Dialogue Between Cultures & Exchanged of Knowledge and Cultural Ideas Between India, Iran, Turkey & Central Asia, With Special Reference to the Sasanian and Gupta Dynasty 9789387263758

Citation preview

THREE DAY INTERNATIONAL SEMINER ON DIALOGUE BETWEEN CULTURES & EXCHANGED OF KNOWLEDGE AND CULTURAL IDEAS BETWEEN INDIA, IRAN, TURKEY & CENTRAL ASIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE SASANIAN AND GUPTA DYNASTY

Proceedings

8 - 10 February, 2018

i

DIALOGUE BETWEEN CULTURES & EXCHANGED OF KNOWLEDGE AND CULTURAL IDEAS BETWEEN INDIA, IRAN, TURKEY & CENTRAL ASIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE SASANIAN AND GUPTA DYNASTY

Editors Prof. Rekibuddin Ahmed Dr. Owahedur Zaman

Published by Department of Persian Gauhati University, Guwahati, Assam, INDIA

ii

DIALOGUE BETWEEN CULTURES & EXCHANGED OF KNOWLEDGE AND CULTURAL IDEAS BETWEEN INDIA, IRAN, TURKEY & CENTRAL ASIA WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO THE SASANIAN AND GUPTA DYNASTY

Editorial Advisory Board Dr. Baharul Ali, Gauhati University, Guwahati

Dr. Abul Kalam Choudhury Gauhati University, Guwahati

Dr. Saifudheen Kunju.S Gauhati University, Guwahati

Dr. Safirun Choudhury Gauhati University, Guwahati

First Edition February, 2018 ISBN: 978-93-87263-75-8 ©Publisher Price:

350 $ 30

Published by: Department of Persian Gauhati University Guwahati, Assam, INDIA Printed at: Purbayon Publication Satmile, Guwahati, Assam, INDIA All Rights Reserved. No portion of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted without permission of the publisher. The views expressed in the articles belong exclusively to their writers and are not necessarily those of the editor.

iii

Table of Contents Preface

vi

Indo-Persian Relations With Reference to the Gupta-Sassanid Period Prof. Amit Dey

1

Knowledge beyond boundaries: Transmissions of Indian Medical Literature and Information in the Perso-Arabic World Prof. Nupur Dasgupta

25

The Traces Of Birds In Indian, Iranian And Turkish Culture Asuman SENEL

48

Art of Translation and Persian Works on Kazakh literature Ateybekova Nurzyia

74

An analysis of the style of the books of Ghezlan al-Hend and Abda al-Bada'a Mehdi Mohammadinejad

77

Research issues of rare books and manuscripts related toIndian and Iranian cultures in the central scientific library of the Republic of Kazakhstan Gulshat Abikova

88

Indo-Iran Relations in the perspective of Sociolinguistic & Culture Javed Ahmad Khan

95

Iranian Geo-cultural Capacities and Its Impact on Expanding Cultural Interactions with India Fatemeh Soleimani Pourlak

113

Cultural Remnants of the Ancient Iran in the Turkish Classical Works of the XІXIІ centuries Assoc. Prof. Zubaida Shadkam

146

Arta and Aša in proper names and the range of their political and religious concepts Mojtaba Doroodi, Sanaz Mohajelin

159

An Investigation of cultural Interconnection of Iran and India in Myth Shahnaz Valipour Hafshejani, Hossein Bagheri

175

The Maritime Network of the Sasanids in the Gupta period and Beyond Suchandra Ghosh

204

Semantic Interpretation In The Tajik-Persian Dictionaries Giyаsova Firuza

215

The Mother goddess in Hindu, Iranian and Minor Asia mythologies

222

Vahid Rooyani iv

‫‪236‬‬

‫‪A Study on the Medieval Assamese Sufi literature‬‬ ‫‪Dr. Owahedur Zaman‬‬

‫‪245‬‬

‫‪Age old Indo-Iran ties‬‬ ‫‪Dr. Wasif Ahmad‬‬

‫‪301‬‬

‫اضتراک ات ایراى ّذ ٌُ با رّیک در ب َاس طْر ٍ ّدیي‬ ‫ّاک اّی‬

‫‪326‬‬

‫باسیاى‬ ‫یاس ی ّ اجتواعی ع‬ ‫فع بر ًگرش س‬ ‫لیل َ ّ د هٌ َی ابي هق‬ ‫أثیر ترجوَ ک‬ ‫ت‬

‫‪347‬‬

‫‪��K‬‬ ‫فیس لْفاى‬ ‫ریط َ ُاي یْ ًاًي هصطلحات‬

‫‪382‬‬

‫باستاى‬ ‫اس طْرةخْرضیذ در فرٌُگ ٌُذ ّ ایراى‬ ‫ضِر ٍ جْادی‪ ،‬علی ًیکْیی‪ ،‬خلیل بِراهیقصرچوی‬

‫‪394‬‬

‫ٌُذ‬

‫اعظنقلع‬

‫َ ًْی‪ً ،‬ازی سٌگسفیذی‬

‫وعیلی‬ ‫رضحسیٌی‪ ،‬پْریااس‬ ‫لی ا‬ ‫دکتر ع‬ ‫هٌص ْرهیر‬

‫در ضب َقا رٍ‬ ‫ذى ایراى‬ ‫ًفْرف رٌُگ ّ تو‬

‫دکتر سیذدمحمرضا دا ّدی‬ ‫���لی ًژاد‪،‬‬ ‫دکترفضل‬ ‫‪420‬‬

‫‪��K‬‬ ‫با زًوایی رّابظ ّ عٌاصرف رٌُگی هطتر ک ٌُذ ّ ایراى در ٍدّرپیص از‬

‫‪450‬‬

‫لیل َ ّ د هٌ َ‬ ‫بررسی ظرفیت ُای ًوایطی ک‬

‫‪466‬‬

‫رّابظ ادب ی ّف رٌُگ ی ایراى ّ ٌُذ رد آییٌ َاس طْر ٍ ّ حواس َ‬

‫علی هظ ّ‬ ‫فر‬

‫دکتر رحوت اهیٌی‪،‬دکترطیب َ پرتْی راد‬ ‫هِراى بیغوی‪ ،‬سکیٌَ دضتی اى ًژاد‬

‫‪494‬‬

‫ٌگسلسلَ ساسی اًایراى ّ سلسلَ گْپتا ی ُ ٌذ‬ ‫رّابظ تاریخ ی ّف رُی‬

‫‪517‬‬

‫فیي‬ ‫تکی َبر حفع ح قْق طر‬ ‫‪��K‬ف رٌُگ ی ایراى ّذ ٌُ با‬ ‫ق تعا‬ ‫طبیی‬ ‫بررسی ت‬

‫‪535‬‬

‫‪��K‬حی‪ ،‬علی هسارعی‬ ‫عسگ‬ ‫یُاد گی اُپْر‬

‫حا ضیرازی‬ ‫اسی ساقی ًا هِیفع‬ ‫رسی ساختاری ّ ضکل ضٌ‬ ‫بر‬

‫ریسا کط اّرز حویذ‬ ‫جتبی پاکساد‪ ،‬پ‬ ‫ه‬ ‫‪547‬‬

‫دبیاتفارسی‬ ‫تکی َبر ا‬ ‫پیْ ًذُایف رٌُگ ی ایراى ّ ٌُذ در دّ ٍر گ ْرکاًیاى با‬

‫زُر ٍضیط َ چی‬ ‫‪577‬‬

‫فیت ُای ًوایطی حول َ ی حیذری بارل هط ِذی‬ ‫درآهذیبر ظر‬

‫حسیيپْرضب اًاى‬ ‫لیرضاپْرضب اًاى‪ ،‬اهیر‬ ‫دکتر ع‬

‫‪v‬‬

Preface The proposed Three day International Seminar entitled as ―Dialogue Between Cultures (Indian & Persian) & Exchanged of Ancient Indian Knowledge and Cultural ideas Between India, Iran, Turkey

& Central Asia

With Special

Reference to the Gupta and Sasanian Dynasty ‖ was held on 8th to 10th February, 2018. The main objective of the Seminar is to review the values of discipline, conservation, peace, harmony and understanding promoted by the Indian and Persian culture. The idea is to strengthen the special cultural relations between the two countries in near future. It is also an endeavour to remind the exchange of ancient Indian knowledge based on spiritual and philosophical teachings ever given to humanity and promoting of values amongst the people of this regions. The history of the civilization and culture of India is extremely fascinating. India is a land of wonders, of strange and inexplicable notions and beliefs. All the Cultural elite and intellectuals confess that Iran is one of the greatest civilizations of the world with a rich cultural heritage which has had exceptional ties and bonds with India throughout the history. India and Iran have shared brotherly relations since as far back as history can recall. They share a common racial origin and being part of the same geographical territory, their peoples share many common and similar features – similarity can be noted in their language, dress, food, art, customs as well as in the basic human nature of these warm and hospitable peoples. The Vedic literature is replete with the values of discipline, conservation, peace, harmony and non-violence which have direct bearings upon the modern thoughts of civilization. Moreover, the oldest Indian literary monument the Veda deserves a unique position in the history of world literature. The Veda is the source of knowledge which does not denote any one single literary work like perhaps the word ‗Quran’ or any compact collection of a definite number of books, completed at any particular time, like the word ‗Bible’ (the ‘book per vi

excellence‘) or like the word ‗Tipiṭaka’ the sacred book of the Buddhists, but a large extent of literature that came into being in the course of many millennia and was transmitted centuries long from generation to generation by oral tradition which was declared as ‗sacred knowledge‘ as ‗divine revelation‘ on account of its age as well as its content. The ‗Veda’ or Vedic literature comprises of three different classes of literary works (viz., Saṁhitā, Brāhmaṇa and Sūtra) and to each of these classes belong a large or small number of individual works, of which some have been preserved but many have been lost today. All these literature exhibit the real picture of the Indian civilization, culture and society. The Indo-Iranian contacts regularly from the establishment of the Sasanian dynasty by Ardshir Babkan (A.D.226-240) represents the culmination of Iranian glory. Its duration 226-651 happlily synchronized with the great Gupta dynasty of India (308 -544), the classic period of Sanskrit literature and the golden age of Hinduism in pre –Islamic times. From the cultural history of nations we find that Iran has not only influenced other countries but has also served as an efficient intermediary for the transmission and exchange through itself of various cultural ideas of East and West. The Sasanian kings were enlightened patrons of letters and philosophy. Khosrau I had the works of Plato and Aristotle translated into Pahlavi taught at Gundishapur, and even read them himself. During his reign, many historical annals were compiled, of which the sole survivor is the Karnamak-i Artaxshir-i Papakan (Deeds of Ardashir), a mixture of history and romance that served as the basis of the Iranian national epic, the Shahnameh. When Justinian I closed the schools of Athens, seven of their professors fled to Persia and found refuge at Khosrau's court. In time they grew homesick, and in his treaty of 533 with Justinian, the Sasanian king stipulated that the Greek sages should be allowed to return and be free from persecution. Under Khosrau I, the Academy of Gundishapur, which had been founded in the 5th century, became "the greatest intellectual center of the time", drawing students and teachers from every quarter of the known world. Artistically, the vii

Sasanian period witnessed some of the highest achievements of Iranian civilization. Much of what later became known as Muslim culture, including architecture and writing, was originally drawn from Persian culture. At its peak, the Sasanian Empire stretched from western Anatolia to northwest India (nowadays Afghanistan/Pakistan), but its influence was felt far beyond these political boundaries. Sasanian motifs found their way into the art of Central Asia and China, the Byzantine Empire, and even Merovingian France. Islamic art however, was the true heir to Sasanian art, whose concepts it was to assimilate while, at the same time instilling fresh life and renewed vigor into it. During the reign of Sassanian king Noshirvan (531-576 AD), scientists and other scholars were exchanged between Persia and India. During the same period, the game of chess (Chaturang in India) is believed to have been introduced in Persia from India (known as Shatranj). Later, when Persia was conquered by the Arabs, the game quickly spread all over the middle east and then to Europe. The original game was played on 64 squares (astapada) with a king piece and pieces of four other types, corresponding to the corps of the ancient Indian army – an elephant, a horse, a chariot or ship and four footmen. Panchtantra, the collection of Indian fables – instructions about conduct of one's affairs, was translated from Sanskrit to Pehalvi by Burzoy-e-Tabib who called it KalilavaDemna. From Persia it travelled to the west. Abdullah ibnMuquaffa translated this Pehalvi text into Arabic. There exist several versions of the text in Persian written by Rudki (10th century AD), Nasrullah bin Mohd bin Abdul Hamid Munshi (15th century AD) and a version by Abdul Fazal (16th century AD). The later Arabian Nights owes several of its stories and themes to India. The Gupta Empire was ruled by members of the Gupta dynasty from around 320 to 550 AD and covered most of North-central India. The time of the Gupya Empire is referred to as Golden Age of India in science, mathematics, astronomy, religion and philosophy. Historians place the Gupta dynasty alongside

viii

with the Han Dynasty, Tang Dynasty and Roman Empire as a model of classical civilization. Most probably the Guptas came from Bengal. At the beginning of the 4th century the Guptas ruled a few small Hindu kingdoms in Magadha and around modern-day Uttar Pradesh. We get plenty of information about this dynasty through coins, inscriptions, monuments and Sanskrit writings. The Gupta rulers were great conquerors and good administrators. This brought on economic prosperity which led to cultural expansion. Gupta society was ordered in accordance with Hindu beliefs. This included a strict class system (varna system). A series of invasions weakened the empire, but many of their cultural and intellectual achievements were saved and transmitted to other cultures and live on today. The Gupta period ended in A.D. 544; the Sasanian power throve in the plenitude of its glory for about a century longer and the connection with India continued to be even more intimate than what it was in the past. The contact between Iran and India attained its climax in the times of Naushirwan (531 – 579), the most illustrious of Sasanian monarchs, who was himself an author, a devotee of philosophy and a magnanimous patron of learning, presiding at the great intellectual centre established by him, known as ― Jund-i-Shahpur‖. Naushirwan, as it is told, had come to know of a miraculous Indian herb which was said to revive the dead, and he thereupon asked his physician Barzu to fetch it from India. But all Barzu‘s endeavour ended in disappointment, till he was asked by an aged Indian pandit to give up his fruitless attempts, for education, was the only means to revive the ― dead‖ ,and the gift of knowledge was the gift of life itself. The pandit further suggested that in the library of a certain Indian king there was a book named Kalileh wa Damaneh, so ― full of wise saws and modern instances‖ as may be supposed to revive the ― dead‖. Baurzu procured this lifegiving miracle from the Indian king and took it to Iran, where it was translated into Pahlabi by order of Naushirwan. This very book is famous as the Fables of Pilpai or Bidpai; in fact it is a collection of stories whose origin is traceable to that inexhaustible mine of ix

wisdom known as the Panchtantra. In this great Sanskrit work, as in Aesop’s Fables, beasts are made to talk in human language and the stories are highly didactic and instructive. The Panchtantra has been translated into sixty different languages. The poet Rudaki rendered Ibn Muqaffa‘s

Arabic translation into

Persian verse, but its most famous version in Persian literature was the prose rendering of Maulana Husain Wa‘ez Kashefi of the 15th century. This book, dealing with Kalileh an Damaneh, was named by its author Anwar - i-Suhali (the lights of Canopus) from the name of his patron Amir Shaikh Ahmad as Suhali. It was in the reign of Naushirwan that the game of chess was introduced into Iran from India. As related in brief Pahlavi work - the Madigan-i-chtrang (account of chess), this game was invented in India and dispatched to Naushiwan by the tributary Indian king Devsaram through a pandit named Takhtaritus with a challenege for its solution. The best brains of Iran were applied to the game in vain, which yielded at last to the ingenuity of the prime minister Buzurjmehr, who amidst general astonishment and applause determined the importance, position and movement of every piece on the chess-board. In the reign of Khusru Parviz (590 -628), the grandson of Naushirwan, an incident of political significance between Iran and India was seen. It appears that gold and silver coins of Khusru Parwiz were struck at Multan, depicting on the observe the best of that monarch and on the reverse the effigy of the sun. As is well known sun-worship was prevalent at Multan, where a temple of the sun near the river Chinab was built by the Mag Brahmins, as observed previously. In this context mention may be made about Assamese and Bengali language. A large number of Persian words have been using and are being occupied an important

place in this two languages including some other

languages of N.E India. Similarly different folk dances and music give the evidence of the cultural synthesis for which such type of programme is required to organize. Indian Music by virtue of its long traditions and scientific principles still maintains singularity among the popular systems of world music, of its main two x

schools, the southern largely remained aloof from alien influence while the music of north India did absorb some elements of Persian music. The Persian influence is clearly seen in the name of some compositions like khayal, qaul, tarana, jikir or zikri that found their way to Indian music as a result of close contact between Persian and Indian musicians. India and Iran are the ancient countries of civilization and from the antiquity to the present day they have been interacting with

each other

ideologically, academically and culturally. The study of Sanskrit and Pahlavi shows the affinity underlining the Indo-Iranian civilizations but the most durable contact between India and Iran can be seen in the translation of the Panchatantra from Sanskrit into Pahlavi in the 6th century A.D. The emergence of Achaemenian Empire saw that in Asia Minor and on the shores of the Aegean, the Persians had come face to face with the Greek civilization possessing different types of political and economic organizations. The Achaemenians were well aware of the superiority of the ancient civilization included in their empire. The empire provided an opportunity of interaction between India and Greek civilizations. In the Achaemenian empire, of which the Greeks living in Ionia and the Indians north-west were the integral parts. Similarly the Hindustani classical music in its present day form is the result of a long process of integrating many, diverse cultural influences in India. The impact of Moghul rulers on classical music was primarily through the introduction of Turko-Persian musical elements that distinguishes Hindustani classical music from its predecessor, Carnatic classical music. Carnatic classical music is more common in southern India. Historical roots of both Hindustani and Carnatic classical music traditions stem from Bharata's Naatyashaastra (4th Century B.C.). The two traditions started to diverge only around 14th Century A.D. Indian musicians, whether from north or south, essentially regard their music as a means of spiritual exploration, a path of realisation, in addition to deriving aesthetic enjoyment. The music is not preconceived but pre-written. xi

While the underlying notes are pre-written, within the framework of the rules governing the raaga, the musician has complete freedom to exercise full imagination and creativity. As the famous Hindustani Sarod artist Ustad Amjad Ali Khan puts it succintly, "Freedom within discipline." The composer's intent is written, but the conception of the music from it is left to the performer. Therefore, the proposed Three Day International Seminar will find out an idea of making dialogue between Indian and Persian culture and Indian ancient knowledge to promote mutual understanding, human values, bilateral relations between India and Iran. This academic discussions will remind the great Indian and Persian heritage & values for establishing peace and tolerance in this regions.

xii

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Indo-Persian Relations With Reference to the Gupta-Sassanid Period Dr. Amit Dey Professor of History Calcutta University The Indus Valley (Harappan) civilization, which is one of the oldest historically known civilizations, was located in ancient India, and was contemporary with the Proto Elamite and Elamite civilizations in ancient Iran. The Indus people, and their ancestors, had trade links with Iran, the ancient civilization of Mesopotamia, and Egypt. India imported silver, copper, turquoise and lapis lazuli from Persia in return for ivory.1 Significant linkages between Iran and India continued during the Achaemenid period(in Iran) when the Mauryans were reigning supreme in India. Parts of northwestern subcontinent(modern day Pakistan) came under Persian rule with the emergence of the Achaemenid empire in Persia, founded by Hakhāmaniš. Indian emissaries were present at the courts of Cyrus the Great or Kurush (590 BCE - 529 BCE), whose empire extended as far east as Gandhara and Sind. It is also believed that when Cyrus was threatened by Croesus of Lydia, he received military

assistance

from

at

least

one

Indian

king.2 Under Darius

I orDarayava(h)ush (519 BCE - 485 BCE), inscriptions refer to Persian relations with India. The Behistunrock inscription (ancient Bagastana "place of Gods") dating back to 519 BCE includes Gandhara in the list of his subject countries. The epigraph of Nakhsh-i-Rustam shows India as the 24th province of his empire. It was believed to be the richest in Darius's empire. Herodotus mentions the wealth and density of the Indus population and the tribute paid to Darius: The population of the Indians is by far the greatest of all the people that we know; and they paid tribute proportionately larger than all the rest – (the sum of) 360 talents of gold dust. Herodotus also tells us about the Indian contingent in the Persian armies consisting of

infantry,

cavalry,

and

chariots.

3

Later,

elephants

are

also

mentioned. Under Xerxes I or Khshaya-arsha , the successor of Darius, Indians

1

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. (particularly from the northwest, Bactria and Gandhara) fought alongside the Persian army against the Greeks in the battlefields of Plataea and Marathon.4 During the same time India experienced the emergence of the Maurya Empire, which was led by Chandragupta Maurya of Magadha in modern day Bihar. They were focusing on annexing Central Asia. Seleucus is said to have reached a peace treaty with Chandragupta by giving control of the territory south of the Hindu Kush to him upon intermarriage and 500 elephants. Mauryans were followers of Hinduism and Buddhism. In terms of geographical expanse, the empire stretched to the north along the natural boundaries of the Himalayas, and to the east stretching into what is now Assam province in India. To the west, it spilled over beyond modern Pakistan, annexing Balochistan, south eastern parts of Iran and

much

of

what

is

now Afghanistan,

including

the

modern Herat and Kandahar provinces.5 Achaemenian art and architecture had a significant influence on northwestern part of Maurya India. There is heavy evidence of writing in northwestern India even in the pre-Mauriyan period. It has been argued that the idea of issuing decrees by Ashoka was borrowed from the Achaemenian emperors, especially from Darius. The use of this means of propagating official messages and the individual style of the inscriptions in ancient Iran and Greece is similar.6 The Achaemenids introduced coinage, which facilitated exchange. Trade link between India and Iran was established. India exported spices like black pepper and imported gold and silver coins from Iran. The grape, introduced from Persia with the almond and walnut, was cultivated in the Hindukush and western Himalayas.7 One of the earliest Persian words for a coin is Karsha (also a small weight).8 According

to

Herodotus, Artaxerxes or Artakshathra exempted

the

inhabitants of four Babylonian villages from taxation in return for their breeding Indian dogs for hunting and war. Dogs are rarely mentioned with respect in ancient Indian literature and was rarely, if ever, treated as a pet. However, the great Indian epic, the Mahabharata, is an exception when we note that the five Pandavas and

2

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. their wife Draupadi take their dog with them on their final pilgrimage to heaven, and the eldest brother Yudhisthira refuses to enter without his faithful friend. It has been suggested that the episode shows Iranian influence, because for the Zoroastrians, the dog was a sacred animal.9 In 330 BCE, Darius III was defeated by Alexander the Great. In the decisive battle of Gaugamela, Indus soldiers with fifteen elephants fought with Darius against the Greeks.10 Alexander marched into South Asia after defeating the Persians. Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of the Mauryan dynasty, had friendly

relations

with

the

successor

of

the Macedonian conqueror

in

Persia. Seleucus Nicator, the Hellenistic ruler of Persia, sent Megasthenes as envoy of Hellenistic Persia to the court of Pataliputra in India, the seat of the Mauryas. The presence of Persian nobles in the royal Mauryan court has been recorded. Tushaspa, a Persian, was present during the reign of Chandragupta Maurya. Under

the

reign

of

King Ashoka of

the

Indian Maurya

Empire, Buddhism was helped to spread throughout the eastern region of Iran. A great number of Buddhist missionaries were sent to spread the teachings of Buddha, and rock edicts set up by Ashoka state that he sent some to his NorthWest territories, which included the eastern territories of modern day Iran.11 The second phase of interweavement of imperial spheres was noticed when the Sassanian period in Persia (226-651 CE) coincided with the Gupta period (308651 CE) in India. The Sassanian monarchs maintained relations with the Gupta empire which was based in Pataliputra. Pulakesin, the ruler of the Deccan, was known in Persia, and there were frequent embassies between Persia and India. Trade flourished as Persian merchants acted as intermediaries in the flow of goods involving

India

and Europe.

One

of

the

murals

in

the Ajanta caves

near Mumbaidepicts a Hindu king with men in Sassanian dress.12 It has been suggested that in the 6th century, items such as sandalwood, magenta, shells, corals, pearls, gold and silver were traded between India and Persia.13 Bam, in south-east Iran, was a major commercial and trading town on the famous Spice

3

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. Road, a major tributary of the Silk Road, that connected trade routes from India through Iran to Central Asia and China. Kushana and Gandhara art incorporated Parthian and east Iranian elements. Sassanian motifs are also visible in Gupta art. On the other side, the Indian peacock, dragons, cocks and

spiral

creepers adorn

Sassanian

monuments.14 The tiles of the Harvan monastery near Srinagar have Sassanianinfluenced decorations, signifying the extent of Sassanid influence in the Kashmir valley.15 According to the Shahnameh of Ferdowsi (11th century CE), the 5th century Sassanian king Bahram V requested Indian king Shangol to select 12,000 "Gypsies", or Indian musicians, and introduced them to Persia. These Gypsies are believed to be the ancestors of the Persian Gypsies. They propagated Indian music and dancing in Persia, and may have travelled further west to Europe in the next four to five hundred years. It is possible that these "Gypsies" are the ancestors of the modern Roma people in Europe. It is also said that Bahram visited India in the 5th century CE. Persian poet Hakim Nizami Ganjavi has alluded to the Indian wife of king Behram in his famous work Haft Paikar (seven figures) indicating instances of inter-marriage.16 During the reign of the Sassanian king Khosrau (531-579 CE), the game of chess (Chaturanga in India) is believed to have been introduced to Persia (where it was known as Shatranj).17 In the aftermath of Arab conquest of Persia, the game quickly spread all over the middle east and then to Europe. The original game was played on 64 squares (astapada) with a king piece and pieces of four other types, corresponding to the corps of the ancient Indian armies – an elephant (rook), a horse (knight), a chariot or ship and four footmen (pawns).18 Under Khosrau, Jundishpur was developed as a leading center of Persian medicine, in which the Indian Ayurvedic system was syncretized with the Greek system propagated there by the Nestorian Christians. Burzuya, the physician to Khosrau, was sent to India to bring back works on medicine and searched for the so-called "elixir of life". Burzuya on his return is said to have brought stories of

4

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. the Panchatantra with him.19 The Panchatantra is an ancient collection of Indian fables, and Burzuya translated it from Sanskrit to Pahlavi and called it Kalila-va-Demna. Also in the field of medicine, the Charaka Samhita, the famous Indian medical text by the physician Charaka was translated to Persian and then to Arabic in the 7th century. In the field of astronomy, an early Pahlavi book Zik-iShatro Ayar, which was an astronomical work based on Indian elements was translated into Arabic by Al-Tamimi.20 Buddhism became widespread in Persia within a few hundred years of its emergence

in

India.

Under

the

reign

of

King Ashoka of

the Maurya

Empire, Buddhism spread upto Iran. A great number of Buddhist missionaries were sent to spread the teachings of Buddha, and the Ashokan rock edicts state that the Mauryan emperor sent some to his North-West territories, which included the eastern territories of modern day Iran.21 The Kushana king Kanishka in north India became a great patron of Buddhist faith. Kanishka patronized the Gandhara school of Greco-Buddhist art, which introduced Greek and Persian elements into Buddhist iconography. Buddhism became the religion of the east Iranian province of Khorasan through the Kushana emperors. The wellknown biography of the Buddha in Sanskrit – the Buddhacharita, which was composed by Ashvaghosha, was translated into Khotanese, Sogdian and Parthian, followed by Pahlavi, then Arabic and other languages. In Iran, the story of Ibrahim ibn Adham, the prince who abandoned his kingdom to lead a religious life, is modelled on that of the Buddha.22 In the 7th century, after the Persians lost the battle of al-Qādisiyyah in 637 CE to the Islamic Arab armies, the Sassanian dynasty came to an end. In its aftermath, a large community Zoroastrians migrated to India through the Strait of Hormuz. In 712 CE, the Arabs under the command of Muhammad bin Qasim also invaded Sind from the west. One Jadagu from Gujarat is said to have been a maritime trader with Iran.23

5

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. With the spread of Islam in Persia, Zoroastrianism practically disappeared from the country. Some followers of the religion fled Persia and took refuge in western India. They were the ancestors of today's Parsees or Parsis in India. The Parsis began arriving in India from around 636 CE. Their first permanent settlements were at Sanjan, 100 miles north of Bombay. It is said that they built a big fire temple at Sanjan in 790 CE with the fire they had brought from Iran with them.24 According to the legend prevalent among the Parsees, a band of refugees settled first at Diu in Saurashtra and then at Thane near Bombay in the early 8th century.25 Their connection with their co-religionists in Iran seems to have been almost totally broken until later in the 15th century. Even today, Parsis maintain a cultural

relationship

with

Iran,

travelling

to

the

cities

of Tehran, Yazd and Kerman in Iran for pilgrimage. In the modern era, the Parsi community have contributed significantly to India and Pakistan in the areas of politics, industry, science, and culture. Prominent Indian Parsis include Dadabhai Naoroji (three times president of Indian National Congress), Field Marshal Sam Manekshaw, nuclear energy scientist Homi Bhabha, industrialist JRD Tata and the Tata family.26 The literary and cultural linkages between India and Iran have a long history covering almost every aspect of life — social, religious, literary, cultural and intellectual. Referring to the civilizational temperament of Iran, Donald N. Wilber has remarked: Iran was always ready to receive and to recombine foreign ideas, influences and specific artistic forms, a tendency which was apparent in prehistoric times and was specifically underlined by Herodotus when he wrote of the willingness of the Achaemenids to adopt foreign customs.(Iran, p.76).27

6

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. R. Grishman, after surveying the geopolitical dimensions of Iranian culture, deduced that: "Ideas and customs, religions and artistic developments which had taken their rise in Iran left their mark on more than one foreign civilization." (Iran,p.26).28 ― Thus there has been a cycling and recycling of ideas and institutions between Iran and India. Maulana Abul Kalam Azad was of the opinion that the Indian religious ethos was the first to adumbrate the pantheistic approach, that it was from India that pantheism went to Iran, and was then sent back in the form of Persian verses.‖29 When Islam reached Iran the religious ambiance was fragrant with Buddhist and Hindu ideas. The temples of Bamyan, Balkh and Merv were major centres of these religious legacy. Professor Massignon once wrote to Professor K.A.Nizami that according to his researches Mansur Hallaj's mystical thought reached Delhi from Aush through Khwaja Qutb-u'd-din Bakhtiyar Kaki and Qazi Hamid-u'd-din Nagauri. He traced Hallaji centres at Faridpur and Chittagong also. The Karraminyan cult, to which Sultan Shihab-u'd-din Muhammad Ghuri and his elder brother originally belonged, was a continuation of Buddhist traditions and may very appropriately be called a half way house between Buddhism and Islam. Shaikh Ali Hujwiri's Kashf-ul-Mahjub, which the scholar Prince Dara Shukoh recognized as the first book on Islamic mysticism in Persian, mentions twelve mystic garohs which had developed in his day.30 Iran was, in fact, the entrepot of the traditions of many religions'— particularly Zoroastrianism, Buddhism, Christianity, Hinduism and Islam. The Persian language therefore became a vehicle for the communication of the religious teachings of these different religions . It played a remarkable role in transmitting the religious thought of Hinduism and Islam.31 In other words, the Persian language symbolized religious cosmopolitanism. And if we can afford to

7

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. be a little more ambitious, we can go to the extent of ascribing to the Persian language, the role of a custodian for cultural pluralism. It is not surprising that the cosmopolitan Mughals would be fascinated by this language which became a handy weapon in their hands while they tried to legitimize religio-cultural heterogeneity for the perpetuity of their vast empire. Delhi sultans such as Firuz Shah Tughluq and Sikandar Lodi showed some interest in the translation of Sanskrit works on secular subjects into Persian, but a systematic and well-organized way of translating Sanskrit literature on religion, art and science into Persian was left to the eclectic Mughal Emperor Akbar. These Persian translations familiarized the Muslim intelligentsia with Hindu religious thought and accelerated the pace of rapproachment between the various culturegroups in India. The movement initiated by Akbar gathered a new momentum under Dara Shukoh whose Persian translation of the Upanishads is justly considered as one of the finest and most faithful renderings of the original. Dr. Tara Chand was of the opinion that "the credit of introducing the philosophy of the Upanishads to Europe belongs to Dara Shukoh. His translation of the fifty Upanishads from the original Sanskrit into Persian was the first attempt to make them known to people who did not know the Sanskrit language. In the field of scholarship it was an achievement of the highest order".(Cited by Nizami).32 Dara‘s translation of the Upanishad is entitled Sirr-i-Akbar (The great mystry). By encouraging the translations into Persian of works like Mahabharat and Ramayan, Akbar paved the way for comparative religious studies. The great eclectic thinker Abul Fazal wrote the preface of the Persian Mahabharat. Thus Persian played an important role in taking Hindu religious thought to the people, particularly the non-Hindus. Similarly, Muslim religious literature and aspects of Muslim religious thought became more widely known when Quranic and Hadith literature was translated into Persian . Tabari's (ob.923) Arabic tafsir was translated into Persian at the instance of Samanid ruler Abu Salih Mansur b. Nuh (961 -976). This

8

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. translation, according to Storey, "is one of the oldest surviving works in the Persian language."

33

A Turkish translation was also made from this Persian

version. Thereafter Quranic literature came to be produced in the Persian language. In India a number of fragmentary Persian translations of the Qur'an were made by Shaikh Jalaluddin Thanesari, Mulla Shah, Safi Qazwini (Zeb-ut Tafsir), and others but the most authentic and complete translation was made by the great eighteenth century theologian Shah Waliullah Muhaddith of Delhi under the rubric Fath ur Rahman.34 In view of its authenticity and conformity with the original spirit it was translated into Turkish. Shah Waliullah's purpose in translating the Qur’an into Persian was to make it available and intelligible to a larger audience not necessarily confined to the Muslim community.35 This aspect of Shah Waliullah‘s personality is rarely reflected in Indian historiography on Islam. We rather get his stereotyped image as the representative of Islamic exclusivism in South Asia. Hadith classics were taught in India from the very beginning but the science of hadith developed when authentic Persian translations became available. Shaikh Abdul Haq Muhaddith of Delhi, who was a near contemporary of Emperor Jahangir and Shah Waliullah translated hadith classics into Persian and these translations became popular not only in madrasahs and khanqahs (sufi hospice) but reached people not fully educated in Arabic religious sciences. 36 Indeed! There is scope to carry out research on these two remarkable but forgotten personalities in South Asian Islam. Recently, I had the opportunity to interact with Dr.Arthur Buehler, one of the leading scholars on South Asian Islam today. He has significantly pointed out in one of his lectures delivered in the Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand (in which I also participated to speak on Dara Shukoh) that the great medieval Naqshbandi saint Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi is venerated in Pakistan. Whereas he is denounced in India as an epitome of religious exclusivism. Such generalizations are misleading.37 It would be intriguing to see how Abdul Haq Muhaddis Dehlawi or Shah Waliullah are viewed in these two countries.

9

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. Many of the classical works on mysticism and akhlaq, like the Ihya ululum, the Futuhat-i-Makkiya, the Fusus-ul-Hikam and others were in Arabic but it was through Persian translations that their ideas rippled through the intellectual world of India. Muayyad Jajarmi of Iltutmish's court rendered Imam Ghazzali's Ihya-ul 'Ulum into Persian. Iltutmish's son Rukn uddin Firuz got Imam Fakhruddin Razi's Sirr-i Maktum translated into Persian. In the efflorescence of medieval Indian culture Persian translations played an important role.38 These Persian translations carried mystical thought to all sections of the Indian population. Even the Bhakti literature came under the spell of Persian mystic traditions. Late Aligarhian historian K.A.Nizami argues that an in-depth study of the works of the Bhakti saints shows that a large number of words and phrases have been borrowed from Attar, Sadi, Rumi and others. 39 God in human form became "the shadaw of God on earth." Firdausi's Shah Namah articulated in the realm of thought what Mahmud had achieved in the sphere of polity. The main sources of monarchy in Islam thereafter gravitated towards Iranian ideas and ideals of royalty. All Muslim dynasties in India and beyond made it fashionable to believe that monarchy could be perpetuated only if bolstered by Iranian ideas. Shah Namah so captured the imagination in India that from Isami's Futuh-us-Salatin to Hafeez Jalandhari's Shah Namah -i Islam it became a model which the historians and litterateurs tried to emulate. 40 Isami who wrote his Futuh -us-Salatin as Shah Nama-i Hind said : As long as the world lasts, the Shah Namah will remain and with it the names of the kings it describes. 41 The popularity of Shah Namah was such that we find the charismatic Chishti saint of Pakpattan Shaikh Farid-u'd-din Ganj-i Shakar reciting before Balban some of its verses.42 Mystic poetry originated in Ghaznin but it attracted very early the Indian poetic genius and flourished here. From Amir Khusrau to Ghalib there was an uninterrupted tradition of versification in Persian. Khusrau acknowledged having

10

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. poured in his cup the wine of Shiraz and there would be poets in India keen to pluck a flower from the garden of Sadi. 43 Khusrau wrote his Khamsah as a rejoinder to the famous Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi. According to Jami no other poet could write a better rejoinder to Nizami than Khusrau. Shibli however remarks in Shir-ul-Ajam, that Nizami's work is a picture of patience, composure and concentration, while Khusrau wrote hurriedly and with distracted mind. According to Dawlat Shah Samarqandi, some Central Asian princes organized a seminar on the comparative brilliance of the two Khamsahs. They debated and argued for several days on this issue. Ultimately the following verse of Khusrau: No hen takes a drop of water without lifting its head towards the sky (in gratitude to God) led to their verdict in favour of Amir Khusrau.44 The moral and spiritual sensitivity of the poetry of Attar, Sa'di, Iraqi and Rumi inspired generation after generation of poets in India. After the catastrophic Mongol invasion, poets in Iran turned to moral and spiritual rejuvenation of society by retrieving the dignity of Man. The life breath of the poetic effort of Sa'di, Rumi and Iraqi was their impatient concern for humanity. Rumi was rummaging around for a "Man" crying (I yearn for a true human being);Sa'di found beasts camouflaged in the form of human beings. These great poets mobilized their entire resources to rebuild the fallen structure of morality and to engineer a spiritual revival. In the poetry of Amir Khusrau there is an echo of the spirit generated by these great masters of Iran. Rumi's Masnavi and Khusrau's Matla ‘ul Anwar supplied Dr. Mohd. Iqbal with both ideals and emotions and he prayed to God in Armaghan-i Hijaz: Bestow on me, the tumult of Rumi and the flame of Khusrau.45 In the sphere of ghazal Hafiz was a charismatic figure. His literary exploits created ripples in India during his life time. People in Bengal and Kashmir were in direct contact with him. Hafiz says about his admirers in Kashmir :

11

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. The black eyed Kashmiris and Turks of Samarqand love the verses of Hafiz of Shiraz and dance in tune.46 Hafiz returned India's compliment to Persian masters by eulogizing Tutian-i Hind. His appreciation for Khusrau's poetry is confirmed by the fact that he copied out the Khamsah in his own hand.47 During the time of Akbar, which Professor Hermann Ethe calls "the Indian summer of Persian poetry", India reached such a height for its excellence in Persian poetry that an Iranian poet said : The means of acquiring perfection do not exist in Iran, The henna does not acquire colour till it comes to India.48 Late S Nurul Hasan, the historian Governor of Bengal has suggested that after listening to the poetry of Hafiz, Akbar abolished Jizya.49 Such was the impact of the wave generated by the inclusive, humane and spiritual eclecticism of Hafiz‘s verses. Persian poetry was celebrated in the family of Tagore as well. While reflecting on his father Devendranath Tagore, Rabindranath once mentioned that ― My father was theologically progressive but socially conservative‖. (Pointed out by late Amlan Dutta in an international seminar organized by the Asiatic Society, Kolkata, in November, 2003). It is said that even that ‗socially conservative‘ Devendranath used to start his day by reading Hafiz. Literary traditions generated in India by the Persian poetry spilled over to various vernacular languages. Dr. Maulvi Abdul Haq has traced the impact of the Persian language on the Maratha language in his scholarly work The, Influence of Persian Language on Marathi Language. Many Persian tales and terms have become part of Bengali literature as Enamul Haq has shown in his Muslim Bengali Literature. Even a Brahman relished the masnavi. 50 S.Nurul Hasan has argued, that Akbar was enchanted by a particular portion of Masnavi where Rumi mentions that if God wished, He could have created onl y one religious communit y. But t hat was not His desire, so He created different religious communities and sent religious leaders for each of them. Rumi also implied that the religion of the

12

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. people of Sind and Hind should not be interfered with. Thus the great Mughal could legitimize his heterogeneous empire through Rumi. 51 ― Using birds and animals for communicating mystic ideas was originally an Indian device as developed in Kalila wa Dimna .'Attar developed it further and inspired Zia-u'd-din Nakhshabi's Tuti Namah.‖ 52 Indo-Persian poetry —and under its spell, Urdu poetry — adopted structure, spirit, images, allegories and rhythms from the Persian poets. The tradition of khamsa, ghazal, masnavi, shahr ashub etc. was borrowed from Iran and their creative imitation in India had been remarkable.53 ― During the Mughal period cultural contact with Iran and the Persianspeaking regions led to the development of a culture-pattern which derived its character and flavour from Iranian traditions. From court life to the ordinary business of administration, Persian etiquette and ceremonials dominated the norms‖.54 Commonalities could be explored between the Iranian court and the courts of Akbar, Jahangir and Shahjahan. A spirit of rivalry and healthy competition often moulded the approaches of the poets of the two courts. Shah Abbas once sent to Akbar many presents with the following quatrain of Mulla Wahid : Zangi prides upon his army and battalions; Rumi boasts of his spear, sword and dagger. Akbar is proud of his treasures replete with gold. The pride of Abbas is the sword of Ali. Faizi instantly recited the following verses in reply: Paradise is proud of its streams, Salsabil and Kawther; The sea is proud of its pearls, the sky of its stars. Abbas takes pride in the Sword of Ali; The object of pride for both the worlds is the holy self of Akbar.55 In the field of historiography, Iranian traditions inspired a vast quantity of literature produced in India. From the Tabaqat- i Nasiri to the Siyar-ul

13

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. Mutakhkhirin there was an uninterrupted tradition of adherence to Iranian methods of dynastic arrangement of data and focus on court life. This sharply differed from the Arab tradition of historiography. It appears from the Fatawa-i Jahandari of Zia-u'd-din Barani that a number of the sayings (wasaya) of Persian rulers, princes and ministers —also became popular in India. In fact the belief that kingship was not possible without emulating Persian ideas, ideals and institutions had gained such ground that the entire concept of royalty had begun to turn round Sassanid models. Iltutmish procured for his sons books from Iran in order to familiarize them with the Iranian ideals of kingship.56 The influence of the Persian language in encouraging and fostering the forces of integration, particularly in administration had been significant. One great impact of Persian was that it gave linguistic unity to India's administrative machinery. Amir Khusrau, a great polyglot himself, knew many Indian languages and could converse in many of them. He believed in harmony between languages. Referring to the role of Persian, he says that in India where languages and dialects differed from region to region, the Persian language provided a linguistic unity from one corner to another.57 Two other very important spheres in which Iranian influence is discernible in India are music and architecture. That is however a subject which deserves separate treatment. Reference may, however, be made here to a few important aspects. To Amir Khusrau belongs the credit of developing Indo-Persian tunes. Ghunyat-ul Munya the earliest known Persian work on Indian music, throws valuable light on the Surud-i Parsi and the Surud-i Hindi and the blending of two musical cultures, the one Persian and the other basically Indian.58 So far as the Iranian architectural traditions were concerned, the Indian craftsmen displayed remarkable genius in adapting their style to the Muslim architectural needs in the building of mosques and mausoleums. The vault and the dome were accepted by the Indian masons.-The Qutb Minar was replica of the Minar of Jam, as A. Maricq, G. Wiet and L.S. Leshnik have shown. Jam, Chisht and Firuz Koh became , one after the other, transmission centres for literary,

14

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. architectural and mystic traditions. In the construction of the Taj Mahal and the Delhi Fort it was the family of Ahmad Mi'mar of Khojend whose architectural achievements have been celebrated in a Persian masnawi preserved in the Aligarh Muslim University.59 Maulana Muhammad Husain Azad was of the view that one of the great gifts of Iran to India was the literary environment which gave birth to the Urdu language. It was Mirza Mazhar Jan-i Janan who rekindled and revived interest in Persian poetry by preparing his Kharitah-i Jawahir. Maulana Azad was of the view that Persian poetry would have received a set back had Mirza Mazhar not compiled his Kharitah. Ghalib who was proud of his Persian poetry, has been considered as the last great poet of Persian in India, but according to Maulana Azad, Shibli was the last great Persian poet in India. Shibli's Shir-ul Ajam rekindled interest in Persian language and culture. Iqbal's The Development of Metaphysics in Persia and Dr. Hadi Hasan's History of Persian Navigation added further dimensions to this interest . A coordination of literary, navigational and metaphysical sources will unleash fresh perspectives for the study of Indo-Iranian relations.60 Some Near Recent Researches On Persianate Traditions: It would be appropriate to wind up our discussion by referring to two scholarly and insightful observations on the nature and impact of Persianate tradition in the geo-cultural region ranging between the subcontinent and West Asia. Now why it should be necessary to follow the works of two more scholars even when we have studied keenly the likes of K.A.Nizami or Syed Nurul Hasan? That is because we mainly get the Indian perspectives from both Nizami and Hasan. To have an idea of the British perspective we shall rely on Francis Robinson. And for the Indo-American (because Muzaffar Alam‘s grooming took place in India and later on he exposed himself to the American perspective via the Department of South Asian Languages and Civilizations, the University of Chicago, where he is a distinguished Professor now). Such scholarly exposures are

15

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. useful to broaden our intellectual horizons on a subject through intensive engagement. Robinson, in his seminal work entitled The Ulama of Farangi Mahall and Islamic Culture in South Asia (New Delhi, 2001) has elaborately dealt with PersoIslamic culture in the South Asian context. He pointed out that by the beginning of nineteenth century, Muhamedan power was reduced to Awadh, Hyderabad and the North Western borderlands. This was the time when India experienced the rise of the Sikhs, Marathas and the British. Decline of Mughal rule implied end of patronage to administrators, artists and craftsmen from Iran and Turan. But the emasculation of Mughal power did not mean immediate collapse of Perso Islamic culture in South Asia during the eighteenth or early nineteenth centuries. On the contrary, Robinson calls it the period of ‗highest refinement‘ of Persian culture comparable with the late Renaissance in Italy, the Golden Age of Spain and the era of French rococo.61 Cosmopolitanism, which is associated with modernity, was sustained by the Perso-Islamic culture. In a period when the political legacy was waning fast, the vacuum was filled up by the cultural legacy. We shall see that modernity was not the monopoly of the west. Flashes of modernity could be visible in the oriental world too. This is the reason why the German scholars in particular are increasingly using the term ‗alternative modernity‘.62 Robinson illustrates how by virtue of knowing Persian, the Hindu convert Mirza Qatil (d.1817) could make Shiraz, Isfahan, Tehran and Azerbaijan his home. The Hindus also adopted the mathnawi form of mystical verse. Insha, or the art of official letter writing virtually became a kayastha monopoly.63 The Hindu lexicography of Persian was considered amongst the best. The Hindu Raja of Benares patronized Shaykh Muhammad Ali Hazin Gilani (d.1766), the great Iranian scholar. In short, Hindu involvement in Persian reached its peak in the eighteenth century.64 The above-mentioned behavior of the Raja of Benares confirms that even in the eighteenth century, offering patronage to a Persian scholar was considered as a legitimizing act on the part of the ruler. At the same

16

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. time it gave him the opportunity to demonstrate his resourcefulness and refined taste, which also strengthened his authority. Robinson continued that in the sub-continent, the Perso-Islamic culture stood on four major pillars, i.e., the Persian language, Islamic knowledge, mystical knowledge and last but not the least, the Shia tradition. According to Robinson, this fourth or the last pillar is often derecognized by scholars on South Asian Islam. During the nineteenth century, Lucknow, the major city of Awadh became famous in the world for its progress and education. Every child in Lucknow spoke Persian. Earlier, Emperor Shah Jahan remarked that ― Awadh is the Shiraz of Hindustan‖.65 Throughout the eighteenth and during the early nineteenth century the rationalist tradition (uloom i aqliya) spread throughout much of India. And in this respect, the Farangi Mahall family and their Dars-i-Nizami teaching methods played a positive role. Warren Hastings, who himself learnt Persian, adopted it for Calcutta Madrasa. Farangi Mahallis and their pupils transformed Lucknow into the greatest centre of learning in Northern India. From Calcutta to Peshawar all educational centres were the mere offshoots of Dars-i-Nizami, once remarked the celebrated Aligarhian, Shibli Numani.66 We have already mentioned that the third pillar of the Perso-Islamic culture was the mystical tradition. In this context it would be useful to note that the Chishti Nizami and the Chishti Sabiri sufis were active in many qasbahs (small towns) of the Ganga-Jamuna Doab. In the 1760s, the Nishapuri nawabs of Awadh began to gather Shiite ulama about them. In the early nineteenth century, some two thousand imambaras in Lucknow would be celebrating the safavid (Iranian dynasty) kind of Muharram. This self confident Shia culture played a significant role behind the sustenance of Perso-Islamic culture in the sub-continent.67 The Shia world of Murshidabad and Lucknow received emigrants from Iran and the shrine cities of Iraq. The Shaykh ul Islam of the Safavid empire served Alibardi Khan of Bengal. Their descendants moved to Lucknow.68 Ideologically speaking, the subtle tension between the fundamentalist Akhbaris and the rationalist Usulis reflected the dynamism of the Perso-Islamic

17

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. world. The Usulis put emphasis on ijtihad and claimed that mujtahids can represent the Hidden Imam. Imam Hussain Shrine could be embellished and in the aftermath of Wahhabi invasion, the Holy cities could be repaired by the money that flowed from Awadh. Leading Awadhi men had long standing ties with the most influential Shia scholars of Iraq.69 However, there had been emerging challenges to the dominance of PersoIslamic culture. Such challenges came from the indigenous languages i.e., Bengali, Punjabi, Sindhi, Urdu and other languages. Urdu combined regional grammar and syntax with Persian nouns, adjectives and images. Importance of Urdu heralded the dilution not the destruction of Persianate literary culture.70 Intriguingly enough, until the middle of the nineteenth century, Urdu rejected Indian life and images drawing all its symbols from ‗the unseen and unexperienced sights, sounds and smells of Persia and Central Asia‘. Artistically, Urdu continuously strove to solidarize with the external world of Islam.71 This was a normal legitimizing process for a language like Urdu which was seeking recognition in the literary world or even beyond. This was a dilution which enabled Perso-Islamic culture to spill over to newer terrains. This was possible because both the Hindus and Muslims understood Urdu.72 Shah Waliullah, the great theologian of eighteenth century Delhi, studied Hadith in Hijaz. The waning of Mohammedan power and the disintegration of Muslim society distressed him. That is to say, like many of his contemporaries, he also suffered from the ‗Andalus Syndrome‘.73 He strove to harmonize the entire body of Islamic traditions in the hope that once truth was clearly revealed, divisions would end and power would return. Waliullah attacked the rationalist scholastic traditions of Iran and Central Asia as a source of arid intellectualism and confusion. He had the courage to translate the Quran into Persian. His son Rafiuddin went further as he translated the Quran into Urdu.74 Through these translation activities, the Waliullahis aspired to emancipate scriptural knowledge from the grip of arid intellectualism and confusion. Now, even those who had limited access to Arabic or none at all would be able to read the Quran. Indirectly

18

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. they also prepared the ground for interfaith dialogue in the sense that many nonMuslims also knew Persian and Urdu. The reason behind knowing Persian was simple, it was the official language. The ‗Andalus Syndrome‘ spilled over to the Naqshbandi silsilah. In fact the Naqshbandi assault on the sufi culture opf the Perso-Islamic world was severe. The irony here is that the Naqshbandis were also the product of sixteenth century Central Asian world which inherited Ibn-al Arabi‘s ideas. Naqshbandi ideas were a major export to the rest of the Perso-Islamic region. Shah Ghulam Ali‘s khanqah (sufi lodge) welcomed many murids (disciples) from Samarqand, Bukhara, Tashkent, Qandahar and Kabul.75 Unlike today, Kabul was hugely heterogeneous in those days where people, sometimes ambulatory in nature spoke nearly fourteen languages as recorded in the celebrated Baburnama. Indeed! It was the confluence of culture and commerce. The Classical Era of the Guptas and Sassanids: This era was not only golden for the Iranians, but also for some other countries in the world. India, Byzantium, Iran and China made significant civilizational contributions during this time. Tagore and Nehru were aware of the significant cultural linkages between India and Iran. Similarities between these two civilizations can be found in such areas as: language, customs and any other moral and behavioral characteristics, also it's not possible to ignore the effect of Iranian culture on Indian culture during the last millennium. At the time, when the Sassanid's were ruling Iran, India and China, were also having the same type of strong kings, like Han and Tang dynasty in China and Guptas in India. A short review of both Sassanid and Gupta emperors have been given below and then their relations in different areas will be discussed in more details. Sassanid's: Sassanid dynasty was the most illustrious in pre-Islamic Persia.

19

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. Sassanid's kings, ruled Iran for four centuries (226-651 A.D.), and were having friendly relations with Indian kings and these relations are more significant during the Guptas (320-550 A.D.). Iran during the Sassanid's was considered as a powerful country having dominance over so many countries and leaving effect on them and also became influenced by their culture. Iranian cultural influence was significant. Sassanid monarchy was perceived as a model by the Delhi Sultanate in the early medieval times. The Guptas: Gupta era is known as classic era in the history of India. This dynasty was supported by Brahmans. But religious tolerance characterized this era of creativity."Chandra Gupta I" was one of the greatest kings of the dynasty. "Samudra Gupta" was his successor. "Samudra Gupta" who was called Indian Napoleon by the British historians, had a powerful army. He had a sense of poetry and was an accomplished musician. The time of his kingdom is known as the time of spreading science and knowledge in India. "Kalidasa‖, the greatest writer of Ancient India adored the palace of Chandragupta II. Gupta kings were using gold and silver in minting their coins. Which confirmed their economic progress. Law and order was maintained and people lived in peace and prosperity. Now we may explore some commonalities between the two dynasties: (i) One important cause of creation or sustenance of both dynasties had been the marriage with rich and powerful families. (ii) Religious tolerance characterized both the dynasties. (iii)Sassanids recollected the Avesta book and organized it as it is available now; Guptas also recollected and arranged the Veda. (iv) Both dynasties contributed to the spreading of knowledge and science. Political Relations: India and Iran (in contrary to Rome in west and Turks and Barbarian tribes in east and northeast) were never having animosity with each other. Even though historians in the past were looking for exaggeration in the wars between two

20

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. countries , but still there is no written document showing war between Iran and India. Commercial Relations: During Gupta, India was having relations with Iran through land and sea. Through land, Indians were going to Peshavar and they were passing through "Kheibar" pass and they were going to Bacteria (Balkh) and from there, they were going toward west and Khurasan. And then to Azarpategan (Azerbaijan) and Caucasia or to Kermanshah and Iraq and from there to Shaam (Syria) and Rome. Some of the most famous Indian goods were steel and sword. Indians were famous in manufacturing sword. NOTES AND REFERENCES: 1

From Wikipedia, accessed through google.com ‗Iran and India: Age old Friendship‘ by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly, October–December 1994, p 69. accessed through google.com 3 ‘The Discovery of India’ by Jawaharlal Nehru, Oxford University Press 1992, p 147. accessed through google.com 4 ‘Indo-Iranian Relations’ by Dr. Tara Chand, p 4, and Herodotus. accessed through google.com 2

5

http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/FeaturesFarEast/India_IronAge_Mauryas01.htm ‗Iran and India: Age old Friendship‘ by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly, October–December 1994, accessed through google.com 6

7

The Wonder that was India’ by A L Basham, p 196 accessed through google.com 8 The Wonder that was India‘ by A L Basham, p 222 accessed through google.com 9 The Wonder that was India’ by A L Basham, p 49 accessed through google.com 10 b http://www.iranian.com/History/2004/December/Buddhism/index.html 11

Iran and India: Age old Friendship‘ by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly,

October–December 1994, p 71. accessed through google.com 12 Ibid., p.72. accessed through google.com 13 ‗Indo-Iranian relations‘ by Dr. Tara Chand, p 10. accessed through google.com 14 ‘Indo-Iranian relations’ by Dr. Tara Chand, p 10. From Wikipedia, accessed through google.com 15 Ibid.

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Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

16

‗Iran and India: Age old Friendship‘ by Abdul Amir Jorfi, India Quarterly, October–December 1994, p 72. accessed through google.com 17 'The Wonder that was India' by A L Basham, 1967, p 210, accessed through google.com 18 'The Wonder that was India' by A L Basham, 1967, p 210 accessed through google.com 19 Indo-Iranian Relations‘ by Dr. Tara Chand, p 5 accessed through google.com 20 ‗A Concise History of Science in India‘, edited by D. M. Bose, INSA Publications, 1989, p 48. accessed through google.com 21

‗The wonder that was India‘, by A.L. Basham, 1967, p 345. accessed through google.com 22 ‘Indo-Iranian Relations’ by Dr. Tara Chand, p 5. accessed through google.com 23 P. 16 Glory that was Gūrjaradeśa: A.D. 500-1300 By Kanaiyalal Maneklal Munshi. Also see The History of Parsees of India‘ paper by P.P. Balsara. Both accessed through google.com 24 Ibid. accessed through google.com 25 Ibid. accessed through google.com 26 accessed through google.com 27 Khaliq Ahmed Nizami, ‗Impact of Iranian Literary and Cultural Traditions on India‘ in Indo-Iranica (The Quarterly Organ of the Iran Society, Kolkata), Vol.50, March, June, Sept & Dec. 1997, Numbers 1 to 4, pp.1-11. 28 Ibid. 29 Ibid. 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid. 32 Ibid. 33 Ibid., Cited by Nizami. 34 Ibid. 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 Arthur F. Buehler, Revealed Grace: The Juristic Sufism of Ahmad Sirhindi(1564-1624), Louisville, 2011. The author teaches in the Religious Studies Programme at Victoria University, Wellington, New Zealand. He is a specialist on Naqshbandi Sufis.

22

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

38

Khaliq Ahmed Nizami, ‗Impact of Iranian Literary and Cultural Traditions on India‘ in Indo-Iranica (The Quarterly Organ of the Iran Society, Kolkata), Vol.50, March, June, Sept & Dec. 1997, Numbers 1 to 4, pp.1-11. 39 Ibid. 40 Ibid. 41 Ibid. 42 Ibid. 43 Ibid. 44 Ibid. 45 Ibid. 46 Ibid. 47 Ibid. 48 Cited in Nizami‘s article mentioned above. 49 S.Nurul Hasan, Religion State and Society in Medieval India, with an introduction by Satish Chandra. 50 Khaliq Ahmed Nizami, ‗Impact of Iranian Literary and Cultural Traditions on India‘ in Indo-Iranica (The Quarterly Organ of the Iran Society, Kolkata), Vol.50, March, June, Sept & Dec. 1997, Numbers 1 to 4, pp.1-11. 51 S.Nurul Hasan, Religion State and Society in Medieval India, with an introduction by Satish Chandra. 52 K.A.Nizami‘s article mentioned above. 53 Ibid. 54 Ibid. 55 Cited in Nizami‘s article. 56 Nizami‘s article. 57 Ibid. 58 Ibid. 59 Ibid. 60 Ibid. 61 Francis Robinson, The Ulama of Farangi Mahall and Islamic Culture in South Asia (New Delhi, 2001), pp. 20-21. 62 I noticed this trend in the Max Weber Kolleg, Erfurt, Germany, during my academic visits there in 2014 and also in 2015. 63 The Kayasthas enjoy a caste status below the Brahmins. 64 Robinson, Ulama of Farangi Mahall, p.21. 65 Ibid., pp.22-23. 66 Ibid. 67 .Ibid.

23

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

68

Ibid. Ibid., pp.26-27. 70 Ibid., p.27. 71 Ibid., p.28. 72 Ibid. 73 Great Aligarhian Urdu poet Hali demonstrates this syndrome in his famous verse entitled Musaddas. 74 Robinson, Ulama of Farangi Mahall, p.28. 75 Ibid., p.30. 69

24

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Knowledge beyond boundaries: Transmissions of Indian Medical Literature and Information in the Perso-Arabic World Nupur Dasgupta Professor Department of History Jadavpur University Transactions of a cultural kind had been prevalent between India, Persia and the West Asia since very early times. In fact if we cast our sight on the history of Asia we observe networks of cultural and material exchanges which had phenomenally impacted each of the participants in the huge socio-cultural process. Viewing this from posterity it has even been claimed quite rightly by none other than Martine Levey, the great scholar and expert on History of Arabic Chemistry who had broadly explored the Pre Islamic traditions of science and technology, that the efflorescence of Arabic science and general knowledge can be traced as far back as the ancient times to the Akkadian antecedents, with intermediate convergences of Aramaic, Greek, Syriacand Hebrew traditions of knowledge. 1 Deeper investigations reveal significant later development of the Persian tradition of knowledge and connections with Indian philosophy and scientific knowledge in the West Asian ambiance since the days of the Sassanids. The Persian phenomenon therefore stands midway between the ancient and medieval cultural and intellectual developments in the region which had had a seminal impact and stood immediately intermediate to the progress of science and technology in the western world. Quite naturally the human concerns for knowledge acquirement would cover the most important areas touching on some basic issues of existence and radiating out to greaterphenomenal researches into matters of higher spiritual concerns and related to human aspirations. It is within this paradigm of intellectual development in the pre Crusades Near Eastern and West – Central - South Asian cultures that we shall observe the

25

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

transactions of a specific kind ranging in time between the 6th – 11th centuries CE. The focus is on the exchange of India‟s indigenous knowledge on medicine and related theories and practices which travelled through projects of textual translations into the societies in Iran and West Asia. The processes of exchange, scrutiny and adoption of ideas and information were expansive, not limited to political states and their diplomatic strategies. The history of these contacts reveals that the cultural borders were expanding beyond the boundaries of nations. Yet, we note the initiative taken by political orders to integrate knowledge created in diverse neighbouring societies. These functions of the political state have to be understood in terms of overarching aspirations for enlightened politico – cultural domains of influence. Perhaps we can trace the model of enlightened despotism back in these times of the Sassanids and to the Abbasid Caliphate. The whole process of knowledge - exchange led to the growth of an expansive orientation in the cultural tradition of Persian - Iranian society which was closely linked to the Arabic project of cultural renaissance. As already stated, the tradition of cultural exchanges between the South, Central and West Asia go a long way back. Nexus between the societies in northern India and the Achaemenids and Hellenistic societies and their contributions to ancient Indian ideas, art and political traditions have been evident at least since the days of the Maurya rule. Following this, the region of Persia along with the rising Hellenistic culture on the flanks of the Maurya empire led to new contacts, exchange of material and cultural kinds after the fall of the Maurya empire. Transmission of practices, like minting of coins, portraiture of ruling authorities, religious trends and scientific ideas had continued to take place between the Persian world and Indian during the time of the Seleucid to Saka –Parthian-Kushan rules. The Indian responses to the western cultures is manifest in various aspects of knowledge and in the emergence of varied cultural artifacts, from the illustrated coins and ideas of state and sovereignty to the enactment of drama, articulation of hagiographic art

26

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

and sculpting traditions, possibly even in astronomy and mathematics. Especially when we look at the tradition of medicine the connections seem to have been exploding - when we note the close borrowings which are evident from similarity in ideas. At the same time, however, dissimilar thoughts on similar themes or theories were also nurtured under the topic of medicine and bodily functions among the Greek, Indian and Perso- Arabic medical systems. This indicates balanced exchanges between these cultures on medical information and ideas and at the same time the steady growth of specific and distinctive medical discourses under these cultures. In the early nineteenth century these connections had caught the attention of scholars like J.F. Royle2, T.A. Wise3, Julius Jolly4and A.F. Rudolf Hoernle5. But that is not all in this history of medico -cultural exchanges between South and West Asian worlds. Quite apart from direct borrowings and inclusions, there are ample evidence for survey and collection of huge data from Indian medical authors by the Persian intellectual agents, that too often from sources which remain otherwise unknown in the Indian textual circuit as they have left no posterior textual traces in the forms of either commentaries or manuscript copies. For these sources the Perisan – Arabic early medieval and medieval citations are the only reference points. Hence, these remnants of those early medieval cultural exchanges stand out as seminally significant. Not only that, the very project of collection of such data from South Asia suggests nexus of a kind not politically characterized and hence never brought into the discussions of general histories of these cultures. Yet, these minor cultural histories probably spell out a different dimension of exchange that belies the importance of political determinism in the writing of history. The cultural exchanges of scientific knowledge or medical knowledge must have been important to the people and to the state aspiring to reach an intellectual position of authority. The present paper focuses mostly on this kind of exchange of medical knowledge between India and the Western Asian world and attempts to highlight the sites of cultural contacts where Persia or Iran had been central.

