 Sacrifices: grand (dasi 大祀), 50, 55; secondary (zhongsi 中祀), 50–51; tertiary (qunsi 群祀), 50–52, 203
311
Self‐immolation: and King Tang, 33–37; link to exposing cripples, 35–36; Buddhist, 37, 159; praised in statecraft writings, 71–72; criticized in statecraft writings, 76–78; similarity to animal sacrifices, 94; Zeng Guoquan, 100, 169; relationship to virtue and magical efficacy, 184. See also Dai Feng; Exposure; King Tang of Shang; Liang Fu; Suicide Self‐mutilation, 99 Sewell, William, 47, 260n54 Shahar, Meir, 117 Shanghai International Settlement, 5 Shanghai Mixed Court, 5 Shangshu 尚書 or Shujing 書經 (Book of documents), 31–32, 233–34. See also “Hong fan” Shanhaijing 山海經, 43 Shao Yong 邵雍, 122–23, 269n5 Sharf, Robert, 176, 257n10, 267n54, 279n10 Shijing 詩經 (Book of poetry): and King Xuan, 28–33; and sacrificial offerings, 89; wading pigs and bi lunar mansion, 143, 241–42, 281n16; and sacrifices to Shangdi, 212. See also Ecumenism; There are no spirits not honored, there are no sacrifices withheld; “Yun‐ han” Shils, Edward, 46 Shu Enxu 殳恩煦, 137, 206, 215 Sikuquanshu 四庫全書, 122 Sincerity (cheng 誠), 169–73; and concepts of de and ling, 184–85; in popular prayers, 269n95. See also Ecumenism; Spectacle; Virtue Smith, Richard J., 50, 178, 181–82
312
Index
Snakes: in Dong Zhongshu’s method, 41–42, 197–200; em‐ ployed in rainmaking, 105–6, 136, 168, 184, 197, 235, 270– 71n21 Spectacle: and King Tang’s sacrifice, 37–38; and persistence of rain‐ making tradition, 47–48; in rain‐ making performances, 83, 95– 101 passim, 115–16; and Confu‐ cianism, 116–17; as an official strategy, 153–54; relationship with local community, 169–74; creation of local political order, 188–93 Standardization, 177–83 Statecraft movement, 68–81; associ‐ ation with Ji Dakui’s method, 141; and governmentality, 189 State effect, 190, 192–93. See also Father‐mother ideology; Pastoral power; Sincerity; Spectacle Statutory ritual order, 50–68 passim; undermined by extra‐statutory rituals, 59–64, 67–68, 71, 81–82; illicit worship, 163, 185–86. See also Register of Sacrifices Suicide, criticized in statecraft writings, 77–79; as a rainmaking technique, 100–103, 159; and discussions of virtue, 184. See also Exposure; King Tang of Shang; Self‐immolation Sun Guan 孫觀, 137, 145 Surging Waves Pavilion (Cang‐ langting 滄浪亭), 6, 11–13 Sutton, Donald, 68, 193 Szonyi, Michael, 18, 179, 186–87 Taimiao 太廟 (Imperial Ancestral Temple), 50, 55
Taiping guangji 太平廣記 (Wide gleanings made in the Taiping era), 104 Taiping yulan 太平御覽 (Imperially reviewed encyclopedia of the Taiping era), 44–46 Talismans ( fu 符), 8; criticized in statecraft writings, 76; employed in Ji Dakui’s method, 143–46, 211, 240. See also Incantations Taylor, Romeyn, 177, 181–82 Ter Haar, Barend, 110 Texts, rainmaking: transmission of, 45–48, 135–42, 147–48 There are no spirits not honored, there are no sacrifices withheld (mi shen buju, mi ai sisheng 靡神不 舉靡愛斯牲), 29, 32; in statecraft writings, 70, 75; 117; and Ji Da‐ kui’s method, 124, 213, 235; as the operative principle in rain‐ making, 167, 185, 191; omitted from Qianlong’s version of the “Yunhan,” 261n13. See also Ecumenism; “Yunhan” Tianhou 天后, 66, 187 Tongdian 通典, 38 Turner, Victor, 165 Uterus rainmaking method (yuebofa 月悖法), 78–79, 113 Virtue (de 德), 83–84, 117, 182–85, 269n95. See also Sincerity Von Glahn, Richard, 179 Walking and praying ritual (budao 步禱): in imperial rituals, 52; used in conjunction with Ji Dakui’s method, 132, 136, 233, 235
