Drugs and Democracy in Latin America: The Impact of U.S. Policy 9781685853488

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DRUGS AND DEMOCRACY IN LATIN AMERICA

Published in association with the

Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA)

DRUGS AND DEMOCRACY IN LATIN AMERICA The Impact of U.S. Policy

edited by

Coletta A. Youngers Eileen Rosin

L~E

R.l EN N ER. PUBLI SH EftS

B 0 U L DE It LON D ON

Published in the United States of America by Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. 1800 30th Street, Boulder, Colorado 80301 www.rienner.com and in the United Kingdom by Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. 3 Henrietta Street, Covent Garden, London WC2E 8LU © 2005 by Lynne Rienner Publishers, Inc. All rights reserved ISBN-13: 978-1-58826-278-3 (hc : alk. paper) ISBN-13: 978-1-58826-254-7 (pb : alk. paper) Printed and bound in the United States of America The paper used in this publication meets the requirements of the American National Standard for Permanence of Paper for Printed Library Materials Z39.48-1992.

Contents

vii ix

List of Illustrations Acknowledgments

The U.S. "War on Drugs": Its Impact in Latin America and the Caribbean Coletta A. Youngers and Eileen Rosin

2 3

4

5 6

7 8 9 10

1

The U.S. Military in the War on Drugs Adam Isacson

15

U.S. Police Assistance and Drug Control Policies Rachel Neild

61

Colombia: A Vicious Circle of Drugs and War Maria Clemencia Ramirez Lemus, Kimberly Stanton, and John Walsh

99

Bolivia: Clear Consequences Kathryn Ledebur

143

Peru: Drug Control Policy, Human Rights , and Democracy Isaias Rojas

185

Ecuador: Untangling the Drug War Fredy Rivera Velez

231

Mexico: The Militarization Trap Laurie Freeman and Jorge Luis Sierra

263

The Caribbean: The "Third Border" and the War on Drugs Jorge Rodriguez Beruff and Gerardo Cordero

303

The Collateral Damage of the U.S. War on Drugs: Conclusions and Recommendations Coletta A . Youngers

339

v

vi

Contents

Appendix 1: An Overview of U.S. Laws and Agencies Related to International Drug Control Efforts Appendix 2: Funding and Staffing for DEA Programs in Latin America, 1998-2004 List of Abbreviations and Acronyms Selected Bibliography The Contributors Index About the Book

367 385 387 389 397 401 415

Illustrations

Map Latin America and the Caribbean

2

Tables

2.1 Examples of Counterdrug Military and Police Units Created with U.S. Support 2.2 U.S. Military and Police Aid to Latin America and the Caribbean, 1997-2002 2.3 Types of Assistance Authorized by Section 1004 2.4 Section 1004 Aid: Top Ten Recipients and Regional Total, 1997-2001 2.5 Drawdowns, 1996-1999 2.6 Top 10 Latin American Recipients of Training, 2002 (by funding source) 3.1 Sensitive Investigative Units in Latin America and the Caribbean 3.2 FY2003 Funding for Narcotics Law Enforcement, Rule of Law, and ICITAP Programs 3.3 Impacts of Reform Strategies Versus Counterdrug Strategies on Policing 5.1 Deaths and Injuries Incurred During Drug Control Efforts in the Chapare 9.1 U.S. International Narcotics Control (INC) Aid, 1997-2005, Andes Versus the Caribbean 9.2 Seizures of Cocaine and Cannabis in Puerto Rico, 1997-2001 Figures 1.1 U.S. Aid to Latin America and the Caribbean, 1997-2005