27

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Rise of the Persian world on the cultural horizon of greater Middle East. The contact with the Arabic - Islamic world in the pre – crusades times is extremely important in the history of science and intellectual history in general as it defines the intellectual preconditions in the Asian world which would have a deep impact on the west in the post 10th century world history. The whole process of transaction needs to be carefully observed in order to analyze the full nuances of this history. The Sassanian kings were great patrons of arts and sciences and during the times of Shapur I and II Sassanian Iran became a cultural zone of high glory. The ancient Iranian city of Gundishapur, located in the country's southern province of Khuzestan, was founded in 271 BCE by the Sassanid king, Shapur I. The city of Gondishapur in the southern province of Khuzestan founded in 271 BCE by Shapur I, emerged as a centre of learning and cultural capital of the Sassanians. Founded by Shapur I, the city became a prosperous urban centre under Shapur II and most remarkably its fame was for its library and the medical centre. During Sassanian emperor Khosrow Anushiravan I, who ascended the throne in 531 CE, the medical centre expanded and a hospital was added where physcians from all over the world, including Nestorian Christians, Greeks and Persians had assembled.6 Translations: The Pancatantra and the fictional plant The Indian contacts with this scene seem to begin when the outstanding Persian scholar and physician Borzuye/Burzoe/ Borzouyeh-i Tabib decided to visit India. According to legends Borzuye was a physician of high rank in the court of Khosrow Anushiravan and having heard of a legendary Indian herb and it magical properties he had asked leave of the ruler to visit India in search of it. Khosrow is supposed to have not only permit the leave but also finance the visit. Borzuye returned from India after a period of unspecified time. On his return he brought with him not only several medical texts but also a translation of the

28

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Pañcatantra. This last was originally possibly entitled Karirakud Damanak and later made popular as „Kalilehva Demneh‟. In fact the story of this magical plant of India was perhaps surrealised and it seems that in Firdawsī‟s version in fact the plant was actually the Pañcatantra, the valued book of wise stories related on political affairs and political morality.7About Borzuye, Arthur Chrisensen who translated the version presented by the Arabic scholar Ebn-Moqaffacites the information posted in the preface of the Pahlavi translation of what he spells as “Kalīlay et Damnay” 8 .We shall presently talk about the later versions of the legend in brief. Blois has conducted a deep study into the different later versions of the legend of Borzuye‟s intent and final undertaking of the voyage to India and its result. He finally cites a long and a short version of the whole story and refers to Theodore Benfey‟s9opinion that the shorter version was the original, earlier and authentic and represents history. Blois also agrees essentially with Benfey that Borzuye the historic person was a physician who was sent to India under the patronage of Khosrow Anushiravan I, to gather medical knowledge. There was some allusion to a magical medical plant perhaps already a legend of the life giving plant had been created in the world outside the professional India physician‟s orbit. The travel was however, not simply oriented to the collection of this plant. Although during his stay in India Borzuye might have collected plants as well as information on medicine and probably translated some India medical texts into Middle Persian. At the same time he was deeply influenced by Indian philosophy and loral teachings and especially came across the Nītiśāstra text of Pañcatantra, which must have been popular in India at the time between the early to late sixth century CE. He collected this text and translated it into Pahlavi.10 Borzuye is also credited with translating some other stories from the Mahābhārata which were included here in this Pahlavi translation and the whole book was dated to 570 CE. The book was immediately translated into Syriac

29

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

with the title „KalilagwaDamnag‟ in 6th century CE itself and then into Arabic under the title „KalilahwaDimnah‟ in 750 CE by the Persian scholar Abu Mohammad Abd-Allah RoozbehibnDaduyeh. His Arabic name is Ebn-Moqaffa. Ebn-Moqaffa in fact added a fresh chapter to the original in his translation which actually seems to reflect the contemporary court intrigues. He belonged to the court of the second Abbasid Caliph Al-Mansur (754 – 775).11 It also seems that the original Persian translated text and its author Borzuye had both continued to be much in the lime light among the latter – day chroniclers of Persia and the Arabic world of scholars.The actual collection of stories received different forms at the hands of the many recipients in the West Asian world.What remains interesting for this part of knowledge exchange is that as NayernouriTouraj points out 12 all the versions or recensions of the KalilehvaDemneh reflected a perception of India as a distant country, almost unknown before Borzuye‟s visit. But it is also true as pointed out by TourajDaryaeefrom his deep reading of the tradition of the Middle Persian Literature that, ever since the composition of Avesta possibly, there have been flow of Indian and Greek knowledge into the region And cultures of Persia. Daryaeecites the information from the Fourth Book of Dēnkard (Acts Of Religion) to point out that “the Sasanian empire was a meeting ground of Hellenic,

Mesopotamian,

And

Indian

scientific

and

philosophical

ideas.”13Daryaee also critically reviews the absorption of foreign influences in a closed setting of Zoroastrianism in this climate in the Sassanian world and comments that“While on the surface it appears that the Zoroastrian priests were anti-Hellenic, this anti-Hellenism was not the dictum in regard to learning.”14 It seems from the references in the Dēnkard especially that the Persians were familiar with Indian and Greek learning since the 3rd Century CE. But even before that the Avesta had incorporated learning from external cultures. There are several indications that during the reign Of Shapur I texts on Greek and Indian texts and knowledge systems on Medicine, Astronomy, Logic other

30

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

crafts and skills were collected and translated. The most important suggestion made by TourajDaryaee here is that the Sassaniansat Gondishapurmade possible the encounter between Greek and Indian Sciences and also their absorption into Persian Knowledge. Persia under the Sassnids especially thus also became a cultural conduit between India and Greece.15 The surreal representation of medicinal plants however remains in the background and a possible connection to the exchanges of scientific knowledge on medicinal plantsand the system of medicine might be gauged in the early days too when we find how there were new nexuses through text based transmissions from India in the ninth – tenth centuries. Borzuyeh actually might have also brought back with him the knowledge of the games of chess as well as numerous medicinal herbs. As for the Indian traditions of medicine and alchemy we note that Indian system of medicine had emerged on the horizon of the northern part of the subcontinent between the 2nd century BCE and the 6th – 7th centuries CE. MateriaMedica and iatrochemistry were also advancing in the 6th – 7th centuries.Historians writing on MateriaMedica in general in the 19th century like J.F. Royle, T.A. Wise, Julius Jolly have explored the connections between the early Greek, West Asiatic and Indian medicine. Royle16 shows through tracing the use of medicinal plants the deep and complex borrowings of every ancient tradition of MateriaMedica from each other. T.A. Wise17dwells on Hippocrates‟ travels and possible borrowings, tracing down to the Arab master of medical science, Avicenna. Julius Jolly18 deals with specific medicinal herbs and their original habitat as well as their inclusion in materiamedica of ancient systems, Greek, Indian and Arabic and found transactions of herbs as well as theories. A.F. Rudolf Hoernle 19 finds similarity in themes of Hippocratan theory of anatomy and bones and the Indian notion of the skeletal body in the Suśruta, but since the contents and actual ideas were very dissimilar Hoernleagrees that the two are different systems emerging at the same time. The legend of Borzuyeh

31

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might represent the symbolic reflection of generations of material and knowledge exchange in matters of medicine. To delve deeper into these processes of transmissions of knowledge and the role of Persian culture in it we need to trace the Sassanian – Ummayad - Abbasid endeavours. Knowledge Dissemination and Projects of Translation As noted above, Gondishapur was at the heart of the cultural convergence between the west and the east. 20It was the central site for eastern Christians, Harranians who were the pioneers as well as rising Islamic scholars. Thus already in the Pre Islamic times Persia had emerged as a prime cultural site in transmissions between Sanskrit and Pahlavi textual traditions. Therefrom the tradition passed more on to the Islamic scholars, Turks, Arabs and Persians. With the emergence of the Ummayad caliphate Gondishapur continued to flourish as a learning centre. When Damascus became the seat of the Umayvad caliphs they relied on the physicians of the new Islamic countries who studied medicine at Alexandria, Antioch as well as Gondishapur, which were the cultural centres for the study of the rational sciences, especially medicine. At that early period most physicians were Christians because the conversion movement to Islam was in its early stage.21 The latter – day Arabic world in the Abbasid period joined in the throes of intellectual exchanges with the Greek, Syriac Christian and Indian knowledge systems especially through Persia and Persian translations. As for the projects of translations of important texts from other cultures, we note the first stirrings of translation of medical works into Arabic here at Gondishhapur under the Sassanians.22With the coming of the Abbasids gradually the importance of Baghdad as the centre was looming large as did that of the Islamic scholars. The first Science Academy, the Bayt al-Hikmah was established by Harunar – Rashid and expanded by al-Ma‟mun in 833 CE. Baghdad was emerging as the financial, political and intellectual centre with

32

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

academic institutions and hospices. Gondishapur was allowed to languish in the periphery and Al-Muqaddasi‟s work, Ahsan al-taqasim fi ma'rifat al-aqalim,of the 1000 CE described Gondishapur as falling into ruins.23 The Arabic Project of Knowledge Dissemination The eighth Century CE saw the rise of the Islamic empire larger in spatial expanse and with a great cultural surge under the Abbasid Caliphs. It was almost a kind of renaissance that preceded the Italian Renaissance. The foundations were set by the Sassanians on which the Arabs built the portals of knowledge where the Greek, Syriac and Persian converged in a meta exercise of collecting knowledge. There was an overarching orientation to textual knowledge and translations were deemed to be a mode of conservation and dissemination of diverse knowledge gathered from varied and distinctly disparate and different cultural sectors. George Saliba and DimitriGutas direct us to the persistent influence of Greek thought and knowledge on the Abbasids as a powerful ideological trend. They also explore the classical narrative on the Abbasid renaissance or the rise of the Islami golden age of knowledge and culture. The moot point remains that within the wider rubrics of this seminal phenomenon of build – up of knowledge, the Indian traditions of science, especially Astronomy and Mathematics had also been a substantial part.24Translation of texts was the mega project already initiated by the Sassanians in Persia and the Abbasids followed. The major features of this mega phenomenon which had had its counterparts in the contemporary Syriac and later European cultures was attended with infrastructural set ups which led to further systemic growth of knowledge. Moreover, the accession of foreign textual sources took compilers to the distant cultural horizons as noted in the instance of Borzuye.However, the translation project was the most impressive and led to the efflorescence of anthological volumes which may be considered as historiographical documents.

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Here we may enter into a discussion of the early history recorded in a few of the major historical anthologies on knowledge of medicine especially and general scholarship in the compendia of Ibn an-Nadim (988 CE), entitled Kitāb al-Fihrist25and the volume of IbnAbīUṣayibi„a, entitled, the Uyūn al – Anbā‟ fi Ṭabaqāt al-Aṭibbā‟ (d. 668/1270)26.Both mention a host of Indian physicians and medical authors who had been linked to the Perso – Arabic knowledge transmissions process and whose works had been extant and known. Transmission of South Asian Medical Knowledge As for the Indian traditions of medicine and alchemy we note that Indian system medicine had emerged with force on the horizon of the northern part of the subcontinent between the 2nd century BCE and the 6th – 7th centuries CE. MateriaMedica and iatrochemistry were also advancing in the 6th – 7th centuries.27 From the 9th to 11th century A.D there was a spread and exchange of scientific knowledge related to both Alchemy and Medicine in South Asia and between South Asia and W. Asia on one hand and S. Asia and East Asia (China) on the other. By the 8th-9th centuries AD the main classical compendiums of Ayurveda have been composed, redacted and annotated a few times. Martin Levey points out that Indian medicine and Pharmacy had an influence on Arabic medicine since pre Islamic times and throughout the medieval period. Much of these transactions went alongside commercial contacts and movements. The later Persian and Arab Scholars knew well then Indian medical contemporaries in Baghdad and this was due a great extent to processes of knowledge exchange through translation of works on Indian medicine which were translated into Persian and then in Arabic.28It would seem that the Perso – Arabic world was in close contact with the complex scholastic world of India and that the cultural network was expansive and not limited to a few disciplines. There may have been confusions related to the individual achievements and there is hardly any evidence to identify this author on the basis of any Sanskrit citations. However, that some information and textual knowledge had passed on to the neighboring

34

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states is amply corroborated by the cross references in various Arabic sources. The 10th Century anthology of Ibn an-Nadim and the late 13th century volume of Uṣayibi„a both reflect these exchanges in most significant ways. In fact these anthologies repeat the information from the 9th – 10th century work of ar – Rāzī. Ibn an-Nadīm‟sKitāb provides some details about the earliest Indian whose medical work was found to have been collected, translated and internalized by later Perso – Arabic medical literature. This was Shānāq (Fihrist, 988 CE). He is supposed to have written works on the conduct of life and the management of war. He seems to have been a proficient translator from Sanskrit to Arabic. IbnAbīUṣayibi„a / Uṣaibi‟a lists further achievements to Shānāq‟s credit stating that the latter had authored works on Veterinary matters, astronomy and lapidary craft. The medical work of Shānāq was translated into Persian at the behest of the ruler by Maṅka, an Indian physician at the court of the Barmakid governors.29It was called the Kitāb al-Sumūmwa‟l – tiryāqāt. In Arabic the name runs as the Book of Poisons and theriacs.30The popularity of Shānāq and his information was significantly wide. For example, we note that Shānāq‟s book was further translated from Persian of Maṅka into Arabic very soon by one abūḤātim of Balkh, who is known only as a contemporary of Maṅka and as one who served under the Bermakid Vizier, Yahya b. Khalid. Another translation of Shānāq was done by al-„AbbāsibnSa‟īd al-Jauharī a contemporary of the Abbasid Caliph al-Ma‟ mūn. (813 – 833 CE). The famous Arabic book on poisons and remedy, i.e., ibn al-Waḥshīya/ YūḥannāIbnMāsawayh‟s Book on Poisons with the title Kitāb al-sumūm refers to Shanaq's book as great and important. This statement is attested to by the fact that much of Shanaq's work was used by ibnWahshiya. Shānāq‟s popularity was noted by the popularity and spread of the Kitāb al-sumūm. We come to know of an unillustrated manuscript combining the above text with the Kitāb al-Diryāq which was dated to 1225 CE.

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Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Ibn an-Nadim also informs us that the Bermakid Vizier, Yaḥyā bin Khālid (d. 806 CE) had sent a scholar to India to study Indian drugs and religion and fetched Indian physicians and philosophers to the western countries so that a knowledge base might be created. Whether this personage was the very same as the Indian physician Maṅka or Maṅkah about whom Ibn an-Nadim informs us in his Kitāb al-Fihrist (988 CE),is not very clear. Anyway, information about Maṅkahis quite clear. He flourished during the rule of Hārūnar-Rashīd in the late 8th - early 9th century. He was described as a most learned and distinguished philosopher in Indian knowledge and was supposed to be conversant in languages of India and Persia. This Maṅka was responsible for the translation of the book of Shānāq, the Indian which was a treatise on poisons. Ibn an-Nadim also writes that Maṅka had travelled from India to Iraq and had attached himself to the Caliph Hārūnar-Rashīd and that basically Maṅka was a companion of Isḥāq b. Sulaimān b. „Alī al-Hashimī. Both were engaged in translating from the Indian language to Persian and Arabic. Ibn al-Nadīm in fact provides a further list of Indian Medical texts that were translated into Persian and then into Arabic during the rule of the Abbasid Caliphates, including Maṅka‟s translation of Caraka into Persian, and then into Arabic by Abdullah b. „Alī. The text of Suśruta was also said to be translated by Maṅka into Arabic. The ninth century work of MādhavaNidāna, a book on the symptoms of four hundred and forty – four diseases and the characteristics is said to have been translated fifty years after its composition into Arabic by an unknown author at the behest of Caliph Hārūnar-Rashīd in the late eighth early ninth centuries CE.31 Another contemporary of Maṅka mentioned in later texts like that of Ibn an-Nadim is ibnDhan. He is mentioned as an Indian physician and the director of a hospital who had translated Indian medical treatises into Persian or Arabic, including the Aṣṭāṅhṛgahrdaya and Siddhayoga. 32 A number of other Indian physicians were mentioned by Arabic writers and listed by Ibn al-Nadīm and

36

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

later by Uṣayibi„a, about whom we find no reference in the Indian anthologies or texts. In fact we also come to now of a book on drugs in which properties and notions

of

compared.

33

drugs

were

discussed

and

Greek

and

Indian

practices

Another Indian book known as Siddhisthana paraphrased as

KitābṢūrat an-Najaḥ, the Way of Success was also mentioned to be circulating in this world. The last Indian physician mentioned by Uṣayibi„aamong whom Manka and Shanaq stand prominent as we have noted already, was Ṣāleḥ bun Bhala who was reportedly a skillful physician who had been in Baghdad during the times ofHārūnar-Rashīd.34 As early as 1836 J.Forbes Royle had traced the the history of Arabic translations of the primary and other Indian medical works under the Abbasid Caliphs and also at the same time mentions a German scholar having encountered similar clues to this history.35 It would appear that treatment of poisoning had formed an extremely urgent concern amongst the Arabic medical scholars and possibly this reflects the political anxieties of the times. Its treatment had emerged as a primary concern

in

Arabic

medical

practice

and

textual

knowledge.

HousniAlkhateebShehada writes about how among other noted works on poisons the Indian Shanaq‟s book stood as an important one and was mentioned in IbnAbīUṣayibi„ah as having been translated from Indian language to Persian during the period of Hārūn al-Rashīd.36 The popularity of Indian medical works in this instance is also reflected in the famous Arabic book on poisons and remedy, i.e., ibn al-Waḥshīya/ YūḥannāIbnMāsawayh‟s Book on Poisons with the title Kitāb al-sumūm (Kitāb al-sumūmwa-„ilājuhā”), which was composed in 950 CE.37ibnWahshiya's refers to Shanaq's book as great and important. This statement is attested to by the fact that much of Shanaq's work was used by this famous author of medical treatment for poisioning. Shānāq‟s continued popularity was noted by the spread of the Kitāb al-sumūm. We come to know of an unillustrated manuscript combining the above text with the Kitāb al-Diryāq which was dated to 1225 CE.38

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Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

A deeper reading into Ibn al-Waḥshīya‟s work would enlighten us as to the scene and discursive routes of transmissions of scientific knowledge and information through a longue durée perspective. Martin Levey‟s deep research39 reveals that the work traces information from early Greek texts like Dioscorides, Theophrastus and Galen and others. But none of these works and their authors was mentioned in Ibn al-Waḥshīya. The main text, he refers to is supposedly a translation of the Book of Poisons of the Nabatean writer, Yārbūqā. Others were Indian texts of obscure authors, not known in since then in India, and some books commissioned by Persian rulers, including a book on poisons compiled by a Persian and said to be owned by Kings of Isfahan, another work is accredited to Buzurj-mihr. As Levey annotates, Buzurj-mihr is supposed to have been the earlier noted minister of Khusraw I Anusharawan, Burzoe, the compiler of the Pahlawi adaptation of the Pancatantra. Interestingly enough citing other sources Levey informs us that Burzoy/ Burzoe was also a character in many old anecdotes. The important thing to note is that Ibn al-Waḥshīya‟s sources were neither directly received from Greek authors nor possibly form the major tradition of India. On the other hand signs of borrowings through mediating cultural transactions are obvious. The reference to Burzoy, possibly a legendary figure in the Persian – Arabic world, is indicative of a cultural lineage from the early centuries of the Sassanian culture and its Indic connections. We may relate the legendary figure to the translator of Pancatantra and the pursuant of the magic herb from India. The mythical connection to the idea of Indian herbal medicine assumes some significance in reference to this later evidence. On the other hand, communications and influences from the Hellenistic world are quite apparent. In fact at least so far as the early pre Christian times are concerned the exchanges were flowing between South Asia and the Hellenistic world and the Perso-Arabic space stood midway.

38

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

To go back to the anthologies referring to Indian medical texts, several other works of Indian origin have been cited by Uṣayibi„a, mentioned by their Arabic and Persian names including treatises on treatment of pregnant women, on Indian drugs, on a hundred diseases and their medicaments, book on intoxication and intoxicants, on vipers and their poison by the Indian Ray and significantly a book on Imagination in Diseases by Abu Qabal, the Indian.40 This last could actually have been addressing the psychological matters related to medicine. The most remarkable was a book on the treatment of women composed by Rusa, a lady doctor from India! The most significant fact is that such information is absent in India proper. There are no matching extant manuscripts that could be juxtaposed with these works in the lists of Ibn alNadīm and Uṣayibi„a. The other fact that needs to be mentioned is that Uṣayibi„a who writes in the late 13th century CE must have derived his information from Ibn al-Nadīm‟sKitāb al-Fihrist (988 CE) of the late 10th century CE does not cite the latter in details and excludes many of the scientists and physicians listed by Ibn al-Nadīm. Ibn al-Nadīm‟s descriptions can be corroborated with reference to the information included in

works of the three great physicians

AlīibnSahlRabban al-Ṭabarī / Alī bin RabbānaṭṬabarī (c. 850 CE), AbūBakr Muhammad ibnZakarīyāar – Rāzī ( Kitāb al-Ḥāwī )and the famed IbnSīna (c. 1037 CE). Among the historically contextualized figures of great scholars circling the circuit of Gondishapur and its illustrious ambiance, we may now mention AbūBakr Muhammad ibnZakarīyāar – Rāzī(854 CE – 925 CE). This legendary figure in Arabic science is representative of the historical phenomenon we are relating here. His Kitāb al-Ḥāwī, which literally translates to “The Comprehensive” known in the Latin world as Liber Continens, is a compendium on medicine with twenty volumes originally. Only ten are to be traced at present. In this compendium ar-Rāzī discusses innumerable known diseases of the time and provides citations of the known Greek, Syrian, Arabic, Persian and Indian

39

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sources on the same following these discussions with his own opinion and experiences, some of which testify to his excellent clinical observation. ar – Rāzī undertook several journeys to the eastern parts of the Islamic world while in service in Baghdad . He collected knowledge and manuscripts. The transference of Indian medical knowledge in the ken of ar - Rāzī might also have been due to the influence of al- Ṭabarī as we shall note later. Kitāb al-Ḥāwī was published posthumously and contains a lifetime of research. Abu L FaḍlIbn al- Amīd, the great philosopher – statesman, collected and bought the draft notes and possibly redacted them himself. It was finally brought out around 950 CE. ar – Rāzī / Rhazes clearly cites from six major Indian medical sources – Ātreya, Suśruta, Caraka, Vāgbhaṭa, Ravigupta and Mādhava as well as a few anonymous writes whom Kahl collectively put as „Anonyma‟.41It seems therefore that by Rhazes‟ times in the late 9th – early 10th centuries the knowledge of Āyurveda was making its circulation in the Islamic world of the west. In fact ar - Rāzī‟s background had led him to be open to the external cultures.

He

was

tutored

by

AlīibnSahlRabban

al-Ṭabarī/Alī

bin

RabbānaṭṬabarī, or Abū al-Ḥasan, the great Jewish scholar and author of Firdaws al-ḥikmat(850 ca.) whose own work contained a chapter which includes the references to Indian medicine (chapter VII), who himself represented the cosmopolitan environs of science scholarship in the contemporary Arabic – Persian world. The Firdaws al-ḥikmat / Firdaus al-Ḥikmahcontained a summary of the theories, philosophies and practices of Indian medicine in thirty six chapters.42 There is the question of Rhazes‟ source of access to Sanskrit works on medicine. As Oliver Kahl, the scholar on History of Islamic Science who won award for his book on ar-Rāzī, points out there was the great possibility that Sanskrit and Sanskrit translations into Pahlavi were possibly kept at the Barāmika hospital library. 43 Most importantlyit would seem from Kahl‟s readings into the text of Kitāb and his minute observation of the Sanskrit text

40

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derivatives,that ar – Rāzī / Rhazes had had some knowledge of Devnāgarī alphabet if not an intimate knowledge of Sanskrit language proper. He also could access Greek directly. He was able to furnish some Greek, Sanskrit and Syriac terms in pharmacological tables with indications of their etymologies. As Kahl pointed out this seems to indicate while ar – Rāzī / Rhazes was closely working with the Arabic translations of the Pahlavi source material on Sanskrit, he had to some extent knowledge of these languages. The most important work on medicine which had the widest and deepest impact on the early medieval to early modern medicine throughout the Mediterranean, Hellenic and Arabic-Persian-Islamic civilization was the Qanoon of Sheikh al-Ra'isSharaf al-MulkAbū „Alī al-Husayn b. „AbdAllāh b. al-Hasan b. „Ali IbnSīnā. 44 The Qānūn of IbnSīnā was one of the most important, the trailblazer and the most popular amongst latter – day authors and practitioners of medicine in the old world, if not the most original or pioneering. Although we cannot include IbnSina‟s work among those which were directly linked to exchanges from Indian tradition of medicine yet close scrutiny of scholar has revealed the impact of varied systems and practice on this great compilation of medical knowledge, the Qanoon. T.A. Wise had traced the evolution of medical knowledge and practices in the Old world Civilizations from Hippocrates to Avicenna and tracked the linkages, exchanges and borrowings.45 It is apparent that South Asian medical knowledge was already getting transmitted to the Hellenistic world during the days of the rise of Greek medicine and there are records of direct transfers in theory as well as practice.46 Many similarities have been observed between the ideas on anatomy, body metabolism and vital organs and especially related to embryo formation and life between the Hippocratic tradition and the Indian Ayurvedic tradition. In fact even Julius Jolly had cited similarities between Greek and Indian medical theories for which of course Jolly privileges the impact of Greek influence. 47 Hoernle‟s deep study 48 however, led him to conclude on the

41

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distinctiveness of the systems of medical knowledge while guessing at borrowings or exchanges and evaluations. The eminent 19th century scholars on History of MateriaMedica like J.F. Royle shows through tracing the use of medicinal plants the deep and complex borrowings of every ancient tradition of MateriaMedica from each other.49 Postscript: As a postscript we might refer to two very important aspects of knowledge transfer, 1) translation programme and a language exercise 2) the cultural ideology.As to the first aspect, the conduit of exchange ran through Persia and reached Bactra and West Asia and the exchanges cut across language barriers, rather the process furthered links with language adoptions and learning, which is very evident in the scholarship of both Rhazes and Ibn al Waḥshīya. One of the lasting influences in early pre Christian centuries would have been the Buddhist social and cultural lineage which must have left a deep impact on the processes of knowledge formation through transmissions across space. This is clarified by the role undertaken by the Barmecides / Barmakids or Albarmak. Famous in this sector of cultural history of Persia, the Barmakids were a noted family of Iraniansof Indian origin, possibly with a strong orientation towards the medical profession and knowledge. They were descended from the family of Chief Monk of the temple of Buddhism at Nawbahārin Balkh. The word Barmak is supposed to be derived from the term Pramukh. Some of the Barmaks adopted Islam and went into the service of the Caliph. They translated many Indian texts into Persian and Arabic and possibly Maṅka was one of them. Perso-Arabic traditions also talk about practicing Indian physicians in hospitals located in the region.On the other hand, we come to know of the age – old tradition of carrying andpreservation of Indian manuscripts on medicine in the Buddhist precincts, which had been amply attested by the evidence of the Bower manuscripts 50 recovered from Kuchar in Eastern Turkestan.The surge of this

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translation activity under the Abbasid caliphate could also be explained by the model of ancient cosmopolitanism presaged by Peter Fibiger Bang.51Goonatileke had also linked the role of the Bermakids to this exchange of knowledge between Persia and Arabic world from the east.52The role of such personages like YaḥyāibnKhālid, the Barmakid vizier to Hārūnar-Rashīd is also a significant pointer to the state initiative at the local level. It is possible to see a connection between the Sassanid projects of cosmopolitanism and universalism which were spelt out in a conscious policy at the time to rise above petty provincialities to make their rules widely acceptable in the latter day spirit of open cultural explorations undertaken by the Abbasid Caliphate in Iran and the Arabic world. We come back to Peter Fibiger Bang‟s analysis and his findings of loosely amalgamated fabrics of elite societies in the Hellenic to Sogdian – Kushan Persian and west Asiatic cultural – demographic – political space, the imperial courts with networks of patronage to form an economy of command and prestige emergent and nurtured through Alexandrian regimes to the period of Abbasid Caliphate. At the same time local identities and institutions were prevalent. But these were integrated and taken into the universalizing fabric while differences in traditions were recognized. A high culture was essentially a converging point in such contexts and it was characterized by trans - regional integration as well as by tensions between cosmopolitan and the local. The transmissions of the textual culture formed a part of the universalizing project of the regimes like Iran/ Persia in the days of rising empires on the flanks. Notes & References: Martin Levey, Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction based on Ancient and Medieval Sources, Leiden, Netherlands, 1973, E.J. Brill, pp. 9– 10. 2 J.F. Royle, An Essay on the Antiquity of Hindoo Medicine, London, WM. H. Allen & Co., 1836, pp. 22 ff. 1

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T.A. Wise, Review of the History of Medicine, Vol. I, London, J. Churchill, Edinburgh, Adam Black & Co, Bombay & Calcutta, WM. Thacker, 1867, pp. ix, xxxi – xxxii, xli – xliii, liii – lvi. 4 Julius Jolly, Indian Medicine, translated by C.G. Kashikar, Poona 1951, pp. 26 – 28. 5 A.F. Rudolf Hoernle, Studies in The Medicine of Ancient India, Part I Osteology Or The Bones Of The Human Body And Others, Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1907, Preface. 6 MehrdadKia,The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes], Vol. I, Empires of the World Series, Santa Barbara, California, ABC – CLIO, 2016, 110. 7 François de Blois, Burzōy's Voyage to India and the Origin of the Book of KalīlahWaDimnah, London, Royal Asiatic Society, 1990, p. 41. 8 Arthur Christensen. La Legend du Sage Buzurgmihr; 1929; ActaOrientalia, Vol. 8, Appendice, Extraits de la Préface du “Kalīlay et Damnay”, pp. 112 – 114. 9 Theodor Benfey, Pantschatantra: FünfBücherindischerFabein, Märchen und Erzählungen, 2 volumes, Leizig, 1859, 57 – 66. 10 François de Blois, op. cit., London, Royal Asiatic Society, 1990, pp. 40 – 65. 3

Arthur Christensen. La Legend du Sage Buzurgmihr; 1929, ActaOrientalia, Vol. 8 pp. 81-127, Chrisensen cites the information posted in the preface of this translation of what he spells as “Kalīlay et Damnay”, pp. 112 - 114; MehrdadKia, The Persian Empire: A Historical Encyclopedia [2 volumes], Vol. I, Empires of the World Series, Santa Barbara, California, ABC – CLIO, 2016, 110 – 112. 12 TourajNayernouri, “Borzuyeh e Tabib (The Iranian Physician)”, Arch Iran Med., 2016; 19 (4): 300 – 304. 13 TourajDaryaee, Sassanian Persia: The Rise and Fall of an Empire, London, New York, I.B.Tauris& Co. Ltd in association with the Iran Heritage Foundation, 118 – 119. 14 Ibid, 119. 15 Ibid, 118 – 122. 16 J.F. Royle, op. cit., 1836, pp. 26 – 34. 17 T.A. Wise, op. cit., 1867, pp. ix, xxxi – xxxii, xli – xliii, liii – lvi. 11

Julius Jolly, op. cit., 1951, pp. 26 – 28.

18

A.F. Rudolf Hoernle, op. cit., 1907, Preface.

19

Cyril Elgood, A Medical History of Persia, Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, 1951, 46 – 50. 21 Soheil M Afnan, Avicenna, His Life and Works, London, Geroge Allen and Unwin Ltd., 1958, p. 202. 20

44

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Martin Levey, Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction based on Ancient and Medieval Sources, E.J. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands, 1973; M.S.Khan, “An Arabic Source for the History of Ancient Indian Medicine”, Indian Journal of History of Science, Vol., 16 (1), May 1981, pp. 47 – 56. 23 Guy Le Strange, The lands of the eastern caliphate: Mesopotamia, Persia, and Central Asia, from the Moslem conquest to the time of Timur. Cambridge UK: University Press, 1905, p. 23. 24 George Saliba, Islamic Science and the Making of the European Renaissance, Cambridge, Massachusetts, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2007; DimitriGutas, Greek Thought, Arabic Culture: The Graeco – Arabic Movement in Baghdad and Early „Abbāsid Society (2nd – 4th /8th – 10th centuries), London, Routledge, 1998. 25 Bayard Dodge, Ed &Transltd, The Fihrist of al- Nadim, A Tenth Century Survey of Muslim Culture, Vol. 11, Columbia University Press, 1970, pp. 826 – 842; Gustav Flügel, ed., Kitāb al-Fihrist, 2 volumes, Leipzig, Verlag Von F.C.W. Vogel, 1871 – 1872, List of Indian medical works mentioned by alNadīm is available in Vol. II; M. S. Khan, op. cit., May 1981, pp. 47 – 48. 22

Uṣayibi„a, Uyūn al – Anbā‟ fi Ṭabaqāt al-Aṭibbā‟, ed., August Muiller, 2 Volumes, Königsberg, 1884, Vol. II, pp. 32 – 35; al-Zireklī, Qāmūs al-A‟lām, 2nd ed., Beirut, 11389/1969, I, 188; Cited by M.S. Khan, “An Arabic Source for the History of Ancient Indian Medicine”, IJHS, 16 (1), May 1981, pp. 47 – 56. 27 G.J. Meulenbeld, The Mādhavanidāna, Delhi edition, MotilalBanarsidass, 2008. 28 Martin Levey, Early Arabic Pharmacology: An Introduction based on Ancient and Medieval Sources, E.J. Brill, Leiden, Netherlands, 1973, pp. 15 – 19. 29 C.D. O‟Malley, The History of Medical Education, An International Symposium, UCLA Forum in Medical Sciences, Berkeley, Los Angeles, London, University of California Press, 1970, p. 352. 30 Levey cites C. Brockelmann, Geschichte der arabischenLitteratur, Leiden, 1937, I, S, pp. 413, 428, 431; Levey, op. cit., 1973, f.n. no., 2, p. 15. 31 Levey, op. cit., p. 17, f.n. 2; Hans H. Rhyner, Ayurveda: The Gentle Health System, Delhi, MotilalBanarsidass, 1998, p. 18; M.S. Khan, op. cit., pp. 52 – 3. 32 Cited in Ibn an-Nadim‟s Al-Fihrist, Martin Levey, op. cit., 1973, p.17; E. J., Holmyard, Alchemy, 1957, Baltimore, Penguin Books, pp. 69 – 70; M.S. Khan, op. cit., p. 40. 26

M.S. Khan, op. cit. May 1981, 51 – 52; Martin Levey, op. cit., 1973, pp.15 – 18. 33

M.S. Khan, op. cit., May 1981, p. 51. J.F. Royle, op. cit., 1836, pp. 64 – 66. The German scholar cited by Royleis Friedrich R. Dietz. Flügel also refers to his work in Vol. II, 1872, p. 146 – 147. 34 35

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HousniAlkhateebShehada, Mamluks and Animals: Veterinary Medicine in Medieval Islam, Leiden, Boston, Brill, 2013, f.n. 171, p. 328. 37 Martin levey, “Ibn al-Waḥshīya's "Book of Poisons," "Kitāb al-Sumūm": Studies in the History of Arabic Pharmacology II”, Journal of the History of Medicine and Allied Sciences, Vol. 18, No. 4 (October, 1963), pp. 370-377; Martin Levey, “Medieval Arabic Toxicology: The Book on Poisons of ibnWahshīya and Its Relation to Early Indian and Greek Texts”, Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, Vol. 56, No. 7 (1966), pp. 1-130/ 5 – 6. 38 Jaclynne J. Kerner, “Art in the Name of Science: The Kitāb al-Diryāq in Text 36

and Image”, Anna Contadini, ed., Arab Painting: Text and Image in Illustrated Arabic Manuscripts, Leiden Boston: Brill, 2010, pp. 25 – 39/26. Martin levey, op. cit., (October, 1963), pp. 370-377.

39

M.S. Khan, op. cit., May 1981, pp. 47 – 48. M.S. Khan cites Kitāb al-Fihrist of

40

Ibn an-Nadīm, ed., by G. Flügel, vol. II, 1872, p. 303. Oliver Kahl, The Sanskrit, Syriac and Persian Sources in the Comprehensive Book of Rhazes, Leiden, Boston, Brill, 2015,pp. 4 - 27. 42 Firdausu‟l-Ḥikmat or Paradise of Wisdom of „Alî B. Rabban-aṭ-Ṭabarî, ed., M.Z Siddiqi, Subsidised by the E.W. Gibb Memorial Trust, BerlinCharlottenburg 4, Buch- u. Kunstdruckerei,, Sonne”, 1928, pp. 620, 557 – 593. Cited by M.S. Khan, op. cit., May 1981,, p. 50. Rabbanal-Ṭabarī‟sinfluence on ar-Rāzī is evident from the similarity in ideas and quotations. See Oliver Kahl, op. cit., 2015, pp. 9 – 10. 41

Ibid, p. 6. O. Cameron Gruner, The Canon of Medicine of Avicenna, New York, AMS Press, reprint 1973. 45 T.A. Wise, Review of the History of Medicine, Vol. I, London, J. Churchill, Edinburgh, Adam Black & Co, Bombay & Calcutta, W.M. Thacker, 1867, pp. ix, xxxi – xxxii, xli – xliii, pp. liii – lvi; Richard Colgan, Advice to the Young Physician: On the Art of Medicine, New York, Springer, 2009, pp. 33 – 34; Susan Aldridge, Trailblazers in Medicine, New York, Rosen Publishing Group Inc., 2015, pp. 20 – 21. 43 44

SusanthaGoonatileke, Toward a Global Science: Mining Civilizational Knowledge, Bloomington, Indian, Indian University Press, 1998, p. 85. 47 Julius Jolly, op. cit., 1951, pp. 27 – 28. 48 A.F. Rudolf Hoernle, op. cit., 1907, Preface. 49 J.F. Royle, op. cit.,1836, pp. 28 – 29, 32 – 35. 46

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50

A.F. Rudolf Hoernle, The Bower Manuscript, 2 vols, Office of the Superintendent of Government Printing, Calcutta, 1897. 51 Peter Fibiger Bang, “ “ZumewigenFrieden” Cosmopolitanism, Comparison and Empire”, Myles Lavan, Richard E. Payne, John Weisweiler, Eds., Cosmopolitanism and Empire: Universal Rulers, Local Elites, and Cultural Integration in the Ancient Near East and Mediterranean, New York, OUP, 2016, pp. 231 – 238. 52 Susantha Goonatilake, op. cit., 1998, pp. 87 – 88.

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THE TRACES OF BIRDS IN INDIAN, IRANIAN AND TURKISH CULTURE Asuman SENEL, Turkey PhD. Turkish-Islamic History and Arts

One of the mutual patterns of Indian, Iranian and Turkish culture are legendary birds. While they seem as peacock or garuda -the carriage of gods- in Indian culture; the legendary bird becomes simurg –the guardian of Zal and Rostam- in Iranian art. Simurg, whose feathers can heal wounds, also helps at bad times and speaks like people. On Bilge Khagan‘s crown they seem as an eagle and in Seljuqs art they seem as janus-headed eagle. In divan literature, the legendary birds take place as Simurg, Anka and Huma. Bird feathers have been also appeared differently throughout history. From clothes of Shamanists to Ottoman topknots, they reach today like traditional bride headgears in Ibecik village of Golhisar district which is located in Burdur city. From statues to architecture, miniature to literature, carpet to rug, clothes of the Shamanists to crowns of the sultans and from history to today, it is possible to see the traces of birds anywhere. Not only living life but also about death, there are again traces of birds. Death means ― reach to fly‖ for the Old Turkic. Birds have been the symbol of happiness and freedom throughout history. They have the ability of flying which people cannot have. Flying means, being free of borders and being able to reach to the thing which is out of reach. Birds are the symbols of being in touch with the sky. These free feathers of the deep blueness which recall eternity and infinity have always attracted the interest of people and the people have always placed them to the seat of honour of their lives throughout history. Traces of birds from Indian, Iranian and Turkish culture have reached today by leaking through each other and interactively mixing. Finally, as a symbol of hope, hoisting sail for new lives and happiness, they appear on 48

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traditional bride headgears in Ibecik village of Golhisar district which is located in Burdur city. Keywords: Indian, Iranian, Turkish, Culture, Birds

Introduction Indian, Iranian and Turkish cultures have been interacting throughout history. It is possible to see these traces clearly in many common motifs in classical literature and artworks. One of these are the birds that are seen in all three cultures. The aim of the work is to reveal the bird traces that are seen in Indian, Iranian and Turkish culture and to draw attention to the interactions of cultures. The birds have always attracted the attention of mankind. The ability of birds to fly continues to adorn every phase of life from birth to death today, combining with extraordinary qualities. The bird traces are seen as Simurg in Iranian literature, as an anka or emerald-anka in Turkish art, as garud of Indian art, as a black-eagle in Turkish art, in architecture, on carpets and rugs, in wedding ceremonies, in Sufism and in the notion of death. Why is man so interested in birds? The most basic reason for this is the bird-sky relationship. The birds fly in the infinite-unlimited sky, disappearing from our eyes, or flying back from unseen. What is unknown and untouchable is also mysterious. The skies are filled with secrets and the bond between this and man are the birds. For this reason, the human beings have made meanings to the birds. Birds are the symbols of hope, the symbols of freedom, the symbols of new beginnings, and the links to the highs that human beings can not reach. Methods and Techniques: In order to reveal bird traces which are one of the common motifs in Indian, Iranian and Turkish culture, the literature has been searched, field research 49

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also has been done and the findings obtained have been evaluated and exemplified.

Results Simurg- Anka- Zümrüd-ü Anka: There are two kinds of simurg in Iranian saga tradition. One of them is the protector of Zal and Rustem, living either on a tree called Saena that has all the seeds of the botanic which is in the middle of the Vourukasha Sea or on a mountain of Elbruz, a mansion made of ebony, sandalwood and agarwood.1

Picture 1: Simurg (Kazvînî- Acâibü’l Mahlûkat, BL, Or. 7315) Source: Metin And, 2008- 316.

The other simurg is a legendary bird which is like a flying mountain or a black cloud with strong claws that could even take crocodiles, parsons and even elephants. It has been murdered by Insfendiyar.2 After birth, Zal, abandoned by his father's order, was found by simurg and raised in its nest. Simurg can speak like people. When it leaves 1

V. H. Büchner, (1993), Islamic Encyclopaedia, (10th Volume, pp. 653-654), Istanbul, National Education Printing House. 2 V. H. Büchner, op. cit., pp. 653-654.

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Zal, it gives its feathers to him and when Zal is in a trouble, will burn a feather and simurg will run for his help.3 In addition, in order to heal wounds, it is necessary to scrub the scarf with the feather of Simurg by using the herb mixed with milk and musk.4 The ointment which is made with mountain flower and human milk is also seen in Dada Gorgud Stories.5 In the story of Bogac Khan the son of Dirse Khan, Hizir who rides a gray horse, strokes the wound of Bogac Khan by his hands three times and describes how to make the ointment with mountain flower and human milk.

Picture 2: Simurg bringing Sam's son Zal to his father (Şehnâme, TSM H. 1490) Source: Metin And, 2008- 318.

One of the two Simurgs in the Shahname is good, it helps people, the other is bad, and it hurts people. While Simurg, who is good to people,

3

Firdevsi, Şehname I, Trans., Necati Lugal, (1967), (I th Volume, pp. 337-338), Ankara, National Education Printing House. 4 V. H. Büchner, op. cit., p. 653-654. 5 Muharrem Ergin, (1980), Dede Korkut Book, (3rd Edition, pp.31,33), Istanbul, Bogazici Publications.

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saves them from various difficulties, Simurg, who harms people, is killed by heroes.6

Picture 3: Bukrat (Hipokrat) gets on to Simurg to go to the mountain of Kaf to take medicine (Falname, TSM H. 1703) Source: Metin And, 2008- 319.

Picture 4: Hz. Hamza goes to Kaf Mountain on Simurg. (Album, TSM H. 2134) Source: Metin And, 2008- 320.

Simurg means "thirty birds" as a word. According to some people, Simurg has feathers of thirty birds on it. On the work of Attar's -Mantıku't Tayr-, he describes the mystic journey of birds.7 The journey‘s aim is to 6

Metin And, (2008), Ottoman Islamic Mitology with Miniatures, (p. 320-321), Istanbul, Yapı Kredi Publications. 7 Ferideddin-i Attar, Mantik Al- Tayr, Trans. Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı, (1968), Istanbul, National Education Printing House.

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reach Simurg, the sultan of the birds by climbing over Kaf Mountain. At the end of the tough journey, only thirty birds remain on the road and they realize that Simurg whom they want to reach is actually themself. In fact, the whole journey is a journey from themselves to themselves. "Who knows him/herself, knows God," or "If you want to know God, know yourself."8 Simurg burns himself to rebirth from its ashes, and man can reach God by purifying himself from the evil qualities of the self.

Picture 5: Simurg is in flames to reborn from its ashes (Art and Nature Wonders, BL., Harleian, 5500) Source: Metin And, 2008- 317.

Simurg in Iranian art becomes Anka in Arabian art and Phoenix in Turkish art. Three names have been used in Turkish art. Anka is very similar to Simurg. Its nest is a mansion on the top of Kaf Mountain made of ebony, sandalwood and agarwood.9 It is believed that its neck is very long and there is a ring of white feathers in the neck. There is a good-hearted Anka that helps people and bad-hearted Anka that harms people. Anka can also speak like Simurg, coach the emperors and its feathers heal the wounds.10 Because of Anka carries the characteristics of thirty birds, it becomes Simurg; because of its feathers are made of thirty colors, it 8

Metin And, op.cit., 2008, p. 315. Sargon Erdem, (1991); Anka, Turkey Religious Foundation Encyclopaedia of Islam, (Volume 3, pp. 198-200), Istanbul, Religious Foundation of Turkey Publications. 10 Sargon Erdem, op. cit., 1991, pp. 198-200. 9

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becomes Sireng and because of its mainly green, it is called as Phoenix or Simurg-u Anka.11 Garuda - Eagle - Double Headed Eagle: Garuda is the king of birds in Indian mythology. 12 Garuda‘s body resembles the human body and it has eagle's claws and beaks. It usually fights with snakes, sometimes with the gods. Losing its struggle with the gods, it became the carriage animal of Vishnu.13

Picture 6: 1st century A.D. Garuda, who caught a snake and a goblin Source: Emel Esin, 2004-207.

In the centuries of 6th to 8th, Garuda portraits are seen in the temples in Central Asia. It is depicted as a predatory bird on the temple dome of the Buddhist mausoleum Kum-Tura in which there are three Turkish Buddhist inscriptions written in the Gokturk alphabet.14

11

Süleyman Uludağ, (1991), Sufism, Islamic Encyclopedia of Religious Foundation of Turkey, (Volume 3, p. 200-201), Istanbul, Religious Foundation of Turkey Publications. 12 Emel Esin, (2004), Iconographic Motifs from Central Asia to Ottoman Turkish Art, (p. 171-173), Istanbul, Kabalci Publications. 13 Yaşar Çoruhlu, (2006), Outline of Turkish Mythology, (2nd Edition, p. 135), Istanbul, Kabalcı Publications. 14 Emel Esin, op.cit. p.207.

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Picture 7: Garuda caught a snake (dome image of Buddhist temple in Kum-tura, Kok Turk and Western Turkish Period 550-740) Source: Emel Esin, 2004-207.

Garuda continued to exist as a predatory bird with its black color and golden wings in Turkish Buddhist art. Garudi, Karuti, or Garuda which is called "Telim Karakuş (black predatory bird)" 15, is more commonly seen as a double-headed eagle in Turkish art.

Picture 8: Double-headed Garuda, Kok Turk and Western Turkish Period Buddhist painting (550-740) Source: Emel Esin, 2004-207.

Eagle is a very old Turkish motif and occasionally replaced by Simurg and Anka. According to the Yakut Turks, the eagle is the symbol of 15

Emel Esin, op.cit. Pp.205-209.

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God's power and energy. According to the Dolgans, the eagle holds the gate of the sky with its wings. The big eagle "Burkut or Merkut" is a holy sky bird. Moon can only cover its left wing and the sun can only cover its right wing.16 On the golden crowns of the Gokturk emperors Kultigin and Bilge Kagan, there are the figures of an eagle with its wings open.

Picture 9: Eagle motifs on the crown of the Kultigin and on the golden crown of Bilge Kagan Source: Kursad Zengin, Mongolia, 2016.

Picture 10: Konya Fine Minaret Madrasa Museum (Anatolian Seljuk Period) Source: Yaşar Çoruhlu, 2006-137.

16

Bahaeddin Ögel, (1995), Turkish Mythology, (Volume II, pp. 178-180), Ankara, Turkish Historical Society Printing House.

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The eagle is also depicted on a tree of world (tree of life) whose branchs reach the skies.

Picture 11: XIII. Century, World tree, universe and double headed eagle on the door of Erzurum Double Minaret Madrasa. Source: Emel Esin, 2004-49.

Although the names of the birds with extraordinary qualities are different, such as Simurg in Iranian, Garuda in India, Eagle or Phoenix in Turks, in general these birds protect people, help the heroes, help them through their wings or feathers and sometimes they help people as a carrier.17

Picture 12: A big bird saves a man from his sunk ship 17

Ali Duymaz, (1998). A Mythological Bird in the Folk Narrations of the Turks in Anatolia and Balkanian: Namely Emerald Anka, Balıkesir University Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 91-97.

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(Kazvînî-Acâibü'l Maklûkat, BL, Add.7894) Source: Metin And, 2008- 317.

Hümâ: Huma, believed to be similar to God Umay of Old Turkic belief, is also called Kumay, Huma or Humay. It is believed that it lives in eternal, unlimited heights, which a man can‘t see. According to some, it lives in either in China or in Hita or in India or in Dhatti-Kipchak. It walks around the horoscopes and skies and reaches to Allah. Huma always lives in the skies, never lands, sometimes approaches to the ground as much as 40 archines, meanwhile it is believed that if its shadow falls on someone or gets through someone, that person will become an emperor or become very rich.18 On this matter, Taceddin Yalcikuloglu wrote these sentences in the 18th century: "They say that Humay is a bird of wealth. It‘s as big as raven and its wings‘ ends are black and its head is green. The place it lives is in the air. It lays in the air and it brings its babies in the air. They say Humay sometimes approaches to the ground for about forty archnies and returns. If its shadow falls on someone then that person will become the sultan or be very rich."19 For this reason Humay is regarded as bird of heaven, bird of luck or state bird.20 ― Zülf-i siyâhı sâye-i perr-i Hümâ imiş İklim-i hüsne ânun içün pâdişâ imiş (Bâki)‖21 (The black hair is the shade of the wing of Huma and is the sultan of the beauty land for it.) Here, the darling‘s hair which is resembled to Huma‘s shadow and because of that beauty her being the sultan of beauty

18

Cemal Kurnaz (1998), Huma, Turkey Religious Foundation Encyclopaedia of Islam, (C 18, p. 478), Istanbul, Turkey Religious Foundation Publications. 19 Abdülkadir İnan, (1986), Shamanism in History and Today, p. 37, Ankara, TTK Printing House. 20 Cemal Kurnaz, op. cit., p. 478. 21 Sabahattin Küçük, (1994), Critical edition of Baki Divani, G. 218/1, p.234, Ankara, TDK Publications.

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land are told. Also, here is a reference about the belief which is to whom Huma's shadow falls on, becomes the sultan.22 Peacock: The peacock is often seen as a symbol of self-conceit, pride, and arrogance in Islamic art. In the miniature of Hadikatu's- Suedâ (Fuzûlî) in the Soustiel Private Collection in Paris, Adam is seen on a dragon and Eve is on a peacock.23 In the miniatures depicting the expulsion of Adam and Eve from Paradise (Picture 13, 14), three evils; the devil, the snake and the peacock were shown together.

Picture 13: Hz. Adam and Eve are being fired from heaven. Falname (TSM, H1703) Source: Metin And, 2004- 299.

22

H. Dilek Batıislam, (2002), Mythological Birds of Divan Poetry: Hümâ, Anka and Simurg, Journal of Turkish Culture Reviews I, p. 185-208, Istanbul. 23 Metin And, op. cit., 2008, p. 94-96.

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Picture 14: Dismissal of Adam and Eve from Heaven (Hadîkatü's Süedâ, BN, suppl. Turc 1088) Source: Metin And, 2008- 95.

Sarasvati in Indian mythology is the wife of God Brahma, the goddess of speech and learning. Sarasvati, the name of a river in the beginning, is regarded as the goddess of creation, culture, wisdom because of the creative energy of Lord Brahma after the river is attributed holiness. It is often depicted on a lotus flower, sometimes on a peacock.24

24

Fatma Hicret Un, (2011), Comparative Indian and Greek Mythology, Unpublished Master Thesis, p. 76-77, Ankara University, Institute of Social Sciences.

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Picture 15: Sarasvati on a Peacock Source: Fatma Hicret Un, 2011-218

Karttikeya is seen as the god of war in Indian mythology. It‘s mentioned that he was the son of Shiva or son of the god of storm –Rudra-, he was born in Ganges River without an intervention of a woman, and he was nourished by the seven-star sign Ulker star (Krittikâ). Karttikeya is depicted on a peacock whose name is Paravani.25

Picture 16: Karttikeya on a Peacock Source: Fatma Hicret Un, 2011-221

25

Fatma Hicret Un, (2011), op. cit., pp 78-79.

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Bird Feathers, From Past to Tradition: Feriduddin Attar, while describing Simurg in Mantık Al-Tayr, he says that one midnight a feather fell from the wing of Simurg to the Chinese country. Everybody had a different kind of embroidery, a picture from that feather and occupations and jobs occured that way. Since the feather is still in China, he says that the sentence which says "Seek for knowledge even in China" is told because of that. Also he says "All these works have occured by its brilliance. All these lights have come from the embroidery on a single feather of the wing. "26 The birds considered holy in the beliefs of the peoples are of course not limited to Simurg, Anka, Garuda, Eagle or Peacock. It is known that many birds such as goose, pike, hawk, falcon, pigeon, sparrow, heron are attributed various meanings.27 It‘s mentioned that the wings, bones or feathers of birds are used as the elements of Shamanism, warriors, dominance, strength, courage, beauty, luck, fertility, intention and ornamental. The Altai Turks are mentioned to have worn a bunch of owl feathers on the shoulders of shaman robe, which are said to represent double eagles or double hawks.28 Bird feathers are also used on Shaman hats (Picture 17). On shaman hats there are sometimes flying bird pictures. Sometimes two, nine or thirty owl feathers are planted on the edge of the hill of the Shaman hats.29

26

Ferideddin-i Attar, Mantık Al- Tayr, Trans. Abdülbaki Gölpınarlı, (1968), p. 59, Istanbul, National Education Printing House; Zülfi Güler, (2014), Anka-Simurg Symbol at Sheikh Galib Div., International Journal of Language Academy, Volume 2/1 p. 63/72. 27 Kubra Eskigün, (2006), Legendary Birds in Classical Turkish Poetry, Unpublished Master Thesis, Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University, Institute of Social Sciences. 28 Gülşah Yüksel Halıcı, (2014/1), Representatives of the Sky God: Protective Birds, CIU Cyprus International University, folklore / literature, vol: 20, no: 77, p. 71-81. 29 Abdülkadir İnan, (1986), Shamanism Materials and Researches in History and Today 3. Print, p. 93, Ankara, Turkish Historical Society Printing House.

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Picture 17: Portrayal of Land and Sky Animals on Shaman Hats Source: (Akademia Nauk Soyuza Sovetskyx Socially Responsible for Socially Responsible, Institutional Ethnography Imeni N. Mikluho Malaya) Sibel Kilic, 2010: 19

In Ottoman sultan crowns and topknots, various bird feathers were used. Antoine Galland, who was in the capital city of sultanate in 1672-1673 wrote his impressions as a diary, described the costume of the sultan on feast prayer regiment: "The Sultan completely dressed in white... The turban on the head of sultan was not a turban of ceremony. It was an ordinary turban which any Turks wore. But what was found on him and not seen in any Turks was a beautiful topknot which was specially organised in black, white and silver made of heron feathers. This topknot was linked directly to forehead instead of the turban with a chain made of jewels. An extraordinarily large emerald was the main ornament and two small chains of diamonds were dangling from the topknot."30

30

Antoine Galland, (1998), Daily Recollection (1672-1673) in Istanbul, (Charles Schefer, translation, Nahid Sırrı Örik), C II, s.75, Ankara, Turkish Historical Society Printing House. ; Asuman Şenel, (2017), Ottoman Sultans‘ Crowns of 16-18th Centuries and Royal Headers Unpublished Doctorate Thesis, Isparta, Süleyman Demirel University, Institute of Social Sciences.

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Picture 18: IV. Mehmed (1648-1687) Source: Irepoğlu, 1999: 101

Picture 19: III. Ahmed (1703-1730) Source: Cotellioglu, 2012: 39

Picture 20: III. Mustafa (1757-1774), Source: Tapan, 1977: 101

Picture 21: Diamond Topknot Source: TSM 2/313

The diamond crest (Figure 17) which is 15 cm and registered in Topkapi Palace Museum with the number of 2/213 is dated to the 18th century. There are a single emerald (4x5 cm) top-shaved and a large ruby surrounded by diamonds, pearls and rubies on the topknot. Also, there are feathers of heron in the bird feathers‘ nests and these nests are beautified with nine branches made of diamond and pearl.31 Various meanings throughout history have been attributed to the bird feathers. Also today, in Turkey‘s Burdur Province Golhisar County, the 31

Nurhan Atasoy, (1992), Splendors of the Ottoman Sultans, p. 45, Istanbul University, Wonders (Memphis, Tenn.) USD; Asuman Senel, (2017), op. cit.

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village of Ibecik, the bird feathers are used on the bride crowns. The bride crown which is called as Ciya in the region made of the feathers of the birds such as eagle, pike, goose, peacock is worn while the bride is leaving the house. The bride's veil is dressed on the day and the next day of the wedding.32 To make a ― ciya‖, you need to collect four to five birds' wing feathers such as crane, eagle, goose and peacock. The gathered feathers are painted in vivid colors with madder and are sewn side by side on top of a fabric like a headband.33

Picture 22: Ciya Source: Ozlem Karpuz

32

Necla Yılmaz, (1996), Burdur City Gölhisar Town İbecik Village Bride Dress Unpublished Undergraduate Thesis, p. 14, Konya Selçuk University; Beyhan Konuk,., Oral interview on "İbecik Village Bride Dress", İbecik Village, July 2011; Asuman Şenel (2013), Burdur Alaca Textiles and Traditional Clothes (Form and Iconography), p. 163166, Antalya, Burdur Municipality Culture Publications 14. 33 Beyhan Konuk, Özlem Karpuz, Ö. Erdoğan, oral interview on "İbecik Bridal Headlines", Burdur, 2010.

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Picture 23: Ciya (Ibecik 2011)

Putting bird feathers on crowns is a very old tradition of Turks. It is not known how long the bride's crowns decorated with bird feathers have been used in Ibecik village. They stated that they used bride crowns because they saw it from their ancestors and grandfathers, and they stated that they continue to use it just because they see them from their ancestors and just because they are "beautiful". Bird motifs are also used in carpets and rugs.

Picture 24: Birds, Private Collection, 102 * 168 cm. 18th.Century Konya Source: Güran Erbek, Anatolian Kilims, 2005: 058

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Picture 25: Birds, Private Collection, 140 * 195 cm. 20th.century, Konya, Obruk Source: Güran Erbek, Anatolian Kilims, 2005: 080

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Picture 26: Birds, Etnography Museum, Ankara, 185 * 254 cm. 19th. century, Tekirdag, Sarkoy Source: Güran Erbek, Anatolian Kilims, 2005: 099

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Picture 27: Zeki Faik Izer, "Seljuk Eagle", 1984, carpet weaving, 241x117 cm. Source: Yetik, 2009: 204 cited Ibrahim Çoban, 2015: 57

Just as in life, birds are also seen in the notion of death. Death is to "fly" in the Gokturks, which means going with flying. It‘s the spirit‘s reaching God's side by flying.34

Result Indian, Iranian and Turkish cultures show similarities in terms of legendary bird traces. Simurg in Iranian art is seen as Anka or Phoenix in Turkish art; Garuda in Indian art is seen as eagle or double-headed eagle in 34

Bahaeddin Ögel, (2001), From yesterday to today Turkish Cultural Development Ages, 4th edition, p. 758, Istanbul, Turkish World Research Foundation.

