Design Directions : The Relationship Between Humans and Technology [1 ed.] 9781443863469, 9781443852715

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Design Directions

Design Directions: The Relationship Between Humans and Technology

Edited by

Sylvia Tzvetanova Yung and Alise Piebalga

Design Directions: The Relationship Between Humans and Technology, Edited by Sylvia Tzvetanova Yung and Alise Piebalga This book first published 2013 Cambridge Scholars Publishing 12 Back Chapman Street, Newcastle upon Tyne, NE6 2XX, UK British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Copyright © 2013 by Sylvia Tzvetanova Yung, Alise Piebalga and contributors All rights for this book reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise, without the prior permission of the copyright owner. ISBN (10): 1-4438-5271-6, ISBN (13): 978-1-4438-5271-5

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Foreword ................................................................................................... vii Background Chapter I ...................................................................................................... 3 How do Contemporary Debates on the Relationship between Humans and Technology Affect Current Design Practices? Alise Piebalga and Sylvia Tzvetanova Yung Chapter II ..................................................................................................... 9 Technology Cultures and User Experience Ecosystems: User-centred View towards User-technology Relationships Petri Mannonen and Sampo Teräs Chapter III ................................................................................................. 21 Technology and Human Relationships Vance Ashley Woodward Chapter IV ................................................................................................. 33 A Monstrous Rhinoceros (as from Life): Toward (and beyond) an Epistemological Nature of the Enacted Pictorial Image Martyn Woodward Emotions and Technology Chapter V .................................................................................................. 55 Emotional Response to Movement in Product Interaction Andrew Wodehouse and Marion Sheridan Chapter VI ................................................................................................. 69 Research on the Construction of Kansei Design Education Programmes and Design Evaluation and Diagnostic Systems Yoshitsugu Morita and Haruka Sobabe

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Chapter VII ................................................................................................ 79 A New Method for Examining Spontaneous Facial and Body Expressions in Virtual World Environments Nermin Elokla and Yasuyuki Hirai Design and Technology Chapter VIII .............................................................................................. 93 Night Owl: Analysis of Student Work in Industrial Design to Understand and Plan Human-Technology Relationships and Design for Night-time Isabel M. Prochner Chapter IX ............................................................................................... 105 Utanhem(DOT)Net: Putting Meaning into Technology for Everyday Life Nuanphan Kaewpanukrangsi Chapter X ................................................................................................ 115 Authenticity vs. Artificiality: The Interactions of Human Beings with Objects in the Built Environment—Body Conscious Perspective by Spatial Design Veronika Kotradyova Chapter XI ............................................................................................... 149 Using Social Media and Digital Technologies to Enhance the Creative and Collaborative Process in Design Education Molly Owens Authors Notes .......................................................................................... 169

FOREWORD

This book on the relationship between humans and technology resulted from a workshop at the Design Research Society Conference in Bangkok in 2012, and is a collection of papers from that event. The emphasis that emerges in what might otherwise be a well-rehearsed argument, starts by polarizing technological enthusiasm and technological antagonism, and then focuses mainly on the design implications of the spectrum of ethical, human-centred, and technology-driven approaches that lie between. First, the nature of the current debate about how the relationship between humans and technology affects current design practices is outlined (Piebalga and Tzvetanova Yung). Issues of technology cultures and user experience systems (Mannonen and Teras) and broader questions of technology and human relationships (Woodward) are explored. Then in the following section on emotions and technology, emotional responses to movement in product interactions (Wodehouse and Sheridan) are introduced, as are issues of design education (Morita and Sobabe), and then the use of facial and postural responses as indicators of product response (Elokla and Hirai). The final section on design and technology raises issues of authenticity and artificiality (Kotradyova), and the role of social media in the creative process (Owens) closes the debate. This discussion of the moral polarization between the advocates of unrestricted and unsanctioned technological development and the supporters of restrictions based on moral, ethical, and religious grounds (Fukoyama quoted in Piebalga and Tzvetanova Yung), is timely and of great significance to the future of us all. As a designer I am clearly supportive of this exploration of design and design educational implications of this dilemma, and the emphasis placed on the design of interfaces between humans and emerging technologies. John Frazer Sussex, May 2013

BACKGROUND

CHAPTER I HOW DO CONTEMPORARY DEBATES ON THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMANS AND TECHNOLOGY AFFECT CURRENT DESIGN PRACTICES? ALISE PIEBALGA AND SYLVIA TZVETANOVA YUNG

1. Introduction This book is a collection of diverse papers resulting from a transdisciplinary international workshop organised for the Design Research Society Conference 2012 in Bangkok, aiming to promote debates surrounding an observation that current design practices are affected by the changing nature of contemporary understanding of the relationship between humans and technology. The topic generated large interest across various specialisms: researchers, practitioners and educators. It also offers a global overview of the research in the area with authors based in Japan, UK, USA, Canada, Sweden, Czech Republic, and Finland. This book presents papers that aim to explore this relationship and has identified several emerging subtopics: interaction, movement and technology, and emotions and technology. We have organized these topics in three sections: (1) Background: where we present definitions, general discussions of the topic, philosophical perspectives and the theoretical basis for designing technology with regards to humans; (2) Emotions and Technology: where the relationship between humans and technology is discussed in relation to emotions; (3) Design and Technology: where design project examples are presented demonstrating how this theoretical background applies to design practice.

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As the result of a workshop, the book presents emerging ideas and trends in diverse creative disciplines, providing a further platform for discussion rather than tested scientific views. The nature of these debates appears to have a significant impact on how designers and design educators understand their practice and work.

2. The Relationship Between Humans and Technology Debate Debates in the fields of artificial consciousness, human augmentation, and technology design indicate that there is a crisis in the contemporary understanding of the relationship between humans and technology. While there are many varied opinions, it is possible to identify two polar trends: technological enthusiasm and technological antagonism. Francis Fukoyama (2002) in his ‘Gene Regime’ article for the Foreign Policy magazine identifies two polar positions whilst exploring the potential impact of new developments in biotechnologies. He suggests that the former advocates unrestricted and unsanctioned technological development, while the later promotes strict restrictions based on moral, ethical and religious grounds. Technological antagonism, identified by a call for strict sanctions and controls on technological development, is underpinned by the notion that the relationship between humans and technology is hostile in nature. If not controlled, it holds the potential to significantly threaten and change the essence of what it means to be human. This understanding of the relationship between humans and technology mirrors the narrative in the famous novella of the ‘Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde’ by Robert Louis Stevenson (2006[1886]) with the human cast as the resilient, but failing, protagonist and technology performing the role of the transformative potion. Stevenson’s story tells of Dr Henry Jekyll, who in an attempt to separate his good and evil impulses, takes a potion that transforms him into a dark and conscience-free character, Mr Hyde. With all attempts to reverse the process failing, Dr Jekyll is finally overpowered and Mr Hyde is released uncontrolled into the world. The transformative potion intended to further the understanding of good and evil and separate the two impulses delivered an unanticipated and

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harmful metamorphosis in Dr Jekyll as an individual, as well as the society that will shelter his evil twin. Dr Jekyll reflects in his final letter that: The drug had no discriminating action; it was neither diabolical nor divine; it but shook the doors of the prison house of my disposition; and like the captives of Philippi, that which stood within ran forth. (Stevenson, 2006 pp. 71-72).

A technological antagonist’s perspective mirroring the warnings delivered by Stevenson’s novella can be seen in Leon Kass’ article on biotechnology ‘Ageless Bodies, Happy Souls’ (2003) for The New Atlantis, a Journal of Technology and Society. Kass begins by toasting the potential benefits of pain and disease relief that biotechnology may bring for future generations. However, he warns that this type of technological development may seduce us into unnecessary human enhancement, significantly extending human life, genetically selecting attributes of future generations, improving physical and mental performance, as well as altering behaviour. He warns that the fulfilment of these desires for improvement has potentially harmful, unpredictable and destructive side-effects. Like the potion in Stevenson’s novella, technology, for technological antagonists, holds the potential for de-humanising its user. On the other hand, technological enthusiasm provides a radically different perspective on the relationship between humans and technology, particularly when considering how it can be used in order to significantly enhance human experience. Gregory Stock, in his 2003 TED talk ‘To Upgrade is Human,’ highlights that one of the reasons humans will embrace potential enhancement technologies, is because technological augmentation is a significant part of being human, saying that: …to imagine that we are not going to use these technologies when they become available is as much a denial of who we are as to imagine that we will use these technologies and not fret and worry about it a great deal. (Stock, 2003).

At the core of this perspective is the understanding that to be technological is to be human and that this prevails whether the conversation is about a polystyrene cup designed for containing water, a china cup made for experiencing fine tea, a medicine that reduces pain, or technology for significantly extending human life expectancy. The two perspectives highlighted, as well as many views in-between, share an outlook towards the future where the perceptible boundaries between

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humans and technology are increasingly indistinguishable and complex. For example, the Belfast Telegraph (Connor, 2013) reported a development in artificial limb research, potentially enabling the wearer to feel touched surfaces. The prosthetic is connected to the wearer’s nervous system, enabling control and feel. The research produced by the scientists at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne (EPFL) in Switzerland hopes to increase patient acceptance of artificial limbs. The artificial limb and the wearer become a unified system where the sense of feeling a surface cannot be pinpointed to humans, technology or the surface. Can this prosthetic limb and wearer system feel surfaces beyond the capacities of a biological limb, for example extremely sharp, cold or hot? Can a limb with different functionalities like fingertips that roll or stick to surfaces produce new experiences or change the perceived reality? Are experiences designed and shaped or a negotiation between the known and the unknown, between task and play?

3. How Do Designers Work Within These Debates? These are the type of questions asked by designers and artists when encountering the changing nature of contemporary understanding of the relationship between humans and technology. In designing technology and interfaces in the past, the designers had put the users’ needs first, enquiring what their wishes and needs were, and subsequently designing technology and interfaces with the human factor in mind (Lee, 2010). This type of innovation happens incrementally and it is based on previous knowledge, being a product of collaborative effort (Poggenpohl and Sato, 2009). Today, as Vance Woodward in Chapter III points out, human relationships are shaped by technology. Technology advances drive the major companies’ innovation; therefore some of the most successful design inventions are technology-driven (Dyson, 2011). Norman and Verganti (2012) define two types of innovation: incremental and radical innovation. Incremental innovation primarily uses humancentred design methods versus radical innovation, which is a radical finding in technology or meaning. They also point out that an incremental approach is very unlikely to lead to radical innovation. Radical technology-driven innovation is a new platform for people to make use of and therefore technology is proposing the use. Often the use

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of this new technology has not been planned, or it is used in a way that was not intended. For example, in the built environment, architects plan spaces, but people are those who invent the usage within these spaces, and some interactions occur that challenge the architect’s original intention. Often in spaces certain interactions will emerge depending on what meaning the community puts into it. The same is happening with technology, especially because today’s technology is everywhere and often ubiquitous. Our built environment has become so complex that we need to recognize the technology as an active participant in the human social environment. Designers recognize the need to look carefully at creating a balanced and safe relationship between humans and technology. In this book, the authors stress the importance of looking at the current state of this relationship and plan for future developments of technology. A distillation of views in this book reveals that designers should consider not only the human or technology factors, but also how the relationship between the two will evolve in the future. We put an emphasis on the relationship rather than focusing on the invention of radically novel technologies or on human-centred design. We believe that usability and human centeredness is a basic feature of today’s highly advanced technology and that the designers should start looking at balanced, carefully planned relationships/interactions between humans and technology.

References Dyson, J. (2011) No Innovator’s Dilemma Here: In Praise of Failure. In Wired Magazine Guest Column, [online] Available at:

[Accessed 6 May 2013]. Connor, S. (2013) Revealed: First bionic hand that allows user to ‘feel’. Belfast Telegraph, [online] Available at: http://www.belfasttelegraph.co.uk/news/world-news/revealed-firstbionic-hand-that-allows-user-to-feel-29076962.html [Accessed 2 May 2013]. Fukuyama, F. (2002) Gene Regime, Foreign Policy, [online] Available at: [Accessed 1 May 2013].

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Kass, L. R. (2003) Ageless Bodies, Happy Souls, The New Atlantis, [online] Available at: [Accessed 1 May 2013]. Lee, K.P. (2010) Emerging New Designers’ Core Competencies after User Centred Design. An invited talk for the DesignEd Asia Conference 2010, Part of the Business of Design Week Hong Kong. 30 November 2010. Norman, D. and Verganti, R. (2012) Incremental and Radical Innovation: Design Research versus Technology and Meaning Change. [online] Available at: http://www.jnd.org/dn.mss/incremental_and_radical_innovation_desig n_research_versus_technology_and_meaning_change.html [Accessed 7 May 2013]. Poggenpohl, S. and Sato, K. (2009) Design Integrations: Research and Collaboration. Intellect, Chicago, IL, USA. Stevenson, R.L. (2006[1886]) The Strange Case of Dr Jekyll and Mr Hyde. Penguin Books. Stock, G. (2003) To Upgrade is Human. TED Talks. [online] Available at:

[Accessed 1 May 2013].

CHAPTER II TECHNOLOGY CULTURES AND USER EXPERIENCE ECOSYSTEMS: USER-CENTRED VIEW TOWARDS USER-TECHNOLOGY RELATIONSHIPS PETRI MANNONEN AND SAMPO TERÄS

1. Introduction Technologies play a central role in our lives. The role and impact of technologies is so big and comprehensive that they have become in many ways invisible. On the other hand we do not entirely recognize the influence of technologies in many of our everyday tasks. At the same time, technologies are also exceedingly visible. With technologies, we have greatly shaped our surroundings and as a result we live in an environment that is almost completely shaped by humans (Hughes 2004, Heskett 2005). The development of technologies is a complex process that usually includes multiple stakeholders. There are many different approaches to understanding the evolution of technologies such as technology determinism and the social shaping of technology. Regardless of the philosophical positioning in cause and effect discussions between technology and society, it is clear to all that many different actors need to collaborate during the development and design of new technological systems. One group of people that are easily forgotten when thinking of technology development are the users or users-to-be. In the end, people have the power to choose to use or not use the produced technology. This power is not just symbolic either. The Japanese for example rejected guns after they had been introduced to them around the 16th century and the Mennonites

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and the Amish are still very careful about what technologies are accepted for use in their communities (Nye 2007). In addition, people have the power to define the purpose of tools and devices they have and this power is also being constantly utilized. A classic example of users using technology differently from the designers’ intentions is text messaging with mobile phones. The text messaging capability of mobile phones was developed without a clear vision on how or what it would be used for (Goggin 2006). Despite this, text messaging became the most used feature of mobile phones and a culture of text messaging was born (Goggin 2006). One result of the power to choose the purpose of use for technologies is that there is no one correct use for a technology (Oudshoorn & Pinch 2005). A mobile phone can be used as a communication device, a notebook, a clock, or all of them. The design approach perhaps most interested in users’ perspectives is usercentred design (UCD). UCD is interested in the fit between people and technologies. The aim is to design meaningful technologies that answer target user groups’ needs in a way that takes into account people’s characteristics, abilities and the context of the activities (e.g. ISO 9241210, 2009). UCD emerged as a counter force for “technology centric” design practices, i.e. design practices that focused primarily on technology (Mao et al. 2005). As a result of UCD activities, a product or service that is learnable, efficient, memorable, error free, and satisfactory to us, i.e. usable (Nielsen 1993), should emerge. The basic principles of UCD - early focus on users and their tasks, empirical measurements, and iterative design - have remained quite the same from Gould and Lewis’s (1985) proposal and are now accepted as the basis of the UCD approach (e.g. Mao et al. 2005). Being a practical approach to design, UCD advocates intensive interaction and collaboration between designers and users, but does not in general foster any philosophy of technology. However, some user-centred approaches include political agendas. The Scandinavian tradition of participatory design for example, is quite tightly coupled with the ideas of industrial democracy (Garrety & Badham 2004, Spinuzzi, 2002). UCD promotes the users’ viewpoints. The key concepts of UCD, usability and user experience (UX), are defined through users and the use of the designed product/service. For example the ISO 9241-210 (2010) standard defines usability as "The extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency,

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and satisfaction in a specified context of use" and user experience as "a person's perceptions and responses that result from the use or anticipated use of a product, system or service". By promoting the users’ viewpoint, UCD takes a stand on both how technologies should be developed and what kinds of technologies are preferable. As a result, UCD can contribute to philosophical discussions about technology in addition to practical design discussion. This chapter contributes to the more general and philosophical discussion about human-technology relationships by analysing the basic premise of UCD, i.e. the aim to produce meaningful and thus valuable solutions to the users, and two interlinked user-centred concepts: user experience and technology cultures. These two concepts are chosen for further analysis since they are well in line with the two fundamental powers the users possess towards technologies, i.e. the power to use or reject them and the power to define new purposes for them. Many other concepts of usercentred design, such as usability, focus purely on planned use and miss other aspects of human-technology relationship. User experience relates to using a certain technology but it also acknowledges non-use and, for example, anticipated use as possible options for the human-technology relationship. Technology cultures relate to the meanings the users give to different technologies and thus to the users’ powers to define their purpose.

2. Value in Use – The core building block of meaningful user-centred technology The definitions of value vary a lot, mostly because of the different viewpoints and objectives of value research. Understanding the meaning of value is not a simple task even from quite focused user-centred design’s perspective. In UCD, the value is seen from a viewpoint of designing. Designing can be seen as a value creation process and thus there is a need for a very practical understanding of value. In addition to this, value needs to be concretized and connected to the users of the designed products and services in UCD. The concept of value can easily be quite abstract and in order to connect an abstract concept into practice, design drivers based on value are needed. This can be done by looking into the core building blocks of value and user needs. Maslow has defined the human needs into a hierarchy visualized as a triangle with from bottom to the top with the following layers:

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physiological needs, safety needs, attachment needs, esteem needs, cognitive needs, aesthetic needs, and self-actualization needs (via Kujala and Väänänen-Vainio-Mattila 2009). In theory, all of these levels of human needs are present constantly in human behaviour, but the relevance of many need levels is usually insignificant in practice. Although UCD has a solid theoretical base, the aim in UCD is to create practical implementations for the particular use context. Thus, only the human needs relevant in the context of use are the significant ones. The human needs described above are on such a high level that they cannot be directly translated into design drivers. Note that the human needs should not be confused with the user needs, which are more specific needs related to certain users and use contexts. A designer has to understand not only the relevant human needs in the context, but also the individual factors of the various user groups in the use context. One should note that, many of these factors are subjective matters. For example, even in the same situation certain people have a greater need for expressing themselves and some people have a greater need to be accepted by the group. Needs are linked to human behaviour through motivations (Keinonen 2008). Herzberg et al. divide motivations into two categories; satisfiers and dissatisfiers, in their research on work motivation (Herzberg et al. 1967). According to Herzberg et al. (1967) a certain level of satisfaction is expected and the elements that restrain or prevent reaching it are called dissatisfiers, while the elements that increase the satisfaction above the expected level are called satisfiers. It is worth noting that a lack of satisfiers does not decrease the total satisfaction below the expected level but only decreases it to the neutral level (Herzberg et al. 1967). The same applies for the lack of dissatisfiers but the other way around. From a value perspective it is important to understand the current technology culture to find out the expected level of satisfaction. For example, receiving a train ticket would be the main goal for using a ticket machine and a confusing user interface would create great dissatisfaction for the user. People don’t use products or services for the sole purpose of use, but for the value of the outcomes from the use. This value in use, or user value as Boztepe calls it, revolves around the idea that the value is realized in the use of a product or a service (Boztepe 2007). Thus, a product on its own does not create value just by its existence, like in value as sign or in value as exchange (Boztepe, 2007). There has to be some interaction with a human for the value to be created and realized.

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On the other hand, Cockton emphasizes that "We should judge systems by what endures beyond interaction and not by ease of use or contextual fit alone" (Cockton 2006). This aligns well with Grönroos’ viewpoint of value when he defines value for customers as meaning “that after they have been assisted by a self-service process (cooking a meal or withdrawing cash from an ATM) or a full-service process (eating out at a restaurant or withdrawing cash over the counter in a bank) they are or feel better off than before” (Grönroos 2008). In other words, value in use is a positive impact left for the individual user or group of users from the use of a product, a service, or from other interactions with them. Technologies are not built or purchased without purpose. There is always an assumption that any new technology should create value, or more precisely it should assist its user to co-create value, since value is created through use, with the help of technology. The created value is based on universal human needs but it is realized on an individual level. If the human-technology relationship in general is considered, the core building block of UCD, value in use, can help to understand the context dependent motivations of technology usage and impacts that the different usage contexts have on people’s relationships and experiences with technology.

3. User Experience - Ecosystem of products, services, people and activities User experience is one of the central concepts in human-computer interaction and user-centred design (Hassenzahl and Tractinsky 2006, Kuutti 2010, Wright, Blythe and McCarthy 2006). There are many different definitions for user experience but they all put the product or service and the interaction between people and the product in the centre. The interaction can be using the product or just thinking about it. As mentioned above, even the ISO 9241-210 (2010) standard has a definition for user experience. Another often-used one can be found in Hassenzahl and Tractinsky (2006). They define user experience as “a consequence of a user’s internal state (predispositions, expectations, needs, motivation, mood, etc.), the characteristics of the designed system (e.g. complexity, purpose, usability, functionality, etc.) and the context (or the environment) within which the interaction occurs (e.g. organizational/social setting, meaningfulness of the activity, voluntariness of use, etc.).”

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While the ISO standard emphasizes the time span related to the usage, Hassenzahl (2010) and Law et al. (2009) stress the dynamic and subjective nature of user experience as well as the context dependency of it. ‘Dynamic,’ in user experience, means that experience is a continuous process that changes all the time. This aspect highlights the same temporal aspects as the ISO standard. Context-dependency in user experience means that experiences are always situated and in some sense unique. Subjectivity in user experience means that experiences emerge in relationships between people, situations and products, but they are created in the minds of individual people. People perceive things and events from their personal points of view. The concept of user experience acknowledges this subjective nature of perceptions. The interactions between user and product produce experiences, and these experiences both affect and are affected by how the user perceives the product, service, or technology, i.e. what the relationship between the user and the technology becomes. The interaction does not occur in “vacuums”. Instead the perceptions and experiences of products and services are connected to users’ other lived experiences (Helkkula and Kelleher 2010). In fact, only in some special cases such as with some games and works of art, interaction with a single product produces a meaningful experience for a user. In a way, the perceived products and services, and other resources and actors relating to the users’ perspective meaningful wholes form a network that produces the experience. These networks resemble ecosystems in that they consist of a complex and dynamic yet connected group of actors (Mannonen, 2011). From the perspective of human-technology relationships, the concept of user experience can help us to understand the everyday experiences with technologies and especially the subjective, dynamic, and holistic nature of interaction with technology, as well as the time dimensions relating to it.

4. Technology Cultures - Shared and evolving perceptions of technology From the users’ perspective, technologies play certain defined roles in activities they are used in. The roles and meanings the users give to technologies do not necessarily follow the same logic the designers have utilized when designing the product or service. This mismatch is the traditional cause of usability problems (Nielsen, 1993). Interestingly, the

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perceptions also vary quite a lot between users and it is difficult to predict the variations based on external facts such as education, tasks or age (Mannonen, 2010). Here, the concept of cultures becomes useful. In general, culture can be defined as shared knowledge and understanding between groups of people (Inglis, 2004). The concept of technology culture can be derived from the general definition of culture, i.e. “Technology culture means shared knowledge and understanding of technology between groups of people.” (Mannonen, 2010). In practice this means that users who have similar perceptions and understandings of certain technologies, can be seen as members of a particular technology culture. Technology cultures combine the somewhat scattered viewpoints towards technology that exist in UCD, namely affordances, appropriation, adoption and technical expertise of the users. Affordances are properties of the world (Norman, 1999). Originally, perceptual psychologist J.J. Gibson (1986) introduced the term meaning actionable properties that the environment provides relative to the capabilities and activities of the animal. In UCD, affordances are generally used to mean the visual feedback of the systems that advertise the properties and functionalities of an object. Appropriation, on the other hand, refers to “the way in which technologies are adopted, adapted and incorporated into working practice” (Dourish, 2003, p. 467). Often appropriation refers especially to the creation of new and unpredicted purposes of uses for products and services by the users. Dourish’s definition of appropriation refers to the adoption of technology, i.e. the process of taking certain technology into use, usually by groups of people. During adoption the technology is accepted into use and the initial usage practices are decided or otherwise emerge. Categorizing users based on their technical skill level is a traditional way to take into account the expertise of the users. The skills can refer to general IT or technology literacy, application knowledge, or system knowledge (Smith, 1997). The motivation for the categorization has been aiming at designs that, for example, are easy for novices to learn or are efficient in the hands of experts. Like other cultures, technology cultures are also under constant change. This means that the perceptions people have about different technologies

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change when, for example, people learn to use new tools and devices, better technologies are introduced to them, or they re-evaluate their values. Technology cultures are a useful tool for understanding the building blocks of the users’ perceptions of different technologies. From the perspective of the human-technology relationship, technology cultures can help us to understand how the users see and define the roles of different technologies, how these roles change in the process of time, and what kinds of groups of people share the same perceptions.

5. Conclusion User-centred design is focused on the interaction between people and products, services and technologies. The aim of UCD activities is to ensure that the newly developed solutions fit their users and usage contexts, i.e. that the relationship between users and the new solutions will be positive and fluent. At a more detailed level, the concepts of UCD can be used to describe and analyse the interactions from many different viewpoints, of which the most important are: the value in the use of the technology, the experience of interacting with the technology, and users’ perceptions of the purposes of the technology. The value in use viewpoint describes the needs and motivations behind technology usage. It analyses the actual and overall reason behind the usage of products or services in a certain context but also the details that can make the product successful. The experience viewpoint emphasizes the subjective experiences and their dynamic and holistic nature. The last viewpoint depicts the different meanings people give to technologies and how the roles evolve. It seems that the UCD approach and concepts can be used to start describing the human technology/relationship in a human-centred way. The UCD approach tries to see the world from the perspective of an individual (or a group of people) interacting with a certain product or service. This approach allows a general yet micro level understanding about the human-technology relationship. The current knowledge in UCD describes the relationship between people and technologies as motivated by universal human needs that are realized in the behaviour of individuals, dynamic and continuously changing subjective experiences, and something that connects groups of people but

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escapes well-defined universal categorizations. This picture is biased towards technologies that are intentionally used and designed for use. Thus it is only a small part of the whole picture of the human-technology relationship. The world we live in is filled with technologies that are not packaged into products and services and which escape an UCD approach of this kind. This article is just a starting point. It tries to describe how user-centred design as both practice and design philosophy has been exploring the relationship between technologies and users, and how the lessons learnt could be transferred to general philosophical discussions about the humantechnology relationship. The introduced concepts, though at the core of UCD, are not the whole of UCD; for example, activity theory based interaction design (e.g. Kaptelinin and Nardi 2006) could be used to further develop understanding about technology usage.