1.2 Coca Cultivation in the Andes, 1988-2003 2.1 Forward Operating Locations/Cooperative Security Locations vii

25 34 36 37 40 41 75 89 90 164 313 328

6 7 29

viii 2.2 3.1 3.2 4.1 4.2 4.3 4.4 5.1 6.1 6.2 6.3 7.1 7.2 8.1 8.2 8.3 9.1 9.2

Illustrations

Military and Police Aid to Colombia and Its Neighbors DEA Funding, 1998-2004 DEA Staffing in Latin America (Agents and Other Personnel) U.S. Aid to Colombia, 1997-2005 Colombian Coca Cultivation, 1995-2003 Colombian Coca Cultivation by Region, 1998-2002 Share of Responsibility for Noncombatant Deaths and Forced Disappearances U.S. Aid to Bolivia, 1997-2005 U.S. Aid to Peru, 1997-2005 Average Price of Coca Leaf Paid to Farmers in Peru, 1995-2002 Net Coca Cultivation and Eradication in Peru, 1990-2002 U.S. Aid to Ecuador, 1997-2005 Ecuador's Northern Border Mexican Opium Cultivation Areas, 1999 U.S. Aid to Mexico, 1997-2005 Participation of the Mexican Armed Forces in Drug Control Efforts, 1990-2003 Major Cocaine Routes in the Caribbean, 2003 Deaths from Overdoses in Puerto Rico

47 72 73 108 114 115 126 147 199 210 211 237 246 271 273 284 307 326

Acknowledgments

T

his volume is the result of the three-year Drugs, Democracy, and Human Rights Project carried out by the Washington Office on Latin America (WOLA), a nonprofit policy, research, and advocacy organization working to advance democracy, human rights, and social justice in Latin America and the Caribbean. Founded in 1974, WOLA plays a leading role in Washington policy debates about Latin America. WOLA facilitates dialogue among governmental and nongovernmental actors, monitors the impact of policies and programs of governments and international organizations, and promotes alternatives through reporting, education, and advocacy. Since 1989, WOLA has documented and analyzed the impact of U.S. international drug control policy across the region, resulting in numerous publications and conferences and ongoing dialogue with policymakers. We want to express our deep appreciation to the contributors to this volume, who dedicated their time and energy to this research project. In addition to those listed in the contributors section on page 397, we particularly want to acknowledge the work of Rut Diamint, who carried out the research on the Southern Cone, and Rick Rockwell, who coordinated the research on Central America. Ana Carolina Alpirez also provided significant information on Guatemala. Though not included in this volume, their analyses are fundamental to the project's purpose and conclusions and can be accessed via our website (www.wola.org). In addition, two WOLA consultants-Sandra Edwards in Ecuador and Kathryn Ledebur in Bolivia-produced regular memos that were released as part of this project. Our colleagues Martin Jelsma and Pien Metaal of the Transnational Institute in Amsterdam guided us through the workings of the United Nations drug control apparatus. Lora Lumpe and Joy Olson provided research and documentation on U.S. police assistance programs vital to our understanding of their role in U.S. international drug policy. One of the chapter contributors, Adam Isacson, deserves special recognition for his unwavering willingness to provide information and to review chapters. ix