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Turkish art. The feathers of peacocks which is the carrier of Gods in Indian culture, decorate the bride crowns in Ibecik Village of Golhisar County in Burdur. The birds are everywhere, just like in the sky. On the carpets, rugs, architectural works, paintings, miniatures, in almost every area of life and in death, the birds come out. The relation of human beings with birds traces to Adam and Eve's expulsion from Heaven. Birds have the same goodness and evil as human beings. Good birds help people, save heroes from difficult situations, heal wounds with their feathers, and bring goodness to the human race behind the mountains of Kaf. Bad birds harm people; but good people and heroes kill them. The ability of birds to fly, in other words their ability to reach the sky which is full of secrets for mankind without a contact brings birds extraordinary qualities in the eyes of people. Birds are symbols of freedom, symbols of supernatural powers and symbols of goodness. In this way, human beings have placed birds in every area of their lives from birth to death in their paintings, their textures, their songs. Those who shoot birds in Burdur, are not welcomed well. It's a good idea to take some bulgur for birds when someone goes on a trip. Leftovers especially bread crumbs are not tossed out, they be put on the places where birds can eat. Birds are one of the common elements of Indian, Iranian and Turkish cultures. Birds fly through the cultures and connect cultures together, just like the sky which surrounds the whole world.

References And, M., (2004), Ottoman Depiction Art: I Miniature, 2nd Edition, Istanbul: Turkey Business Bank Publications. And, M., (2008), Ottoman Islamic Mitology with Miniatures, (2nd Edition), Istanbul: Yapı Kredi Publications.

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Atasoy, N., (1992), Splendors of the Ottoman Sultans, p. 45, Istanbul University, Wonders (Memphis, Tenn.) USD. Batıislam H. D., (2002), Mythological Birds of Divan Poetry: Hümâ, Anka and Simurg, Journal of Turkish Culture Reviews I, p. 185-208, Istanbul. Büchner, V. H., (1993), Simurg, The Encyclopedia of Islam, (Volume1, pp. 653-654), Istanbul: National Education Printing House. Çoban, İ., (2015), Eagle Symbol in Turkish Iconography and its Reflectıon to The Contemporary Turkısh Paıntıng, idil, Vol. 4, Issue 16. p. 57-80. Çoruhlu, Y., (2006), The Outline of Turkish Mythology, (2nd Edition, pp. 135), Istanbul: Kabalcı Publications. Çötelioğlu, A., (2012), Topkapı Palace Museum Painting Collection and Sultan's Portals, Istanbul, Bilkent Culture Initiative Publications. Duymaz A., (1998). A Mythological Bird in the Folk Narrations of the Turks in Anatolia and Balkanian: Namely Emerald Anka, Balıkesir University Journal of Social Sciences, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 91-97. Erbek, G., (2005), Anatolian Kilims, p. 058, Ankara, T.C. Culture and Tourism Ministry Erdem, S. (1991), Anka, Turkey Religious Foundation Encyclopaedia of Islam, (Volume 3, pp. 198-200), Istanbul: Turkey Religious Foundation Publications. Ergin, M., (1980), Dirse Han's son Boğaç Han, Dede Korkut Book, (Third Edition), Istanbul: Bosphorus Publications. Esin, E., (2004), Iconographic Motifs in Ottoman Turkish Art from Central Asia, Istanbul: Kabalcı Publications. Eskigün, K., (2006), Legendary Birds in Classical Turkish Poetry, Unpublished Master Thesis, Kahramanmaras Sutcu Imam University, Institute of Social Sciences.

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Ferideddin-i Attar, (1968), Logic Al-Tayr, (3rd Edition), (A. Gölpınarlı, Trans.), Istanbul: National Education Printing House. Firdevsi, (1967), Şehname I, (3rd Edition), (N. Lugal, Trans.), Ankara: National Education Printing House. Galland, A., (1998), Daily Recollection (1672-1673) in Istanbul, (Charles Schefer, translation, Nahid Sırrı Örik), C II, s.75, Ankara, Turkish Historical Society Printing House. Güler, Z., (2014), Anka-Simurg Symbol at Sheikh Galib Div., International Journal of Language Academy, Volume 2/1 p. 63/72. Halıcı, G., Y., (2014/1), Representatives of the Sky God: Protective Birds, CIU Cyprus International University, folklore / literature, vol: 20, no: 77, p. 71-81. İnan, A., (1986), Shamanism Materials and Researches in History and Today 3. Print, p. 93, Ankara, Turkish Historical Society Printing House. İrepoğlu, G., (1999), Levni, Light, Poetry, Color, İstanbul, Ministry of Culture Publications. Kurnaz C., (1998), Huma, Turkey Religious Foundation Encyclopaedia of Islam, (C 18, p. 478), Istanbul: Turkey Religious Foundation Publications. Küçük S., (1994), Critical edition of Baki Divani, G. 218/1, p.234, Ankara: TDK Publications. Ögel, B., (1995), Turkish Mythology, (Volume II, pp. 178-180), Ankara: Turkish Historical Society Printing House. Ögel, B., (2001), From yesterday to today Turkish Cultural Development Ages, 4th edition, p. 758, Istanbul, Turkish World Research Foundation. Şenel, A., (2017), Ottoman Sultans‘ Crowns of 16-18th Centuries and Royal Headers Unpublished Doctorate Thesis, Isparta, Süleyman Demirel University, Institute of Social Sciences.

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Şenel, A., (2013), Burdur Alaca Textiles and Traditional Clothes (Form and Iconography),

p.

163-166,

Antalya,

Burdur

Municipality

Culture

Publications 14. Tapan, N., (June 1977), "Sorguçlar", Ministry of Culture Art, Year 3, Issue 6, Istanbul, Ministry of Culture Publications. Uludağ, S. (1991), Sufism, Islamic Encyclopedia of Religious Foundation of Turkey, (Volume 3, p. 200-201), Istanbul: Turkey Religious Foundation Publications. Un, F. H., (2011), Comparative Indian and Greek Mythology, Unpublished Master Thesis, Ankara University, Institute of Social Sciences. Interviews: Karpuz, Ö., (2010), (Burdur Girls' Vocational High School Painting Teacher) Oral Interview on "Ibecik Village Bridal Headlines", Burdur. Konuk, B., (July 2011), (İbecik Cloth Waiter), "İbecik Cloth and İbecik Traditional Bridal Clothes", İbecik Village. Pehlivan, G., (2010), (Ibecik Bride with the Birth of Senirkent in 1952) Oral Interview on "Bridal Headlines of İbecik Village", Burdur. Pehlivan, N., (2010), (1945 Ibecik born retired mathematics teacher) An oral interview on "Ibecik Village Bridal Headlines", Burdur. Pehlivan, Y., (2010), (1946 İbecik born artisans) oral interview with "Ibecik Village Bride Topics", Burdur. Rışvanoğlu, M., (May 2011), (Housewife - born in 1936), "Burdur Traditional Bride Dressing" oral meeting, Burdur. Saden, M., (September 2011), (Housewife, born in 1924), "Burdur Traditional Bride Dressing" oral meeting, Burdur. Zengin, K., (2016), (Associate Professor, Afyon Kocatepe University Faculty of Medicine), "Mongolian, Bilge Kagan and Kültigin's titles".

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Art of Translation and Persian Works on Kazakh literature Ateybekova Nurzyia Kazakh Ablai Khan University of International Relations and World Languages, Kazakhstan, Almaty The prosperity of each culture depends greatly on other cultures and Translation is one of the ways which helps us to transfer cultures elements to each other. Translation is one of the oldest activities which has a big influence on the culture. Since various groups of people have been speaking different languages people tried to understand each other. Among the people, there are oral and written translators. The translation technique has been developed for years. By translating we get acquainted with each other's culture and this kind of literature is enriched. Literary translators are saying that "translation is a bridge between people". A translation is a work that brought together nations and people. We can now become more familiar with culture, literature, thoughts, stories, arts and other countries' chronicles through translation. The art of translation has helped people to reach new level of communication in many spheres of life. The countries of Kazakhstan and Iran over the centuries have had a very abundant culture. If we do not include history of the two countries and only look at their literature we can find many similarities. This is because of the translated works. Persian literature had a great influence on Kazakh literature. Kazakh literature has followed Persian literature at the beginning of its formation. As we said above, the ancient Kazakh literature had a lot in common with Persian literature. Firstly we can see similarity in myth, stories etc. Secondly, some scenes of a Persian story we can see in the Kazakh

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literature.These aspects can be seen in past and contemporary Kazakh literature. Works of Nizami, Attar, Sanai, Naser Khosrow, Saadi, Molavi and Hafez, who have become famous in the world andalso in neighboring countries. Especially in Central Asia.In the nineteenth century in Central Asia and Kazakhstan the story ― Yusuf and Zulaikha‖, ― Khosrow and Shirin‖, ― Layla and Majnun‖ and ― Eskander name‖ were translated and published. Abai was one of those who translated Persian works of literature. The works include Ferdowsi, Saadi and Hafez and in his work Abai used Persian and Arabic words very much. He had rather big influence in making Kazakh literature rich and abundant. Shakarim Kudaiberdy also contributed a lot in developing Kazakh literature. He was one of the first to translate nine Hafez's poems in Kazakh language for the first time. Shakarim considered Abai, Lev Tolstoy and Iranian poet, Hafiz as his teachers. He also translated several poems from Hafez into Kazakh and he tried to write poetry like Hafez. Mukhtar Magauine, the famous Kazakh poet admits that Shakarim is familiar with the literature of the East. We can say that Shakarim knew pretty well the Eastern literature and the Western literature. For example he writes: The words they said had treated our souls Their language was sweet and expressive Byron, Pushkin, Lermontov, Nikrosov Hafez, AlisherNavoiy are some of them. One of the Kazakh poets Turmagambet Yistliev translated the poems of Hafez, the Rubaiyat of Omar Khayyam and in 1961 Shahnameh of Ferdowsi into Kazakh language. 75

he translated

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Apart from these poets, there are other poets of Persian literature whose works were translated into Kazakh. Some Kazakh poets respected Persian poets and they consider them as their master, and wrote poetry about them. For example, Sabet Mukanov has written about Omar Khayyam many times. For example, we can mention this poem: Expressed His

poems

important are

thoughts

famous

all

with over

quatrains the

world

His art is immortal What a great person was Omar Khayyam! The poet Mukanov himself has composed fifty rubies. The poet was admired by Omar Khayyam in his poems and also poets such as Alimbayev and Maulenov were inspired in their poems by Omar Khayyam. For example, Alimbayev has made exactly eighty-four quatrains. And the subject of some of his quatrains is similar to Omar Khayyam. Finally, we want to summarize the whole article in this sentence. The literature cannot blossom by itself it needs translators who spread this art across the world. The people of Kazakhstan know Iran through the poems of Ferdowsi, Khayyam and Hafiz, and others. The whole world is grateful to get accustomed with these works through translation.

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An analysis of the style of the books of Ghezlan al-Hend and Abda al-Bada'a Mehdi Mohammadinejad Assistant Professor of Persian Language and Literature Golestan University, Iran Abstract: The books of Ghezlan al-Hend and Abdu'l-Bada'eh are two comparative rhetoric books written in close proximity (Ghezlan al-Hend: 1178 AH and Abaed al-Bada'a: 1222 AH) concerning the adaptation of Arabic, Hindi, and Persian rhetoric. These two books represent a stage in the transition of rhetorical compilations from the stage of mere imitation to the stage of innovation. Although the methods in the writing of both books have been criticized, the efforts of both writers to escape the mere imitation can be commended. Both writers have tried to take steps to adapt Arabic rhetorical techniques to their native language, relying on similar methods. This research first seeks to explore a variety of Persian and Indian rhetorical methods that their authors have tried to introduce their native language Arabic rhetorical techniques developed from the beginning of Islam in the shadow of the Qur'an. Secondly, it examines the particular way of the two books and the points of sharing and differentiation. Key words: Ghezlan al-Hend, Azad, Abdul al-Bada'a, Shams alAlma, Rhetoric. Introduction: The stages of imitation of Persian rhetoric from Arabic: Persian rhymes are heavily influenced by Arabic rhetoric and old rhetorical books written in Persian are indicative of this fact. Tarjoman alBalaghah is the first Persian book of rhetoric and is written in the fifth century. The author of this book is a Radviani; however, we do not know much about his biography and his life. A great deal of this book has been written with an impressive effect of the Book of Mahasen al-Kalaam 77

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Morghini. As the name of the book idicates, the Al-Balaghah, radovians have sought to translate rhetorical techniques and, of course, add to add some pieces evidence of Persian language. The second book, which has come from the Persian rhetoric, is the book of Hadaeq al-Sehr written by Rashid al-Din Vatwat. He has also been influenced by Tarjoman al-Balagha in the major parts of the book, and in many cases he has just copied the terms, and, of course, has not mentioned that the source of his thoughts had been Tarjoman al-Balaghah. The good reputation of Rashid al-Din Vatwat made his book quickly spread and the Persian literature, using it, wrote other rhetorical books. The influence of the Book of Hadaeq al-Sehr on Persian rhetorical books can be seen for centuries. Among the books that are influenced by Hadaeq -e-al-Sahar are al-Mu'ayyim Fayy'yar ashar al-A'jād by Shams al-Dīn Qays Razi and the Hāḍāqāḥ jurisprudence written by Sharaf al-Din Rami. Of course, it is worth noting that books such as the Nahayat –al Ijaz, which was written in Arabic, are also influenced by Hadaeq al-Sahar, and it is evident that the books have been well received in Arabic. Therefore, the Persians sent what they have received from the Arabic origin to the Arabic. In general, Persian rhetoric has been influenced by Arabic rhetoric in three aspects: - Examples - Naming techniques - The division of techniques In the first case, it can be said that some books have been used to define rhetorical techniques from examples of Arabic compositions containing Arabic poetry and literary texts, and have examined rhetorical techniques with respect to Arabic examples. But in the latter case, most rhetorical techniques have been used for centuries, but even now have Arabic names, and in the contemporary era, only efforts have been made to localize techniques in Persian. But in terms of the division of techniques, it 78

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should also be noted that Persian rhetorical techniques were carried out over centuries on the basis of Arabic divisions, some of which were under the influence of Badie science and some of the subcategories of semantics, and others were the subcategory of the science of expression. Of course, the differences among the ideas on the division of techniques of Arabic books also spread to Persian books, and some techniques have sometimes been moved from a branch to another branch. Some like Reza qoli Khan Hedayat generally changed divisions and developed alphabetical rhetorical techniques. But the stages of imitation of Persian books from Arabic are summarized in three categories: - Pure imitation - Relative imitation - Innovation Pure imitation features: In this type of imitation of Persian rhetoric, the use of rhetorical techniques and even the naming of their books are influenced by Arabic. Some of the books most affected by this feature are: Anvar al balaqe by Mohammad Hadi ibn Muhammad Salih Mazandaran (11th century), and (Mu'alim al-Balaghah by Muhammad Khalil al-Raja'i (in the 14th century AD), and (Dorar al Adab by Hessam Aq Qoli Mirza, and (Maani va bayan by Gholam Hossein Ahani. Regarding the three recent books, one of the researchers has stated that: these books are only copies of al-Mokhtasar and al-Motavval books, in which some Persian Examples can be seen. (Shamsa, 1383, pp. 195-196). Relative imitation Features: In this type of imitation, the Persian rhetoric writes have tried to increase Persian instances, make some minor changes to the definition of techniques and possibly name them. Some of the books most affected by 79

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this feature are: "(Tarjoman al Balaqa, Hadeq al-Sehar, al-Mu'ajam Fai Maayir,Ashaar al-Ajam)". Innovation features: In this regard, Persian rhetoricians have tried to study rhetoric with regard to new linguistic approaches and characteristics of the Persian language. Therefore, they have made an effort to invent, name and define new techniques in accordance with the Persian language. Some of the books that are most affected by this feature are: Fonoone Balaqat va Senaate Adabiwritten by Dr Jalal al-Din Homai, and Negahi Taze be Badie by Dr. Shamisa, and Badie-Nou by Dr. Mahdi Mohabbati, and Honare Sokhan Arayi by Dr. Mohammad Rastgo, andBadi az Didgahe Zibayishenashi by Dr. Taqi Vahidian Kamyar. The evolution of rhetoric in India: India has a very rich and rooted literary and cultural background and has been associated with various cultures throughout history, but the relationship between Indian literature and Persian literature rhymes dates back to about the eighth century, and Indian rhetoric from the eighth century onwards invented new works of rhetoric in the development of Persian rhetoric and became a worthy part in the development of Persian rhetoric and they were able to introduce their aesthetic views into Persian rhetoric. Among the books written by the Indian rhetoric who were able to move the modernist views of the Indians to Persian rhetoric are a comprehensive book of Jame al-Sana'a val-ozan written by Seif jam Harawi and Majmue Laaef va Safine Zarayef from the same author and Sobhah al-Marjan Fi Athare Hendoosatan and Ghezlan al-Hend by Gholamali Azad Belgarmi And the book of Hadaeq al-Balāqah by Shamsuddin Phaghir Dehlvi and the Tohfat al-Hend by Mirza Khane Bin Fakhr al-Din Muhammad. Although the aforementioned books have excellent features in adapting Indian and Persian rhetoric, researchers have introduced Tohfat al-Hend as the first

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book on comparative studies of Persian and Arabic dialects. (Fotoohi: 1385: 145-142), but the book of Ghezlan al-Hend also has a special significance. The significance of Ghezlan al-Hend: Ghezlan al-Hend is in fact a translation from the third and fourth chapter of Sobhata al-Marjan written by Gholamali Azad Belgarmi in Arabic, in which the author attempted to explain the Indian rhetoric to Arabic speakers. (Goli Sare Lee Nasser, p. 25). The importance of this book is that the author tries to express criticism in addition to introducing rhetorical techniques, and has created innovations in creating techniques or attitudes to techniques. In this book, 27 of the techniques of Indian rhetoric are returned in Arabic, and then in Persian, and some pieces of evidence have been provided for each one. Some of these techniques result from the division of Indians from simile and the remainder rely on a logical analysis of poetry text (Fotouhi: 2006: 179). Importance of the book Abda al-Bada'a: The book Abda al-Bada'a is one of the largest Persian rhetorical books that has been published in 1328 in which two hundred and twenty rhetorical techniques have been stated and some technical pieces of evidence have been provided from Arabic and Persian. The author of this book is Mirza Mohammad Hossein Gharibi Garakani who famous as Shams al-ulama. He was a great religious and literary scholar. Sheikh Bozorgh Agha Tehrani has referred a small book on jurisprudence to him. He also has other compilations, including: entesar al shiaa Abda al-Bada'a. His name is Shams al-Din and he wasfamous as Janab and Shams al-ulama, and he has a poetry book, and uses the name " Rabbani " in his poems. (Aqabzarak al-Taherani: 1/458, 1/65, 9/354). Among the features of Shams al-Alma is that he spent nine years in India at the request of the Aga Khan III, the grandson of the Aga Khan, the local leader of the Ismaili sect (Shams al'Alam: 1383: p. 2). He has also been familiar with Indian literature and art and culture. Shams al- Ulma believed that the rights of the Persian were ignored in the innovations that have been created in rhetoric, such as 81

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Molammaat, Tarjome and Ihame Tarjome, and none of the Arabs have paid attention to them (Shams al-Alma: 1383: p. 30). For his book, he mentions features that make it superior to past books. He believed that books that had been compiled in rhetoric until his time included two types: -

Arabic.

-

Farsi

He also believes that Farsi speakers do not understand the value of their language and they suspect that Persian language is devoid of literary techniques and verbal beauty. He is seeking to rectify the false rhetoric of the Persian language, and at the request of some of his friends who have asked him to collect the ingenious techniques that are consistent with the literary taste of Salim, he has begun writing the book Abda al-Bada'e. And tried to use more Arabic and Persian evidence in his book than previous books. Shams al-Ulmah believes his book has the following advantages: - The book includes 220 rhetorical techniques, while rhetorical techniques do not exceed 150 techniques in previous books. Shams alAlmah believes that he has added 70 techniques to rhetorical techniques, and perhaps the reason for naming his book is to'Abdī al-Bada'a. - Persian rhetorical books received most evidence of Arabic poetry and prose in the past, but this book cites a Persian a piece of evidencefor every technique. - More use of the verses of the Qur'an, because the rhetorical books have not used well the verses, for example, all the verses used in Al-Muftah and Al-Thallis books do not reach 50 verses. - Some of the techniques that have been neglected in Arabic and Persian books are presented in this book, and evidence and examples have been presented based on the level of the rhetoric learner. 82

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- Observing the alphabetical order in citing techniques (Shams alulama: 1383: 21 and 22) The points of sharing between Ghezlan al-Hend and Abdul alBada'a: 1- thecritical views. 2- Addressing innovative techniques. 3. Examples. 1- the critical views. During the book, Azad Bellagram criticized the position of techniques in Arabic, Persian, and Indian literature and it is therefore an important book in comparative literature, for example, he writes about the weight of the Arabic poem and its privilege in Persian and Hindi: "In Arabic poetry sometimes divides the word into some parts. This distinction is not common in Persian and Hindi "(Azad, 1382: 30). He believes that Arabs have taken Radifs of Persian poets, but the Radifis not beautiful in Arabic poetry (Azad, 1382: 30), as well as FanneBaraat al-Jawab is beautiful in Arabic and Hindi but not in Persian. Azad believes that the Tashbih Attazkir technique as an Indian techniquemakes a special beauty when adaptated in Persian. (Azad, 1382: 33), and believes that the analogy that the Arabs examined from different aspects of sensory and rationalism have other aspects from the Indian point of view, , including Tashbih al-Sha'af Benafsehi and Tashbih al Borhan (Azad, 1382: 38). Azad believes Hindus have been very influential in EStekhdam. He refers to a special type of EStekhdam that is common to the Arabs and Indians and names it as Sarf la Khazane (Azad, 2003: 49). Such critical views repeatedly mentioned in the book Ghazalan al-Hend add to the importance of the book for transferring experiences among the Arabic, Persian and Hindi languages. In addition, one of the features that distinguishes the book of Ghezlan al-Hend from similar books is that the 83

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author has looked at Persian poetry from semantics point of view and explained some of the aspects of Persian poetry literacy in terms of spiritual issues. (Azad, 1382: 9) However, Abda al-Badae's book also has a special place in terms of expressing criticisms. Shams Al-Ulmah's critical summary is summarized in three categories: - Criticism of Rhetorical Techniques: Shams Al-Ulma has expressed many opinions in this regard, including that he considers "Raghta" as a valueless technique, which only makes literary texts difficult and does not have aesthetic value (Shams al-Alma: 1383: 255). He also has the same opinion about "Tahvih" and "Tadvir" techniques which are difficult to use. However, he is satisfied with techniques such Tansigh al- Sofat and Tarikh. - Comparison: In this regard, Shams al-Ulmah sometimes compares the poets and sometimes compares Arabic and Persian as well as the role of techniques in them, for example, about Laf o Nashre Morattab believes that none of the poets in this technique is superior to Ferdowsi Or, in the case of the technique of Ze al-Bahoor, it is a technique of Persian and there is no evidence in Arabic. Shams al-Ulma has also compared the Persian and Arab poets, for example, Sa'di is preferable to Behtari and Motnabi. (Shams alAlma: 1383: 325). He also prefers Sa'di in the Ensejam techniquefor all Arab and Fars poets (Shams al-Alma: 2004: 86). Innovative Techniques: Regarding the innovative techniques, both Ghezlan al-Hend and Abdu'a al-Bada'a have come up with a number of efforts in this regard, which include: Azad in his book points out three types of techniques: - The techniques that the Arabs and Indians share in them, such as Ihām, Hosn al-Ta'lil, and Tajahol al-Araf, and others. - There are 27 Indian techniques for which Azad have provided evidence, such as al-Tanziya va Tashbih al-Shaebenafseh, and so on.

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- 35 techniques who have invented by Azad such as Tafaol, Nazr and Vefagh, etc. (Azad, 2003: 32) Shams Al-Ulamah has also has some innovating in Abda al-Bada'e. He has found 150 techniques in the previous books, and has used 220 techniques in his efforts. That means 70 techniqueshave been discovered. (Shams al-Alma: 1383: 21). Among the techniques that Shams Al-Ulama has discovered areIham Vasl, and Shebh al Tabid and Tamhid and so on. Of course, Shams alAlma's attempt was to add the techniques was the continuation of the effort that the scholars of Persian and Arab rhetoric sought from the beginning. Ibn Mu'atz had given permission to add techniques in the Badie book (Ibn Mutaz, 1990: p. 152). And in the Persian books before Abdu'a al-Bada'a, attempts were made to add techniques. There are also some cases in the books of Tarjuman al-Balaghah and Hāijek al-Sahar. For example, in the book ofHadaeq alSahar, there are techniques such as Mordaf and Zooghafiatein, which were not present in the previous books (Vatwat: 1362: 79 and 57). And inRami's Hadaeq al-Hukayeg, some techniques such as Mostazad and Mazilseem to be new (Rami, 1341: 152 and 164). Among the books that have a great deal of effort in creating techniques is the book Bada'a of al-'Afkar al-Sana'a al-Ash'ar writtenby Kashifi. Examples: Both authors have made great efforts in their books to adapt rhetorical techniques to Persian poems. The difference between the two books in terms of evidence is that the ghazlan al-Hadd used less Arabic, and Abd al-Bada'a used more Arabic evidence. Results: The books of Ghezlan al-Hend and Abda al-Bada'eh are two books on comparative rhetoric written about the application of Arabic, Hindi, and Persian rhetoric. Both writers have tried to take steps to adapt Arabic 85

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rhetorical techniques to their indigenous language, relying on similar methods. Both writers have tried to take steps to adapt Arabic rhetorical techniques to their indigenous language, relying on similar methods. India has a very rich and rooted literary and cultural background and has been associated with various cultures throughout history, but the relationship between Indian literature and Persian literature rhymes dates back to about the eighth century, and Indian rhetoric from the eighth century onwards,inventing Badi's works of rhetoric,had a major role in the development of Persian rhetoric and they were able to introduce their aesthetic views into Persian rhetoric. The points of sharing between Ghezlan al-Hend and Abdu'l Al-Bada'a are three types in terms of compilation style: there are critical views, dealing with inventive techniques and examples. References: - Azad Bellagrami, 1382 AH, Ghezlan al-Hend, Moderator: Sirus Shamsa, sedaye moaser, Tehran. - Aqa. Bozork al-Taherani, Al-Da'ri'aa ela tasanif al- Shi'a, Daral azva, Beirut. - Radoviani Mohammad bin Omar, 2007 AD, Joman al-Balagheh, Research by Mohammad Javad Shariat, Dezung Pasht Publishing, Taheri Publishing, First Printing, Tehran. - Ibn al-Thais Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Bada'if al-Bada'a Tara alJalal al-Tiba'a: Al-Wali al-Awlı 1410H - 1990. - Mohammadi Najjad, 2011 - 2012, The Impact of Al-Badiyah AlArabi on Al-Fassi I Al-Qur'n al-Kheims, Al-A'sef al-Hadith, Mohammadi Najjad, Ayatrouh Dietsakh, Damascus Society. - Rami Sharaf al-Din, 1341 AH, Truths of Hadayah, Correcting and Havashi Seyyed Mohammad Kazem Imam, Tehran University Press, Tehran. - Shams al-ulami Gorkhani, 1377 AD, Abd al-Bada'e, AHARAR Publishing, First Printing, Tabriz. 86

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- Shamiza Sirous, 2004, A New Look at the Badi, Ferdows Publications, Fourteenth Edition. - Fotouhi Mahmood, 2006, Criticism of Imagination (literary critique in Indian style), Tehran: Sokhan. - Gholami Sarl Lee Nasser, Salamat Derakhshan Fatemeh, Periodicity of the History of Persian Rhetoric, Literary Criticism: Year 3, Number 10. - Kashefi Mirza Hossein, 1369 AH, Badaea al-Ashar fi Sana'a alSha'ar, Research, Jalaluddin Kazazi, Publishing of the First Printing Center. - Rashid al-Din Watwat, 1362 AH, Hdāeq al-Sahr fi deqaq al-Shahr, Iqbal Correction, Sanayi-Tahuri Publishing House, Ahmadi Printing House, Tehran.

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Research issues of rare books and manuscripts related toIndian and Iranian cultures in the central scientific library of the Republic of Kazakhstan Gulshat Abikova RSE Central scientific library ''Gylym ordasy'' Head, Department of rare books, manuscripts and national literature

ABSTRACT The Ministry of Education and Science of the Republic of Kazakhstan "Academy of Sciences" State Central Scientific Library depending on the culture of Iran, India depending on the issue of difficulties encountered in the study of rare books and manuscripts. "Academy of Sciences" is one of the main sections of the Central Scientific Library of rare books and manuscripts department. In this section, the rest of the former centuries exhibits hundreds of manuscripts and books. Especially in recent years with the support of the President, "Cultural Heritage" program brought from the corners of the world thousands of books about the history of Kazakh people, manuscripts from science source, libraries. They are Indian, Arabic, Persian, Chagatai, written in Ottoman works. In this report we will do some attempt of this valuable data, collecting manuscripts goal, their features, and the importance of research for Kazakh country, problems which appear, the role of Persian language during research. Keywords: Kazakhstan, the library India and Iran culture. Introduction: Spiritual values of each nation is a treasure trove of its national culture, and a reflection of its role in the world civilization. Central Scientific Library is theheart of Kazakh science that has been keeping such values and ancestral heritage for many years. Central Scientific library - was founded on the basis of the USSR Academy of Science in 1932. Nowadays it is the only research institution 88

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among state libraries which has kept full fund of pre-revolutionary books and rare manuscripts. Library funds are consist of national and foreign publications, dissertations, research papers and rich collections of Kazakhstani scientists' private library. The fund's volume is more than 5.5 million books. The fund of rare books, manuscripts and national literature is about 210 thousand copies of rare books, manuscripts, photocopies, microfilms, dissertations, theses, books in Kazakh language, literature on the language of CIS nations and periodical publications. The general chronology of rare books and manuscripts: publications of XII, XVI-XXI centuries (publications until 1940s). SL (Scientific Library) cooperates with world's 630 research institutions of 71 country, and conducts international book exchange (IBE) from 1951. Library has been working on the issue of automation of librarianbibliographic processes since 1983.

The automatic information library

system MarcSQL works in the Scientific library. Scientific Library created its model of the Digital library, there are more than one thousand titles of rare publications, 40 personal databases, electronic collections of Kazakhstani scientists research papers. Central Scientific Library provides access to databases of scientific journals' publishing houses, Science Direct platform's Elsevier publishing house's electronic resources (in the last five years 23 thematic series consisting of more than 2 thousand journals), Scopus - a general scientific database containing abstracts and citations with 40 million records, dissertations of Russian State Library (RSL), e-library full-text scientific documents, and to Thomson - Reuters, Springer publishing house's database of Web of Knowledge. Remote Service - electronic delivery of documents (EDD) is implemented at the library, and is successfully used. As the center of republican scientific-bibliographic service Scientific Library (SL) prepares scientific, bibliographic, information materials. SL 89

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has 4 intellectual property certificates, they are "Kazakhstani scientists' bibliography'', ''Great figures'', ''Kazakhstani and World Association'' and ''Eminent personalities of library field''. Central Scientific Library is the member of International Association of Academies of Science, of Kazakhstani Libraries Association, of Kazakhstani Libraries Information Consortium. Furthermore, Scientific Library's ''Department of rare books, manuscripts and national literature'' is a scientific center, which is contributing to the development of Kazakhstani Science. The Department has collected ancient Kazakh national monuments and put them to the scientific circulation. The Department was established in 1959, there are kept more than 300 000 manuscripts and rare books. The fund has been collecting about 10 000 books and manuscripts in Arabic, Persian, Tajik, Uzbek, Azerbaijani, Tatar, Chinese and in other oriental languages and Kazakh publications before the October Revolution. In this article we would like to write about rare books and manuscripts related to Indian and Iranian cultures. The fund of rare books

consists of 428 books and about 50

manuscripts in Persian, Afghan, Tajik languages that were published in Iran, India, Central Asia, Europe, Russia, Azerbaijan, Afghanistan, Egypt, Turkey and Pakistan.

A famous orieltalist, scientist, doctor G. Kambarbekova

compiled the book index of lithographic printings in Persian language, which was published as a special catalogue. According to that catalogue the most ancient book in Persian language is a political-religious book ''Kitab-i khakikat nema'' which was published in 1833. The place of publication is unknown, the publishing house - Ioanna typography. The fund's 104 books were printed at lithography, 52 books were printed at typo-lithography, publishing houses of 35 books are unknown, and other 237 books were published at typography. The most ancient book was published about 200 years ago. The majority of documents in Persian language from Central Scientific Library's fund of rare books were printed not only in Iran, but also 90

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in India, Russia, Central Asia and Turkey. It is common knowledge that India is the second motherland of Persian language and most of lithographic books in Persian language were published there. The fund's 64 books in Persian language were printed in India. Many of these books were published at ''Munshi Newal Kishore" lithographies that are situated at Lucknow and Kanpur cities. Books, which were published in Indian peninsula's cities like Lucknow, Kanpur, Deli, Bombay, and Lahore, were written on various topics, namely, poetry, prose, Fiqh, Sufism, biographies of the Sufis, history, explanatory dictionaries, the grammar of Persian language and the Holy Quran. In addition, the book of famous Indian scholar Akhund Darviz that is called ''Sharkh-i tazkirat al-Abrar wa-l-ashrar'' (The explanation for pedigree of good and bad people) is included in the catalogue. The book was printed in 1287/1870, the city of Peshawar, Indian peninsula. At the time when the book was printed the Republic of Pakistan was not founded yet. However, this printing is included in the catalogue as a precious publishing. Books from the fund of rare books and manuscripts, which were written with Arabic letters, were kept during the reign of Soviet Union, and the fund annually was supplemented by new books. Arrival of books in Persian language to the library needs a specific research. We did not consider this theme in the article. Among the fund's books we should pay special attention to "Tarikh-i Chingiz khan" (History of Chingiz khan), "Tarikh-i Shakhrukhi" (History of Shakhrukhi), "Tarikh-i Narshakhi" (History of Narshakhi), "Tarikh-i Salatin-i Mangytiya"(History of Mangyt kings), "Sharaf-nama-yi shakhi" (The book of Shah glory), "Juybari Shaykhs' archive", ''Dastur al-muluk'' (Edification for lords), ''Muntakhab at-tavarikh'' (Selected stories), ''Tarikh-i Asiya-yi markazi'', ''Zafar-nama'' (The Victory book) and precious books about prophet Mukhamed and his fellows' lives, Bible and Zabur's translation in Persian language, ''Maslak almuttakin'' and ''Murad al -„arifin'' which were devoted to the theme of Sufism;a famous Afgan theologian Akhund Darviza's collected letters; Khafiz, Rumi, Sagdi, Firdаusi and Abdirakhman Zhami's book of poems; a full collection of Bidil's writings.Besides, explanatory dictionaries of 91

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Persian language, Zhaladdin Dauani's "Akhlak-i Jalali", Persian folklore's models, explications and translations in Turkish language of Rumi and Sagdi's works, Calligraphy book, Persian prose are precious books of the fund. In addition, there is Mirza Gulam-Akhmad Sakhib Kadiyani's (18351908) book, which is called "Durr-i yasaman-i farsi". Bibliographic catalogue of books in Persian language. The scientific catalogue ''RSE Central scientific library ''Gylym ordasy''fund's materials'' has a special significance

in the sector of Kazakhstani science and

education. Scientific and practical significance of compiling the index: to provide Kazakhstani scientists, teachers and pupils with rare books and manuscripts. Nowadays, important documents about ethnography, history, philosophy, culture and national traditions are not fully accessible for people. That is why, I strongly believe that work will help to rise a new level of research of national spiritual monuments and to find new ways and methods of solving many historical problems. Our main aim is to compile a catalogue of manuscripts in Persian language with help of manuscript researchers. Orientalist-scholar, doctor G. Kambarbekova's ''RSE Central scientific library ''Gylym ordasy''fund of rare books' catalogue of books in Persian language'' served as a basis of the article. References: 1 Ғылыми

кітапхананың

қолжазбалар

қорында

сақтаулы

материалдар жинағының мазмұндалған библиографиялық кӛрсеткіші. 4-кітап. 2 бӛлім. Ж-Ӛ / Құраст. М. Шафиғи, Р.Т. Бірімжарова, Г.М. Абикова, Г.Қ. Егеубаева; Бас ред. К.К. Әбуғалиева, Қ.Е. Қаймақбаева; Ғылыми ред. М. Шафиғи, П. Әуесбаева. – Алматы, 2015. – 266 б. 2

Әбусейітова М.Қ. Шетел қорларындағы Қазақстан тарихы

мен мәдениеті бойынша жаңа дереккӛздер // Қазақстанның мәдени мұрасы: жаңалықтары, мәселелері, болашағы: Халықаралық ғылыми конференцияның материалдары. – Алматы, 2005. – Б. 63-69.

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3 Окольникова С.А. Региональные проекты по сохранению культурного наследия: «вторая жизнь» уникальных книг и книжных коллекций // Библиотековедение. – 2011. – №1. – С.41-45. 4

Бримжарова Р.Т. Кӛненің кӛзіндей жәдігер // Егемен

Қазақстан. – 2002. – №251. – Б.1. 5

Ғасыр жеткізген аманат. Сирек кездесетін неміс тіліндегі

кітаптар жинамасы / ҚР Ұлттық кітапханасы. – Алматы, 2003. – 40 б. 6 Ғылыми

кітапхананың

қолжазбалар

қорында

сақтаулы

материалдар жинағының мазмұндалған библиографиялық кӛрсеткіші. 4-кітап. 3 бӛлім. П-Я / Құраст. М. Шафиғи, Р.Т. Бірімжарова, Г.М. Абикова, Г.Қ. Егеубаева; Бас ред. К.К. Әбуғалиева, Қ.Е. Қаймақбаева; Ғылыми ред. М. Шафиғи, П. Әуесбаева. – Алматы, 2015. – 259 б. 7 Ғылыми

кітапхананың

қолжазбалар

қорында

сақтаулы

материалдар жинағының мазмұндалған библиографиялық кӛрсеткіші. 5-кітап / Құраст. М. Шафиғи, Г.М. Абикова, Г.Қ. Егеубаева, Б. Тӛлімбетова; Бас ред. Қ.Е. Қаймақбаева. – Алматы, 2015. – 288 б. 8 «Ғылым ордасы» РМК Ғылыми кітапханасының Сирек қорындағы парсы тіліндегі кітаптардың каталогы / Құрастырған Ғ.Ә. Қамбарбекова. Бас ред. Қ. Қаймақбаева; Жауапты ред. Ә.Қ. Муминов. – Алматы: «Ғылым ордасы» баспа үйі, 2015. – 400 б. 9

Қасқабасов С. Рухани мұра мен мәдениеттің қазіргі

жаһандану кезіндегі жай-жапсары // Қазақстанның мәдени мұрасы: жаңалықтары,

мәселелері,

болашағы:

Халықаралық

ғылыми

конференцияның материалдары. 19 қазан. 2005 жыл. – Алматы, 2005. – Б. 101-112. 10 Революцияға дейін қазақ тілінде шыққан әдеби кітаптар, 1807 – 1917. Аннотацияланған библиографиялық кӛрсеткіш. – Алматы, 1978. – 170 б. 11 Тасмағамбетов

И.Н.

Жаһандану

процесінде

ұлттық

мәдениеттерді сақтау // Қазақстанның мәдени мұрасы: жаңалықтары, мәселелері,

болашағы:

Халықаралық

ғылыми

конференцияның

материалдары. 19 қазан. 2005 жыл. – Алматы, 2005. – Б. 9-14. 93

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12 //kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Шағатай_тілі 13 //kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Түрік_тілі

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Indo-Iran Relations in the perspective of Sociolinguistic & Culture Javed Ahmad Khan Professor, Center for West Asian Studies, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi Introduction By observing the Iran-India historical relations, in the present century, the theory has been developed that relations of the two countries can be categorized under the influence of different factors in three levels i.e. internal, regional and international. In this regard, the most important basis of cooperation between India and Iran are in historical, cultural, political, security-related, economy and commercial fields. India-Iran cultural linkages show the blend of India-Islamic civilizations. In one sense, because it has the second largest Muslim population in the world after Indonesia; and its national culture is intensively influenced by Islam. India intends to have relations with Iran which is an influential country in the world. The two major West Asian cultural and linguistic impact on India traced by the historians are from the Persian speaking Iran and the the Arabic speaking world. However, despite political domination by Arab rulers during the Umayyad (661-750), Persian or Iranian art and culture developed in new ways and in turn influenced newly developing Islamic artistic endeavors in Indian subcontinent. Perhaps the most important literary work of this period is Ferdowsi‘s Shah-Nameh, The Book of King, which Shibli in his Sherul Ajam count it first encyclopedia of Islam.1 Persian cultural and artistic activities flourished during this period, continued during the rule of the Turkic dynasties of the Ghaznavids (9771041) and Seljuks (c.1035-1194). Persian language enjoyed was adopted as Sofia Koutlaki, Among the Iranians: A Guide to Iran's Culture and Customs, Nicholas Brealey Publishing, 2010

1

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the second language of Islamic civilization and was used as the court language as far away as India and in some parts of Asia minor. In the 11th century AD, Islam came to India from the side of Persia through Sultan Mohammad Ghaznavi and brought along a number of poets, artisans and religious persons who settled down in India. The northern part of India became an important centre of Persian literature art and mysticism. Between 1206 AD and 1687 AD many Muslim dynasties appeared in different parts of India. During the rule of Khiljis (14th century AD) several Persian scholars from Tabriz, Esfahan and Ray visited the royal courts in India. During the 11th century AD, Al-Biruni, is believed to be a Shi‘ Muslim of Iranian origin visited India during the Ghaznavi period, wrote his famous Kitab-ul-Hind in Arabic. He studied Sanskrit manuscripts to check the earlier Arabic writings on India.Kitab-ul-Hind contains chapters on Indian religion, philosophy, society, science, alchemy, geography, astronomy and astrology etc. Al Biruni composed about 20 books on India – both original and translations and also a great number of legends based on folktales of ancient Persia and India. He developed special interest in the Samkhya, the Yoga traditions of Indian philosophy and the Bhagavat Gita. Researches on India Iran cultural relations in India Although the major focus of contemporary researchers in Indian universities revolve around the social science framework dealing with international relations from economic and a geostrategic perspectives, but one can also find that researchers in recent years have paid the attention to engage their studies from socio-linguistic and cultural perspectives. The relationships between Iran Rome and India during the sassanian dynasty with reference to the cultural scientific economic religious and political relationships. The Sassanians have played a pioneering role in propagating and preserving Indian culture, sciences and philosophy by translating a number of Indian works into their languages, Pahlavi and Farsi – e – Dari. Similarly, the Indian culture and civilization influenced the Iranians in the period of Sassanian in the fields of literature, music, dance, medicine, science, 96

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philosophy and religion. For example, one research work, based on many Persian and Indian primary as well as secondary sources analyze the IndoIranian relationship with special reference to Sassanid era . Iranians and Indians throughout the history, had continuous traffic between them. The Indus Valley (Harappan) Civilization, which is the oldest historically known culture in India had trade links with parts of Afghanistan, the coastal regions of Iran, and the ancient civilization of Mesopotamia. Both have a common root and many similarities with ancient Persians in religious beliefs, culture, language and customs. The emergence of the Achaemenid Empire in Persia saw parts of northwest India come under Persian rule.2 During the Mughal period a large number of well known musicians arrived in India. Many of them hailed from different provinces of Iran and hence, different styles of music with regional variations could be brought to India. Later these styles got assimilated with the Indian traditions of music.3 One PhD work, here in India, on Iran and India have had historical and cultural relations since ages, but despite such common historical and cultural connections between the two countries. However, due to reasons which mostly rise from the structure of the international system and from regional competitions, relations between the two countries had not developed much before the dissolution of the Soviet Union and prior to ending of the Cold War.4 Iran and India‘s relationships, especially since the beginning of the recent century, have been under the influence of several factors at the domestic, regional and international level; those factors which in some areas have expanded and improved after the issuing of the two important Mohammadi, Hossein, (Phd Thesis), Indo-Iranian relationship with special reference to Sassanid era (c.336 A.D.–646 A.D.), University: University of Pune, 2012. 3 Rahimy, Amir, [PhD Thesis), Iran and India commercial and cultural relations during the Safavid period 1501 1722 A D, University of Mysore, 2011 2

Ghazi, Abdolrahim, (PhD Thesis) The relationships between Iran Rome and India during the sassanian dynasty with reference to the cultural scientific economic religious and political relationships, University: University of Mysore, Completed Date: 2012.

4

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declarations of ― Tehran‖ (2001) and ― New Delhi‖ (2003), and in some other areas have imposed many limitations on it.5 However, in spite of common historical and cultural links, along with the existing and abundant potential to expand the cooperative relationships, there has been no significant progress in the relationships between the two countries since the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of the cold war. A PhD work in this regard highlights the most important factors for cooperation and convergence of the two countries exist in different cultural, communicative, political security and economical-commercial modules and on the other hand, other relationships including India-US, India-Israel and to some extent IndiaPakistan, as the third party players are the limiting factors of the two countries interrelations. In the present century, Asia is considered as one of the important centers of international power and wealth. Economic capabilities have placed this continent among the greatest markets of the world. No cultural relation can be made without economic benefits, as the Islamic world did to India from the mediterranean time. Mediterranean world gives us the sense of understanding as how the trade and culture between Iran and India expanded mercantile activities during the 16th, 17th centuries. While tracing the cultural and commercial relations together, one study explore on how the the traders of India and Iran had not only the land routes to carry on their trade merchandise, but also the Arabian Sea. The Persian ships used to anchor at Thana, Surat, Calicut and Quilon before they reached China via Ceylon.6 The current

researches also point out the possibilities of

understanding the two giant civilization, For example, in one study, researcher discusses the there are many legal issues which are dealt with in Movahed, Mohammad, (PhD Thesis) The study of the relation between Iran and India from 1991 till now 2010, University: University of Mysore Completed Date: 2012

5

Rahimy, Amir, [PhD Thesis), Iran and India commercial and cultural relations during the Safavid period 1501 1722 A D, University of Mysore, 2011

6

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the same way by the Iranian civil law system of obligation and Indian Common Law systems of torts, there remain also significant differences between these two legal systems related to legal structure, classification, fundamental concepts and terminology.7 Also one can seen in these researches the comparison of relationship between organizational justice and organizational citizenship behavior in Iran and India with respect to physical education. One doctoral thesis deals with two ritualistic folk art forms: the Iranian Ta‘ziyeh and the Indian Mudiyettu. This bring together two diverse forms of performances and two completely different forms of ritual traditions. For example, the south Indian folk cultures are significant in their layered narratives that bring together both Dravidian and Aryan , Vedic religious elements. Researcher has looked at the divergences and similarities between the two ritual performances. In a more thematic comparison, researcher looked at the underlying similarities between the legends and histories that find their expressions in the performance of the rituals. Showing the thematic element of the good vs evil and the variations of this theme in both the forms. One is often made to ask the question whether the martyrdom of Hussein is indicative of the eventual victory of the evil.8. Post Independent Scenario India and Iran have enjoyed close and cordial relations since the distant past. These traditional links between India and Central Asia were rudely interrupted by the British colonizers. The British administration perceived the dept and strength of India's traditional links with Iran as a major threat to their own efforts to consolidate political control over India. Although the colonial rule in the Indian subcontinent had reduced the cultural and trade exchanges, but the traditional ties between Iran and India Dezfuli, Azim Pourmakholi, [PhD Thesis) Comparative study of medical negligence in India and Iran, 20-Nov-2014, University: University of Delhi, 2012 8 Lichaei, Afshin Amouzadeh, (PhD Thesis) Performing Myths a comparative study of two ritual performances from India and Iran, University of Hyderabad, n.d] 7

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were revived after India gained independence. When Maulana abul Kalam Azad, Union Minister of Education, signed a agreement on behalf of India and Dr.AA Hekmat, Iran. The spectacular spread of Persian in the subcontinent was the result of such cultural change. Persian literature is popular though the Persian is getting lesser attention in recent decades, is offered as an elective subject in India's educational institutions. The

literary

contribution

of

great

poets

like

Firdousi,

Saadi,Khaqani,Hafiz, Khayyam, Nizami,Jami and Rumi showed vibrant growth in terms of diversity of theme of able masters over many centuries. When Persian came to India, it not only impacted it's hosts but also got impacted in return. Cultural intermingling is a two ways street. The last quarter of the twelfth century saw a dramatic increase in the numbers of academic writings and researches being carried out in the Indian universities and the research centers as well as in the political science and history department of Indian universities. If one can also add the madrasah contributions, the the diversity of this literature would be of different nature and volume. More recently, interest has rendered to focus on the swift and exciting development in the Indian perceptions o Iran and entiref West Asia which took place after the globalization and liberalization drive started in during the early 1990s both the region at a time when other regional powers such as China and Russia looked at the region.9 There have been several high level visits from both sides over the past five decades. PM Nehru had visited Iran in 1959. President Radhakrishnan in 1963. PM Indira Gandhi in 1974. PM Narasimha Rao in 1993. In the post‐ independence period, their relations have gone through many ups and downs. However, in the last few years, both countries have started the process of setting their differences aside and moving towards

Mohd. Naseem Khan, ‗Vajpayee's visit to Iran: Indo‐ Iranian relations and prospects of bilateral cooperation‘, Journal: Strategic Analysis, Volume 25, Issue 6, September 2001, pages 765-779 9

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greater understanding and cooperation in their bilateral relationship. High level visits at the prime ministerial level resumed after a long break in 1993 with the visits by Narasimha Rao (1993) and Hashemi Rafsanjani (1995). Prime Minister Atal Bihari Vajpayee's visit in April 2001 to Iran has provided new dimensions to the growing relations between India and Iran. During his recent visit to Iran, PM Vajpayee inaugurated a square in Shiraz renamed after Maulana Abul Kalam Azad. On the Iranian side, President Rafsanjani visited India in 1995. The present Supreme Leader of the Islamic Republic, Ayatollah Khamenei had visited India in 1981 as a member of the Revolutionary Council. His writings include ― The role of Muslims in the independence struggle of India‖. President Khatami visited India in 1994 as the then Head of National Library. A street in Tehran is named after Mahatma Gandhi who is held in very high esteem by the common man in Iran. The ancestors of the Supreme Leader of the Iranian Revolution late Imam Khomeini had migrated from their original home in Nishapur to the Lucknow region of northern India towards the end of the 18th century. They settled in the town of Kintur. Imam Khomeini's grandfather Sayyid Ahmad left Lucknow in the middle of 19th century on pilgrimage to the tomb of Hazrat Ali in Najaf, Iraq. India and Iran have exchanged cultural delegations regularly and there exists a Cultural Exchange Programme between the two countries. Bharat Ratna Bismillah Khan gave concerts in Tehran in 1992. From late 1994 through mid-1997, Iran witnessed the most repressive campaign since the 1979 revolutionary upheaval. One example of religious vigilantes can be mentioned, when Hezbollah group attacked two movie theaters in Tehran because they were showing Tohfeh-ye Hend, "Present from India", a popular comedy in which an Iranian merchant married an Indian woman. What sparked the violence were the joyous

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wedding scenes, including a four minute segment showing little girls dancing.10 Literature How the literature influenced the two countries to come to each other? Persian literature is popular in India and is offered as an elective subject in universities and madrasah. as the languages at religious schools are mostly the literary works of the Persians. • Urdu literature is heavily indebted to Persian, its similes, metaphors and adages. Hikayat-e-Saadi is commonly used by the people. Several regional languages borrow thousands of their words from Persian language. Imam Abu Hanifa was also of Persian origin followed by Sunni sect of the subcontinent.. Over the past eight centuries the people of India considered the Persian language the most appropriate for producing their works on the various subjects like mathematics, astronomy, astrology, metaphysics, chemistry, medicine, logic, philosophy, mysticism, ethics, law, music and the other fine arts, geography, sociology, religious studies, history, biography, travelling and the others. • Many Sufi orders and the exponents of the important scholars of jurisprudence came from Persia to India. Most of them were Persians who developed their thoughts in a Persian environment. Poetry is a highly respected art and profession in Indian subcontinent. In this classic work - Sherul Ajam, Allama Shibli Nomani has mentioned the Persian poet‘s presence in India and their impact on Urdu poetry. It must be mentioned here that Persian literature is international in character and not confined to nation-state of Iran. Some of the great masters of Persian literature had no real connection with Iran at all, but rather lived Anatolia , India or Central Asia. For example, the great mystic poet

Elton L. Daniel, ʻAlī Akbar Mahdī, Culture and Customs of Iran,Greenwood Publishing Group, 2006, p.110 10

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Jalaluddin Rumi (1207-73) was born in Balkh, now part of Afghanistan and spent most of his time in Konya, in turkey . The Iranian people have a great love and affiliation for the poet of the East. Poet Iqbal wrote a large part of his best works in Persian. In 1915 Iqbal wrote poetry book Asras-e-Khudi in Persian language which was equally popular in Iran and Sub-continent. Iqbal's poetic works are written primarily in Persian rather than Urdu. Among his 12,000 verses of poetry, about 7,000 verses are in Persian. In 1915, he published his first collection of poetry, the Asrar-e-Khudi in Persian. Both Iran and India still maintain the importance of this bondness in the field of literature. Iranian writing about India and its culture are available in the various archives materials in Indian libraries. The poems emphasise the spirit and self from a religious, spiritual perspective. Many critics have called this Iqbal's finest poetic work. Hafiz Sherazi and Omer Khayyam are popular in Indian subcontinent as is Iqbal in Iran. Although abolished as the official language of India in the 1830s, the intellectual use of Persian continued and Persian publications in nineteenth century India outnumbered those produced in other language. Publishers in Calcutta, Bombay, Lucknow, Kanpur, Delhi, Lahore, Hyderabad, and other cities in the Indian subcontinent also published more Persian books than their counterparts in Iran.Many of the literary and historical text edited and published in India achieved canonical status in neighbouring Iran. Rammohan Roy, the acclaimed "father of modern India" was in fact the editor of one of the first Persian newspapers, Mirat al-Akhbar (1822).11 How the literature influenced the two countries to come to each other? It was through Transoxiana and Central Asia that India, like Turkey, received its share of Persian civilization. The Persian language, on account of its Sanskritic affinities and being more easily assimilated than Arabic. Ramin Jahanbegloo, Iran: Between Tradition and Modernity, Lexington Books, 2004, p.138

11

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Apart from religious teachers, Persian men of letters in the secular field has a share in India. As early as the thirteenth century they were being welcomed at princely courts. In the sixteenth, seventeenth, eighteenth, centuries a stream of Persian poetry was attracted to the lavishly run capital of the Mughals emperors.Persian authors came of the read by men of taste and to be studied in the schools everywhere.12 The Mughals brought along with them Iranian culture and civilizations, including Iranian poetry and Literature. Recently one important book, Urdu and Indo-Persian Thought, Poetics, and Belles Letters by Alireza Korangy who encourage more dialogue on Urdu poetics and Indo-Persian and facilitate a platform for further discussion that engage both

of these wonderful studies

comparatively and without prejudice. Pasha M. Khan's 'Notes on Abdul Nabi Fakhrul Zamani and other Indo-Persian Storytellers to the sixteenth and Seventeenth Centuries, with a Translation of the Tirazul Akhbar, enumrates the narrative of the lives of a few storytellers in sixteenth and seventeenth century India. Bindraban Das "Khushgu" composed most of his tazkira or biographical dictionary of Persian language poets, Safinah - iKhushgu which was brought in 1787 in the city of Banaras from Ram Datt Brahmi.13 The Ghazal came to India with the advent and extension of the Muslim influence from the 12th century onwards. It begun with Amir Khusro (1253-1395) in Northern India, the southern part of India, Deccan was its real home in the early stages. It was nursed and trained in the courts of Colconda and Bijapur under the patronage of Muslim rulers. Mohd. Quli Qutab Shah, Wajhi, Wali's poetry awakened the minds of the Persian loving

12

Reuben Levy, The Persian Language (RLE Iran B) , Taylor & Francis, 2012, p.16-17.

Alireza Korangy, Urdu and Indo-Persian Thought, Poetics, and Belles Letters, BRILL, 2017

13

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North to the beauty and riches of Urdu language, and introduced them to the true flavor of the ghazal, thus encouraging its rapid growth and popularity. When Persian gave way to Urdu as the language of poetry and culture in India, the ghazal, the fruit of Indo-Iranian culture, found its opportunity to grow and develop. The form of ghazal originated in the 10 century A.D. it grew from the Persian Qasida, which verse form had come to Iran from Arabia. .

However, ghazal soon eclipsed the qasida and

became the most popular form of poetry in Iran. It was nurtured, among others, by Rodki, Saadi, Hafiz, Naziri, Iraqi, Maulana Romi and Urfi.14 Cultural and Linguistic relations It is believed that Indians and Iranians belonged to one single family before the beginning of the Indo-Aryan civilisation and lived together with a common language for many centuries in pasturelands of Oxus valley in Central Asia. Avesta and Sanskrit have a common basic vocabulary and grammar. Beautification and enrichment of language and culture is the result of action based on collective as well as individuals contributions. Freedom of cultural interaction is the first prerequisite of creative intermingling. The spectacular spread of Persian in the subcontinent was the result of such cultural change. The literary tradition establish as a result of the contributions of great poets like Firdausi, Saadi,Khaqani,Hafiz, Khayyam, Nizami,Jami and Rumi showed vibrant growth in terms of diversity of theme of able masters over many centuries. Against this background, when Persian came to India, it intermingled with local languages and

facilitated the cultural relations

between Iran and India throughout history.

K. C. Kanda, Masterpieces of Urdu Ghazal from the 17th to the 20th Century, Sterling Publishers Pvt. Ltd, 1992, p.2

14

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With regard the great influence of Buddhism in east of Persia, Buddhist religion dominated over Zoroastrian religion. However, the largest community is that Iranian Zoroastrians who migrated to India. They not only introduced the Iranians and their culture and religion in this land in a big way, but also distinguished themselves by preserving their religion which was on the decline in Iran.15 India became the second home of Iranians. During the history whenever the life of Persian people was endangered, they took shelter in India and this process still continues. Therefore, they have a common root. Then they prevailed over the local and indigenous people and settled in the Indian Subcontinent and the Iranian plateau. Parthians played a key role in connecting various cultures and civilizations that existed along the Silk Road.16 India is mentioned in the Avesta and there is some description of north India in it. In the Rig Veda there are references to Persia – the Persians who were called Parshavas and later Parasikas, from which the modern word Parsi is derived. Sanskrit and Avesta have a common basic vocabulary and common grammar. The Parthians were referred to as Parthavas. The Parthian empire was actively involved in cultural and commercial interactions with India. At first they had many similarities in religious beliefs, culture, language and customs. Even the myths of the Veda and Avesta show that they had close relation in terms of religious ideas, common Gods. and the literary books such as Panchatantra and Kelileh va Demneh which originally was translated from Sanskrit into Pahlavi language and then from Pahlavi into Arabic. Its story is derived from the social, religious conditions as well as world-views of the Indian and Iranian societies.In fact, the Indo-Iranian mythical, religious and cultural

Braja Bihārī Kumāra, India and Central Asia: Classical to Contemporary Periods, Concept Publishing Company, 2007, p.297 16 Mohd. Naseem Khan, Vajpayee's visit to Iran: Indo‐ Iranian relations and prospects of bilateral cooperation, Journal of Strategic Analysis, Volume 25, Issue 6, September 2001, pages 765-779 15

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commonalities especially in the area of worshiping the sun, holiness of the fire and even in the sanctity of cow were very much similar17 Sufism was the result of spiritual interaction between Persia and India.Today, India is the biggest centre of Sufism in the world. The four well-known Sufi silsilas (orders) in India are the Qadiriya, the Chishtiya, the Naqshbandiya and the Sohravardiya. The most prominent Sufis in India were Moinuddin Chishti, Fariduddin Ganj Shakr, Nizamuddin Aulia, Jalaluddin Tabrizi, Bahauddin Zakariya, Qutubuddin Bakhtiar Kaki and Amir Kabir Seyyed Ali Hamadani.. Seyyed Ali Hamadani came to Kashmir in the 14th century along with 700 of his disciples, friends and artisans and propagated Persian and religious guidance. Even before the advent of the four recognised categories of bhakti poetry in Hindi, the emergence of the Persian poet Amir Khusrau was noticeable. He was a disciple of the Sufi saint Hazrat Nizamuddin Aulia of Delhi. The Indo-Iranian relations in the context of Socio Cultural Heritage shared by the two great civilizations have different areas. The Nowroz festival entered along with Indian festival and Amir Khosroo Dehlavi the poet of the seventh century was the greatest Indian Farsi-speaking poet who wrote more than a thousand verses. In all his poems the Iranian culture and civilization is explicitly observed. As both India and Iran share the linguistic tradition together, the evidence of this is seen as the two group who separated and migrated at different direction.The Iranian group moved into the highlands of Iran through the flat passable area south-east of Caspian Sea, while the Indian tribes migrated into the Indian subcontinents..They owned the non-Arab traditions and put their knowledge to translate Sanskrit works on mathematics, astronomy, medicine and other sciences into Arabic. They Arnavaz Firoozian Esfahani, ‗Religious and Cultural Relationship between Indian and Iranian Civilization: A Reading of Panchatantra and Kelileh va Demneh‘ Journal Of Humanities And Social Science (IOSR-JHSS) Volume 17, Issue 4 (Nov. - Dec. 2013), PP 106-111 17

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used their learning of Sanskrit grammar to systematize Arabic grammar. Moreover, Sufis literary figure of that time also contributed in large measure to the development of Urdu language, which today is most loved language among the common people. A number of commentaries have been written by Indian scholars on the works of the great Sufi Jalaluddin Rumi. For Iqbal, Rumi was a living stream (zinda rud). Rumi's selection of many stories of Indian origin also contributed to his popularity in India. Dara Shikoh, the eldest son of Shah Jahan was a great Persian scholar and a Sufi. He translated (assisted by Hindu pundits) Upanishads into Persian titled Serri Akbari Hafez's literary reputation reached India during his lifetime. Shaikh Sa‘di's classical works – Gulistan and Bustan – were popular studies in both Indian mystic circles and madrasah. This creative interaction was not restricted only to Persian/Urdu literature. In all the local languages of northern India – Punjabi, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Marathi and Bengali, besides Hindi and Urdu – there are in varying degree large number of Persian words and expressions including popular proverbs. These are apparent in the classic works of Waris Shah and Bulhe Shah in Punjabi language in the 18th century; Qazi Nazrul Islam in Bengali; Abdur Rehman in Tamil poet and Quli Qutab Shah in Telugu. There were several Hindu poets and authors who contributed to Persian poetry and literature in India. In 18th century Swami Bhupat Biragi deeply influenced by Rumi's Mathnawi, composed a long mystical mathnawi in which Vedanta and Sufism are found. Sital Das, Bhagwan Das and Lala Hakim Chand praised the Prophet and the Shia Imams in their poetry. Mirza Asadullah Khan Ghalib (19th century) was a distinguished poet of Persian and Urdu and is immensely popular even today. Later, Persian poets like Shibli Numani and Allama Sir Mohammad Iqbal played an important role in the preservation and popularity of Persian language in the subcontinent.