References Boztepe, S. (2007) User Value: Competing Theories and Models, International Journal of Design 1(2), pp. 55-63. Cockton, G. (2006) Designing worth is worth designing. In Proceedings of the 4th Nordic conference on Human-computer interaction: changing roles (NordiCHI '06), Anders Morch, Konrad Morgan, Tone Bratteteig, Gautam Ghosh, and Dag Svanaes (Eds.). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 165-174. Dourish, P. (2003). The appropriation of interactive technologies: Some lessons from placeless documents. Computer Supported Cooperative Work, 12(4), 465–490. Garrety, K. & Badham, R. (2004) User-Centered Design and the Normative Politics of Technology. Science, Technology & Human Values 29(2), pp. 191-212. Gibson, James J. (1986). The Ecological Approach to Visual Perception. Hillsdale, New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Goggin, G. (2006) Cell Phone Culture: Mobile technology in everyday life. London: Routledge. Gould, J. D., & Lewis, C. (1985). Designing for Usability: Key Principles and What Designers Think. Communications of the ACM, 28 (3), 300311. Grönroos, C. (2008) Service logic revisited: who creates value? And who co-creates? European Business Review, 20(4), pp.298 – 314

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Hassenzahl, M. (2010) Experience Design: Technology for All the Right Reasons. Morgan & Claypool Publishers. Hassenzahl, M. and Tractinsky, N. (2006) User experience – a research agenda. Behaviour & Information Technology, Vol. 25, No. 2, 91-97. Helkkula, A. and Kelleher, C. (2010) Circularity of customer service experience and customer perceived value. Journal of Customer Behaviour, 9(1), pp. 37-53. Herzberg F. Mausner B. and Snyderman B.B. (1967), The motivation to work, (2nd ed.) USA, John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Heskett, J. (2005) Design: A Very Short Introduction. Oxford, UK: Oxford University Press. Hughes, T. P. (2005) Human-Built World: How to Think about Technology and Culture. London: University of Chicago Press. Inglis, F. (2005). Culture. Cambridge, UK: Polity Press Ltd. ISO 9241-210 (2009) Ergonomics of human system interaction - Part 210: Human-centered design for interactive systems (formerly known as 13407). International Organization for Standardization (ISO). Switzerland. Kaptelinin, V. and Nardi, B.A. (2006) Acting With Technology: Activity Theory and Interaction Design. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Keinonen, T. (2008) User-centered design and fundamental need. In Proceedings of the 5th Nordic conference on Human-computer interaction: building bridges (NordiCHI '08). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 211-219. Kujala, S. and Väänänen-Vainio-Mattila, K. (2009) Value of Information Systems and Products: Understanding the Users' Perspective and Values, Journal of Information Technology Theory and Application (JITTA), 9(4). Kuutti, K. (2010) Where are the Ionians of user experience research? In Proceedings of the 6th Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction: Extending Boundaries (NordiCHI '10). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 715-718. Law, E. L-C., Roto, V., Hassenzahl, M., Arnold P.O.S. Vermeeren, A. P.O.S. and Kort, J. (2009) Understanding, scoping and defining user experience: a survey approach. In Proceedings of the 27th international conference on Human factors in computing systems (CHI '09). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 719-728. Mannonen, P. (2010) Technology Cultures, in Handbook of Research on Culturally-Aware Information Technology: Perspectives and Models, E. G. Blanchard and D. Allard, Eds. Hershey, USA: Information Science Reference (an imprint of IGI Global), 2010, pp. 94-112.

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—. (2011) User-Experience Ecosystems: A Tool For Understanding User Experiences From The User’s Viewpoint. In Proc. IASDR 2011 - the 4th World Conference on Design Research, Delft, the Netherlands. Mao, J-Y., Vredenburg, K., Smith, P.W. and Carey, T. (2005) The state of user-centered design practice. Communications of the ACM, 48(3), pp. 105-109. Nielsen, J. (1993). Usability Engineering. London: Academic Press. Norman, D. (1999). Affordances, Conventions and Design. Interactions 6(3):38-43, May 1999, ACM Press. Nye, D., E. (2007). Technology Matters: Questions to Live With. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Smith, A. (1997) Human-Computer Factors: A Study of Users and Information Systems, McGraw-Hill, London. Oudshoorn, N., and Pinch, T. (2005). How Users Matter: The coconstruction of users and technology (paperpack edition ed.). Cambridge, Massachusetts: The MIT Press. Spinuzzi, C. 2002. A Scandinavian challenge, a US response: methodological assumptions in Scandinavian and US prototyping approaches. In Proceedings of the 20th annual international conference on Computer documentation SIGDOC’02, ACM, October 20-23, 2002, Toronto, Ontario, Canada. Wright, P., Blythe, M. and McCarthy, J. (2006) User Experience and the Idea of Design in HCI. In: S. Gilroy, M. Harrison (eds.) Interactive Systems. Design, Specification, and Verification, Lecture Notes in Computer Science. Berlin, Heidelber: Springer, 1-14.

CHAPTER III TECHNOLOGY AND HUMAN RELATIONSHIPS VANCE ASHLEY WOODWARD

1. Introduction Technology affects how humans interact with the world and each other. In a sense, that is all that technology does. In this article, I consider technology’s complex impact on our relationships. First, the word technology is defined. Then I consider how technology has impacted on human relationships. Finally, I look at the potential future impact of technology and how to manage its risks.

2. Defining Technology We use technology to interact with others and the world at large. Sure, you could say that we also interact with technology directly. We play video games, watch movies and listen to music with technology. But who made the video games, movies and music? Humans. Even there, to the extent that we humans apparently interact directly with technology, we are nevertheless interacting with other humans, just indirectly. Granted, these types of interactions are rather lopsided in the sense of being a one-way flow of information, but they are, still, human-to-human interactions. In other words, technology is more a medium than a terminal or node of communication. We humans are the nodes and we communicate via technology. But that is not quite the whole story either. We humans are also the media through which communication occurs. For example, we store and transmit information such as pop culture and memes, and many other things (or did I miss the meme that says memes do not exist?) Our interactions with technology are indeed complicated, but then again humans are complicated.

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2.1 Two Types of Technology Technology is an encompassing concept. Wikipedia tells us, “[t]he word technology refers to the making, modification, usage, and knowledge of tools, machines, techniques, crafts, systems and methods of organization, in order to solve a problem, improve a pre-existing solution to a problem, achieve a goal, handle an applied input/output relation or perform a specific function. It can also refer to the collection of such tools, including machinery, modifications, arrangements and procedures.” In short, technology is anything that does anything useful. Technology is two things. It is physical stuff, tools. And it is mental stuff, the knowledge of how to invent, build and use those tools. Yes, a computer is technology, but the knowledge of how to use a computer is technology. The factory that builds a computer is technology, but the knowledge of how to design and make a computer is also technology. So, technology consists of tools and knowledge. What are tools and knowledge? Whatever else they may be, they are things that help people do whatever it is that they want to do. Tools and knowledge enable people to obtain more with less. If you are willing to consider knowledge itself as a tool (no pressure, but it is an option), then technology is just a fancy word for tools.

2.2 Technology is Recursive Technology is recursive, which makes it powerful and transformative. Do not undersell the significance of this recursive aspect. For sure, technology is additive. The development of one technology opens the door to others. We invent sailing ships, which promotes trade, which promotes wealth, which promotes learning, which promotes science, which promotes metallurgy, which promotes nearly unlimited food and alcohol at a reasonable price on a Carnival Cruise. We make bricks to make houses to make brick makers to make bricks in a repeating, additive fashion. Yes, technology builds on itself. It is additive and because of that, technology improves geometrically. It snowballs. It is explosive. But technology is more than that. Technology is more than merely additive; it is recursive: the technology of discovering and creating technology is a technology, and that technology improves itself. Technology enables us to create new technologies faster and more

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efficiently. Here, we are talking about educational methods, information storage, processing and retrieval, and the scientific method. This can all be summed up as information technology. Make sure you get that. Yes, technology leads to better technology; that is the additive aspect. But we create technology-creating technology, which enables us to create even better technology-creating technology. Technology does not merely snowball, it accelerates as it snowballs. Technology is not merely explosive; it is a runaway chain reaction with unlimited fuel. Let us look at how technology affects our relationships.

3. How Technology Affects Our Relationships Technology leads to transformation, paradigm shifts and, just maybe, transcendence, but simultaneously, technology comes with risks. Let us consider how it plays out.

3.1 Technology Increases Our Interactions Technology gives us more control over who we interact with. From stone tablets to Skype, technology enables us reach more people, and technology enables us to reach out over greater distances. Technology gives us a better chance of connecting with like-minded people. But this effect can be a bad one. After all, technology enables emotional vampires, criminals and psychopaths to reach out and touch more people and over greater distances as well. Good or bad, technology definitely allows people to increase their reach.

3.2 Technology Decreases Our Interactions Technology also helps us avoid interactions. Technology allows us to put up barriers. Technology enables us to get away from emotional vampires, criminals and psychopaths, for instance; technology makes people more mobile. Most people in most of history were absolutely stuck with what they were born into: stuck with their government, stuck with their location, and stuck with their associates. That is less true nowadays. Now more than ever, it is possible to leave toxic families, groups and nations. There is

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plenty of room for improvement, but things are going in the right direction. Also, technology enables us to discover information about people and groups. Technology helps us protect ourselves because it enables us to document and publicize the activities of, for example, sociopaths and cults. A murderer or fraudster, for example, can no longer simply move to another location to continue harming people, at least not as easily as in earlier times. Nowadays, we can find out about potential neighbours, associates and romantic partners on the Internet before meeting in real life or at all. We can choose never to meet people based on information we obtain about them beforehand, thanks to technology.

3.3 Technology Shortens Relationships Technology shortens relationships. In the old days, nearly all humans would grow up, live and die among small groups of people. Almost all our relationships—friendships, financial, market, marital—were long ones, a lifetime long. Until very recently, people tended to exchange goods and services with a familiar group of nearby folks. A farmer, smith or merchant would serve life-long acquaintances. This is still true for many people in the world but it is less true in technologically developed areas. Today, in developed parts of the world, our business relationships tend to be less enduring. We do not go to the same shoe store our entire life. Today, it is easier to switch jobs and professions and locations. People are no longer coercively subordinated to a Lord or industrialist, at least not to the extent we used to be. Also, today, there is less economic pressure forcing families to stay together for a lifetime, hence, for good or bad, fewer families do stay together for a lifetime. The costs of switching have gone down, while the benefits of switching have gone up. It is now easier than ever to leave a bad situation. Good.

3.4 Technology Lengthens Relationships Technology allows relationships to last longer. Death ends relationships but people live longer now. Back when the average lifespan was forty

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years, not many relationships lasted longer than that. With longer lifespans, at least some relationships last longer as well. Your relationship with family is an example. You may be able to divorce your spouse, but you will always be your parent’s child, your sibling’s sibling and your children’s parent. Thanks (or curses) to technology, those relationships last longer because we humans last longer. Technology also affects the duration of our relationships with certain groups. It is hard to imagine a world without Hollywood, France and Google. Those things are, fundamentally, groups of people and your relationship with them, if you have one, will likely last a very long time. So, in some respects technology causes relationships to last longer.

3.5 Technology Pacifies Relationships Technology civilizes, that is, technology makes for societies that are characterized by open exchanges of information and low violence. We could debate what exactly defines a “civilized” society and how such a thing should be measured, but regardless, we can probably all agree on a couple of features. Civilized societies are peaceful and have many happy people who are free to express themselves publicly. Technology brings about peaceful societies. Technology provides us with quick access to accurate information on a wide scale. Plentiful information leads to better decisions, individually and collectively; it leads to fewer misunderstandings; it leads to fewer injustices and that leads to fewer people seeking revenge. While we now have greater access to information about violence in the world, a person’s chances of dying violently have been decreasing though the ages and even through the last century (Pinker 2012). Moreover, technology, by improving our ability to generate wealth, allows us more time and energy to learn. We humans are smarter and more enlightened than ever, individually and collectively; that leads to better relationships among individuals and among societies. Most people want peace, technology helps us to get it (Ridley 2011).

3.6 Technology Accelerates Relationships Technology speeds things up. Imagine two pen pals exchanging correspondence and compare that to email and blogging. However long it

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took to develop a long-distance relationship in the past, it can happen faster now. Because of online presence, it is as though we are all celebrities in a sense. People can know us without us knowing them. We can now establish relationships with people without even being aware of it. Joe reads Jill’s blog; Jill reads Joe’s blog and yet they might not even know what the other person is doing. Nowadays, before people meet for the first time, they might know more about each other than some married couples knew about each other in the past. Technology speeds up the pace of how relationships develop by speeding up the flow of information about people. This acceleration doesn’t make any less of the relationships, it simply compresses the development. Technology allows us to experience more in less time and we have only just started. Someday, possibly only decades from now, we will be able to link our brains to fully immersive virtual reality worlds and in them, we may become able to live out thousands of years of subjective time in microseconds of real time (Kurzweil 2005).

4. The Costs of Technology Technology changes our relationships in complex ways. Overall, technology gives us more choice. It enables us to get what we want. That should not be terribly surprising considering I loaded the deck by defining it that way. Either way, technology comes with a price. Let us consider the costs of technology.

4.1 The Hard Costs Technology gives us longer lives, more toys, and more free time to play with those toys. The technological future holds many more goodies for us, such as life extensions, intelligence enhancements and better entertainment of all imaginable kinds. With all these fantastic things that technology does for us, why hesitate? How could anybody give technology anything less than a five-star rating? Yes, technology has enabled murder, war and genocide but technology has caused and saved much life. Evidence? Seven billion living human beings. Tribalism did not come about because of technology. Definitely, technology has enabled people to exhibit their hatred and tribalism in

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massively destructive ways, but technology also gave us the things that could be destroyed: a planet full of people and their artefacts. If we compare the creative part of technology to the destructive part, so far technology is a winner and that reflects well on the human ability to rise above ignorance and hatred, but past results are no guarantee of future success. Let us consider the future.

4.2 The Risks of Technology Technology gives humans the power to create and destroy more things in less time. Technology’s concrete benefits have outstripped its concrete costs but the analysis does not end there. There is another cost, one that is far harder to measure or even conceptualize in practical terms: risk. As an example, it is at least conceivable that, because of human activities and pollution, the Earth’s climate could catastrophically change sometime in the next few decades or centuries, killing billions of people or even all life. Maybe it is a remote possibility; maybe someday in the future we will discover we were nowhere close to climate collapse. But then again, maybe we have already gone past the point of no return. There is a potential risk but at the moment we do not know how large that risk is. In any case, to the extent humans have endangered the Earth’s climate, we have done it with technology. Climate change is a knock against technology. That said, we have only one escape route. The only realistic solution to our energy problems, the only realistic solution to global warming, is to push technology forward to the point where clean energy becomes cheaper than dirty energy. Technology caused the problem but the point is moot, we are now committed. Let us consider another risk: nuclear weapons. All-out planetary nuclear war is a small risk and although it would be devastating, it probably cannot realistically be called an existential risk for humankind. But we do not need to argue about the gravity of the nuclear threat, the really grave risks, the potential planet killers, are on the way. They are only years away. The list of potential candidates is long, but it basically comes down to one thing: super-potent weapons of mass destruction far more dangerous than nukes. They could come in the form of engineered biotoxins, viruses or bacteria, or things like them. Think of movies like 12 Monkeys (1995) or I Am Legend (2007); they could come in the form of swarms of nanobots

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capable of both self-replicating and destroying all biological life in their path. Think The Blob (1958). Yes, this is just science fiction at the moment, but these things could indeed become science fact. We should plan for it. Ultimately, the gravest risk is superhumanly intelligent artificial intelligence. That is the biggest risk because it could lead to any other conceivable catastrophe (and inconceivable ones too). Here we are talking about The Matrix (1999) or The Terminator (1984) or I, Robot (2004). Now, I am not suggesting that some computer is suddenly going to spring to life and decide to kill everybody, forget that. I am suggesting that artificial intelligence may soon rise to the point of fully emulating human empathy and language abilities, whilst also possessing intelligence far greater than any individual human. Such computers will seem sentient and self-aware, regardless of whether or not they “really” are sentient. That alone is not much of a danger as long as they are programed by large groups of humans interested in promoting humanitarian values. Yet, there is a risk that small groups of people could get hold of powerful artificial intelligence and use it to wreak havoc. Ultimately, it only takes one. The risk may be remote, it may seem ridiculous but there is a conceivable risk and this is one thing that we cannot afford to get wrong, not even once, not even a little. For the first time in history, we are entering a technological era of no second chances. A problem with existential risks (aside from being deadly) is that they are difficult to quantify. When we talk about scenarios that could potentially end of all human life, we have little ability to do clinical trials or take a random sample. We can only guess at the probabilities inferentially; meanwhile, even one in a billion is way too much risk. If, a hundred years from now, humans or their peacefully evolved posthuman descendants exist on Earth, it will not be because nobody invented self-replicating nanobots; it will not be because science failed to devise super-deadly biotoxins; and it will not be because extremely powerful artificial intelligence never came about; those things are all pounding on the evolutionary door. If, a hundred years from now, humans or their posthuman descendants exist on Earth, it will be because we learned to manage the dangers presented by existentially risky technologies. How might we manage the risks? With technology of course!

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4.3 Managing the Existential Risks of Technology We can manage technology with technology. We already do. In fact, the only way we can manage the existential risks of technology is with technology. Granted, some people advocate for the relinquishment or banishment of technology. It appears those people do not give much credence to economics. I will leave it at that. Good or bad, technology is a one-way trip, and we are already on our way. Yes, our only hope is to use technology to manage technologically created existential risks. The methods of risk management are legion and they overlap; fortunately, they are obvious. We should foster and encourage democratic, open and transparent values and governments everywhere and for everyone. Why? Because democracy is a method of crowd-sourcing governance, which makes for better decision-making. Arguably, just arguably, dictatorships and autocracies are somewhat more likely to launch into powerfully self-destructive wars than democratically organized societies. Some might consider that a reason to promote democracy; I do. Do not get me wrong, obviously we freedom lovers the world over are already doing this, it is happening, I am just pointing out that it is urgent. By hook or crook, we need to bring about free and open democracy everywhere on Earth, and soon. But how? I do not know, but we need to find a way. We should promote education, rationality, and science-based change. Faith is great, faith makes a lot of people feel good but the only thing we can all agree on is science. Let us promote science as our guide for change. We should automate and crowd-source the monitoring of ourselves. For lack of a better word, we need to crowd-source our policing. This is not about Big Brother, this is about calling the police when you see a drunk driver; this is about having lots of cameras around so that accidents and crimes will be recorded; this is about preventing individuals from engineering bacteria that could kill by the billion. Yes, the risk does not currently exist, but it might exist someday soon. This is something for which we want the solution before the problem. We should ensure that only large, transparent organizations may possess amounts of computational power sufficient to give rise to powerful artificial intelligence. This too is not currently an issue. We humans have not attained that level of computational technology but we are about to.

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We want the rules to be in place before the technology, not after it, after is too late. Yes, technology affects human relationships but we have not even begun to see the full impact that technology will have on us. The good news is that we are already doing the things we should be doing to ensure that the future is a good one. Things are looking hopeful.

5. Conclusion Technology affects who we interact with and how long we interact with them, and it affects how those interactions play out, both in form and substance. Nowadays, it seems that technology predominantly causes relationships to be shorter. At the outset, that might seem like a bad thing but it is not like technology causes relationships to break down, rather, technology provides us with better relationship opportunities than before. Still, in many ways technology reduces direct human-to-human interaction and it is hard to view that as a tremendously positive thing. But, really, technology does not raise barriers, it simply enables humans to raise barriers that they wanted to raise in the first place. It allows humans to take down barriers that they wanted to take down. Thank God for the Internet! So, is technology a good thing? Without question it is. Technology lets us do what we want to do. Technology allows us to contact who we want to contact. It allows us to discover what we want to discover. Technology helps us express ourselves. If you have faith in humanity, then have faith in technology.

References 12 Monkeys (1995). [Film] Directed by: Terry Gilliam. USA: Universal Pictures. I Am Legend (2007). [Film] Directed by: Francis Lawrence. USA: Warner Bros. Pictures. I, Robot (2004). [Film] Directed by: Alex Proyas. USA: 20th Century Fox. Kurzweil, R (2005) The Singularity Is Near: When Humans Transcend Technology. Penguin. Pinker, S (2012) The Better Angels of Our Nature: Why Violence Has Declined. Penguin.

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Ridley, M (2011) The Rational Optimist: How Prosperity Evolves. Harper. The Blob (1958) [Film] Directed by: Irvin Yeaworth. USA: Paramount Pictures. The Matrix (1999) [Film] Directed by: Larry Wachowski and Andy Wachowski. USA and Australia: Warner Bros. Pictures. The Terminator (1984) [Film] Directed by: James Cameron. USA and Australia: Orion Pictures.

CHAPTER IV A MONSTROUS RHINOCEROS (AS FROM LIFE): TOWARD (AND BEYOND) AN EPISTEMOLOGICAL NATURE OF THE ENACTED PICTORIAL IMAGE MARTYN WOODWARD

1. Introduction Since early modernism, the conventional view of art and of art history was one that removed art from the stream of lived experience, to treat it as an expression of the imagination of the artist, and as such as a symbolic representation of a concrete external reality (Ingold, 2010; Malafouris, 2007; Wind, 1983). The questioning of the epistemological role of the pictorial image is enjoying a current resurgence within fields dealing with the visual arts, specifically in light of contemporary non-representational models of perception and cognition, from attempts to understanding the practice of drawing as the ‘bringing forth’ of a reality (Cain, 2010), to rethinking paleontological images through their ‘processes’ of becoming (Malafouris, 2007; Ambrose, 2006). Within the field of anthropology, the symbolic (representational) nature of ‘art’ has been strongly contested, instead taking a pragmatist approach, proposing that we should consider the activities of drawing, painting and carving not as a means of representing a world, but of revealing or bringing forth a world through a kind of ‘perceptual visual thinking’ (Malafouris, 2007, p. 299) linked to the sensory-motor engagement of the artist and the world. Such approaches maintain that, in doing so, the studying of the pictorial image (specifically that of the Palaeolithic era) offers radical new epistemic access to the world of visual experience.

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This paper positions itself within this debate, and aims to show that whilst efforts within anthropology move away from the underpinning of representation, a further condition remains, that of the privileging of the visual. To begin to tackle this issue, the paper will reveal how both contemporary and prior views of the pictorial arts since early modernism have been underpinned by the concept of mimesis, considered to be the oldest theory of the representational arts, which, as I will show, brought with it a pre-occupation with both representation and the privileging of the visual. Through tracing the concept of mimesis from its Platonic and Aristotelian roots, the paper will reveal how the concept permeated the visual arts during early modernism, pioneered by the work of art historian Aby Warburg, and remained until the late twentieth century, and still has a lingering grip on the visual within non-representational models. In discussing the more-than-visual nature of the pictorial image, the paper draws insight from ‘enactivist’ literature; the concept of ‘perceptual guidance by action’ (Varela et al., 2001) provides a framework within which to theorise perception as structured by movement and action, and as such the whole multi-sensory-motor experience of the artist. Providing a theoretical platform within which to re-think this ‘perceptual visual thinking’ as a multi-sensory-motor process in which no one sense modality is privileged. As such, in offering a speculative theory, the paper maintains, the ‘enacted pictorial image’ should be theorised as a ‘trace’, not of a visual world of experience, but of an entire enacted reality of the artist.

2. Imagination: The ‘visual mental image’ As Matthew Potolsky reminds us, the concept of mimesis is considered to be the oldest theory of the Western representational arts, which has survived well into the twentieth century (Potolsky, 2006). It was established during the Classical period in Greece as a means to characterize the epistemological nature of painting, sculpture, poetry, music, dance and theatre as an art, in complete contrast to other forms of human inquiry (Sorbom, 2002), such as history and science, which were seen as a form of universal truth and reason (Potolsky, 2006). To begin, this paper will outline how the concept of mimesis rests upon two basic epistemological assumptions: (1) the mind and world as separate domains, and (2) the visual nature of human experience. The nature of mimesis during the Classical period is divided between the thoughts of Plato and Aristotle, and rests upon the core distinction of an

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artwork as a ‘copy’, ‘imitation, or ‘similarity’ of an pre-defined external ‘real’ world, through which is drawn a distinction between the real (the concrete object) and the mimemata (a painting, sculpture, prose or music), the result of the process of mimesis. Both Plato and Aristotle remain faithful to such a dichotomy, however they have differing views on the epistemological nature of the imitation itself. The Platonic model of the image is based upon the concept of an exact copy, or ‘mirror image’, of the ‘real’ world (Potolsky, 2006). As such, the Platonic model argues that images and artworks are no more than reflections of the world as it is in reality, passive reflections that require no skill on the part of the artist (pp. 23-24). Such a position on the imaginative image, Potolsky notes, leads Plato to see mimesis as a threat to concrete knowledge and reason, as any imitation that is said to be knowledge of an object, can only ever be illusory (p. 24), and potentially deceptive. In contrast, Aristotle argues that mimemata, far from being mere ‘mirror images’ of reality have an epistemological value in themselves (pp. 33-38). Rather than merely copying, Aristotelian mimesis is linked directly to perception, and seen as simulating, through the imagination, as a self-contained ‘heterocosm’ that simulates the ‘real’ world through our ways of knowing it. As such, Aristotle’s mimesis is not conceptualized as an exact copy of reality, but as a “craft with its own internal laws and aims” (p. 33). Fundamentally, in maintaining mimesis as an act of simulation, Aristotle, in contrast to Plato, holds that mimesis is in fact a natural aspect of human life, and even a unique source of learning. Aristotle is thus able to maintain that at some level each area of knowledge1 is itself an imitation, maintaining that human beings learn through the process of imitation itself. Such a move to understanding knowledge as imitation posits mimesis as an active aesthetic process. To Aristotle, the poet (or artist) does not imitate reality, but simulates and brings reality into existence through the process of mimesis. Aristotle’s insistence upon the epistemological value of mimesis, and its inquiry, had a direct impact upon the knowledge systems of Greek Culture. Examples of his model of simulation mimesis, which requires the active human imagination, can be seen to permeate throughout the Greek allegorical mnemonic and knowledge system, the ‘art of memory’, as studied through the work of the Anthropologist Frances Yates. It is here 1

Aristotle is careful in his distinctions of different kinds of knowledge (Baktir 2003). He claims that there are different kinds of truth that are attached to art and philosophy. Art deals with the aesthetic and universal truth, and philosophy with the concrete and absolute truth. Both however, are treated as mimetic.

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that the reliance upon both representation and the visual, that underpin mimesis, can be clearly seen as influencing the culture, through the system of creating imaginative ‘visual mental images’ from verbal concepts, to aid memory. The art of memory was a memory practice, conceived as a theoretical mnemonic tool for the creation and subsequent recollection of ‘visual mental images’ from memory within oral cultures (Curruthers, 2009). The practice relied upon the principle of the translation of a verbal concept or object, through the imagination of the user based upon mimetic knowledge, into ‘visual mental images’ arranged within a fictional, imagined space (Sapir, 2006; Yates, 1966), a principle that Frances Yates finds to be influenced by the Aristotelian concepts of knowledge as imitation through mimesis. It is here that the underpinning conditions of representation and the bias of the ‘visual’ endemic to mimesis, are brought out through this article through the three conditions of ‘the art of memory’ system: (1) the translatability of verbal concepts into ‘visual mental images’ (Sapir, 2006, p. 85); (2) the necessity of an ‘imaginary fictional place’ in order for something to happen, and (3) the disfigurement and unusualness of the ‘visual mental images’ of objects to be placed within imaginative fictional places (Yates, 1966, p.19). Yates (1966) describes how Greek memory systems built around the time of Aristotle shared a focus upon the importance of the role of the imagination in perception, drawn out through his treatise in De-Anima: The perceptions brought in by the five senses are first treated or worked over by the faculty of imagination, and it is the images so formed which become the material of the intellectual faculty (Yates, 1966, p. 46).