Index
Wan Gongzhen 萬貢珍, 138 Wang Chong 王充, 84 Wang Gai 王槩, 70, 74–76, 80 Wang Youpu 王又樸, 107 Watson, James, 178–81. See also Standardization Wei Yuan 魏源, 68–69 Wenchang 文昌 (God of Literature), 50, 65, 67, 193 Wenxian tongkao 文獻通考 (Com‐ prehensive collection of docu‐ ments and studies), 51 White Dragon Pool (Bailongtan 白龍潭), 56, 107 Willows, 12; used in Ji Dakui’s ritual, 13–14, 119–20, 126–29 pas‐ sim, 130, 139, 144, 216–22 passim, 228, 230, 237, 240, 243–47 passim; employed in the imperial house‐ hold, 62–63; used in popular rainmaking, 106, 108, 112, 130, 270n21 Wu Yuanbing 吳元炳, 9–13 passim, 16, 111 Wuertong’a 烏爾通阿, 256n5, 266n30 Xiannong 先農 (God of Agriculture), 50, 64, 249, 262n36 Xiao jing 孝經 (Classic of filial piety), 139 Xici commentary, 147, 207, 231–33 passim, 278n8 Xiuzhen shishu 修真十書 (Ten books for cultivating perfection), 61, 262n30 Xu Ke 徐珂, 60–62 Xu Wenbi 徐文弼, 108 Xu Yisheng 徐以升, 53–54, 58–59, 69–70 Xu Zechun 徐澤醇, 138, 141, 208, 232, 278
313
Xuanmiao Abbey 玄妙觀 (Suzhou), 9–10, 254 Yang Xiling 楊錫齡, 124 Ye Tingjuan 葉廷眷, 6–8 Ye Xiaoqing, 87, 265n9, 267n45 Ye Yuren 葉裕仁, 73 Yi the Archer (Houyi 后羿), 34 Yijing 易經 (Book of changes): and dragons, 43–44; Ji Dakui’s interest in, 122–25; as the basis for Ji Dakui’s method, 126–32, 204–7 passim, 215, 224, 231–37 passim; attractiveness to officials, 138–39 Yin and yang: drought as imbalance of, 15, 37, 63; in Dong Zhong‐ shu’s cosmological thinking, 39– 43, 107–9, 199; harmonized through meditation, 60; as a female principle, 63, 112–13; in closing the city gates, 97, 109, 268n82; absorbed by drought demon, 110; and cross‐dressing, 112–14; association with sexual intercourse, 113, 277n14; in Ji Dakui’s method, 131, 139, 235, 236. See also Dong Zhongshu; Gender Yiwen leiju 藝文類聚 (Collection of literature arranged by category), 33, 46 Yu the Great (Dayu 大禹), 34–36, 260nn23–24 Yu Zhengxie 俞正燮, 77–80, 82, 101, 264n59 Yu Zhongde 于鍾德, 101 Yu 雩 sacrifice, 38–39, 140, 203, 205, 213, 233, 261n13; at the imperial level, 52–56; at the local level, 67; described in statecraft writings, 69–74 passim
314
Index
Yuhuang dadi 玉皇大帝, see Jade Emperor “Yunhan” 雲漢, 28–33, 46, 109, 117, 203, 213; and the yu sacrifice, 52; Qianlong’s version, 55, 261n13; promoted by statecraft writers, 69–70, 77 Zeng Guofan 曾國藩, 87, 100 Zeng Guoquan 曾國荃, 100–101, 169 Zhang Pengfei 張鵬飛, 80, 108
Zhang Xiaohong 張曉虹, 154 Zhang Xing 張星, 136 Zheng Hong 鄭弘, 254n24 Zhou 咒, see Incantations Zhou Zhiyuan 周致元, 101, 255n43 Zhouli 周禮 (Rites of Zhou), 53, 55, 58, 70, 140, 205, 213, 279n14 Zhu Xi 朱熹, 32, 170, 175, 205, 270n11, 278n7 Zito, Angela, 114–15, 193 Zuozhuan 左傳, 36