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Architecture , Paintings, Calligraphy Persian architects and artisans were brought to India to design and construct palaces and forts, mosques and public. .At the royal Mughal courts, Indian craftsmen worked with Persian and Turkish masters to create a new harmonious art and architecture. The signs and traces of the Iranian culture and civilization in Indian subcontinent are evident. The Taj Mahal of Agra, which is supposed to be one of the architectural wonders of the world, was constructed by an Iranian architect named Isa Isfahani. Fatehpur Sikri and Humayun Tomb are among the finest examples of the synthesis of IndoIranian style in architecture. Beginning with Qutab Minar, the Iranian influence is visible. The Mughal school of paintings owed much to Iran and blossomed under Akbar's patronage. Mir Sayyed Ali and Khwaja Abdussamad from Persia were among the founders of the Mughal school of paintings in India. Iranian painters introduced the art of portrait and miniature paintings in Mughal courts. Iranian influence on Indian painting mural and miniature paintings could be noticed. The Mughal school confined itself to portraying the materialistic life of the court, its state functions, processions, hunting expeditions etc. While the Indian artists and painters, who were working for the Hindu patrons, pictured scenes illustrations of the life and thoughts of India. In fact, the Persian method of painting brought to India by the Mughals through the Persian artists and painters was gradually assimilated by the Indian artists and-painters.18 Similarly,

The

Indian

flora

blended

with

Islamic

calligraphy.Handicraft like weaving of carpets, making of pottery, metalwork and writing, binding, illuminating and illustrating of books, all developed with Iranian influence. Iranian artists and the architects used to enter India even in the Sultanate period. During the Mughal period there was large scale migration of Iranian architects, artists and engineers to India. Several of these Rahimy, Amir, [PhD Thesis), Iran and India commercial and cultural relations during the Safavid period 1501 1722 A D, University of Mysore, 2011 18

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architects were responsible for the construction of mosques dargahs, palaces, gardens, water-reservoirs public and royal bathes. Iranian style and structure was introduced in many of these architectural wonders, be it the Taj Mahal or the Fatehpur Sikhri fort. The Indo-lranian architecture as it developed in India, heavily borrowed stylistic, idiomatic and decorative forms Idiomatically and axiomorphically one of the most important marks of Iranian influence on the Mughal architectural, tradition was Chahar bagh, the four quartered paradisiacal garden with its intersecting water channels lined up with walkways platforms, tanks and fountains. Iran has a rich and varied architectural history and the remains of Iranian architectural monuments can be found from Syria to India with a variety of techniques such as stone carving, stucco and plaster work, tile and brickwork, mirror and glass work, and other ornamental elements. The architecture of Mughals reflects Iranian architecture. The Maintenance of large gardens is a distinctive feature in Iran. Taj-Mahal garden is of Persian gardens style having a waterway in quadrilateral plane. Mughal architecture follows the Persian style of constructing minarets. Even today the classical Persian manuscript can be seen on historical links. In architecture, painting, weaving, pottery and calligraphy these similarities are obvious. Most of the marriage ceremonies having same style in India and Iran. Iranian migrants and Islamic preachers had left long lasting impression on the people and civilization of the Subcontinent.19 Persian language in South Asia held official status in the Mughal court administration and influenced local language especially the Urdu language. Many of these areas have seen a certain influence by Persian not only in literature but also in the speech of the common man. There are material and non-material culture. The beliefs, poetry, customs, literature AISHA RAFIQUE1, PAK- IRAN CULTURAL & HISTORICAL TIES, International Journal of Research in Applied, Natural and Social Sciences , Vol. 2, Issue 11, Nov 2014, 145-152 19

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and thoughts are included in non-material culture while architecture, irrigation system , jewelry and dress are material cultures. As a result of this there can be seen many stone carvings and plasters of Persian inscriptions in India. There are also many handwritten books mostly from the time of Humayun, a Mughal emperor who had heavy admiration for anything West Asian, and Persian in particular. There are many carved stones and Persian manuscripts in South Asia from the time of Humayun. Conclusion In the present time, there is a dramatic increase in the numbers of academic writings and researches on India West Asia and Iran relations being carried out in the Indian universities and the research centers.

The important

questions addressed in this paper is the diverse nature of cultural and linguistic contacts between Iran and India throughout the history.? We have discussed how during the medieval period this region became a part of the West Asian and Iranian cultural scene, especially from the 13th century onward, with the large influx of the scholars and theologians, artisans, handicrafts man, physicians and men of administrative experience in a way that India became a cultural hub of the Muslim world. The rise and growth of British power in the Indian subcontinent in the eighteenth century brought to the fore the geo-political importance of Iran as a strategic factor in their age-old relationship. However, the colonial rule in the Indian subcontinent had reduced the cultural and trade exchanges. It is noteworthy that India and Iran frequently cite the civilisational, cultural and historical ties that have bound the two countries together for more than a millennium. This also points towards the Iran‘s mediatory role in development of cultures, language and literature which further need to be explored from linguistic perspectives. There had been many similarities in the architecture, poetry, paintings, calligraphy, cuisine, music, arts and crafts and many others. Even today the classical Persian manuscript can be 111

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seen on historical links. In this regard it has been discussed in this paper as how the literature influenced the two countries to come to each other.

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Iranian Geo-cultural Capacities and Its Impact on Expanding Cultural Interactions with India Fatemeh Soleimani Pourlak Department of Political Science, Chalous Branch, Islamic Azad University, Chalous, Iran

Abstract In the wake of developments of the 1990s and increasing the importance and place of culture alongside security in the international arena and the geo-cultural conception of global issues, Countries used their cultural and identity capacities in establishing and expanding relations with other states and nations. That is why the cultural geography of Iran, which is much broader and beyond the current geographical and formal boundaries, is considered very important. The existence of the expansionist governments in the history of Iran and their armies to expand the frontiers and geographical boundaries provided the ground for influencing of Iranian culture in the captured areas, firstly through domination and then through influence and inspiration. The effects of this process can be seen in the language, history, literature, religion and celebrations of the peoples of the captured lands. Therefore, it can be argued that the trend gradually has led to the development of cultural and identity interactions with Iran and these regions, including, with India. In the other words, the event on the basis of restoring the role of culture in the relations between countries and nations, can result to the horizontal and vertical expansion of cultural and identity interactions between Iran and India in a common geo-cultural area. The vast scope of this geo-culture requires to explaining the situations of both Iran and India exactly for formulating a grand cultural strategy. However, given to the extent of this issue area and the diversity of its elements and cultural features, the paper merely examines and assesses the geo-culture of Iran in India.This paper seeks to answer the question that given to 113

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increasing importance and influence of cultural power in the relations and nations and states, what are cultural capabilities, capacities, opportunities, and facilities forIran and India to establishing and extendingtheir relations? The hypothesis is that the historical scope of Iranian culture and civilization in the Indian subcontinent and also the Indian capacity to absorb and impoverish them creates a common geo-culture that can provide significant potential for advancing the goals and interests of two parties. In order of explaining the hypothesis, firstly is addresses theoretical basis and then are studied the major ingredients of cultural relationship between Iran and India on civilization synchronization, cultural interaction, andsocial synergism among them that have led to expand the Iranian geo-culture in the India subcontinent Keywords: Geo-culture; Iran; India; Identity; Culture

Introduction Iran has always enjoyed strong governments over the course of history, and for this reason its frontiers have been steadily increasing. The seizure of new territories and territories has been accompanied by cultural and civilization. The works of this dominion can be found in the language, history, literature, religion and celebrations of the peoples of the conquered lands. Therefore, it can be claimed that the cultural reach of Iran from Central Asia to the Caucasus in the north, Pakistan, Afghanistan and China in the east, Iraq, Turkey and Syria in the west, the Persian Gulf region and the Indian subcontinent in the south. Jawaharlal Nehru, the late Indian leader, writes in a book on the history of the world: "Among the nations, the only Iranian were the Indians with a common Indian and Aryan race, and in Indian culture and civilization from the oldest prehistory had a significant effect. Indian religion has common bases with the Zoroastrian religion of Iran. Sanskrit language and Pahlavi language are very similar. Iranian civilization and culture have been so deep and rooted that they 114

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even digest dominant states. The Persian language during centuries in vast territories in Asia was the language of educated people. "Historical surveys show that Iran's political and cultural influence has always been more than India's influence on the territories of the Iranian plateau. During the history of the invaders of Turk and Tatar, the nomadic tribes of Central Asia and, to a lesser extent, Arabs for incursions into India, crossed Iran and had been influenced Iranian civilization and culture. Therefore, their successive victories and campaigns toward India led to Iran's cultural influence in that country, as Islam in India became same Iranian Islam and the Iranian thought on philosophy, Sufism, language and Literature, fine arts and social organization formed newly Muslim India. This at the present time, given the new developments in the international arena and the importance of the role of culture in relations between nations and nations, can pave the way for the restoration of the geo-culture scope of Iran. Considering the extent of this territory and the diversity of its cultural elements and attributes, the present article merely examines the geo-cultural territory of Iran in the Indian subcontinent and the areas of cultural interactions among them. This paper seeks to answer this question that considering the importance and influence of cultural and soft power in the field among nations and states, Iran and India, what capabilities, capacities, opportunities and possibilities for instituting and extending cultural relations between themselves? The present paper claims that the extent of the influence of Iranian culture and civilization in the Indian subcontinent can provide significant capacity to advance the goals and interests of the cooperative between Iran and India. In order to analyze this claim, firstly, there are some debates about geo-culture and then is studiedthe historical scope of Iranian culture and civilization in the Indian subcontinent and also the Indian capacity to absorb and impoverish them creates a common geoculture that can provide significant potential for advancing the goals and interests of two parties. In order of explaining the hypothesis, firstly is addresses 115

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theoretical basis and then are studied the major ingredients of cultural relationship between Iran and India on civilization synchronization, cultural interaction, and social synergism among them that have led to expand the Iranian geo-culture. 1. Framework of The conceptual and theoretical The concept of geo-culture in the first sense implies the unified, integrated, and unified nature of the earth, which requires the synchronization of geo-culture analysis with a global and universal approach to cultural processes. On the other hand, the Geo contains various concepts that have wide applications in the terminology of geography, especially in the modern political geography literature, which inevitably leads us to a global and political worldview (Ghrayagh Zandi, 2008: 149). On the other hand, culture is also the social heritage of a society that includes not only commodities and material inventions, but also intellectual and intellectual products such as beliefs, values, beliefs and aspirations of that society (Moire, 2000: 261). In short, culture is a collection of knowledge, beliefs, arts, ethics, laws, customs, and any other ability and habit that is acquired by human being as a member of the community (Bashirieh, 2000: 8). Culture is a collection of memories, imaginations, values, signs, impressions, interpretations, innovations and discoveries that are used to preserve human societies, with each other, a nation or something equivalent to a civilized identity within the framework of internal dynamics, to reach a deal (Maghsoudi, 2001: 79). According to the definition of culture, geo-culture means the importance of factors such as culture, language, ethnicity, and religion along with geopolitical factors (Roshan and Farhadian, 2006: 130). In another definition, geo-culture or cultural geopolitics is a complex process of interaction of power, culture and the geographical environment in which culture, as well as other phenomena of the social system, is constantly forming, evolving, merging and moving in the course of time and in the context of the geographic environment 116

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of the planet. In other words, geo-culture is a combination of place – space processes of cultural power among diverse and numerous actors who play a role in different social and integrated environments and interact with each other (Heydari, 2005: 94-95). Geo-culture viewpoints depict boundaries and internal structure mainly on the basis of the force of identity and culture. From Ferguson's and Mensbach's point of view, global politics now forms a redefinition of group loyalty and identities, and the process of combining and decomposing can be seen in the modern international system (Ferguson and Mensbach, 1999: 99-77) . Geo-culture defines the construction of the system on the basis of civilizational boundaries, in which several civilizational blocks can be observed, according to which a new international policy will also be defined on the axis of civilization and cooperation (Huntington 1993: 23-25). Therefore, geo-culture implies the importance of the concept of power as well as the geographic environment of the planet as a platform for political processes, their application in the field of culture. This mean of geo-culture does imply not only how to achieve cultural domination or hegemony, but also adaptability and cultural coexistence on a global and transnational level. On the basis of this analysis, nations and societies always have a special place. Thus, developments in the recent decades in international relations on the role of culture in relations between countries and societies can provide special conditions for Iran, in order to emphasize its cultural scope and civilizational capabilities beyond borders, pave way for expanding relations between itself and the Indian subcontinent. 2. Synchronizationof Iranian and Indian civilizations Iran and India are among the ancient countries of the world. According to archaeological discoveries and historical documents, relations between the two countries date back to about 5,000 years ago. The original inhabitants of these 117

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two countries lived in a land of almost 1500 BC, with a common language, culture, customs, traditions and mythology. Documents and archaeological discoveries in the areas of Darwida in Mahanujaro and Harappa of Punjab, which are similar to the civilizations of Iran around Kashan, confirm the accuracy of this claim (Jalali Naini, 1996: 5 and 6). Jawaheralal Nehru, the politician and prime minister of India, wrote about the precedent of Iran-India relations: "Among the many peoples and tribes who have been influenced by the life and culture of India, the oldest and most durable of these relations with the Iranians In fact, the relations between them were even before the beginnings of the Indian and Aryan civilization, because the Indo-Aryan tribes and the ancient Iranians had both a common line of origin and later separated and separate paths for themselves in advance have taken. The two peoples were racially linked ... Their religions and their languages also had common ground. The Vedic religion of India has a lot in common with the Zoroastrian religion of Iran. The Sanskrit language of Vedic and the ancient Pahlavi language, which is the Avesta language, are similar to each other "(Nehru, 1346 1946). 2.1 Government Iran, in its various historical periods, with powerful kings and powers, the great empires and the manner in which these empires were governed, have always been of interest to the kings of the subcontinent; so that the governance of governance in Iran has had a significant impact on the Indian state and Indian kings It was in place. The tradition of copying Iranian model by the Indian kings began after the reign of the "Moriahs", after which they came to the "Gupta", which coexisted with the Sassanid, and continued in the following times. After Islam, the kings of Samani and Ghaznavi were influenced by the Sassani rule in the kingdom and military affairs, which after the capture of India by the Ghaznavis, led to the adoption of the Sassanid rule by the Delhi Muslim kingsthereby the Sassanid model of governmentcontinued in that country (Naghavi, 1355: 81). The nature of the political system of Iran during the 118

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Sassanid era was based on the authoritarian rule and the divine right of the kings. This method in the Indian subcontinent replaced the old methods of determining rulers based on which Indians elected their rulers by electoral methods. For example, you can refer to the government of the "Balbans". They founded their rule based on the ideals of the ancient kings of Persia and expanded tyranny and authoritarian power in their dominated areas (al-Hasan, 2006: 153). The kings of the subcontinent, in addition to political affairs in financial affairs, were also influenced by the kings of Iran. The tax system used by the kings of Delhi, and in particular Akbar Shah, was an imitation of the Iranian tax system in ancient times. In addition, coins commonly used in India from the 7th century to the 12th century, have been imitation of the coins of the Sassani kings in terms of weight, attributes and images (Hekmat, 2004: 116). 2.2.Writing The writing that was prevalent during the Achaemeni period in Iran was used in the bureaucratic letters, the line "Aramie (Fenighi)" was. This writing was later used by Indians and titled "Indian Armie" or "Kharosti" that is written from left to right, it has become popular for several centuries in the northwest of India and some of the Indian Central Asian colonies (Mill, 1950: 22). 2.3. Ides and celebrations Rites, celebrations and ides have always been linked to the long-standing civilization and culture of the two nations of Iran and India. After the Iranians accepted the religion of Islam, they continued to preserve some of their national traditions, including celebrations of Nowruz, Mehregan and the century, and regularly held these celebrations in Iran. Nowruz is one of the ancient Iranian celebrations that during the Sassani era was celebrating gloriously in Iran and in all the territories annexed it. After the Ghaznavis brought Islam to India, also Iranian ceremonieswent to the subcontinent. Since the Muslims government in India in early March, which coincides with the month of the "Mageh" of the 119

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Hindus, "Besont's Celebration" is held in India. This celebration became very importance from the beginning of the Islamic monarchy in the Indian subcontinent, and among all royal ides and celebrations, and was celebrated with great splendor in the courts of Lahore, Delhi and Agra (Shahriar Naghavi, 1350: 35-36). Persian language poets such as Abu al-Faraji Roni, Masood Sa'ad Salman and Amir Khosrow Dehlavi, who were associated with the courts of Delhi and Lahore, wrote poems in describing the ides and the way of the Nowruz ceremony in these areas. Poems written in Farsi in the description of Bahar and Nowruz are known in the subcontinent literature as "Baharieh", "Saghi nameh" and "Khumriat" (Chaudhry, 1356: 31). Based on the works of the famous historians during the reign of Jalaluddin Akbar, such as Sheikh Abolfazl that is written Akbarnameh and Akbari Rites and Mullah Ghader Badiwani, the writer of Montakhab al tavarikh, Nowruz was celebrated in the Babylonian (Gurkanian) Mongol Sultan's court, and was celebrated gloriously by Babylonian kings in nineteen days. Among the kings of the sub-continent of India, Jalaluddin Akbar was more affected by the ancient Iranian culture and civilization than other kings. On his orders in 922 AH, the Islamic calendar that based on the Hijri years was obsolete and the Iranian solar (khorshidi) calendar was used instead. He ordered all Iranian ides held officially in the cities of India and Pakistan (Alami, 1964: 13). The New Year's ides(Nowruz) celebrations in the subcontinent were similar to the Nowruz celebration in Iran. In Iran, it was customary for the officials of the country to present gifts to the king on the New Year's ides, and also the king offered gifts to them. This tradition was performed at the court of the kings of the subcontinent on New Year's ides; the royal rulers gave gifts to the king, and the king also gave them royal forgiveness. Also the promotion of the degree of government officials, the emirs and other royal officials is done in this day (Samy, 2009: 63). 2.4.

Art

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Iranian artists in a variety of artistic disciplines, including architecture, painting, calligraphy, and music played a special role in Indian subcontinent culture. Yet, after centuries, the work of these artist immigrants has been striking throughout the Indian subcontinent. This artwork represents efforts by artists and groups during several centuries that have created valuable works in different artistic dimensions in that country. In this section, examples of Iranian art and its effects on the subcontinent art are examined: A) Architecture Iranian architecture and its impact on the subcontinent are mainly studied in two periods: the pre-Islamic period and the post-Islamic era. At each of these two stages, Iranian architecture has influenced differentially on Indian subcontinent art and Indian culture. The Impact of Iran's Architecture on the Indian Subcontinent during the Pre-Islamic Period: Some of Iran's architectural monuments in the Indian subcontinent dates back to pre-Islamic times. In the late fourth century BC and simultaneous with the Parthian (Ashkanian) rule in Iran, the powerful Empire of Moria was established in northern India. The Morish emperors invited a large number of Iranian artists who had been driven out of the court after the extinction of the Achaemeni Empire to their capital, Pataly Putra, and used their architectural art to build magnificent palaces for this empire. The result was palaces built on the Apadana style and the palace of the "Hundred Column of Jamshid" (Tafazli, 2004: 45). Archaeologists in the Pataly Putra town have discovered a hall with numerous column which their establishing date back to the beginning of the third century BC. This hall has eighty stone pillars that has built like Persepolis columns. Also in the "province of Bahar" in the "Rajegir" area, a 25-meter long stone fence has been discovered that has been influenced by the art of Iranian architecture (Tafazoli, 2004: 45). In addition, by studying the temples and 121

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monasteries of ― Bamiyan‖, one can observe the features of the style of Iranian Buddhist architecture. The influence of Iranian art, especially on the way of decorating the corridors and ceiling of these places of worship, is evident. In these temples, images such as a winged horse, two hinged bird that hanging from their pendulum a pearl chain, as well asthe men with rough and wave whiskers, and sharp tips that all have an Iranian origins (Hekmat, 1337: 40). The Influence of Iranian Architecture on the Indian Subcontinent in Post-Islamic Period: Due to the spread of Islam in the Indian subcontinent, mosques, gardens and palaces were created influenced by the art of Iranian architecture. Although in these types of architectures there are also non-Iranian decorations, the influence of Iranian architecture and imitation of this type of architectureby Indian artistsis prevalent in the Indian subcontinent. Considering the gardening during the Timuri era and simultaneously with the Safavi period brought the imperial Gurkani rulersin India (Babur, Homayoun, Akbar Shah, Jahangir and Shah Jahan) by promoting Iranian culture, literature and architecture, to establish by artists Iranian the tradition of Iranian gardening with a special style (Ehrenik, 1984: 34-1). The peak of influence of Iranian architecture on the Indian subcontinent dates back to the reign of Homayoun. The influence of Iran's architecture in this period is visible in the construction of his tomb, built by Iranian architecture called Mirak Ghiyas. This building that is decorated with red rocks, has mixed tiles, narrow and arched domes, and its garden design is similar to the four gardens of Isfahan Alislam, 1372: 256). Other buildings of the Homayoun period, which one can see in the influence of Iranian architecture, are the "Bouhalimah" garden, which is surrounded by diaphoretic tiles, as well as the "Kheir alManzel" school, which in it has used glazed tiles and gypsum plates. (Conel, 1368: 225). However, among all the architectural monuments in the sub-continent, which was influenced by the art of Iranian architecture, the "Taj Mahal" ,located in "Agrah", is one of the most famous and beautiful works. 122

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It was built on the orders of Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife, Lady Baygum. The building has based on a four-floor platform with a huge dome in the center, four small domes in the corners, and four minarets located in four pitches of the platform, in the middle of the grand gardens. The designers of Taj Mahal were two Iranian, Mohammad Khan Shirazi and Ostad Isa Shirazi (Wolf, 1984: 1915), and the main architects of the building were two Iranian brothers that was residing in Punjab called Ostad Ahmad Lahouri and Ostad Hamid Lahouri. On the other hand, many of the commonly used terms about the building are Persian. Among them, the names of "Taj Mahal", "Caravanserai" and "Mihman Khaneh" indicate the influence and impact of the Iranian culture and language in this collection (Mufakham, 1347: 57). The calligrapher artist of this collection is also Amanat Khan Shirazi, whose signature at the bottom of his works is in the building of the Taj Mahal (Nawai, 1364: 501). B) Inscription Tradition of inscription on rocks and caves were first created in Iran during the Achaemenian times, and then transferred from Iran to the Indian subcontinent. In India, before the "Morias age" and the monarchy of Ashukka in the years 232-273 BC, there were no inscriptionl. At the same time in Iran, Darius I made the "Bisotoon" in 518 BC. Therefore, it can be argued that the origin of the inscription in the Indian subcontinent was influenced by Iran. Since the reign of Ashukha, the successor of Chandra Gupta, there are columns in the Gaia Mountains in the "Bahar", on which there are inscriptions like Dariush Achaemenid ones, although some changes have been made to the Moriah era, for example there are columns like the handed ring in the Dariush and Ashukka inscriptions, which Indian artists have changed it to their taste and instead they have used the overturned Niloofar (Girshman, 1334: 231). From the writings of these inscriptionsis find that when Alexander destroyed the Persepolis, Iranian artists and artisans were scattered, and many of themwas refuge in the court of Moria and created a new artistic school that was correlated with Iranian culture 123

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(Girshman, 1364: 31). However, the penetration of the Achaemenid inscription can‘t be ignored in the Indian subcontinent. C) Painting and calligraphy As mentioned, the impacts and signs of Iranian civilization in the Indian subcontinent in the pre Islam era are quite apparent. Cyrus and Darius the Achaemeni in the Indian subcontinent achieved victories in India which brought the Aramai line to India. The graph was that the Achaemenian bureaus employed in their letters. The Indians used this graph as oneArami-Indian that was written from right-to-left, and commonly used for several centuries in the northwest of India and some Central Asian colonies (jurisprudence quarterly, 2004: 46). Calligraphy and also painting were one of the current arts in Iran that were paid attention by the Indian kings and were provided by these kings the field for the expansion of these arts in the Indian subcontinent. The art of calligraphy was paid attention by the kings of Gurkani. Calligraphic and painter artists migrated to India and created valuable works in this land. In this regard, we can mention men like Abdul Rashid Dilami, Seyyed Ali Tabrizi and Khwaja Abdol Baghi (Dastgerdi Nasrabadi, 1363: 208). From the most beautiful examples of calligraphy by Iranian artists in the Gurkani era, is calligraphy of Amanat Khan Shirazion the inscriptions of the Taj Mahal. Also, Homayun, son of Baber one of the Gurkani kings, during his stay at the Safavid court, became saw painting of Ostad Kamal al-Din Behzad, and was impressed by the beauty of his paintings. For this reason, when he returned to India, two of Behzad's students, Abdul Samad Shirazi and Mir Sayed Ali Tabrizi, brouhg to India. Subsequently, a new style was created in Indian painting, which is a combination of Iranian and Indian typography and became famous in the Mongolian style (Gharavi, 1352: 36). The first painting in this period was made by Mir Sayed. Ali Tabrizi and is now in the British Museum. The oldest work of Abdul Samad Shirazi is a picture drawn from Akbar Jahan, the son of Homayoun. This painting is now stored in the Golestan Palace Library in Tehran (Basil, 2005: 77 and 78). 124

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D) Miniature Another aspect of Iranian art that was considered by the kings of India was the art of portraying texts or miniatures. During the rule of Akbar Shah from the Gurkani kings, many Iranian historical, literary and religious texts were depicted by Iranian and Indian artists. In the depicted works, the combination of color, faces, clothing, and manner of using nature reflects the influence of the Iranian painting style in the subcontinent (Titli, 1983: 206). Among the most important books that show influence of the Iranian style of art in portraying, can be referred to two books,the history of alefi and Baber nameh. E) Music Iranian music, a combination of Iranian pre-Islamic music and Arabic music, was favourited by Indian kings speaking Persian and has paved the way for the immigration of Iranian musicians to India and the spread of Iranian music in this region and the innovations in music by Iranian artists in the area. According to Hakim Abolqasem Ferdowsi in Shahnameh, Sassanid king, Bahram Gur, demanded King of India, Shengel, to send 10,000 lauri, or musician and skilled singer Iran to teach Indian musicand the king of India also did so(Nayeni, 1375: 8-7). Among the musicians who migrated to the subcontinent, one can mention the Ostad Zaman Gilani and Ostad Hossein Ghazvini as well-known musicians in the court of the kings of Bahmani (Kampf, 1363: 179). Amir Khosrow Dehlavi, a famous Iranian poet who dubbed "Indian", invented new musical instruments and, by combining Indian music with Islamic – Iranian music, founded the a school in the Indian subcontinent, which to this day also attracted the attention of Indian musicians. In addition, many Iranian musical instruments have been brought to India,such as including "Robab", "Ghanoon", "Setar" and "Tanbur". Also, the influence of the Sufis in the subcontinent led to the expansion of their customs, including the "Vajd and Sama" in the subcontnent culture (Khaleqi, 1321: 14). 125

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E) Pottery Indian subcontinent artists, using the Iranian heritage in the art of pottery, attempted to make dishes, water jugs, cupboards and plates in different sizes and shapes, and they used glazed tiles in the construction of domes and walls, as in Iran. The oldest buildings in the subcontinent that using glazed tiles and influenced by Iranian art can be referred the "Old Castle" mosque, which was established by the order of Shir ShahSouri in the late 10th century Hijri (Baqir, 1374: 203-198). (I) Carpet weaving Carpet weavingwas flourished during the Ilkhanian period in Iran and other Islamic countries, including the Indian subcontinent. In this area, Indian carpets were used by Carpathians in workshops owned by Akbar Shah and Jahangir and taught by Iranian artists. Therefore, their carpets were influenced by the role of Iranian carpets. A number of these carpets are now available in various collections and museums (Pop, 1355: 32-33). In the collection of "Maharaja Javanpur" there are carpets that are famous to the Isfahan Indian carpet. Another example of this type of carpet is in the Metropolitan Museum in New York, which its images include the tree, plant, and animal. Nowadays, Agra and Kashmir carpets are sold in markets outside the country in addition to Indian markets, and many of these carpets are still influenced by Iranian carpets (Dimand 2004: 273). 3. Cultural interaction between Iran and India Iran-India relations, especially in political and commercial issue areas, date back to the pre-immigrant era of Aryan tribes. From ancient times, along with political and economic relations, also there have been cultural and scientific relations, and both countries have mutually intertwined during different periods. These relations were remarkable from the Achaemeni period to the Sassani era. The relations between Iranian and Indian culturesflourished during the Gupta 126

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period. In other words, the Sassani period (224-651 C) is the period of developing cultural interactions between Iran and India. (Nameh Farhangestan, 2005: 207). In the third century AD, the Sassanians advanced to the heart of India, and later occupied Malwehin the Central India, one of Gupta's centers of power. As such, Sassanian artistic designs and techniques contributed greatly to the creation of Indian classical art. In the Islamic era, especially in the reign of the Ghaznavi, these relations became more widespread, and at the time of their successors, the Ghorian and the Ghorriah territories and then during the period of the Muslim kings of India and the Gurkani kings, expanded political and diplomatic relations and cultural relations. Persian language and literature, and Iranian culture, over 350 years, officially overwhelmed many aspects of the life of the subcontinent people. The spiritual and cultural links of the two nations were so profound and the influence of Iranian culture and civilization on the spirit of the Indians was so powerful that still one can see the effects of it in the language, art, customs, traditions and life of the people of the subcontinent. In this section, in order to understanding Iran's geo-culture and its cultural capabilities in the Indian subcontinent, components of the geo-culture are studied. Each of these components of Iranian geo-culture have plays the role in the development of the subcontinent culture. 3.1. Common religion An era in which the Iranian and Indian Aryans lived together or were separated, but still did not forget each other's customs, is called the ― Vedicperiod‖. This name comes from the book of Veda, which is the oldest book of Aryans, and is very similar to the Avesta book, and has been the origin and basis of the life of the Aryans of India and Iran before the Avesta (Mashkour, 1362: 59 and 58). Thus, the Aryans of Iran, like the Hindus, had a Vedic religion before the advent of Zoroastrianism. For this reason, the "Rig Veda" is the most important and oldest written document about the common culture of the Aryan peoples (Hashemi, 1367: 59-58). In addition, the subject 127

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and content of Veda with Avesta are very close in terms of words and subject of anthems, religious myths, names of goddesses. For example, in the Avesta, "arsharaya" or "Ereta" means the truthand the universal order and the law of creation, through which man arrives to divine knowledge; also in Veda, this word also comes as "Rita" and means so. In neither of these two books, idol and idolatry have not been talked about. The followers of both religions were fireworshipper and they sacrificed. The ceremonies of these two worshipes are articulated in the Veda as "Yajna" and in the Avesta are as "Yasna". The names of religious authorities and their duties are similar in both books (Mashayekhi, 1356: 61). Magaha's temples were abundant from the sixth to the eighth centuries for the worship of sun. The image of Suria in the Champa area (eighth century AD) dates back to the middle of the Sassani period (Nebrenurii, 1998, p. 2, p. 624). Therefore, religion has been one of the most important factors affecting the history and culture of Iran and India. Zoroastrian and Islamic religions entered the Indian subcontinent through Iran and in two different periods, and in each period, while they found followers in the subcontinent, they laid the ground for the expansion of Iranian culture and civilization in those regions. A) Zoroastrian religion Iranians and Indians had a common religion until the seventh century BC. With the advent of Zarathustra,the religious separation between Iran and India occurred, and Iranians had an independent religion that claimed universally. Zarathustra rebelled to reform the religion of "Brahman" and founded "the religion of Bahi" (fridani, 1356: 65). Two reasons for the spread of Zoroastrian religion have played an important role in the Indian subcontinent; firstly, the propagation of the Zoroastrian religion by Moghan; and, secondly, the fall of the Sassani kingdom through the Arab invasion. B) Islamic religion 128

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For the first time, Islam in the year 44 HQ through Mahlab bin Aby Safra went through "Khorasan" and "Khaybar" to "Peshawar" and in 93 HQ from the west and through the Balochistan and the Oman Sea to Sind. The attack of Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi into the Indian subcontinent has led to the spread of Islam in all parts of the subcontinent (Farrokhi Sistani, 1999: 66). After the conquests of Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi in India, scholars, jurists, Sufis, craftsmen and artists migrated from Iran to India and promoted Islam. Specific features of Islam have led to the acceptance and popularity of this religion among subcontinent people, because Islam considered virtue and belief as the only factor of human superiority, while one of the weaknesses in Hindu religion was the existence of class hierarchy inn it. In Islam, however, the clergy and its position were not limited to a particular class (Brodvans, 2000: 127). 3.2. Common Language and Literature Language is the determining element of any culture. Language transfers achievements and human experiences from one generation to another and from one community to another, without which it is not possible to maintain culture. Boreanov, a researcher on Sanskrit language, with scientific research on rules of the Sanskrit language and the "Avesta" language, for the first time, proved the proximity claim of the Avesta language with the Sanskrit language and its grammar. This indicates that there is a linguistic connection between the two peoples even after the separation of their lands (Moin, 1338: 176). The connection between the Sanskrit language and the Avesta language is such that today, when linguists read each Sanskrit and Avesta texts when they encounter difficulties or ambiguities, they try to resolve the problem or ambiguity by referring to the other. Additionally, the familiarity of the Indian subcontinent with the Persian language dates back to about eight centuries when the Ghaznavis entered India. The invasion of Mahmud Ghaznavi in India was the starting point for the expansion of the Persian language and the spread of Islam in the Indian 129

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subcontinent. The second period of the Ghaznavid regime, that is, after the defeat of Sultan Mas'ud from the Seljuqs and his death in 432 to 582 or 583 AH, lasted for about one hundred and fifty years, and thirteen kings reigned. This course is very important in terms of the development of Persian language and Persian literature and Iranian culture, because the continuation of government on the occupied realm by Ghaznavis in India led to prevalence of Persian language and literature increasingly. The kings of Ghaznavi, after Massoud, were lovers of poetry, and some of the great poets like Massoud Sa'ad Salman, Abu al-Faraj Roni, and others lived in their court and eulogize kings. (Safa, 1372: 5-4). The Ghaznavis, after Massoud, kept their relams in northern India and stayed until 528 AH in India and finally left their place to the Ghorian. In the second period of the Ghaznavi government was transferred capital of Iran to Lahore. In this period, Lahore and Peshawar were the major centers of Persian science and literature, and the Indians began to learn Persian language. The book, Kelileh and Demneh, which was originally an Indian book, was quoted from Nasrollah Monshi, secretary of the court of Bahram Shah Ghaznavi, from Arabic to Persian. Abu al-Faraj Roni, poet of the court of Sultan Ibrahim Ghaznavi, is the first Persian-language speaker of the subcontinent thathis Divan has been published. Also Seyyed Hassan Ghaznavi was one of the great poets of Bahram Shah Ghaznavi's court and was his attention and respect (Jalali Nayeni, 1375: 17). With the establishment of the Mongol empire in India, Persian became the official language of the people of the subcontinent and lasted for 700 years, that is, until 1832 C, when was replaced by English, was still widespread in India. During this time, Persian language dominated the thoughts, social relations, politics, economy and culture of the people of India. Important cultural, religious, political, and literary books were written in Persian, and since Persian was the official language of the country, the researchers tried to make it easy for the people to research and study Persian language and literature. For 130

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this reason, numerous books were written in the field of Persian vocabulary, grammar, Persian conversation, proverbs (Attardo Qouchani, 1347: 78). In all these years, Persian was the official language of the Indian Muslim kings, and gradually replaced Sanskrit, and became mediator language for communicating speakers of different languages in the great territory. At the beginning, most of the scholars and writers who migrated to India from Iran, Transoxianaand other Central Asian lands, wrote to Persian, and then the indigenous people of India, including Hindus and Muslims, also wrote in Persian. These writings included various sciences in India (Encyclopedia ..., 1380: 119). Among the factors that led to the spread of Persian language in India, we can mention the following: Iran's Invasion to India: Many of the Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi troops in invasion to India were from Khorasan peoples, and after the conquest of India by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi, a group of them survived in the cities of Multan, Lahore, and Delhi, and established cultural and scientific institutions in these areas and spread Persian language (Rhyahi, 2007: 56). Immigration: significant number of scientists, writers and people from different parts of Iran to the Indian subcontinent due to the insecurity and chaos caused by the Mongol invasion (Pyglosakaya, 1353: 329). Persian language: in India was the religious language of Muslims, and its place in India is similar to that of the Arabic language in Iran. In fact, the Islamic religion and Persian language was brought by Iranians to the subcontinent and the people of India, through Persian language recognize Islam (Safi Gulpayegani, 1366: 222). The interest and attention of Indian kings in Persian: The most important factor in the spread of Persian language in India was the importance and value of Persian language for Indian kings. Lahore and Peshawar were considered to be major centers of Persian culture and literature, and many Hindus went to these Persian cities to learn Persian language (Safa, 1993: 589). 131

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Persian language in India was the language of science and the cause of honor, dignity and reputation of grace and perfection (Abedi, 1999: 47). Akbar Shah Gurkani to develop Persian culture and literature in the subcontinent formed a cultural council of scholars and thinkers to translate Sanskrit books into Persian (Ghahraman, 1997: 92). Although today Persian is not the official language of the Indian people, it is not spoken in this language and the language has lost its value, credibility and position among the rulers and the people of India, but it remains valid in the scientific circles of this region. The most important cultural element and characteristic of Iran, which plays a very important role in Iranian civilization, is literature, especially poet and poetry. Persian poetry is one of the most important and most prominent cultural elements of Iran. In Iran, contrary to the Greek culture, poetry and philosophy are not separated areas and there is no distinction between the poetry and the philosopher. There is no accurate information on the relationship between Indian and Iranian literature in pre-Islamic times. What has been remained about India's and Iran's pre-Islamic literature is religious and epic. The Hindu and Iranian order was both syllabic and without mtere and rhme, and later rhme that specialized to the Persian language was used in Sanskrit poems. The interest of Sultan Mahmoud and his sympathies to Persian poetry and support it provided the basis for the migration of many poets to the Indian subcontinent and the spread of Persian poetry and literature in the region, in which the writershave declared that there were four hundred poets and author (Yektaei, 1353: 128-126). Among theseized lands in the Indian subcontinent, by Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi, Punjab was very significant, because after the capture of Punjab, Lahore became a cultural and literary center. The last three kings of the Ghaznavi dynasty, almost lived in Lahore. For this reason, Persian poets and literatorsemigrated to this region, and Lahore became a cultural and literary center and was known as minor Ghaznin or "second Ghazvin" and thus was established the basis of Indian-Iranian culture in this territory. Among the most 132

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important poets and lecturers of this period are Abu al-Faraji Roni, Masood Saad Salman, Amir Khosrow Dehlavi, and Hasan Dehlavi (Safa, 1993: 589). The period of the Baberian reign (the Gurkhanis of India) was the period of the rise of Iran‘s culture and Persian poetry and literature in India, Baber the king of Gurkani, his children and the kings after him, like Homayoun, Akbar and Jahangir, were interested in Persian poetry, which prompted the development of Persian poetry and literature in India in this period. During the reign of Akbar Shah, Persian poetry and literature center was moved from Delhi to Isfahan and Herat. Akbar Shah not only paid attention to poets and literator, but also himself poetize Persian (Bahar, 2006: 259). During this period, many books from Sanskrit were translated into Persian. The Akbari period is considered to be period in which Persian language officialized and Sanskrit literature revived (Jalali Naini, 1375: 90). Therefore, in this era, we are witnessing the formation of Indian-Iranian literature and a new style of Persian poetry called "Indian Style". Among the Iranian poets who were fascinated by the Indian style at this time, one can mention the Orfi Shirazi, Nazir Neyshabouri, Talib Amoli, Abotaleb Hamedani and Saeb Tabrizi (Salimi, 1993: 135 and 136). In the period, due to the increasingly importance of Persian poetry,most of the Indian poets also poeticized in Persian. One of the most prominent poets of the subcontinent who poeticized in Persian language in the 20th century is Mohammad Iqbal Lahuri. He has written prominent Persian poems, among which the most important is the secrets of the self (1915 C), The Idle Secrets (1918 C), The Message of the East (1923 C) and the Zabour Ajam (1927 C) (Al-Hasan, 2006: 151). An English orientalist on the effect of Persian poetry on subcontinent poetry argues that Urdu literature was developed under the wing of Persian poetry and has inherited from his mother-in-law, order and prose, style and theme, form and shape (Arbori, 2005: 124). 3-3 Common classes

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The Aryans of India considered themselves superior to the indigenous peoples who had immigrated, and thus created a class system in India in order to preserve their superiority towards the indigenous people. In the Vedas, the Bible of Indians, is referenced to this class system. According to this book, the class system in India was: Brahmans or priests (clergymen), warriors (Kshatriyas), merchants and farmers (Vaisyas), subaltern people (Sudra) (Azeri, 1350: 112). Similar to such class divisions also in ancient Iran existed, there were four classes in Iran: the clergy (Katozian), the warriors (Nissarians), the farmers (Nasoudi), artificer and professional men (Ahnokhoshi) (Ferdowsi, 1315: 240). For the Indo-Iranian tribes, the first class belonged to Varuna and Mitra. Verune was the metaphysical guardian of the world and guarantor of the implementation of treatis and obligations. He also enjoyed the power of magic. Mitra had a law, moral and legal force. Therefore, her duties coordinated with the duties of the Brahmans and the clerics. In the second class, the warriors andfighterswere whose command was made by the person who called him "Indira". Productive and economic forces were also in the hands of the third class of society (Hinels, 1375: 34). 3.4.Common Myths Both nations have common myths. Mitra is one of the common myths of India and Iran civilization. It is a sign of alliance, friendship and clarity (Shaygan, 1362: 52). The "Ashwins" in the Indian mythology are goddesses and physicians healing the pain. They disclose death and illness from those who worship them and they are also recognized as a symbol of fertility (Spring, 1996: 471). Hertat and Amertat performed the same acts in myths of Iran that Aswins undertook them. They saved people from death and starvation, and they were also the source of growth and fertility (Hinels, 1375: 34). One of the common mythic gods of India and Iran is the god of fire that called the 'Agni' in the Indian mythology and 'Atre' in the Iranian mythology, and was the manifestation of purity, wisdom, family lover and the destroyer of enemy (Bahar, 1996: 478). 134

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In addition, in Iran and India, the number seven has always been a sacred number. Sassanians believed in the seven-story sky and attributed each floor to one of the seven planets. The number seven has been sacred not only in the Iranian beliefs, but also in the religion of Buddhism. The passing of the Buddha from the seven heavens in order to reach the highest point represents the sanctity of the number seven to the people of the subcontinent (Yahaghi, 1375: 46-448). 4. Socialsynergism between Iran and India In the context of civilization synchronization and cultural interaction, the field of social synergism has been provided among the peoples of the two lands. Therefore, various personalities and social groups have contributed to the development of Iranian culture and civilization in the Indian subcontinent that the most important of which are writers, mystics and Sufis, merchants Militarians, Iranian ministers and physicians. 4.1. Writers: Prominent literators, thinkers and Iranian writers who migrated to different parts of India such as Multan and Uch, or to the court of the kings of India, were able to write and codify the diversified books in various literary fields,History and geography. Among the most famous Iranian immigrant writers in the Indian subcontinent, one can mention the following: Abu Rayhan Birouni: In the wake of Sultan Mahmud Ghaznavi's invasion to India, some Iranian scholars, poets, writers, physicians, and scholars, including the Abu Rayhan Birouni, accompanied by the Guards of Mahmoud Ghaznavi, went there. He traveled to the subcontinent during the various journeys between the years 421-408 AH. He was able to learn Sanskrit language and to conduct extensive studies in the fields of history, sociology, anthropology, religion, and science, and obtained valuable information about the people of the subcontinent. The result of many years of his effort and study was the writing of a book of Tahghig Malalhind (Sabzevari, 2008: 65). He has written in his valuable book on the Hindu beliefs, Hindu philosophy, astronomy, 135

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religious and social laws and their rituals, anthropology, the calendar of history, climate, bibliography, the holy and epic literature of India, and geography. (Jalali Naini, 1375: 17). This is the most important document of Indian civilization, culture, and science, and Abu Rayhan is in the world history the first Indianology Muslim. In addition, in 427 AH he presented a list of his works in which he wrote or translated twenty seven works on India, of which only two or three books and one article have remained (See: Mojtabaie: 1978: 46). Abu Reyhan's researchs, writings and translations are among the most important factors in the transfer of India's culture and civilization to Iran and the mutual influence in the cultural and scientific relations of the two countries. Taqhi Al DinIbn Muain al Din al Owhadi: He was born in Isfahan and moved to India in 1015 AH. He wrote the Arafat al-Alasheghin in India. The author of this book has studied the biographies and works of three thousand Persian speaking poets (Riyahi, 2007: 59). Jamal alDin Hassan Injoui Shirazi: He from Shiraz to Delhi, he was supported by Akbar Shah. He was supported by Jahangir after the Akbar Shah and wrote a book called Jahangiri culture in India (Ershad, 1365: 240 and 241). Manahaj o Seraj:He simultaneously to Ophi went to Delhi. The book of the Nasseri Classes (TAbaghat NAsseri) as the first major historical book was written in Persian in India (Chimm, 1989: 8). Hasan Dehlavi: He wrote a book in the field of mysticism and Sufism called Fawajid al-Fawad, in which collected a collection of words from the Sheikh Murshad, the Nezam al Din Aulia (Arya, 2000: 366). 4.2. Mystic and Sufis: Influence of Iranian mysticism and Sufism in the Indian subcontinent has a long history. The people of the subcontinent have long been familiar with mystic thoughts such as Ibrahim Adham, Bayazid Bastami, Ghazali, Abu Sa'id Abu al-Khair and Sanaie. The Mongol invasion of Iran, which caused devastation and insecurity in Iran, led to the migration of mystics 136

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and Sufis to India. They succeeded in bringing about the profound changes in the religious thought and knowledge of the people of India (Ezekai, 1370: 7874). Therefore, it can be said that the prevalence of Islam in the Indian subcontinent only was result of the sword of the sultan Mahmud of Ghaznavi, but rather to the result of the efforts of the Iranian Sufis and Muslim thinkers who through their spiritual influence among the people could encouraged them to accept Islam (Nayer Noori, 1375: 855). On the other hand, it can be said that Iranian mysticism and Sufism, due to common grounds with Indian mysticism, became the point of convergence between two Indian and Iranian cultures (Chitanya, 1972: 63). The mystics and the Sufis attempted to training students and could to establish the famous mystical circles such as Cheshtia, Suhrawardiyeh, Ghaderiyah and Naqshbandiyah in the Indian subcontinent, and the mysticism and Sufism everywhere from Punjab and Sindh to"Gujarat "and" Bengal "(Hekmat, 1337, 70). This provided a platform for the expansion of Islamic thoughts and Iranian mysticism in India and the establishment of the "Bhagati" movement, that is, Sufism in this region (Nayernuri, 1357: 509). Among the most important Iranian mystics in India who played a major role in spreading

Islam

in

the

Indian

subcontinent,

one

can

mention

the

following:Khajeh Moin al-Din Chashti Heravi, Sheikh Shahabuddin Suhrawardi, Aliben Othman Hojviri, and Shah Nematullah Vali. : From the Sufi dynasties that went from Iran to India, where it was expanded and noted 4.3. Businessmen and merchants: A group of Iranians who immigrated to India for business through building schools, mosques and guest houses led to expanding and preservation of Iranian culture in India. Among the people who played a role in creating circles, public and cultural communities in the Indian and Pakistani cities, one can mention the following:Hajj Mohammad Hossein Shirazi, Mohammad Khalil Shirazi, and Mohsen Khan Shirazi. 4.4. Militaries and Iranian ministers: This group of Iranians led to the spread of culture, knowledge, industry and governance and military affairsin the 137

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Indian subcontinent. They succeeded in assuming responsibilities at various government levels. Some of these are Nezam Al Din Joneidi, Minister of Shams Al Din Altatmesh (Safa, 1993: 103-101), Mir Fazlallah Anjo and Emadeddin Mahmoud Gavan Gilani. Emadeddin Gavan Gilani established a school known for his own name. The books of Riyadh Al Ensha and Manazerf Al-\ Ensha, whose a collection of letters is in Persian, is an indication of his efforts to spread Persian language in the Indian subcontinent (Mardani, 2006: 83). Also, King Sultan Belin,one of the famous sultans of India in the seventh century AH recruited several Sistani pilgrims with many salaries and benefits in order to protect himself (Hindu Shah Astrabad, 2008: 78). 4.5. Physicians: The scientific interactions between Iranians and Indians on medicine dates back pre-Islamic period. Dr. Zabihollah Safa wrote in the book History of Literature that "Iranians (in the pre-Islamic period), in addition to using Greek knowledge also were enjoyed the Hindu scientific knowledgeespecially in medicine. Indian doctors were invited from India to teach Indian medicine and remained in Iran (Bahar, 1993: 153). Similarly, Iranian physicians, due to the skills they had in their profession, were attracted to the Delhi or Deccan courts and earned a lot of fame in their work. Among these, one can refer to Hakim Abu al-Fath, the doctor of the Akbar Shah court in 974 AH. The most famous physician in the late Safavi period who lived for long time in India and was respected greatly, is Amir Mohammad Mahdi,who known as Hakim al-Malek Ardestani. He succeeded in healing the daughter of Orang Zib when Indian physician was unable to cure her (Jaberi Ansari, 1321: 306). Also, at the beginning of the Islamic era, doctors from India were invited to teach Indian medicine, and remained in the Jundishapur Hospital until the Islamic era. Among these physicians, in period of Bani Abbas, can be referred Kankah and Ibn Dahan, who translated Indian medical books into Persian. (Safa, 1372: 8107).

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Conclusion The extent of cultural power of countries and cultural; identity interactions between societies in the new century has grown steadily. What determine this increasing trend, is on the one hand, the potential and actual capabilities of the countries, which is rooted in their vicissitudinous history. This historic course, in combination with other characteristics, is a kind of power called geo-culture, which implies the entanglement and cultural cohesion of the nations. On the other hand, the process of global evolutions and developments provides a suitable platform to countries benefit from their cultural talent, although in competing with others. Accordingly, Iran and the Indian subcontinent, in the context of formed geo-culture throughout history, enjoy suitable circumstances for expanding and revitalizing cultural,identity ties, because the study of the common background of both sides implies the synchronization of civilizations, cultural association, and its social synergism. In fact, cultural exchangesbetween Iran and India provide them with the opportunity to achieve their desired goals and interests or expand their geocultural influence area. As mentioned, Iran and India are considered to be ancient countries of the world, and their political and cultural ties go back to preimmigrant Aryan ages. These relations were widespread from the Achaemenid period to the Sassani era, and these widespread increasingly in the era of Islam and the rule of Ghaznavians and Baburians. In fact, Iranian culture, art, literature, and the language have been influential for many centuries on the various aspects of the life of the Indian people, and today their effects and influence can be seen in the language, art, customs, traditions and celebrations of the people of this region. Iranian culture and civilization also have been effected undeniablyby Indians. Despite the commonality and precedent of political and cultural relations between the two countries, the cultural and political relations between them in the present era have significantly decreased. However, contrary to the political culture of the 139

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ruling elite of the two countries, which does not reflect the convergent clear signs, the general culture governing the Iranian and Indian societies still involves commonalities and is keen on interaction. Findings of the present discussion is based on the hope that on the basis of these cultural and historical capacities, and due to the new developments in the global and international arena, and the importance of the role of culture in the relations between countries and societies, it is hoped that once more, given the cultural and civilian capacities of Iran and India, Relations between the two countries, especially in the cultural dimension is developed.

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Cultural Remnants of the Ancient Iran in the Turkish Classical Works of the XІ-XIІ centuries Assoc. Prof. Zubaida Shadkam Al-Farabi Kazakh National University

Abstract Turks of the Central Asia have converted to Islam since the IXth century. The Islam religion was spreading in Middle Asia not by the Arabs, but by the Iranians particularly by traders and travelers from Iran. In this article we will give some reasons for ancient dominance of the Iran culture after Islam in classical works in the Turkish language in Middle Asia of written by using examples of the comparative method. Key words: Central Asia, Turkish Classical Works, Ancient Iran Culture. Among the books written in the Pahlavi language and the relics of the Sassanid era, the remnants of the Arab attack can be mentioned. The texts were works with ethical aspects or a practical wisdom, and overflowing with Persian adoration and admiration. The "Minouch of the Wisdom", or more precisely the "Minoan Prosecutor of the Wisdom", means "Words and Minorities" is one of the most important examples of Pahlavi's statements. Although this work is in the category of letters, it has been spoken of in abundance from the creation, life or absence of the body and mind after death (resurrection), Iranian mythology, Iranian rituals and Iranian customs. Like other ancient theological and philosophical discussions (such as Plato's works and his discussions with people and his peers) is a question and answer, the imaginary character, called Dana, asks for "Minouch of reason", and the "Minouch" answers them. And the structure of the book is based on these questions and answers. 146

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Ahmad Tafazli brought the Minouch of the Wisdom in the Arabic form of the "Spirit of Wisdom", which may be called "pure wisdom". It should be noted that although the Iranian writings were written in Pahlavi until two centuries after Islam, it is likely to be reminiscent of preIslamic Islam, and it is a remnant of the Sassanid era. Because there is no mention of Islam or the Arab attack on Iran. It should also be noted that the author of this book, like most of the books of the Pahlavi, is unknown, but, by examining the mythological content of this book with other books in the field of mythology, it can be seen that the author has accurate information on the relation of Iranian myths. Other items, such as creation or customs, and also generalized. This book has been written in a preface and 62 sections. In these 62 sections, Dana asks questions from the MinoWhich, and listens to some of the answers that are sometimes accompanied by suggestions. The reader can find some points about the creation of the earth, the heavens and other creatures and also the inferno and paradise and the fate of the human tone after death, and from the mythological characters such as Iraj and Arash, Fereydoun, Zahak, Esfandiar etc. Moreover issues of ethics such as eating, urinating, or preferring marriage to relatives and close relatives of relatives were debated. I come and go home and Bahram Varjavand, Soroush, the goddess of goddesses and goddess Mino and other pre-Islamic terms of Iranians have been frequently mentioned. In some cases, ithave been dealt with the comparisons and sometimes the exact and complex relationships of the key words such as "wealth-dervish-power" or "art-wisdom", "good-evil," the rich-willed, the rich-willed dervish, "endeavor-appreciation," "wisdom-appreciation." Lies Truth " etc. Abolfazl Khatibi, searched on Shahname, also compared the book with Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, with similarities between "Dana and 147

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Minouchi" with "Anushirvan Dadgar and his minister Bozorgmehr, the great man." This resemblance is also between Gundogdu and Aitoldy in Kutadgu Bilig. The topic discussed here is the effect of the ancient Iranian culture on the formation and production of classical works in the 11th and 12th centuries. Considering that major and significant work has been done so far. But in this category, we are trying to focus our work on 2 works of minuses and concentrate on Kutadgu Bilig: structure, context, time. 'But firstly, we will describe briefly about the other most important classical works of the 11th and 12th centuries in Central Asia: 1- Hebat alHaghayegh / Atabat al-Haghayegh, 2- The Divan of Hikmat. Atabat al-Haghayeghis one of the twelfth century works written after the adoption of Islam in Central Asia. Adib Ahmad Yughni wrote his book in Turkish (Hakanieh / Khaghani era) and presented to one of his lords. Arabic and Persian words can be seen in his work. The book is generally rubaie, but in the beginning of the book there is a ghazal. The subject of the book is educational and ethical. The Divan of Hikmatis the sum of the poems of Khawaja Ahmad Yasawi, the founder of the Turkish Sufism in the 12th century. After the death of KhawajaAhmad, his followers and his disciples collected his poems and words as "The Divine of Wisdom". According to his sufictic and religious poems, chants is said. Khawaja Ahmad Yasawi's chants are written in syllabic meter and Khaghani is the first sufictic poetry in Turkish, which reflects also a source of both content and linguistic views of the era of its own. Persian words are widely used in this work. One of the earliest literary works in this region after the acceptance of the Islamism of the Turks of Central Asia is the book "KutadguBilig". The author of this book, Yousef Hajib, was born in the city of Balashagon, now it is on the borders of the Republic of Kyrgyzstan. In 1069 (462), after finishing his book, he presented it in Kashgar to the Khafan dynasty of the 148

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Qarakhan dynasty, Tabchach Bughara Khan. The main idea of his book was the concept of "perfect man" lies. Particularly, the virtues that make people grow and grow strong: acquisition of knowledge, studying, goodness, good morals, calligraphy, learning of sports and traditional games and etc.It is important and valuable source not only in terms of studying the history of the Turkish literature, the culture, philosophy and the administrative system of the Turkic tribes,but also for the study of social status and sociology. According to the poetic and prose appendices, which later on at the beginning of the book, it is understandable that this book was about government and politics. In his book, Yusuf are presentedhis ideas and philosophical and sociology thoughts on various topics and issues as an adventure to readers. It also discusses the structure and importance of the circles and the value of the classes and tribes of the community, explaining how the behavior and administration of the rulers are to them. As has been the case in the past in the East, KutadguBilighas come up with ethical advice and practical recommendations that showcase examples of historical figures and their behavior to state officials and rulers for justice and the creation of a fair administrative system of a kind of moral- politics for the kings. Yusuf Khass Hajib Balasaguni , in his work invites human beings to truth, goodness, knowledge, understanding, reason, patience, and chivalry. For this reason, Kutadgu Bilig can also be described as a advise bookand a policy book. Kutadgu Bilig (knowledge of happiness) is composed of 6645 couplets of Masnavi's style / weight and 85 section. After the glorification of God of Excellency and the message of the caliphs and the Tabchach Bughara Khan in the preface of the prose and poetry, they describe the benefits of goodness; intellect and knowledge; Government, Justice, Governor, Minister, Governor, Treasurer, Headmaster, Head Chef, Ambassadors, Servants, Tradesmen and Mercenaries, Farmers, Scientists, Medical Professionals, Traders, Astronomers, Poets, Witches and Wizards, 149

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Treatment with the Poor, Partying and hospitality, child upbringing, marriage, principles of regulating the system of government, honesty, friendship, hardship. [1] Like the Minuye khired. In this Masnavi, there are four (symbolic) characters: justice, government, prosperity, and iqbal. The first character (ruler) is Gundogdu: Justice, the second person (Minister) Aitoldy: that is, the state and prosperity, the third person (the son of the minister) Ogdulmush, who is his intellectual: and the fourth personality (the brother of the minister) Odgurmush, which symbolizesaftermath (There are two characters in the Minuye khired.) Feature of the Kutadgu Bilig: - It was written with the Arabic alphabet and one of the dialect of the Turkish language of Central Asia, Khaghani / Qarakhanit - The name of the book is "Knowledge of Happiness / Science of Bliss." - Humans learn the path to real happiness in the two worlds. This work has ethical nature and is Islamic advise book. - It is the firstTurkish literary work written of aruz meter. - The author, with the help of incidents and speeches between the four characters (which symbolize justice, reason, prosperity, and government), discusses how the system of governance of the state and social system is debated. - "Kutadgu Bilig" also provides extensive information on the political and cultural characteristics of its period. - The book is in the form of an Allogoric Dialogue between Gunduogdu (justice),Aydoldu (state), Ogdulmush(intellectual),Odgurmush (aftermath).

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"Kutadgu Bilig" is an important and valuable work both in terms of linguistic and philosophical features. Yusuf Khass Hajib Balasaguni was coauthored with the writer of the Divan al-Lahat al-Turk, Mahmud Qascghari, and these two were written at the time. [2] There is nothing to know about whether these two characters were familiar with each other. - Kutadgu Bilig is one of the most important books in the field of Turkish-Islamic history and culture. There are three manuscripts in various libraries in the world: 1. The Vienna exemplar (in 1439, it was withdrawn in 1889, later it was taken from Istanbul in 1839 by Van Hammer to Vienna). In 1910, Radolf German published this exemplar. 1942 in Turkey originally printed version), 2. Version of Cairo (This version was found in Cairo in 1896 by German scientist Mauritius, who was then director of the Hediyyah / Khadio Library.) Part of this version was lost. In 1943, in Turkey, the original printed version), 3. The Ferghana exemplar (the most important version) was found by Zaki Validi-e Toghan in Fergana, this version has no first and last parts, but has been carefully written in other versions. In 1943, the original version of the book was published in Turkey). As there is not enough knowledge about the period of the Turks of Qarakhan or Qarakhanites in the historical sources about the period of the Turks of Qarakhanis or Qarakhanites, there is too little information about the specific Yusuf of the uplifting contrast that existed at that time. It is narrated that it was born between the years 1017-1019 in the city of Balasagun (Quz ordu). [3] His complete biography is unclear. In his great work (Kutadgu Bilig), he only names his own banner. It is also mentioned in the last part of the book: "The owner of Yusuf's book teaches and conveys his great contrast." It is clear from this title that he has had a great deal of duty. He completed his basic education in the city of Balasagun, 151

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Kyrgyzstan, he studied the Persian and Arabic languages. After death in 1077, he was buried in the city of Qasghar (in the eastern Turkistan /present China). [4] Considering that, in many Turkish sources, this book is seen as a policy for rulers, his counsel includes all people from different parts of society. For example: Yusuf Has Hajip, gives advises to astronomy students to learn geometry and mathematics first. Because the calculus and geometry bring humanity to perfection; the person who collects, deducts, multiplies, divides, and curses will recognize the seven heights of the sky as the palm of your hand. Maths is the basis of everything. Part of the Introduction Kutadgu Bilig: "I gave my name to my book to make it easy for my readers to learn the right way"(in 350th couplet). I wrote my words, my thoughts and ideas. This book is a helping hand lending to the happiness and prosperity of the two worlds (351). I want to say frankly: nobody is happier than the one who can get both two worlds. (in 352th) Firstly, Gundogdu is the ruler and symbolizes the law of justice, namely, justice comes with Aytoldubeing the sun rising happiness. Ogdulmush is the symbol of wistom and Odgurmush is the symbol of aftermath. I'm speaking on the basis of the four values (justice, administration, intelligence and sequel) when you read you'll find out, pay attention. "[5] According to Reshit Rahmeti Arat meaning of "Kutadgu Bilig" is the knowledge of being happy. The term "qut" is considered by S. M. Arsal in the sense of "political sovereignty", is gives later the meaning of happiness and felicity. In the opinion of G. Darfar, Qut is a kind of special spiritual power of the human being, which especially the ruler needs to support the by earth and the sky. [1] (Like the word "Far" in Pahlavi). 152

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Yusuf Has Hajib, in his work, also discusses the value of science and knowledge. In his opinion, the science and knowledge of scientists and scholars give people and create the brightness; "Knowledge is like a torch in the dark night that shows humanity the right and proper way. That is we must be respected to scientists" If we are be careful, then we can see that the knowledge of a universe is different from the science of another scientist, for example, the therapist treats patients, but astronomers count years, months, and days. All of these sciences are useful to people. Scientists are like herds of flocks that always guide herds to the right path. "[6] Kutadgu Bilig can be evaluated as a credential work. This work contains important and useful information about the author and the scientific and philosophical condition of that period. During that period, Plato's "State and Society" theory was well known and tried to apply it. The value and the magnitude of knowledge and scientists are understood; knowledge is seen as a reliable leader and guide. Yusuf Has Hajib has shown great boldness in writing this book, because this book is the first example of a policy in Turkish literature. [7] Translation of some parts of Kutadgu Bilig: Adornment of wisdom is language and beauty of language is the word. The adornments of man are the face and its beauty is eyes. Where is the one who collected the fortune and wealth of this world, and taken it under the soil wiht oneself? Where is the ruler who has conquered from east to west in this world? Death took away all that I counted, do you- good persondo think that deat don‘t take you, don‘t you? If people go astray, rulers and elders guide them, if the ruler is misled, who will lead him.