Here, she maintains not only the importance of the imagination as the intermediary between perception and thought, but also within the creation of ‘visual mental images’ that became the very material of the intellect itself. Imagination to Aristotle is pictorial in nature, and as such ‘the soul never thinks without a mental picture’ (p. 47). This ‘pictorial’ nature of imagination, and intellect, is the fundamental founding support for the use of ‘images’ within the Greek art of memory system that followed. Yates reveals, by quoting Cicero, how the memory systems, based around the time of Aristotle, required a mediation of the non-visual senses through a visual image, due to the superiority of the visual: The most complete pictures are formed in our minds of the things that have been conveyed to them and imprinted on them by the senses, but that the

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keenest of all our senses is the sense of sight, and that consequently perceptions received by the ears or by reflexion can be most easily retained if they are also conveyed to our minds by the mediation of the eyes (Cicero, in Yates, 1966, p. 19).

Yates reveals that to Aristotle, memory “belongs to the same part of the soul as the imagination; it is a collection of mental pictures from sense impressions but with a time element added” (p. 47). The ‘art of memory’ systems of this period thus required the construction of a ‘visual mental image’ from an oral description, in which visual objects are placed within an imagined place. To Yates (p. 23) the ‘art of memory’ system functioned upon this privileging of the visual within imagination, underscored by two basic principles laid out by Cicero; the rules for places and the rules for images. The rules for places require the creation of ‘fictitious places’, in contrast to the ‘real’ places (p. 23); the rules for images (that are placed within a ‘fictitious place’) rely upon the core concept of making the mnemonic images as striking and unusual as possible through their ugliness or deformation, in order to fully awaken the memory during recollection2 (p. 23). Yates shows how, for Cicero, to remember (for long periods of time) requires making the images unfamiliar, novel, and to visually disfigure3 them in some way within the imagination: If we set up images of a kind that can adhere longest in memory. And we shall do so if we establish similitude’s as striking as possible; if we set up images that are many or vague but active; if we assign to them exceptional beauty or singular ugliness […] or if we somehow disfigure them (Yates, 1966, p. 26).

2 Yates outlines how the rules for images aim to work with the imagination to aid memory by opposing the banal though creating visually striking imaginary imagery; “When we see in everyday life things that are petty, ordinary, and banal, we generally fail to remember them, because the mind is not being stirred by anything novel or marvellous. But if we see or hear something exceptionally base, dishonourable, unusual, great, unbelievable, or ridiculous, that we are likely to remember for a long time” (Yates, 1966, p. 26). 3 It is through such striking and unusual images that memory is helped by ‘arousing emotional affects’ (Yates 1966 p.23), though figures ‘wearing crowns or purple cloaks, blood-stained or smeared with paint, of human figures dramatically engaged in some activity’ (ibid), creating an unusual and extraordinary imaginary world.

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The ‘art of memory’ system, underpinned by the Aristotelian concept of mimesis, rests upon three key points: (1) The perfect, transparent translatability of verbal concepts into ‘visual mental images’ (Sapir, 2006, p. 85). (This does not necessarily mean that there is a resemblance between what has to be memorized and its mental image). (2) An absolute necessity of ‘fictional place’ in order for something to happen, the place becomes inseparable from the images themselves (Yates, 1966); and (3) the disfigurement and unusualness of the ‘visual mental images’ created in order to awaken the memory of them (Yates, 1966). Surveying the Classical concept of mimesis and its direct influence upon the ‘visual memory system’ reveals both a dichotomy between mind and world, and a bias toward the ‘visual, pictorial’ nature of imagination. Aristotelian mimesis, as simulation, draws a dichotomy between perception (of a sense data of the real world), and the imagination (of the intellect that simulates or represents the sense data of the real world). Mimesis here is a product of the imagination, and so are the ‘mental visual images’ it produces. The reliance upon both representation and the ‘visual’ within the theory of mimesis would underpin later thought regarding the epistemological nature of the ‘pictorial image’ during a revival of mimesis within art history and anthropology during the modernism of the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, in which the pictorial image was theorised as a projection of an expressive, imaginative, psychological disposition of the artist.

3. Perception: Modernism and the emotional mimetic image The resurgence of mimesis throughout the late nineteenth century is placed alongside the rise of the general interest in empathy within the aesthetics of late nineteenth century modernism (Rampley, 2001, p. 124). During this period, mimesis takes on a much wider scope, being placed directly within the category of human perception, within which Robert Vischer’s essay ‘The Optical Sense of Form’ was a central text4. Vischer emphasizes the 4 Vischer’s theories are situated within the prolonged debate between formalist and idealist philosophies during the late 19th century, within which he distinguishes two different understandings of content, drawn from the formalist and idealist positions respectively: (1) the objectively given content, which is directly presented to us by the object of contemplation in its own right; and (2) the subjective content, our own psychological life which as percipients we bring into contact with any and every phenomenon capable of being grasped aesthetically. In

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role that emotions and feelings play in our perception of the visible world, maintaining that our “aesthetic response to form is at least partially conditioned by the inner psychological life of the percipient” (p. 124), as such, he argues “It is quite possible in the sphere of imagination for purely formal phenomena to coalesce with other essential features of our humanity. This is the work or achievement of our representational or imaginative faculty” (Harrison, 1998, pp. 690). Such an increase in the interest of empathy and mimesis within aesthetics takes on a wider scope through the emerging field of anthropology (Ramley, 2001, p. 124), particularly applied to the nature of the pictorial image. Predominantly within the work of the art historian Aby Warburg, who in aiming to join the psychological with the anthropological5, recognised the perceptual possibility of mimesis (Rampley, 2001), applying it to the study of the pictorial arts, not merely as a product of the emotional faculty of the imagination, as Vischer claimed, but, as art historian Edgar Wind notes, within the activity of the physical expression of the entire body (Wind, 1983). In asking the question of how “human and pictorial expressions originate; what are the feelings or points of view, conscious or unconscious, under which they are stored in the archives of the memory?” (Gombrich, 1970, p. 222), Warburg applied the concept of mimesis, in order to foreground perception in the study of the pictorial image as a concrete object itself, as conditioned by the physical mimetic experience of the body and thus the techniques used6. Warburg took on the concept of mimesis to discuss the nature and origins of the ‘visual pictorial image’ as being underpinned by the emotions and psychology of the artist who formed them, his ‘pathos formula’ expressed his main theory regarding the relationship between what he termed the ‘primitive’7 human psyche and the “manipulation of attempting to find a middle ground within the debate, Vischer employed the concept of empathy that he maintained could exist both “in the case of aesthetic perception and artistic presentation” (Vischer in Harrison pg.690). 5 The joining of the psychological (through empathy) to the anthropological was first outlined within the work of Wilhelm Worringer (1908) in his Abstraction and Empathy. 6 Warburg’s positioning of the epistemological within perception is driven by the denial of the formalist ‘autonomy of the arts’, and its belief in separating the formal artistic object from the context of its formation (Wind 1983 pp.23-24). 7 Warburg’s theory of the pictorial image stems from his research and theories of ‘primitive’ (pre-literate) symbolism (primarily evident through his research regarding the Hopi Serpent Ritual).

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the external chaotic world that surrounds” (Efal, 2007, p. 221). To Warburg, any stimulus from the outside world always involves, within perception, a projection of a psychologically known ‘visual mental image’: For any stimulus, be it visual or auditory, a biomorphic cause of a definite and intelligible nature is projected which enables the mind to take defensive measures [...] when a door creaks in the wind [...] such stimuli arouse anxieties among savages or children who may project into such sounds the image of a snarling dog (Gombrich, 1970, p. 217).

For any stimulus, such as a sound, a psychological ‘visual mental image’ is projected for the cause of the stimulus. It is such a ‘phobic reflex of cause projection’ that Warburg maintained is always present at the edge of consciousness (Gombrich, 1970, p. 218). It is upon this principle, of the projection of a psychological ‘visual mental image’, that Warburg’s theories of the origins of the pictorial image, as the projection of the psychological ego, are based. Warburg, like Vischer, focused upon the psychological and emotional projection of the psyche onto and through inanimate objects. However, he differs in that his theories of the ‘pictorial image’ rest upon the recognition that man was, as Gombrich claims, first and foremost, a tool-using animal, who through using tools, was able to widen and extend his ego: I regard man as a tool-using animal whose activity consists in connecting and separating. In this activity he is apt to lose the organic sensation of the ego. The hand permits him to manipulate things which, as inanimate objects, lack a nervous system but which nevertheless provide a material extension of the ego. [...] there exists indeed a situation in which man can become assimilated to something that is not he himself precisely by manipulating or wearing objects which his bloodstream does not reach (Gombrich, 1970, p. 221).

It is here that Warburg extends mimesis beyond that of a faculty of the imagination to the physical act of manipulating or wearing an object, and is thus able to maintain that manmade objects and pictorial images are mimetic in origin. To Warburg, mimesis moves beyond an imaginative reflection of the active mind and becomes situated within the expressive gestures of the experiencing body itself (Wind, 1983, p. 30-32). As such, to Warburg, human muscles themselves serve the purpose of mimetic expression (p. 31), which is always associated with the minimum of reflection. In pursuing this move, Warburg was able to suggest that the nature of the formation of the pictorial image must be studied “in statu nascendi in the shape of the expressive gestures made by the body” (Wind,

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1983, p. 30). To Warburg, the ‘style’ of artefacts and images are formed in the very expressive gestures of the body that formed them. Using this extended theory of mimesis, Warburg was able to trace a clear cycle of the development of the image of the Greek hero Perseus, from the Greek origin to the perversion of that form in a distorting Oriental and mediaeval tradition, through to its restitution in the Renaissance (Gombrich, 1970, p. 194). Warburg suggested that at each stage of re-form within these oral cultures, the form of Perseus was ‘sterilized’8, stripped of expressive meaning, through verbal descriptions and translations (becoming a ‘stimulus’ much like the sound of a creaking door) and ‘polarized’ or given new expressive meaning, (the projection of a new mental image – like the snarling dog) through new cultural imaginations, which ultimately structured and formed the new visual aesthetic. Warburg aimed to isolate and study these psychological factors that conditioned the formulation of style (Wind, 1983) of the pictorial image throughout different cultures and times. As such he believed that “any attempt to detach the image from its relation to religion and poetry, to cult and drama, is like cutting off its lifeblood” (p. 25). It is through the study of the concrete object itself, as conditioned by the nature of the techniques and psychology used to make it, that Warburg aimed to understand the epistemological nature of the pictorial image, as a projection of imaginative, visual and psychological dispositions.

4. The Psychologically Charged Image Such a ‘psychology of the pictorial arts’ remained central to discussions of fields related to the visual arts well into the 20th Century, and became the 8

Warburg used the term ‘Aesthetic Sterilization’ to describe the stripping down of an ‘image’ (mental or pictorial) of any belief and prior aesthetic so as to allow another aesthetic based upon new beliefs to be created in the imagination. Gombrich (1986 p. 198) notes how this can be best summarized through the description of the process of the ars memoria in creating new imaginative images from verbal descriptions: “No religion, so long as it is believed, can have that kind of beauty which we find in the Gods of Titian, of Botticelli, or of our own romantic poets. To this day you cannot make poetry of that sort out of the Christian Heaven and Hell. The Gods must be, as it were, disinfected of belief; the last taint of the sacrifice, and of urgent practical interest, the selfish prayer, must be washed away from them, before that other divinity can come to light in the imagination.” (C.S Lewis The allegory of Love: A study in Medieval Tradition, IN Gombrich 1970, 198).

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focus of discussions of the psychological nature of the pictorial image9. Particularly traced through the work of the art historian Ernst Gombrich, these theories inherited the concerns and biases endemic within the traces of mimesis. Gombrich’s concept of ‘schema and correction’ can be seen as a direct extension of Warburg’s ‘pathos formula’. The theory of ‘schema and correction’ rests upon a model of perception that Gombrich calls the ‘searchlight theory’10 which emphasizes the active role of the living organism, with their experiences (schema) in probing and testing (correction) the environment: It might be said, therefore, that the very process of perception is based on […] the rhythm of schema and correction. It is a rhythm which presupposes constant activity on our part in making guesses and modifying them in the light of experience (Gombrich, 1964, p. 272).

Gombrich maintains that our perceptions are representational, and are bound within the constant activity of the organism, beginning as vague and general, and as we require greater clarity through experience, they will become progressively more articulated. He maintains, like Warburg, that the ‘familiarity’ of our psychological experience (what he called a ‘schema’) is always a frame of reference for the ‘unfamiliar’ experiences of the external world. He applies his concept of ‘schema and correction’ to the pictorial image through discussing the activity of the artist, within which he argues, “the artist begins, not with his visual impressions of an external world, but with his idea or concept” (Gombrich, 1964, p. 62). To Gombrich, we must always have a starting point or a standard of comparison “in order to begin that process of making and matching and remaking which finally becomes embodied in the finished image” (p. 321). The artist’s process of depiction works much like a simile in which the process of copying, of the ‘motif’ (the concrete thing being depicted) is compared to the artist’s ‘schematic form’ (prior experiences). He outlines the process of ‘schema and correction’ through the discussion of copying an ambiguous shape such as an ink blot: The draughtsman tries first to classify the blot and fit it into some sort of familiar scheme – he will say, for instance, that it is triangular or that it looks like a fish. Having selected such a scheme to fit the form 9

Particularly through the work of perceptual psychologists Rudolf Arnheim (1974) and Herman Von Helmoltz (1910). 10 His model of perception is an attempt to reorient all the traditional views of the human mind which were based upon what he termed the ‘bucket theory of the mind’, the concept of the mind in which sense-data are deposited and processed.

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approximately, he will proceed to adjust it, noticing for instance that the triangle is rounded at the top, or that the fish ends in a pigtail (Gombrich, 1964, p. 64).

To Gombrich, the ‘schema’ represents the power of expectation, rather than that of pure conceptual knowledge, which moulds and shapes how we understand what we see in life. He demonstrated, through the test of ‘serial reproduction’,11 a test pioneered by psychologist F. C. Bartlett (Bartlett, 1995 p. 180), in which a series of drawings are produced each depicting a series of transformations from the original Egyptian owl to a cat through the serial copying and reproduction from memory. It is around reproduction five that the ‘unfamiliar’ shape, which has no pre-existing category within the schema of experience of the subjects, is ‘distorted’ to gradually assume the shape of a pussycat (Gombrich, 1964, p. 64). To Gombrich, where the pre-existing category (such as the ambiguous nature of the owl/cat hybrid) is lacking, a ‘distortion’ founded upon the ideas or concepts of the artist’s schema, takes over. Thus, to Gombrich, the “familiarity” of our own prior experiences “will always remain the likely starting point for the rendering of the unfamiliar” (p.72). Upon this premise, Gombrich maintains that an existing representation (based upon the artist’s schema) will always have an influence over the artist, even when he strives to record the ‘truth’ (ibid), which he maintains results in ‘adaptations’ of the ‘motif’ which can be seen as ‘distorted’ representations of reality. The workings of such an approach become explicit within his reading of Albrecht Durer’s woodcut of a Rhinoceros from 1577. Albrecht Durer had never seen a rhinoceros first hand. When creating his woodcut of a Rhinoceros, he had to rely upon descriptions and second hand evidence12; a sketch of the animal that had been sent to Rome as a 11

An image (an Egyptian hieroglyph) is given to a subject, who must reproduce the image accurately from memory. This reproduction is then given to a second subject who also reproduces it from memory. 12 The description of the Rhinoceros Durer inscribed on the top of his woodcut outlines his understanding of the beast; “On 1 May 1515 was brought from India to the great and powerful king Emanuel of Portugal at Lisbon a live animal called a Rhinoceros. His form is here represented. It has the colour of speckled Tortoise and it is covered with thick scales. It is like an elephant in size, but lower on its legs and almost invulnerable. It has a strong sharp horn on its nose, which it sharpens on stones. The stupid animal is the elephant’s deadly enemy. The elephant is very frightened of it, as when they meet it runs […]. Because the

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present for Pope Leo X and a Portuguese newsletter that was sent to Nuremberg playing out the stories of the bitter rivalry between the elephant and rhinoceros from Pliny the Elder13 put to the test by the King of Portugal (Batrum, 2002, p. 283). It is together with these brief sketches and a description from a newsletter that Gombrich suggests were used to begin to build up Durer’s depiction (Gombrich, 1964, pp. 70-71), within which he filled in the ‘gaps’ from his own imagination coloured by his own experiences rendering exotic beasts and dragons, evident within the details of the image. From the Portuguese descriptions of the triumphant fight of the rhinoceros, the creature is given skin like plated armour and hard scales covering the legs, it also has a second horn on its back (possibly inherited from the stories of Pliny) with a powerful stance. It is this fusion of prior experience/expectation and ‘information’ of the descriptions of a rhinoceros that, for Gombrich, builds up the artist’s (distorted) depictions of the world. As the literature has shown, through the underpinnings of empathy, mimesis and psychology to reading of the pictorial image during Western modernity we can read the concerns with both representation and the visual that situate the pictorial image (1) as a product of human perception and imagination, as a ‘copy’ of an external world; (2) as treated as a ‘visual’ artefact; and (3) as no more than an expression of the psychology, emotion and experience of the artist. Such an understanding treats animal is so well armed, there is nothing that the elephant can do to it” (Translation of text inscribed with Durer’s Rhinoceros woodcut, Bartrum 2002 pg. 287 cat. 243). 13 Chapter 29 of Pliny’s ‘The Natural History’ states; At the same games the rhinoceros was also exhibited, an animal which has a single horn projecting from the nose; it has been frequently seen since then. This too is another natural-born enemy of the elephant. It prepares itself for the combat by sharpening its horn against the rocks; and in fighting directs it chiefly against the belly of its adversary, which it knows to be the softest part. The two animals are of equal length, but the legs of the rhinoceros are much the shorter: its skin is the colour of box-wood. Cuvier says that this was the single-horned rhinoceros of India. The commentators have been at a loss to reconcile this description with the Epigram of Martial, Spect. Ep. xxii., where he speaks of the rhinoceros exhibited by Domitian, as having two horns. It has been proved that this latter was of the two-horned species, by the medals of that emperor, now in existence. Martial, Spect. Ep. ix., seems also to have been acquainted with the single-horned species. That with two horns is mentioned by Pausanias as the Æthiopian bull. We learn from modern naturalists, that the two-horned species is a native of the southern parts of Africa, while that with one horn is from Asia (Bostock 1855).

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perception and the external world as separate epistemological domains, as such these images are treated as visual representations of something; an owl, a rhinoceros, grounded upon the notion of representation. The Study of Durer’s Rhinoceros demonstrates well the visual bias inherent within such an approach, through the reading of the psychologically charged and distorted ‘visual features’ such as scales, body armour and dual horns as visual representations (or distortions) of actual ‘visual’ features, other nonvisual aspects are not considered. In viewing these images through such a representational model, the epistemological status of the image is reduced to a ‘perversion’, ‘deformation’ or even ‘mis-construal’ of a single concrete reality, representing the psychological disposition of the artist. In aiming to overcome this epistemological dualism inherent within the symbolic readings of the psychological models of the pictorial image, anthropologist Tim Ingold (2010 p. 110-131), maintains that in denying the views of Western modernity, and the reliance upon representation, that treat artworks and depictions as an expression of the imagination of the artist, what we understand as representational art, he argues, should “be understood as ways not of representing the world of immediate experience on a higher, more ‘symbolic’ plane, but of probing more deeply into it and of discovering the significance that lies therein”. Drawing, carving, painting and depicting, to Ingold, are not a matter of representing a world, they are a process of ‘thinking’ a world, of ‘bringing forth’ or, as will be outlined in the following section, enacting a world. As the paper will show, such a move compounds the problems of representation, but still leaves behind the lingering privileging of the visual.

5. Thinking: The [visual] enacted image In shifting from theorizing the pictorial image from representing to thinking, Ingold (2010, p. 130-131) maintains that there is no distinction between ecology and art, that there is no distinction between the ‘organic provisioning’ of the environment and the free play of imagination; they are entwined. Ingold suggests that to move away from an understanding of ‘depictions’14 as representational, we must better understand the relationships between human beings, animals and the land (p. 112). In 14

Ingold restricts his analysis to the paintings, drawings, carvings and sculptures of a certain peoples that are known as ‘hunter-gatherers’ within anthropological literature. Such a people have a very intimate relationship with the land and with animals, which stands somewhat in contrast to a Westerner.

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doing this, the purpose of a ‘depiction’ emerges as not to represent, but to reveal, as an activity to reach deeper levels of knowledge and understanding. As such, Ingold maintains that ‘depictions’ are not to be understood as an artistic object for the purpose of further reflection, but as an emerging understanding, between body and world, what could be termed as a process of ‘embodied thinking’ (pp. 126-127). He contends that the activities of carving and painting should not be seen as modalities of the production of art, instead, ‘art’ should be seen as one “peculiar, and historically very specific objectification of the activities of painting and carving” (p. 131), that is, of the activity of “perceptual thinking”. In extending Ingold’s insight, Lambros Malafouris (2010) suggests that the pictorial image should be approached as an activity in itself, whose purpose is not to alter a ‘fixed’ external world, but to bring forth a world, making information available as a part of a specific human perceptual experience. As such (speaking of the Palaeolithic image), Malafouris focuses upon the ‘activity’ of imaging as being ‘brought forth’ from a new process of acting and thinking within the world, as a result of a way of perceptual ‘learning’ through ‘probing’ it. Before and beyond representation, they first ‘bring forth’ a new process of acting within this world and at the same time as thinking about it. This thinking however, should not be understood –at least not in the first instance- as that of ‘higher level’ abstract symbolic type. This thinking should be understood in the more basic ‘lower’ sense, namely as a new form of active sensory-motor engagement (Malafouris, 2010, p. 295).

In moving beyond the symbolic ‘higher’ level to a ‘lower’ level of a sensory-motor account, two implications for his theory of ‘imagery’ emerge: (1) that it enables us to understand seeing and perceiving as a form of ‘skillful interactive engagement, as a form of acting in the world’ (p. 295); and (2) it enables us to conceive the role of the (Palaeolithic) image as a ‘continuous prosthetic part of this probing mechanism and thus a cultural extension of the visual brain’ (p. 295). As such, he maintains that the process and act of drawing or painting is an act of bringing forth a world through perceptual learning and compounded to visual thinking. Based upon this, Malafouris is able to claim that the early Palaeolithic cave imagery in fact provides a scaffolding device that enables human perception to gradually become aware of itself, or to think, perceptually, through the very production of images. He demonstrates such a process through tracing the use of basic visual gestalts within early cave art, such as similarity and proximity, which he sees as evidence of ‘bringing forth’ the possibility of new forms of visual thinking by the image-maker,

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through the activity of painting itself. This conception of the ‘activity of imaging’ requires not a conception as to what the image means, but rather how it means (ibid), investigated through its most salient perceptual features. To Malafouris, such evidence suggests that through the process or activity of ‘imaging’, the underlying mechanism of human perception itself (of that period) become transformed into an object for perception and contemplation (p. 299); a process of ‘active visual thinking’. To Malafouris, the ‘invisible’ gestalt visual patterns he traces throughout the visual works offer us a new mode of epistemic access to the visual world of experience, not as representing a world, but as a mode of active, ‘visual’ thinking of a world. The embodied anthropological perspectives of Ingold and Malafouris counter the modernist pre-occupation tied to mimesis in structuring understandings of the pictorial image, that of representation. However, the second pre-occupation, the privileging of the visual, is still over estimated; to them we still ‘think’ visually. Malafouris goes as far as to maintain that the pictorial image is for exclusive reflection by visual perception, and that visual images give us epistemic access only to visual experiences of the world. The idea of ‘active visual thinking’ of a world is also a central focus of enacted models of perception and cognition (Varela et al., 2001; Noe, 2003), however, these models suggest that ‘visual’ perception is guided and structured by the movement of the multi-sensory body, as such the ‘activity of imaging’ can move beyond mere ‘active visual thinking’, to encompass an entire multi-sensory enacted dimension of experience. Varela’s ‘Perceptual Guidance by action’ (Varela et al., 1993, p. 175) maintains that as all stimulations are only possible through movement, as such, what we term ‘visual’ perception is guided by the action of the whole multi-sensory body in the world. Thus, objects are not seen by the visual extraction of features of a pre-existing world, but rather ‘features’ of the world are enacted by the perceptual guidance of action15 (1993, p.

15

Varela demonstrates perceptual guidance by action through his discussion of the ‘visual guidance by action’ through Held and Hein’s kitten study, in which: “Held and Hein raised kittens in the dark and exposed them to light only under controlled conditions. A first group of animals were allowed to move around normally, but each of them were harnessed to a simple carriage and basket that contained a number of the second group of animals. The two groups therefore shared the same visual experience, but the second group was entirely passive. When the animals were released after a few weeks of this treatment, the first group of kittens behaved

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175), in which what we perceive (in this case visually) is structured and guided by the actions and movement of the body. As perception is guided and structured by the movement of the body coupled with the world, ‘visual’ perception is redundant to and structured by the rest of the enacted dimension16, which provide a situation in which to theorize the pictorial image within a framework in which no one sense modality is privileged. Evidence to support such a thought can be found through a number of sources; Bahrick and Licketer (2000, pp. 190-201) show how auditory information redundantly supports the visual channel, and as such aids comprehension and learning. Their ‘Intersensory Redundancy Hypothesis’ claims that visual learning is more efficient when redundantly supported by audio experience17. Such multi-sensory structuring of visual experience can also be demonstrated through the ‘visual’ media of comics. Scott McCloud (1993, p. 89) notes how in perceiving a seemingly ‘visual’ only media, in which no sound, taste or smell is materially present, we have no problem in establishing, and experiencing, the multi-sensory context of the scene. In discussing a kitchen scene, he observes that we can almost smell the food cooking, hear the boiling pot and egg timer and taste the food, perceptually through the assumed visual only panels. With the insights drawn from ‘perceptual guidance by action’ we can theorize an epistemology of the pictorial image that does not restrict itself to that of visual experience alone. As we have seen, enacted nonrepresentational approaches to the epistemological status of pictorial images maintain that, rather than resting an epistemological inquiry upon either perception or a concrete reality, that the epistemological status should be placed within the bringing forth, or thinking, of a world through the activities of the co-dependent system of body and world. As bodily action does not simply express previously formed mental concepts, bodily actions are a part of the activity in which concepts themselves are formed, normally, but those who had been carried around behaved as if they were blind: they bumped into objects and fell over edges”. (Varela 1993, p.175) 16 As outlined elsewhere (Woodward 2010), the non-visual nature of an ‘enacted dimension’ of experience, as involving every aspect of possible human experience, in which there exists no division of the sense experience. 17 Bahrick and Lickliter (2000) showed that five-month-old infants could differentiate between two five-element rhythms (of hammers hitting a surface) when the rhythms were presented bi-modally, (audio and video) but showed no evidence of differentiating the rhythms when they were presented unimodally (video only). These studies all agree that Auditory information redundantly supports the visual channel, and as such aids comprehension and learning.

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the process of depiction can be thought of in terms of a coming to know, and a subsequent bringing forth of a world, a thinking of a world. Thinking is not seen as a ‘visual’ process, but as a multi-sensory-motor process in which no one sense or modality is privileged. As such, the enacted pictorial image becomes a ‘trace’, not of a visual world of experience, but of an entire enacted reality.