X

Acknowledgments

We are grateful for the funding provided by the Open Society Institute, which made this project possible, and the consistent support provided by Aryeh Neier and George Vickers. Additional support was provided by the Ford Foundation, the John Merck Fund, and the General Service Foundation. The Drugs, Democracy, and Human Rights Project was initiated by former WOLA executive director George Vickers and former deputy and executive director Bill Spencer. Numerous former and present WOLA staff members have also contributed to the project, including: Gina Amantangelo, Rachel Farley, Jason Hagen, Tina Hodges, Gabi KruksWisner, Katie Malouf, Rachel Neild, Eric Olson, Kimberly Stanton, Geoff Thale, and John Walsh. Special merit goes to executive director Joy Olson and associate Laurie Freeman, both of whom dedicated significant time and energy to the production of this volume. WOLA financial manager Nadia Malley helped keep our budget in order. The following WOLA interns also provided assistance: Margaret Hughart, Annise Maguire, Mira Mendoza, Diana Ramirez, Andrea Rogoff, Eleni Wolfe-Roubatis, and Aaron Zeichner. JoAnn Kawell and Cathy Sunshine provided invaluable assistance in editing and preparing this volume for presentation to the publisher. Book chapters originally in Spanish were translated by Lucien Chauvin. Juan Luis Guillen and Enrique Bossio translated chapters from English into Spanish for publication in Latin America. We are also grateful to the many individuals who took the time to review and comment on earlier drafts. Among those who deserve mention are: Robert Albro , Jo-Marie Burt, Chuck Call, Roderic Ai Camp , Jim Cason, Gillian Clissold, Jennifer N. Collins, Kevin Healy, Carlos Indacochea, William LeoGrande , Robert Perito, Ted Piccone , John Lindsey-Poland, Ken Sharpe, Michael Shifter, Francisco Thoumi, and Bill Walker. WOLA board members Dick Erstad, Louis Goodman , William LeoGrande, Cynthia McClintock, and Lars Shoultz provided inestimable guidance as well. Initial advice was also given by Carol Bergman, Tom Cardamone, Lisa Haugaard, Amit Pandya, and Sanho Tree. Winifred Tate provided significant guidance to us on Colombia. Jeremy Bigwood provided important documentation through his never-ending quest to obtain official information via Freedom of Information Act requests . The National Security Archive's Peru Documentation Project, headed by Tamara Feinstein, was the source of significant information for the chapter on Peru. Margaret Popkin answered innumerable questions on Latin American legal systems and terminology. Each chapter author would also like to thank a list of individuals and organizations that contributed to his or her research and writing efforts and/or who gave of their time in interviews. Though they are too numerous

Acknowledgments

xi

to include here, we wish to acknowledge the input of all of those across the region who participated, in some way, in this project. Finally, we wish to thank Lynne Rienner for having the faith and confidence in WOLA to support the publication of this volume and for her patience with our extended deadlines. While the views expressed in this volume are those of the authors and the editors alone, the insights provided by the colleagues referred to above greatly strengthened the chapters presented here. The editors and the Washington Office on Latin America are responsible for the content of the introduction and conclusion (Chapters 1 and 10, respectively). This volume is the culmination of many years of research and analysis on U.S. international drug control policy. The most important acknowledgment of our work will come from increased public and policymaker debate on drug policy issues and, ultimately, a shift toward alternative policies that are both more effective and more humane. C.A.Y. E.R.

DRUGS AND DEMOCRACY IN LATIN AMERICA

The U.S. "War on Drugs": Its Impact in Latin America and the Caribbean Coletta A. Youngers and Eileen Rosin

T

he extensive illicit drug trade and U.S. policies designed to reduce it have stimulated significant academic research both in the United States and elsewhere in the Western Hemisphere. Much of that literature concurs that these policies have failed to realize their objectives to reduce significantly the production and availability of illicit drugs. There is also much research on the impact of drug production and consumption as well as on drug control policies themselves. This volume, in contrast, is about a relatively little-researched topic: the collateral damage of the U.S. "war on drugs." It is the first systematic study of U.S. drug policy that identifies key policy components and analyzes policy impacts and tendencies regionwide. The project examined what the war on drugs means for institutions and policy arenas central to the future of democracy and human rights, including the military, the police, and the judicial and legal systems. Our report begins with two detailed studies, on U.S. military and police counterdrug assistance programs, that together provide a comprehensive picture of U.S. international drug control policy. It then presents six case studies, covering five countries considered central to international drug control efforts-Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Mexico, and Peru-as well as the Caribbean, considered by the United States to be a key transit zone for illicit drugs. (Not all parts of Latin America have felt the impacts of U.S. drug control policy as directly as the countries covered in the case studies. Consequently, although Central America and the Southern Cone were part of our larger investigation, they are not included in this volume. I) The results of the study clearly show the very real costs of what has become an unwinnable war. We hope it will serve to make the drug war's collateral damage a significant part of the debate on drug policy in both the United States and Latin America.

• The U.S. "War on Drugs" In the mid-1980s, the explosion of crack cocaine and its related violence in the United States set in motion many of the hard-line U.S. drug control

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