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The ruler (Gun Dogdu) asks a guestion to Aytoldu: Why are you silent? The answer is to the ruler: in the presence of the ruler I do not know what to say. It is notgood to answer. I'm here for your inviting. Talk you. The answer of the ruler (Gun Dogdu) to Aytoldu: Ignorant person the one who does not know anything, should be silent. One who is wise and must also rule in his tongue. In the words of the wise, there is always wisdom. The answer to the ruler is: Unnecessary speech damage to human, it even causes death. So, until the question it should not be answered and spoken. The question of the ruler (Gun Dogdu) of Aitoldy: Good. You said that damage of tongue. And your saying is correct. Does the language have any benefits? Can you tell about the benefits of language? The answer Aitoldy to the ruler is: The sign of the wise person is one language, the other is the throat. The body feeds from the throat, the soul feedsfrom the right words and ear. Humans are happy when they ruletheir tongue and throat. The question of the ruler (Gun Dogdu) of Aitoldy: What is the basis of speech? How many section is words? Where does word come and where does it go? How much of a word should be said and how much of it should not be said? The answer to the ruler is: Word of the place is the secret. There are ten section of words, but only one must be said and spoken. 154

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Common Characteristics of Kutadgu Bilig and Minoye Kherad. 1. in the form of a intention book, 2. based on ethical and religious beliefs, 3. to achieve forgiveness in two worlds, 4. based on experiences and events and mythical characters, 5. are written in the form of a dialogue.

Both works begin with the praise of God and Creator. In the praise of Allah,Kutadgu Bilig: 1. I begin with the names of God, the Creator of life and death. 2. Thousands of Haddad and Snahid Abdadavand are unique and capable, able and always alive. 3.Creator of sky and earth, sun and moon, night and day, time, and other creatures

In the introduction, the author of Minuye Kherad: 1-The name and praise of the Creator of Urmazd, which gives the allofgift. 2- and all the goddesses created in Minu and Giti, 3- and the prilivege of the priliveges - the Mazdaizm of religion, 4-that is sourch of the all wistom 5- and with bless of sanstus in two world, teachings of the Creator Urmazd.

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As for the ruler and his specialties, he says: "Yusuf Balasaguni: The rulers must avoid five things: -

If they do not want to destroy themselves:

-

One of those thet don‘t be levity and the second one ise ungenerous

-

Third, anger with ignorance

-

Which together make you dishonest,

-

The fifth is a lie that gives rise to embarrassment and scandal The ruler stay away these. Injustice and selfishness are causing disgrace. Selfishness enslaves the hapiness of human A common concept in these two works: The concept of Farr in Persian language and Qut in Turkishlanguage. The concept of prosperity and happiness is expressed in Kutadgu

Bilig with the Qut and Quthatguword. "Qut" is a term in the old Turkish language which means the head of life, energy, and lightness, which by the passage of time now means wealth and prosperity with baptism and transcendence, is used in most Turkic languagec and dialects. The first and old meaning of the word "Qut" is the same meaning with consept of Farr in Middle Persian and Pahlavi. The Qut and Farr is the specialty and a divine power that is given to particular individuals and chosen by God. These people is immortel and has super powers like Jamshid and the Turkish khans. They depict such people with a bright halo on their faces or head. Here it means happiness and holyness. The concept of wisdom and inteligence that is expresed words of Okkush in the Old Turkish and Khirad in Old Persian is discussed in both works. Theimportance and position of people‘s wisdom and inteligence in terms of reaching to happinessis stated in both Kutadgu Bilig and in Minuye Khirad.

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The concept of ― Dil‖ or ― Gonul‖, the word "Dil" in the dictionaryof Moinas a word of Pahlavi means 1.spirit, 2. courage and resolution which is related to the word and concept of "gonul" in the 1933th copulet: "God to each gives his kingdom, he gives wisdom and gonul. " Although there is a lot of difference between the period when Minoo and Kutadgu Bilig are written, it is undoubtedly the author of Kutadgu Bilig Yusuf, who has been especially familiar with the ancient Persian works, especially the Minuye Kherad, and has been influenced by it,he wrote Turkish-Islamic masterpiece. Because, as shown above, both the form and the shape are both content and its meaning derived from the Minuye Kherad.

Resources: 1- Süer Eker (2006), "Kutadgu Bilig'de (teñri ‗azze ve celle ögdisin ayur) Türkçe İslami Terimlerin Kaynakları Üzerine" Bilig, yaz 2006, Sayı 38, s.103-122 2- Agop Dilaçar, Kutadgu Bilig İncelemesi, Türk DikKurumu Yay., Ankara 1995, s. 21. 3- Zhong Gao:Xinjiang kültürü, Çeviren Wei Qiufen, Wuzhou İletişim yayın evi,syf.16-18 ISBN 7-5085-0169-1 4- Tahir Alangu:―100 ünlü Türk eseri: 1. baskı‖,Milliyet Yayıinları, 1974,syf.29 5- Yusuf Has Hacib, Kutadgu Bilig, (Çev: R. R. Arat), TTK. Yay., Ankara 1998, bab, 350, 351 k Edebiyatı, 303-314.sayılar‖, Türk Edebiyatı 6- Ahmet Kabaklı:―Tür vakfı, 1999, syf.24-25 7- Yusuf Has Hâcib, Kutadgu Bilig I-II (Metin), haz. R. Rahmeti Arat.Türk Tarih Kurumu, 1974, Ankara; İkinci baskı. 8- Әдеби жәдігерлер. Жиырма томдық. 5-т.; Ж.Баласағұн. Құтты білік/ кӛне тіркі тілінен аударып, алғы сӛзі мен түсініктерін жазған А.Қ.Егеубаев. – Алматы: Таймас, 2007. – 536 б. 157

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‫ ا‬.‫فضلی‬ ‫مینوی خرد»ترجم ه احمدت‬. 1354 9- «‫نتشاراتفرهنگ ایران‬ 10- https://www.vajehyab.com 11- http://www.iranboom.ir/ketab-khaneh/anbar/

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Arta and Aša in proper names and the range of their political and religious concepts Mojtaba Doroodi MA in Ancient Culture and Languages Department of Foreign Languages and Linguistics, Shiraz University, Iran Sanaz Mohajelin Ph.D student in ancient culture and languages, Islamic Azad University, Science and Research Branch Abstract The three words, (Ṛata,Arta and Aša) were among the theological expressions of Indo Iraniantribes which have embraced a wide range of meanings.vocabularies, that can be t raced back up to

the second millennium

B.C

considering

written

sources.

However finding out the semantic nature of these word's wide range of meaning in ancient texts has involved many scholar's minds. Since they have been used in a wide range of meanings in the most ancient written sources from inscriptions to ancient texts. Among their most frequent usage, is the existence of the proper names which are composed in combination of these words which indicates the ancient people's deep belief

in

them.

This

study

by

the

examining

of

special

names

that form the blend with these concepts, is another way to approach the broad concepts of these vocabularies. On the other hand the integration of these words with the life after death is also an indicator of the ancient Iranian's attitude towards the otherworld's which has been discussed in this essay. Key Words: Ṛata, Arta, Aša, Ašavan, Artāvan. Introduction Arta in old Persian, Ṛtá in old India and Aša in Avestan texts1 are among the full-application vocabularies throughout Indoiranian texts. The vocabularies with the same root and almost the same concepts. The vocabularies with a vast range

of

notion like truth, discipline, treaty to the other ethical conc-epts.

In the other side and in its opposite, there is some words like Drauga

in

old Persian,

Kent, Roland.G., Old Persian: Grammar, Texts, Lexicon, New Haven, Connecticut, 1953, pp.170-171

1

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Drògha in

Sanskrit

and

Draoga

in

contradiction with the first group of words. about their quiddity.It's

certain

that,

Avesta

language2

Texts researchers

Aryan

tribes were

in

the

semantic

are interested in study used

some

ancient

interpretation words that these vocabularies are among and later, these words are reflected in Iranian and Indian religious texts. Furthermore, in

ancient

Persian

inscriptions, these words are also associated with political and social concepts that their application rang are extending tothe addition

to

studying

these

concepts

Sassanid texts from

past

and inscriptions . In

to historical periods, these

research has focused on the classification of proper names and their

concepts

with

combination to the components . This research is also attempts to study these names in the closest terms

and their

applications

that

may

contains

spiritual

concept in earthly life, as well as communication and salutation in the word and the other matters. The Etymological study of vocabularies , their concepts and derivatives from ancient texts to oldest inscriptions In the old Persian language "Law and order" are mentioned among the meaning of

word "Arta"3.

the

It has also be mentioned as a god along with Ahuramazda Furthermore, the

cosmic

order, the truth, the courage and merit, the trusteeship, the religious law and many

other

good

concepts

have

also

mentioned for the Rata's meanings in Sanskrit language4 . The word Rata in Sanskrit has the same concepts range with Aša, the Avestan word in the meaning of law and the natural regularity5. The Latin word Ortus means to

be created is another type of these words6Which are all from the same Indo-

European root *h2r-to in the meaning of adequate, suitability and worthiness and Kent, Roland.G., p.192. Brandenstein,Wilhelm, & Mayrhofer,Manfred, Handbuch des Altpersischen, Wiesbaden, Otto Harrowitz, 1964, p.106. 4 Monier-Williams , Monier, A Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Oxford, Oxford Clarendon Press, 1960, p.180. 5Boyce, Mary, Zoroastrian Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Tr: asgar bahrami, Tehran, gh oghnus, (2004/1383 SH), p:30. 6 Kent, Roland.G., p.170. 2 3

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Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. also from the root *h2er which means connecting and measuring7. Pokorny has also mentioned that word from Indo-European form *rto- in the meaning of connecting each other and also from theroot*ar- in the meaning ofcomplete8.

with

As it's clear the form of this word is very similar in the Sanskrit and old Persin which can mentioned the close proximity between the western Iranian of India. Baily refers the Avestan

cultures

and

land

word Aša, as an evolution of the word Arta

in old Persian9. It's certain that most ancient (rt) clusters in the Avestan language and eastern dialect of Persia are seen as (sh: š) and this is regular like an Avestan word Fravaši, which it's old Persian form is Fravarti or the Avestan word AšaVahiša which Arta-Vahishta is that's old Persian form and nowadays it's change

to Ordibehesht. of course,

these

can

be

a

normal

sign

of

the

difference between western and eastern Iranian dialect. Proper names are signs that shows the indication of the long-term usage of These concepts that created from the combination with the Arta, Aša and Rata component. Notably these are such signs from the second millennium B.C which included the discovery of Amarna(Egypt) texts that have reports about the Aryan governments in Syria and Palestin. Some names like Artatama and Artaššumara are seen among them10, also in the time of Shalmansar the third( 858 to 823 B.C) the names

like

Artashari

and

Artashariv

are

given

to

the

median kings in his inscriptions11 which shows the importance of this word's concept a mong the Aryan tribes that made it crystallised in the name of the kings and politicl lead ers of that era. Also the oldest Aryan's written script derived from Boghazkooh in the second millennm B.C As a treaty between the Hittian's king and the Mittanian's

one.

In

this

treaty,

the

names

of

the

gods,

who

are undoubtedly Aryans are given12.these names are: Mitrah, Varuna, Nastiya and Indr de Vaan, Michiel, Etymological Dictionary of Latin and the other Italic Languages, Leiden, Brill, 2008, pp.56-55 8Hasan doost, Mohammad, Persian languages Etymological Thesaurus,Tehran, Farhangestaan -e Zaban va Adab-e Farsi, (2004/ 1383 SH), p: 228. 9 Bailey, Harold Walter, Z orostrian Problems in the ninth-century Books, oxford: At the clarendon press, 1943, pp. 177-180 10lecoq, Pierre, Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions,Tr: Nazila Khalkhali, Tehran, Farzan Ruz, (2010 /1389 SH),p:33. 11DuchesneGuillemin, Jacques, An introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion,n,Tr: Roya Monajje m, Tehran, Bonyad Janbazan,(1996/1375 SH),p: 242. 12 lecoq, Pierre, p:32. 7

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Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. And more interestingly, in Vedic cosmology, firmament's god, Varuna13, is along with Rata and also he is one of his guards14 just like deep link between Ahuramazda and Aša(Arta) in Avestan texts. The link is so deep that Aša, represents th e Ahuramazda.15 The duties of Ahuramazda in Iranian texts is very similar to Varuna, so that Boyce16 believes that Ahuramazda is an Indian Varuna-Mitrah's Iranian evolved form17. The most of scholars have described the Rigveda's chanting history in about 1200 B.C and many scholars believes that the old Avesta's (Gahan) chanting dates are the same as Rigveda's18.That is how we can established a link between that

ancient

inscription's proper names from the centuries B.C (Amarna,Boghazkooh, Shalmansa the third inscription)with the text's concepts of Rigveda and Avesta.Namely although we have only some proper names in inscriptions, but Vedic and Avestan texts specially Rigveda and Gahan,

Detailed

descriptively

the

supportive

and

complementary references to brief notes of that inscriptions because they are belongs to the same era. It's certain that these words ( Rata, Arta, Aša) are based on the Indoiranian tribes deep believes. The heavenly law that was their guarantor and protector against the devilish forces, this law extended into the other world and even the world after death ( the ancient man's unknown world) and that law's meaning and concept is about truth, good human characteristics and even doing prayers and sacrifices19. Generally, we can accept that :perhaps, Rata is the most important concept in the Indoiranian religion that is under the special supervision of the supreme god of heaven who is called Varuna in India and Ahuramazda in Iran20. In Vedic cosmology, Rata is the god of

moral and cosmic regularity21. His

13Jalaali

position

naini, Seyyed Mohammad, Rigveda's selective mantras, The oldest Hindu's Religion an d ommunities Ducument, Tehran, Noghreh ,( 1993/ 1372 SH) , p: 550. 14 Marian, Molé , L'Iran Ancient, Tr: Jaleh Amuzgar, Tehran,Tus, ( 2007/ 1386 SH), P: 53. 15Widengren, Geo, Les Religions De L'Iran, Tr: Manoochehr Farhang, Tehran, Agahan Ideh, ( 19 98/1377 SH), p: 122. 16 Boyce, Mary, p: 32. 17 Jalali naini , seyyed Mohammad, p: 50. 18 Boyce, Mary,p: 15. 19 Boyce, Mary, p: 30-32 20Malandra, William, An Introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion, Tr: Khosrow, Gholizadeh, Te hran, Bongah-e Tarjomeh va Nashr-e Ketab, (2012/1391 SH), p:40. 21 Shushan, Gregory, Conceptions of the Afterlife in Early Civilizations, London, continuum, 2009, p.92.

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Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. according to Rigveda in the sky and fire alter22. These concepts can be clearly found in the Gahan chants.Notably, Fire is the symbol of Ašavahisht ( Artavahisht)

that

is

23

one of the most important members of Amshaspands . That is also the symbol of the world's regularity, the law of god and moral regularity in the world and he supervises the prayers24. These features can be found in the Indian's Rata concept. Another evident signs that tells the Rata's ( Arta, Asha) essence of concept and it's supereminence among the Irania n tribes are the word Ṛtàvan in

ancient

India,

Artāvan

in

old

Persian

and

25

Ašavan in the Avestan language which all means Arta's owner. This trait is used in Iran to represent the piety personality. But

in

Indian

texts

this

word

Rtàvan

is

used for the gods , especially Varuna and Mitrah have the Rtàvan's attributes26. afterwards it is observed that Xerxesuses this trait too. Niberg has read the name Artashshumarah in Amarna inscription (Egypt), as Artašvara and in compared with the word

švara

meant the sun in Sanskrit,

mentioned for this name implies

the concept that its sun is Arta. And noted that, this name should be changed to Artahvara in old Persian and Ašahvara in Avestan language. In this word, he refers to a link between the sun and Arta among the Indoiranian tribes27, just as the sunny god ( means Mehr) in the Avesta, , is Asha's manifestation28 furthermore, in Indian texts it is a path that is known as Rata, , which is the cosmic path that good men

will

pass through it29 and the devil's followers will not be able to pass it and this is the famous truth way. That is the basic concept of Zoroastrian religion. Yama (Jamshid) in India is the other world's master and dead' s arbiter. He was the first person who Eliade, Mircea, A History of Religious Ideas, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1978, vol.1, p.201. 23De Menasce, Pierre Jean, “Cosmic Duality in Iran's Mythology” Tr: Abolghasem Esmailpoor, T ehran, Iran Shenakht, Number: 16&17, Spring & Summer (2000/ 1379 SH),p: 145. 24Amuzgar, Jaleh, Mythical History of Iran, Tehran, Samt, (2001/ 1380 SH), p:16 25Schwartz, Martin, The Religion of Achaemenian Iran , Cambridge History, Editor: Ilya Gershe vitch, tr: Teimur Ghaderi, Tehran, Mahtaab, (1991/1370 SH), Second part, Volume 2, p:824 26Shaygan, Darius, Indian Religious and Philosophical Sects,Tehran, AmirKabir, ( 1997/ 1375 S H), Volume 1, p: 57. 22

27

Nyberg, Henrik Samuel, The Religions of Ancient Iran, Tr: Seyfaldin Najmabadi, Tehran, Marka z-e Irani-e Motale'-ye Farhangha, (1981/1359 SH), p:330. 28 Widengren, Geo,p: 35 29 Idem, p: 121

163

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

walks in a way that became known as the ancestor's way later and the dead are judged b y him with a measure which called the mysterious Varuna's law, which is Rata30. This is a very similar concept with the činvad bridge in Avestan texts ,which se parates the good men's( Artāvan, Ašavan) way from guilty31. A heavenly way, through which salvation and eternity are waiting for the righteous, which is the first way in the Zoroastrian 's doctrine, that is the Aša or regularity 's way32. This is stated In the Yasna 51,paragraph 13 : ― Thus the self of the liar destroys for himself the assurance of the right way , whose soul shall tremble at the revelation on the bridge of the separat from the path of right33‖.

or, having turned aside with deeds and tongue

contents, contains this ancient Aryan word's vast concepts. Furthermore it benoted that the principle of lie is in contrast with the

concept

of

Arta

All

the

should and

in

general Rata is anti Druh. Also, In the ancient world, The word, falsehood has a vast concepts which can be known as the symmetry and opposite of the duties that, Arta( Rata, Aša) is associated with.In the Gahanid Avesta the word Druj is used for the sake of showing bad against Aša. This word used as Drauga in old Persian inscriptio ns. The

words

which

contains

all

the

concepts

of

irregularity,

perfidy,

deception, dishonesty and the bad way. Aša in Avestan proper names In the old Avesta, that is Gahan,

Zoroaster has mentioned the word Aša

more than 180 times34, which is the most meaningful Avestan word, and also the name Ashavahisht

( Ordibehesht) has been noted before name of all the

Amshaspands35 .

furthermore the word Asha is seen in the main axis of the Ašemvohu, a famous oriso, w hich is specially important for mazdyasni.Furthermore, many peoples are seen through a ll these texts whose names are

derived

from combination with the word Aša.

The

Ions,Veronica, Indian Mythology, Tr: Bajlan, Farokhi, Tehran, Shenakht-e Asatir-e Hend, ( 1995/1373 SH), p: 53. 31Hashem,Razi, Ancient Iran Encyclopaedia,Avestan era until the end of Sassanid era, Tehran, Sokhan ( 2003/ 1381 SH), Volume 2, p: 709. 32Walther,Hinz, Darius and the Iranians , the Achaemenid 's History, Culture and Civilisation, Tr: Parviz, Rajabi, Tehran, Maahi, ( 2014/ 1392 SH), p: 79. 33Duchesne Guillemin, Jacques, Achaemenid Religion, Tr: Morteza Saghebfar, Tehran, Shurafarin, (2015/ 1393 SH), p: 98-99. 30

34

Walther,Hinz, p: 437.

164

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

extension of usage of this Avestan component, Aša , in proper names is so that , it's the controller of its numerous meanings and concepts. considering these proper names meanings the main concepts of "Aša" in these texts can be clarified. In addition to this neutral name Aša , Aši is the goddess whose name appeared in the Ga han's chants and also in Avesta among the devotees. who is the Ahuramazda and Spandarmaz's girl in new

Aša is the goddess of fortune, Avesta .

She

has

also

mentioned for the pious goddess. Darmesteter mentioned this name as a female form of Aša.36 With

considering

some

women

name's

in

the

Persepolis 's

Elamitic tablets which have the Arta or Rata component and even later, Darmesteter's opinion can be acceptable.

In this tablet, a small number of these Avestan names are presented: word's address

word's concept

trans cription

zamyad yasht, prologue

the comfort that Ash

Aša xvāɵra

a gives-

Avestan writing aR{AX; aSa

mountain's name

Aban yasht, kard eh 18

steady through the ri ght

Aša uuazdah

hadzav; aSa

, paragraph 72

Farvardin yasht, Kardeh 25,paragr

shiny because of the right

Ašō. raocah

hacOar; OSa

aph 97 Boyce, Mary, p: 48. Changiz, The study of Farvardin Yasht( An Avestan chant for Fravahar's praise), Ta briz, Tabriz University, (2003/ 1382 SH), p: 187.

35

36Molaai,

165

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Farvardin yasht,

the Asha owner

Ašas

havas;a

avah

kardeh26, paragr

Sa

aph 115

Farvardin yasht, kardeh 26, paragr

certified to praise th e Asha

Aša.

;aSa

nәmah

haMe|

aph 128

Farvardin yasht, kardeh 26, paragr aph 113

the combination of t he name

Ašā.

; ASa

hura

arUh

Asha and Ahura

These mentioned words are a few of names in which the Aša's concept are seen. These groups of names are especially visible in the big Yashts like Farvardin yasht and aban yasht. Some names like Aša-sarǝδa, namely suitable for combat force of Aša or Aša-šyaoӛna that is, the person who will united with Aša because of his deed and also Aša- sairyank, namely,who express himself unified with Aša.37 All these names are dedicated to believers which mentioned in Farvardinyasht contains a deep believes in this ancient Indoiranian concept, interestingly these names can also be tracked back to the Vedic texts. For example:

of and

most

of

according

to

Aban yasht, Ašauuazdah is a righteous's name who is eternal. This name, which is one of the common names in ancient Iran , is also seen in the form of Artavasdes in Latin language and Artavazd in Armenian language . The Avestan form of this name , Ašauuazdah, derived from the two section, the first 37

Molaai, Changiz, Aban Yasht ( An Avestan chant in Ardavisur Anahid's praise), Tehran, Marka z-e Pezhuhesh-haye Irani va Eslami , (2013/ 1392 SH), p: 261.

166

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

one, Asha which is truth and sacred law and Vazdah which means the power and sustainability that is 38

in Vedic texts . The era

and in the

comparable with the word Vedhás with the same

righteous 's names which some one belongs to pre-Zoroastrian

Gathas ,

Zoroastrian' covenant .

meaning

they

are

associated

with

good

More interestingly, they are also praised for

people the

people who haven't yet been born and they are saluted on their Fravahars.

of

the

righteous In

the

Yasn 24, paragraph 5 and in Visparad, kardeh 11, paragraph 7 suchin dications can be detected. ― all the holy Fravashi of the saint, of those now dead, and of those of the living, and of those of the living, and of those of men unborn,

of

the

prophets

that shall serve us,‖39 . This Aša's concept range and it's relation to good humans are crystallised in both proper names and Ashavan,the Avestan adjective. And in this way it related with all the previous, present and future righteous

In

Farvardin Yasht, kardeh 31, paragraph 45 : ― we worship all the capable Ashavan's fravashi, of the kayomars untothe victorious Soshyant‖40 This is how that Asha in Avestan texts relate to Fravahars and also mazdyasni's prophet.

The

feature

that

connects the existence world with the other world(afterlife world), as it's mentioned later, such a concept is also visible among the Achaemenid. Finally, In the Avestan texts, the first prophet name (Hoshidar) and the last one (Soshiant) have the Arta component, that is, Uxšiiat.әrәta- aTeRe;TavSxU and Astuuat.әrәta-. aTeRe;TavTsa The әrәta component in these names is a

dialect

form

the Avestan word , and since these names have come in non-Gahanid

of Avestan

Aša41, texts

such as Vandidad42, fragard 19 or Farvardin yasht , it seems that the the priests from West of Iran43 Were involved. A word that is closer to the Iranian and Achaemenid's dialect.

Arta in the old Persian proper names Molaai, Changiz, p: 247 Ebrahim, Visparad ( Afarin Peyghambar Zardosht, Atash, Haft keshvar, Sogand Nama), Tehran, Asatir, ( 2002/ 1381 SH), p: 49. 40 Molaai, Changiz, The study of Farvardin Yasht ( An Avestan chant for Fravahar's praise), p: 11 4. 41Rezai Baghbidi, Hassan.” Soshiant in Avesta, Articles and Reviews” No: 64, Winter (1998/ 1377 SH), p: 109 42 Razi, Hashem, Vandidad, Tehran, Fekr-e Ruz, (1997/ 1376 SH), Volume 4, p: 1757. 38

39Purdavud,

167

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Citing to the Greek author 's reports , Nyberg noted the word , Arta in as synonymous and meaning with Fravashi among the believers of the Achaemenian era.‖Herodotus writes: believers have already called themselves Artaioi and also their around people do.

A Greek lexicographer reports that: Pars people's called

the

half-god heroes, Artaioi, and heroesis namely, the great deaths, the father'sspirit and the spirits have passed away44‖. Such a concept, as seen, was also visible in the Avestan phrases. Although the Darius inscriptions do not especially refers to Arta , his inscription 's concept are full of the battle with lies, that is the contrast of "Arta". (Look at: Bistoon and Naqsh-e Rostam's inscription). Furthermore, the existence of a proper name in the Bistoon inscription45, like : Ṛtavardiya artwrDIy46 who

was

the Darius's commander

this

in the battle with one of the rebels,Vahizdata,

noted

word's nature in the Darius era . This name is also seen in the other writings of Bistoon's inscription(Elamite, Babylon, Aramid). With the concept of : the person, who has deed according

to

truth47 ,acting on the

someone Who‘s deed are for Arta49 or

basis

of

justice( truth),48

someone who‘s working for Arta50

has been mentioned. In addition , Greek historians such as Herodotus have recorded the Persian grandee's names which have the Arta component era .

Particularly the names of his two brothers:

has been mentioned . Nyberg

has

read

the

Artabanus Persian

form

and of

in the Darius Artapharnès Artafrans

as

51

Artafarnah,that is a person whose xwarrah is from Arta . The Persepolis 's Elamitic tablets that have remained since the Darius times , from the 13 to 28 of his reign52, also have many names in which the Arta component is obserd.

Tavernier

were

Rezai ,Baghbidi, Hassan, p: 111. Nyberg, Henrik Samuel, p: 368. 45 Bisitun's Inscription, third column, paragraph 30&31. 46Ralph Norman, Sharp, The Inscription in old Persian Cuneiform of the Achaemenian Empero rs, Pazineh, (2003/ 1382 SH), p: 57. 47 lecoq, Pierre, p: 339. 48 Schmitt, Rüdiger, Wörterbuch der altpersischen Königsinschriften, Wiesbaden, Reichert, 2014, p.240. 49 Kent, Roland.G., p.171. 50 Nyberg, Henrik Samuel,p: 352. 51 Nyberg, Henrik Samuel,p:352. 52Firuzmandi, Bahman; Makundi, Leila, „The Persepolis Clay Tablets, script, Text's type,Motalea t –e Bastan Shenasi, Volume 1, NO:2 (serial 2), (2009/ 1388 SH), p: 46. 43

44

168

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. mentioned the reconstructed old Persian form of these names in his book53, the names which noted in this inscriptions in Elami language . Some of them are shown in the tablet below: words address PFNN

word's concep

Old Persian reconstruct

t

ed form

Elamitic writing i n tablets

Arta's arm

*

Arta's shine

*

Ṛtabāma

Ir-da-ba-ma

Arta's glory

*

Ṛtabānuš

Ir-da-ba-nu-iš

Ṛtabauxša

Ir-da-ba-u-uk-šá

Ṛtabāduš

Ir-da-ba-du-iš

1285:2 PFNN 422:3 PF 1287:9-10 PFNN

*

Arta's servant

878:2-3 PF

Given by Arta

*

Ṛtadāta

Ir-da-da-ad-da

Arta's glory

*

Ṛtafarnā

Ir-da-bar-na

Ṛtāhuvama

Ir-da-ú-ma-ma

451:6-7 PFNN 508:3 PFNN 505:9-10

Having a good

*

power, through Arta

PF

*

Arta's explorer

Ṛtaiša

Ir-da-a-šá

Ṛtāmazdā

Ir-du-maš-da

49:6-7 PF

*

Arta- Mazda

679:4

Jan Tavernier, Iranica in the Achaemenid period.Lexicon of old Iranian Proper Names and Loanwords,Attested in Non-Iranian Texts,Uitgeverij Peeters en Departement OOsterse, ParisDudley, Studies Leuven-, 2007, pp.292-307.

53

169

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Several names , that each represents a display of Arta's duties.Interestingly according to the Persepolis tablets , two Darius wive's names have the Arta component. Artystone is one of those in the meaning of wisdom's pillar , who is Atusa's sister and th e other daughter of Cyrus . The Achaemenid and also Greek writers referred to her name, and the other one

is

Ṛtabāma, the fist Darius's wife and Gaubarava's( Darius's spearman) daughter54 . Whose In the famous Xerxes's inspiration which is Divan inspiration, the word Arta artaca55(XPH:41)56

and the adjective Artavan artava57(XPH:55)

are

clearly visible. ― ... there I worshiped Ahuramazda and Arta58 .... thou who( shalt be) hereafter, if thou s halt think ," happy may I be when living, and when dead may

I be blessed,"(Artāva)

have respect for that law which Ahuramazda has established,

worship Ahuramazda

and Art reverent(ly) . the man who has respect for that law which Ahuramazda has established, and worships Ahuramazda and Arta reverent(ly) , he both becomes happy while livin g, and become blessed when dead. ( Xerxes's inscription, Persepolis H, paragraph 40 to 56).59 Duchesne-Guillemin says: Artavan, the old term, represents a modality for the dead person and also it adapts with the Ratavan, the Vedic word, which means the god's sobr iquet, dead fathers and the death.60 And eventually he names 54Marie

his sun, Ardeshīr61.

Koch, Heidi, Es kündet Dareios dear könig, Tr: Parviz, Rajabi, Tehran, Karang, (1998/ 1 377 S), p: 271- 275. 55 Ralph Norman, Sharp,p: 121. 56 Xerxes Inscription, Persepolis H, paragraph 41. 57 Ralph Norman, Sharp,p: 121. 58 Artācā59Kent, Roland G, Old Persian: Grammer, Texts,Lexicon, Tr:Said,Oryan, Tehran, Entesharat El mi, (2013/ 1391 SH), p: 489-490. 60 Duchesses-Guillemin, Jacques, p: 244 61 Ṛtaxšaҫa-

170

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. That has the concept "a person whose power is from Arta"62

The

several monarchs after him until to the Sassanid period , this

name

name

is

of

the

still

used

among the Iranian's people . After The Achaemenids Many proper names that have an Arta component are used among the most ofthe Iranian dynasties from the local rulers of Pars to the parthians and then Sassanids. names like Ardeshir, Artavazd, Artashes, Artabaz, Ardavan, Artaksia, ... that them have an immemorial concept .

Furthermore,

both

of

all

these

of two

concepts, Ašavan and Arta( Ardav, Artavan) in the sense of pietist are used in Middle Persian religious texts and in some of the inscriptions, such as Kartir's inscriptio n.

In the inscription of his ascension, Kartir uses the term,

Arda(v) � � � � �

.63

in the same concept that Xerxes used in his inscription. He says in paragraph 57 and 58 of Nash-e-Rostam's inscription, (KNRm)64: ― so,for the mercy of shapur shahanshah, I decided to death a ritual die because of God‘s spiritual service. With these vocabularies: may I be ARTAY ‫… غجتغضقﺜ‬I also said to my self: if I‘m righteous, so now my god, show

me

how

to

to

be

pious

in

the

world‖65

death

This is a pious Kartir that leads to his ascension which reminds Ardaviraf's the name that has an Artav component itself. Can

not

this

similar

ascension

name

be a

keyword to know the Ardaviraf in Pahlavi texts,identical with the Kartir in these inscriptions? It's certain that, Kartir's ascension is in the category of discovery, intuition and p rediction's literature66, just like the Ardaviraf Namah , the Pahlavi book, and both are associated with the afterlife world, the same concept that's seen able in Xerex's inspired. This worth, Ardav, is also appears in the Middle Persian texts, in the ab stract noun form Ardāyīh

‫غجتغضقﺜ‬which means virtue and honesty67.

The

Ashu

word is also used in religious texts for pietist people. also a new form is added in these Nyberg, Henrik Samupel,p: 352. Akbar Zadeh, Dariush, Kartir's, The great Priest, Inscriptions, Tehran, Pazineh, (2006/ 1385 SH), p: 228. 64 Philippe Gignoux, les quater inscription du mage KIRDĪR,textes et concordances, Paris,Cahier Studia Iranica, 1991, p.51. 65 Akbar Zadeh, Dariush,p: 108. 66 Nasr allah Zadeh, Siros, kazeroon's Pahlavid Inscription, Tehran, Kazeronieh, (2006/ 1385 SH), p: 57. 62 63

171

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

texts , that is the word, Ahlaw

68‫ا‬

‫خﻖﺜجاث‬,

which

has

the same meaning

and root69, And also sometimes , somebeautiful phrases like Ahlawdad in the meaning of charity are made of it70 In Manichaeans texts, there is a heavenly person names Ardav , who has a mystical conversation with Mani in the sky71. We can also found this word's succession with the same meaning in the other Iranian languages such as

Soghdian languages which some phrases like

Artāv-

frawarti72 ( holy fravashi) and Artāt-roč ( Art's day) are seen there73. Conclusion As we have seen, the word Rata in old India, Arta in old Persian and Asha in Avestan languages , are the basic vocabularies that are the indicators of the Indoiranian (Aryan)'s

era or even from the Indoeauropean

and they were the containers of wide-

ranging concepts that maybe considered as the reality of existence and the pure principle of it, in the brief manner and philosophy 's language . This concept, furthermore, contains the righteous god who supports the world's regularity, and also it's

a

feature that all the world's goodness are related to. Also

in

the

ventricle

of these words, a very deep belief in the other world can be foun, a true concept that do esn't know the physical death as the

end of existence.

The

widespread

use

of

these words in proper names denotes hidden concepts through these names among their believers and more interestingly, these tribes retained these ancient concepts , after migrating to the new territories and even transmitted them to other tribes.

The

proper (male & female) names which are adorned with these vocabularies, give a better concept's consciousness it means that it contained people from different social classes of Indoiranian tribes, from the kings and clerics to the ordinary people And finally, features with that concepts such as Artavan, Ashavan, Ardav 67

Bahar, Mehrdad, Bondaheshn Glossary, Tehran, Bonyad-e Farhang-e Iran, (1966/ 1345 SH), p: 41. Bahar, Mehrdad,p:4. 69 Hassan Dust, Mohammad, Volume 1, p: 228-229. 70 Mirfakhrai, Mahshid( to the effort), Pahlavi's Narrative, Tehran, Pazhuhashgah Olum Ensani va Motalea t Farhangi, (2012/1390 SH), p: 524. 71 Mary Boyce, A Reader in Manichaean Middl Persian and Parthian, Leiden,Téhéran-Liége, 1975, Acta Iranica 9., p.34. 72 Artāv-frawarti 73 Gharib, Badr al zaman, Soghdian Thesaurus, Tehran, Markaz Motaleat FarhangiBein al Melali, 1995, p: 58. 68

172

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Ahlav which have connected with all the righteous people, are derived from these concepts, ancient words that are still alive after millennia in proper names.

References: Amuzgar, Jaleh, Mythological History of Iran, Tehran, Samt, (2001/ 1380 SH) . Akbar Zadeh, Dariush, Kartir's, The great Priest , Inscriptions, Tehran, Pazineh, (2006/ 1385 SH). Ions,Veronica, Indian Mythology, Tr: Bajlan, Farokhi, Tehran, Shenakht-e Asatire Hend, ( 1995/1373 SH) . Boyce, Mary, Zoroastrian Their Religious Beliefs and Practices, Tr: asgar bahrami, Tehran, ghoghnus, (2004/1383 SH) . Purdavud, Ebrahim, Visparad ( Afarin Peyghambar Zardosht, Atash, Haft keshvar, Soga nd Namah), Tehran, Asatir, ( 2002/ 1381 SH). De Menasce, Pierre Jean, Cosmic Duality in Iran's Mythology Tr: Abolghasem Esmailp oor, Tehran, Iran Shenakht, Number: 16&17, Spring & Summer(2000/ / 1379 H) Eliade, Mircea, A History of Religious Ideas,vol.1, Chicago, The University of Chicago Press, 1978. Jalaali naini, Seyyed Mohammad, Rigveda's selective mantras, The oldest Hindu's Relig ion and Communities Ducument, Tehran, Noghreh , ,( 1993/ 1372 SH). Hasan doost, Mohammad, Persian languages Etymological Thesaurus,Tehran, Farhang estaan-e Zaban va Adab-e Farsi, (2014/ 1393 SH) . DuchesneGuillemin, Jacques, An introduction to Ancient Iranian Religion,n,Tr: Roya M onajjem, Tehran, Bonyad Janbazan,( 1996/ 1375 SH). DuchesneGuillemin, Jacques, Achaemenid Religion, Tr: Morteza Saghebfar, Tehran, Sh urafarin, (2015/ 1393 SH). Rezai Baghbidi, Hassan, Soshiant in Avesta, Articles and Reviews, No: 64, (Winter 1998/ 1377 SH) . Razi, Hashem, Vandidad, Four-volume collection, Tehran, Fekre Ruz, (1997/ 1376 SH). Razi, Hashem, Ancient Iran Encyclopaedia,Avestan era until the end of Sassanid era,Fiv e-volume collection, Tehran, Sokhan, ( 2003/ 1381 SH). Ralph Norman, Sharp, The Inscription in old Persian Cuneiform of the Achaemenian E mperors, Pazineh, (2003/ 1382 SH). Shaygan, Darius, Indian Religious and Philosophical Sects, volume1,Tehran, AmirKabi r, ( 1997/ 1375 SH). Schwartz, Martin, The Religion of Achaemenian Iran , Cambridge History,Second part, Volume 2, Editor: Ilya Gershevitch, Tr: Teimur Ghaderi, Tehran, Mahtaab, (2008/ 1387 SH). Firuzmandi, Bahman; Makundi, Leila, The Persepolis Clay Tablets, script, Text's type, Motaleat -e Bastan Shenasi, Volume 1, NO:2 (serial 2), (2009/ 1388 SH). Gharib, Badr al zaman, Soghdian Thesaurus, Tehran, Markaz Motaleat FarhangiBein al Melali, 1995. lecoq, Pierre, Achaemenid Royal Inscriptions,Tr: Nazila Khalkhali, Tehran, Farzan Ruz, (2010/1389 SH). Marie Koch, Heidi, Es kündet Dareios dear könig, Tr: Parviz, Rajabi, Tehran, Karang, ( 1998/ 1377 SH). 173

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An Investigation of cultural Interconnection of Iran and India in Myth Shahnaz Valipour Hafshejani, Associate Professor, Shahrekord Farhangian Hossein Bagheri, Instructor, Shahrekord Farhangian Abstract Iran and India, due to the same-rootedness of their people and manythousand-year relationships, have various cultural interconnections. These two ancient countries, which are considered as the greatest and the oldest civilizations of the world have a gigantic treasure of myth, literature and mysticism. Although, due to geographical differences, pass of time and different cultural, theological differences, myth in these lands developed in different forms, the same-rootedness and interaction can be seen in them. In this article, some of these cultural similarities, manifested in the myths of these two ancient countries, including those in Avesta, Shahnamehe, the Rig Veda and other ancient texts, were investigated and some cultural interconnections in mythical characters, including gods, heroes, dragon killers such as Fereydun, Jamshid and Indra and …and phenomena, animals and plants such as, fire, cow and Hom plant and…are shown. Key Words: Iran, India, The The Rig Veda, Avesta, Myth, Avesta Introduction "Myth" is a concept which has been defined differently because it was investigated from different and varied viewpoints; historical, classical, structural, phenomenological, psychological etc., The best definition of it was given by Mircea Eliade.He defines myth this way:' Myth narrates a sacred history; it relates an event that took place in primordial Time, the fabled time of the "beginnings." In other words, myth tells how, through the deeds of Supernatural Beings, a reality came into existence, be it the whole of reality,

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the Cosmos, or only a fragment of reality — an island, a species of plant, a particular kind of human behavior, an institution." Therefore, myth always speaks of an old reality; a reality showing how something emerged and how many of the world's phenomena were first discovered; myths about the descent and race of man and his origin and myths about death. These ancient stories which have been inherited from the distant past and are the result of the thoughts of our fathers, respond to general and universal questions which engaged human mind from a long time ago; An answer that should not be judged and evaluated with the contemporary scientific viewpoint, but should be viewed from the viewpoint of the believers. From the viewpoint of myths' believers, they are unmistakable truths. They often narrate a mythical history; the history which, unlike our history, is not linear and transient, but circular and eternal; a history which was made not only by human beings, but also by gods and half gods. In these myths, the gods fight with dragons and devils to help human beings, and humans help them by sacrificing and donating. Some of these myths describe the beginning of creation and the creation of the heavens, the earth, humans and other creatures; others inform us of the early discoveries of humans, myths explaining the phenomenon of death and myths about the return to Eden ... and myths describing how heroes or semi-gods fight with famine demons and open the heavenly doors of blessing and forgiveness to the earthy (earth settlers). The relationship between myth and society is a reciprocal one. As myths affect people's culture and belief, they are also mutually affected by society. Therefore, naturally, in the course of time and in the evolution of social, cultural and religious conditions, some myths disappear, new ones come into existence, and sometimes the old ones continue their lives by being changed and distorted. In this regard, the myths of Iran and India, due to their common origin, need a special investigation. These nations/ tribes (Iran and India) separated from each other in about two thousand BC and settled on different places on the path of their migration. Different climatic, cultural and religious 176

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conditions have also changed the course of their myths' evolution. Still, it is still possible to recognize old commonalities and similar old intellectual and social structures of the past through these different myths. In relation to the myths of Iran and India, different and separate studies were done. Among the most famous are: "Indian mythology" by "Ions Veronica" and "An investigation in myths of Iran" by "Mehrdad Bahar". Also in relation to comparative mythology we can refer to Georges Dumézil's comprehensive research on trifunctional structure (Triple Class System) in the Indo-European myths. But what is in need is a comprehensive work comparing the cultural commonalities of Iran and India, including mysticism, creation myths, gods, heroes, rituals, elements such as water, wind, fire, etc. and animals such as cows, lions, eagle, ....and plants such as havema, soma, water-lily, etc., In this article, which can be a very small spark to start this extensive path, because of limited time, only some of the gods and mythical characters of Iran and India are investigated by referring to The Rig Veda, Avesta and Pahlavi texts, and other previous studies. The research method is descriptiveanalytic using library method and presenting and analyzing some inter-textual evidence. First of all, we need to review the relationship between Iran and India from the very beginning up to present time. An overview of Iran-India relations The history of Iran and India is fraught with different cultural interconnections and commonalities, which originate from common and ancient origin of these two nations. They had common religion and rituals and worshipped the same gods until the second half of the second millennium BC, when these two nations began to migrate from an area between the Aral lake and the Black Sea to the vast plateau of Iran and the vast Indian land. The most important document in this regard is Baghaz-Koui inscription located in Asia Minor, which dates back to 1400 BC, in one of its texts, the name of the four Aryan gods: " (Mitra, Varuna, Indra, Nasatya" is mentioned. The 177

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document proves that the gods worshiped in Mitanni in about 1400 BC; were worshipped in Iran and India. (Jalali Naini: 1994,3) However, various Indo-Iranian tribes first arrived in the Iranian plateau during their migration. A group of them settled in this plateau, and the other tribe went to India. After settling in Iran and India, these two nations established social, religious, but kinship systems. One of these kinships is the language of these two nations. The Persian language of Avesta and the Sanskrit language used in the Vedas have many similarities. The oldest form of the Avestan language with the Vedic dialect with regard to combination of words, grammar, spelling and general style of poetry is so close and varied that one can translate Avestan sentences and paragraphs to Vedic poetry only by using phonetic rules and combining sounds and changing pronunciation returns to Vedic poetry. (Jalali Naiini,1994, p.3) The name of India was mentioned many times in Avesta and the land of Punjab is described in Vendidad Ferghrd I. ("Avesta",1997, pp.196-197) In the book of The Rig Veda, Iranians were first called parshava and later parshikha. (Jalali Naini, 1987, p. 730). During the Achaemenid era, as it is clear from Bistoon Inscription, India was the 20th Satrap of the Achaemenid state. Darius's attack to Sindh and Punjab in 512 BC was considered so important that it became the origin of the ancient history of India (Mashkur, 1978, p. 33) This era is called the Zoroastrian era of India. In the same years, the Indian province of Darius was richer and more crowded than all other parts of the country, and direct contacts and cultural exchanges between them were increasing. (Nehru ,1983, p.249) At the same time, two large chambers were constructed in the style of the Achaemenid architecture in the ancient city of Patli-putra. (Hekmat, 1959, p.4) The acme of the political, cultural and social relationships between Iran and India can be seen in the Sassanid era and the Gupta dynasty. During this period, the kings of the two countries have begun and developed political and synergistic relations. In addition, during this period, there was a great deal of interest among the Iranian people in the famous Hindi books and works. 178

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Calila e Dimna, Blohar and Bozasef, Sandbad Nameh, Parrot's Letter (Tooti Name), and even according to some narrations, Hezar Afsan (Thousand Myths), which later became known as the Thousand and One nights, were brought to Iran from India in the same era and translated to Pahlavi. According to Ferdowsi's narration in Shahnameh, Iranians learned chess in the same period from Indians, and in turn, backgammon which was invented by Iranians was received by Indians. (Ferdowsi, 1996, pp. 603-606) Also during this period, Mani, the Iranian painter and Prophet, went to India to propagandize his religion and rituals. After his assassination in the time of Bahram I, his followers who had taken refuge in the Indian subcontinent had a profound effect on the spread of Persian language and Manichaeism. (Kristensen, 1989, p.206) Ghirshman writes about the broad political and cultural relations of these two dynasties: "For centuries Iran had maintained friendly relationships with the Indian State of the Gupta, which finally achieved a national unity and inaugurated a period of renaissance in Hindustan. Towards this State Iran acted as an intermediary for the transmission of Western values. During the 'golden age' of Indian civilization the friendship and economic and cultural exchanges between the two countries brought India into contact with Western ideas and introduced her to Western medicine, astronomy, geometry, and logic." (Ghirshman, 2005, p. 418) After the arrival of Islam in Iran, a large number of Iranian Zoroastrians took refuge in India and played a major role in promoting Persian culture and Pahlavi language there. As up to now, some of Iranians under the auspices of learning Pahlavi language in India succeeded in translating Avestan and Pahlavi texts into Persian. During the Ghaznavids' period, Persian language was also one of the most important languages in the subcontinent. One of the distinctive manifestations of the continuation of knowledge and culture exchanges between Iran and India is the scholarly study of Abū Rayḥān Bīrūnī's book 179

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Kitab~ul~Hind.Due to the scientific methodological writing of this research, Abū Rayḥān Bīrūnī was considered as the historiography teacher of Hindustan. (Jalali Naini,1987,741) Also, one of the most famous treatise of Sufism, namely, Ali B. Otmān Hojviri's Kašf al-maḥjub was written in Lahore at the same time. The recent city, in those days, following extensive Iranian-Indian cultural exchanges, along with other cities such as Multan and Kashmir, became major centers of mysticism culture and Persian language. At the time of the devastating Mongol invasion, India was one of the largest haven for Iranian scholars, literati, poets, and writers whose numbers were increasing day by day at the court of Delhi, Bengal, Jaunpur, Malwa, Gujarat, Kashmir, Khandesh, Ahmednagar, Bijapur and .... Sultans. (Safa,1988, pp. 214-216) Ibn Battuta, the famous tourist and sociologist of the eighth century, who spent about ten years in India at the Delhi Sultans' Court, in his travelogue (Journey account) devoted a significant section to India and the influence of Persian language and culture. (Rooholamini, 1988, p.132) But the flourishing peak of Persian language in India was during the Mongolian dynasty, which began with Zahīr ud-Dīn Babur and lasted more than three hundreds and forty years. Babur and his son, Humayun, his grandson Akbar and Akbar's son, Jahangir and their descendants were the greatest supporters of Persian language and literature in India. In this period, due to the vast prevalence of Persian literature, including masterpieces such as Divane Hafiz, Golestane Saadi, Shahnamehe Ferdowsi, and ... In India, writing Persian language dictionaries has become widespread for better understanding of these works; so that about 250 Persian Language dictionaries have been written, most of which were written by the Indians. (Hakemi, 1988, p. 119), and reveals a small aspect of this land's indescribable passion of literature-loving people for learning Persian language and literature. The golden age of Iranian language, literature, and art lasted nearly two hundred years after the conquest of India by Babur until the death of Aurangzeb (1526-1706). In this era, besides the prosperity of Persian prose 180

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and poetry, architecture and fine arts also reached their acme. The Taj Mahal and Royal Throne, known as The Peacock Throne, made by Mohammad Saeed Lahiji, are two witnesses for this claim. However, with the extinction of the world's largest and richest empire and the beginning of the influence and domination of England (1274/1857 AD), the Persian language, the common heritage of India and Iran, which for nine centuries was the means for the exchange of culture and understanding between the two nations, declined. However, many researchers continued to study Persian poetry and prose. For example, today, we are indebted to the late Mowlavi Mohammad Shafi Lahori for having a part of Onsori's Vâmeq o 'Adhrâ and a scholarly study of it. We have the valuable book of Sanai's Makatib (Sanai's Letters) due to Nazir Ahmed's effort. Mawlānā Jalāl ad-Dīn's enthusiasts benefit from the worthy book of Meratol Masnavi, compiled by Talamoz Hossein, and Molavi Sufism by Khalifa Abdul Hakim is a reliable source for understanding Mawlānā. (Nourian,1988, p.83) However, the commonalities between these two nations are greater and larger so that the passage of time and the damages caused by it can not bury the treasure of the old and valuable heritage of the myth, language, literature and art of Iran and India under their debris. In what follows, we will investigate some commonalities in gods and myths. The Early Deities/gods It seems that Indians and Iranians worshiped two great groups of gods called Asuras and Daevas thousands of years ago. Based on Baghaz-Koui inscription, the most important of these gods according to their rank were: Varuna, Mitra, Indra, Nasatya. This pattern, of course, later changed among the two nations. Some scholars consider religious differences and differences of pattern of deities as an occurrence before the separation of these two nations and is basically one of the causes of their separation, not its result. (Jalali Naini, 1994, p.24)

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However, the Iranians chose from the two great groups of Asuras and Daevas, the first group, the Asura or Ahura (Ahura), which were later combined together by Zoroaster and formed one great and major god called Ahura Mazda and Daevas, the other group of Indo-European gods was considered as villainous and dirty creatures. The opposite process happened in India. Daevas were promoted to a higher rank and Asura were relegated and considered as wicked and villainous. In this process, some of the great gods which belonged to Asura such as Varuna and Mitra, keeping their goddess rank, were brought to be members of Daevas. In Iran, some of the Daevas gods, which had lower ranks, kept their godly and worthy characteristics. For example, Vrethragna, which was an attribute of Indra and means the destroyer of Verethra, is kept in the meaning of Bahram. Other Asuras also were relegated as Amshaspand an and angels. George Dumézil, a mythologist and structural linguist, believes in the existence of a trifunctional system in the Indio-European gods. These three functions, which are an introduction to the structuring of the society with classes and castes, are: 1. Mysterious and at the same time rule-governed administration of the world 2. Physical force function and basically power which is not exclusively martial. 3. Fertility with different outcomes and effects, such as freshness, prosperity, healthfulness and longevity. (Dumézil,2001, pp. 3- 4) Accordingly, he divides the Aryan gods into three groups of the gods of the king and Shahryar (Ādityas, including Varuna and Mitra), the warrior gods and heroes (Rudras, including Indra), the gods of fertility, rain, abundance and blessings (Vasuas, including Nasatyas). A pattern whose equivalent in society can produce a society consisting of classes, in which the first class consists of priests and kings and ministers(Vazirs), the second one consists of Artshtaran and warriors and the third class consists of farmers and craftsmen. Researchers have investigated this class society in India and Iran. Although, religious differences between Iranians and Indians probably dates back before their migration and separation, fundamental reforms and changes 182

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were made by Zoroaster to establish monotheism. Zoroaster (about 1000 BC), the Iranian Prophet and writer of the five Gathas of Avesta, chose "Ahura", an Indio European word and the name of a group of gods, as a particular god similar to Varuna, but more sacred and stronger. He classified other gods as Daevas (wicked and villainous creatures), or by preserving some of their positive attributes, as yazatas or god helpers. In what follows, some of these gods common to India and Iran will be introduced. The early gods

The Rig

Zoroastrianism

Veda Varuna

Ādityas

Mitra

gods

Aryaman

Daevas

Bhaga Rudras

Indra

Ahura Mazda

Rudra

Mitra

Surya

------------

Aryaman Bhaga Vasus

Nasatyas

---------

Nanheia

Table showing the changes in India and Iran's gods Mitra(Mehr) As mentioned before, the name of Mitra or Mehr in Baghaz-Koui inscription is next to Varuna, one of the great Indo-Iranian gods. This god also has almost kept its place alongside Varuna in The the Rig Veda. In this valuable and ancient work, he is referred to as the god who establishes eternal laws, as scientist and ruler and the one who rains the sweet waters. (Jalali Naini,1994, pp.378 - 379)

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In ancient India, the Mitterah-Varuna, which often were used together, were described with terms particular to human being, and these two gods ride together on a terrestrial chariot which is like earthly chariots, and live in a golden residence having one thousand columns and one thousand doors. "But despite this imagery, no legend and myth was mentioned about them, and the imagery was only used to describe the characteristics of these two characters." (Hinnells,1997, p.119). In The the Rig Veda, in the prayer of Mithra, Soma is usually present. In Iran, before Zoroaster, Mehr had a high status, and often in her praying ceremony, haoma/hom, which belonged to Hom or Indian Soma, was drunk. Another tradition of Mithraism in praising Mehr, was sacrificing a bull, which was considered as a ritualistic act and an imitation of Mehr's sacrificing a bull. According to this account, Mehr first hunted the bull and then sacrificed it. Its blood shedding on the earth watered the wheat and grain grew from the bull's tail. Vermaseren believes that sacrificing the bull is symbol of creation. "Bull's death creates a new life and this point is considered as the center and heart of the mysteries and secrets of the ancient beliefs" (Vermazeren,1997, p.82). There are some differences between this creation myth and the Vedic accounts and Bundahishn account regarding Creation, which needs another research. After coming of Zoroaster, since he was a prophet and religious reformer, he tried to replace Monotheism with Polytheism and relegated most of IndioIranian gods, except for Ahura Mazda, to wicked Daevas. But it seems that popularity and majesty of Mehr was so high that he could not do the same with this Aryan god. Therefore, Mehr remained as one of the strongest gods and assistant of Ahura Mazda in Zoroastrianism so that one of the Yashts (Yašts) was allocated to him. The high status of Mehr in Zoroastrianism was in such a way that Ahura Mazda, as stated in Mehr Yasht, personally eulogized him in Garza man (the Supreme Throne) (Avesta, p.383). Also, in this long hymn, a beautiful description of Mehr has been given. The most conspicuous attribute of Mehr 184

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is having wide pastures and other attributes are one thousand-eyed, undeceivable, donor of life, hers, cattle and affluence and…He has animosity towards the promise breakers but is very kind with those who are faithful to him. Having one thousand eyes and one thousand ears, he has domination all over the world and his long arms holds the whole world. He wears a golden armor and has a silver shield and a heavy bludgeon in his hand. He moves with the sun from the east to the west and preserves oaths. His beautiful chariot is pulled by four white immortal horses and Bahram yazata moves in front of him as a swine(hog). On his right is the messenger yazata, soroush and on his left is Rashn. (Avesta, pp.353-388). In ancient Iranian calendar, the 16th day of each month dedicated to Mehr yazata is called Mehr Rouz and Mehregān feast is held on the Mehr day in the Mehr month to honor this yazata. Varuna Varuna is another great Indio Iranian god belonging to Ādityas. He and Mithra have sovereignty powers and both are considered as Asuras. But Varuna, unlike the quiet and benevolent personality of his pair, namely, Mitra, "is a scary and horrendous god having power or Maya with snarl and trap as his weapons." (Dumézil,2001, p.19 ). Although, there are some few hymns dedicated to him in The the Rig Veda, fear of him and asking forgiveness is seen more than having hope of him in them. He is the owner of all the riches and the god of the sky. He is the one who gives the trees oxygen, the cow's milk and the horses speed. He put thinking in the hearts and fire in water and surya (the sun) in the sky and Soma in the mountains. (Jalali Naini,1994, pp.331-329) His residence is in the golden one thousand columns and one thousand door palace in the skies from there he watches the whole world and the sun and evaluates the behavior of people against Rita [in Avesta it is called erta and is a tradition by which the world becomes fixed and permanent], his laws which are unknowable to men and punishes those who disobey them. (Ions,1381:13) 185

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Varuna's status gradually declined in Vedas and his responsibilities were divided among other gods, including Mitra and Indra. In Iran, after Zoroaster, no sign of him is seen. Not only the epithet Asura or Ahura meaning great or spiritual, but also his authority, creativity and other godly attributes were transferred to Ahura Mazda. However, some similarities can be found between him and Varuna. Both of them are related to Mitra. Varuna is the chief of Ādityas and Ahura Mazda is the chief of Amshaspandan, Varuna prevents the sky from falling and Ahura Mazda the earth; both make the sun's path(course) in the sky, both are intelligent and sleep does not fall on them and their knowledge encompasses all lands and creatures. ((Bahar,2013, p.467467 ) Indra Indra is another ancient Indio Iranian god, whose name is after Veruna-Mitra in Baghaz-Koui inscription. Contrary to the other gods which belong to Ādityas or spiritual or king gods, he belongs to the second group of gods:" Marutas " who are warrior gods. So, his action, according to Dumézil is a harsh and raw power, which, if used in war, can bring victory and acquire loot. (Dumézil,2001, p.199) Although this heroic and combatant god was elevated as the chief god in Vedic literature; he is, contrary to Varuna and Mitra, a god with little divine attributes and has more humanlike personality; since he has father, mother and wife. According to Vedic accounts, he was born to Dyaus and Prithivi.Like human beings, he gets into extravagance, especially in drinking Soma. He kills his father and by usurping his weapon "Vajra" gains a lot of power. In contrary to Mitra and Varuna whose weapons are inner and due to their godly powers; he has exterior weapons, such as Some (which by its drinking gains power) and the Vajra usurped from his father. Indra, by drinking Soma and blitheness arising from it, goes to fight with Vritra and ruins his ninety-nine fortresses, frees the cattle of the cloud and causes rain. Based on Veda, Indra made a lot of attempts to gain a god rank and Varuna's

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succession; "while Varuna, being a complete god and organizer of the world order, needed no conflict/opposition." (Ions, 2002, p.20) In the Rig Veda, he is a god whose power and riches, heroism and bravery and dragon-killing (Jalali Naini,2016, pp.75-76) and Soma drinking and being Aryan is more emphasized. In fact, he is the Aryans' god. He is both Aryan and devotee and supporter of Aryans, irrespective of how Aryans behave. In contrast to the early great gods. Mitra and Varuna, who emphasized ethical qualities irrespective of race, he considered Being Aryan as important. Therefore, it seems that Indra's power and overcoming is related to the settlement of Aryans in India and, in fact, representing the attempt to spread the Aryans' superiority over the native Indian defeated tribes. In Iran, after Zoroaster, Indra, probably, due to his personal extravagances was completely put outside of the gods' circle and even in Avesta his name, along with " Sawrova" and "Naang hiyasiya" is as a daeva. ((Avesta,1997, pp.873-875). In Bundahishn, Indra is the antithetical counterpart of Ordibehesht who is the most beautiful Amesha Spenta (an abstract ethical entity) in Zoroastrianism and a symbol of world order. Indra daeva who is the chief of daevas, persuades people not to fasten Kasti (a special

belt

fasten

by

followers

of

Zoroastrianism/Mazdayasna)

(Bundahishn,1991, p.119). It can be said that Ordibehesht disagrees with extravagance and indulgence and he is the establisher of equilibrium and order. Therefore, it is justifiable to put extravagant Indra as a representative of extravagance and apostasy. Although, Zoroaster put Indra in Daevas' group to strengthen Ahura Mazda status, his(Indra's) heroic qualities, courageousness and power were preserved in other sacred characters. For example, the attribute ' Verethragna', which was peculiar to Indra, was transferred to the war god, Bahram. This yazata who was respected a lot by Iranian warriors, contrary to his Indian counterpart, does not have any myth related to fighting with monsters and dragons, but he wins defeating man and daeva viciousness and chastises the wrongdoers. (Hinnells۴۰ :۱۳۸۰،) 187

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Professor Bahar considers, the unprecedented hero of the Iranian famous epic in Ferdowsi's Shahnameh (Kings' Letter), namely Rustam, and Indra, the vedic god of waters and war, the same and one. (471:1391) and other researchers compared the two and mentioned their similarities. similarities such "Rostamzad" (Caesarean section), becoming a hero in childhood, unprecedented power and wrath, supporting Aryans, Rustam's characteristic bludgeon and Indra's Vajra, extravagance in eating and drinking, fighting with wicked and harmful creatures and …Thus, Rustam was considered as a transformed figure of Indra. (Isfahani & Sadeqi,2013, pp.158-170) Also, Indra is comparable with other myths in Iran in other aspects such as dragon-killing, freeing cattle of cloud and causing rain; like Tishtrya (Rain yazata), Azar (Fire yazata) and finally, the king and dragon-killing hero, Fereydun(/threotene/Θraitauna). We will investigate the latter in a separate section in this article. Nasatyas or Ashvins These twin gods, who are cited after Mitra and Indra in the oldest historical document as Indio European gods and according to Dumézil belong to the third class of gods, are responsible for the third action of the Indio European social class, namely, husbandry and other jobs of the commoners. They are particularly bestowers of health, youth and fertility and motivators of healers and miracle makers and the owners of Keramats, who help the handicapped, the maidens and barren four-legged animals. (Dumézil,2001, p.10) There are some few hymns for Ashwins in the Rig Veda and they are mostly asked to accept the oblation and praise of the worshippers. (Jalali Naini,1994, p.40) They are also mentioned as gods having great endurance and patience. (Ibid., p.85) In Iran, after Zoroaster, Nastya became nânghaisya, as one of the chiefs of Daevas, in Avesta and nâghēs in Pahlavi literature. (Bahar,2001, p.470) Dumézil considers ''Haurvatat''/Khordad (wholeness or perfection) and 188