6. Conclusions: A monstrous rhinoceros (as from life) This paper has shown how in bringing together literature from anthropology, philosophy, cognitive science and art history, we can provide a framework in which the nature of, and discussions of, the pictorial image can move beyond the two concerns the paper draws from modernism - representation and visual bias - and begin to theorize a status that does not reduce itself to a product of perception, and does not restrict itself to that of visual experience. Such an approach, at present, will be theoretical and speculative; however with further work the intricacies of such an approach will become apparent. This paper can suggest, however, that within such an approach, we can ‘read’ not merely visual gestalts and patterns, but the entire enacted experience of the artist that formed it, the entire multi-sensory experiences, the culture it is embedded within, the use of technologies, the philosophies created and lived by. Such readings could make available for reflection an epistemic access to an entire embodied experience. The Enacted Pictorial Image as such, is not merely a copy nor a perversion, or an expression of a reality; it is a multi-faceted reality itself. Upon further reflection, a revisiting of Warburg’s approach seems timely in light of the linking of ecology to imagination through the work of Malafouris and Ingold, revealing the ‘lifeblood’ of a human artefact lying within its relations to practices, technologies, beliefs, ideas and imaginations. The analysis of the very multi-sensory, experiential aspects of all of these cultural bindings could reveal the deeper roots of the reality that the images and objects brought forth. Upon this thought the paper will conclude with a further question: could we read, for example, within Durer’s Rhinoceros the effects of the emergence within the 16th century of experiments with technologies of travel and flight, such as parachutes on submarines, on the experiential, perceptual and cognitive awareness of the artist through the pronounced physical weight of the rhinoceros itself?

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References Ambrose, D. (2006) 30,000 BC: Painting Animality: Deleuze and Prehistoric painting, Journal of the Theoretical Humanities, 11(2), pp. 137-152. Arnheim, R. (1974) Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye. Berkeley and Los Angeles, California: University of California Press. Bahrick, L.E. and Lickliter, R. (2000) Intersensory redundancy guides attentional selectivity and perceptual learning in infancy, Developmental Psychology, 36, pp. 190-201. Baktir, H. (2003) The Concept of Imitation in Plato and Aristotle (Aristo ve Plato’Da Taklit), Sosyal Bilimler Enstitusu Dersigi Sayi, 2(2), pp.167-179. Bartlett, F. C. (1923) Psychology and Primitive Culture. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Bartrum, G. (2002) Albrecht Dürer and His Legacy: The Graphic Work of a Renaissance Artist. Princeton: Princeton University Press. Bostock, J. (1957) The Natural History of Pliny the Elder. London: Taylor and Francis. Cain, P. (2010) Drawing: The Enacted Evolution of the Practitioner. Chicago: Intellect. Curruthers, M. (2009) Ars Oblivionalis, Ars Inveniendi: The Cherub Figure and the Arts of Memory, Gesta, 48(2), pp. 1-17. Efal, A. (2000) Warburg’s “Pathos Formula” in Psychoanalytic and Benjaminian Contexts, Assaph - Studies in Art History, 5, pp. 221-238. Gombrich, E. (1960) Art and Illusion: A Study in the Psychology of Pictorial Representation. London: Phaidon. —. (1970) Aby Warburg: An Intellectual Biography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Harrison, C. (1998) The Aesthetic Act and Pure Form: 1874, in Harrison, C., Wood, P. and Gaiger, J. (eds.) Art in Theory: 1815-1900. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, pp. 690-693. Hutchins, E. (2010) Enaction, Imagination, and Insight, in Stewart, J., Gapenne, O. and Di Paola, E. (eds.) Enaction: Towards a New Paradigm for Cognitive Science. London: The MIT Press. Ingold, T. (2010) The Perception of the Environment: Essays on Livelihood, Dwelling and Skill. London: Routledge. Malafouris, L. (2007) Before and Beyond Representation: Towards an Enacted Conception of the Palaeolithic Image, in Renfrew, C. (ed.)

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Image and Imagination: A Global Prehistory of Figurative Representation. Cambridge: McDonald Institute Monographs. McCloud, S. (1993) Understanding Comics. New York: Harper Perennial. Noe, A. (2004) Action in Perception. Massachusetts, Cambridge: The MIT Press. Potolski, M. (2006) Mimesis. London: Routledge. Rampley, M. (1997) From Symbol to Allegory: Aby Warburg’s Theory of Art, The Art Bulletin, 79(1), pp. 41-55. —. (2001) Mimesis and Allegory: On Aby Warburg and Walter Benjamin, in Woodfield, R. (ed.) Art History as Cultural History: Warburg’s Projects. Amsterdam: G+B Arts. Richter, P. (1976) Professor Gombrich’s model of Schema and Correction, British Journal of Aesthetics, 16(4), pp. 338-346. Sapir, I. (2006) Narrative, Memory and the Crisis of Mimesis: The Case of Adam Elsheimer and Giordano Bruno, Studies across Disciplines in the Humanities and Social Sciences, 1, pp. 84-96. Sörbom, G. (2008) The Classical Concept of Mimesis, in Smith, P. and Wilde, C. (eds.) A Companion to Art Theory. London: Blackwell Publishing Ltd. Yates, F. (1964) Giordano Bruno and the Hermetic Tradition. London: Routledge. Yates, F. (1966) The Art of Memory. London: Routledge and Kegan Paul. Wind, E. (1983) The Eloquence of Symbols. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Woodward, M. (2010) A Brief history and Theory of Not Looking, Toward a Field Theory of the Audiovisual, Transtechnology Research Reader 2010, pp. 106-120. Varela, F., Thompson, E. and Rosch, E. (1993) The Embodied Mind: Cognitive Science and Human Experience. Massachusetts, Cambridge: The MIT Press. Varela, F. (1979) Autopoiesis and Cognition: The Realization of the Living. Dordrecht: D. Reidel Publishing.

EMOTIONS AND TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER V EMOTIONAL RESPONSE TO MOVEMENT IN PRODUCT INTERACTION ANDREW WODEHOUSE AND MARION SHERIDAN

1. Introduction As products become “dematerialised” (Dunne, 2008) through the use of electronics, physical operation has in many cases been replaced by control through software – for example, televisions, vending machines, and smartphones are experienced primarily as an interface rather than a physical entity. Despite the emergence of interaction and interface design to address the cognitive problems posed by often complex menu systems (Moggridge, 2007), many find the experience of using contemporary products unrewarding and in the worst cases problematic (Norman, 2004). This is perhaps less surprising when viewed from an evolutionary perspective: for two million years humans have interacted with their environment through physical manipulation. From the earliest stone tools, our physiology has adapted and improved to provide us with the motor skills to perform operations of great complexity (Lancaster, 1968; Susman, 1998) and has long been discussed as a key factor in the development of human intellectual capacity (Skoyles, 1999; Stout & Chaminade, 2007). In the comparatively rapid progression through the Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions, many major technological innovations were made that coupled increasingly sophisticated mechanical properties with scientific breakthroughs of the time, such as the iron plough, the printing press, and the steam engine. In the late 19th and early 20th century, a plethora of now iconic products became part of everyday life, evoking a sense of excitement and wonder in users of the day (Williams, 1987). These products retain a sense of poetry in their operation to us now when compared to their modern equivalents. For example, the reassuring and

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tactile clack of a single lens reflex (SLR) camera shutter and the subsequent resistance of the thumb lever used to wind the film forward that signposted the photographic process – and are audibly mimicked by today’s digital cameras. Similarly, the mechanical typewriter’s tangible thwacking of metal to paper, framed by the emphatic swipe of the carriage return that makes modern computer keyboards seem tame. Similar comparisons can be made with sewing machines, radios and many other products of this era, all of which require movement in use and return significant tactile and audible feedback, engendering a sense of satisfaction through their operation. While it is recognised that all of the senses play an important role in the experience of a product, this work focuses specifically on the role of movement. Recent technological developments in motion capture provide us with an opportunity to redefine the physical interactions we have with products, with consideration of the human needs in movement at the forefront rather than subservient to the machine. This research therefore aims to develop and expand the language of kinaesthetics used to describe the types and combinations of movements that trigger different emotional responses in users and how they are appropriate for different technological applications.

2. Utilisation of Laban’s Movement Analysis The research was carried out in conjunction with a Theatre Studies group preparing for the performance of “The Magic Suit” by Maurice Moiseiwitsch (Bourne, 1938), a play set in the 1930s. This afforded the opportunity to review a range of products that would be used as props in performance as part of the group’s preparations for the play. By comparing these to modern equivalents using Laban’s system as a framework, it was possible to derive the range of emotions engendered by the different product interactions. While a number of recognised systems exist, such as Meyerhold’s (1969) biomechanical exercises to develop and release emotional potential through movement and the Feldenkrais Method (Feldenkrais, 1972) for learning movement and enhanced body function, in the field of dance and drama Rudolf Laban’s (Laban, 1960; Laban & Lawrence, 1974) movement studies are one of the most widely used and cohesive theories of human movement, recognising the physical and expressive variations behind human motion. Despite being based in the arts, and forming the

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basis for concepts such as dance therapy (Bartenieff & Lewis, 1980) Laban worked with engineers to analyse the movement dynamics of industrial workers in the 1940s (Davies, 2001) and senior management (Moore, 2005).

2.1 Previous Work There have been a number of studies examining the use of Labanotation in the context of technology (Loke, Larssen, & Robertson, 2005; Loke & Robertson, 2010). Hekkert et al (Hekkert, Mostert, & Stompff, 2003) describe the development of a photocopier and scanner that uses the metaphor of dance to create a more meaningful user experience. And the use of artefacts, products or product forms in interaction design to provide a basis for the analysis of movement and user reaction is well established (Jensen, Buur, & Djajadiningrat, 2005; Ross & Wensveen, 2010; Weerdesteijn, Desmet, & Gielen, 2005). Research into using more people-orientated interactions using dance and movement as inspiration have resulted in the importance of kinaesthetics – the quality and effects of movement – being more fully considered in design (Moen, 2005, 2006). In their work on a Choreography of Interaction, Klooster and Overbeeke (Klooster & Overbeeke, 2005) identify three pivotal factors as physical involvement, dynamic quality, and expressed meaning. Dynamic quality is described as “…the way relevant parties are involved with their physical characteristics… the way the meaning of interaction comes to expression”. This link between physical movement and emotional response is the quality investigated in the following study.

2.2 Deconstruction of Interactions Laban uses the “motion factors” of Weight (W), Time (T), Space (S) and Flow (F) to describe movement sensation. Each has opposite polarities that reveal the subtleties of movement, e.g. punching someone and reaching for an object may be mechanically similar but use of movement, strength and control in each case is very different. These can be notated in Laban Effort Graphs, as shown in Figure 1. “Effort” is the inner attitude towards a motion factor and is applied to (or through) eight basic Effort Actions. These are descriptively named Float, Punch, Glide, Slash, Dab, Wring, Flick, and Press, and have been used

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Fine touch

Flexible

W S F T

Fluent

Direct Bound

Sustained

Sudden

Firm Figure 1: Laban Effort Graph for describing quality of effort (Laban, 1960, p. 81)

Figure 2: Storyboard illustrating the application of Laban’s effort actions to the use of an SLR camera.

extensively in acting schools to train the ability to change quickly between physical manifestations of emotion. Each of the eight effort actions can have emphasis on different qualities that can change their nature. To

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illustrate how this notation can be used to capture product interactions, an example has been included for the use of an SLR camera ( Figure 2). To complete the sequence of movement, transitions occur between the basic actions and, in employing the “effort”, or the “quality of movement” of Time, Weight, Space and Flow, these transitions occur with basic actions becoming grouped or forming a sequence.

3. Study The group of eleven 4th year undergraduate Theatre Studies students were randomly formed into four teams (three teams of two people, and one team of three). The exercise took place in a bespoke rehearsal room (Figure 3) that provided a suitably neutral environment. Having been provided with an overview of Laban’s effort actions and undertaking preliminary exercises to familiarise themselves with their nature, the participants were asked to review the physical interaction with four product pairs and discuss their emotional reaction to the gestures used in the operation of each. The teams typically took 20-30 minutes to discuss each product pair over the course of the two-hour session.

Figure 3: Teams discussing product pairs, with facilitation by the research team.

The product pairs, shown in Table 1, were selected to provide a range of different movements and with a range of complexity. The authors reviewed the action sequences associated with the products according to Laban’s eight Effort Actions to ensure an adequate range of movements were included. In addition, items that were likely to be appropriate for performance in “The Magic Suit” were selected. Given that the play was

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set in a 19930s railway station café, the productss related prim marily to business andd travel. Opening g Drinking briefcas se coffee

Taking T p photo

Ligh hting ciga arette

Reading newspape er

Making phone call

Typing

New

Old

Table 1: Fu ull set of product pairs seelected for geestural analyssis based on range off movements and approprriateness for the play “Th he Magic Suit”.

4. Ressults The analysiss of the resultss took two forrms: the discuussions of whiich Laban terms best supported the description off the interactioon movementts of each product werre transcribedd and codified d, and the wrritten worksheeets were reviewed forr emotional reeaction to thesse movementss. In codificatiion, text querries were run n for all of thhe eight Effort Action terminologiees (flick, flickking, press, prressing etc.) aand these werre used to create a set oof nodes. It was w found that pressing and wringing, folllowed by gliding, werre most comm monly discusseed. In terms oof the split bettween old and new, thee old productss tended to sp park significanntly more disccussion of movement thhan the corressponding new ones (199 vs.. 289). Each team w was asked to keep k worksheeets detailing thheir emotionaal reaction to the variouus product paairs. These ressponses were compiled intto a word cloud as shoown in Figure 4 where the size s of the woord indicates frequency f of occurrencce. While an encouraging variety of woords were useed by the teams, theree was a prevvalence of terrms such as slow, purposseful and impatient. This was unnexpected an nd emerged in post-experimental

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analysis, but can be attributed to the setting of the rehearsal room and the fact that the workshop provided a more serious and focussed atmosphere than would normally be the case. While it can reasonably be expected that using products in more informal and social settings would have affected the emphasis of terms in the vocabulary, the overall diversity would remain comparable.

Figure 4: Word cloud of emotional reactions and their relative frequency captured in worksheets (created using http://www.wordle.net).

5. Review of Product Pairs Table 4 summarises the combined results of the transcript analysis and feedback sheets for the different products. The teams highlighted a range of issues related to the various product interactions, and these have been discussed more fully in turn below.

5.1 Briefcase The main difference between the two models of briefcase was the fine motor skills required by the older model. While the flapping-flicking and squeezing-pressing associated with this demanded precise and defined motions, the newer laptop bag with zip, was considered far more convenient in nature. A stretching-wringing motion dominated the interaction, which demanded less concentration and precision.

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Dominant effort actions

Dominant emotional reactions

1a Briefcase (new)

Wringing, Flicking, Slashing

Light, fast, purposeful, effortless, convenient, freedom, disposable

1b Briefcase (old)

Flicking, Pressing, Gliding

Slow, satisfying, important, effort, protective, respect, posture

2a Camera (new)

Pressing, Wringing

Slow, purposeful, frustrating, patience, dedicated, event, deliberate, specific

2b Camera (old)

Wringing, Gliding, Pressing

Laboured, exciting, tedious, urgent, unsatisfying, effort, deliberate, careful, purposeful

3a Cup (new)

Pressing, Gliding

Impatient, on the move, instantaneous, less focused, functional, carefree, childlike, freedom, fidgeting, flippant

3b Cup (old)

Floating, Pressing

Patient, aware, event, social, tentative, concentration, fun, anticipation

4a Lighter (new)

Gliding, Pressing, Slashing

Fast, laboured, annoying, onehanded, tense, impatient, fast, detached, habit

4b Lighter (old)

Flicking, Pressing, Gliding

Immediate, impatient, two-handed, slow, careful, quick, slow, aware

5a Newspaper (new)

Wringing, Flicking, Pressing

Lower class, casual, relaxed, less concentration, skim, quick

5b Newspaper (old) Wringing, Pressing

Scanning, important, grand, isolated, space, hard, important, overwhelming, engaged

6a Telephone (new)

Dabbing, Wringing, Gliding, Pressing

Sudden, jerky, tense, frustrating, quick, detached, instantaneous, impatient

6b Telephone (old)

Floating, Wringing, Dabbing, Pressing

Slow, purposeful, frustrating, impatient, dedicated, patience, event, deliberate, specific

Emotional Response to Movement in Product Interaction 7a Typewriter (new)

Gliding, Dabbing, Punching

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Glide, relaxed, casual, low stress, unnatural, soft, gentle, graceful, aggressive

7b Typewriter (old) Dabbing, Gliding, Pressing, Punching, Slashing

Concentration , rhythm, aggressive, pause, accomplishment, precise, jarring, interrupted, powerful, fun, intricate

Table 4: Reaction of participants to different gestural interactions.

5.2 Camera The set of motions required by the SLR was considerably more complex than that of the digital camera, and while it was considered slower and more deliberate, there was an element of excitement vocalised by participants. An example is the plucking-wringing of the winding on process: this is a clear demarcation between one photograph and the next. In the modern digital camera, squeezing-pressing is a dominant movement (as it is in many of the modern models). It can be argued that greater convenience and ease of use has in this instance resulted in the more informal nature of digital photography.

5.3 Cup The glide of any cup is critical. In the old model, this was considerably more focussed and concentrated, in particular because of the cup and saucer dual component configuration. The stirring-floating and smoothinggliding (stirring the tea or coffee and lifting the cup to the lips respectively) were felt to have a certain tension and aligned to more important social occasions. The newer takeaway cup also used a gliding motion in carrying and lifting the cup to the lips, but the quality of the movement was different. With the security of a lid and softer, more tactile materials, the movement was considerably faster and more aggressive, and could be considered more of a smearing-gliding motion.

5.4 Lighter The major differentiator between the models was the use of flicking that was an integral component of the older zippo lighter. Two similar jerkingflicking motions were required to open the lid of the lighter and turn the

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flint wheel, and as well as being well-designed mechanisms, lend themselves to an element of play. The elongated framing of the process with multiple actions gave the lighting of the cigarette a sense of drama. The modern clipper lighter, conversely, was dominated by a simple squeezing-pressing motion that, while decisive, did not evoke as much pleasure.

5.5 Newspaper While the two newspapers were similar in shape and configuration, size was the main factor that dictated how their use varied. The old model, the broadsheet newspaper, lent itself to a “grand gesture” in reading. The stretching-wringing motion was an expansive gesture, with discussions of the space this established and the barriers that emerged an important feature. The smaller tabloid format meant that the opening of pages became more of a plucking-wringing rather than a stretching-wringing. It was subsequently perceived as less intimidating and less important, with convenience and speed featuring more prominently in its analysis, which is suited to the content typically contained within it.

5.6 Telephone The way in which the product interactions are framed for the old and new models is very different. For the old model, the dialling of the number is a key preparatory gesture that creates mood and anticipation in advance of the actual phone call. The stirring-floating motion used for this has an appropriately ruminative quality. With the modern mobile phone, tappingdabbing is the key preparatory motion and descriptors such as jerky and sudden indicate how it was perceived as being a more hurried interaction.

5.7 Typewriter The older typewriter has a number of mechanical actions that are not used in typing on a modern laptop. A forceful tapping-dabbing is required to depress the keys. Similarly, the carriage return at the end of each line demanded a throwing-slashing movement that was described as fun. Although the pace of typing was reported as frustrating, there was also a sense of accomplishment in interacting with the product. In terms of physical motion, the laptop used similar tapping-dabbing motions to press the keys but the low profile keyboard required far less effort to operate. It was considered more relaxed and gentle, although the constricted position

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of interaction typically adopted by users is unnatural and potentially detrimental when maintained over a sustained period.

6. Discussion The efforts of Time, Weight, Space and Flow are integral to the eight basic Effort Actions. Each of the Effort Actions can change: speed can be quick or sustained; weight can be strong or light; space can be direct or indirect; and flow can be bound or free. The effort applied to each of the movement actions and sequences provides the key to the emotional response within the movement sequence. When interacting with a product, there is a tension between the motions required by operation and the quality of effort with which they are executed. In reviewing the product pairs, it was necessary to understand how a product would typically be used and to draw insights on the emotional reactions of the users from there. Based on the findings, three emergent themes have been identified: emotions related to movements; aligning movement with product function; and framing a sequence of movements.

6.1 Emotions Related to Movements The first finding of the research is that certain movements do align to different emotions. The workshop using Theatre Studies students to review the product pairs allowed feedback gathered through both transcript analysis and feedback forms, and to build an initial “emotional vocabulary” regarding product use. The use of Laban’s Movement Analysis is already well established in the performing arts, and placing the product use interactions in this context made it easier to apply his theories in this case. When engaging with a product (or “prop”), actors need to be open to the emotional response that it induces and aware of how it affects the mood of the character they are trying to portray. The “stirring” of the old-fashioned phone, for example, creates a set of parameters in speed and movement that the actor must work within when trying to make a telephone call – whatever its nature. This awareness of characterisation proved beneficial when it came to participants in the workshop articulating their reactions to the different gestures. For educationalists in the performing arts, it also points to how educational techniques in this area can be developed to provide drama students with a greater understanding of the role products can play in performance. While a detailed correlation would be valuable in assigning particular motions to emotions, these

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findings do support the view that different movements invoke different reactions in users.

6.2 Aligning Movement to Product Function When emotional reactions to different movements are more closely correlated, designers will be able to select gestures most appropriate for product functionality. In this respect, it is important for the designer to understand product context and interpret what emotional reaction is most appropriate. For example, if a traditional light switch is replaced by a motion controller, what is the best way to physically activate the lighting of a room? It could be a more energetic action such as to snap the fingers or clap the hands – similar to the flicking and plucking motions described above – to induce a happy or excited mood. Conversely, a gentle wave or patting motion – akin to the stirring and floating motions – may be selected to invoke a more relaxed feeling. This is a new level of sophistication that opens up new possibilities for interaction designers to design interfaces carefully aligned to user needs and product functionality.

6.3 “Framing” a Sequence of Movements The sequence of gestures used in interactions with the product pairs was found to be an important element of discussion and in emotional reaction. Preparatory motions such as flicking open a lighter, swiping a carriage return on a typewriter, or dialling a telephone number, played an important role in dramatic preparation for product use. The nature of these preparatory motions is important in creating mood (the flick to reveal the flint, the swipe to start a new line, the stirring of a telephone dial) for the event that actuates the key product function. Similar principles can be applied to the activation and finalisation of a product interaction. This combination of movements has been referred to as framing, and this is a concept we plan to explore further in future work: how combinations of movements can be used to prepare, execute and finalise the operation of a product.

7. Conclusion As a new generation of motion controlled products emerges, there is an opportunity to incorporate movements as appropriate for the body and emotional reaction rather than the activation of a mechanism. In this study, it was found that the more varied and physically grander gestures of older

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products stimulated more reaction. The evocative slashing, flicking and floating motions demanded by their mechanical nature, while often requiring more concentration and focus, were more rewarding and enjoyable than the simple pressing or dabbing motions of modern equivalents. It is the intention of the authors to expand the emotional vocabulary presented here to ensure it covers the range of gestures described by Laban (for example, punching was not featured in the product interactions). This work will provide the basis for a semantic differential questionnaire and further development of the three movement themes described. As these and similar findings in the burgeoning field of emotional design are gathered, stronger correlations between specific gestures and emotions will emerge. These will form fundamental considerations in future interaction design.

References Bartenieff, I., & Lewis, D. (1980). Body Movement: Coping with the Environment. New York, NY: Gordon and Breach. Davies, E. (2001). Beyond Dance: Laban”s Legacy of Movement Analysis. New York, NY: Routledge. Dunne, A. (2008). Hertzian Tales: Electronic Products, Aesthetic Experience, and Critical Design. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Feldenkrais, M. (1972). Awareness Through Movement. New York, NY: HarperCollins. Hekkert, P., Mostert, M., & Stompff, G. (2003). Dancing with a machine: a case of experience-driven design. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 2003 international conference on Designing pleasurable products and interfaces, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. Klooster, S., & Overbeeke, C. J. (2005). Designing products as an integral part of choreography of interaction: The product”s form as an integral part of movemen. Paper presented at the the 1st European workshop on Design and Semantics of Form and Movement, Newcastle: Northumbria University. Laban, R. (1960). The Mastery of Movement (2nd ed.). London, UK: MacDonald and Evans. Laban, R., & Lawrence, F. C. (1974). Effort (2nd ed.). London, UK: MacDonald and Evans. Lancaster, J. B. (1968). On the evolution of tool-using behavior. American Anthropologist, 70(1), 56-66.

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Loke, L., Larssen, A. T., & Robertson, T. (2005, 23-25 November). Labanotation for Design of Movement-Based Interaction. Paper presented at the Second Australasian Conference on Interactive Entertainment, Sydney, Australia. Loke, L., & Robertson, T. (2010). Studies of Dancers: Moving from Experience to Interaction Design. International Journal of Design, 4(2), 1-16. Meyerhold, V., & Braun, E. (1969). On Theatre. London, UK: Methuen Drama. Moen, J. (2005). Towards people based movement interaction and kinaesthetic interaction experiences. Paper presented at the Proceedings of the 4th decennial conference on Critical computing: between sense and sensibility, Aarhus, Denmark. —. (2006). KinAesthetic Movement Interaction : Designing for the Pleasure of Motion: KTH, Numerical Analysis and Computer Science. Moggridge, B. (2007). Designing Interactions. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press. Norman, D. (2004). Emotional Design: why we love (or hate) everyday things. New York: Basic Books. Skoyles, J. R. (1999). Human evolution expanded brains to increase expertise capacity, not IQ. Psycoloquy, 10(2), 1-14. Stout, D., & Chaminade, T. (2007). The evolutionary neuroscience of tool making. Neuropsychologia, 45(5), 1091-1100. Susman, R. L. (1998). Hand function and tool behavior in early hominids. Journal of Human Evolution, 35, 23-46. Williams, T. I. (1987). A History of Invention. New York, NY: Facts on File.

CHAPTER VI RESEARCH ON THE CONSTRUCTION OF KANSEI DESIGN EDUCATION PROGRAMMES AND DESIGN EVALUATION AND DIAGNOSTIC SYSTEMS YOSHITSUGU MORITA AND HARUKA SOBABE

1. Introduction The goal of Kyushu University User Science Institute (USI) is to generate true enjoyment by promoting a synergy between kansei and technology gained from a wide range of viewer perspectives, and to develop unconventional R&D systems to design the creation of knowledge, and to establish educational systems to cultivate human resources to support these systems. In addition to building the world's first education and R&D centre for user science, starting from kansei, USI intends to fuse a wide range of study/research domains, including design, engineering, medicine, agriculture, and human and environmental studies. As such, USI is moving ahead with the development of the "Kansei Table," which is the backbone of the system for the fusion, and the "Quality Karte (Quality Chart)," a design evaluation diagnostic system. This paper outlines our approach to the Kansei Table, and explains the details of the role and benefits of the Quality Karte (Quality Chart) development, including its development process. The Quality Karte (Quality Chart) is an evaluation tool for the Kansei Table. It sorts users into three groups: consignors, such as managers and salespersons, designers, such as designers and engineers, and receivers, such as endusers. By having all users use the same evaluation indicators, it clarifies the gaps that appear in design evaluation findings, which are thought to exist between all user groups when products and spaces are evaluated. The gaps are in the kansei aspects of user needs. The objective of the Quality

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Karte (Quality Chart) is to make use of the gap factors in design development.