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''Ameretat''/Mordad(Immortality) in Zoroastrianism and also " Ārmaiti " the earth god who is the provider and symbol of motherly endurance and patience. (Dumézil,2001, p.20) Still, it seems that some characteristics of Ashwins are seen in Ashi yazata; for whom a yasht is in Avesta.Ashi yazata is the god who is asked for fertility, increase in children and cattle. (Avesta,1997, p.478) Vāyu (Wind) Vāyu or wind is one of the other great and mysterious Indio Iranian gods, who, based on Dumézil's classification, belongs to the second group of gods, namely, warrior gods. From another viewpoint, Vāyu along with Agni (or Azar) and surya (Hoor or the sun) belong to the gods of natural phenomena. In the Rig Veda, there are a few hymns for Vāyu.In these hymns, he is considered the main or basic material of the world. The one whose thunderous roar is heard but himself is not seen. (Jalali Naini,2001, pp.130131) The wishes of his sacrifice givers are breathing healing breath upon them and lengthening their lives; since he is the god who has the aliment reservoir of the eternal life. (Ibid., p.143) In the religious literature after Zoroaster, one can see two features of him, a good and a bad one. The Vāyu who is life-giving and rain-producing and the Vāyu who is along with storm, death and destruction. In Avesta, this ancient Aryan god is cited as adept Vāyu yazata and the 15th yast named "Ram yasht" is in his praise. In this yasht, he calls himself the swiftest, the bravest, the strongest ,forward and backward goer. (Avesta,1997, p.456) Also, there, he describes his appellation/epithet and says that he was called '"Andarvay" and "seeker" due to his access and domination to the two Creatins-the creation of speñtâ-mainyûm and Angra-mainyûm. ( Ibid.,p.455) Perhaps, he considers himself of having such ability since he is between the Ahura Mazda space and Ahrman space; "While Ahura Mazda rules up and in light and Ahrman rules down and in darkness, Vāyu rules in a space between them, namely, in vacuum." (Hinnells,1997, p.36)

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In Ram yasht, Ahura Mazda and Aži Dahāka both go to Vāyu and ask him to fulfill their wishes. Vāyu does not fulfill Aži Dahāka's wishes, which were destroying Ahura Mazda' creatures. Hinnells believes that Vāyu, at first, was a single personality with a dual face, beneficent and at the same time sinister. A fearsome force and merciless personality whom nobody cannot escape. (Ibid.) Agni(Azar) Agni (fire, Azar) is one of the ancient gods and Indra's rival. In the Rig Veda there are over 200 hymns that praise Agni. Agni, along with Indra and Surya, makes up the Vedic triad of deities, who rule the earth, the atmosphere and the sky, respectively. (Jalali Naini,1994, p.83) Due to his relationship with warmth and intimacy, he is present in the stove of the family. Due to the warmth of life, he is life-giving. As stated in the Rig Veda, the activity of all gods is because of him. (Jalali Naini,1994, p.89) He is the purifying instrument for all things because of his burning and purifying states. Agni both cleanses people's sins and by cleaning the believers' sacrifices and changing their material existence to the elements of 'the other world', offers them to gods. He is the intermediary between people and gods. Because of his relationship with light and illumination, he is related to Surya (the sun). He is believed to have three manifestations or births: first, in the sky as sun rays, second in the stormy sea of the clouds as thunder, third, in the fire that people make. In general, it can be said that fire is one of the most sacred elements for Indians and Iranians; among Indians as the manlike god, Agni and among Iranians after Zoroaster as Azar yazata. Although fire sanctity in Zoroastrianism was misinterpreted and Zoroastrians were known as fire worshippers, it must be known that Zoroastrians consider fire sacred because it is light and the most distinctive symbol of Ahura Mazda. In Avesta, Azar is Ahura Mazda's son and in Zamyad yasht as Ahura Mazda's messenger who

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goes to fight with Aži Dahāka to prevent his access to splendor stolen from Jam(Yama) Aži Dahāka, a monster with three mouths, six eyes, and three heads is one of the creatures of Ahrman, the aim of his creation was to destroy Ahura Mazda's creatures. This demonic creature in Avesta changed to a cruel, bloodthirsty and man-eater in Shahname, Ahrman deceived and persuaded him to eat meat for the first time. Then, Ahrman put satanic kisses on his shoulders and two snakes grew out of them. The food for his snakes was the brain of the young people. The fight of Azar with Aži Dahāka, the meat eater, has some similarity with Agni's fight with meat-eater Ahrmans (Kordias and Rakshasas). In Zoroastrianism, there are three sacred fires for three classes:1. Kings and Clergymen(Mubedan),2. warriors and 3. common people (farmers and craftsmen), namely, 1. Āzar Faranbagh 2. Āzar Goshnasp 3. Āzar borzīnmehr, respectively. These three fires can be compared with the triad manifestations of Agni. The first manifestation, the sky, is the place for the first class of gods, namely, clergymen and kings (varuna and Mitra), the second manifestation in the air(atmosphere), the place of the second class or warrior gods (Indra, Vāyu and Agni), and the third manifestation in the earth, the place for the last class, or the gods of productivity and fertility(Nasatyas). Also, other social and ritualistic aspects related to fire includes: taking oath on fire, entering into fire to prove one's being sinless, making fire in front of the bride and groom and going three times around it and … Soma(Haoma) Soma (in Avesta, Haoma) is an Indio Iranian divine plant. In fact, he is both a god and a plant, and a sacrifice offered up to gods. In the Rig Veda, the attributes given to this god-plant are: joy-giving, scientist and healer. Professor Lomel investigated the relationship of Soma with water, cow and the moon. He considered Soma as the god of life and incarnation of rain rising from the moon. This water in the body of male creatures changes to 191

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seed and in that of female ones to lion. After the death of the living creatures, this life essence returns to the moon. Therefore, "Soma is life water from which the gods of all moons drink and the testicle of the heavenly Cow which makes the earth fertile and also the milk of the heavenly Cow which is people's aliment." (Hinnells,1997, p.19) The hymns in the Rig Veda praising Soma and an account in Bundahishn corroborate this hypothesis. In the Rig Veda, the hymns often show the milk of this cow and this sacred animal in different forms: calf, bulls, and milk cows. For example: "The cows come to worship that Cow god"(Jalali Naini,1994, p.302)) "The race of cows is of your offerings, oh, Pumana." (Ibid., p.303) Also, the sound of pouring Soma in pitchers is likened to the rain sound. In another paragraph, Soma was likened to the moon with two horns. "He bestows abundance with his sharp horns." (Ibid., p.296) In another hymn, Soma was considered as having life water from it t aliment extract and the food of cattles. (Ibid., p.154). In other hymns, he is asked to give eternal life. All these corroborate Lomel's hypothesis. In Bundahishn, while describing the fight between the creatures of Ahura Mazda and those of Ahrman, the fight of the cow created by Ahura Mazda is stated. "The fifth fight started by the unique Cow. When it died, due to its plant essence of its parts, fifty-five kinds of grain and twelve kinds of medicine plant grew." (Bundahishn,1991, pp.65-66) Also, the light and power which was in its testicle was given to the moon and that testicle was cleaned by the light of the moon and life was given to it and a cow and a bull were returned to the earth. (Ibid.) The relationship between the cow, Soma and immortality in religious ritual of Mithraism followers is researchable. In this ceremony, apparently, the blood of the cow which was killed heinously, was mixed with Soma extract as a strong drink which gave immortality power to its drinker. (Vermazeren,1997, p.18) There are different ideas concerning Zoroaster's reaction towards Haoma god. Some believe that Zoroaster opposed drinking Haoma which was 192

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intoxicant and others believe that he opposed slaying the bull. Investigating Avesta and other Pahlavi texts corroborates the second idea. In Bundahishn,Haoma is considered a divine plant and belonging to Haoma yazata, which in final renovation(resurrection), Saoshyant,by mixing its extract with cow fat makes Hadiush,a medicine making the dead alive and immortalizing them.(Bundahishn,1991,p.147)In Avesta, irrespective of the sentence in Gathas told to Ahura Mazda: "When will you uproot filth?" in which wine was conceived as Haoma: everywhere Haoma is praised with attributes like Ashoon taking away death, an intoxicant drink ,increasing Asha and golden and brave king and ... Avesta(1997,p.137-505) "Haoma Yasht" in yasnas is in its name and praise. In this hymn, it is stated that Haoma yazata gave good children to the first Haoma juice makers. The first man, Vivangham, Jamshed, the second, Athawya, Fereydun; the third, Thrita, Urvax and Keresasp and finally, to the fourth one, Pourashaspa, Zoroaster. (Ibid., pp.136-138) In the Rig Veda, there are two of these juice makers in the Soma praise hymns: Vivasvan, Yama's father, for Vivangham, Jam's father and Thrita for the other two juice makers, namely, Aterth and Ātbin.According to Bahar, these names were made based on the name of Trita Aptya and changed to two characters. And in fact, the main character equal to Trita Aptya is none of them. The counterpart of Trita is Fereydun, Ātbin's son, whose fight with three-headed, three-mouthed, six-eyed Aži Dahāka corresponds to the fight of Trita with Ahi dragon. (Bahar475: 1391،) Yama (Jam) In the Indian myths, "Yam" or "Yama" and his twin sister "Yami" are children of "Vivasvat" and of "Saranya" and are of the world first men and women. (Upanishads,767) Vivasvat is the strong god and the rising Sun and Saranya is the daughter of " Tvastar "who was the god of creativity and craftsmanship. Of his interesting instruments, one is a goblet full of Soma for gods and making "Vajra" or an iron and thunder-making club. (Ions,1997, 193

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p.24) In the Rig Veda, Yama is the discoverer of death path and the king of the dead land. His immortal and deathless world is in the supreme sky; where there are permanent light and sweet waters. (Jalali Naini,1994, p.34) The description given for Yama in the Rig Veda characterizes heaven more than hell. But, in later periods as in Hindu myths, he is the lord of hell and his greenish face and bluish-white eyes and robe covered with blood are fearsome representation of this aspect of his personality. In Avesta, Jam is described by attributes like having good herds or cattle and sunlike face. His father, Vivangham, was the first juice-maker of the sacred Hom plant. And for his reward, Jam was given to him. It is stated in Avesta that Ahura Mazda first proposed Jam prophethood, but he did not accept. So Ahura Mazda wanted him to be a king and make his worldwide. Jam did characteristic jobs/tasks during his kingdomship. He made animals and people immortal and waters and plants undriedable. During his reign, there was neither cold nor warmth. He did not create old-agedness or Rashk Deava (Avesta,1997, p.137) Hence, the earth was full of living animals so that there was no place for people. Then Jamshid, under the guidance of Ahura Mazda and by using two instruments:"Suvora" and "Oshtora", expanded the earth in three stages. Another distinguishing job was building "Vare-jamkard" upon Ahura Mazda order. The story of its building goes like this. Ahura Mazda informs Jam of a tremendous and death-causing storm named Malkusan and wanted him to build Vare-jamkard under his guidance in order to keep the generation of creatures and to put the testicle of all animals in it, so that Saoshyant could make the earth full of creatures in FerashKard. Vare-jamkard was built somewhere above the earth and is lit with self-made lights. There is always verdant and there are wide canals in which a lot of water flows. (Avesta,1997, pp.670-673) Although, apparently it seems that there are not many similarities between Iranian Jamshid and Indian Yama; a meticulous look at the details of the myths belonging to the two characters makes some similarities between 194

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them clear; such as the attribute "Hurchehre" which is mentioned for Jamshid in Avesta and means one who has a face like the Sun, represents the relationship of Jam with the Sun (Vivasvat: the rising Sun in the Sky. And according to

Christensen (1986) it represents the relationship of Jam with

Mehrparasti or Mithraism. There are some similarities between Vare-jamkard and Yama's land. In Avesta, Vare-jamkard is a vast place with big houses and evergreen pastures. Water flows in long canals in it. There, it is always light, because the Sun sets only once a year. (Avesta,1997, pp.670-673) Yama's heaven is also a land full of light and happiness and laughter. Yama's magnificent throne shines like the Sun; because Tvastri made it of pure gold. (Ions,1997, p.53) As Vare-jamkard is lit with self-made lights, Yama's heaven too has everlasting light. Varejamkard, as understood from Avesta, must be in the Sky because Ahura Mazda

wants

Jam

to

elevate

canals

there

(Avesta,1997,

p.670)

Therefore,"Vare" must be in a high place so that water be elevated against its flow. Yama's heaven is also in the Skies. Another similarity of the two is the relationship of their fathers with Haoma or Soma. As stated before, Haoma is related to immortality and deathlessness. In Avesta and Pahlavi texts, Hom was mentioned as Ashavan who takes away the death. (Avesta,1997, p.137; Bundahishn,1991, p.87) In the Rig Veda, in praise of Soma reads: "OH, Pumana, put me in that deathless and immortal world where there is the light of the Sky and the permanent light shines." (Jalali Naini,1994, p.34) And the deathless world of the world of the spirits of the dead refers to Yam's country. (Ibid.) So, apparently, the deathlessness of Jam's or Yama's period must be searched in relation to this sacred plant. In fact, Haoma or Soma gave the first one who discovered its magic properties and made its drinking common a child who was able to take away disease and death and corruption from the living creatures. (Valipour Hafshejani,1999) Yama's immortality is also referred to in Mahābhārata; but the reason given for it is that the old and immortal god, accepted Yama's responsibilities. 195

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Therefore, nobody died, while the birth and death rates were the same as usual. This caused the Earth to be so heavy that it went out of its axis. Then, the Earth, whose parts pained due to this heaviness, howled before "Narajne"'s throne and because of this, Vishnu changed himself into a swine with a front tooth. Then took the earth with that tooth and raised it up. And because of this strong movement, the Sky shaked and people were agitated and from then on words like alas and pity appeared in the world and the early peace disappeared. (Christensen,1986, p.91) Up to here, some similarities between Iranian Jam and Indian Yama were shown; but apparently their way is separated from here because the method Yama chose for making the Earth light and rescuing it is the death method. In Hindu Myths, Yama is the lord of the land of the dead. He is the first man who discovered the unknown path of death and not only he himself travelled on it, but also was the guide and accompany of other human beings. (Valipour Hafshejani,1999) In the Rig Vedas, "Yam" is praised like this: "The lord of the country of the spirits of the dead, one who passed from strong mountain ranges. And watches the itinerary of many of passer-byes: The son of Vivasvat and gatherer of the people…"Yam" first found our way for us, this pasture will never be taken from us. The place our ancestors went and those that were born later went their own way." (Jalali Naini,1994, p.195) The two solutions stem from two different religious backgrounds. Death in Zoroastrianism belief is Ahrmen creation whose best wish is emptying the Earth from Ahura's creatures. Therefore, in this religion, what helps life is fruitful and sacred. In its opposition, pain and disease, hunger and thirst and death which result in destruction of life, or decrease of its power, is considered wicked and demonic. In this religious theme, Jam always remains the supporter of the life of Ahura's creatures. He does not choose death to make the Earth light, but expands it and as stated in Avesta, on Ahura Mazda's request, he builds Vare-jamkard for the survival of human and other animals' generation, so that disappoint Ahrmen; while he, by creating

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Maluksan winter, tries to destroy Ahura's creation. While, Yama chooses the death solution. However, In Zoroastrianism, Jamshid had a grievous ending. Based on the Zoroastrianism accounts, he committed a crime and because of this, his divine glory(Khvarenah) was taken away from him in three stages. This crime was mentioned in Avesta as telling a lie (490) and humiliating the world god (25) But the question is: Did Zoroaster prefer to put an unpleasant ending to Jam due to his relationship with Mithraism? Dragon-killers in India and Iran The most famous dragon-killers of India are Trita Aptya and Indra. Trita Aptya is the hero, who fighted with Viśvarǔpa, the dragon that prisoned the cloud cattle, and freed the cloud cattle and caused rain. And Indra in Vedic myths, the god of storm and thunder and the biggest smasher of Vritra. Indra's birth story is interesting. It was said that upon his birth from Purusha, the symbol of productivity cow, the trembling of the sky, the earth and mountains frightened the gods so that all gods, even his mother left him. Also, his birth coincided with the unprecedented drought caused by Vritra. The drought was so massive that none of the gods was able to end it; until the baby Indra, by drinking plenty of Soma and carrying his iron weapon (which was made by his grandfather, Tavstri) went to fight with the dragon and freed the cloud cattle and caused rain (Ions,1997, p.27); hence, he was given the epithet Verethragna meaning the smasher of Vritra. In Iranian myths, though this epithet means the smasher of resistance and was given to Bahram yazata, the character worthier of it is Fereydun, the dragon-killer in Avesta and the king vanquisher of Zahak in Iranian epics. In Avesta,Fereydun'father(threotene/Θraitauna) is Ābtin.In Avesta, according to the sacred plant,"Hom","The second time among the people of the material world," Ābtin " got drink from me and this reward and gift was given to him to have a son:"Fereydun" from the able family…one who smashed Aži Dahāka,[ Aži Dahāka] three-mouthed, six-eyed, the one having 197

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thousands of dexterity, that strong demon of druj,that apostate damaging the world, that strong druj who created Ahrman to destroy Asha in the material world

in an ugly way. "And in the same reference, it was stated that

Fereydun destroyed Aži Dahāka with "the victory-making bludgeon" given to him by Ahura Mazda. Fereydun and Indra are comparable to each other in some qualities. A lot of similarities between these two dragon-killers show that they belong to the same thinking structure, the thinking structure of Indians and Iranians about dragon-killing and bless-giving arising from it. Some of their similarities will be investigated briefly below. In Vedic myths, Indra is the first god who found "Soma", which was recognized later as the healer-of-pains god and bestower of power, in the Himalaya and made drink out of it and gave it to other gods as a gift, in order to go to war with demons/ahrmans with its life-giving power. (Ions,1997, p.29) As was stated in the beginning, Fereydun's father is one of the first who made a drink from this sacred and curing plant and maybe, because of this, Fereydun is the first person named as the founder of medicine in many sources. Another similarity between these two is their weapons. In both stories, for this myth battle whose function is productivity, the heroes used bludgeons. In Indra's myth, his bludgeon was made by the blacksmith god and in Fereydun's myth, according to Shahnameh,a blacksmith named "Kaveh",whom some1 believed that he was not an inferior blacksmith, but the god of smithery;helpd Fereydun defeat Zahak,and this was made by his order cow-headlike. (Ferdowsi,1996, p.63) The other similarity is in their peculiar and meaningful relation with "cow"; an animal which has a significant function as a symbol of productivity in most of myths of the world. (Valipour Hafshejani,2017, p.324). In Indra myth and also in Trita Aptya and Viśvarǔpa battle myth, cow-head symbol

1

. See Mousavi, K., & Khosravi, A. (2010, Spring). Kave: Ahangari Forodast Ya Khodaei Forodamade. Bustane Adab, I, 148-160.

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was used for rain-producing clouds and this symbol is in myths of other nations in different forms. In Vedic myths, cow is one of the ancient productivity gods. In one of the primitive tribes, storm and productivity yazata is called the great cow(Eliade,1997,p.143)Arabs also considered cow as the symbol of productivity and particuliarly,by finding a similarity between its horn and the crescent of the moon ,considered these two productivity symbols as related2.In Bundahishn,cow is the fifth creature of Ahura Mazda and after being killed by Ahrmen, fifty five kinds of grain and twelve kinds of medicine plants grew out of its part;also,its sperm was taken to the moon to become the origin of fruitful four-legged animal kinds after being cleaned and purged.(Bundahishn,1991,p.49) Therefore, cow in Iranian myth thinking is both directly related to productivity, creation and its continuity and indirectly through uniting with the moon, which also in different myths is related with water and productivity. As referred before,Soma,which can be considered as immortality god in Vedic myths, is also related with all of these symbols.In some sources3,Fereydun's father was cited as Ābtin which can be interpreted as Ab(water) or related to water. Other many resources make clear the relationship between Fereydun and cow, In Bundahishn and other post-Islam sources, in Fereydun's genealogy, the word "cow" is seen as a suffix in all the names of his ancestors. (Bundahishn,1991, p.149), (Ebn Balkhi,1985, p.12). Also, there is some sort of similarity between Indra's birth and the fear of gods of him so that his mother left him and the story of Fereydun's birth in Shahnameh.This fear of the new-born baby and gods' fear of him and leaving the would-be hero happens in another way about Fereydun.As stated in Shahnameh,at Fereydun's birth,Zahak saw a terrific nightmare, which after knowing its interpretation and the prediction of the sleep-interpreters about the hero who will destroy his kingdom, tried to find and kill Fereydun.His 2

. See Qorbani Zarin, B. (2014). Negaresh Ostoreei Be Gav Dar Adabiyate Kohane Arabi. Faslnameye Adabiate Erfani Va Ostoreshenakhti, 192-218. 3 . See Anonymous. (1995). Tarikhe Sistan. (J. Modares Sadeqi, Ed.) Tehran: Nashre Markaz.and Thaalebi, A. M. (1990). Tarikhe Thaalebi. (M. Fazaeli, Trans.) Tehran: Noqre.

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mercenaries attacked the pasture in which Fereydun hid and killed the cow which milked him, but were not able to find him since Faranak(Fereydun's mother),after a revelation, before the attack, had taken him to Alborz and commended him to the religious sage. (Ferdowsi,1994, p.59) Another point worth mentioning concerning Fereydun myth is the relationship he has with most of religious ceremonies. Most sources consider Mehregān, which is held on Mehr day of Mehr month, the day of Fereydun overcoming Zahak.Sadeh was considered as the day on which the news of Fereydun's victory reached all. And, regarding Ābāngān,which was held on the tenth day of Ābān,they wrote: "Because on this day the news of Fereydun victory over Zahak reached all the people and they had a peace of mind,they celebrated this day.Concerning Sepandārmazgān, which is held on the 5th day of Isfandmah,it is written that on this day,they cast spells to take away the damage of scorpion(which reminds Aži Dahāka).What can be understood from these accounts is that Fereydun had undoubtedly a distinctive and even godlike role in regulating seasons and days and by assigning ritualistic celebrations gave each a specific meaning and function. (Valipour Hafshejani, 2017) As Indra in Vedic myths regulates seasons, months and days. (Ions,1997, p.27) Another comparable aspect in these myths is the great drought happening at Indra's birth time. This drought reminds one of Zahak's tyrannical and barren kingdomship in Shahnameh.In Avesta, it is written that Aži Dahāka, by offering up to the gods, wanted to empty the seven countries of people. ("Avesta",1997, p.451) and consort "Sanghavak and Arnavak" who were "proper for preserving the family and qualified for increasing people". (Avesta,1997, p.203). Fereydun also wanted to defeat Aži Dahāka and consort with the sisters. The epithets used in Avesta for these women represent their specific function which are a symbol of productivity, fertility and generation-increasing and it seems that Aži Dahāka, by consorting with them prevented them from actualizing this function. Aži Dahāka in most of myths and fairy tales, imprisons the fertility symbols, which are often 200

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manifested as woman, spring or cloud cows, and prevents them from actualizing their powers, which are generosity, productivity, and continuity and generation survival, and he causes chaos. (Maskur,1994, p.40) A chaos in the usual order of universe and therefore, a hero is needed to destroy the chaos and disorder created and substitute it with order. This hero in Vedas is Indra and in Iranian myths Fereydun. Conclusion: A close study of the myths of Iran and India makes many commonalities in culture, social structure, religion and rituals, myths and …clear. Although, these two nations, due to separation and residence in two different lands, experienced regional, historical, cultural and religious conditions during thousands of years; the commonalities of the two in myths and rituals are so plentiful that they cannot be ignored. For example, the gods representing natural phenomena such as: water, fire, the earth, plant and…, though changed a lot in the course of time, they still remained as sacred and enigmatic in the culture and rituals of the people of these two nations and in need of a comprehensive investigation or exploring the traces of myths related to dragon-killing in more recent tales and myths of the two nations; which can shed light on the various and different aspects of the common thinking structures of Indians and Iranians. References: Anonymous. (1978). Upanishads. (D. Jalali Naini, Ed., & Darashku, Trans.) Tehran: Ketabkhaneye Tahoory. Anonymous. (1991). Bundahishn. (M. Bahar, Trans.) Tehran: Tous. Anonymous. (1995). Tarikhe Sistan. (J. Modares Sadeqi, Ed.) Tehran: Nashre Markaz. Anonymous. (1997). Avesta (2nd ed.). (J. Doostkha, Trans.) Tehran: Morvarid. Bahar, M. (2013). Pajoheshi Dar Asatire Iran. (K. Mazdapour, Ed.) Tehran: Agah. Christensen, A. (1986). Prototypes of The Firs Human and First King. (A. Tafazoli, & Z. Amouzgar, Trans.) Tehran: Nashreno. Christensen, A. (1989). Iran Dar Zamane Sassanids (5th ed.). (R. Yasemi, Trans.) Tehran: Amir Kabir.

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Balkhi, Ebn. (1985). Farsnameh.G. Listrang; A, Nicelson.Tehran. Donyaye Ketab. Dumézil, G. (2001). Trifunctional Dieties. In J. Satari, Jahane Ostoreshenasi(2nd ed.).(pp.1-45. Tehran: Markaz Press. Eliade, M. (1984). Mythology Persectives. (J. Satari, Trans.) Tehran: Tous Press. Eliade, M. (1997). Myth,Dreams and Mysteries. (R. Monajem, Trans.) Tehran: Fekre-Rouz. Falah, M. (2010, Winter). Jaygahe Farhnag va Zabane Farsi Dar Shebhe Qare. Journal of Subcontinent Researches, 67-98. Ferdowsi, A. Q. (1996). Shahnameh. (A. Burtles, Ed.) Tehran: Dad. Ghirshman, R. (2005). Iran: from the earliest times to the Islamic conquest (15th ed.). (M. Moin, Trans.) Tehran: Elmi Va Farhangi Press. Hakemi, E. (1988). Dictionary writing In The Indian Subcontinent. In M. Eslamiye (Ed.), Problems of Persian Language in India and Pakistan and Bangladesh Conference (pp. 117-124). Tehran: Markaze Nashre Daneshgahi. Hekmat, A. A. (1959, Spring). Ravabete Hende Qadim Va Irane Bastan. Majaleye Daneshkadeye Adabiyat, 3, 1-7. Hinnells, J. (1997). Persian Mythology. (A. &. Tafazoli, Trans.) Tehran: Avishan. Ialali Naini, S. M. (1994). An Anthology of The RigVeda Hymns. Tehran: Noqre. Jalali Naini, S. M. (1987). Persian Language and Literature in Indian Subcontinent. In I. Afshar, & K. Isfahanian, Namvareye Doctor Mahmoode Afshar (2nd ed., Vol. II, pp. 729-747). Tehran: Noqre. Mashkur, M. J. (1970). Nameye Bastan:A Collection of Articles. (S. Mirmohammad Sadegh, & N. Jalali, Eds.) Tehran: Pajooheshgahe Olume Ensani Va Motaleate Farhangi. Mashkur, M. J. (1989). Iran Dar Ahde Bastan (5th ed.). Tehran: Sazmane Entesharate Ashrafi. Maskub, S. (1996). Tane Pahlavan Va Ravane Kheradmand.(A Collection of Articles). Tehran: Tarheno Press. Mousavi, K., & Khosravi, A. (2010, Spring). Kave:Ahangari Forodast Ya Khodaei Forodamade. Bustane Adab, I, 148-160. Nasre Isfahani, M. R., & Sadeghi, A. (2013, Fall). Transformation of Indra to Rustam. Adabiate Erfani Va Ostoreshenakhti(28), 158-170. Nehru, J. (1983). The Discovery of India (2nd ed.). (M. Tafazoli, Trans.) Tehran: Amir Kabir Press. Nourian, M. (1988). [Darbareye]Shehre Ajam(Persian Language Issues In India And Pakistan And Bengladesh). (M. Eslamiye, Ed.) Markaze Nashre Daneshgahi. Qorbani Zarin, B. (2014). Negaresh Ostoreei Be Gav Dar Adabiyate Kohane Arabi. Faslnameye Adabiate Erfani Va Ostoreshenakhti, 192-218.

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Rouhol Amini, M. (1988). Zabane Farsi Dar Hendustan Be Revayate Ibne Batuta. Peroblems of Persian Language In India and Pakistan and Bangladesh (pp. 142-153). Tehran: Markaze Nashre Daneshgahi. Safa, Z. (1988). Tarikhe Adabiat Dar Iran (3rd ed., Vol. II). Ferdos Press. Thaalebi, A. M. (1990). Tarikhe Thaalebi. (M. Fazaeli, Trans.) Tehran: Noqre. Valipourhafshejani, S. (2016, Summer). Fereydun's Myth,Symbols,Motifs and Its Changes. Adabiate Erfani Va Ostoreshenakhti(43), 315-345. Valipour Hafshejani, S. (1999). A Study of Pishdadian Myths History in Avesta, pahlavi Texts, Shahname and othe Post-Islamic Texts. (MA Dissertation). Allame Taba Tabai University. Vermazeren, M. (1997). Mithraism (2nd ed.). (N. Bozorg zade, Trans.) Tehran: Cheshmeh.

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The Maritime Network of the Sasanids in the Gupta period and Beyond Suchandra Ghosh Professor, Department of Ancient Indian History & Culture, University of Calcutta

The Persian Gulf emerged as an important sea lane for maritime trade during the period ranging from third century CE to seventh century CE owing to its strategic location at the crossroads of major commercial communications. The Sasanian rulers and merchants were the major players in the region. This became the most coveted area for the Sasanian rulers as they greatly favoured urbanism and understood the importance of trade.1 This trade gained momentum in the Gupta period due to the favourable policy of the Gupta monarchs. In the period following the Guptas, Pulakesin II the Chalukya Badami ruler is known to have sent an embassy to the Persian ruler Khusraw II which suggests interest in building up relations with the Sasanids. The Gupta kings took exalted imperial titles like maharajadhiraja, the great king of kings, paramesnvara, the supreme lord.2 Such grand titles echo those of the rulers of the north-west like the Kushanas and the Sasanids. The Ganges plain was under the direct control of the Guptas, but north-west India was never under their direct control and during the hey days of the Gupta rulers, it was the Sasanids who had complete control of the lower Indus region, the Hindustan. The presence of Sasanian sailing crafts in the Indian Ocean is Ali Mousavi and Touraj Daryaee, ‗The Sasanian Empire: An Archaeological Survey c.220-AD 640‘ in D T Potts ed. A Companion to the Archaeology of Ancient Near East, vol. II,2012, UK, John Wiley & sons, pp.1076-1094. 2 For this see the inscriptions of the Gupta rulers, J.F. Fleet, edited and translated, Corpus inscriptionum Indicarum.,Inscriptions of the early Gupta kings and their successors Vol. 3, Calcutta, 1888. 1

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Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. referred to by Palladius (fourth century CE.)3 The Sasanian ruler Yazdigird I, contemporary of the early Gupta ruler Chandragupta II (399-421CE) carried on trade with India. The Nestorian annals bear witness to this trade.4 Yazdigird‘s successor to the Sasanian throne was Bahram V (421-438 CE). He married an Indian princess and this alliance fetched him the port of Daibul in the Indus delta, together with the adjacent parts of Sind and Makran. This happened during the rule of KumaraguptaI. However we learn that Bahram had earlier sent a secret mission to ChandraguptaII (king Shubrumah).5 What was the mission about we do not know but this is an indicator of the linkage between the two powers. Control over the Indus delta is commercially very attractive for it offered the prospect of valuable revenues. This is seen for the earlier periods too. From the Periplus6 we learn that Barbarikon in the Indus delta(later on Daibul) was an important centre of trade importing coral, storax, frankincense, glassware, silver ware, etc. and exporting costas, bdellium, nard, turquoise, lapis lazuli, etc. In the port of Barbarikon, located in Scythia, according to Periplus Chinese silk and pelts were obtainable. Thus the silk which had come from China through Bactria moved into the hands of the Palmyrene merchants who travelled down to the Gulf where the sea trade put them in contact with goods brought overland from China.7Other archaeological findings also help in understanding exchange networks e.g. Pillar moulded bowls were found in Begram. Well over hundred 3

D.M. Derrett The History of Palladius of the races of India and the Brahmans. Classica et Mediaevalia 21 1961, pp. 64-135. 4 Cosmas Indicopleustes, Christian Topography of Cosma, (London: Hakluyt Society, 1897 5

Muhammad Ibn Jarir Tabari, in Annales, ed., M.J. de Goeje et al., Series I, (Leiden :Brill, 1879-93)

6

L. Casson, trans., The Periplus Maris Erythraei, Text with Introduction, Translation and Commentary, Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1989, p.75. 7 Suchandra Ghosh, „Barbarikon in the Maritime Trade network of Early India‘, in Rila Mukherjee ed. Vanguards of Globalization: Port Cities from the Classical to the Modern, Primus Publications, New Delhi, , 59-74. 205

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fragments of plillar moulded bowls have also been found in numerous areas across the site at ed-Dur. Thus the distribution of first century CE pillar-molded bowls in the coastal areas of the Arabian Gulf, such as the island of Bahrain, the site of Ed-dur in the Emirate of Umm al-Qaiwain and Bidya in the Emirate of Fujairah of the United Arab Emirates indicates brisk trading activities.8 Indus delta had a long history of being prosperous as an important maritime trading zone. With the acquisition of the Indus delta and the Makran coast, the Sasanids could have derived some significant economic gains, particularly by trading on the luxury goods that originated in the Gulf like pearls and corals. They could sail directly from the Persian Gulf to India and Ceylon (Sri Lanka), where they bought spices, silk and other luxury goods. Since the early times Gujarat occupied a prominent place in the maritime trade network, Barygaza/Bhrigukachchha (Broach) being its most outstanding port. ). The Periplus 9gives an elaborate account of the port, especially the diverse commodities handled through this port, the rich hinterland and foreland commanded by Barygaza and the distinct political interest of the local ruler in this port. In the subsequent times the coast of Gujarat continued to play a significant role in the exchanges between India and the Gulf. If one looks at the distribution of sites yielding red Ware, stretching from Gujarat to the Kirman coast in southern Iran, it speaks of a distinct communication network that supported a coastal commerce from Gujarat to the opening of the Persian gulf.10 It has been argued that Chandragupta II (375–414) conquered Gujarat and Kathiawad in and around 410 CE on account of the commercial prosperity there. 8

D.T. Potts, ‗The Roman Relationship with the Persicus Sinus from the Rise of

Spasinou Charax (127bc) to the Reign of Shapur II (ad309–379)‘, in In Mesopotamia, Iran and Arabia from the Seleucids to the Sasanians, Ashgate Variorum, 2010 ed. D.T. Potts, p. 6, 8. 9

L. Casson, The Periplus Maris Erythraei (section 52) V.K. Jain,. Trade and Traders in Western India c. AD. 1000-1300. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1990.

10

206

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The beginning of the minting of Gupta silver coins, modelled after the erstwhile Saka rulers, further underlines the commercial significance of this zone. We are aware that the Kutch Kathiawar coast was linked to the Indus delta and the Makran coast. During the time of Chandragupta II and his successors, Kutch Kathiawar was within Gupta control whereas the Indus delta and Makran was within the control of the Sasanids. However cordial relations between the two powers helped in the steady flow of trade goods. Moreover it is to be noted that the vast hinterlands of the port of Daibul and Bharukachchha11 was within the control of the Guptas and Vakatakas. Among the trade goods a case in point is the Red Polished Ware. According to Whitehouse, ― Sherds of this type which has smooth red fabric and a highly burnished red or orange slip bear a deceptive likeness to the late Roman red wares of the Mediterranean, although the forms are in no way comparable‖12.This particular type of Indian ceramic has been identified in Arabia and also on the Iranian coast of the Persian Gulf13 . Excavations at Suhar on the northern coast of Sultanate of Oman have yielded the largest quantity of Red Polished Ware along with other types of Indian Ceramics. It is commonly dated to the early five centuries of the Christian era14. Apart from Suhar, other examples from Iran also occur exclusively on the coast and without doubt were imported as a by-product of maritime trade between the Gulf ports and Indus and 11

The author of the Periplus observed that the hinterland of Barygaza stretched up to Paithan and Ter (Aurangabad district, Maharashtra Section 51) and Ozene (Ujjaiyini, Section 48). 12

D. Whitehouse & A. Williamson, ― Sasanian Maritime Trade‘‘, Iran X (1973): 29-49.

13

M. Kervran, ― Indian Ceramics in Southern Iran and Eastern Arabia: Repertory, Classification and Chronology‖ in Tradition and Archaeology, Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean, ed. H.P. Ray & J.-F. Salles, Delhi: Manohar, 1996, pp. 37-58. 14

Ibid, p. 38. 207

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Gujarat ports in the early Sasanian periods. This is a definite indicator to the trade network that existed between the western ports of India and the Gulf. An older port in northern Konkan was returning to prominence during this time. This port was Calliane (Kalyan near Bombay)figuring prominently in Periplus15, but altogether left out in Ptolemy. The Christian Topography by Cosmas Indicopleustes compiled around 550 CE not only speaks of Iranian merchants plying the Indian Ocean but also describes the town of Kalyan in Konkan as one of the important trade centres. . According to him (BK.III: 18), there was a Persian bishop in Calliana. Obviously the re-emergence of Kalyan to prominence is to be appreciated in the light of the rise of Persian Gulf as a major traffic artery Attention may be paid in this context to the visual representation of a ship in the Ajanta Paintings, patronized by the Guptas whose thriving period was in the 5th century CE. Though Ajanta is situated in the interior and not the west coast, the artist seems to have been familiar with the shipping tradition in the western sea board of India and in the western Indian Ocean. 16 The figure in cave 2 shows a large sea going vessel with a cabin, lofty sails and steering paddles. Its actual identification has caused scholarly controversy. But Deloche, by comparing it with the figure of another ship from Aurangabad, has argued that the ― Ajanta ship can be considered as Indian in nature‖17. In this case the boat seems to transport items clearly linked to Indian Ocean commerce: the containers represented are remarkably similar to Sasanian torpedo jars used for transporting wine discovered by archaeologists on the Island of Elephanta. Such a position strengthens the possibility of regular seafaring in the west coast of 15

Casson, p.83 Dieter Schlingloff, Ajanta Paintings, Delhi, 1987. 17 J. Deloche, ― Iconographic Evidence on the Development of boat and ship structures in India (2nd cent. B.C.-15th century A.D.): a new approach‖ in Tradition and Archaeology, Early Maritime Contacts in the Indian Ocean, ed. H.P. Ray & J.-F. Salles Delhi, Manohar, 1996, pp. 201-05. 16

208

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India during the fifth and sixth centuries. Such maritime contacts may be situated in the context of India‘s overseas trade with the Persian Gulf. Roberta Tomber18 has shown that the torpedo jars were earlier mistaken to be amphorae. Dating these vessels is difficult, but it appears that many arrived in India during the Sasanian period (CE 224-651), although continuing into the early Islamic period (7th-9th centuries). Their distribution on Gulf sites indicates that they came via this route. Interestingly, their arrival in India appears to be separate from genuine Roman amphorae of the same period also found in Gujarat. The concentration of ‗torpedoes‘ in Gujarat and Maharashtra reflects the cosmopolitan nature of the region, as these were open to foreign visitors and invaders, while examples from the south of India probably relate to the thriving trade with Sri Lanka during the 5th and 6th centuries CE. Here we can bring in the

Ashtamahabhaya

aspect

of

Avalokitesvara.

The

A� � amah�bhaya

Avalokiteśvara sculpture represents the story in which the Bodhisattva comes to rescue human beings from the eight great perils . Avalokiteśvara, with a lotus in the left hand and his right hand making the Abhayamudr�, is shown protecting his devotees. Avalokiteśvara‘s popularity in this role is attested at Deccan cave sites like Kanheri, Ajanta, Aurangabad by images depicting all the mah�bhaya aspects dating from the fifth through seventh centuries. Among these dangers his reputation as a saviour of mariners from the shipwreck is given primacy. 19 This is proved by the fact the visual litany when read clockwise from the bottom left begins with the ship wreck scene. The boat and its occupants are represented in detail. One of the figure is a man dressed in an Iranian style costume with kaftan and conical cap. The ship is a two masted vessel with open sails. It would seem that the sculptors had direct knowledge of boats of this kind used for Indian 18

R. Tomber, Rome and Mesopotamia: Importers into India in the first millennium AD. Antiquity 81, 2007, pp. 972−988. 19 For textual confirmation of Avalokitesvara as protector from the water, see Kern, H. trans., The Saddharma-Pu�ḍarīka or The Lotus of the True Law, Sacred Books of the East, Vol.XXI(General Editor, F. Max Mueller), Delhi, 2013(reprint) 209

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ocean sailing. The murals at Ajanta are replete with images of foreigners and exotic products that came via the Indian Ocean. In cave 17, several non-Indian types appear in the paintings: they are among the audiences witnessing the Buddha‘s descent from the heaven or were attendants of Indian royalty. In the case of the Visvantara Jataka from cave 17, a servant from Persia holds what seems to be an imported metal ewer as he offers wine to a couple; below, an Indian servanthands over a wine cup matching the fancy ewer. . According to Pia Brancaccio,20 in this case, these foreigners are so ‗realistically‘ represented that it is hard to imagine that they were not part of the world of the painter. Thus the artists were quite accustomed to see Sasanid or central Asian merchants around. Toward the end of the Sasanian period competition with Byzantium for control of the trade with India became intense. Bahrain and Oman were under Sasanian control, and by 570 Yemen had become a Persian outpost. In the 6th century Cosmas Indicopleustes described the rivalry between Byzantine and Sasanian merchants on the west coast of India, and Procopius (De Bello Persico 1.20.9), ) the official historian of Justinian claimed that the Persians dominated the Indian trade. Lure for economic gain led the Byzantine emperor Justinian (527-65 CE) urge the Ethiopians to buy silk from India and sell it among the Romans. This we learn from Procopius21 the official historian of Justinian. The Byzantine policy, however, failed as Procopius informs us: ― it was impossible for the Aethiopians to buy silk from the Indians, for the Persian merchants always locate themselves at the very harbours where the Indian ships 20

Pia Brancaccio, ‗Ashta Mahabhaya Avalokitesvara in the Western Deccan:Buddhist Patronage and Trade in the Fifth and Sixth Century‘. In Changing Forms and Cultural Identity: Religious and Secular Iconographies.Vol.I. South Asian Archaeology and Art, edited by Deborah Klimburg-Salter and Linda Lojda. (Turnhout:Brepols, 2014) , pp. 93-98. PROCOPIUS, History of the Wars, Translation by H.B.Dewing, BK.I.( London, Loeb Classical library,1961, p. 193.

21

210

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first put in, (since they inhabit the adjoining country); and are accustomed to buy the whole cargoes‖. This statement betrays the monopoly of the Sasanids over the Gulf and confirms the Sasanian hold on Asiatic silk trade.22 In fact Persians were the intermediaries for the silk trade between China and the West, both by the Central Asian route from the ― Seres‖ and the sea route from the ― Sinae‖.23 (Hourani:1963, 41) It has also been suggested that the Persians already knew the know-how to sericulture by the third century CE.24 .Ammianus‘ accounts provide us with a rare glimpse into an ancient northern Iranian sericulture community: He mentions the sale of silk when he writes, ― The Seres themselves live a peaceful life, forever unacquainted with arms and warfare; and since to gentle and quiet folk ease is pleasurable, they are troublesome to none of their neighbours. Their climate is agreeable and healthful, the sky is clear, the winds gentle and very pleasant. There is an abundance of welllighted woods, the trees of which produce a substance which they work with frequent sprinkling, like a kind of fleece; then from the wool-like material, mixed with water, they draw out very fine threads, spin the yarn, and make sericum, formerly for the use of the nobility, but nowadays available even to the lowest without any distinction. The Seres themselves are frugal beyond all others, live a quiet life, and avoid intercourse with the rest of mortals. And when strangers, in order to buy threads or anything else, cross the river, 22

For a discussion on this see ― The Western Coast of India and the Gulf: Maritime Trade during the 3rd to 7th Century A.D‖ in Eric Olijdam & Richard H. Spoor (eds) BAR International Series 1826, Intercultural relations between South and Southwest Asia, Studies in commemoration of ECL During Caspers (1934-1996), Oxford, 2008, pp.367-371. 23

G.F.Hourani, Arab Seafaring In The Indian Ocean In Ancient And Early Medieval Times (Beirut: Khayats, 1963 (Reprint), p.41. 24 Jennifer Harris, ed. 5000 Years of Textile London, British Museum Press, 2010, p.68. 211

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their wares are laid out and with no exchange of words their value is estimated by the eye alone; and they are so abstemious, that they hand over their own products without themselves getting any foreign ware in return.‖25 Silk, cloves, wood, sandalwood from the most distant countries such as "the Naznista and Andonisha" and other commercial locations come there and are exported to other markets. There are documents that show musk and lavender oil and Indian Henna exported to Iran and Rome26. Sword and steel were the famous Indian goods noted in Iranian sources. In the Arabic barbarism language, the word "sword" was Mahand which means "of India" or "Indian"27 . Indians had skill for melting Steel and knowledge in making Damascus blades that Arabs learned from Iranians who may have learned it from Indians. Indian natives could make high quality swords by adding carbon to steel. Sea lane to India and Sarandib islands of SriLanka that passed Red Ocean and Ethiopia was another factor for active trade among Near East countries. Some agricultural products were supplied as goods. Finally it should be mentioned that in Sassanid era, Iran had a very good trade relation with China and India and many Iranian goods were provided by these two countries. Also Iran exported many goods to Rome, China and India through Silk Road. For example China exported birds, chinaware, ink, a kind of drug called Rhubarb to Iran and Iran , especially from Khuzestan, exported troop, syrup, breechcloth, citrus, perfume especially viola, rose water, textiles, wine, ocher. During the later part of Sasanid rule we find in the Indian context that Harshavardhan, the ruler of Kanauj, and Pulakesin II, the Chalukyan ruler of Vatapi (early seventh century CE) were interested in some common territories in

25

Ammianus Marcellinus, Res Gestae, 3 vols. (London & Cambridge: Loeb Classical library, 1935-1939). 26 Procopius, p. 104 27 Tafazoli, 1971, p. 191 212

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western India. These territories were Lata, Gurjara and Malava. Among these territories Lata, i.e. southern Gujarat region, was of special importance. This is evident from the establishment of a Chalukya vice-regal house in Gujarat.28 Reflecting on Pulakesin‘s interest in the Gujarat region it can be very well surmised that the Chalukyan ruler was aware of the economic potentiality of the Lata area. The Chinese pilgrim Hsuan-Tsang29, who was a contemporary of Pulakesin and Harsha, also attest to the commercial importance of this zone. In his itinerary, Xuan Zang refers to the sea-fearing character of the people of Broach. Again A-t‟a-li, a place near Broach

30

but yet unidentified, is

described by the pilgrim as follows: ― the inhabitants were rich and flourishing; there were more traders than farmers … the people were mean spirited, prizing wealth and slighting moral worth‖. The region seems to have commanded considerable significance. According to the pilgrim, Su-la-ch‟a (= Surat) was inhabited by people who ― were rich and flourishing … As the country was on the highway to the sea, all its inhabitants utilized the sea and were traders by profession‖. Such commercial facilities are bound to attract the notice of intelligent rulers. Pulakesin II was no exception. Pulakesin II is known to have sent an embassy to the Persian ruler Khusraw II. Tabari testifies that in the year 625-626 CE. Khusraw Parwiz had received an embassy from the Indian king Pulakesin II in the 36th year of his reign. The nature of this embassy may have been at least partly commercial. The establishment of a feudatory in Gujarat appears to have facilitated contacts with 28

Ranabir Chakravarti, Warfare For Wealth : Early Indian Perspective, Calcutta, Firma KLM, 1986, p.85.

29

T. Watters, On Yuan Chwang’s travels in India, 629-645 AD. New Delhi, Munshiram Manoharlal, 1988, pp. 241-48.

30

H. Hasan, A History of Persian Navigation, London, Methuen & Co., 1928, pp. 88-89. 213

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Persia and other western areas. Perhaps this courtesy of Pulakesin II was returned. According to Hadi Hasan, a pictorial record in a mutiliated form in cave I at Ajanta speaks of a return embassy. This embassy can have come only by sea, for geographically the shortest route from Persia to the Deccan was through the Persian Gulf. Hadi Hasan opines that ― the fresco painting, therefore, though it contains no reference to the sea is essentially a record of Persian maritime intercourse with Deccan during the reign of Khusraw II‖. This essay is an attempt to treat the intervening period of the muchfocussed trade between India and the Eastern Roman Empire and the trade network which began to grow with the spread of Islam. Though the volume of trade in the period of our choice was no match to the much talked about trading patterns, yet the apparent gap between the slump in the trade with the Roman Empire and the rise of Islamic trade network can perhaps be filled up. Sasanid influence in trade kept the issues alive, Persian gulf played a significant role in the maritime network and thus the period from third century CE to seventh century CE can no longer be viewed as a slack period in the history of maritime trade.

214

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SEMANTIC INTERPRETATION IN THE TAJIK-PERSIAN DICTIONARIES Giyаsova Firuza. Candidate of Philological sciences, Associate Professor, Dean of the Oriental Faculty, Khujand State University, Tajikistan INTRODUCTION It is worth stressing that when determining different periods of the history of the language and its high points of development based on both scientific-historical traces and artistic ones we proceed from the assumption of actual issues in the field of Tajik linguistics. The article under consideration dwells on the sematic interpretation in the Tajik-Persian dictionaries referring the period of the XVII-th century. The relevance of this study is associated with carrying out a fundamental research in this field on the basis of both previous and further basic dictionaries, in particular. First and foremost, it is important to bear in view that the relevant research work will be useful both for researchers who want to solve the linguistic issues dealing with the explored theme of ours. A success of any research depends largely on precise comprehension of its objective. It is common knowledge that lexicography as an independent science occupies the key role in the field of linguistics. The Tajik-Persian lexicography has assembled a great deal of available materials during the millennium of scientific-theoretical experiments conducted by the researchers of the relevant field in which the essence of the Tajik lexicographical researches, certain consideration dealing with the theme explored aimed at a disclosure of the issue of sematic attitudes are reflected systematically. However, unfortunately, the comprehensive exploration in the terms of sematic view hasn`t been canvassed up to now in the field of lexicography yet. SCIENTIFIC NOVELTY Designing on the premises of the analysis of dictionaries referring to the XVII-th century, taking into consideration of the theory of lexicography 215

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achievements in the current periods, and a number of explorations of the Tajik-Persian lexicography referring to the recent decade we can confidently come to the conclusion that in the Tajik-Persian lexicography occur two types of semantic interpretation of lexical units the following ones: 1. detailed lexical units interpretation; 2. description by means of diacritical signs. It stands to reason that the study of the following issues being taken in account, such as 1) the principles of drawing up explanatory dictionaries; 2) lexicographic features of studied dictionaries; 3) definitions of each lexicographic work‘s place in comparison with other dictionaries of that period, functionally, systematically; 4) some theoretical issues concerning phonetic features related to both language and speech, as well as the development and evolutionary changes in the terms of sound system of language. In reference to it, in the course of research we have made an endeavor to disclose certain innovation and scientific novelty in regard to the next ways of the description of phonetic forms according to the abovementioned chapter: Firstly, the way of description by means of diacritical signs. The method in question is considered as one of the most ancient ways of the description of lexical units which has received a wide circulation under the influence of the Arabic lexicography, in particular. The essence of the relevant way lies in correct writing and correct pronunciation of lexical units in which this phenomenon is determined by putting down of diacritical signs over consonants. For example: ‫ – ُ ﻧﻐﺎﺸ‬Nugusho «the name of religious sense in Zoroaster religion». Secondly, the way of words interpretation by dint of rhymes and the size of a verse. Poetic illustrations in the Tajik-Persian dictionaries are adduced not only for semantics interpretation of the words those are difficult to comprehend and out-of-date words used by the poets of the early period of the Tajik-Persian literature history, but as a way or reception of registration and the description of phonetic-sound structure of lexical units either. In this regard, one can lay an emphasis upon the idea that, if, on the one hand, poetic illustrations promote to correctly understand the meanings of various words, 216

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

on the other hand, lies in a correct pronunciation, correct reading and observance of orthopedics, spelling rules and norms of language as well. For ‫ ;ز‬and also water or moisture which appears in any example: Zishuddin - ‫وشیدن‬ place. Speak: Bizushidast. Thirdly - descriptive method. This way is considered as more perfect reception in reference to spelling and pronunciation reflexion of the interpreted words which essence consists of the author of the dictionary after word registration gives in the entry text the developed explanatories on an exact writing of an interpreted word and its pronunciation, inclusive. Thus, after a lexical unit writing, the author stresses a sequence of sounds in a word and gives their characteristics upon the whole. The research of the given aspects provides an analysis of the issue has been established by the authors of dictionaries pertaining to the relevant period who resorted to this way in order to differentiate the following phenomena: RESULTS OF ANALYSIS 1. Description of the vowel sounds. As it is stated in the previous researches the fact that the Arabic drawing did not reflect in the letter vowel sounds which were designated by three diacritical signs, including fatha, thamma and kasra. The authors of the dictionaries used the special dung distinguishing vowel sounds in entries, and thereby, they have created original phonetic terminology in order to design vowels by the following terms: а) Ba fath or bi-l-fath or maftuha for a designation of short vowel "a": Aft with the vowel "a" in the beginning … (1,134) Maksur, bi-l-kasra or ba kasr for a designation of short vowel "and": Bizishk with two "i" (1,300) Bizishk with two "and" (1,300) c) Mazmum or bi-z-zam or ba zam for a designation of short vowel "u": Botush with zamma at the letter "tu" d) Alif for a designation public "o": 217

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Biqyoso with kasra at the letter “u” and sukun at the letter kaf (‫ )ك‬and [io] with vowel "o". 2. Description of consonants. One of specific peculiarities of the former in question is correctly spelling and reading consonants, indeed, in the relevant case out of the number of authors of dictionaries paid their particular attention to reveal certain key issues concerning the corpus of our study. Therefore, in our opinion, the specificity of sounds systems of the Tajik-Persian language consider as special phonemes which are distinct from the Arabic one. As these sounds were transferred on the basis of Arabic graphemes or similar to them graphemes, the authors gave the detailed description of a grapheme for differentiation of these letters, in general. It is a question, first of all, of such consonants, as and «p», «ch» and «kh», «z» and, «k» and «g», having special terminology for the designation. Adducing the results of the research one can be asserted the fact that the development of the above-stated terms is legally connected with the name of the author of explanatory dictionary referring to the ХIV-th century entitled «Sihah it is scarlet-furs» done by Muhammad ibn Hindushah Nahjavoni: Kab - the letter with one dot, and in other opinion - with three points (i.e. kap – F.G.) After the edition of the mentioned dictionary the most lexicographers have paid their special attention to fix out consonants, spelling and poetic norms which have strongly entered into the practice of drawing up targeted to the explanatory dictionaries. The authors of the ХVII-th century‘s dictionaries by adducing concrete examples associated with the former in view have strengthened the development of this method, functionally and systematically upon the whole. In this section the features of dung concerned with spelling the signs used both in Arabic and in Tajik-Persian languages, and distinctions of the establishment of diacritical points are investigated as well. 3. Syllable and stress description. Seemingly, in the corpus of our study it is clarified that the authors of the dictionaries of the relevant period is the disclosure of both the nature and features of the Arabic alphabet. It is common 218

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

knowledge that the syllable represents phonetic unit of speech`s partition. This part of speech, as a rule, consists of group related to the interconnected sounds (consonants and vowels) or one sound. However, in the Tajik language a syllabic element can be only occurred as sonant‘s does not form a syllable. In the Tajik-Persian alphabet as vowel sounds have no graphic representation and the authors had to find the means of reflexion concerning the open or closed syllables for preserving accuracy and originality of a pronunciation. It should be observed that the relevant dung also meets for the first time in «Sihah the closed syllable with a dung «ba sukuni» is scarlet-furs» by Muhammad ibn Hindushah, which designated an open syllable with a dung «ba kasri and ba zammi», and closed syllable marked by «ba sukuni». Proceeding from the assumption of the analysis of the available dictionaries of the mentioned period it is possible to observe and reveal diacritical signs of interpretation and designation of a place of an accent in words. It is known that the Tajik language is characterized by the fixed accent. In most cases nominative units of the accent falls on last syllable of a word separately. However, in order to increase the quantity of syllables in the words formed by dint of derivational or affixed-based way, one can notice one or two minor accents. It testifies that within the frameworks of word-formation occurs the changing structure of stressed in a word. In the dictionaries of the period explored the term «sukun» sometimes is resorted to a designation long public which is graphically represented to consonants «io». It means that the given syllable is long and frequently the accent falls on such syllables: In «Burhan-i Kote’» dictionary the relevant phenomenon is designated by terms «kashida» and «rasida»: 4. Description of the doubled consonants. According to spelling rules in the Tajik-Persian writing at the confluence of two identical consonants one of them graphically is not represented, and together it over a consonant the special sign - tashdid is called. Such letters in dictionaries call the term «mushadad» «the letter with tashdid». It is necessary to notice that in the Tajik-Persian language this phenomenon is not presented so widely-used, as in the Arabic 219

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one, as letters which accept tashdid in the Tajik language not so much. As a rule, such letters as «p, ch, r, to» accept for «l, m» tashdid is more frequentlyoccurred than other one. Description of the doubled consonants terms «mushaddad» and «tashdid» are used in the dictionaries under consideration. For instance: gof‟s fatha and lom‟s tashdid Galla with fatha at the letter gof and doubling the letter «lam»… Galla with fatha at the first letter and second doubling … 5. The way of the description by virtue of letters of abjad. In the texts of the articles of explanatory dictionaries of the period explored, in conformity with the our opinion, it is possible to allocate variety of terms. In comparison with the ХVII-th century‘s dictionaries, including «Sihah alFurs» by Nakhjavoni (ХIV); «Majmuat al-Furs» by Joruti (ХIV); «Farhangi Swagger» by Vafai (ХVI); «Tuhfat ul-Ahbob» by Ubahi (ХVI) it is presented the key distinctions of the diacritical signs in the terms of interpretation, in particular. The above-stated dung does not meet in the texts of entries of these dictionaries. Due to the relevance of this study we managed to assume the number of concrete ways of the description of the formers appeared referring to the ХVII-th century. In this section, by using a large considerable lexicographic materials we have carried out the reasons of occurrence towards this way and its distinctive lines from other ways as well. First of all, on the grounds of descriptive methods the values of these terms both in the Arabic language, and in Tajik-Persian ones are revealed in details. 6. Way of analogue. In lexicographic tradition referring to the period of the ХVII-th century alongside with other ways is used the method of analogue at which the compilers of the dictionary near to an interpreted word, well-known word, with exact similarity of placing of vowel sounds, including: Bayuk with the size of the word batuk – bride… CONCLUSION To sum it up, proceeding from the assumption of the analysis dealing with semantic interpretation in the Tajik-Persian dictionaries in our topic and other available dictionaries referring to the XVIII-th century‚ we come to the conclusion that some actual sematic interpretations which pertain to frequent 220

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ones in both MTLL and the corpus of our study. In associated with the dictionaries of the period explored we managed to group the former in view on three categories: 1) the dictionaries which used a way of analogue along with other ways; 2) the dictionaries which are focused exclusively this way; 3) the dictionaries in which this way is not used. To the first category concern «Madzhma-ul-furs» by Sururi; «Burhon kote’» by Tabrezi; «Farhang Jahongiri» by Inju Sherozi; «Farhang Rashidi» by Tattavi. To the second one deal with «Farhangi Jafari» by Tuysirkoni, and to the third group one refer «Surma Sulaimoni» by Balyoni. REFERENCES: 1. Abdurrashid ibni Abdughafur al-Husayni al-Madani at-Tatavi. Rashidi Dictionary. Researched and revised by Muhammad Abbos. – Tehran, without the year of publishing. Volumes of 1 – 2. – 1532 pp. 2. Muhammadhusayn ibni Khalafi Tabrezi. Burhoni Qote`. Under the editorship of Muin. – Tehran: Great Amir publishing-house, 1357hijra. – V.V. 1-5. 3. Muhammadhusayn ibni Khalafi Tabrezi. Burhoni Qote`. Under the editorship of M. Sa`idpur. - Tehran: without the year and place of publication. – V.V. 1-2. 4. Muhammad Husayni Burhon. Burhoni Qote`. The author of introduction and preparation: Amon Nurov. - Dushanbe: Man-of-Letters, 2004. – V.2. – 424 pp. Muhammadqosim ibni Khojimuhammadi Koshoni. Majma`-ul5. Furs. Under the editorship of Muhammad Siyoqi. - Tehran: Aliakbari Aljami publishing-house. 6. Siyoqi Ahmad. New Comprehensive Dictionary. - Tehran: Islam publishing-house, 1337hijra. – V.V. 1-2. – 2337 pp. 7. Tajik Language Dictionary / under the editorship of M. Sh. Shukurov, V. A. Kapranova, R. Khoshim, N. A. Masumi. – M.: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1968. - Volume 1. – 951 pp; - Volume 2. – 949 pp.