1.1 Developments in Art & Technology=Design education in Japan In October 2003, Kyushu Institute of Design (KID), which had been formed in 1968 with Japan’s first ever ‘School of Art & Technology=Design’, merged with Kyushu University. The Art & Technology=Design principle of the founding president of KID, Professor Shinji Koike, ‘humanization of technology’, continues to have as much meaning, and more, since the merger. The ‘humanization of technology’ involves restoring ‘technology’ to its original place and using it to maximum benefit, making the development of technology itself based on human standards, and positioning the development of technology so that it contributes to human welfare and the improvement of people’s standards of living. In the mid-20th century, when the Institute began, the general interpretation of ‘design’ in Japan was that it was an element of technology tied to commercial results, involving surface-level processing, such as colour and shape, of scientific technology. Forty years down the line, the ‘humanization of technology’ has gained in importance as a way of resolving human and social issues, and the role of ‘design’ has expanded beyond surface-level elements of technology to fuse kansei and technology systematically in ‘the humanization of technology’ in various aspects of everyday life. In this respect, Professor Koike’s sharp foresight and depth of insight are proven by his concept of linking people and technology. He identified designers as the ‘missing technicians’ or specialists who could put this concept into practice, labelling the academic research and educational field as ‘Art & Technology=Design’. Societal values today are in the process of transforming from an emphasis on objective elements such as function, reliability, and price, to an emphasis on subjective or kansei factors such as feeling, sense, and emotional impression. In particular, the development of products and services, which until now revolved around the axis of technology-based goods, has switched to the axis of human kansei, pivoting around the creation of values such as emotional satisfaction, emotion, and sympathy. This is creating a demand for personnel with a mission and awareness of these issues to lead innovation in the industry, local communities, and

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daily life, which in turn is pressing the need for the development of specialists (producers, directors, creators etc.) of kansei values (kansei design).

2. Main Undertakings for the Development of the Kansei Design Education Programmes 2.1. Reconstructing Knowledge: The restructuring of Kyushu University Graduate School of Design After the merger, the Faculty of Design retained the structure it had for undergraduate education as the KID, with the Faculty providing education for five departments (Environmental Design, Industrial Design, Visual Communication Design, Acoustic Design, Art and Information Design). The Graduate School’s Masters and Doctoral Programmes of Design were similarly constituted by five programmes corresponding to the five departments. In response to changes in the social and industrial structures mentioned above, as well as issues related to the design industry, however, the Faculty of Design took advantage of the ‘Graduate School and Faculty’ system to restructure the graduate school from 2004. In the first phase, the Masters Programme of Design Strategy was established from 2006, increasing the number of graduate programmes from one (Masters and Doctoral Programmes of Design), as it had been from the KID days, to two. The Masters Programme of Design Strategy was established in order to train a new breed of highly specialized professionals, who could either play a central role in linking various fields of design as design directors, or would have the conceptual ability to make design decisions in the expeditiously developing design world, together with the practical ability to propel the concepts through the business process of planning, manufacturing, intellectual property issues, distribution and sales, employed as design producers, design directors, or design strategists. As a response to an urgent need for the development of personnel who could take on the responsibility of preliminary design strategy research and training in institutes of higher education and businesses, a Doctoral Programme was established from April 2008 in the Graduate Programmes of Design Strategy. The Doctoral Programme develops personnel who, at the same time as being design strategists themselves, have the necessary academic ability in the field to be able to take responsibility for training personnel in universities and businesses, who have an extremely high level of proficiency as design strategists, and

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who have the ability to construct their own practical design strategy methodologies and carry out education and research.

Figure 3: Restructuring of Kyushu University Graduate School of Design

In the second phase, the restructuring of the Master’s and Doctoral Programmes of Design became necessary and, making use of the establishment of the Programmes of Design Strategy and the results from the Ministry of Education funded 21st Century COE Programme, ‘Design of Artificial Environments on the Basis of Human Sensibility’, a restructuring of the graduate Programmes of Design into four courses was carried out. It consists of the ‘Human Design Science’ that takes care of the foundational research area of the Faculty of Design and, in response to societal demands, is divided into three specialist research areas: ‘Communication Design Science’, ‘Environmental and Heritage Design’, and ‘Contents and Creative Design’. The Programmes of Design Strategy, in collaboration with these four courses in the Programmes of Design, will assume responsibility for linking with design business. The reform of the

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Master’s and Doctoral Programmes of Design into four courses has been implemented since April 2008 (Figure 1).

2.2. The Fusion of Knowledge: Kyushu University User Science Institute At the time of the merging of KID and Kyushu University, in 2004, a grant was obtained for the 21st Century Super COE Programme, Science and Technology Advancement Adjustment Expense of Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology ‘Kyushu University User Science Institute (USI)’. This was a five-year programme, which lasted until March 2009. The aim of USI is to contribute to people’s happiness by considering user perspectives (consumers, society, etc.) and to promote ‘the fusion of kansei and technology’ as well as establishing new research development systems and supporting educational systems to develop personnel in order to create and use knowledge, thereby serving as the world’s first education and research development base of this type. In the first phase (April 2004 - March 2006), the programme began with the promotion of a pilot project on the fusion of kansei and technology spanning all specialist areas of Kyushu University. From April 2006 to March 2008, USI has been developing the basic blueprint of the ‘Kansei Table’, which is the backbone of its original research development system, and trialling the Kansei Table in pilot projects. In the final year of this enterprise (April 2008-March 2009), we completed the education and research programme based on the operating system of the Kansei Table, and established a new Graduate School (titled ‘Master’s and Doctoral Programmes of Kansei Science for Users’) in User Science (Kansei Design) in Kyushu University, with a view to developing a base for diffusion of activities within and beyond the university from April 2009. USI’s idea is closely interlocked with the Faculty of Design’s concept of the ‘humanization of technology’, and the intention is to cut across and fuse the various academic fields of Design, Human-Environment Studies, Engineering, Medicine, Agriculture, Economics, and so on. The development of the ‘Quality Chart’ (‘Quality Karte’) Design Evaluation and Diagnostic Systems and the ‘Kansei Table’, which is the central axis of the operating system of this fusion of research and education, is currently underway (Morita 2007).

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The Kansei Table is a tool designed to facilitate the identification of user needs on the kansei level, and the linking and structuring of these needs to kansei knowledge. The Kansei Table consists of a matrix formed of a kansei axis and a knowledge axis. Knowledge appropriate to user needs is located in each cell of the matrix, and the system works by selecting kansei knowledge in accordance with user needs (including potential needs) and joining them together in a systematic fusion of knowledge. The Quality Chart is an evaluation tool, which divides users into ‘providers’, such as managers and businessmen, ‘designers’, such as planners and technicians, and ‘end users’. Through requiring each of these three groups of users to use the same set of evaluation indices, results are produced that highlight the gaps between various user groups in design evaluation of products and space. The Quality Chart is useful in order to clarify gaps in user needs regarding kansei, making it valuable for planning and development of product design, spatial design and other related areas. It can be used as a practical educational tool in the Masters and Doctoral Programmes of Kansei Science for Users (Sogabe, Morita and Ishibashi 2007; Ishibashi, Sogabe, and Morita 2007) (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Quality Chart - Design Evaluation and Diagnostic Systems: Basic concept.

3. Master’s and Doctoral Programmes of Kansei Science for Users: Developing kansei value management ability The Masters and Doctoral Programmes of Kansei Science for Users consist of three specialist courses (Kansei Value Management Course,

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Kansei Communication Course, Kansei Science Course) and the User Science Centre, which provides links with society. The nucleus of this new programme is the Graduate School of Design and the close relations with the Graduate School of Human-Environment Science and the Graduate School of Engineering help to ensure the fusion of kansei knowledge across the board of Kyushu University. In the Kansei Value Management Course, which is at the core of the new programme, students learn about the chain of designers, providers, and end users involved in the creation of values, focusing on people’s kansei and behaviour. They learn techniques involved in the process of eliciting, forming, and evaluating users’ kansei values (the Kansei Table and the Quality Chart), and they learn about management methods that integrate all the processes. Those who have studied on this course will be expected to be able to go out into the business world and local communities where, in a whole range of diverse contexts, they will analyse users’ kansei and behaviour, realize their latent and potential needs, and play an active role as producers creating new value domains. Within the course structure, the focus is on specific planning strengths for drawing out kansei values, such as marketing and branding, specific creative strengths for representing kansei values, such as art and design, and specific evaluation strengths for judging kansei values objectively. Traditional boundaries between arts and science are transcended, and the programme is open to people from a wide range of specialist areas. The curriculum centres on lectures and seminars on the use of the Kansei Table and the Quality Chart consisting of subjects dealing with the process of eliciting kansei values, subjects dealing with the process of forming kansei values, and subjects dealing with the process of evaluating kansei values. The following main skills are developed. x x

The ability to elicit potential needs through observation of and insight into users, or discussions with users, and subsequently to construct hypotheses about new value domains. The ability as a creator to start from a hypothesis about kansei needs, and to guide it through to the proposal stage through investigation and editing of necessary knowledge and personnel.

In the management of kansei design education programmes, there is a very close link between the Kansei Value Management Course and the Graduate School of Design Master’s and Doctoral Programmes of Design

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Strategy (seee section 2.1). Essential to o both educattional program mmes are the Design E Evaluation annd Diagnostic Systems (Quuality Chart). Concrete details of the use of the Quality Q Chart in developingg content for the kansei design educaation program mmes will be reported r later ((figure 3).

Figure 3: Prrogramme Connfiguration off Design Strattegy and Kan nsei Value Management

Notees There is no exact equivaalent of the word kansei inn English. Kan nsei is an eastern conccept that incoorporates all the followingg meanings and more; spark, instinnct, pleasure/ddispleasure, tasste, feeling, em motion, and seentiment.

Refereences Morita, Y. (2007) The new n practice of o Kyushu unniversity to aiim at the reconsidderation of artt & technology = design (in Japanese)). Design Researchh, No.44, pp.113-20. —. (2007) R Research on a Design Evalu uation and Asssessment Sysstem from the Persspective of the Relation nship betweenn Good Dessign and Universaal Design. Prroceedings off the Internaational Confeerence on Mechaniical Engineeriing and Mechanics (ICMEM M07), 2007, pp. p 40-47, Nanjing University off Science and Technology, W Wuxi, China. Sogabe, H.,, Morita, Y. and Ishibash hi, S. (2007) Research on n Design Evaluatioon Indicatorss Drawn from m the Goodd Design Aw ward Jury Memberrs' Comments. 16th Internaational Confeerence on Engineering Design ((ICED’07), ppp. 27-28, The Design D Societty, Paris, Fran nce.

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Ishibashi, S., Sogabe, H. and Morita, Y. A (2007) Research on the Visualization and Recognizing of the Gap in Evaluation Based on Users' Position -Using an Evaluation Experiment Using Chairs as a Case Example-. Proceedings of International Association of Societies of Design Research-IASDR07, CD-Rom 5p, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University.

CHAPTER VII A NEW METHOD FOR EXAMINING SPONTANEOUS FACIAL AND BODY EXPRESSIONS IN VIRTUAL WORLD ENVIRONMENTS NERMIN ELOKLA AND YASUYUKI HIRAI

1. Introduction Emotion is a key aspect in the user experience since measuring it helps us to understand the user’s level of engagement and motivation (Eva, 2007). As Spillers writes, “emotions govern the quality of the interactions with a product in the user’s environment and relate directly to appraisal of the user experience. Users generate emotions as a way to minimize errors, interpret functionality, or obtain relief from the complexity of a task” (Spillers, 2007). Furthermore, emotions are elicited by the product’s appearance and elegance. Therefore, accounting for emotional cues (body posture and movement) during an interface evaluation process provides interactive designers and researchers with valuable information. Nowadays, there are several software applications that automatically capture facial expressions, eye glaze, and body gesture. These provide key information to the designer, but most of these software systems are costly and difficult to use (Eva, 2007). The authors introduced a new method to easily understand users’ emotional responses. Used by the designers, this novel method is a preliminary guideline to capture and assess the user experience in the design process.

2. User Experience (UX) User experience or UX plays an important role in product and service development. It refers to the emotional aspects associated with using a product, service, etc. (Affiliate Marketing International, 2011). It is what

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the user feels about the product, including his/her responses and perceptions of a product as a whole. Hassenzahl wrote that user experience appears more useful if seen as an umbrella term for a variety of different needs and a number of different sets of have been proposed (Hassenzahl, 2006). The prerequisite for a positive user experience is the fulfilment of user expectations, without the users getting bored or overwhelmed. It also depends on the elegance of the product, so that it is a pleasure to users of the product to possess or use.

2.1 Definition of User Experience Although the user experience has had more attention lately, still there is not a clear definition of what the user experience means (Arhippainen, 2003). According to ISO 9241-110:2010 (2010), user experience is defined as ‘a person’s perceptions and responses that result from the use and/or anticipated use of a product, system or service’. This formal definition is supplemented by other interpretations: user experience explores how a person feels about using a product, i.e., the experiential, affective, meaningful and valuable aspects of product use (Vermeeren, 2010). The authors believe that it is not enough to have a product that people use in a simply functional way. In today’s competitive environment, we need to have an edge, a means of standing out from the others. This means finding out more about who our users are, what they enjoy doing, their interests, and what they need. The most important issue is to ensure that the product design delivers a great experience. In Figure 1, the elements of a great user experience (GUX) are identified (Full Service Internet Marketing Company, 2008, and Mike, 2009). The research literature of UX has illustrated that the user experience in a product-user interaction is a large and complex field. Figure 2 clarifies that field and shows which aspects/factors influence interaction and UX, including; context of use, social factors, and cultural factors. The first factor is important and it can vary significantly. For instance, the user will experience the product in different ways, whether in a public or private context. Furthermore, social and cultural factors will affect how the user interacts with the product and how he or she will experience its use (Arhippainen, 2003).

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2.2 Methods for Capturing User Experience In the last two decades, the utilization of UX methods has been restricted to formative usability studies and building of laboratories for user experience evaluation and testing. Unfortunately, formative studies are not proper methods for gathering data on real user tasks, task flows, and the context of use (Rohn, 2002). Nowadays, there are several methods that are able to take into account these user experience related issues. These methods include ‘interviews and direct observations’, ‘scenarios and stories’, ‘prototypes and experience prototyping’, and ‘paper-based and voice-mail diary’ (Arhippainen, 2003 and Rohn, 2002). Preparing the proper tools to use any of the previous methods should be considered carefully. In case of the ‘direct observation’ method or ‘field study’, the designer has to choose the suitable tool/s for getting valuable information about the user experience. This method requires knowledge about cognitive science so that users’ emotions and facial expressions can be interpreted correctly (Arhippainen, 2003). For this, the present research introduced the ‘read body language’ sheet.

Figure 1: Elements of great user experience.

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Figure 2: Factors influence on user interaction and UX.

3. Read Body Language Sheet (RBL) Body language is a language without spoken words and is therefore called non-verbal communication – both conscious and non-conscious. Mania and Chalmers identified the basic components of body language as follows: facial expressions, gaze, gestures, and posture (Ventrella, 2011). People use body language all the time, and it is used especially to express their feelings (including positive and negative emotions) towards something, such as the design of products, and services. It is therefore necessary to get to know their body’s emotional responses throughout the design process (Marwijk, 2012). In other words, understanding users’ emotional experiences are essential to creating a design that they wish to have. Some studies reveal that there are many cues that people communicate through their everyday expressions, body postures and gestures to show what they are thinking or feeling. Some people are good at interpreting them. Some misinterpret, and this can become a problem. Some are not aware at all. Therefore, the authors proposed a new method for easily interpreting users’ emotional responses to ‘body language’ (Fig. 3) (Table 1).

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Figure 3: The pproduct emotionn measurement method m (Read boddy language sheeet). Legend: T1, T2, T3, andd T4 are tasks to perform and U1, U2, U3, and U44 are the users’ nu umbers.

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Table 1: Interpretation of 20 distinct emotional responses (RBL) sheet.

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The novel method is a preliminary guideline used by the designers to capture users’ experiences (UX) and their behaviours in the design process. In other words, it aims to interpret users’ dynamic expressions by observing them during their interaction with a product. Based on several studies regarding human emotions, 20 distinct emotional responses were interpreted and analysed in one sheet, which is called a “read body language sheet” (Eva, 2007, Kuhnke, 2012, Tingfan, 2009, and Cynthia, 2002). The following are the interpretations of a set of expressions or emotional cues that a user may demonstrate whilst interacting with a product or a system. .

4. Results of Our Pilot Study and Future Work In June 2010, a workshop (WS) was carried out in Kyushu University (Fig. 4). The aims of the WS were as follows: (1) examining the effectiveness of our new emotional evaluation tools (including Kansei sheets and Read Body language sheet); and (2) developing a medical device (a blood pressure device) based on people’s needs (including their emotional and physical demands) (Elokla, 2011). Kansei sheets are visual measurement tools and were filled in by four users (from 20 to 30 years old) to evaluate the device’s usability and its appearance in the WS. There were two Kansei sheets. Sheet #1 aims to measure the emotional responses of a user while he or she is interacting with a product. Sheet #2 aims to measure conscious physical responses of users, such as headache, rapid heartbeat, body pain, etc. In the WS, different methods and tools were used to capture and examine users’ emotional responses during their interaction with the device. Throughout the WS stages, four designers used the “RBL” sheet while they were observing the users. The intention was to enable them to interpret and understand the users’ body and facial expressions. On the other hand, the four users used Kansei sheets during their interaction with the device, and they selected the best image that expressed their true feelings towards the device’s usability and its appearance. The emotional responses of each user were examined through three evaluation levels: visceral “superficial first impressions on the device appearance”, behavioural “usage of device”, and reflective “overall impression / the device value” (Donald, 2003).

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Regarding the effectiveness of our new tools, the results of the WS revealed the following: first, in terms of observable body language (including outward facial expressions), there are two different types of users’ emotional responses: visible and non-visible. In the case of visible responses, the RBL sheet enabled the designers to interpret outward facial and body expressions of many users. However, they found some difficulty in interpreting emotional responses of some users. Secondly, the comparison that was done between the collected data of Kansei sheets and the RBL sheet revealed that the inner emotional responses (heart / mind) and the outer emotional responses (outward body and facial expressions) of some users were different. In other words, visible reactions of some users were not correctly interpreted and were thus misunderstood. The reason is that obvious facial and body expressions of those users did not precisely reflect their true internal emotional responses. It can be said that the collected data of the Kansei sheets helped the designers to understand the true emotional responses of all users, especially people who misread their emotional responses and others whose emotions were not visible to them. Basically, all emotional and physical responses could be recognized in two differentiated components: qualitative and quantitative. The first component is regarding the identification of the emotional state (such as happiness, anger, etc.) and physical condition (such as sweat, headache, etc.). On the other hand, the second component is regarding the degree of each emotional state (such as I feel this to some extent, I feel this, I feel this very much, or I strongly feel this), and physical condition (such as I suffer from this to some extent, I suffer from this, I suffer from this very much, or I strongly suffer from this). Thirdly, both Kansei sheets and the RBL sheet are effective ways to understand and evaluate users’ experiences. The users find expressing their emotions using Kansei sheets a pleasant task, in contrast to the difficulty of expressing their emotional reactions in words. Furthermore, using the two methods is convenient to create an informal atmosphere in which the users feel free to discuss experiential aspects of a product. Overall, for capturing UX successfully, a “triangulation" of methods is important to use. In other words, the designers should pay close attention to collecting information in different ways and comparing the results.

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In future works, both the read body language (RBL) sheet and Kansei sheets will be examined by different groups of people, including disabled and older people. The intention is to ensure the tools’ effectiveness and suitability for as many people as possible.

Figure 4: A workshop was carried out at Kyushu University 2010

References Affiliate Marketing International S.L. (2011) User Experience. From: http://www.ami.es/website-asthetik/user-experience/?lang=en. Accessed 10 April 2013. Arhippainen, L. (2003) Capturing User Experience for Product Design. From: http://robertoigarza.files.wordpress.com/2009/10/art-capturing-userexperience-for-product-design-arhippainen-2003.pdf. Accessed 10 April 2013. Cynthia, M., and Martinovich, L. (2002) What you Speaks volumes- How Body Language can be used to understand others. Michigan Bar Journal, pp. 36-39.

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Donald, N. (2004) Introduction to this special section on beauty, goodness, and usability. Special section of human-computer interaction, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, vol. 19, no. 14, pp. 311-318. Desmet, P. and Hekkert P. (2007) Framework of product experience. International journal of design, vol. 1, no. 1. Desmet, P., Overbeeke, C.J., and Tax, S.J.E.T. (2001) Designing products with added emotional value, The Design Journal, vol. 4 (1), pp. 32- 47. Donald, N. (2003) Measuring Emotion. The Design Journal, Vol. 6, issue 2. Eva, L., and Muriel, G. (2007). Ten emotion heuristics: guidelines for assessing the user’s affective dimension easily and cost-effectively. Proceeding of the 21st BCS HCI group conference, Lancaster University, the British Computer Society, Vol. 2. Kuhnke, E. (2012) Body Language For Dummies. John Wiley & Sons. Elokla, N. and Hirai, Y. (2011) New Methods for Evaluating Emotional Experience in the Product Design Process, 4th World Conference on Design Research (IASDR2011), Diversity and Unity, Delft, Netherlands, 2011, Proceedings CD Rom, Abstract pp. 88. Full Service Internet Marketing Company (2008) the Importance of User Experience. From: http://www.adaptiveconsultancy.com/web-design /website-design/ecommerce-web Hassenzahl, M. and Tractinsky, N. (2006) User Experience - A research Agenda. Behavior & Information Technology, Vol.25, No. 2, pp. 9197. ISO DIS 9241-210:2010 (2010) Ergonomics of Human System Interaction - Part 210: Human-Centered Design for Interactive Systems (formerly known as 13407). International Standardization Organization (ISO). Switzerland. Marwijk, F. (2012) the Importance of Body Language. From: http://www.selfgrowth.com/articles/Van_Marwijk.html. Mike, G. (2009) Best Practices in User Experience (UX) Design. Application Development & Program Management Professionals, Forrester. Rohn, J., Spool, J., Ektare, M., Koyani, S., Muller, M. and Redish, J. (2002) Usability in Practice: Alternatives to Formative EvaluationsEvolution and Revolution. CHI, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA, April, pp. 891-897. Spillers, F. (2007) Emotion as a Cognitive Artifact and the Design Implications for Products that Are Perceived as Pleasurable. Accessed 18 Feb 2013 From:

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http://www.experiencedynamics.com/pdfs/published_works/SpillersEmotionDesign-Proceed ings.pdf Tingfan, W., Nicholas, J., Paul, R., Marian, S., and Javier, R. (2009) Learning to make facial expressions. IEEE 8TH International Conference on Development and Learning. Vermeeren, A.P.O.S., Law, E., Roto, V., Obrist, M., Hoonhout, J. and Vaananen, K. (2010) User experience evaluation methods: current state and development needs. Proceedings of the 6th Nordic Conference on Human-Computer Interaction, pp. 521-530. Ventrella, J. (2011) Virtual Body Language - A body Language Alphabet Chapter. ETC press, pp. 92- 93.

DESIGN AND TECHNOLOGY

CHAPTER VIII NIGHT OWL: ANALYSIS OF STUDENT WORK IN INDUSTRIAL DESIGN TO UNDERSTAND AND PLAN HUMANTECHNOLOGY RELATIONSHIPS AND DESIGN FOR NIGHT-TIME ISABEL M. PROCHNER

1. Introduction I am human; I work during the day and sleep during the night. I fight any cause that would make me stay up past 10:30 pm. I leave parties ‘fashionably early’ and have never watched a late-night talk show in my life. My body is built for the day. Night-time is dark, scary, and cold. I become less efficient, bump into things, and panic at the sight of unidentified shadows. Nevertheless, I am a designer and my instincts tell me that this is a hearty design challenge. It is impossible to avoid contact with the night. In northern or southern parts of the world, winter days are very short; work schedules or shiftwork mean that many people are awake at unusual hours; and it is my understanding that some people, somehow, enjoy staying up late at night. In the following paper, design for night-time is explored through discussion and analysis of an undergraduate studio course in industrial design. The course is currently underway in the industrial design department at the Université de Montréal, Canada.1 It explores the design of ‘smart clothing’ and application of technology to help users function more easily and seamlessly during night-time activities. 1

The course is running in the winter semester of 2012.

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2. Night Owl Design Course The Université de Montréal offers a four-year practice-based industrial design program. Emphasis is placed on human factors, materials, technology, and sustainable design. Students work in product, furniture, and exhibition design. This year, a new third-year course was established to introduce and marry divergent aspects of industrial design practice and research. NIGHT OWL technical clothing: Individual systems for communication, safety, survival, and visibility2 prompted students to design an article of clothing for a night-time activity and its related human, environmental, and socio-cultural factors. The course offered students their first and likely only experience in clothing design and pushed them to explore unique night-time conditions and problematics. Research questions included: what activities occur at night? How are they unique or how do they differ from similar activities in the daytime? What issues arise and what conditions are present? How does night-time affect the human visual, auditory, olfactory, gustatory, and tactile senses? How can we respond to this in our design? The course was led by Denyse Roy, Associate Professor in industrial design. The workshop component was directed by Latifa Boukendakdji, owner of a local clothing-production company. Isabel Prochner, graduate student in design, functioned as a teaching assistant and led workshops on design research methodologies. Twelve students enrolled in the class and responded to the design challenge in creative and varying ways. Students followed a multi-stage design methodology that included extensive and directed design research, conceptualization, prototyping, and a design exhibition.

2.1 Course Structure 1) Research: students conducted research to develop insight into the subject area and determine possible problematics and design opportunities. They explored what it means to design for night-time and what human activities occur during the night. Students developed a scenario for a nighttime activity and investigated the related human, environmental, and 2

Personal translation of original course title: Vêtement technique NOCTAMBULE: Dispositif individuel de communication, secours, survie et visibilité.

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socio-cultural factors. They identified a problematic or key issue occurring in the scenario. 2) Concept development: students developed a list of performance criteria for a product to respond to the design problematic. They explored the intersections, conflicts, and relative importance of each criterion. The most important and conflicting criteria were the jumping off point for the design conceptualization process. Secondary performance criteria were addressed once a preliminary design was established. 3) Prototyping: students developed a pattern for their design by modifying an existing commercial pattern. They created several preliminary models before constructing their final prototype using technical materials. 4) Exhibition: students will display their final prototypes in a public exhibition in May 2012. The exhibition space will be dark to mimic nighttime conditions and showcase the features of each product.

3. Student Response Students were working in the prototyping stages of their projects at the time this article was written. With research and concept development stages complete, it is clear that students have very different approaches and responses to the design problematic. Student projects are analysed in the sections that follow. Similarities and differences between projects are explored and analysed in detail to represent different approaches to human technology interaction and provide examples of strong, well-developed design concepts. Two commonalities are present in most student projects. Rather than dealing exclusively with night-time, the concept of a ‘false night’ (FN) was developed through in-class discussions. FN can occur at any time of the day when lighting or visibility is limited. This includes environmental conditions like haze or smoke, or dark interior conditions. Several students dealt exclusively with FN scenarios, and many others pointed out they used these conditions as alternative contexts of use for their products. Second, many students chose wintertime scenarios. In Montréal, the sun can set as early as 4pm during the winter, so students identified many design opportunities related to late-afternoon or evening activities.