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The Mother goddess in Hindu, Iranian and Minor Asia mythologies Vahid Rooyani Associate Professor Golestan University- Iran

Iran and India are two great countries with a rich mythical, historical and cultural background, which in addition to the common background have extensive literary, linguistic and cultural connections. Iran has acted as a bridge between the East and West cultures from the distant past and has caused Western and Eastern ideas to be interconnected and interact by each other. These two factors have led, the Hindu Iranian and Minor Asia mythologies, to have similar characteristics and that have been influenced by each other. One of these common myths is the myth of the mother goddess. In pictures and sculptures left by the mother goddess, they often appear either in the form of wild animals or riding on them, especially Lion and leopard. In India, the features of this goddess are seen in the goddess Durga. In Iran, before the Aryans arrived, this goddess was worshiped as a fertility goddess and now his features remained in Tahmineh‘s character at Ferdowsi's Shahnameh, and in Minor Asia was worshiped as the goddess of earth, called Seibel. The present study shows that these three goddesses share in characteristics such as relationship with nature and forest, association with war and hunting, the use of wild animals, possession of weapons and relationships with fertility, etc., And these three characters have influenced each other as a result of communications that existed between the East and the West from the 7th and 8th centuries BC. Key words: mother goddess, Durga, Tahmina, Seibel, cultural connection. Introduction

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The cult of mother -goddess worship is one of the oldest religions in the world. According to researchers and archaeological findings, several centuries before the arrival of the Aryan tribes into Iran and their division into different groups, it has been commonplace among indigenous peoples of Iran, as well as nations and neighboring nations (Fanian, 1351: 222). Goddess worship is integral to many religions, old and new. The ancient Mediterranean world contained abundant Goddess lore; today, Hinduism and Buddhism are richest in female divinities. Academic studies of these traditions trace their texts, histories, rituals, iconographies, theologies, intersections with economics and politics, and most recently implications for female status (McDermott, 2001: 6292). The most reliable proof of the worship of the mother-goddess has been obtained from the Mediterranean region, East Iran, West Rom, Middle East, Egypt and Greece (Warner, 1386: 40). It seems that Worship of the mother-goddess and her small denominations from Western Asia and the plains of South Russia and the Dan Valley, has been moved with the migration of Asian nations to Central and Eastern Europe (James, 1959: 13). The traits and attributes of this goddess that is known by various names, has remained in the form of stories and mythologies in various tribes and nations, but it has changed in some regions like Iran, and its features have been transmitted to other goddesses such as Anahita or fictional characters. These goddesses are known in Asia by the names of Ishtar, Baʼla, Mā, Nani, Sibel, durga, Astarta, Anat, and Artemis, and in Greece and Europe, more often called Artemis. Some scholars have considered the origins of Greek Artemis in Asia Minor because of deep cultural and military connections between the East and the West from the past distant, and some have considered her as the Asian and Minor Anatolian fertility goddess (Freely, 2010: 3). since BC, there have been two main periods of cultural contacts between East and Greece: One at the end of the Bronze Age (between 13th and 14th centuries BC) and the other 7th and 8th centuries BC, when the Phoenicians and Greeks infiltrated all the 223

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Mediterranean in a fierce competition (Bremmer, 1990: 13). In one of these cultural contacts, Artemis has penetrated Greece and little by little has transformed to its Greek character. Later, due to the centrality of Asia Minor and the connection with Asia and other parts of the world, the Artemis ritual has spread to all over the world. As St. Paul was in regret with the worshipers of Artemis, he was proud to say that Artemis is great, and all Asia and the world love him (Riddle, 2010: 79). Iran, which has been linked with the Middle East, Asia Minor, and Greece since ancient times, has been affected by Artemis ritual. As mentioned in the historical texts, before the arrival of the Aryans to the plateau of Iran, the inhabitants of this land have worshiped the Goddess relied on fertility (Frye, 1966: 196). And when they settled in the land of Elam, they learned the Anahiti worship which was associated with Venus and the powerful god of Ishtar (Boyce, 2011: 1006). Method The author intends to study the similarities of Durga, Anahita, Ishtar and Seibel using the library resources and mythological sources of neighboring countries, then, in an analytical descriptive manner, compares these similarities and shows the connection between these myths. Results and Discussion 1- Some Mother Goddess 1-1- Ishtar Ishtar in the old texts is the same of Nanai the Babylon and Assyrian goddesses, and this god, who seems to have been the goddess of war and nature is known as artemis in some countries. There are indications that we can assume that in the early periods, some of the features of this goddess have been moved to Anahita (Boyce, 2011: 1011). apparently Anahitas worship at the time of the Achaemenids, spread throughout the country of Iran, and in various ways was medley with the Athena, Aphrodite, and Anatolian Siebel religions (Warner, 224

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2007: 42) And from the end of the Achaemenids dynasty thereafter there has been Eclectic between Nanai, Anahita and Artemis religions (Gaviri, 1379: 69). In the period of the Seleucids, Greece's cultural influence on Iran increased and Artemis in Iran and the Iranian-dominated countries became more visible. There were two temples belonging to Athena and Artemis at the same time in Alimayi (Khuzestan), which ravaged by Mehrdad I ascension (Gerishman, 2005: 320) And in Armenia, at the end of the Seleucids period, they equated Nanai and Anahita with Artemis (Frye, 2007: 252). The Partians who came to power after the Seleucia did not have a single cult, and there were various religions such as Mazdaism, Mitraism, Nahidism, Zurvanism, and ...between them. When Greek culture was adopted by them, Greek gods such as Zeus and Artemis, and some others appeared on their coins (Kenndy First, 1381: 117). In particular, some coins has been discovered from the state of Elam, in which illustrated a woman with a shining crown and hunter-like, which they call Artemis (Duchesne Guillemin, 2006: 300). And in Parthian inscriptions, we can see Artemis, with Asian god, Men, the Sun, the Moon, and Zeus (Duchesne Guillemin, 2006: 286). Therefore, due to these cultural and religious associations, the worship of the mother-goddesses by different names in different regions of Iran has been prevalent. And people were familiar with these stories and myths, and of the mother-goddesses through this stories and myths enter into the Shahnameh. From the stories and mythologies that remain about the mother goddess, the stories related to Ishtar and Artemis are more vivid, but in this paper we will explore the common characteristics all of these goddesses. 1-2- Durga Durga is one of the angry and aggressive aspects of the goddess Sakti, whose earliest role in Hindu mythology is to fight and conquer demons but who also personifies the SAKTI or female aspect of any male deity (Jordan, 2004: 82). Other myths provide alternate versions of Durga‘s birth. In one, she was the emanation of the creative force of Vishnu, summoned to protect the 225

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endangered Krishna. Then she hid herself in the womb of Krishna‘s mother, Devaki, allowing her to be killed at birth so that Krishna would live. For that, she was granted perpetual sacrifices (Monaghan, 2010: 172). Ichnographically, Durga is depicted as a beautiful golden-skinned woman who rides upon a lion or a tiger. She has eight or ten arms, each bearing a weapon presented to her by different gods and including the conch shell of Vhshno, the trident of SˇIVA, the bow of RAMA and the sudarshan (spoked disc) of KRSNA. These gifts extend to her the power of the eight or ten gods (Jordan, 2004: 82). Some texts are mentioned she holds a spear and wears a blood red sari. She was born during the primordial war between gods and demons, which dragged on until the gods concentrated their energies. Flames sprang from their mouths in the shape of a beautiful woman. Although produced by gods, the goddess was stronger than all of them, and she was eager to fight (Monaghan, 2010: 172). She may wear a necklace of skulls. She is associated with the Himalaya and Vindhya mountains and is often depicted slaughtering the buffalodemon MAHISA by thrusting her trident into his body (Jordan, 2004: 82). When she reached her enemy, tore herself into nine million pieces and destroyed the demon army, then strangled its leader (Monaghan, 2010: 172). In a contrasting aspect in later Hindu traditions, Durga takes the role of a mother goddess and consort of Shiva and becomes partly syncretized with PARVATI. She is also linked with the fertility of crops. In this capacity her most important festival is the Durga Puja, celebrated at harvest time, during which devotees persistently make obscene gestures and comments to stimulate her fecundity. She is depicted flanked by four other deities, LAKSMI, SARASVATI, GANESA and KARTTIKEYA, who are said to be her children. In general Durga is perceived in northern India as the gentle bride epitomizing family unity, while in southern India she is revered more in her warlike and murderous aspect (Jordan, 2004: 82). 1-3- Anahita and Tahmineh 226

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Anahita was, according to Yasht 5, a warlike goddess, the protectress of the Iranian nobility, and trophies were still deposited in her temples in the Sasanian days. Sasan, the grandfather of Ardasir I, is said to have been king of Xir in Fars, and at the same time priest of the sanctuary of Anahitain Persepolis, Istaxr (Wesendonk, 1932: 23). In some sources, she is referred to as the goddess of the river, but It seems less in the character of a river-goddess that Arәdvī Sūrā is also held to bestow upon her worshipers possessions such as chariots, arms, and household goods (5.130), as well as victory in battle and the destruction of foes (Boyce, 1989: 1011). Anahita is closely allied to Mithra, and it can be accepted as a fact that the mystery religion bearing the name of this Iranian god was developed mainly in Asia Minor, after having undergone the influence of Babylonia (Wesendonk, 1932: 24). The cult of Arәdvī Sūrā Anāhitā, uniting as it did those of water-goddess and mother-goddess, and being royally promoted, became widely popular. Worship was, in general, offered to the divinity under the name of Anāhīd (Anāhīt)/Anaïtis, which suggests the strength of Achaemenid influence. The Arsacids followed the example set by their predecessors in venerating Aramazd-Mihr-Anāhīd as their chief helpers; and the woman‘s name Āb-Nāhīd (― Anāhīd of water‖) is first attested in the Parthian period (Boyce, 1989: 1011). The Romans came into contact with the worship of Mithrain Kilikia and in Phrygia. In Kilikia the army which fought against the pirates got acquainted with the mysteries celebrated in honour of Mithra- on Mount Olympus on the border of Pamphylia and Kilikia. Like Bellona-Ma- AnahitaMithra- must have appealed to the Roman military circles. An inscription from Kappadokia belonging to the second or first century B.C. speaks of a Mage affected to the service of Mithra- who was associated with Men, Sabazios, and Attis. In Phrygia and Lydia Magian communities were established since the epoch of the Achamenids like the ― Megabyzoi" attached to the temple of Artemis in Ephesos (Wesendonk, 1932: 28). Although the Greeks sometimes 227

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assimilated Anāhitā to Aphrodite (e.g., Herodotus, Historiae 1.131-32, knows her by the name of Aphrodite Urania and compares her with the Assyrian Mylitta and the Arabian Alilat) or Athena, they most often viewed her as the Persian Artemis (Chaumont, 1989: 1015). According to a passage from the Chaldaica of Berosus conserved by Clement of Alexandria (Protrepticus 5.63.5, ed. C. Mondésert and A. Plassard, Paris, 1949, p. 139), the same king caused statues of ― Aphrodite Anaitis‖ to be erected in major cities of his empire such as Babylon, Susa, Ecbatana, Persepolis, Bactra, Damascus, and Sardis. Plutarch (Artaxerxes 27) also states that Artaxerxes Mnemon piously made his concubine Aspasia become a priestess of ― Artemis whom they call Anaitis.‖ It was probably in his reign that the Anāhitā cult began to gain ground in Asia Minor and Syria before spreading to Armenia (Chaumont, 1989: 1011). 1-4- Sibel An account is handed down that this goddess was born in Phrygia. For the natives of that country have the following myth: In ancient times Meion became king of Phrygia and Lydia; and marrying Dindyme, he begat an infant daughter, but being unwilling to rear her. He exposed her on the mountain which was called Cybelus. There, in accordance with some 5 divine providence, both the leopards and some of the other especially ferocious wild beasts offered their nipples to the child and so gave it nourishment, and some women who were tending the flocks in that place witnessed the happening, and being astonished at the strange event took up the babe and called her Cybele after the name of the place. The child, as she grew up 10, excelled in both beauty and virtue and also came to be admired for her intelligence; for she was the first to devise the pipe of many reeds and to invent cymbals and kettledrums with which to accompany the games and the dance, and in addition she taught how to heal the sicknesses of both flocks and little children by means of rites of purification; in 15 consequence, since the babes were saved from death by her spells and were

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generally taken up in her arms, her devotion to them and affection for them led all the people to speak of her as the "mother of the mountain(Jordan, 1998: 30). 2- Mother Goddess Features 2-1- Connecting with wild animals In pictures and sculptures left by mother goddesses, they are often displayed either in the form of wild animals or in conjunction with them, especially with lions and leopards. For example, Mother Goddesses in Hookah and Helicopter are sometimes given in the form of a panther or in the cover of their leopard skin (Lahiji and Kar, 1381: 101). Minor Asian people thought that Sibel, the great goddess of mother, was in the midst of green pines and almond trees and mounted on a lion, she was also the goddess of the earth and Ma was called the "Wildlife ruler"(Bahar, 1390: 230). It is also mentioned about Baal that he was riding on a lion and his wife, Baale, the mother goddess on a bull (Bahar, 2011: 248). In some ancient books, various stories have been narrated that indicates Tahmineh's relationship with the forest, wildlife, and especially the lion. There is a story about Tahmineh's father's war with Garsivazs troop, at that Tahmineh goes to the island along with Sohrab and lives there for eight years with lion and other wild animals (Zariri, 1991: 50). Durga also is depicted as a beautiful golden-skinned woman who rides upon a lion or a tiger (Jordan, 2004: 82). 2-1- Relationship with hunting and forest Another feature of these goddesses is living in the jungle and connection with hunting and forest and even some of them are goddesses of hunting. For example Michael Jordan cited that Artemis was originally the goddess of animals and hunting in Asia Minor who has been a goddess mother in Greek (Jordan, 2004: 30). In the story of Rostam and Sohrab, both in Shahnameh and in the Naghalli narratives, Rostam and Tahmineh in hunting place, forest and near spring were familiared with each other: 229

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One morn in dudgeon rustam rose to hunt Girt him, filled up his quiver mounted rakhsh And hied him to the marches of turan A savage lion prowling after pray When he drew near the marches and beheld The plain well stocked with onager he flushed Rose-like and smiled then urging on his steed He dropped much game with arrow, mace and lasso He lit a fire with sticks, dry grass and thorns (Ferdowsi, 1396: 498). 2-2- beauty In the opinion of some ancient people, Ishtar was the daughter of the god of the moon, and the sister of the god of the sun, and others acerted that, she was the daughter of the goddess of the sky, and was the goddess of love. Therefore, it was a very beautiful divine being among the various beings that had Gilgamesh referring to them (Rosenberg, 2003: 104). Also about Durga said she looks gracious always with sweet smile on her lips; her hands are one thousand in number. Various weapons are in all her hands. The clothing's of the three-eyed one are bright and purified by Fire. She is decorated with ornaments all of jewels. All the women who are the jewels are sprung from her parts and parts of parts and by the power of her Mâyâ, all the people of the world are enchanted. She bestows all the wealth that a householder wants to have (Vijnanananda, 1977: 814). She is both derivative from the male divinities and the true source of their inner power. She is also greater than any of them. Born fully grown and beautiful (Encyclopedia Britannica: durga). Artemis is also a beautiful goddess who, in the Greek traditions,was described as a beautiful face and fitness like fairies (Warner, 2007: 318). In Shahnameh, Tahmineh is also likened to the Moon and the Sun in terms of its beauty and attractiveness (Ferdowsi, 1386: 230

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2/122). In another narrative, Rustam, seen a girl as bright as sun, then fell in love with her (Zariri, 1369: 2). 2-3- Love and fertility Ishtar, the daughter of the sky in Uruqu, was at the head of all the gods of love and affection. He was stubbornly provocative in any situation (Rosenberg, 1382: 40). In the religion of Baal, his wife, Baala, was considered as the male principle, and any fertility was with the help of him and his wife. Worshiping these two was often accompanied by sexual and joyful acts (Bahar, 1390: 249). Artemis also is depicted in Anatolia as a mother with a large body and large chest and thighs (Freely, 2010: 3). After arriving in Greece as the great goddess of fertility, the owner of the famous temple is worshiped at Ellis under the name of mother (Finkelbery, 2005: 165). He would have wanted to be independent, but if he loved a man or wanted a man, he would communicate with him like Ishtar (Warner, 2007: 353). This feature is also available in Tahmineh in all Iranian narratives, like Ishtar and Artemis; he likes Rustam and expresses his interest. 2-4- Warfare and archery Another aspect of the character of these mother-goddesses is warfare, and especially archery. For example, Ishtar occasionally, as a lady of battles, in painting was showed sitting on a wheel that hunted seven lions and had a bunch in his hands (Rosenberg, 2003: 39). Artemis was also the god of war for the Amazon who lived in many minor Asian cities and was worshiped by them (Mattingly, 1960: 114). In the narratives and folk narrations, there are many stories about Tahmineh's warfare and his skill in shooting. For example, in the narration of Zariri, Rostam, in the hunting place near Samangan, faces with Tahmineh who weared a hide and cover, and Tahmine attacks Rostam with a sword (Zariri, 1369: 2).

About Durga also mentioned some characteristics

that related her with war, for example Durga is one of the angry and aggressive 231

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aspects of the goddess Sakti, whose earliest role in Hindu mythology is to fight and conquer demons but who also personifies the SAKTI or female aspect of any male deity (Jordan, 2004: 82). Also some texts are mentioned she holds a spear and wears a blood red sari. She was born during the primordial war between gods and demons, which dragged on until the gods concentrated their energies. Flames sprang from their mouths in the shape of a beautiful woman. Although produced by gods, the goddess was stronger than all of them, and she was eager to fight (Monaghan, 2010: 172). 2-5- Angry One of the characteristics of these mother-goddesses is angry and angry reactions, which show a very harsh reaction to words and actions that, are not balanced. For example, Ishtar was so angry when he heard Gilgamesh's mischievous and insulting words that she was asking her father to give a cow to destroy Gilgamesh And even threatens her father that if you do not do this, I will break down in the underworld until the dead rise and live with the day-to-day lives (Gil Gamest, 1999: 71). In the case of Artemis, also said that she was a goddess who angry very soon and the worshipers tried to prevent her anger from sacrificing and presenting gifts. An example of her anger is when Agamemnon bragging her courage while fleeing for the second time, and Artemis is angry, creating a strike storm in Ulysses (Warner, 2007: 42). Durga also is one of the angry and aggressive aspects of the goddess Sakti, whose earliest role in Hindu mythology is to fight and conquer demons (Jordan, 2004: 82). Conclusion Iran and India are two great countries with a rich mythical, historical and cultural background, which in addition to the common background have extensive literary, linguistic and cultural connections. Iran has acted as a bridge between the East and West cultures from the distant past and has caused Western and Eastern ideas to be interconnected and interact by each other. These two 232

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factors have led, the Hindu Iranian and Minor Asia mythologies, to have similar characteristics and that have been influenced by each other. One of these common myths is the myth of the mother goddess. The cult of mother -goddess worship is one of the oldest religions in the world. The most reliable proof of the worship of the mother-goddess has been obtained from the Mediterranean region, East Iran, West Rom, Middle East, Egypt and Greece. The traits and attributes of this goddess that is known by various names, has remained in the form of stories and mythologies in various tribes and nations, but it has changed in some regions like Iran, and its features have been transmitted to other goddesses such as Anahita or fictional characters. These goddesses are known in Asia by the names of Ishtar, Baʼla, Mā, Nani, Sibel, durga, Astarta, Anat, and Artemis. As the results of this research show, the following features are common among these goddesses: 1- Connecting with wild animals, 2- Relationship with hunting and forest, 3- Having beautiful face and body, 4- Skill in shooting and dealing with war, 5- angrily and harsh reactions to other sayings and actions. Its might be, at cultural contacts there have been between East and west from 14th centuries BC These goddesses have been affected or influenced by each other.

References: Bahar, M., (1390), the Religions of Asia, Tehran: Toos Press. Boyce, M., (1989),‖ Anahid‖, Encyclopedia Iranica, California University Press, Vol. I, Fasc. 9. Bremmer, jan (1990), Interpretations of Greek mythology, Rutledge publications. Chaumont, M. L. ., (1989),‖ Anaïtis‖, Encyclopedia Iranica, California University Press, Vol. I, Fasc. 9, pp. 1003-1011.

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Duchesne Guillemin, J., (2006), Religion of Ancient Iran, Translated by Monajjem, R., Tehran: Elm Press. Fanian, Kh, (1972), ― The Worship of Mother Goddess in Iran‖, the Journal of Historical Surveys, No 6, pp. 211- 248. Ferdowsi, A., (1386), the Shahnameh, Edited by Khaleghi Motlagh, J., Tehran: Great Islamic encyclopedia Press. Finkelbery, Margaret (2005), Greeks and preGreeks, New York, Cambridge university press. Freely, john (2010), Children of Achilles, New York, Ib tauris press. Frye, R. N., (2007), The Heritage of Persia, Translated by M. Rajabnia, Tehran: Elmi & farhangi. Gaviri, S., (1379), Anahita in Persian mythologies, Tehran: Jamal alhagh Press. James, E. O (1959), the cult of the mother goddess, New York, Praege publication. Jordan, Michal (2004), Dictionary of gods and goddess, New York, library of congress publications. Mattingly, H. (1960), ― Artemes of troy‖, Greece and Rome, Cambridge journals, Vol 7, pp 114-116. McDermott, R. F., (2001), International Encyclopedia of the Social & Behavioral Sciences, Monaghan, (2010), Encyclopedia of goddesses and heroines, Santa Barbara: Greenwood, An Imprint of ABC-CLIO, LLC. Rosenberg, D., (1382), the Myth of Isis, Osiris and Gilgamesh, Translated by Aboulghasempoor, E., Tehran: Ostureh Press.

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Vijnanananda, 1977, the Srimad Devi Bhagawatam, Oriental Books Reprint Corporation, University of Minnesota. Wesendonk, G. von, (1932), ― Asia Minor and the introduction of the Worship of Kybele, Mā, and Mithra- into Rome‖, Journal of the Royal Asiatic Society, Cambridge university press, Volume 64 / Issue 01. Zariri, M. A., (1369), the Story of Rostam and Sohrab, by Endeavour of Douskhah, J., Tehran: Toos Press.

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A Study on the Medieval Assamese Sufi literature Dr. Owahedur Zaman Assistant Professor Deptt. of Persian Gauhati University, Guwahati An overview on Assamese Literature Old Assamese literature which first gained its importance under the patronage of the Kamata king Duriabha Narayan (1281-1312 A.D.) entered its golden age in the sixteenth century. ‗Bihugeet‟, Bongeet (folk songs of Assam), Ballads, Marriage songs etc. were the early folk songs which marked the beginnings of Assamese literature. Research has shown that recorded Assamese literature had its trends when Hema Saraswati translated the Prahlad Charita under the patronage of Durlabhnarayan, the king of Kamatapur kingdom in 13th century. After that Harihar Bipra, and his contemporary Kaviratna Saraswati came into existence who added something important to the old Assamese literature. But the golden age of Assamese literature began from the reign of Koch king Naranarayan. Poets and scholars like Sankaradeva, Madhavadeva, Rama Saraswati, Bhattacharyya, Purusottam Vidyabagish and Sarvabhauma of Vaishnavite period helped enriching of Assamese literature with their new creations of drama, prose and lyrics composed on the Vaishnava religious themes. Saint and poet Srimanta Sankardeva (1449-1569 A.D.) who introduced Vaishnavite movement in Assam gave an enduring form to the religious, cultural, social and literary life of the people. Depending on the literature written till date, we can divide the whole history of Assamese literature into three periods: Ancient, medieval and modern. The storehouse of Medieval Assamese literature was very opulent. Especially Assamese literature reached its zenith during the period on Vashnavite movement in Assam. From this period, most of the writers and poets used to write prose, poems, romances, etc. in Assamese language and evidence approves 236

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that Sufi influence in Assamese literature can be traced a little bit from the medieval period. Amongst them Sahapari Upakhyan or Mrigavati Charitra of Dvija Ram, Madhumalati of an unknown writer and Chandrawali Bishwaketu of Pasupati Dvija, etc. are the important Sufi literature written during the medieval period. Here, a discussion will be made about the Sufi influence on Medieval Assamese literature.

Medieval Assamese Sufi literature Madhumalati: This is a Sufi romance written in Assamese collected by Dr. Surya Kumar Bhuyan and a copy of the collection is still preserved in the Department of Historical and Antiquarian Studies, Assam. But the writer of the Assamese Madhumalati is unknown because it is not written in the original book. Sources of the book: All the sources of medieval Assam‘s literature was the subject matter of Ramayana, Maabharata and Purana. But as a matter of fact the story of this romance was not taken from Purans or Mahabrahartas, this was written in the imitation of Sheikh Manjan‘s same story entitled Madhumalati of 1545 A.D. Manjan was a Sufi poet and he had liberal and secular opinion on caste, religion and society. That is why he could compose Sufi stories with the mix of Hindu and Muslim characters. It will be worth noting here that because of his secular views he became famous in India as well as Assam. From sixteen to eighteen century, Sufi poets composed lots of Sufi stories, romances and books. Through these romances they tried to put the life style and a clear picture of Hindu-Muslim society. They tried their best to make the affinity and unity of Hindu-Muslim community. Among those kind Mrigawati Charit of Kutuban, Manjan‘s Madhumalati, Padmawat of Muhammad Jaysi, Chitravali of Usman, Jnandeep of Sheikh Nabi, Anurag Basuri and Indrawali of Nur Muhammad, Hansha Jawahir of Qasim Shah, Madhawanal Kam Kandala of Alam etc. 237

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The Assamese Madhumalati is composed by an unknown writer and it is a straight forward romance mixed with Assamese flavors. Some scholars opine that writer must have heard some romantic stories from Muslim people and based on that he composed it. Madhumalati had been translated into many Indian languages like Gujarati, Hindi, Bengali etc. and even people wrote books regarding this romance. Scholars assume that before Manjan, Chaturbhuj Kayastha composed romance in the same name. The name of the hero was Madhukan and the heroine was Malati but the story is completely different from Manjan‘s story. Apart from this Madhumalati has close resemblance with Gulshan-iIshq. Apart from these, Guwalior based writer Jaan wrote Madhukan Malati which has resemblance with the Madhumalati of Chaturbhuj Kayastha. It seems that the story of this romance is still alive in the mid of society in different forms and style. Writing style and mystical thoughts in Assamese Madhumalati The writing style and the theme of the story is lucid and straight forward but very allegorical and symbolic. Here we will have a short discussion regarding the allegory and symbol used in the romance. According to the Assamese poet of Madhumalati, what he conveyed through this story is love which is much more than the feelings of human beings sometimes have for one another, it is cosmic force which pre exits creation, which derives creation and which permeates creation. Love is the most precious property in the world. But along with love sufferings and pains is attached whether love with human beings or divine. Love and beauty are central to the aesthetics of the Madhumalati where the heroine is supposed as an exemplification of the process of the self disclosure of the divine. Her beauty arouses love within the seeker while the condition of being separated from beloved drives him onward along the Sufi path. 238

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In India, allegory and symbolism of most of the genre of Persian poetry such as lyrics (Ghazal) and narrative (Masnavi) is seen in the Indian poetry. On the other hand Sufis were fascinated by the poetics and alluring imaginary of Indian classical and regional (folk) poetry as they encountered it in musical and dance performances and in poetic recitation. Sufism and Islamic tradition have a great role in the formation of Indo-Persian poetry, art and music. Sufi poets of India used Indian rasa (juice) theory, means taste or essence. The Madhumalati is very much allegorical and symbolic which contains lots of incidents. The beautiful body of the heroine signifies divinity in the temporary revelation that actually intends to draw the seeker out of him and place him on the ascetic path. The hero ordinarily disguises himself as a yogi when he sets off in search of the beloved. Lots of yogic term used in Madhumalati to suggest the ascetic level of meaning through a coded vocabulary. The highest state is referred to as Sahaja, the state of spontaneous bliss, wherein is experience Maharasa, the name of Madhumalati‘s city. Manohar has a nurse called Sahaja and Tarachand‘s city is called Pavaneri, which can be taken as indicative of pavana, means breath. Prema‘s city is called Cittabisrampur, which means peacefulness or forgetfulness of mind, the objective of meditation and that is the main destination to gain Nirvana. Prema means love and but her character act as a spiritual guide where in every steps she shows the right path to Manohar to reach his destination and here Prema‘s guidance signifies the way of spiritual realization. Manjhan begins his prologue with the verses of Quran but the poet of Assamese Madhimalati starts his prologue with bhajans (songs to praise God) of Sankardeva. He links the creator first with love, the treasure house of joy and then he sketches out the attributes of the ruler of the universe, and then praises the King of the three worlds (earth, heaven and the netherworld). He describes the Sufi theory of wahdat al-wajud (the unity of all existence) beautifully through this romance. Here, the hero is the Ahiq, the Salik (Sufi traveler on the 239

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path) conventional symbols of Sufi poetry. Cittabisrampur is the destination (Maqam) on the spiritual path. A Sufi traveler always faces temptation and enticement in his journey. When Manohar arrives Prema‘s kingdom, her father offered everything including the kingdom but he resists the temptation and because his only primariy royalty is Madhumalati symbolizes the Divinity. Apart from that when Manahoar meet Madhumalati again in Maharasa he again rejected to make physical love, and symbolically this signifies as illumination for them. Cittabisrampur is the correct of the name for the place of illumination. Tarachand signifies as Khidmad-i-Khalq as he is a representative of selflessness and disinterested service because due to that selflessness and devoted service Manohar could reached to Madhumalati at the end of his journey Apart from that when Manohar became a magical bird went away in search of his Beloved which symbolizes the Nafs or the world. It demonstrates in a strong way- in that it departs from the convention-the live and yearning of God for the human soul. At last, eventually Manohar reaches to his own kingdom from which he set out and becomes a king in all his births. So, the cycle is completed as the Sufi would say, ― from God we come and to God we return.‖ Thus it is obvious to say that the poet beautifully managed the balance and charms which is very much rich in its suggestive power and potential for mystical interpretation. Sahapari Upakhyan or Mrigawati Charitra : The Sahapari Upakhyan or Mrigawati Charitra is a romance in Assamese language which has been composed on the basis of Sufi theme or Islamic theme by poet Dvija Rama. Scholars opine that this book was written on the influence of Mrigawati, a book written in the sixteenth century which was penned by a Muslim writer named Kutuban. But after reading it one can feel that Dvija Rama does not seem to have been influence by Kutuban at least directly. It appears that he has taken the 240

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theme of the story from some secondary sources. It is clear from the study that consequently the Assamese version of Mrigawati Charitra greatly differs in many places from the Mrigawati of Kutuban. It is not a matter of discussion that from where he adopted the sources of it, but the story of the romance of Dvija Ram and Madhumalati are purely sufistic. These were the most prevalent sufistic work of that time. Medieval literature of Assam was rich enough, especially the literature produced during the time of the Neo-Vaishnava period of Assam, reached its height. From that time most of the poets and writers started composing poems, writing novels, stories dramas etc. the most crucial point to be noted that although their writing was mainly influenced by the neo-Vaishnavite religion, yet there can also be found sufistic attributes in the texts. Sahapari Upakhayan or Madhumalati Charit was written by Dvijaram. He did not mention the original source of the story in his book. Maheswar Neog said that two manuscripts dated 1712 A.D. and 1721 A.D. have been found in the Mongoldoi of Kamrup district. It is believed that this area was formerly under the Mughal rule for a short period of time. It can be easily assumed from the Islamic names of the characters that the source of his story is some Islamic work. This book is a result of the combination of Assamese-Islamic Sufi romance. This is the first Assamese book influence of Sufistic ideas. It is necessary here to say that Sufi movement happened in Assam in the 13th century and interestingly, the Vainavite cult was emerged in Assam in the 14th century. They have lots of Similarities between them and both have influenced each other. The way, through which Dvijaram shows the Sufi philosophy in this book, in the same manner, he also shows the Vaisnavite philosophy in the book. Sufi thoughts and ideas in Mrigavati Charit: One of the most important characteristics of Sufistic literature is ‗no pain no gain‘. Something which can be gained without effort bears no value. This 241

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feature can be witnessed in Dvijaram‘s Mrigawati. In this romance heroine intentionally examined the hero by letting him suffer dangerous journey and pain. Primarily, Sahapari stayed six months with prince Malikjadeh and after that she turned herself into a bird and said to foster mother, ― Prince has loved me very much by getting me without any struggle, but now if he really loves me then ask his to find me out in Rokam.‖ By saying this she flew off. From here his painful journey started where he suffered a lot danger and hindrance. Sufi philosophy said that a devotee can reach its goal through the excessive willpower and struggle. Dvijaram proved this philosophy through this piece of romance. When prince Malikjadeh reached Silam kingdom and saved a girl from a big snake, the king of the country offered him lots of money and properties. But the prince rejected the offer. Malikjadeh gave up all the earthly temptation and enticement when he left home and again rejected the offer of the king which describes a Sufi philosophy. A Sufi generally gives up all the enticement and greed in search of God. If one can give up all these earthly loves and affection or mundane bondage they can reach their goal. This Sufi philosophy is clearly visible in the activities of Malikjadeh. In the path of God, a Sufi must follow the direction and suggestion of his master; otherwise he cannot succeed in his path. In this story also, when Malikjadeh started his journey to Rokan, he remembered the advice of his master in every step which indicates the guidance of a Sufi master. To give up home and family in search of the beloved is a universal attributes of a Sufi story. We find the same thing in Dvijaram‘s story: Baap mao tejilo tejilo bandhujon Usargilo pran kailo bideshe gaman. Trans:

I gave up my parents and friends I surrendered myself to you for this journey. 242

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The general and common characteristics of Sufis romance can be fined in Mrigavati Charita more or less. Islamic names of the characters and places also signify the Sufi influence in the romance. ― Name of the Hero and heroines are alike Muslims. On the basis of the Islamic names and characters, we can pond over that the idea of the romance was taken from some Persian source and mixed with Hindu ideas here.‖ Apart from names of places and proper names, poet Dvijarama used some Arabic and Persian origin words such as Hazar, bazaar, shehr, rabab, shiri, shikar, etc. Chandraketu Kamakala: The Chandraketu Kamakala is another piece of romance of Kaviraja Chakravarti who was a court poet of king Rudra Singha. The interesting fact is that this king showed high appreciation for the Muslim art and culture, and also gave shelter to Sufi saints and appreciated them for their secular works. Therefore, Kaviraja Chakravarti might have inspired from some Persian or Urdu works to compose this romance of Chandraketu and Kamakala which he later included it to the Sakuntala Kavya. Dr. Mohini k. Saikia said, ― It is, therefore, not likely that his court-poet Kaviraja chakravarti should find inspiration for describing the episode of Chandraketu and Sakuntala in purely Romantic veins and for inserting it in his Sakuntala to enhance the romantic spirit of the main trend of the kavya.‖ In this romance, the poet introduced the rare Assamese folk-song “Baramahi Geet”. This is a short introduction of Sufi influence on Medieval Assamese Sufi Literature. Apart from these there may be some other Sufi literatuire produced in Assam during mediavel period.

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Works Cited: Baruah, B. K., Sarma, S. ed. (1958). Madhumalati, Guwahati:Assam. Uddin, Dr. Malek (2010). Sufibad aru Axomiya Kabya. Kokrajhar: Kokrajhar Jila Sahitya Sabha,. Behl, Aditya and Weightman, S. (tr.) (2000) Madhumalati: An Indian Sufi Romance. New York: Oxford University Press. Barua, A. C. (1986). Assamiya Kabyat Premor Bowati Suti. Guwahati:. 2nd edition. Neog, M, (1985). Asamiya Prem gatha, Guwahati: Jyoti Prakashan. Barlaskar, D. H. (1984), Influence of Persian on Assamese, Guwahati: Gauhati University, unpublished thesis.

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Age old Indo-Iran ties Dr. Wasif Ahmad, Associate Professor (Persian) Department of Arabic, Persian, Urdu & Islamic studies, Bhasha- Bhavana, Visva-Bharati University, West Bengal, India

Abstract The present paper primarily highlights historical, socio-political, cultural, and Linguistic age old Indo-Iran Relations. The paper will throw floods of light on the dark avenues of the history of Indo-Iran relations. Undoubtedly Indo-Iran relations existed since time immemorial. In fact there is no evidence of the exact date of the foundation of Indo-Iran relations. We cannot fix a precise date for the beginning of the age old ties. But certain indications synchronize it roughly with the Indus Valley civilization. India and Iran have the oldest continuous cultural traditions in the world. There are sufficient evidences of close contacts of ancient India with Iran during pre-historic period (around 3000BC), especially during the period of Indus Valley civilization which is known to the archeologist as the Harappa culture. It seems that the ancient Indian people made contact with the earliest Persian civilizations by sea or land. Indo-Iran relations existed long before the Aryan invasion. We people of India and Iran belong to the same Aryan race. We are of the same root. In other words we are two different branches of the same tree. Being of the same race there must be some kind of similarities between India and Iran. There are innumerable historically proved evidences that suggest that we are well connected with each other. Both India and Iran share common homeland, common linguistic and racial past. Traces of mutual contacts have always been found during all stages of history. At most periods of history India has been well connected to Persia. As mentioned above Indo-Iran relations date back to pre-historic period. Historically speaking there are sufficient historical records that 245

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suggest that Indo-Iran relations existed at all periods of history namely ancient period, medieval period, modern period and contemporary period. More specifically speaking there existed socio-political, economic and cultural contacts between the two great civilizations of the world during prehistoric period (Vedic period) (The Harappa culture and Aryans), Buddhist period, the ages of invasion, Gupta period, medieval period, modern period and contemporary period. The ancient Indians maintain good relations with ancient Iranians. During medieval period with Muslim invasion the age old Indo-Iran ties got strengthened. Even during the modern and contemporary periods there are sufficient examples of cultural exchange programs that took place between the two great nations of the world. In other words India had contacts with Pre-Islamic Iran which continued with the same sprite even after the advent of Islam in Iran. There were racial, historical, linguistic and socio-cultural contacts between India and Achaeminian Persia, Sassanid Persia, Safavid Persia and contemporary Islamic Republic Iran. Even today the relationships continue with the same sprite between the two great nations of the world. This paper will unravel the various facets of the features and characteristic of age old Indo-Iran ties. This is worth mentioning here that the present paper is an indispensible reference for the scholars for the study of Age old Indo-Iran Relations. Key words: Indo-Iran relations, pre-historic period, historic period, Indus valley civilization, ancient India, Aryan race, cuneiform script, Gatha, Borzaweh, Barhami script, Persepolis palace and Royal inscriptions Introduction: Indo-Iran Relations have special significance. People of India and Iran are Indo-Iranian. Relations and ethnic affinities exist between the people of India and Persia since time immemorial. We were one in the beginning, and the circumstances have separated us from one another. India and Iran are one of the oldest and civilized nations of the world. Since their inception they are linked to each other. We belong to the same birth place. We people belong to the same Aryan race. We are two different branches of 246

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the same tree. We belong to the same home land. Our origin and development are of the same nature. India had good relations with PreIslamic Persia. After the advent of Islam in Iran Indo-Iran Relations were maintained which continue even today. PART-1 PRE-ISLAMIC PERSIA INDO-IRAN RELATIONS BEFORE ADVENT OF ISLAM IN IRAN PRE-HISTORIC TIMES OR PRE-HISTORY (ANCIENT INDIA) Indus valley civilization, Harappa Culture (Before Aryan invasion): Early Pre-Islamic Persia corresponds with Indus valley civilization. India and Persia have had cultural connections with each other since time immemorial. Indo-Iran relations date back to Neolithic age. IndoIran relations existed even during pre-historic times. Historians and scholars firmly believed that the Aryan migrations from the north-west have taken place after the Indus valley civilization. Both Indus valley civilization and Persian civilization were well connected in many ways even before the arrival of the Aryans. Impressive remains of Indus valley civilization discovered at Mohenjo-Daro in Sind and at Harappa in western Punjab reveled that this civilization is age-old on Indian soil. On the other hand remains of age-old Sumerian civilizations also reveal existence of Human history of millenniums. Thus Indus valley civilization is as old as the civilizations of Persia, Mesopotamia and Egypt. India was closely akin to that of contemporary Persia. There are sufficient evidences that even six or seven thousand years ago when the Indus valley civilization probably began Indus valley was well connected with its sister contemporaneous civilizations of Sumerian, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru in his ‗Discovery of India‘ observes, ― These people of the Indus Valley had many contacts with the Sumerian civilization of that period, and there is even some evidence of an Indian colony, probably of merchants, at Akkad. Manufactures from the Indus cities reached even the 247

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. Conversely, a few markets on the Tigris and Euphrates‖.1 He further adds, ― Sumerian devices in art, Mesopotamia toilet sets, and a cylinder seal were copied on the Indus. Trade was not confined to raw materials and luxury articles; fish regularly imported from the Arabian Sea coasts, augmented the food supplies of Mohenjo-Daro‖. 2 Seals: There is a striking similarity of seals of both the civilizations. Religion: Pre-historic and most historic religions of India and Iran bear resemblance. Trade: Moreover Indus valley civilization had trade relations with its sister civilizations of Sumerian, Mesopotamia, Egypt and Persia. Merchant class evidently played an important role in strengthening relations among them. It is interesting to note that traditions, habits, popular rituals, craftsmenship, some fashion in dress and even good baths drainage system and culture of Mohenjo-Daro and Harappa influenced west Asia3. As mentioned above Indo-Iran relations can be traced back to prehistoric period. It precedes the beginnings of Indo-Aryan civilization. There are sufficient historical evidences of existence of Indo-Iran relations in the Indus valley civilization in India. It is believed that during Pre-historic times before 2000-3000 BC inhabitants of North West India and Iran came from the

same

region.

Indus

valley

Civilization

had

contacts

with

contemporaneous Civilizations of Iran and Mesopotamia. There is evidence of trade between Indus Valley civilization and Iranian in early days. There was trade between India and Iran through Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea. The Harappa people are believed to have imported mineral from Persia. Iran imported ivory from ancient India. As mentioned above there are records of existence of trade contacts of Harappa people with the people of Persian civilization long before the Aryan invasion. Whether by Sera or land the products of Persia reached Indus Valley, ancient India. This unparalleled continuity of Relationship suggests that Indo-Iran Relations existed throughout their history, even before the arrival of Aryans. The below quotation of A. L. Basham, Professor of Asian 248

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Civilization in the Australian National University, Canberra, seconds my argument. A. L. Basham says, ― Silver, turquoise and lapis Lazuli were imported from Persia and Afghanistan. Their copper came either from Rajasthan or from Persia, while Jadeite was probably obtained from Tibet or Central Asia4‖. Professor Basham further advocates, ― Sporadic traces of contact can be found between the Indus cities and Samaria, and there is some reason to believe that this contact continued under the 1st dynasty of Babylon, which produced the great lawgiver Hammurabi. This dynasty was also overwhelmed by barbarians, the Kassites, who came from the hills of Iran and conquered by virtue of their horse-drawn chariots‖5. The Proto-Historic period (ANCIENT INDIA) Indo-Iran Historical Links: At most periods of history India has been well connected to Persia. India and Iran have close historical links throughout the ages. They had common homeland. They share a common linguistic racial past. During interaction spreading over several millennia, they enriched each other in the fields of language, literature, culture and other traditions. Even today both the countries enjoy friendly relations in every sphere of life. The first Prime minister of independent India, Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru, advocates, ― Among the many peoples and races who have come in contact with and influenced India‘s life and culture, the oldest and most persistent have been the Iranians. Indeed the relationship precedes even the beginning of Indo-Aryan civilization, for it was out of some common stock that the Indo-Aryans and the ancient Iranians diverged and took their different ways‖6. He adds, ― Few people have been more closely related in origin and throughout History than the people of India and the people of Iran‖7. Indo-Europeans and Aryans: In the early part of the 2nd millennium from central Asia Aryans, whether from pressure of population, desiccation of pasture lands, or from both causes, were on the move. They moved in bands towards different directions. One band of Aryans moved to Northern hilly regions of Ancient India while another one to Persia. 249

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According to Mohammad Husain Azad Indian Aryan society and Iranian Aryan society are offspring of one grandfather7b. ARRIVAL OF THE ARYANS IN INDIA: Indo-Iranian or Aryan tribes, one of the eight8 main branches of Indo-European Aryan race, migrated from their native home land in Central Asia or Northern icy regions around from 5000BC to2000BC9. divisions10. One of its chunks

11

Later they split into two

‗Airya‘12 or ‗Arya‘ settled over the vast

Iranian plateau and they name it ‗Airyana‘13 (abode of Aryans). ‗Airya‘ is the Avesta word which means noble and indepdent13b. During Sassanid Persia (226AD-625AD) the above noted word ‗Airyana‘ became ‗Aayeran and then it became ‗Iran‘13c. In Achaemenian inscriptions and Pahlavi literature the ancient name of Iran was mentioned as ‗Iran Kashetra‘ and ‗Iran Shahar‟ which later on became Iran13d. Its counterpart, another chunk, moved towards India and proclaimed this ‗Saptsindhu‘14 or ‗Indus valley region‘ as Aryavarata‘‘15. These Aryans kept on moving towards east in search of fresh pasture land and ultimately captured the north region of India during the subsequent centuries. Based on logical presumption, the culture of different clans of Indo-Aryan tribes of Aryan race must have been similar, if not the same, and akin to each other. The linguistic study of the Avestic and Sanskrit languages strengthens the assumption of affinity among their different clans. In the early days of 20th century an Iranian Cultural mission to India said at Allahabad, ― The Iranian and Indians are like two brothers, who, according to a Persian legend, had got separated from each other, one going east and the other to the West‖16. Aryans poured in to India in successive waves from North–West probably about a thousand years after the Indus Valley period. According to Jawaharlal Nehru, ― We might say that the first great cultural synthesis and fusion took place between the incoming Aryans and the Dravidians, who were probably the representatives of the Indus Valley Civilization. Out of this synthesis and fusion grew the Indian races and the basic Indian culture, which had distinctive elements of both. In the ages that followed there came many other races: Iranians, Greeks, Parthian, Bactrian, Scythians, Huns, Turks 250

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(before Islam), early Christians, Jews, Zoroastrians; they came, made a difference, and were absorbed‖17. Besides they were followed by other tribes and migratory people who came in large or small groups and found home in India. India being an infinitely absorbent like the ocean absorbed the new comers whosoever they may be. India powerfully affected the Iranians when they came in her contact directly or indirectly. According to Nehru the word ‗Hindu‘ which means people and not the followers of a particular religion18 occurs in Avesta and old Persian religion19, and not in ancient Indian literature, (though in its original form ‗Sidhu‘) which was used for the people living on the other side of the Indus river20 (presently India also) by the Western and central Asian people. In the words of Nehru, ― The words (Hindu) are clearly derived from ‗Sindhu‘, the old, as well the present, Indian name for the Indus. From the ‗Sindhu came the Hindu and Hindustan as well Indus and India‖21. The Aryans came to India and mixed with Dravidians. Language: Contacts between India and Iran are testified in language. Old Iranian language is closely akin to Sanskrit22. Some Sanskrit words are believed to be Iranian origin. Their religions and languages also had a common back ground. Nehru states, ― Racially connected…Vedic Sanskrit and the old Pahlavi, the language of Avesta, closely resemble each other. Classical Sanskrit and Persian developed separately but many of their root-words were common, as some are common to all the Aryan languages‖23. Mohammad Husain Azad has termed Old Iranian Languages and Sanskrit as two daughters of one parent. The one who reached India (Hind) and was brought up there became Hindu and another one who reached Iran and was brought up there was called Iranian23b. Culture: Indian and Persian culture was influenced by their respective environments. India influenced Iranian culture and similarly Iran influenced Indian culture. Art: Persian art influenced Indian art and similarly Indian art influenced Iranian art. 251

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The later Vedic age Trade relations: Coinage: There is evidence of strong contacts between India and Persia during later Vedic period. Persia might have played a pivotal role in introduction of coinage to India. Basham observes, ― Coinage may have been introduced towards the end of the 6th century B.C, through Persian influence‖24. We witness a great deal of similarities in Indian and Iranian society, religion, culture, history, politics, economy, art, language, literature and culture during later Vedic period. India & Iran: Common Homeland, Common Linguistic & Racial past: It would not be inappropriate here to shed light on common race, origin and development of the languages and ancient history. Millenniums ago some people of India and Iran was nomads in the central Asian region who naturally shared common tradition, belief, language and culture. They were divided into two groups and both the groups migrated southwards. One group migrated in to the Indian subcontinent while another group moved towards Iranian plateau. They lived together before separation. Saied Nafisi opines, ― Indians and Iranians belong to one single family before the beginning of the Indo-Aryan civilization and lived together with a common language for many centuries in pastoral lands of Oxus valley in central Asia (Tajikistan, Uzbekistan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan and Kazakhstan)25. It is believed that the first Aryan migration in to India and Iran took place around 2000BC. These people brought with them their matrilineal system, their worship of sky God, their horses and chariots26. They belong to the same Aryan race and same homeland, Central Asian steppes27. We Indians and Iranians are the grand children of one grand father28. Race: Indians and Iranians are racially well connected. Scriptures: Vedas and Avesta which belong to Indian Aryans and Iranian Aryans respectively, have much similarity in terms of their content. There is description of India in Avesta. There are references to Persia in the Rig Veda. 252

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Indo-Iran linguistic ties: As mentioned above linguistic study of the Avestic and Sanskrit languages strengthens the assumption of affinity among their different clans. It would not be inappropriate here to shed light on the origin and development of the Iranian languages. Iranian languages such as Old Persian, Pahlavi and Persian belong to the group of IndoEuropean languages. Similarly Indian languages, including Sanskrit and old Vedic belong to the same Indo-European group of languages. Indo-European family of Languages29: Iran is related to Sanskrit ― Arya‖30 (noble). Iran is the Avesta word „Airya‟ means ‗noble‘30b. ― Aryavarata‖ is the sacred land. The words ― Iran‖ and ― Aryavarata‖ are close relatives and denote the abode of nobles, the excellent ones and the respectable people. Those people are faithful to their land.

Sanskrit and Avesta have a common basic vocabulary and common Grammar: The name of ‗Hapt Hendu‘ (land of seven rivers) is mentioned in Avesta. The word ‗Ariya‘ (name of Persia) appears in the Vedas. In the Rig Veda the Persians were called ‗Parsavas‘ and later 253

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‗Parasikas‘ from which the word ‗Persia‘ is derived. As mentioned above there are similarities between Sanskrit and Avesta. Some other words with apparent common roots are31: Sanskrit

Avesta

Persian

Urdu

Asuramid

ahura

hormuzd

Ahur

ah

mazda

a mazda Khud a e buzurg

ashu

aspa

asp

ghora a

ashtura

ushtura

Ashtur/shutr

ount

Akshi/cha

Akshi/cha

chashm

Aank

lshush

shman

h

bahu

bazu

baazu

baazu

pancha

pancha

panj

paanc h

deva

dayewa

dew

Dew, shaitan

hirday

zaridiyah

dil

dil

hast

zast

dast

hath

gau

gaao

gaao

gae

kesha

gaisa

gaisu

baal

maatra

maatr

mather

maan

yama

yima

Yam/jam/ja

jams

msheed

254

heed

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Sanskrit

Avesta

Persian

Urdu

dohtar

oadur

dokhtar

beti

pitr

pitar

Pedar

walid

(father) shergala

shagala

shoghal

gidar

atharva

atar

Aatish

Aag

asman

aseman

Aasman

Aasman

danu

danu

rudkhana

nadi

arya

airya

arya

arya

arya

airya

arya

arya

deen

deen

Dhena Daena (In Rig Veda (means inner self dhena means of man) speech reflecting the inner thoughts of man) mitra

mithra

mehar

suraj

ruch

ruch

roz

din

Savad

Hvada(inhe

Khuda

Khuda

hasteed

Aap

rent) power) asti

asti

hain

Sanskrit

Avesta

Persian

Urdu

pashu

Pasu

haiwan

Chaar pae

sawang

sawan

sag 255

kutta

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

sapta

haspata

Hafta/haft

saat

ashta

ashta

hasht

aath

mush

mush

mush

chuha

mushti

mushti

musht

mutthi

Horse is called ‗asva‘ in Sanskrit and ‗aspa‘33 in Old Persian. Similarly sun in Sanskrit language is known as ‗mitra‘ where as it is known as ‗misa‘ in Old Persian. The ‗Hapt Hindu‘ of Avesta and ‗Sapta Sindhu‘ of Rig Veda refer to Punjab. The Persian word ‗Khuda‘ goes back to Avestan word ‗Havada‘ which is ‗Savada‘ in Sanskrit (inherent power). Sanskrit: Ancient Indian Vedic Sanskrit is very much akin to ancient Iranian old Pahlavi. Innumerable root words of Sanskri and Persian are common. It has universally been accepted that Sanskrit language is close akin to Persian language. The relationship of Sanskrit to Persian, the official language of Iran, is indicated by several obvious resemblances, such as ‗pitr‘, (father) ‗pedar‘ (father) and ‗maatr‘ (mother) ‗maadar‘ (mother), and many others which are less obvious. Many hundreds of relationships of this kind have been established with virtual certainty. The reader with a slight knowledge of Persian will immediately be able to recognize the relationship between its verbal systems and that of Sanskrit. Religion: The religious faith and belief of Aryans, residing in India and Iran, are much similar, resembling and related. The ancestors of the Aryans and Iranian had similar, if not identical, beliefs34. Basham rightly observes, ― Varuna…He is known as an Asura…which in later Hinduism came to mean a class of demon, but which was in Persia adopted by the reformer Zarathustra in its local form as part of the title of the great god of light, Ahura Mazda35‖. Basham goes one step further and says, ― Just as shadowy Dyaus represents the high god of the Indo-European peoples before their separation, so Varuna may have been the high god of the Indo256

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Iranians before the two peoples divided, one to settle in North West India and the other in the Persian hghlands36‖. Ancient Indian god ‗Mitra‘ resembles ancient Iranian god ‗Mithras‘.Basham states,―Mostimportant of these was‗Mitra‘ a God with some solar characteristics, but mainly connected with vows and compacts. ‗Mitra‘ was represented in the Zoroastrian pantheon, and, under his Greco-Iranian name ‗Mithras‘ was widely worshiped in the Roman Empire in early Christian times

37

‖.

Scriptures: The sacred religious scripture of the Zoroastrians is the Avesta. Vedas are the sacred religious scripture of the Hinduism in India. Vedas resemble with the Avesta. Vedas and Avesta which belong to Indian Aryans and Iranian Aryans respectively, have much similarity in terms of their content and language. Rid Veda and Gatha: The earliest religious texts of Indo-Aryans (principally the Rig Veda) are indispensible sources for the study of the development of Iranian religion. There are references to Persia in the Rig Veda. Idols or temples have no place in both Vedas and Gatha. There are references to importance of ‗fire‘ and ‗sacrifice‘ in both the religious scriptures. There is a close link between Gatha, the hymns of Prophet Zoroaster, included in the part of Avesta, the holy book of Zoroastrians, and the Rig Veda (1700 BC), the ancient Indian hymns. Vedic Religion and Zoroastrianism: Zoroastrianism is the major religion of Pre-Islamic Persia. There is much in common between the Vedic Religion and Zoroastrianism. In other words Hinduism is a sister Aryan religion that resembles Zoroastrianism38, the major ancient Pre-Islamic religion of Iran. Much emphasis has been given to ‗sacrifice‘ and ‗fire‘ in both the religions. Zoroastrian priests spread the message of importance of fire. Rituals: There is striking resemblance of Vedic religious rituals with Zoroastrian Religious rituals. The following is the best example of striking similarity between them. Ancient Iranian religion of the Peshdadyan and ancient Indian Vedic religion give great importance to fire. 257

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. Vedic Religion: In Vedic religion fire (Agni) is not only worshiped39 but also regarded as daughter of Varun40, the god water. In Vedic religion fire (Agni) is regarded as much important. Most of the religious and customary ceremonies are performed with fire worship. According to Vedic literature on the occasion of celebration of ceremony named ‗Upnayana Yogya‟, ‗Jeneyu‘41 the sacred thread, is worn together with worn clothes (Uttariye) for completion of the ceremony. Their religions had common background. Vedic religion has much in common with Zoroastrian Religion. Zoroastrian

Religion:

According

to

Zoroastrian

religious

philosophy the ‗fire‘ is the emblem and representative of its father Ahura Mazda. The Zoroastrians consider fire as a sacred and revered object. They glorify and worship it for their protection from evil forces. The Zoroastrians also wear the thread called ‗Kushti‘ in a religious ceremony named ‗Novjote‘42. According to Prof. Sharf Alam, ― There are three cardinal principles of Zoroastrianism viz. good thinking (Afkar e Neek), good speaking (Guftar e Neek) and good action (kirdar e Neek)‖43. Zoroastrians are stick to these three principles of life very honestly. Zoroaster: Zoroaster has laid much emphasis on the elimination of conflict and clash of ‗good‘ and ‗evil‘. Evil forces are constantly busy fighting the good forces on earth. He clearly exposes the fact that the struggle of ‗good‘ and ‗evil‘ would come to an end on the day of resurrection when the good force would come out victorious at last. Avesta: Avesta is the sacred religious book of Zoroastrian Religion. There is description of India in Avesta. In Avestic literature the sun has been considered as source of energy. Vedas: The Vedas were the out pouring of the ‗Aryans‘ in India. Similarly in Persia also ‗Aryans‘ brought their thought and ideas with them from the common stock out of which grew the Avesta44. In other words it can be said that the rivers of Ancient Indian and ancient Iranian thought, philosophy and culture flew from the same source and origin. Nehru says, ― Even the language of the Vedas bear a striking resemblance to that of the 258

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. Avest‖45. According to Nehru Avesta is near to Veda. In Vedic literature also there are two types of heavenly force viz. ‗Asur‘ (good force) and ‗Deva‘46, the evil force (Rakshash). Vedas contain benefits of sacrifice and its religious and philosophical explanations. Continuity of Indian culture: Throughout this long period of history India had continuous and living contacts with Iranians, Central Asians and others. The unbroken Continuity is remarkable. If Indo-Iran relations survived for long time there must have been something special in the nature of the relations which gave it the dynamic strength to do so. Intellectual Interactions The Upanishads: The Upanishads which has found willing and eager listeners throughout Indian history has powerfully molded the national mind and character. Early Indian thought penetrated into the minds of Iranian thinkers and philosophers who were greatly influenced by mystic element of the Upanishads. Indian philosophy particularly Vedanta philosophy created a powerful impression on Iranian thinkers and philosophers. Hymns of the Vedas: Serious study of the hymns of the Vedas reveals that the sun worship has been prevalent among the Aryans since time immemorial. The Brahmans worship the sun every morning47. Gods and Goddesses: The Hindu Gods and Goddesses like Indra and Bhadrika resemble Ahura Mazda and Mithras. Indian ‗Mitra‘ (god of sun) is similar to the Iranian ‗Mithra‘. According to Prof. Sharf Alam, ― Vedic god ‗Varun‘ appears as sharing many features of ‗Ahuramazda‘, the Zoroastrian god. Names of many angels resemble in both the Vedic and the Avesta e.g. Avestic Surva, Nanhita, Atar, Anahita and Vedic Indra, Mithra, Varun, Saraswati hold the same assignment and discharge similar duties‖48. Existence of demon in Persian folklore, especially in Firdausi‘s Shah

259

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Namah, resembles with the demon existed in classical literature of Vedic period. Vedic and Persian Religious festivals (both Aryans): Amazing similarities can be found in the Religious festivals also. There are close similarities between ‗Holi‘ and ‗Naurooz‘ as both attach much importance to fire. Fire plays an important role in both the festivals. According to Prof. Azhar Dehlvi, ― The archaeological excavations, the decipherments of some tablets, the historical study provide further evidence to prove relations before the advent of the Aryans to the part of the world. After the migration of the Aryans from their original place in Central Asia settling down in two neighboring lands, the contacts grew still stronger and further to the extent that the identity extends even to the connotation of terms and concepts‖49. Classification of Society: There were four varnas (classification of society) in ancient India. Ancient Iran also had four pistras (classes). They are comparable50 to Iranian classification to some extent. The four fold classification of society into priests, warriors, peasants and artisans appear in Vedas, the Gatha, Yasna and Fidausi‘s Shahnama51 (book of kings), a Law &order: Law and

rhymed epic of Ghaznavid period.

order seems to be the fundamental concepts of the Aryans52. Pre-Achaemenid Persia: As mentioned above there were good contacts of India with Pre-Achaemenid Persia. India is mentioned in Avesta. Persia is mentioned in Rig Veda. Nehru says, ― In the Rig Veda there are references to Persia—the Persians were called ‗Parsava‘ and later ‗Parasika‘, from which the modern word ‗Parsi‘ is derived. The Parthians were referred to as Parthavas‖53. North India and Iran were traditionally well connected since most ancient times, prior to the Achaemenian dynasty. ACHAEMENID PERSIA (ANCIENT INDIA) Contacts between India and Achaemenid Persia: India had good relations with the kings of Achaemenian dynasty. During the Achaemenid period some parts of North West India came under Persian rule which has 260

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

been mentioned in the Persepolis inscription. Indian emissaries were present in the courts of Medes and Emperor Kurush, better known as Cyrus in 550529 BC. Most of the Achaemenian Emperors like Hakhamanish, founder of Achaemenian dynasty; Cyrus, mentioned in inscriptions as Kurush; Darius, 3rd ruler of Achaemenian dynasty; Xerxes, successor of his father Darius-I; Khshayarsha, Darius-ii and Darius-iii were very much concerned about India and were well aware of historical, socio-political, and economic affairs of this vast region.