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Table 1 situates projects within three product type categories: new product, modified product, or costume.3 Three types of usage are also identified: specific for the night (or FN), adaptable from day, and 24 hour use.4 Finally, the primary and secondary design approaches in each project are grouped into categories. “K” refers to a kinaesthetic approach such as the modification of a movement. “T” refers to a tactile approach such as the modification of temperature. “V” refers to a visual response such as the use of lighting or visual communication design. Lastly, “U” refers to utility, or a multifunctional product such as a ‘Swiss-army knife’ type product that improves access to a variety of tools. No projects directly addressed other human experiences such as auditory, olfactory, or gustatory senses. All ‘new products’ were designed specifically for night-time or FN conditions. These include Harfang, a camera stabilizer/harness for nighttime photography; Empereur, a compactable ski jacket/sleeping bag for emergency survival in the wilderness; and Coola, a cooling system for women suffering from hot flashes related to menopause. For ‘modified existing products’, students made changes to an existing product to address night-time problematics, whilst maintaining its original or similar function during daytime. These include Méco, a jumpsuit for mechanics dealing with FN conditions while working on a car; Lucio, a cycling jacket for bicycle commuters going to work or returning home in the dark; Luard, a kayaking jacket for evening kayaking and emergency survival; Estrela, a winter jacket for improved safety for women at night; and Sion, a cycling jacket for bicycle couriers working in the early morning or late afternoon. Exceptions include Dtect, an identification system for firefighters that uses visual communication design and typography to improve visibility in all (24 hour) conditions and Uni, a dog harness and identification system to improve visibility for dogs during the evening and night-time walks. Ballet, which is conducted in darkness. Carnaval was designed as an adaptable costume for use at Québec city’s winter carnival and during the annual night-time parade.

3

Two students designed a costume or article of clothing for a special event or theatre production. 4 24 hour use refers to a product that is designed for improved functionality at night, but works exactly the same at all times of day.

Night Owl

Product type

Design approaches Primary

Secondary

Table 1: Overview of student projects.

24 hour

Dtect by C. Boileau, identification system for firefighters Méco by O. Dupras, jumpsuit for mechanics Harfang by C.-O. Guindon, camera stabilizer for photography Empereur by N. GuyCaron, jacket/ sleeping bag for wilderness survival Lucio by L. Lessard, cycling jacket for bicycle commuters Luard by M.-F. Frigon, kayaking jacket for recreation or emergency survival Estrela by M. Moncada, jacket for women’s safety in urban areas Carnaval by M. Morneau Paquette, costume for a winter carnival Coola by F. Ouellet, cooling system for relief from hot flashes Sion by S. Poulin-Martin, cycling jacket for bicycle couriers Ballet 3 by M. Samson, costume for ballet dancer Uni by J. Ste-Marie, identification system for dogs

Period of use Adaptable from day Specific for night/FN

Costume

Modified product New product

Project

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V

N/A

U

K,T,V

K

V

T

K,U

V

K,T,U

U

K,T,V

U

K,V

U

K,T,V

T

V

U

K,T,V

V

K

V

K,U

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The costumes were designed for two different periods of use. Ballet 3 was designed as a costume for a modern interpretation of the Bauhaus’ Triadic

3.1 Design Approaches Each design approach is explored using the example of a student project. The four projects represent strong design concepts that seamlessly incorporate design solutions into an article of clothing, respond to the night-time problematic, and represent a simple and intuitive humantechnology relationship.

Figure 1: Ideation drawing of Harfang by Cédric-Olivier Guindon.

The ‘new products’ address creative design problematics and apply different and innovative design approaches. They use kinaesthetic or tactile design approaches, while the ‘modified existing products’ use mainly visual or utility design approaches. Kinesthetic: Harfang by Cédric-Olivier Guindon is a camera stabilizer and harness for night-time photography. Guindon, an amateur photographer, noted that night-time photography is especially difficult because the camera is less able to focus. Extended apertures required in dark conditions mean that the user must keep the camera stable for longer. Camera stabilizers exist, but are often bulky and complicated. They are not appropriate for spontaneous photography or photography in crowded environments. Guindon designed a camera stabilizer appropriate for

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photography during musical events. The product would be worn on the user’s body and would be appropriate for, and withstand, use in clubs and mosh-pits. Further, its non-obtrusive design means that it would draw less attention to the user and would not compromise a hip outfit. Tactile: Coola by Francis Ouellet is a cooling system for women suffering from hot flashes related to menopause. Through user research, Ouellet determined that hot flashes become more pronounced at night-time and there are few products to provide relief. Some women use medicaloriented products like cooling blankets, but find them to be embarrassing or undignified. Ouellet designed a night-time cooling product that is subtle and follows the visual semantics of pyjamas or nightwear. The product takes the form of a poncho with a removable cooling band at the neck and shoulders. The cooling band is filled with ‘Watersorb’ beads and the poncho is constructed with ‘Coolmax’ fabric. The product is activated by soaking it in cold water, and if desired, can be chilled in the refrigerator. The fabric provides immediate relief and dries quickly while the cooling band remains active during the entire night.

Figure 2: Ideation drawing of Coola by Francis Ouellet.

Visual: Dtect by Catherine Boileau is an identification system for firefighters that uses visual communication design and typography to improve visibility in all conditions. Through extensive research, Boileau found that local firefighters have a problem related to inappropriate and

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conflicting identification on their suits. Each firefighter is identified by elements including fire station, job, and rank through badges and colour coding. Different fire stations use different identification systems, which is confusing when multiple stations work together. In emergency situations and in situations with limited visibility caused by smoke, it is important that identification is clear and simple. Through consultation with firefighters, Boileau integrated existing identification systems into a new unified system. She applied graphic design principles to make identification as clear as possible from a long distance and in smoky conditions. She also determined the most appropriate location for identification on the firefighter’s suit. Finally, though Boileau was restricted in her design because of regulations and convention, she noted the potential to, at a later point, incorporate a secondary electronic identification system.

Figure 3: Ideation drawing of possible zones for identification on the fire-fighter suit by Catherine Boileau.

Utility: Estrela by Mélanie Moncada is a winter jacket to improve women’s safety in urban areas at night. Moncada identified women’s safety and security during the night as a key design problematic. She researched scenarios where women are most at risk and noted key recommendations to ensure their safety, including secure storage of personal belongings, easy access to keys and a cell phone, and ease of movement. Many of these recommendations are not possible in

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contemporary fashion wear, which often have few pockets and restrict movement. Moncada’s design is stylish, detailed, and incorporates a variety of features. These include specialized pockets for personal belongings; lighting at the jacket’s cuffs to illuminate a key-hole; and a sensor and visual alarm system that activate if the user is attacked. Finally, the cut of the jacket is carefully developed. It is designed to enable full movement of arms and legs and the silhouette can be modified to give the wearer a more imposing or ‘masculine’ presence. Shoulder pads give the illusion of wider shoulders, the collar of the jacket can be lifted to disguise the user’s face, and the waist belt can be released to add additional bulk to the user’s figure.

Figure 4: Ideation drawing of Estrela by Mélanie Moncada.

4. Insights: Design for night-time The focus of this course on night-time and clothing design is unique. Night-time is a context that is rarely explored in design, and most industrial design students have little experience in clothing design and

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working with textiles. Nevertheless, these subjects are familiar in everyday life, which allowed students to explore the research subjects in detail and develop a design project partly informed by their own experiences. For example, many students addressed wintertime scenarios familiar in Montréal. The methodologies applied in the course helped students develop projects dealing with detailed problematics, scenarios and human, environmental, and socio-cultural factors. Scenarios included activities like work, leisure, sports, and culture. Ironically, only one project (Coola) dealt with sleep and relaxation. The night-time problematic was addressed from angles responding to either the conditions or consequences of night-time. Conditions of night-time: most projects (Detect, Méco, Empereur, Lucio, Luard, Carnaval, Sion, Ballet 3 and Uni) responded to the conditions of night-time. These were typically identified as darkness and cold, and were addressed with visual or utility design approaches. Projects provided visibility, protection from the cold and easy access to equipment that could become lost in the dark. Consequences of night-time: several projects (Harfang, Estrela and Coola) responded to consequences of night-time. These included difficulty taking quality photos (Harfang); safety and security risks for women (Estrela); and more severe and frequent hot flashes related to menopause (Coola). Students responded using a wider variety of design approaches including kinaesthetic, tactile, and utility. Projects represented a variety of product types, periods of use and design approaches. Nevertheless, they did not address other human experiences such as auditory, olfactory, or gustatory senses in the problematic or design response. This remains a promising design direction that warrants further investigation.

5. Insights: Human-technology relationships This course and empirical study also inform the understanding of the relationship between humans and technology and how this relationship can be embodied in design. The variety of student responses represents the

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complexity of human-technology interactions. The following are four major insights developed through this study. Technology should be understood broadly. In the examples provided, technology can be understood as clothing or the tools or solutions applied in the design. Further, while many student projects incorporated electronic technology such as lights, alarms, and sensors, other interesting projects were simple and not necessarily hi-tech. Simple design solutions are ideal. In human-technology interaction, the best design solutions are often seamless, easy to understand and use, and non-obtrusive. Further, many of the strongest projects incorporated fewer design approaches. This allowed students additional time and energy to focus on perfecting each design response. User research and deep understanding of human factors are valuable. Many students addressed scenarios of use that would have limited users and/or a limited period of use. In contrast, through careful user research, several students identified widespread and neglected problematics. This foundation helped these students develop strong and valuable new product designs. The problematic and scenario must be addressed from all dimensions. The design methodology used in this course prompted students to develop detailed design problematics and scenarios. Students identified and addressed a key problem and then began to explore secondary problems. As a result, student projects incorporate complex design solutions simply and efficiently.

6. Summary This chapter and its empirical research inform understanding and planning of human-technology relationship and design for night-time. Analysis of student projects highlights the variety of approaches for addressing ‘smart’ clothing and design for night-time. Product categories, periods of use, design approaches, and angles for responding to the night-time design problematic are identified. Alternative and promising design approaches are also noted. Further, ‘smart’ clothing and related human factors prompt insights regarding the human-technology relationship. Overall, this research contributes to the fields of design and design education, and has potential to make life easier for ‘night owls’ everywhere.

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This article is in debt to all the students in the Vêtement technique NOCTAMBULE course. Many thanks for your participation, hard work, and extraordinary creativity.

References Roy, D. (2012). Vêtement technique NOCTAMBULE: Dispositif individuel de communication, secours, survie et visibilité. Course outline, École de design industriel, Faculté de l’aménagement, Université de Montréal, Montréal, Canada. Université de Montréal. (2012). Baccalauréat en design industriel. Retrieved from http://www.din.umontreal.ca.

CHAPTER IX UTANHEM(DOT)NET: PUTTING MEANING INTO TECHNOLOGY FOR EVERYDAY LIFE NUANPHAN KAEWPANUKRANGSI

1. Introduction "In myriad ways, human vision is mediated by technological devices. Televisions, camera's, computer screens, spectacles, car windows - in virtually all situations of our daily lives, technological artefacts mediate the ways we perceive reality." (Verbeek 2007 & Rosenberger 2008).

Most people, nowadays, cannot live without technologies; they influence us in everyday life, especially the media. The media provide networks that are a metaphor for our life and culture. Networking speaks of interactivity, decentralization, and layering of ideas from a multiplicity of sources (Ascott, 1989). One main goal of this project was to deal with multimodal mediations and narratives across platforms and how professional and nonprofessional media producers can interact, which was called crossmedia. Another angle, place-centric computing, deals with spatial dimensions relating to site-specific or hyper-local mediated interaction and the geography or spatial dimensions of communication. We used participatory design approaches to make meaningful technology, to engage people, and to make a contribution to the society. First, in this chapter we will explore how this approach can be applied in term of crossmedia and place-centric computing perspectives on the project. Second, the chapter presents the meaning of the media that were used from a participatory design approach. Finally, it addresses the role of being a designer within a collaborative work environment, conceptualizing and representing the case with DagensVälfärd magazine and the artist.

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2. UtanHem(dot)net Project We developed the project as an interaction design Masters programme for students at Malmö University. The aim was to explore the fields of interaction design, cross-media and place-specific computing, which were reflected from a participatory design angle. The project was collaborative between DagensVälfärd magazine, a comic artist, and a pair of students, and Medea at K3, Malmö, Sweden. The theme of the case was “when the citizens become customers”, so we defined the problems in a specific area: Malmö, Sweden. In this project we focused on housing issues as they are commonly shared, which everyone faces when they move into a new society or place. According to Jörn Messeter (2000, p. 39), “Place— Specific Computing is not about designing for place, but becomes part of the continuous construction and reconstruction of place, supporting established social practices but also adding to the potential to shift meanings and interactions so that places can develop in new directions.”

3. Concept Housing is one of five necessary basic things in human lives. In Swedish society there is a tradition of people reaching 18 years of age usually moving out from their parents’ home. Subsequently more than 26,000 young adults in Malmö are looking for their own house (Malmö Tenancies officer, interview Jan 31, 2012). From these situations taking place in the city, “invisible homelessness” was selected to be our target group. Lately more and more people have been interested in homes and houses, especially in Sweden. This project was created from framing housing issues in Malmo, Sweden. People here dream about having their own house or a nice place to live at an affordable price, but cheap accommodation is hard to find here. There is one website called HemNet(dot)se which is for selling a dream for people who dream to have their own house, so this project is not only making an ironic statement, but also reflecting the housing issue that is situated in a specific area: Malmö. In Swedish, ‘Utan’ means no, and ‘Hem’ means home, so ‘UtanHem’ means No Home. UtanHem(dot)net provides a channel for you to vent frustrations on housing issues, while exploring other stories. The housing stories that we have been collecting will be sent to the city planning office in Malmö.

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4. From Analogue to Digital, Multi-Platform As we introduced already, the project was about housing issues and people’s life in Sweden, therefore we used visuals of furniture cartoons and speech bubbles to communicate with people. It was reflected in the work of the comic artist, Sara Graner, with text highlighted in the speech bubbles. Moreover, the cartoons of furniture were representative of people talking about their own stories in a house (a medium), while writing in the green speech bubble (Figure 1).

Figure 1: the furniture’s cartoons and speed bubbles image.

Combining cross-media and trans-media provides a network that links person-to-person, mind-to-mind, memory-to-memory, regardless of people’s dispersal in space and their distribution in time (Ascott, 1989). The purpose of the poster media (Figure 2) was to focus on the customers who were looking for an apartment on the notice-board under the living voice workshop campaign. We wanted the project to be known via the posters, and hopefully people will join and contribute their own ideas on the project online. Subsequently we developed postcards (Figure 3) to be used together with the posters as we recognized that the response rates from target audiences of the posters were very low. We believed that the postcards had a higher potential to reach and get responses from our target group. We distributed the postcards in schools, public restaurants and coffee shops. We asked the participants to write back to us, although it turned out that it took much longer than we expected. We think that people might have forgotten, or had no time to write and send the cards back. However,

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it was very obvious that the postcards were a great tool for face-to-face communications in support of this project’s communications channels. They helped us to engage with the audience quickly and easily. The postcards not only made people feel comfortable while talking, due to having something tangible to hold, but also they made people link the visuals of the UtanHem.Net image with the posters’ media. The Living Voice Workshop was a part of the UtanHem.Net project that gave us a chance to talk to the target group. The purpose of the workshop was getting people involved in face-to-face discussions about housing issues, together with the utilization of the living voice board (with two big cartoons & a green speech bubble). During the workshop we got an enthusiastic response. We found that the face-to-face communication was key to people’s engagement and participation. People paid a lot of attention to the project, and they realized that housing is one of the biggest issues in everybody’s lives. Therefore, we can communicate with people easily on housing issues on the living voice board, even though we needed to communicate with each group individually because we have only one living voice board. In my opinion, it was a great workshop.

Figure 2: Living voice campaign posters’ image.

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Figure 3: Living voice campaign postcards and the story image.

In some cases people were very sensitive in talking about the housing issue. They would not tell us their story if they did not trust us. In the target group’s view, writing on the green speech bubble at the board was different from writing on plain paper. The big green speech bubble has specific space to write and people could have time to think as much as they wanted while writing. If they made a mistake they could correct it with a strikeout, and could choose or create their questions right away. I thought if they had more time for the workshop, people would create a lot of stories (Figure 4). Using paper based tools (analogue platform) to communicate, encouraged participants to participate more easily and in a quicker way. The issue related greatly to everyone, so there was a very successful spontaneous workshop, which got more than ten participants. At the gallery exhibition (Figure 5), having a set up like a living room provided the feeling of talking at home. It helped visitors feel comfortable about speaking and sharing ideas through the variety of UtanHem.Net’s artworks. Every story that we collected from different tools/media was framed and displayed at the exhibition. Viewing the display could help viewers that were thinking about housing issues and apply them in their own community. Visitors read the other people’s stories and also

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contributed their concerns by giving their stories to us via postcards or playing with a DIY kit.

Figure 4: Pictures from living voice workshop.

Figure 5: Picture from the exhibition.

4. Participatory Design and Meaningful Media All participants have contributed to our project at every phase. From the beginning, we used the “Living voice board” to communicate face-to-face with them, at the same time we also handed out our postcards and put posters on the notice boards in the areas. “Co-creation can be realized, in which those involved pay attention to and work with how technology connects to wider systems of socio-material relation in the form of collective interweaving of people, objects and processes” (Suchman 2002).

The Participants helped us to frame the housing issues and co-created in many ways. They gave us the stories for other participants to read and understand their situations. People in the community can help each other

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by telling stories and being a voice for improvement on housing issues in the society. One story gives one meaning, so the more people give the more meanings are generated. The network could operate on value systems, community models, cultural constructs, and virtual realities that citizens created (Ascott, 1989, 86). There were several stories that conflicted on housing issues, but we respected every story. “The goal of democratic politics is to empower a multiplicity of voices in the struggle of hegemony and at the same time find ‘constitutions’ that help transform antagonism into agonism, from conflict between enemies to constructive controversies among ‘adversaries’ who have opposing matter of concern but also accept other views as ‘legitimate’” (Erling , Pelle and Per-Anders, 2010). It was not just a paper but also the essence of the stories that we would like to express. The essence of the housing stories from an immediacy aspect, trying to convey the story on a piece of hand-written green paper, was very sincere from audiences getting into the heart the concept. It let the audiences see the real matter of the artwork rather than the technique of the media. The artworks reflected virtual in a sense of constructive realities (Ascott, 1989). Another reflection of the housing stories was on the photos with people holding their own boards as a direct communication with audiences and politicians. In this process, we did not initiate new media into the project but rather started out by exploring in what way the target audiences can communicate. Www.Utanhem.net is a web-based platform that can be created with the remediation of Hemnet. The name and logo of the UntanHem.Net project is simply known, if you are Swedish or living in Sweden for a while from the well-known of hemnet.se. The purpose of the project name, in my opinion, is to catch people’s attention and play upon aspects of irony. UtanHem.Net is selling the social reality; on the other hand Hemnet is selling dreams. Utanhem.net is on existing resources and other services; Facebook and Twitter are both the social media that people are using already, so we can get feedback faster than other new media channels. With UtanHem on social media, Facebook for example, we would like to reach the target audiences as much as we can. Prior to the exhibition we got feedback from people that we knew, so not everyone was a part of the target audience, but after the exhibition more people visited, rated or shared via www.facebook.com/utanhemnet. On the other hand, for twitter, the purpose is to make an easy platform for them to

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express their stories on housing issues, and they will be shown on Utanhem.net.

5. Discussion The role of the designer is initially to support the development of new concepts and later to make them attainable so it can result in ‘social’ enterprises (Erling Pelle and Per-Anders, 2010). The project aimed to combine the non-professional and professional producers’ messages and the target audience’s stories. The postcards helped to communicate the messages, but we had to wait for a while to receive the messages. Social media could blur the line between producers and audiences, but still retain personal identity. The housing issue for some might be too delicate to talk about in public spaces like social networks. In this project the role of designer was to start providing the questions and the tools that suited the participants, which encouraged them to tell their stories. In every phase audiences were able to choose the question and write an answer or a story. In this kind of project, the more we blur the role the more we put meaning into the project, because they can contribute with stories or write their own questions.

6. Conclusion This design process has taken a participatory approach with a cross-media, trans-media and place-centric perspective. We wanted to design a concept that used existing media channels through which we explored that which most people are using. We explored the use of different media and that gave us pros and cons. It is a matter of designers and citizens collaborating to bring the interface into the full sensorium of human experience and engagement (Ascott, 1989). As a design student, I hope in the future that the meaningful media that we made on UtanHem(dot)net can encourage people to use our platform to ask and share things on housing issues, contribute to the society and ignite people’s concerns, especially politicians who are involved in these issues and make a change in society by using our platform to get inspiration from the stories.

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Acknowledgments Many thanks to Dagens Välfärd Magazine, Jennie Järvå and Mediaverkstan for collaborative work, the IDM Stuff, Erling Björgvinsson, Mahmoud Keshavarz for all support and tutoring, the comic writer, Sara Graner and my team member, George Koletis for participatory design and implementation.

References Ascott, R. (1989) Gesamtdatenwerk. Connectivity, Transformation and Transcendence. In: Druckey, Timothey (1999) (Hg.): Ars Electronica: Facing the Future. MIT Press. 86-89. Brandt, E. (2006) Design exploratory design games: A framework for participation in participatory design? Proceedings of the Ninth Participatory Design Conference 2006, 57-66. Dourish, P. (2001) Where the action is: The foundations of embodied interaction. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press. Erling, P. and Per-Anders (2010) Participatory design and "democratizing innovation". In Proceedings of the 11th Biennial Participatory Design Conference (PDC '10). ACM, New York, NY, USA, 41-50. Messeter, J. (2009) Place-specific computing: A placecentric perspective for digital designs. International Journal of Design, 3(1), 29-41. Rosenberger, R. (2008) Review of Mediated Vision Petran Kockelkoren (ed.), Rotterdam: Veenman Publishers as (Seeing the World through Technology and Art) (Techne, Vol. 12, No. 1, 2008) http://scholar.lib.vt.edu/ejournals/SPT/v12n1/pdf/rosenberger.pdf. Suchman, L. (2002) Located accountabilities in technology production, Scandinavian Journal of information Systems, Special issue on Ethnography and intervention, 14, (2), 91-105. Verbeek, PP. (2007) Beyond the Human Eye. Technological Mediation and Posthuman Visionsin Mediated Vision, Petran Kockelkoren (ed.), Rotterdam: Veenman Publishers and ArtEZ Press. Online: http://www.aiasartdesign.org/mediatedvision/http://www.gw.utwente.n l/wijsb/medewerkers/verbeek/beyondhumaneye.pdf.

CHAPTER X AUTHENTICITY VS. ARTIFICIALITY: THE INTERACTIONS OF HUMAN BEINGS WITH OBJECTS IN THE BUILT ENVIRONMENT— BODY CONSCIOUS PERSPECTIVE BY SPATIAL DESIGN VERONIKA KOTRADYOVA

1. Introduction What message is given to us by the contemporary artificially built environment that we have created within our civilization? As designers we are creating “scenes” for people’s lives. But are these scenes designed with awareness of their effects on the participants? When these scenes are built for the long term, are they designed to prevent environmental stress? This chapter looks into these questions. Referring to Italian psychotherapist, specialist for neuroergnomics Jader Tolja (2003), no organism can survive without altering its environment in some way, if merely to reorganize the chemicals in its immediate vicinity. So to give the possibility to alter it according to own personal needs of space, territory, safety and socializing is one of the basic human needs (Figure 1). Our world is full of external stimuli for our nervous system, and thus, to protect it from collapse due to being overwhelmed by information, according to influential anthropologist and cross-cultural researcher Edward Hall (1989), a screening system was created through which we perceive the world. We are able to run on “automatic machinery” of stereotypes, predictions and prejudices that are part of culture, and personal history is a part of it.

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Usually unaware of contributing to the creation of stereotypes by spatial design/designing built-environment, designers are making little effort to face this fact.

Figure 1. Different adaptations of the balcony on the ground floor. Man can see different approaches to feeling secured; settlement called 500 flats, Bratislava.

According to Canadian environmental psychologist Robert Gifford (1996), our perception is not always directed toward physical settings; in fact, it is often directed toward other people or inward, toward ourselves. We sometimes pay very little attention to our physical surroundings, even when they cause us some discomfort. This state has been called environmental numbness. To wake up and see things differently it is often necessary to meet somebody from a “different planet”. This can be somebody from a different culture or even from some primitive civilization, somebody from a completely different professional branch or even a very small child not yet influenced by the shared culture. Western culture is keeping a distance from things and live creatures, but environmental perception is a complex process and we are collecting information from the environment through all our senses. Perception by other senses than vision is often underestimated and designers and investors do not pay attention to it when designing our artificial built

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environment. Many examples of neglecting, for example tactile perception, can be seen in public spaces such as airports, train stations, entrance lobbies, universities and school rooms, but especially in our proximate microenvironment – households and working places. In another influential book by Edward Hall, The Hidden Dimension (1992), he writes that touch and visual spatial experience are so interwoven that the two cannot be separated. Think for a moment how young children and infants reach, grasp, fondle, and mouth everything, and how many years are required to train children to subordinate the world of touch to the visual world. Touch is the most personal experience of all the senses. The hand has its own “sensual intelligence” which is in design connected with designing from the inside out. We also have to mention the importance of the locality where the interaction with objects occurs, thus a strong player in this game is “the place” and the intensity of our identification and attachment with it. Home is the place where the identification is the strongest and where “the place” also has great importance. Our microenvironment is an extension of the self, the materialized ego, and a tool for self-expression. Influential AmericanBritish architect and environmental design researcher Clare Marcus Cooper, in her book House as Mirror of Self (1995), refers to the Jungian theory that nesting or homemaking is a major means of personal expression and development. Balance in our lives has to be expressed via the physical environment and if it is not possible to fit the environment to our current needs, it usually leads to a breaking point in the form of a split, accident, or illness. In this case, the pressure is released and life has to be reordered. In the relationship between humans and their environment, we can speak about two levels of interaction. Thus first we interact with the whole environmental setting, which is a whole scene picture, and only after this do we enter the interaction with objects. In Figure 2 a diagram is shown that represents the interaction of human beings with environment and objects. It shows the reciprocal relation between environmental perception/spatial recognition in the momentary environmental setting, social background/context and direct physical interaction with objects.

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For a better understanding of this interaction it is necessary to implement applied knowledge of social sciences such as psychology and sociology in combination with neurosciences.

Figure 2. Interaction of the human with his/her environment and objects in it.

This has a significant importance for designers and thus the way the nervous system and human mind works is a way to understand human behaviour, preferences and decision-making. Particularly neuroergnomics is the application of neuroscience to ergonomics’ biological explanation. It combines two disciplines: neuroscience, the study of brain function and human factors; and the study of how to match technologies with the capabilities and limitations of people so they can work effectively and safely. The neuroergnomics approach is a powerful tool for better understanding of the interaction/relation between humans and the environment and objects in it, helping to prevent frustration and

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decreasing environmental stress from the artificial environment and thus contributing to public health and better human relations. At the same time it has many applications in the commercial area – for example in neuromarketing or neuroeconomy, for finding out how to sell more and better, which can contribute to consumerism. Referring to Tolja (2010), our nervous system originates from the “reptilian brain” that we have in common with reptiles and birds, and the feelings and survival instincts originating from there are very often in conflict with the brain cortex we developed much later during the evolution of our species. Due to this we can set a hypothesis that the cortex is influenced by culture and personal history. According to American neuroscientist MacLean (1985), the stage between reptilian brain and the cortex is called the mammal brain, common for all mammals and responsible for our social behaviour. In these statements we can find a reason for primary conflict between the human as a biological organism with a nervous system millions of years old and man as a cultural social creature living in a current (particular) social environment with its shared knowledge. According to a study conducted by The Royal Society (2011), the brain is constantly changing and everything we do changes our brain. Neuroplasticity allows the brain to continuously take account of the environment. It also allows the brain to store the results of learning in the form of memories. In this way, the brain can prepare for future events based on experience. On the other hand, habit-learning, which is very fast and durable, can be counterproductive for individuals and difficult to overcome, as for example with addictions. This is the process of creating personal history. Thus, by gathering information from the environment, we are also learning. It is therefore necessary to consider creating spaces and products especially for children that will shape their personalities, including their attitudes towards the materials with which they are coming into contact. Not only is safety important in creating such objects, but also the higher level of abstraction of a shape. If we cannot provide natural settings in real nature and have to leave children to learn from artificial environments, then the more abstract the setting, structure and products in the environment, and the more open-ended its conception, the better it is for the development of soft skills, including creativity (Fig. 3). The best way is to let children play in natural settings that provide the best playground for any kind of activity, including indirect environmental edification.

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Figure 3. This abstract playing structure offers many options for children to create their own games.

Vision is easily fooled, and is based on predictions that we already have from past experiences; we approach objects and settings with certain expectations which may or may not be fulfilled. By direct interaction a certain authenticity/verity and trust is needed to create a well-being and comfort for our nervous system and to prevent negative stress. The goal here is not to defend the “eco/bio” approach which is close to the purity of appearance, since also in artificiality there can exist a particular authenticity if we show that it is artificial and do not pretend that the material or setting is something other than what it is. The most usual “faking” by spatial design exists in the appearance of materials and their surfaces, but we could speak also about authenticity in overall environmental settings, while profound authenticity is in direct interaction with materials/surfaces and shapes. Fakes of famous design icons are another sort of artificiality and are a bit beyond the scope of this paper, and it moves more in the direction of an identity topic.

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To be honest by creating and using built environments e.g. by spatial orientation and navigation, and direct physical interaction with objects - in the choice of materials and use of authentic surfaces - is the way to deal with our nervous system in an “emphatic way. As the Austrian interior architect, designer and teacher Wolfgang Haipl (2005) says, honesty is the best design.

2. Direct Interaction with Objects After evaluation of the scene comes direct physical interaction with objects. Thus, if we use any kind of product, we are usually using the same process as in scene scanning. First, we try to scan by sight and other senses to determine if the object is safe for us or not. Then we search for a function of the object (legibility and affordability) and at the same time we experience a visual (aesthetic) pleasure or frustration that is both biological and cultural. Through touch we explore structure, texture, and shape, and again we feel comfort or discomfort. We also use touch to physically test the object’s function. Once more there is a complex process of perceiving/sensing an object biologically/physically and at the same time culturally/intellectually. Thus, thanks to the socio-cultural background of human beings, every product has its story, which is very important to how one perceives the product. This is linked to Donald Norman’s theory of Emotional Design (2004), which also covers the biological and cultural sites of human beings. This well-known American cognitive scientist, who based his theory of “Emotional Design” on a study of cognitive and evolutionary psychology, explains that there exist three levels of cognition of design: visceral, behavioural, and reflective. At the visceral level, physical features - look, feel, and sound - dominate. Visceral design is what nature does. We humans evolved to coexist in an environment of humans, animals, plants, landscapes, weather, and other natural phenomena. As a result, we are exquisitely tuned to receive powerful emotional signals from the environment that get interpreted automatically at the visceral level. Behavioural design is all about use. Appearance doesn’t really matter. Rationale doesn’t matter. Performance does. This is the aspect of design that practitioners in usability communities focus upon. As Norman (2004) further explains, what matters here are four components of good behavioural design: function, understandability, usability and physical feel. Reflective design covers a lot of territory. It is all about messages, about culture, and about the meaning of a product or its use.

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The process or running of the direct interaction of human beings with some object (3D shapes or just plain material) is dependent on a number of factors such as physical distance from the object, the intensity and way of contact, and also on duration of the interaction. We speak now about interaction as a complex process happening with all our senses plus conscious and unaware consideration of the social background. We will perceive the same object differently from a distance of five meters and differently if we will spend 10 minutes in the proximate vicinity or even holding it in the hand or sitting or lying on it. Also, significant here is the difference between whether the contact is executed by naked skin or with a part of body that is covered by clothes. A significant role is played by the individual context and subjective mental and physical setting at the moment of contact (Fig.4). The human organism tends naturally towards keeping things stable (the scientific term is “homeostasis”, but a better one would be “homeodynamics”, which establishes the connection between stability and the on-going process of adaptation that produces it) (Tolja, 2003). Our industrial civilization comprises a lot of heavy and light technology and also contemporary phenomena – the digital technology with its virtual environment where we spend a lot of time. For reaching or maintaining the balance we need compensation – to be surrounded by a natural environment or to feel a pure materiality in the built environment. Materiality thus has nowadays a crucial justification. It is one of the reasons people like coping with sturdy, earthy and “rustic” motives so much (Fig.6). Transparent and light materials such as glass, plastics or aluminium create in our nervous system a need for compensation in the form of solid, heavy sturdy materials. Here the difference between visual authenticity and authenticity for other senses comes in. Thus the things that can seem authentic for vision can be evaluated by the other senses; touch, hearing, smell and taste, as artificial thanks to inborn instincts and past experiences. Vision is a channel or tool that allows penetration of the cultural social stereotypes, habits and prejudices, while the other senses are more connected with our biological base.

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Figure 4. Scheme presenting factors influencing running of interaction process, illustration: Alexander Kovac 2012.

3. Visual Authenticity German-American perceptual psychologist specialized in visual thinking, Rudolf Arnheim (1974), states that by itself, shape is a better means of identification than colour, not only because it offers many more kinds of qualitative difference, but also because the distinctive characteristics of shape are much more resistant to environmental variations. By visual authenticity, we refer to two kinds: shape authenticity and surface authenticity. We create this separation simply for a better understanding of the interaction with objects, even though we know that a shape and its material form one unit, but from the research we have done we can speak about the plane authenticity of a material surface, which also has a strong impact. Shape authenticity is connected with trust in the appearance of some object and natural shaping of a material/material awareness by designing a shape.

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Trust in an object is a key issue for creating some relation to it in the momentary situation as well as for a long-time interaction. It can happen that we approach an object with unconscious fear (e.g. when it has the shape of an attacking animal or its construction looks too labile and denies all natural laws) that appears in the first seconds of contact. Our nervous system is evaluating such a shape as dangerous and, just by having some information about it and knowing the cultural context, we consciously know that the situation is secure. But this unaware fear can contribute to the complex environmental stress by coping - “room-mating” with the object.

Figure 5a. Unnatural forms of wood can be disturbing for our nervous system; 3D moulded laminated wood by the Reholz Company is used in this chair from Danish company Gubi.

Figure 5b. Artisan craftsmanship of hard wood chair “Chinese chair” from the era of Danish Modern by designer Hans Wegner is now being produced by the Danish company PP Mobler.

Figure 5c. Roughly processed timber originally used for roof construction are the most natural and trustfull appearance of solid wood. Svetozar, design: Veronika Kotradyova, Palo Bobák.

Here is a linkage with architecture. Influential Finnish architect Juhani Pallasmaa, in his book Encounters (2005), writes that overcoming the limits of place, time, gravity and matter is an ancient human desire. Architecture’s own development has seen a continuous struggle to overcome gravity. The evolution of construction is essentially the story of

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the gradual reduction of mass through material and structural refinement. Architecture is a balancing act between opposites: stability and movement, mass and void, opacity and transparency, shadow and light. The modern sensibility has primarily aspired to the latter set of extremes, to the dynamics of movement, weightlessness, transparency, and in fact Luis Kahn was the first architect in the modern era to reintroduce stasis, weight, mass, materiality and symmetry.

Figure 6. Sturdy volumes and materiality are appealing to our nervous system as a compensation to virtuality and technology based existence.

This is valid also in product design, and nowadays it also concerns reduction of weight and mass as a strong trend, reflecting the lifestyles of highly mobile professionals and fashionable trends in digital products. Very often the lightening of some products by maintaining their durability and safety leads to the financial contingency, thus it demands very smart construction and uses of high-tech materials. Another aspect introduces semiotic analysis, interpretation, formalization, and language analysis, which deal with the symbols that are applicable to the design of products. Material consciousness by spatial design and especially product design is extremely important if timeless and body conscious design is to occur. The key issue is the way the designer has worked with a material, if it has behaved in a “good manner” or not. Looking at an object where the

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material was “forced” – shaped into some unnatural form through technological violence, also makes our nervous system suffer. This can be demonstrated by the example of solid wood. In fig.5a it is at its most unnatural form, it is hard to trust and at the same time it is without respect for its natural form (in German Formgebung). This 3D-moulded laminated wood was for many years a technological dream. Now it has occurred, but even when curves match this material a lot, this moulding is simply too much. The same moulded element looks much more trustworthy in its white version. In nature forms like this are more natural for plant leaves. In Figure 5b is the “Chinese chair” by designer Hans Wegner, produced in 1949 and nowadays manufactured by the Danish company PP Mobler. It is a representative of Danish Modern - the products from this period were mastered on an extremely high level of craftsmanship. It shows an amazing feeling for volume/mass and detail, as well as respect for the material and a perfect knowledge of the physical-mechanical properties of wood. This appearance is “on the edge” between the two opposite sides, the one that is easy to trust and the untrustworthy one. It is gently tickling our sensuality on a visceral level and at the same time our intellect on a reflective level. In this case the execution is also excellent, thus it is appealing also on the behavioural level, in line with Norman´s theory of Emotional Design. This design requires a feeling for proportions and a high level of craftsmanship by both the designer and the manufacturer. Adding or removing just a couple of millimetres from the material mass and the imaginary “index hand” or balance between gentle proportion and trust can be destroyed, causing a fall into one of the extremes. In Figure 5c is the other extreme, a very sturdy and rough appearance of the same material, here in the form of balk/timber representing our cultural archetypes about the appearance of wood. This is a form that makes our nervous system relax, thus this dimensioning of shape is very trustworthy and is associated with security. Certain human preferences about naturalness of shapes can be justified from the two sides of human existence. From the perspective of the human being as a biological organism it can be said that we are evolutionary and used to certain tectonics and constructions typical for trees, plants, animals, minerals etc. We already know we have physical experiences and thus also trust what a construction sustains. Here there is also a linkage to

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the social perspective, thus according to the screening function of culture it prevents an informational overwhelming of our nervous system - we have the aspiration to trust in things that we know. This is used in advertising, where, if we have seen an announcement about some product or service, we have a tendency to prefer it and to purchase it. Every culture has its own archetypes that we are used to through habituation, as was mentioned earlier in the text, and thus we trust them within our shared cultural knowledge. As an example, we can take the timber construction of a roof. If we see such a construction in the interior, even if it doesn’t have a bearing function like the original, it introduces a feeling of security and relaxation for our nervous system during our time spent in the space (Figure 7). This effect is often also used in faking the setting by artificial balks that have no constructional purpose. This is valid for traditional natural materials where our nervous system has become accustomed over a million years of evolution, but what about artificial modern materials? Experience with such materials is not yet built into our DNA/nervous system, since the process only started in the 1950s. According to Slovak architect and researcher in material science in architecture, Peter Daniel (2008), in designing we cannot separate a material from its construction because the construction and conception are determined by the material. Daniel (2008) calls this process of shaping that respects the uniqueness of a material the innate forming principle. It is not expressed only by an artistic sensitivity for material (like tectonics or natural colouring), but also by the technological workmanship of manufacturing, which influences the complex efficiency. The opposite of the innate forming principle is form styling. It is an imitation that formally derives from the older traditional material in a similar application without respect for the new quality. Imitation is not only about surface (such as pseudo-texture or pseudo-structure, which we will discuss later as surface authenticity), but also about the construction and dimensioning of elements. There are many examples of such an approach in design history. But as time passes the materials start to live their own lives and progressing technology brings about new aesthetics, and shapes of elements manufactured from the materials become specific and truthful. Another motive is deliberate faking, but this is usually very soon discovered.

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Figure 7. Wooden balks in the attic of modern buildings are offering a pleasant atmosphere, appealing to a relaxing setting of our nervous system. Moeblehouse Wetcher, Tirol.

As a summary to this topic, these hypotheses about shape authenticity can be formed and verified by serious qualitative research: x x

More sturdy surfaces are preferred because they are more trustworthy and sensual, while light ones are more intellectual. Some shapes are evaluated by our nervous system as “natural” for a certain material, and some as “unnatural”.

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If the material is matched to the shape a release for our senses takes place, and the overall nervous system can be in a state of relaxation. There is a very fragile border between too much mass and too little mass in considering a shape as trustworthy and natural, and it requires a high sensitivity for materiality.

Figure 8. Irregularities of wood texture can be seen as aesthetic potential and not as a disadvantage. Cologna furniture fair, 2012.

When we asked 225 respondents in a previous research project about their preferences regarding mass, three options for furnishing elements were given: massive, medium and light, the most preferred was the medium (56.5%); light furnishing elements had 26.6%; and sturdy furnishing elements 30.5%. This result has to be explored more deeply.

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Another connotation of authenticity is about body consciousness in spatial design in terms of neuroergonomy. This deals with the issue of being honest to our body, including our nervous system, and preventing its deformation by giving support or freedom, which is possible by designing from the inside out and giving a choice of body positions. This is a topic that is very rich and deserves a lot of space, but it is connected with the aims of this paper only in an indirect way. In surface authenticity colour and texture/structure play a crucial role. None of the natural materials’ surfaces are perfectly homogeneous with regard to colour and texture/structure. Authentic colours of natural materials are usually not sufficient in their range and regularity for our visual culture, which is why there is such a strong need to change the original natural colour of everything by additional finishing. There exist a lot of natural colourful pigments and extractives inbuilt in material, but unfortunately this does not satisfy the cultural/social needs of customers. In wood, one phenomenon is staining wood into darker colour tones. We can set the hypothesis that the strong cultural influence (petty bourgeoisie or just some nostalgia/sentiment) is causing, especially for the older generation, preferences about classic style and neutral colours with this style connected with darker tones of wood in furniture and all other built interior elements. There is also the hypothesis that darker tones accumulate warmth in an interior. Texture/structure is a significant property of every material surface. The irregularity of texture of every natural material creates its special appeal. In wood for example, this is sapwood and heartwood, with different faults of knots, decay etc., which users can approach very differently. Usual standards reject pieces with faults as first class material but it can be seen as aesthetic potential and not as a disadvantage (Fig. 8). This is also valid for the textures of other natural materials like leather or stone. So the manufacturer and later the user can accept it and see it as a part of the naturalness and thus enjoy the aesthetical advantage of uniqueness. A perfectionist facing such “flaws” can be frustrated and may complain. Irregularity of texture is easier to accept if it is in a certain visual balance all over the surface. This means that it is not just a single location effect, but it is randomly distributed over the whole “picture” (Fig. 9).

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Figure 9. Knots create a certain pattern on large planes of ceiling and floor; even when irregular, the overall appearance is balanced thanks to random harmony; it is the same for the structure of a clay wall in a Kindergarten in Thuringerberg, in Vorarlber, Austria.

A number of studies have investigated the consumers’ perception of character markings on furniture surfaces to determine marketing opportunities for such wood products. For example Broman (2001) in his study examined how people see and evaluate visible wood “defects” (such as knots) in a given wood surface.

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The respondents judged the wood surfaces based on a general impression rather than evaluating single surface features like knots. Preferences for knotty surfaces were strongly connected with the physical blend of this feature. The respondents favoured wood surfaces with a “balance” between a degree of harmony and activity in order to avoid a state of disharmony. The impression of disharmony was connected with a bad overall blend of wood features lamella with different colour/texture or a cluster of large knots. The result of the study suggested that consumers do not reject wood surfaces with “defects” at any rate. Instead, wood surfaces may contain a rather large amount of activity-creating wood features (such as knots), if these activity-creating features are well balanced across the surface (Figure 9). A special case of irregularity is a wood texture created by the construction of smaller pieces of wood, such as in wall-panelling or in wood floors. It can appear more spotty, but with its regular patterning it is still more calming than decorative big-flower textures. Here comes the question of authenticity versus artificiality. It is an important question whether to use wood decorated with folia/laminate which copies the natural appearance of wood or other natural materials. The quality of digital print is already so high that by visual contact and without seeing an edge it is almost impossible to distinguish between natural wood and the print. We can differentiate the naturalness and artificiality by tactile contact alone, where the surface temperature, hardness and sorption activity are different for natural wood (even when finished) than by the artificial version. Honesty after all should be the basis for real aesthetic pleasure. Daniel (2008) uses the term material truthfulness for the application of a material with no styling in an environment that matches its character. Verity refers to a choice of colouring and surface finishing such that the material resembles its natural state. Verity is especially important for some construction materials (e.g. corrosive metals, plaster composites, boards, and particle board), where the finish consists of paint or a coating. In this case, there is also a standard business application of these materials that makes it less probable that they will be applied in their natural form (without finishing). If they are used in their natural state, they are considered to be unusual by users.

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Finishing of natural or artificial materials plays an important role by creating visual authenticity. It is also a matter of culture. Historically, finishing was introduced to prolong the durability of materials in extreme outdoor or indoor conditions. Aesthetic and decorative reasons for finishing came later, and these have continued up to the present, whereas the properties of the surface are often a matter of short-time fashionable trends. Another strong argument is maintenances and hygiene, since our western culture is a culture of cleaning and hygiene. The question arises as to whether or not the finishing is really needed. In interior spaces, e.g. on less exposed places like the front doors of cabinets in living rooms or bedrooms, a finish is not necessary to protect the materials from external damage. Here it is possible to speak only about the aesthetic reasons for finishing, along with the improvement of physical properties like abrasion resistance. In places where man often works with water and chemicals (for example in kitchens, dining rooms, bathrooms, laboratories, health care facilities, etc.), this is already a topic for discussion. Materials like solid wood contain a lot of extractives (pigments and additives with some special function during its “active life”) that are soluble in fluids. Short contact with a wet glass or plate can produce spots and longer contact with water risks deformation due to swelling and shrinkage and, later, cracks. Also, dirt is hard to remove by wet methods (using water and detergents) if the natural material is without finishing. Thus, smooth surfaces are easier to clean. However, the dirt can be removed mechanically by sanding or brushing if the material has sufficient thickness and a couple of micrometres can be sacrificed to abrasion without endangering the construction. This is also true for many other natural materials. It is alarming that many of the positive properties of natural materials are eliminated by chemical finishing. This is because these properties arise from the porosity of the material, and such finishing blocks the pores and renders them unable to “breathe”. Such properties include hygroskopicity and the regulation of air humidity, unpleasant odours and harmful pollutants, as well as acoustic isolation, antibacterial effects, and overall tactile well-being (tactile well-being takes the form of contact comfort as we will discuss later when we talk about tactile authenticity). Artificial materials (especially plastics/composites created in order to improve the physical properties of the material in terms of durability and

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resistance to chemicals, water, etc.) have a big advantage over natural materials in terms of options for maintenance/cleaning. Spots, irregularities or dirt originating from the consistent use of a product are a matter of our ability to accept natural imperfections. This is connected to one’s approach to life and also to the evolutionary phase of development of his or her personality. This level of acceptance is also connected to our ability to respect and to live with the physical attributes of our bodies, such as wrinkles and body weight. This is also part of our identity and personal history.

Figure 10. Irregular aging of larch “Schindel” on the facade of one modern structure in Austrian Vorarlberg.

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Aging is one of the most important parts of authenticity. This includes the effects of: -

Physical obsolescence (wearing down through physical use). Exposure to indoor and outdoor natural and artificial conditions (UV rays, rain, wind etc.). Moral obsolescence (including changing fashions, products that are too noisy, and uncomfortable products or those with dated designs).

Physical obsolescence and exposure to indoor and outdoor conditions can result in the modification of colour and texture/structure. This is called patina. Even the most durable and luxurious materials take on a certain kind of patina during their existence. Patina can also act as a tool to create the illusion of authenticity in materials that are supposed to fill some role. Colour changes on a surface may be accepted or diminished. One advantage of the most traditional natural materials (such as wood, stone, or leather) is that they age with grace. For example, wood ages both indoors and outdoors as a result of UV rays and other outdoor conditions, including the usual physical obsolescence. Aging can either be accepted or denied by the eternal exchanging of aged parts. The greying of wood, for example, is more accepted when it is homogenous. We can set such a hypothesis that it is valid also for other materials. There are some efforts to anticipate the greying in advance, e.g. by one interesting technique, BIOOD, in which the greying is done in advance by an ecological enzymatic process. In the aging process, texture becomes more dominant and more consistent than wood colour. This creates a contrast between the desire for homogeneity and the acceptance of the aging process, including alterations due to exogenous influence.

4. Tactile Authenticity According to Hall (1989), the pleasure of touching a surface and enjoying the smoothness and balanced temperature is connected to tenderness and caressing. The intimate touch of human skin with textiles has already been thoroughly studied and in many fields of industrial design, e.g. by interior

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design; in cars it is a must. Meyer (1999) provides a profound survey on the measurement, design and impression of tactile effects. Tactile perception, touch, is about exploring texture, hardness, volume, special function, temperature, weight, exploration of exact form and testing different elements. Our hand has its own intelligence. However touching is not only about the hand, but about our entire body; our skin in particular, but also our muscles, bones and inner organs, are involved. In comparative and developmental psychology, contact comfort is the innate pleasure derived from close physical contact. It is the basis of an infant’s first attachment. This is where attachment begins with infants; physical touching and cuddling between the infant and mother. Margaret and Harry Harlow (1958) exemplified this with their contact comfort study raising two rhesus monkeys with two kinds of artificial mothers (the first one was constructed of wires, warm lights, and a milk bottle, the other was constructed of wire and covered with foam rubber and cuddly terry cloth); when frightened cuddling up to something made them calmer. It all goes back to the idea of feeling secure and maternal care. This feeling we are searching for all life long, and the material built-world should be supportive of that. According to Lehmuskallio (2001), the skin, as the organ forming the surface of the human body, has an essential role in the perception of an environment (as a peripheral sensor of touch, pain, temperature, etc.) It is significant that it is connected more with our inner instincts than the eyes. During the research project Interaction of Man and Wood at IHF, BOKU in Vienna we investigated tactile interaction in-depth, and we used the term contact comfort to express the state of body and mind during the interaction. When touching some object, feeling the contact comfort is a basic condition for being relaxed and avoiding irritation and stress. There is a direct linkage to tactile authenticity. From our past experience, we have certain expectations/predictions about the tactile properties of materials and shapes. So when the contact is about to happen, we approach the material with certain predictions and our nervous system is then irritated and stressed when the interaction is completely different. When the surface or shape provides certain features that we recognize by sight, and the contacted material turns out to be a fake, a stressing/frustrating

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reaction by our nervous system might happen and on the reflective level we can be disappointed. So we have to trust in the object with regard to its tactile properties if we want to avoid such situations. This relates to quality of surface, but also to shape and weight. Here is a link between tactile authenticity and experiencing contact comfort. Parameters that play an important role by creating contact comfort include: -

Surface temperature – thermal comfort. Roughness of surface. Hardness of surface. Sorption activity of surface in terms of absorbing external moisture (e.g. sweat or humidity of air/ condensation). Control over the sitting position. Possibilities of maintenance - cultural influence. Individual mental and physical settings that creates an overall feeling of comfort.

In our pilot study of the IHF at BOKU, we explored these in greater depth and created a methodology on how to get feedback from users which has set the question: is the finishing really needed on surfaces of natural materials? Thus the contact comfort is definitely higher on surfaces without finishing. In order to assess the sitting comfort, we have developed a test chair which shows the following features: exchangeable seat, backrest and armrest made of 12 different materials with different types of finishing that are usually used in the production of chairs such as hard wood and softwood with different finishings: plywood, polypropylene, Plexiglas, aluminium, different woods, plastic composites, and cork. In Fig.11 is a diagram of the direct interaction of the human body with a material. The first picture shows contact with raw solid wood or any other natural material that has an irregular structure. The micro air gaps that are in the irregularities of the surface (and thus also the roughness in the surface) are thus contributing to better thermal comfort as well as better control over a sitting position, and subjectively giving a dryer

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sensation. All this places raw surfaces without finishing in first position during tests of contact comfort. The second picture gives the situation where raw solid wood is covered by a layer of finishing. It fills those gaps that in the first case contributed to the contact comfort. From a technical perspective, there is the effort to make the surface perfectly smooth and maximally durable, resistant to external stimuli. From the body conscious design perspective, this is negative, since in such a case the contact comfort is decreased. Actually a wooden surface with layer(s) of lacquer behaves in a way very similar to the plastics usually used for sitting shells (e.g. polypropylene). And that is the situation in the third picture, where the interaction with a material homogeneous in structure without finishing is needed to have a perfectly smooth, maintainable, and durable material from the technical point of view. A compromise is to use oil finishing, retaining the slightly irregular structure of a raw surface. But also here technologically there is an effort at innovation in industry to also create with oil finishing the technical surface perfection for durability and resistance to external stimuli, which on the other hand decreases the contact comfort. There is a difference between when the part of the body is naked and when it has layer(s) of clothing. This influences the comfort a great deal since the normal lifespan of a material inbuilt in a product is usual for both situations. The more “naked” the skin, the more intensively the authenticity of the surface is felt. Also in our test we had contact in both situations. The naked skin on the hand and elbow was brought into contact with the arm-rests of the testing chair, and the seat and backrest with covered skin. In future research we will continue with the comparison of measurable parameters for every feature with the properties subjectively felt by the respondents. Thus we can create a categorization of the materials according to their physical parameters, but also classed according to their potential for human-centred industrial product design, as well as for builtin elements, culminating in architectural structures. In this way we can help optimize the interaction of the materials with human beings in different situation/environmental settings.

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1.

2.

3.

Figure 11. Diagram of interaction of the human body with materials with different settings of surface finishing.

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5. Acoustic Authenticity Acoustics is an important indicator of authenticity. We are evolutionary and culturally used to the sounds that some materials make and also sound that is present in certain environmental settings. If something does not match or is overwhelming, we lose the particular feeling of space, or it may lead, in extreme cases, to neurotic or psychotic states of mind.

Figure 12. Balanced acoustics in a space; library MEDIATECA in Granada, Spain, panels covered by carpets are hiding heating and air-conditioning systems.

Also in using some products’ sounds, like knocking on a desk or closing a door, play an important role in gaining trust in the object and it serves also as a “controlling tool”. It also contributes to creating an emotional relation at all levels of interaction. In the automotive industry a lot of research is done on pleasant sounds in using cars or other transport vehicles (e.g. sounds of engines or sounds of using doors, etc.) Juhani Pallasmaa, in another of his books, Eyes of the skin (2005), writes that sight isolates, whereas sound incorporates; vision is directional, whereas sound is omni-directional. The sense of sight implies exteriority,

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but sound creates an experience of interiority. I regard an object, but sound approaches me; the eye reaches, but the ear receives. Hearing structures and articulates the experience and understanding of space. We are not normally aware of the significance of hearing in spatial experience, although sound often provides the temporal continuum in which visual impressions are embedded. Every building or space has its characteristic sound of intimacy or monumentality, invitation or rejection, hospitality or hostility. A space is understood and appreciated through its echo as much as through its visual shape, but the acoustic precept usually remains as an unconscious background experience. Sight is the sense of the solitary observer, whereas hearing creates a sense of connection and solidarity. The acoustic properties of some materials and shapes are very important for creating an acoustic balance - intimacy but not isolation. It is suitable to create a balance with the gentle mixing of softer and porous materials with no finishing and echoing materials with hard and smooth surface that reflect sound waves (Figure 12).