Inscriptions of Achaemenian period refer to their

relations with India. The 3rd ruler of Achaemenian dynasty, Darius, sent an expedition to India. The Behistun rock inscription dating back to 518BC includes Gandhar in the list of his subject countries. The Behistun inscription refers to Iranian language as Aryan. The Persepolis inscription mentions Punjab as a part of Persian Empire. The epigraph of Naqsh e Rustam also shows India as the state of his Empire. Cyrus the great, the king of kings; and Darius: We have records of contacts of India with Kurush, better known as Cyrus the great, the king of kings; and Darius. From the 6th century BC onwards direct contacts grew through the campaigns of Cyrus and Darius. Darius reached the border lands of India. Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru writes, ― In the 6th century BC the Persian Empire under Darius stretched right up to the North West India, including Sind and probably part of Western Punjab. That period is sometimes referred to as the Zoroastrian period of Indian history and its influence must have been wide spread. Sun worship was encouraged‖54. Trade Relations: There exited Relations between India and Persia through trade from the period prior to the 7th century BC and for ages afterwards. It is believed that commerce between India and Babylon was largely via the Persian Gulf 55. War-Military help: During the reign of Cyrus the great, king of kings, the great Achaemenian King, his Indian counterpart is believed to have rendered military assistance56 to him. Needless to say that there were 261

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

exchange of political help at the military level between ancient India and Achaemenian Persia, particularly during the reign of Darius, the 3rd ruler of Achaemenian dynasty. Basham says, ― Alexander had already met Indian troops, for a small contingent of soldiers from the west of the Indus, with fifteen elephants, had fought with Darius‖57. Indian soldiers with fifteen elephants fought with Iranian soldiers against Greeks at the time of attack of Alexander on Achaemenian Emperor Darius-III in 330 BC58. The army of Xerxes (khsharyarsh), a great Achaemenian Emperor and the son of DariusI, included Indian Pathans. According to Herodotus, a detachment Indians fought in the Persian army against the Greeks at plateau59. Exchange of Agricultural products: The Achaemenians brought rice from India to be planted in Persia60. Sugarcane (the reed which gives honey without bees) is believed to have been brought from India to Persia by Emperor Darius in 510 BC. According to A. L. Basham, the grape, introduced to India by Persia along with almond and walnut, was cultivated in

Western Himalyans

of

India61. Administrative and

political

nomenclature: Administrative and political nomenclature in northern India at this time reflected that of Western and central Asia. Terms which are still frequently used in Indian judiciary like ‗Adalat, wakil, darban, hefazat, griftari, Qazi, munsif, Munshi, moharrir etc are Persian words. Achaemenian Arts and architecture and administration: Achaemenian Arts and architecture had a significant influence on India. The idea of issuing decrees by Emperor Asoka the great was borrowed from the Achaemenian Emperors. Inscriptions of Achaemenian Emperors and Asoka: Epigraphy was started during Ashoka period of history in India. There are considerable similarities between inscriptions of Achaemenian dynasty and Ashoka‘s inscriptions. Maurya Dynasty Chandragupta Maurya & Chanakkya: During Maurya period the Empire was extended right up to central Asia. The first recorded established 262

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Mauriya Empire maintained diplomatic relations with the Persian world. These relations rested on the solid foundation of mutual commercial interest. The import of Indian goods indicates trade contacts with Persia at least as early as the period of Indus valley civilization (Harappa culture). Persian Ambassadors officially visited Patliputra, the seat of power during Maurya Empire. Chandragupta Maurya: During the reign of Maurian dynasty IndoIran Relations continued. Chandragupta Maurya, the founder of Maurya dynasty, had friendly relations with his Iranian counterparts. During his reign Commercial, political and cultural contacts between India and Persia were strong and satisfactory. There were conspicuous exchangs of political envoys between India and Persia during Maurya dynasty. Asoka the great, the king of kings: Asoka, Successor and grand Son of Chandragupta Maurya, who succeeded to this great Empire in about 273BC, paid much attention towards the improvement of foreign policy. Ashoka was an astonishing ruler. He was beloved in India and many other parts of Asia, particularly Persia. During his reign India became an important International centre. His Ambassadors and messengers reached to central Asia. According to Nehru, ― We have records of an Indian colony in Khotan (now Sinkiang, Central Asia.)‖62. Architecture: It is said that Ahoka‘s buildings were influenced by the architecture of Persepolis. According to Nehru, ― Ashoka was a great builder and it has been suggested that he employed foreign craftsmen to assist in building some of his huge structures. This inference is drawn from the design of some columns which reminds one of Persepolis‖63. Art: Indian Art of Buddhist period has touch of Persian art. Edicts: Asoka‘s Edicts carved in rock and metal are comparable with the Edicts of Cyrus and Darius of Acheminied Persia. Philosophy: Persian Empire reached the Indus at the time of rise of Buddhism. I‘m led to believe that they must have influenced Iranian minds. 263

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Kharoshthi script: Another script of Ashoka period called Kharohhti, the alphabet of which is written from right to left like Aramaic, resembles with Aramaic alphabet, the language of ancient Iran. Basham maintains, ― It (Kharohhti) was certainly derived from the Aramaic alphabet, which was widely used in Achaemenid Persia, and was also known in North-West India64. He further puts emphasis on close resemblance of Kharohhti letter with Aramaic. He says, ― Many Kharohhti letters closely resemble, and, like Aramaic, the alphabet is read from right to left‖65. Kharoshti script written from right to left as Aramaic was introduced to India by the Persian officials. Contacts under Guptas Continuation of Indo-Iran relations under Guptas: In the 4th & 5th centuries AC under the age of the Guptas there are records of existence Zoroastrianism, Iranians and Iranian culture in India66 Indians & Iranians used to meet in the border land area of Kabul, Qandhar and Sistan which were often part of India. Trade continued through Sea route also, especially in south India. Seleucus Nicator: During the rule of the Grecian ruler of Persia, Seleucus Nicator, political, commercial and cultural relations between both the countries continued. Trade and commerce: with the introduction of coinage by Achaemenian Persia trade between the countries expanded. Import and export: India exported spices and black pepper to Iran and imported gold and silver coins from Iran. Artaxerxes: In the 5th century BC Achaemenian Emperor Artaxerxes also promoted Indo-Iran Relations. SASSANID PERSIA (226AD - 651AD) Indo-Iran Relations under Sassanid (226-651AD): The Sassanid period of Persia (226-651AD) coincided with the Gupta period (308651AD) in India. The Sassanid monarchs maintained friendly and cordial 264

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

bilateral relations with their Indian counterparts of Gupta Empire based at Patliputra. There were exchanges of ambassadors between them. Exchange of Ambassadors under the Sassanid: Nehru says, ― There is record of exchange of Ambassadors between a Southern kingdom and the Persia of the Sassanid‖67. Shahpur (310-379 AD) Visit of Indian physician: During the reign of Shahpur (310-379 AD) Indian physician visited Persia for medical practice. Art: In Indian art Persian elements are visible. Ajanta caves near Mumbai also depict them. Indian peacocks, cocks and dragon adorn Sassanid monuments. Buddhist influence on Persia: Under the kind patronage of Kanishka, the ruler of North West India in the 1st century BC, a great patron of Buddhist faith, Buddhism began to spread to central Asia and the Far East. Gandhara school of Buddhist art introduced Persian elements in to Buddhist iconography. With the defeat of Vasudeva, Kanishka‘s successor, by Sassanid Persian monarch Shahpur 1st (310-379 AD), North West India came under Persian influence. Buddhism became the religion of East Iranian province of Khorasan. Zoroastrianism also has strongly influenced Buddhism. I quote two quotations of A.L. Basham which will give the reader some idea of age old Indo-Iran Relations, particularly influence of Zoroastrianism on Buddhism. A.L. Basham advocates, ― Under the invading rulers of North West India Zoroastrianism and Buddhism came in contact, and it was probably through this that the idea of the future Buddha became part of orthodox belief‖68. He further emphasizes, ― Under Achaemenid and Sassanid Emperors Zoroastrianism was certainly practiced in part of North West India, and had some influence on Hinduism and Buddhism, but no very clear traces of Zoroastrian community have survived there.‖69. Mani, a scion of Ashkanian family: During the Sassanian era, the religion preached by Mani, a scion of Ashkanian family, combines elements 265

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

of Buddhist, Christian and Zoroastrian faiths. In central Asia other languages and religions, including Zoroastrianism and Christianity coexisted with Buddhism. Buddhism and Zoroastrianism came in to close contact in North West India70. Buddha also seems to have been influenced by Zoroastrian doctrine71. Architecture: Indian monuments must have influenced the early Persian Architecture72. Paintings: Paintings of both the countries represent cultural exchange between Persia and India. Chalukyan Kingdom of South India Indo-Iran Diplomatic relations under Chalukyan kingdom: The Chalukyan kingdom of South India which emerged after Maurya Empire exchanged Ambassadors with the Sassanid Persia. Iranians came and found a home in India. India has always been flexible and adaptable. Due to its flexibility and adaptability India has always been in the habit of absorption of foreign elements. ― Her method has been two-fold: to fight them (foreign invaders) and driven them out, and to absorb who could not be driven away‖73, says Nehru. It indicates philosophical approach of life and a tolerance of other peoples‘ ways. India has common cultural background. There exists unity in spite of diversity in India. Whatever the reign might have been, Iranian migrants of all kinds have become distinctively Indian, participating jointly in Indian culture. It is observed that every out side element that has come to India and been absorbed by India, has given some thing to India and taken much from India. Continuing Contacts (5th - 7th century AD) Bahram Gur Music and Dance: Indian music and dance are believed to have been propagated in Persia by Indian gypsies during the reign of Bah ram Gaur, the 5th century AD Sassanid Persian king who is said to have visited India. 266

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

Khusraw Anushervan-(531-576 AD) Literature & Culture: In the early 6th century AD during the reign of Khusraw Anushervan (531-576 AD) literary and Cultural exchange programmes between India and Persia were initiated at large scale. Scientists, intellectuals, litterateur and scholars were exchanged between the two countries who contributed a lot the development of Indo-Iran Relations. Borzaweh: Borzaweh was the reliable courtyard and physician of the court of Khusraw Anushervan (531-576 AD). Migration of Panjtantra from India to Iran: During Sassanid dynasty area of contact, collaboration and cultural relations was considerably widened with the migration of Panjtantra, the store house of Indian wisdom, from India to Iran. Having heard of characteristics of Indian Ayurvedic system of medicine Khusraw Anusherwan74 sent Borzaweh to India to bring back works on medicine and elixir of life in the 6th century AD. After a lot of struggle Borzaweh obtained Panjtantra. On his return brought the collection of Indian fables in Sanskrit language titled ― Panjtantra‖75, a store house of knowledge and wisdom, and presented to the emperor. Translation of Panjtantra in to Pahlavi: During his stays in India he interacted with scholars of Sanskrit language and intellectuals. During his interaction he got acquainted with Indian language, literature and culture. Borzaweh translated ― Panjtantra‖, instructions about conduct of one‘s affairs, from Sanskrit in to Pahlavi under the title ― Kalilah o Dimnah‖. Translation of Panjtantra in Arabic: Abdullah Ibn e Muqaffa translated the Pahlavi text of Panjtantra into Arabic. Besides, there are many Persian versions of the text. Rudaki Samarqandi versified it which is not available now. Another versions of Panchatantra were also created by Nurullah Munshi in the 15th century A.D. and Abul Fazal Allami in the 16th century A.D. ― Prof. Saiyyed Amir Hassan Abidi and Dr. Tara Chand observed, ― The cultural traditions of Iran and India linked together not only 267

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

because the two belong to essentially the same ethno linguistic family, but also because both have obtain sustenance from the source of folklore from ancient times. The stories of the Panchatantra for example, spread to Iran from India and consequently enriched the treasure-house of worldliterature‖76. Migration of Panjtantra from East to West: Panjtantra travelled from the East to the West through its translations in to various languages of the world, including English, French, Japanese and Russian etc. Shatranj: During the Sassanid Persia the Shatranj77 (chess) was gifted to Emperor Anushervan (531-576 AD) 77b by his Indian counterpart in the middle of 6th century A.D. Trade and commerce: There are sufficient historical evidences of trade of sandal woods, gold and silver between ancient India and the 6 th century Sassanid Persia, especially during the reign of Khusraw Anushervan (531-576 AD). It is believed that for the first time tea sapling was brought to Iran from India.

PART-11 INDO-IRAN RELATIONS AFTER THE ADVENT OF ISLAM IN IRAN Advent of Islam in Iran: Persians lost the battle of Qadisiyah78 in 637 A.D to the Islamic Arab armies. In the 2nd quarter of 1st half of 7th century A.D. with Arab invasion78A under the omen of Islam the Sassanid dynasty came to an end in Iran. Arab invasion: Around the 2nd quarter of the 1st half of 7th century A.D., corresponding with 21A.H. during the period of Hazrat Omar Faruq under the leadership of S‘ad bin Abi Waqas, grand uncle of Hazrat Moammad (PBUH) and under the commandership of Khalid bin Arafat, the last battle between Iranians and Arabs which was termed by Arabs as ― Fathul futuh‖78B took place in Nehawand. In this battle Yazdigird-III, 21 268

Dialogue Between Cultures ………………..

years old young boy and the last emperor of sasanian dynesty, was defeated. He ran away to Khorasan. He was killed at Khorasan. Iran came under the influence of Arabs. Arabs rule over Iranians around 200 years. Persian language, literature and culture fell under the influence of Arabs. Levy says, ― In the year A.D. 651 the empire of the sasanians was brought to an end by the Arabian invasion of Persia and the defeat of Yazdigird, the last member of the dynesty‖79. War-military help: During the Arab invasion on Sassanid Persia their Indian counter parts had help them at military level79b. Interestingly after the invasion a group of Iranians had migrated to Sind and settled there79c. Migration of Zoroastrians to India: Following this the Zoroastrians migrated to India through the Strait of Hormuz. Ancient Iranian religious community Zoroastrians, now generally known as Parsis setteled at Gujrat and Thane near Mumbai in the early 8th century AD. Basham says, ― Though Zoroastrian merchants may have settled on the West coast of India very early, we have no record of theme until after the Arab conquest of Persia, when Persian fugitives came to India in appreciable numbers. According to the parsis‟s traditions one band of refuges settled first at Diu in Saurastra, and then at Thana near Bombay, in the early 8 th century‖80. Arrival of Arab traders: In the 7th century A.D. Arab traders came to the Southern Western coast of India. Invasion of Mahammad bin Qasim: Islam had come to India from Arab in the begining of 8th century A.D80b. Arabs under the command of Mahammad bin Qasim invaded India from the West80c. Settlement of Zoroastrians in India: As mentioned above after Islam took over Persia Zoroastrians known as Parsis today fled Persia and took refuge in Western India and settled at Sanyan, 100 miles North of Mumbai, where they built a fire temple in 790A.D. with the fire which they 269

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. had brought along with them from Iran, in the early 7th century A.D. Some of them settled in ― Diu‖ and then ― Thane‖ near Mumbai in early 8th century A.D. The prominent Indian political leaders, industrialists and government officials from Parsi community include Dadabhai Norozi (thrice president of Indian National Congress), Dr. Homi Bhabha, the great scientist, and the leading business groups of Tata and Godrej among others. Influence of Indian culture on Arabs: After the Arab conquest of ― Sind‖ Indian culture influenced on Arabs.

In 8th century A.D. Indian

literary works (especially mathematical and astronomical) on variety of subjects including astronomy, mathematics, literature, medicine and other sciences were rendered from Sanskrit into Arabic. These books include ― Siddhanta‖

(on

astronomy),

― Aryabhatiyam‖

(by

Arya

Bhatt),

Brahmasphuta-Siddhanta and Khadakhadyaka (by Brahmagupta) among others. Besides the knowledge of decimal, place value system reached Arab. They used their learning of Sanskrit grammar to systematize Arabic grammar. MEDIEVAL INDIA (Relations during 11-17th century A.D) Invasion of Mahmud Ghaznavi: Mahmud Ghaznavi came to India along with a great number of poets, artisans, army personnel, religious persons and literary figures etc. who settled down in different regions of India in the 11th century A.D. He brought along with him not only Islam which became the common element that linked the Persian and Indian elite, but also Persian language, literature and culture which greatly influenced Indian mind, body and soul. Lahore became not only the seat of power but also the centre of Persian language, literature and culture; and Islamic studies. Between 1206-1687A.D. many Muslim dynasties came in to being in different parts of India. During this period the Iranians, the Turks, the Tatars and the Arabs (who have imbibed Iranian influence) influxed to India in different capacities like statesman, historian, politician, ambassador,

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writer, artist and architect etc. who enriched Indian language, literature, culture and society. Interaction in the Intellectual and spiritual sphere Al-Biruni (Exchange of thought): Under the Ghaznavids AlBiruni, an Iranian prolific writer, great philosopher, renowned scholar and a famous linguist who visited India in the 11th century A.D. coinciding the reign of Mahmud Ghaznavi, wrote a book titled ― Alkita Malil Hind‖ in Arabic which contains chapters on philosophy, Geography, science, astronomy, astrology, religion; and Indian language, literature, culture and society. Besides his mother tongue, Khwarizmi, an Iranian dialect of the North with Turkish influence, he knew Persian Arabic and Sanskrit. He learnt Sanskrit and studied the Puranas and other classical Indian languages. Translation of Sanskrit Texts in to Persian: During medieval period a considerable number of Prakrit and Sanskrit texts on variety of subjects such as history, philosophy Geography, science, astronomy, astrology and religion; and Indian language, literature, culture and society were rendered in to Persian. Some of them include Upanishads, Vedas, Puranas, the Ramayana, the Mahabharata, Bhagvata Gita, Bhagvata puranas, Athar veda, Youga Vashista, Amrita kunda, Nala and Damayanti among others. Interaction at Spiritual level: Indo-Iran Relations can be estimated in the light of reciprocal spiritual enrichment of India and Iran as well. A deep study of history of Indo-Iran Relations indicates that with the spread of Buddhist Monks and Hindu priests in Iran & Afghanistan Sufi thought and practice grew in Khorasan, a fertile region from where great mystic poets Such as Abu Saeed Abil Khair, Sanai Mashhadi, Shaikh Fariduddin Attar and Jalaludin Rumi etc. emerged as the great Persian Sufi poets. Iranian Muslim mystics propagated Islam in India and provide the impulse which brought up existence of the ― Bhakti movement‖ in Hinduism which was propagated by saints like Kabir, Nanak, Chaitanya and Tuka Ram81. 271

The

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Qadiryah, Chishtiyah, Naqshbandiyah and Sohrawardiyah are the well known Sufi orders (silsilas) in India. Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi: The famous Persian mystic poet Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi is believed to have adopted the art of conveying message through the medium of stories of Indian origin, most probably stories of Panjatanta of Visnu Sharma, in his masnavis. Mystic-Humanistic ideas: There are similarities between Hindu and Muslim Mystic-Humanistic ideas. For example, „Wahdatulwajud‟ of the Sufi and the pantheist monism of the „Advaita‟ are different expressions of the same view. Some of the Vedantic terms such as „Vivarta‟ ‗pratibhasa‘ and ‗pratibimba; and mystic terms such as „tajalli‟ ‗zahoor‘ ‗aks‟ and ‗numud‟reflect more or less the same concept. Sufi Saints: Khawaja Moinuddin Chishti, Farid Ganj e Shakar, Hazrat Khawaja Nizamuddin Auliya, Qutbuddin Bkhtiyar Kaki, Jalaluddin Tabrezi, Bahauddin Zakariyah and Syed Mir Ali Hamedani are amongst the most prominent Sufis in India. Sufis propagated not only Islam but also Persian language, literature and culture simultaneously. Not to speak of Persian language he even contributed to the development of Urdu language also. Most of the Sufis whose abodes in India were known as ‗Khanqahs‟, had migrated either from Iran or central Asia to Northern Indian subcontinent long before the establishment of Delhi Sultanate and Muslim rule in Kashmir in 1206 A.D. and 1320A.D. respectively. Syed Mir Ali Hamedani: In the 14th century A.D. a great Persian Sufi Syed Mir Ali Hamedani along with a large number of his disciples came to India from Iran. He contributed a lot to the enrichment of Indo-Iran Relations through his literary creations and spiritual propagations. Classical Persian Sufistic literature’s impact on Indian mind and soul: Luminaries of Persian Sufistic literature such as Abu Saeed Abil Khair, Sanai Mashhadi and Shaikh Fariduddin Attar etc sowed the seeds of early Persian mystic poetry. This is worth mentioning here that Sanai 272

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Mashhadi is said to have visited India and learnt Indian languages. Indian Sufis, rulers, elites and majority of common people were inspired by both Persian prose and poetry, especially poetry of Khawaja Hafiz Shirazi, Shaikh Sa‘di Shirazi, Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi, Maulana Abdur Rahman Jami, Shaikh Fariduddin Attar, Nizami Ganjvi, Sanai Mashhadi and Khwaja Abdullah Ansari. The historian of Emperor Akbar‘s court Abul Fazl Allami in ‗Aain e Akbari‘ states that Kimya e sa‟adat of Imam Ghazali, Gulista of S‘di, Masnavi of Maulana Rum, Hadiqah of Sanai, Jam e Jam of Auhadi etc. were continually read to Emperor Akbar82. Amrit Kund: ― Amrit Kund‖83 was translated from Sankrit in to Persian by Qazi Ruknuddin under the title ‗Bahr ul Hayat‘ in the 1st half of 13th centuryA.D. Kashful Mahjub: An important Persian mystic text titled ― Kashful Mahjub‖ (The unveiling of the veiled) authored by a great Sufi writer Shaikh Ali Hajweri in the 11th century at Lahore, blended mystic ideas that developed in Persia, central Asia and Indian subcontinent. Awariful Moa’rif: Anothr book of Shaikh Shahabuddin Suhrawardi which was written in Iran under the title ― Awariful Moa‘rif‖, also played a remarkable role to penetrate Persian ideas in to the mind and soul of Indians. Malfuzat or Malfuz literature: Malfuzat, an Iranian tradition of compilation of sayings and speeches of Sufis, influenced the Indian minds in the Khanqas. These mystic works served as guide for Sufis of both India and Iran. The message of love and humanity: The message of love and humanity of Sufi poetry cemented relationship between Hindus and Muslims. Classical Persian Sufistic literature such as Masnavi of Maulana Rum, Diwan e Hafiz, Gulistan and Bustan of Shaikh Sa‘di Shirazi were studied in both mystic circles and Madrasas which enlightened Indian minds and souls. Similarly Indian classical literature also enlightened minds of 273

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Iranians. Both Muslim Sufis and Hindu ascetics influenced each other. They played a vital role to establish communal harmony. Muslim Sufis and their contributions to communal harmony: Muslim Sufis such as Baba Farid Ganj e Shakar, Khawaja Moinuddin Chishti, Hazrat Nizamuddin Auliya and Amir Khusraw etc. imparted lessons of humanism, love and affection, universal brotherhood, piety, devotion, asceticism and tolerance. The tombs of mystic saints are still honoured by both Hindus and Muslims. Shaikh Sa’di Shirazi’s visit to India: The great Persian poet of Iran Shaikh Sa‘di Shirazi of Iran visited India84 in the 13th century A.D. He visited Somnath mandir also and recorded his experiences of his visit in the 8th chapter of his famous book titled „Bustaan‘ 84b. Besides, Khane-Shahid Sultan Mohammad Qaan also invited Shaikh Sadi to visit Multan second time. But due to his illness he could not come to India84c. According to Sheikh Sa‘di, a 13th century AD great Persian poet, Indians were quite well aware of the Iranian scholarship, intellect and wisdom even in the 6th century AD. Moreover Sheikh Sa‘di has referred to a group of Indian scholars appreciating and praising the Iranian wisdom, particularly the wisdom of Bazrachamhar, great scholar and Minister of Anusherwan the Just, a 6th century AD Sassanid Persian emperor, in his world famous book ― Gulistan‖84d. Attack of Mongols: In the 1st quarter of 13th century A.D. Mongols ransacked the Muslim world destroying Persia, Iraq, Trans-xenia and other regions. During this crucial period Delhi Sultanate offered refuge to the scholarly fugitives from the above noted regions. Consequently India became a cultural sanctuary of the Muslim world, Particularly Persian Poets, scholars and Sufi Saints. MEDIEVAL INDIA (Mughal-Safavid Relations) Mughal-Safavid

Relations:

Zahiruddin

Mohammad

Babur,

commonly known as Babur, established Mughal Empire in India in 274

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1526AD. Mughal India, roughly corresponding with Safavid Persia witnessed good Indo-Iran Relations. In the 16th century A.D. Iran was ruled by Safavi dynasty which declared ‗Shi‟a‟ as the state religion. Contrary to that Mughal Emperors proved themselves to be the great patron of language, literature, culture, art and aesthetics. Mughal rulers maintained contacts with Persia. During this period innumerable Iranians at different capacities, details of which will be given in succeeding pages, migrated to India to seek fame and fortune at the Mughal courts. Needless to say that under these two powerful dynasties age old Indo-Iran ties became very strong. During this period Indo-Iran relations were multifaceted, covering politics, economy, trade, diplomacy, religion, language, literature, culture and society. Migration of Iranians to India: This is worth mentioning here that on one hand most of the Mughal Emperors, particularly Babur, Shah jahan and Akbar were great patron of Persian language, literature, culture, music, art and architecture whereas on the other hand their Iranian counterparts were whole heartedly inclined towards propagation of ‗Shi‟a‟religion in Iran. They paid less attention towards protection and survival of poets and writers. Consequently poets, writers and men of letters looked for another green pasture for their survival. Mughal patronage of Persian language, literature and culture constantly attracted Persian scholars to India. Innumerable Iranians in different capacities such as soldiers, men of letters, scholars, poets, writers, litterateur, historians, craftsmen, traders, physicians, painters,

accountants,

administrators,

calligraphers,

astrologers,

astronomers, book binders, paper makers, gold sprinklers and perfume (itr) makers etc. migrated to India. Most of them took refuge at the royal courts. They influenced each and every sphere of Indian society. Similarly they were also greatly influenced by the Indian society. Needless to say that their arrival greatly strengthened Indo-Iran Relations. Mughal-Safavid Emperors friendship: Mughal-Safavid relations are marked by the friendship of Babur and Shah Ismail and friendship of Humayun and Shah Tahmasp. 275

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Diplomatic and cultural Relations: Mughal Emperors paid much more attention towards the establishment of cultural and political relations with the Safavid monarchs. Their foreign policy was very strong. Envoys were frequently exchanged between Mughal India and Safavid Persia which promoted diplomatic relations. Babur Babur, himself an accomplished poet, specially invited a famous historian from Heart named Khwand Amir to join his royal court85 besides others. Humayun Humayun also maintained close relations with his Iranian counterparts. Refuge of Humayun in Iran: Humayun, son of Babur, after being defeated by an Afghan king Sher Shah Suri fled to Iran in the 2nd quarter of 1st half of 16th century A.D and took refuge at the Safavid royal court. Safavid king extended helping hand to Humayun and ensured latter‘s refuge in Iran and safe return to India. He became able to come back to India with the military help of the Iranian Safavid king Shah Tahmasp Safavi. Nehru says, ― It was to the Safavid king that Babur‘s son Humayun, went for refuge, and it was with his help that he came back to India‖86. There were several diplomatic exchanges between Humayun and Shah Tahmasp Safavi. During his long stay in Iran he further stimulated his interest in Persian language, literature and culture. On his return from Persia to India several Iranian scholars, poets and artists etc also came along with him to India. Great artists like Mir syed Ali Hamedani and Khawaja Abdus Samad who were among the founders of Mughal School of painting in India, also came along with him87. With the passage of time Persians accounted for a high proportion of personnel in all branches of Mughal Empire.

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Akbar: Akbar conferred favours on Iranian hosts of Humayun. He invited two famous Iranian scholars namely Chalapai Beg of Shiraz and Mir Sadruddin Mohammmad Naqib to join the royal court. Bairam Khan: Bairam Khan, Emperor Akbar‘s minister and Guardian, and a Shia‘ Muslim, attracted many cultured Persians. Rulers of Deccan (Qutub Shahis, Adil Shahis and Nizam Shahis): Rulers of Deccan such as Qutub Shahis of Gol Kunda, Adil Shahis of Vijapur and Nizam Shahis of Ahmad Nagar who were mostly Shias and emotionally attached to Safavid Persia not only maintain old and valued friendship but also strengthened cordial relationship with their Iranian counter parts. There was extensive diplomatic relations between the rulers of Deccan and Safavid Monarchs. Matrimonial alliance: Shah Abbas-1, the great ruler of Safavid Persia, also arranged for matrimonial alliance with Qutub Shahi family of Deccan. Migration of Prominent Poets: During the early Safavid era, great Persian poets including Naziri Nisha puri, Urfi Sherazi, Shakebi Isfahani and Zahuri Turshazi migrated to India. They all settled in north India except Zahuri Turshazi who was attached to the courts of Ahmad Nagar. Emperor Jahangir Emperor Jahangir had friendly relations with Shah Abbas-1 whose friendship he regarded as good fortune and spoke of it with pride and feeling in the memoirs88. There was extensive diplomatic relations between them which were continued by Emperor Shajahan. Noor Jahan and Mumtaz Mahal, wives of Emperor Jahangir and emperor Shajahan respectively, are believed to be of Iranian descent. According to Tuzuk-e-Jahagiri wich contains many references to Iranians who received the royal patronage of Jahangir, Jahangir used to receive Persian scholars and artists whole heartedly.

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Royal purchasing mission: There are also references to Indian merchants who were well established in Isfahan and Bandar Abbas. The sea trade routes were mainly between Surat and Bandar Abbas. There are sufficient Historical evidences which indicate that there were exchanges of purchasing agents between emperor Jahangir and emperor Shah Abbas89. Emperor Aurangzeb Emperor Aurangzeb also maintained relations to some extant with their Iranian counterparts. Several ministers during the reign of Aurangzeb were Iranian. Nadir Shah Nadir Shah, a powerful noble of Safavids of Iran and who crowned himself as the ruler of Iran in 1736, defeating Mohammad Shah‘s army at Carnal took Delhi under his control in 1739 A.D. Apart from huge amount of valuables and wealth Nadir Shah took back along with him Mughal throne known as Takht-e-Tavoos (the peacock throne). Development of Persian Literature in India: During Mughal period Persian language became the official and court language of India. An Indian style developed in Persian poetry known as Sabk e Hindi. Amir Khusraw Dehlvi, Mirza Abdul Qadir Bedil Azim Abadi, Mirza Assadullah khah Ghalib and Allahma Iqbal were among the prominent poets of Sabk e Hindi. Many Persian poets and scholars migrated to India to seek employment at Mughal courts. Emperor Akbar for the first time created the designation of poet-laureate (Malekush-Sho‟ara). He appointed Ghazali Mashhadi as the first poet-laureate of his court. Poets-laureate of Mughal court include Ghazali Mashhadi (at the court of Emperor Akbar), Sheikh Faizi (at the court of Emperor Akbar), Talib Aamuli (at the court of Emperor Jahangir), Kalim Hamedani (at the court of Emperor Shah Jahan) and Mirza Ghalib(at the court of Emperor Bahadur Shah Zafar). Innumerable valuable Persian books both in prose and poetry on variety of

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subjects,

including

literature,

religion,

history,

politics,

economy,

Geography and astronomy were written. Translation: Akbar got innumerable important works of classical Sanskrit texts translated into Persian. The translations from Sanskrit enriched the Persian vocabulary. Stories of Indian Origin added to the reservoir of classical Persian Literature as well. Migration of poets: Constant influx of poets from Iran to the Mughal royal courts indicates the magnitude of royal patronage of Mughal rulers. They include Urfi Shirazi, Abu Talib Kalim Hamedani, Sayeb Tabrezi and Hazin Lahuri among others. Abul Fazal Allami in Aini-eAkbari records that besides poets there were innumerable musicians, artists and men of letters at the Mughal courts. According to several Persian texts Amir Khusraw contributed a lot to the development of Persian literature and culture in India. Persian Scholars produced in India: India has produced considerable number of brilliant Scholars, great poets, renowned writers and famous litterateurs in Persian studies. Even today we find many fine Scholars of Persian studies. Persian language: Persian was court language in Mughal India which continued up to the beginning of British India. Most of the modern Indian languages fell under the influence of Persian language which are full of Persian words. As most of the Indian languages have descended from Sanskrit language, hence this phenomenon is quite natural. This is interesting to note that even Dravidian language of south India incuding Tamil have been influenced by Persian. Persian vocabulary and Indian languages: In many Indian languages including Urdu, Hindi, Panjabi, Kashmiri, Sindhi, Marathi, Tamil and Telugu among others there are large number of Persian words, expressions and proverbs. These are apparent in classical works of Waris Shah and Bulle Shah in Panjabi language in the 18th century A.D., Qazi 279

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Nazrul Islam in Bengali, Abdur Rahman in Tamil poetry and Quli Qutub Shah in Telugu. Persian-Arabic vocabularies are found in the common folk lore of Punjab. The spiritual poetry of Baba Sheikh Farid included in Sikh scripture ― Adi granth‖ contains Persian vocabulary. The spiritual hymens of Guru Nanak also are full of Persian vocabulary. In the 19th and 20th century A.D. Persian poets like Mirza Assadulah Kha Ghalib and Allama Iqbal among others played a vital role in the preservation and development of Persian language, literature and culture in the Indian sub continent. Persian influence on art and architecture: Persian artists like Abdus Samad Shirazi, Mohammad Nadir Samarqandi, Mir Hashmi and Faqirullah Khan served with their Indian counterparts on the royal Mughal courts combining Persian arts with those of India. Calligraphy: The art of calligraphy is one of the greatest Persian contributions to Indian. Architecture: Persian architecture greatly influenced Indian architecture which is very much conspicuous on the buildings of Agra and Delhi. The Taj Mahal, Seven Wonders of the World, is the best example. M.Grousset, the French Savant, having enthusiastically praised Persian influence on Taj Mahal exclaimed, ― (it is) the soul of Iran incarnate in the body of India‖90. Persian architects and artisans designed and constructed palaces, forts, mosques and public buildings. The Taj Mahal, Fatahpur Sikri and Humayun Tomb are among the finest examples of the synthesis of IndoIranian style in architecture. Iranian influence is quite visible on Qutub Minar. Islamic module along with domed structures and minaret were introduced to India. According to Nehru, ― A new architecture developed in India, a combination of Indian ideals and Persian inscription, and Delhi and Agra were covered with noble and beautiful buildings. Of the most famous of these, the Tajmahal‖91. Paintings: Mughal School of painting was established by Persian artists like Mir Syed Ali and Khwaja Abdus Samad. Iranian painters developed the technique of portraits and illustrations of manuscripts. 280

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Handicraft: Handicraft like weaving of carpets, making of pottery and illuminating and illustrating of books developed with Iranian influence. Later Mughal India Aurangzeb, Bahadur Shah Zafar & their successors Decline in direct Indo-Iranian links: In the 18th century A.D. Iranian ruler Nadir Shah invaded Delhi. Later Mughal Empire was on the verge of down fall. With the down fall of Mughal Empire Indo-Iran Relations started to decline, particularly during the reign of Emperor Aurangzeb, Bahadur Shah Zafar and their successors. MODERN INDIA (British-Qajar Period) British-Qajar Period: British Period, roughly corresponding with Qajar period of Iran also did not witness much improvement in Indo-Iran relations. This is worth mentioning here that Emperors of Qajar dynasty, particularly Nasiruddin Shah Qajar were more inclined towards friendship with European countries than India. Nasiruddin Shah Qajar visited Europe many times. He never visited India. Similarly their Indian counterparts, British rulers, also were not interested in the development of Indo-Iran Relations. Consequently Indo-Iran Relations suffered a setback. In the 18th century A.D. with the establishment of British supremacy in India Indo-Iran Relations got deteriorated and badly suffered a setback. Indo-Iran cultural exchanges were stopped. Direct Indo-Iran trade was also stopped. Persian language was replaced with English language which was the need of the hour to earn bread and butter. Young generation kept Persian aside. Rather they inclined towards English language in view of obtaining job in order to earn bread and butter. Under political compulsions Indians became closer to England. Revival of Indo-Iran Relations Contributions of Zoroastrians (Parses) to Indo-Iranian links: Parses are the followers of Zoroastrian faith. Around thirteen hundred years ago when Islam came to Iran, a considerable number of Parses migrated to 281

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. India92. They were warmly received. They settled down on the Western cost of India. It is remarkable to note that Parses who quietly fitted in to India, made it their home. As a small community they maintained their own old customs. They hold on to their old traditions and memories of their ancient homeland93. In spite of being traditional they are Indian. They have prospered in business. Many Parses are the leaders of Industry in India. Sikh families in Iran: In the early 1900s many Indian families, predominantly Sikh families, from West Punjab of undivided India entered in Iran and settled in Zahedan, which had a common border with India. The Indians gradually spread to the towns of Mashhad and Tehran etc. Gurudwara & School: Sikh traders had built a Gurudwara in Zahedan and another one in Tehran in 1927 and 1950 respectively. An Indian school was established in Tehran in 1952. Hindu Temples: During Qajar period in 1890 A.D. with the kind permission of the then ruler of the area Mohammad Khan Sa‘dul Mulk the Indian community built a temple in Bandar Abbas. Presently the property is with the Indian National Cultural Heritage organization. Cultural exchange: In the 1st half of 20th century A.D. cultural exchange programmes took place between India and Iran. Cultural delegations from India visited Iran and vice versa. Later British India Pahlavi dynasty Pahlavi dynasty: During Pahlavi dynasty, corresponding with Later British India, a large number of Indian doctors, engineers and academicians were engaged in Iran. Contributions of Rabindranath Tagore to Indo-Iran Relations Devindranath Tagore: Rabindranath Tagore‘s father Devindranath Tagore was intoxicated with the Ghazals of Hafiz Shirazi, a great Persian Mystic-poet of Iran. Devindranath Tagore used to recite mystic ghazals of Hafiz Shiraziat at bed time every night. He used to keep Divan e Hafiz (collection of poetry of Hafiz) under his pillow. 282

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Visit of Rabindranath Tagore to Persia:

As a young boy

Rabindranath Tagore often used to listen to his father reciting poems of Hafiz and enjoy them. He got inspiration from them. Tagore indeed belongs to the whole world. His humanistic ideas and beautiful thoughts are legacy of mankind. Tagore was the brightest star in the sky of the East which has showered light on the whole world. He has contributed a lot to the development of Indo-Iran relations. He was in favour of bright future of friendship and cordiality to both the nations. Despite his illness and hardship of long journey he visited Iran in 1932. Guru Dev Rabindranath Tagore, the first Asian noble laureate in literature and founder of Visva Bharati, a central University and an institution of National importance, visited Iran in 1932 and 1935. He stayed sixteen days in Iran. All his expenditures were borne by the Iranian Government. He was warmly welcome by high ranking officials of the government, intelligentsia, litterateurs and scholars. Rabindranath Tagore is one of the immortal personalities and architects of twentieth century modern India. Time has proved this to be true. Tagore, the seeker of truth, reality and beauty, has influenced innumerable Iranian minds. Many of his works, including world famous book ‗Gitanjali‘ have been translated in to Persian. He has enhanced India‘s stature in the eyes of Iranians during his visit o Persia. His visit to Iran further strengthened IndoIran relations. His poetry is believed to have affinities with Persian-Sufism. On his (Tagore) visit to Persia he says, ― My visit to Persia has given me faith in the power of Eastern peoples to assert themselves and quickly find their way to a united manifestation of their undying heritage in spite of conflict and difficult economic circumstances‖. Visiting Professors: Guru Dev Rabindranath Tagore had invited professor poor Daud, an imminent Iranian professor, to teach Persian language, literature and culture at Visva Bharati University in the early twentieth century. In response to the invitation of Tagore Iranian government appointed professor poor Daud as a visiting professor of Persian studies at Visva Bhararti University, Shantiniketan. 283

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According to Professor Hafiz Mohammad Tahir Ali, the senior most eminent professor of Persian studies in India and former head of the department of Arabic, Persian, Urdu and Islamic studies, Visva-Bharati, Shantiniketan, on the occasion of reception of professor poor Daud as a visiting professor at visva-Bharati at the instruction of Guru Dev Tagore himself Avesta was also recited along with the Shalokas of Veda in his honour94. Independent Contemporary India (1947 onwards) Later Pahlavi dynasty Continuing contemporary links: The direct Indo-Iranian Relations which had suffered a setback during the British colonial rule in India resumed only after Independence of India in 1947. In contemporary India during the 2nd half of the 20th century AD (1960s and 1970s) many Indian professionals came to Iran. There are many Indian Sikh, Sindhi and Guajarati families in Tehran, Zahedan and Isfahan. Many Indian Muslim students in the holy city of Qum study theology. Visit of high ranking officials: After independence many Heads of state, prime ministers and high ranking officials visited Iran. Similarly many Iranian Presidents, prime ministers and high ranking officials visited India. These visits strengthened bilateral Relations between India and Iran. Prime Ministers Jawahar Lal Nehru: As the first Prime minister of Independent India Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru took innumerable positive steps to resume Indo-Iran bilateral Relations which had suffered from down fall during British colonial rule in India. Nehru along with his daughter Indra Gandhi visited Iran in 1959. President Dr. Radha Krishnan: President Dr. Radha Krishnan along with a team of high ranking officials visited Iran in 1963. Prime Minister Indra Gandhi: Indra Gandhi along with a team of high ranking officials visited Iran in 1974.

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Indian Cinema: Indian Cinema has a large audience in Iran. Early Indian cinema had close links with Iran. In early twentieth century A.D (1920) prominent film director named Ohanian, the director of the 1st Iranian silent film titled ― Abi va Rabi, came to India from Iran and stayed for some time in Calcutta. In April 2001 leading contemporary Iranian film directors Abbas Kiyarostami and Mohsin Makhmalbaf have visited India. They were greatly influenced by Indian film makers, particularly Satyajit Ray. Publication: The 1st Persian weekly news paper was published from Kolkata, India. In early twentieth century A.D. several Iranian publications were printed in India. PART-III ISLAMIC REPUBLIC OF IRAN Contemporary India after 1979 Indo-Iran Relations in Islamic Republic of Iran Visits of Delegations of High ranking officials: In Islamic Republic of Iran, corresponding completely with contemporary India, there is fast paced and all round development of Indo-Iran Relations. Cultural Exchange Programmes have always been taking place between India and Iran since their inception. They have taken place in pre-Historic period, ancient period, medieval period, modern period and even in the contemporary period they frequently takeplace. India and Iran have exchanged political, academic and cultural delegations regularly throughout the history which is in continuation even today. Prime ministers Rajiv Gandhi: Rajiv Gandhi along with a team of high ranking officials visited Iran. He held high level talks with his Iranian counterpart on variety of issues which strengthened bilateral ties. Prime Minister Narsimha Rao: Prime ministers Narsimha Rao along with a team of high ranking officials visited Iran in 1993. 285

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Prime ministers Atal Bihari Bajpai: Prime ministers Atal Bihari Bajpai along with a team of high ranking officials visited Iran in 2001. Visit of Jaswant Singh to Tehran war cemetery: On April 10, 2001 the external affairs Minister Shri Jaswant Singh along with a team of high ranking officials visited the Tehran war cemetery where many Indian war dead from the two world wars are buried were commemorated. He laid a wreath at the memorial. Ayatollah Khamenei: As mentioned above similarly on invitations of the Indian Government many Iranian Presidents, prime ministers and high ranking officials visited India several times. Ayatollah Khamenei, the then supreme leader of Islamic Republic of Iran and the member of Revolutionary council, along with a team of high ranking officials visited India in 1981. President Khatemi: President Khatemi along with a team of high ranking officials visited India in 1994. President Rafsanjani Hashmi: President Rafsanjani Hashmi along with a team of high ranking officials visited India in 1995. Bilateral & trilateral agreements: Needless to say that during these visits of all the above noted dignitaries many bilateral agreements on variety of issues were signed. Thus Indo-Iran Relations got strengthened. Besides a trilateral cooperation agreement on transit of goods was signed by India, Iran and Turkmenistan in 1997. Similarly a trilateral agreement on the establishment of gas pipe line between India and Iran via Pakistan was signed. Indian Universities: There are a large number of Iranian students studying in different Indian Universities at Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore and Pune etc. Indian Universities are popular destinations for Iranian students for higher studies. Cultural Exchange: Ustaad Bismillah Khan: Bharat Ratan Ustaad Bismillah Khan gave concerts in Tehran in 1992. 286

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Visiting Professors: Iranian visiting professors of Persian studies were on the faculty of Osmania University, Hydeabad; University of Delhi, New Delhi; and Jawahar Lal Nehru university, New Delhi. Name of Some of them are Professor Kazim Kahdui, Professor Abul Qasim Radfar and Professor Tofiq Hashim Pur Subhani who appointed as visiting professor at Jawahar Lal Nehru University in the mid 1990s. I‘ve the privilege and honour to be the student of Professor Tofiq Hashim Pur Subhani, at the centre for Persian and central Asian studies, Jawahar Lal Nehru University, New Delhi in the mid1990s. Cultural Exchange through the visits of teachers and Research scholars: This humble self also as a Ph.D research scholar visited Islamic Republic of Iran for a period of one month for participation in the Persian Refresher course held at Allama Tabatabai Universisty, Thran, Iran in 1997 under the cultural exchange programme. This event is a continuous process which is going on even today. Teachers and Research scholars very often visit Islamic Republic of Iran under the cultural exchange programme. Seminars: This is worth mentioning here that the Iranian President Khatami had called the year 2000 as the year of ― Dialogue among civilizations‖. India wholeheartedly supported it. In response to the far sighted initiative of the President India and Iran organized an International Seminar on ― Dialogue among civilizations‖ in 2000. India also enthusiastically participated in the seminar on ― Dialogue among Asian civilizations‖ held in Tehran in 2001. Besides, Indian delegates participated in the International seminars organized by Iranian universities. Similarly Iranian delegates participated in the International seminars organized by Indian universities. Indo-Iran legends: Legendary Persian poets such as Firdausi, Umar Khyyam, Shaikh Sa‘di Shirazi, Hafiz Shirazi, Maulana Jalaluddin Rumi and Abdur Rahman Jami etc. have been the part of syllabus of Persian departments of all the universities of Indian subcontinent since medieval period. Besides it is interesting to note that even today in the deep villages 287

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of Indian subcontinent their poetry is still recited very often by the aged persons even today. Important literary works of Iranian legends have also been translated in to Indian languages. Indian legends: Similarly Indian legends like Mahatama Gandhi, Pandit Jawahar Lal Nehru, Guru Dev Rabindranath Tagore, K.R. Narayanan, and Qazi Nazrul Islam etc. are held in high esteem in Iran. Their works have been translated in to Persian. Name of Iranian streets and squares after Indian legends: A square in Shiraz is renamed after Maulana Abul Kalam Azad which was inaugurated by our former Prime minister Atal Bihari Bajpai during his four day officials visit to Iran in 2001. The father of the nation Mahatma Gandhi is held in high esteem by the common people of Iran. A Street in Tehran is named after Mahatma Gandhi. Many of the cultural centers in Tehran are named after Ustaad Bismillah Khan. Embassy and Cultural Centers of Islamic Republic of Iran: Apart from Embassy Islamic Republic of Iran established Cultural Centers at New Delhi, Mumbai and Hyderabad. The 1st Iranian Consulate was opened in Mumbai in the mid nineteenth century. This is worth mentioning here that these Cultural Centers play a vital role towards cementing the age old Indo-Iran cultural ties. Similarly Indian Government also has established Indian Embassy at Tehran, Iran. Matrimonial alliance: Even today some of the Indian families arrange for matrimonial alliances with the suitable families of Iran. These alliances, of course, promote age old Indo-Iran cultural Relation. Conclusion After long discussion in the preceding pages I‘m led to believe that India and Persia despite so different in many ways have so much in common as their back ground of life was very similar. My overall impression is that India has long, intimate and honorable association with Iran. There is not enough evidence to say with certainty when did exactly Indo-Iran Relations 288

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begin. My general second impression of Indo-Iran Relations is that even before the Arab invasion and advent of Islam in Iran India have had Relations with Pre-Islamic Persia. In other words before emergence of Aryans in India and Persia people of Harappa culture had economic and commercial relations with Persia, Babylon and Sumer at the age of Indus valley civilization. In one respect the Harappa people were technically in advance of their contemporaries. It is a well known fact that Indian Aryan society and Persian Aryan society, who belong to the same origin and culture, migrated together to their respective destinations e.g. India and Iran from Central Asia or northern icy region. Historians firmly believe that they belong to the same cultural groups of immigrants. It seems quite likely that their thoughts, words and deeds and culture should be the same; or at least quite similar. In the course of succeeding centuries slight variations in their culture are quite natural that took place due to different atmosphere and circumstances. They both are proud of a very rich Aryan culture. As far as we can reconstruct it from our fragmentary knowledge, the religion of people of Achaemenied Persia bears striking resemblance to Vedic religion of ancient India. There appears some similarity between Zoroastrianism, the religion of Pre-Islamic Iran founded by Prophet Zarathustra, and Vedic religion of ancient India. There are striking resemblance with the religious rituals of Vedic religion and Zoroastrianism. Broadly speaking as they had lived together for centuries before their dispersal to two different regions e.g. India and Iran from central Asia or northern iced region, naturally they share common culture. More specifically speaking their every sphere of life including language, literature, culture, philosophy, art, architecture, religion, ethics, morality and rituals reflect resemblance to some extent, if not Similar. 46 289

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Achamenied and Sassanid kings maintained cordial relations with their Indian counterparts. The most striking similarities are with inscriptions of the periods of cyrus and Ashoka. It bears little resemblance to any of the ancient Middle East. Historically speaking after the advent of Islam in Iran during Sassanid Persia a large number of Zoroastrians migrated to India. During Mugal-Safavid period political and cultural relations developed a lot. There is good evidence that Indian Mughal Emperors patronized poets and men of letters. Early Persian literature contains several references to the migration of innumerable Persian poets to medieval India. As mentioned above during the reigns of most of the Mughal Emperors who were patron of Persian language, literature and culture, a large number of Iranians from different fields of life, particularly literary personalities migrated to India. During Qajar Period, corresponding with the early British India Indo-Iran Relations suffered a setback due to political reasons. Qajar Emperors were much more inclined towards western countries than India. Similarly British rulers also were not interested in Indo-Iran Relations. Pahlavi Period which corresponds roughly with the later British India also did not see considerable development in Indo-Iran Relations due to political reasons. Independent India witnesses fast paced and all round developments in Indo-Iran Relations. During Islamic Republic of Iran which coincides with the contemporary India innumerable cultural exchange programmes were held by both the nations. Political as well as cultural ambassadors of both the countries frequently visit each other‘s country which promotes bilateral relations. Though a lot have been said on Indo-Iran bilateral relations much has yet to be said. My argument is that Indo-Iran bilateral relations are very old and continue even today. I conclude by saying that we should strengthen

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and preserve our age old Indo-Iran Relations which is of immense importance for the betterment of both the nations. Notes and References 1. Nehru, Jawaharlal; The Discovery of India, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd.,11 community centre, Panch sheel park, New Delhi-110017, India, 2004,P.65. 2. ibid 3. ibid 4. Basham, A.L., The wonder that was India, 3rd edition, picador, an imprint of Pan Macmillan ltd., Pan Macmillan Road, 20 New Wharf Road, London NI9RR, Basingstoke and Oxford, 2004, p.19 5. ibid, p.28 6. Nehru, Jawaharlal; The Discovery of India, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd.,11 community centre, Panch sheel park, New Delhi-110017, India, 2004,P.149 . 7. ibid, P.152 7b. Azad, Mohammad Husain; Sukhandan e Fars, National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language, West block-1, R.k.Puram, New Delhi110066, 2005, p.244 8. Alam, Sharf; Zoroastrian culture and Indian Bahamans, Research paper presented at International Biennial Convention of ASPS, Yerevan, state university, Republic of Armenia, April 2-6, 2004, p.1 9. ibid 10. ibid 11. ibid 12. Alam, Sharfe, Iran (History of ancient Iranian politics, linguistic and culture), Alam brothers, Khan Mirza, Patna-800004, 1981, p.1 13. ibid, p.1 291

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13b. ibid, p.1 13c. ibid, p.1 13d. ibid, p.1 14. Alam, Sharf; Zoroastrian culture and Indian Bahamans, Research paper presented at International Biennial Convention of ASPS, Yerevan, state university, Republic of Armenia, April2-6, 2004, p.1 15. ibid, p.1 16. Nehru, Jawaharlal; The Discovery of India, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd.,11 community centre, Panch sheel park, New Delhi-110017, India, 2004, P.153. 17. ibid, p.69 18. ibid, p.69 19. ibid, p.70 20. ibid, p.70 21. ibid, p.70 22. Basham, A.L., The wonder that was India, 3rd edition, picador, an imprint of Pan Macmillan ltd., Pan Macmillan Road, 20 New Wharf Road, London NI9RR, Basingstoke and Oxford, 2004, p.33 23. Nehru, Jawaharlal; The Discovery of India, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd.,11 community centre, Panch sheel park, New Delhi-110017, India, 2004, P.140. 23b.Azad, Mohammad Hussain; Sukhandan e Fars, National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language, West block-1, R.k.Puram, New Delhi110066, 2005, p.9 24. Basham, A.L., The wonder that was India, 3rd edition, picador, an imprint of Pan Macmillan ltd., Pan Macmillan Road, 20 New Wharf Road, London NI9RR, Basingstoke and Oxford, 2004, p.44 25. Nafisi, Saied; The Indo-Iran relations, New Delhi, 1949, p.349 292

Dialogue Between Cultures ……………….. 26. Basham, A.L., The wonder that was India, 3rd edition, Picador, an imprint of Pan Macmillan ltd., Pan Macmillan Road, 20 New Wharf Road, London NI9RR, Basingstoke and Oxford, 2004, p.30 27. ibid p.30 28. Azad, Mohammad Husain; Sukhandan e Fars, National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language, West block-1, R.k.Puram, New Delhi 110066, 2005, p.244 29. Ansari, N.H./Khanlari, P.N., A history of the Persian language, Idarah e Adabiyat e Dilli, 2009, Qasim Jan street, Delhi, 1979, p.119 30. Basham, A.L., The wonder that was India, 3rd edition, Picador, an imprint of Pan Macmillan ltd., Pan Macmillan Road, 20 New Wharf Road, London NI9RR, Basingstoke and Oxford, 2004, p.29 30 b. Alam, Sharfe, Iran (History of ancient politics, linguistic and culture), Alam brothers, Khan Mirza, Patna-800004, 1981, p.1 31. Alam, Sharfe, Iran: History of ancient politics, linguistic and culture, Alam brothers, Khan Mirza, Patna-800004, 1981, p.274 32. Ishrat, Amrit lal, Iran Sayon Ke Aaiene mein, Banaras Hidu University, Varansi, 1986, p.62 33. Ishrat, Amrit lal, Iran Sayon Ke Aaiene mein, Banaras Hidu University, Varansi, 1986, p.62 34. Basham, A.L., The wonder that was India, 3rd edition, picador, an imprint of Pan Macmillan ltd., Pan Macmillan Road, 20 New Wharf Road, London NI9RR, Basingstoke and Oxford, 2004, p.235 35. ibid, p.238 36. ibid, p.238 37. ibid , p.238

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38. Alam, Sharf ; Zoroastrian culture and Indian Bahamans,Research paper presented at International Biennial Convention of ASPS, Yerevan, state university, Republic of Armenia, April2-6, 2004, p.3 39. ibid, p.7 40. ibid, p.7 41. ibid, p.12 42. ibid, p.12 43. ibid, p.12 44. Nehru, Jawaharlal; The Discovery of India, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd., 11 community centre, Panch sheel park, New Delhi-110017, India, 2004, P.73. 45. ibid 46. Alam, Sharf ; Zoroastrian culture and Indian Bahamans,Research paper presented at International Biennial Convention of ASPS, Yerevan, state university, Republic of Armenia, April2-6, 2004, p.5 47. Alam, Sharf ; Zoroastrian culture and Indian Bahamans,Research paper presented at International Biennial Convention of ASPS, Yerevan, state university, Republic of Armenia, April2-6, 2004, p.7 48. ibid, pp 4-5 49. Azhar, Prof. A.W; Gurudev Tagore‘s Visit to Persia and the Persian Translations of His Works, p.171 50. Basham, A.L., The wonder that was India, 3rd edition, picador, an imprint of Pan Macmillan ltd., Pan Macmillan Road, 20 New Wharf Road, London NI9RR, Basingstoke and Oxford, 2004, p.138 51. Tarachand, Indo-Iran relations, p.3 52. Tarachand, Indo-Iran relations, p.2

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53. Nehru, Jawaharlal; The Discovery of India, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd., 11 community centre, Panch sheel park, New Delhi-110017, India, 2004, P.150. 54. ibid, pp 150-151 55. Jackson, A.V. Williams; the Cambridge History of India, Vol-1, p. 329. 56. Jorfi, Abdul Amir; Iran and India: Age old friendship, India Quarterly, Oct.-Dec.1994, p. 147 57. Nehru, Jawaharlal; The Discovery of India, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd., 11 community centre, Panch sheel park, New Delhi-110017, India, 2004,P.149 58. Basham, A.L., The wonder that was India, 3rd edition, picador, an imprint of Pan Macmillan ltd., Pan Macmillan Road, 20 New Wharf Road, London NI9RR, Basingstoke and Oxford, 2004, p.49 59. ibid, p.49 60. Roberts, J.M; the Penguin History of the world, 1987, p.169 61. Basham, A.L., The wonder that was India, 3rd edition, picador, an imprint of Pan Macmillan ltd., Pan Macmillan Road, 20 New Wharf Road, London NI9RR, Basingstoke and Oxford, 2004, p.1196 62. Nehru, Jawaharlal; The Discovery of India, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd., 11 community centre, Panch sheel park, New Delhi-110017, India, 2004, P.136 63. ibid, P.136 64. Basham, A.L., The wonder that was India, 3rd edition, picador, an imprint of Pan Macmillan ltd., Pan Macmillan Road, 20 New Wharf Road, London NI9RR, Basingstoke and Oxford, 2004, p.400 65. ibid, p.400

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66. Nehru, Jawaharlal; The Discovery of India, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd., 11 community centre, Panch sheel park, New Delhi-110017, India, 2004, P.139 67. Nehru, Jawaharlal; The Discovery of India, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd., 11 community centre, Panch sheel park, New Delhi-110017, India, 2004, P.151 68. Basham, A.L., The wonder that was India, 3rd edition, picador, an imprint of Pan Macmillan ltd., Pan Macmillan Road, 20 New Wharf Road, London NI9RR, Basingstoke and Oxford, 2004, p.276 69. ibid, p.347 70. ibid, p.276 71. ibid, p.276 72. Tarachand, Indo-Iran relations, p.10 73. Nehru, Pandit Jawarhar Lal; The Discovery of India, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd., 11 community centre, Panch sheel park, New Delhi110017, India, 2004, P.144 74. Khusraw Anusherwan or Anusherwan or nosherwan became the king of Sassanid Persia after the death of his father Kobad (Kavadh) in 531AD 75. Azhar, Prof. A.W; Gurudev Tagore‘s Visit to Persia and the Persian Translations of His Works, p.172 76. Abbassi, Mustafa Khaliqdad Hashmi/ Abidi, Amir Hassan, Darya-e-Asmar, Persian Translation of Katha Saritsagar, Aligarh Muslim University, India, 1997, p.3 77. Shafaq, Reza Zadah, Taarikh-e- Adabiyat-e- Iran, Tehran, Iran 1321 A.H, p.60 77b. Rypka, Jan, History of Iranian literature, D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht, Holland,1967, p.55 296

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78. Abedin, Mufti Zain and Subhani, Mufti Imtezamullah; Tarikh-eMillat, Vol-I, Salman usman and Company, Deoband, p.221 78A. Rypka, Jan, History of Iranian literature, D. Reidel Publishing Company, Dordrecht,Holland,1967, p.66 78B. Shafaq, Reza Zadah; Taarikh-e-Adabiyat-e-Iran, (Bara e Dabiristanha) Tehran, Iran 1321A.H, pp. 33-34 79. Levy, Reubin; Persian literature: an introduction, Oxford University Press, London, 1982, p.14 79b. Abedin, Mufti Zain and Subhani, Mufti Imtezamullah; Tarikhe-Millat, Vol-I, Salman usman and Company, Deoband, p.599 79c. ibid, p.599 80. Basham, A.L., The wonder that was India, 3rd edition, picador, an imprint of Pan Macmillan ltd., Pan Macmillan Road, 20 New Wharf Road, London NI9RR, Basingstoke and Oxford, 2004, p.347 80 b. Chopra, R.M; The rise, growth and decline of Indo-Persian Literature, Iran Culture House, 18-Tilak Marg, New Delhi-110001, 2013, P.25 80C. Dasnavi, Abu Zafar; Tarikh e Sind, Darul Musannefin, Shibli Academy, A‘azamgarh,1970, p.46 81. Tarachand, Indo-Iran relations, p.8 82. Abul Fazal, Aain e Akbari, (translated by Blochman.H), 2nd Ed. The Asiatic society, 1-Park Street, Kolkata-700016, 2010 83. Abdullah, Mohammad; Bangladeshey Farsi Sahitya (Persian literature in Bangladesh), Islamic foundation, Bangladesh, Dhaka, October, 1983, p 30. 84. Sadi, Sheikh; Gulistan, Translated by Qazi Sajjad Hussain, Sabrang Kitab Ghar, Delhi-6, 1960, p.3

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84b. Sadi, Sheikh; Bustan, Translated by Qazi Sajjad Hussain, Sabrang Kitab Ghar, Delhi-6, 1961, p.237 84c. Sadi, Sheikh; Gulistan, Translated by Qazi Sajjad Hussain, Sabrang Kitab Ghar, Delhi-6, 1960, p.4 84d. Sadi, Sheikh; Gulistan, Translated by Qazi Sajjad Hussain, Sabrang Kitab Ghar, Delhi-6, 1960, p.21 85. Islam, Riyazul; Indo-Persian Relations, Iranian Culture Foundation, Tehran, Iran, 1970, p.194 86. Nehru, Jawaharlal; The Discovery of India, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd., 11 community centre, Panch sheel park, New Delhi-110017, India, 2004, P.194 87. Islam, Riyazul; Indo-Persian Relations, Iranian Culture Foundation, Tehran, Iran, 1970, p.166 88. Islam, Riyazul; Indo-Persian Relations, Iranian Culture Foundation, Tehran, Iran, 1970, p.183 89. Islam, Riyazul; Indo-Persian Relations, Iranian Culture Foundation, Tehran, Iran, 1970, p.71 90. Nehru, Jawaharlal; The Discovery of India, Penguin Books India Pvt. Ltd., 11 community centre, Panch sheel park, New Delhi-110017, India, 2004, P.148 91. ibid, 148 92. ibid, 153 93. ibid, 153 94. Ali, Prof. Hafiz Mohammad Tahir; Speech, All India Persian Teacher‘s Associations Conference, Visva-Bharati, 27-29 March, 2018 Selected Bibliography 1. Khanlari, Zohra, Farhang e Adabiyat e Dari, Bunyad e Farhang e Iran, Tehran, Iran 298

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2. Abbassi, Mustafa Khaliqdad Hashmi & Abidi, Amir Hassan; Pancakhyana or Pancatantra, Eqabal printing and publishing organization, Tehran, Iran, 1st edition 1984, 2nd edition, 2003 3. Jame‘a, Urdu Encyclopaedia, Adabiyat, National Council For Promotion of Urdu Language, Ministry of human resource development, Govt. of India, Delhi 4. E. G. Browne, A literary History of Persia, Vol.III, Good word Books Pvt. Ltd., New Delhi-110013, 2008. 5. Nomani, Allama Shibli, Sherulajam, Vol.II, Darulmusannefin, Shibli academy, Azamgarh, 1988 6. Subhani,T.H, Taarikh e Adabiyat, vol. II, Payam e Nur University, Tehran, Iran, 1369 A.H. 7. Imam, Manzer, Chakida e Taarikh e Adabiyat e Iran, vol.II, Smanid ta Qajr, Kitabistan, Chandwara, Muzaffarpur,-842001, 1999. 8. Safa, Zabihullah, Taarikh e Adabiyat dar Iran, Intesharat e Amir Kabir, Tehran, Iran, 1365 A.H 9. Safa, Zabihullah, Mukhtasar dar Taarikh e Tahawwol e Nazm o Nasar e Farsi, Intesharat e Qaqnus, Kheyaban e Inqelab, Tehran, Iran, 1373 A.H 10. Shafaq, Reza Zadah, Taarikh e Adabiyat e Iran, Tehran, Iran, 1321 A.H 11. Wasim, Prof. S.M; Indo-Iran relations, ISBN-978-964-439-3181, Iran Culture House, 18-Tilak Marg, New Delhi -110001, 2008 13. Cultural relations between Iran and Subcontinent, vol.I, Centre of International Cultural Studied Tehran, Iran 14. Sarkar, Jadunath; History of Bengal-Muslim period, 12001757AD, Patna, 1977, pp.219-224

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15. Tagore, Rabindranath, journey to Persia and Iraq: 1932, ISBN 81-7522-336-7, Rabindra-Bhavan, Visva-Bharti, Shantiniketan-731235, West Bengal, 2003 16. Abbassi, Mustafa Khaliqdad Hashmi & Abidi, Amir Hassan, Darya-e-Asmar, Persian Trasnlation of Katha Saritsagar, Aligarh Muslim University, India, 1997. 17. Abdul Latif; S.K; the Muslim mystic movements in Bengal from the 14th to the middle of the 16th century AD, AMU, Aligarh, 1974 18. Azad, Mohammad Husain; Sukhandan e Fars, National Council for Promotion of Urdu Language, West block-1, R.k. Puram, New Delhi 110066, 2005 19. Eaton, Richard. M; The rise of Islam And the Bengal frontier, 1204-1760, Oxford university press, 2010 20. Indo-Iran Relations, Civilization and Cultural Cooperation, Culture House of the Islamic Republic of Iran, 33, M.K.Road, Mumbai400004, India, 2002.

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