6. Smell and Taste (Olfactory and Gustatory) Authenticity There is a strong linkage between taste and smell. In 1998, researchers Dr Rob S. T. Linforth and Dr Andrew J. Taylor developed a method to study how flavour is recognized during eating. They studied air that is exhaled from the nose during eating and found that a person recognizes the intensity of a food at the same time that the food odour appears in the nose. The fact that our recognition of a flavour is simultaneous with the recognition of the odour further underscores how important our sense of smell is to our sense of taste. In the built environment there are many materials that have a typical smell, and in natural materials it is usually due to extractives that are inside the materials, plus pollutants that can even be harmful. Finishing also has its own odour, whereas, by using natural oils and waxes, we can benefit from an improving of the original smell of materials. With lacquers it is open to discussion, since for some people a typical chemical odour is pleasant, but here we encounter the risk of the harmful effect of the dissolvents that are necessary in the technological process of finishing. Among domestic wood species the most aromatic are the coniferous species and nowadays a lot of research is being done on Swiss pine (Germ. Zirbenholz), which has a really intensive but pleasant odour, even when the material is in-built into some product or setting for a longer time. It is

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Figure 13. Kitchen Utensils, made by Slovak wood carver Jozef Hrmo, Kremnica.

Figure 14. Swiss pine used for beds, Cologna furniture fair.

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recommended for bedrooms and children’s rooms but it has special potential in wellness and healthcare facilities, where the pleasant aroma inhibits those unpleasant ones that are usually present in such environments, and can contribute to the earlier regeneration of the patient. A clear connection between smell and taste is in the material used on table tops and in kitchen utensils, especially cutlery. Here the direct contact can really influence the dining experience. For sure eating with plastic cutlery from a plastic table top will be different from using a wooden timber table with hands or wooden utensils. Here the hypothesis is that the more natural and authentic the smells and tastes of the material that we come in direct contact is, the more pleasure we can have from eating. Another speciality where these two senses meet is in the production and storing of drinks like wines, whiskies etc. or packaging of some groceries where the packaging material influences the smell and taste of the content.

7. Conclusion Spatial design is a tool to gain and maintain life balance, and it can bring into the environment not only prevention and even therapy for civilization diseases, but also a powerful tool for learning. Interaction of human beings with the environment and objects is the reciprocal relation between environmental perception/spatial recognition in the momentary environmental setting, social background/context and direct physical interaction with objects. Important also is “the place” where the interaction is happening – the home or workplace as a tool for materializing ego to project on the extension of self - whereas public spaces can be a place for place making, improving community life. For a better understanding of this interaction it is necessary to implement applied knowledge of social sciences such as psychology and sociology in combination with neurosciences. Our world is full of external stimuli for our nervous system and thus to protect it from collapse due to being overwhelmed by information a screening system was created through which we perceive the world. We are able to run on an “automatic machinery” of stereotypes, predictions and prejudices that are part of culture. The role of authenticity is to make our nervous system relaxed in such a complicated process.

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By visual interaction we refer to two kinds of authenticity: shape authenticity and surface authenticity. Shape authenticity is connected with trust in the appearance of some objects and natural shaping of a material/material consciousness by designing a shape. Trust in an object is a key issue for creating some relation to it in the momentary situation as well as for a long-time interaction. These hypotheses about shape authenticity can be formed and verified by serious qualitative research: more sturdy surfaces are preferred because they are more trustworthy and sensual, while light ones are more intellectual. Some shapes are evaluated by our nervous system as “natural” for a certain material, and some as “unnatural”. If the material is matched to the shape a release takes place for our senses, and the overall nervous system can be in a state of relaxation. There is a very fragile border between too much mass and too little mass in considering a shape as trustworthy and natural, and it requires a high sensitivity for materiality. In surface authenticity, colour and texture/structure play a crucial role. None of the natural material surfaces are perfectly homogeneous with regard to colour and texture/structure. Authentic colours of natural materials are usually not sufficient in their range and regularity for our visual culture, which is why there is such a strong need to change the original natural colour of everything by additional finishing. The irregularity of texture of every natural material creates its special appeal. Aging is one of the most important parts of authenticity. Colour changes on a surface may be accepted or diminished. One advantage of most traditional natural materials (such as wood, stone, or leather) is that they age with grace. The greying of wood, for example, is more acceptable when it is homogenous. We can set such a hypothesis that it is valid also for other materials. Spots, irregularities or dirt originating from the consistent use of a product are a matter of our ability to accept natural imperfections. Here arises the question of whether the finishing changing original appearance significantly is really needed. It is alarming that many of the positive properties of natural materials are eliminated by chemical finishing. This is because many of these properties arise from the porosity of the materials, and such finishing blocks the pores and renders them unable to “breathe”. Such properties include hygroskopicity and the

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regulation of air humidity, unpleasant odours and harmful pollutants, as well as acoustic isolation, antibacterial effects, and overall tactile wellbeing. It is harder to disguise authenticity about touch. By tactile interaction, when touching some object, feeling the contact comfort is a basic condition for being relaxed and avoiding irritation and stress. There is a direct linkage to tactile authenticity. From our past experiences, we have certain expectations/predictions about the tactile properties of materials and shapes. Acoustics is an important indicator of authenticity. We are evolutionary and culturally used to the sounds that some materials make and also sound that is present in certain environmental settings. To create acoustic balance - intimacy but not isolation - it is suitable to mix softer and porous materials with no finishing and echoing materials with hard and smooth surfaces that reflect sound waves. In the built environment, there are many materials that have a typical smell, and finishing also has its own odour, whereas, by using natural oils and waxes, we can benefit from an improving of the original smell of a material. There exists a strong linkage between taste and smell thus olfactory and gustatory authenticity are also related. Here, the hypothesis is that the more natural and authentic the smells and tastes of the material that we come in direct contact with are, the more pleasure we can have from eating. The process or running of the direct interaction of human beings with some objects (3D shapes or just plain material) is dependent on a number of factors such as physical distance from the object, the intensity and the manner of contact, and also on duration of the interaction. We are now speaking about interaction as a complex process involving all our senses, plus conscious and unaware consideration of the social background. A significant role is played by the individual context and subjective mental and physical setting at the moment of contact. This work was supported by the Slovak Research and Development Agency under contract No. APVV-0469-11.

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References Arnheim, R. (1974). Art and Visual Perception: A Psychology of the Creative Eye. University of California Press, Berkeley, U.S.A. Broman O.N. (2000): Means to measure the aesthetic properties of wood: S 13, 65. Cooper, C.M. (1995): House as a Mirror of Self/ Exploring the Deeper Meaning of Home, Conari Press, Berkeley, USA, 1995, ISBN 157324-076-1, S. 297. Daniel, P. (2008): Materials and Surfaces (Materiály a povrchy), habilitation thesis, Faculty of Architecture STU Bratislava. Das, A.; Alagirusamy, A. 2011. Science in Clothing Comfort, Woodhead Publishing India, ISBN 1845697898. Ebner, G. (2011): Ästhetische Wirkung von Holzoberflächen, BOKU, Bachelorarbeit. Gifford. R. (1997): Environmental Psychology, Allyn and Bacon, ISBN 0205-181-5. Haipl, W., Haumer, G. (2005): Design - verstehen, lernen, ausführen, Trauner Verlag, ISBN 978-3-85487-788-2. Hall, E. (1990): Hidden dimension, Anchor books, New York, ISBN-10: 0385084765. —. (1989): Beyond culture, Anchor books, New York, ISBN 0-38512474-0. Harlow, H. F. (1958): The Nature of Love. in American Psychologist, 13, p. 673-685. Kotradyova, V. et al. (2009): Furniture Design (Dizajn nabytku), STU Bratislava, p. 281, ISBN 978-80/227-3006-8. Kotradyová, V. 2010. Tactile Characteristics of Wooden Interior Elements, in: Wood Structure and Properties 2010, September 6–9, 2010, Grand Hotel Permon – Podbanske, High Tatras, Slovakia, P. 123-126. ISBN 978-80-968868. —. (2010) Body and mind conscious design (habilitation thesis), FA STU Bratislava. Kotradyova, V., Teischinger, A. (2012) Holz und Ästhetik. LIGNOVISIONEN, 27, 19-26; ISSN 1681-2808. Lehmuskallio, E. (2001) Cold Protecting Emollients and Frostbite. Chapter 2.1. Thermophysiology of man in the cold. In: http://herkules.oulu.fi/isbn9514259882/. MacLean, P. (1985): Brain Evolution Relating to Family, Play, and the Separation Call, Arch Gen Psychiatry. Meyer, S. (1999) Produkthaptik, DUV, ISBN 3-8244-7225-2.

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Norman, D. (2004) Emotional Design, Basic books New York, ISBN 0465-05135-9. Pallasmaa, J. (2005) Encounters – Architectural essays, Rakennustieto Publishing. —. (2005) The Eyes of the Skin- Architecture and Sences. Wiley. Pike, G. and Edgar, G. (2005) Perception. In: Cognitive Psychology, Oxford university press. Royal society (2011) Brain Waves Module 2:Neuroscience: implications for education and lifelong learning. In: http://royalsociety.org/uploadedFiles/Royal_Society_Content/policy/p ublications/2011/4294975733-With-Appendices.pdf. Tolja, J. (2010) Lectures and Workshops within the course Body Conscious Design, Faculty of Architecture STU Bratislava. Tolja. J. and Speciani, F. (2003) Pensare con corpo (Bodythinking) - Zelig, Milan, 2000, 2003, Italian edition ISBN 8887291977. Teischinger, A, Zukal, ML and Kotradyova, V. (2012) Exploring the possibilities of increasing the contact comfort by wooden materials tactile interaction of man and wood. In: University of Forestry, Sofia (Hrsg.), Innovation in woodworking industry and engineering design, Vol.01.

CHAPTER XI USING SOCIAL MEDIA AND DIGITAL TECHNOLOGIES TO ENHANCE THE CREATIVE AND COLLABORATIVE PROCESS IN DESIGN EDUCATION MOLLY OWENS

1. Introduction At the June 2012 Cannes International Festival of Creativity, Intel’s moving image piece, Museum of Me, won a Gold Lion (Film), one of the most prestigious awards in the creative industries. The interactive film depicts an individual’s social media page as a personal art installation, and the online setting is the exhibition space: http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=qfd54nYPhXk (Intel, 2011). The beautifully produced piece illustrates one aspect of the relationship between humans and technology: that we are individuals with our own experiences and emotions, and social media has become our trusted vehicle for communicating (or exhibiting) these feelings and experiences with the world. Important places we’ve visited, precious family photos, or momentous events in our lives can all be shared in an instant. As part of this campaign, individuals were able to participate in the gallery-like experience and have their own ‘exhibition’ put together by Intel via Facebook. This paper explores the role of technology on an advertising design course and its potential to help students develop their creative processes. Advertising designers must work with specialists from other disciplines, and creating a socio-technical environment where interdisciplinary teams can collaborate and share knowledge enhances the possibility of innovation and creativity. Technology used innovatively and strategically

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also has the ability to increase student engagement and affect the calibre of their work, enriching their educational experience.

Figure 1. Intel Museum of Me, http://www.intel.com/museumofme/r/index.htm.

The Intel film eloquently conveys the intricate bond we as people have with digital technology in terms of communication and the human experience. This is crucial for my design students to consider as they create campaigns and communication material, and it is also crucial that I remember this as a design lecturer. Technology is not just functional or utilitarian, it can also be a creative and emotional conduit that can help us build relationships with people we know and establish new ones with those we’ve never even met. Intel created a brand ‘experience’ and cleverly linked their product with the social media phenomena and popularity of Facebook, whilst highlighting the benefits of their product and building a relationship with their audience. The functional and emotional benefits of buying into the brand are evident, yet portrayed in an unobtrusive, artistic way. Facebook is an example of what Thomas Erickson of IBM calls social computing (Wikipedia is another example). He says: Social computing refers to systems that support the gathering, processing and dissemination of information that is distributed across social collectives. Furthermore, the information in question is not independent of people, but rather is significant precisely because it linked to people, who are in turn associated with other people (Erickson, 2013, http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/social_computing.html).

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Social computing allows problems to be solved, information to be gathered, knowledge to be shared, ideas to evolve, and innovations to occur by the formation of online communities using this technology. A report produced by the United Nations International Telecommunication Union (ITU) states that near the end of 2012 there were six billion mobile subscribers (ITU, 2012). This figure is expected to grow in the following years as prices fall, especially in developing countries. The sheer number of people online and plugged in means that instantaneous communication will become more the norm than the exception, and messages and designs reaching audiences will need to be considered carefully by those creating them. This constant accessibility and exposure to digital media alters our lives and how we view the world. Students who will soon become professional designers need to have an understanding and awareness of these implications as they make design decisions and formulate creative concepts on behalf of clients. As an educator, I must ask: how do relationships between humans and technology affect the design choices of my students, as well as how I deliver design education? There is a vast amount of literature on the theory of technology and its effect on history and society, and for the purposes of this paper I will not discuss these theories at length. Instead, I will discuss design education and the role that social media and other technologies may play on a higher education course, specifically in terms of creativity and the collaborative process and how designs and decision-making are affected. My study of technology, collaboration and the creative process builds on papers presented at international conferences listed in the bibliography. In addition to fostering collaboration and creativity, social media and technology-based activities can also help overcome sterile learning spaces and scarcely used online university learning systems. Social computing can assist with design decisions, discovery, immersion, and problem solving, and can be a way of building confidence in learners who have self-doubt in terms of their idea generation skills—having a supportive online environment of associated group members has been a boon for some students. In his seminal book, Freedom to Learn, Carl Rogers states that students prefer learning environments in which they are engaged in collaborative

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learning activities, peer teaching, carry out their own enquiries and engage in classroom talk that requires multiple levels of thinking (Rogers, 1994). I’ve come to embrace new media as a pedagogical tool in order to foster this type of learning environment, even if my institution is slow to do so. I use digital technologies such as MP4 files for feedback, Skype calls, Smartphone creativity exercises, blogs, and social media. I extensively use Facebook and act as a facilitator for student use in order to build design communities (year groups, secret or closed creative team groups, and groups over larger communities and with other disciplines/courses). Implementing a blend of digital technologies into my modules was a bit risky, but as Clegg asserts: creative acts require boldness and confidence, the ability to take intellectual risks, and to recognise and overcome constraints (Clegg, 2008, p. 222). He states: The power of creativity will not tolerate enclosure. This means that the critical academic who wishes to promote creativity among students must live within a permanent framework of ambiguity, on the one hand hemmed in by bureaucratic rules, academic conventions, the demands of external agencies, and a confusion of conflicting ideologies, and on the other committed to a humanistic education that seeks to help students liberate themselves from outmoded habits of thinking, one that seeks to free student’s minds, not to enslave them… (Clegg, 2008, pp. 222-223).

One of the ‘outmoded’ habits of thinking that Clegg refers to is the individuality of creation methods in secondary education that the majority of first-year students are used to. There was a need to overcome this when they joined the course. In the industry, advertising creatives and designers rarely work alone. Thus, it is essential that I foster group work and crossdisciplinary projects. This is not always a straightforward prospect. Gerhard Fischer of the University of Colorado Center for Lifelong Learning and Design (L3D) states that traditionally, collaboration in the classroom has not been promoted and actively supported, and interdisciplinary work has been seen not as a source of power by exploiting diversity but as a lack of focus in a particular field (Fischer, 2005a). He quotes Bennis and Biederman (1997) regarding this: “Despite the rhetoric of collaboration, we continue to advocate a culture—in our universities, schools, offices, and communities —in which people need to distinguish themselves as individuals” (Fischer, 2005a).

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He further asserts that the Renaissance scholar no longer exists, pointing to Csikszentmihalyi (1996), who said that much of our intelligence and creativity results from interaction and collaboration with other individuals (Fischer, 2005a). Technology can aid this interaction, and online social environments can give rise to situations where students are encouraged to experiment through collaboration, resulting in more innovative results and less formulaic ‘solutions’ to design problems. This paper explores the role of technology on a creative advertising course as an educational tool to aid the collaborative and creative process, not simply as a functional tool. Technology can aid students in all stages of the design process, from the initial stages of research and concept development through to final executions—and most significantly, online platforms allow a diverse number of individuals to contribute and share in a unique learning opportunity. Data collected includes personal observations, reflective journals and blogs, student presentations and submissions, formative and summative assessment, student surveys, focus groups, and interviews (one-on-one and in groups).

2. Background I have been a lecturer for nearly 20 years, and I have spent 24 years in the creative industry as an art director, creative director, designer and writer. My professional work has featured in international creative campaigns, my fine art has been selected for juried exhibitions, and my short stories and poems have been published in literary anthologies. Because I work across an array of media and produce creative pieces that span output formats, I have developed a unique creative process that incorporates a mix of modern and traditional techniques. Despite the difference in media, my process of creating and composing poetry shares elements of the process by which I create visual work. I began producing art and design before the advent of personal computers and desktop publishing and have adapted technology into my creative process as it became available. I learned first to discover, experiment, share and reflect whilst using the limited technology available to me. I had a firm grasp on the basic need to involve others in my process of determining a creative path, and through the years, this need has become a mainstay of my process, no matter the size or the scope of the project.

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Over the past three decades, many cultural and technological changes have affected my work, yet the basics of what I learned about designing communication and developing creative ideas remain the same: identify and understand your audience, consider the best tone to ‘speak’ to them, and find the best medium/delivery to convey this message. At the heart of all decisions made were the humans at the other end of the process. Although the methods by which we communicate with our audience have changed dramatically, at the root of things, the basics stay the same. Technology has always affected how I reach audiences and how I tailor messages and ideas, along with the creative decisions I make. As technology has developed, it has, for me, become as much an extension of my talents as a pen and paper. I have learned that no matter what technology I use to execute work or reach audiences on behalf of clients, the crucial aspect of any project is the ability to understand who it is I’m speaking to and how to successfully communicate with them. My ability to truly understand and connect with my audience and find a unique voice to speak to them is one of the strongest aspects of my work— without this ability, I could produce spectacularly beautiful designs that may not mean anything to my audience. The message of each campaign, publication, poster, or Smartphone app is the starting point and centre point of its creation. Whichever client I happen to be working for, without a strong and certain underlying message and meaning, and the use of an appropriate tone of voice, I will not fulfil the objectives of the brief. I have also learned, ultimately, that if I fail to include others in my process, if only just to provide feedback, my work will lack depth and texture, and not meet the brief as efficiently and effectively as if I had consulted others. John-Steiner claims that the solitary creative process is a myth, and I agree (John-Steiner, 2000). Although my endeavours as a creative individual and design professional require reflective practice and time on my own, I rarely work in isolation. As with other areas of design, advertising design is human-centred and solution-led. Finding the solution to a design ‘problem’ means that my design and art direction decisions, and those of my students, are affected by the choice of technology and the medium/media that they will use to connect with their audience. The message must be adaptable and ‘translate’ across media, both visually and verbally. Being able to communicate via mobile applications is as important as being able to

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utilise print, television, or social media to communicate their creative ideas, so it is important that technology is seriously considered as design decisions are formed. It is crucial that as an educator I convey the ever-changing relationship between humans and technology and incorporate these changes in my module content and project choices. Design professionals and design students now have endless choices as to how they will reach their audience as technology has developed, and they also have at their disposal the means to collaborate using the newest technology. Discovering a process that will help them in the effective use of these choices is one of the main learning outcomes of assigned projects. Students will need to be as versatile as I have been in terms of adapting to changes. This can be aided by building communities of practice and relationships with other specialists to utilise technology effectively.

3. Humans, Technology, and Design Students How do theories of technical determinism and cultural materialism affect designers? Some technologically savvy design students might argue that yes, technology does instigate social change, springing into existence to shape societies. But if they observe the cultural significance of media technologies without considering other sociological and psychological issues, they will be missing the most important part of what we as designers do, which is to consider other human’s thoughts, emotions and actions. The Cox Review defines design as the link between creativity and innovation (Cox, 2005). It shapes ideas to become practical and attractive propositions for users or customers. Design may be described as creativity deployed to a specific end (Cox, 2005). This ‘specific end’ means that a goal or aim has been set out at the beginning of a creative brief, and in order to understand audiences and formulate a strategy to meet the client’s goal(s) and find a design solution to the identified design ‘problem’, resources must be gathered, surveys may be undertaken, positioning will be reviewed, and target audiences will be considered. Then, ideas will be generated with a ‘roadmap’ for a creative strategy which is based on the information gathered in the initial stages of concept generation and the specific end in mind.

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Often, finding design solutions to problems is a complex undertaking, and multiple individuals are involved in the process. This is reflected in the creative industry, with ‘teams’ assigned to work on a project or campaign. Individuals with different perspectives, experiences and skills will be placed in a creative team, and these individuals will frequently have varying knowledge systems (Fischer, 2005a). The creation of innovative designs and original ideas begins with information gathering and shared knowledge among individual students who form part of a team. Social computing is helpful at this stage, as team members strive to understand different perspectives and knowledge gathered. Accessing and transforming knowledge is key to the early stages of concept development and the cohesion of the group. As designers, we use a variety of media and sources of information, including online sources, which may present and interpret information on our behalf. We rely on external sources, and these sources base their interpretation and presentation of information on their own experiences. While simplified access to experts across a variety of fields through social media can be beneficial for students, they can be influenced by these sources. They must also develop and retain an ability to question and interpret collected data and build their own knowledge and experiences, while taking advantage of available data and input in their research and discovery phase. As an educator, I am also mindful of my role as a ‘filter’ of information and it is crucial that I do not impede students’ experiments as they form opinions and gather knowledge in their development of creative ideas. My in-class delivery and guidance during the creative process means that I must highlight the fast-moving changes in communication and digital technologies without trespassing on students’ unique journey of discovering the world and its people. I must do all this whilst also ensuring that students remember this tenant: that at the heart of all we do is the goal to communicate creatively and innovatively with other people, not with disembodied entities at the other end of a screen. As Murphie and Potts (2003, p. 167) succinctly posit, technology is about dealing with that which is outside our own little headspace, and tools such as technology are things that enable us to transform thoughts into action, or that let us move through the world to have more experiences and so think more thoughts.

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Fischer points to Engestrom (2001), who says that creativity does not happen inside people’s heads, but in the interaction between a person’s thoughts and a socio-cultural context (Fischer, 2005a), and the relationships between individuals and their work help to grow creativity as well as the interactions between individuals (Fischer, 2005a). By incorporating technology in my pedagogic delivery and encouraging students’ use of it in their collaborative process, I hope to encourage them to see it as a tool that allows them to get out of their own head space and transform their ideas into action.

4. The Creative Process, Technology, and Pedagogy Media changes the nature of learning and communication in design (Fischer, 2005a). Ideally, new media will improve both individual and collaborative design by augmenting the cognitive abilities of designers and allowing them to transcend some of the barriers that in the past have limited knowledge creation and sharing (Fischer, 2005a). From the first class I taught 17 years ago to today, the methods of delivery and the ways I can communicate with students have shifted dramatically, as have the ways in which students can communicate with one another. ‘Technoliterate’ students are connected both in the learning/classroom environment and outside of it, as they are utterly interconnected through technology and social media 24/7. The use of digital technologies and social media by higher education students is generally high and pervasive, yet there is little consistency in how they may be best utilised for learning (CLEX, 2009). In an attempt to utilise these digital technologies and social media to encourage social creativity and the development of communities of practice, I have incorporated their use into my modules. I found that the use of social media in new ways helped to enhance student engagement, and also improved the quality of their work because of a higher level of collaboration and reflection. The inadequacy of the university learning environment and students’ refusal to use it meant that a key part of the creative process was being discarded: the face-to-face time in the studio was essential to the development of ideas, but the majority of the time students were away from the teaching space, meaning that they needed to continue the collaborative process, but were not doing so. It was necessary to modify

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the structure of the practice-based modules to develop a socio-technical environment in which to support a design community of student teams. Advertising design is first and foremost a collaborative venture, and as future professionals, students will need to consult a variety of specialists in order to develop and execute what is known as a 360-degree campaign, or that which includes multiple media and platforms to reach an audience (or multiple audiences). An individual would rarely work alone on a project in professional practice, and briefs set in my modules reflect this. Branching out to other disciplines and other points of view to understand a variety of audiences will help individuals turn into well-rounded designers. Sometimes the collaboration necessary for advertising students to innovatively answer a brief can pose difficulty for students used to working alone or those not yet aware of their own creative process. New ideas do not come out of thin air, yet sometimes students feel like there is a mystical, magical moment when the stars collide and an idea ‘strikes’ them like lightning. Creativity does not come in a mysterious, thunderbolt flash. Instead, the process of creativity is based on significant knowledge (Boden, 2004). Creative practice is affected by the relationship of digital technologies and humans, and the significant knowledge that can be shared among individuals via social computing or collaboration enabled by technology. Creativity is not one singular event, but often a series of events, a process of continual change and evolving ideas (Boden, 2004). The significant knowledge referred to by Boden is reinforced by Fischer, who quotes Resnick (1991): “Shared understanding that supports collaborative learning and working requires the active construction of a knowledge system in which the meanings of concepts and objects can be debated and resolved” (Fischer, 2005a, p. 4). The social computing and development of a socio-technical environment which encourages collaboration leads to social creativity, and the main objectives of social creativity are to create, accumulate, and share knowledge, and enable innovation (Fischer, 2005a). The design brief given to first-year students which prompted my initial incorporation of social media as part of the structure of my modules required a need for information gathering, collaboration across disciplines, and shared knowledge. The project was perfect for encouraging social creativity and innovative thinking.

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The client, LifeApps, is a digital media company based in California. For the launch of their brand and first product, they needed a creative, multiple media integrated campaign. Following this, there would be a need for subsequent campaigns for ‘sister’ products. The product, MDWorkout, was a collection of health and fitness apps and publications designed with the input of medical staff and expert contributors, and was an example of cross-disciplinary efforts and social creativity in its own right. Additional deliverables included branding/identity materials, a website, moving image files, a digital magazine, a social media campaign and the facilitation of a new social media group. The project required students to study how people engage with technology in order to discover ways to entice consumers/users to become part of a social media community and purchase their products. The goal was to encourage individuals to participate in the brand experience and help shape it by sharing photos, stories, stats, and products within the social media group. Considering how communities are formed with technology meant that students needed to investigate psychological and sociological factors that would influence the design and implementation of the deliverables. Many facets of this project required the contribution of specialists outside of the advertising design programme in terms of development and execution. Collaboration with students from other disciplines such as photography, film, interactive media, and computer programming meant that small communities of practice needed to be formed. Along with the challenge of interpersonal differences encountered when blending ‘experts’ from many disciplines, additional challenges included geographical distances. The client was located 6,000 miles away with an eight hour time difference. On a more immediate level for students, the multi-disciplinary programmes within the university faced a smaller a geographical barrier, as some programmes (including photography and studios) were located on another campus. Face-to-face interaction and execution needed to be organised, and the lack of a common space where students could meet and intermingle was an obstacle to relationshipbuilding. As the online learning system provided by the university was very limited, I turned to Facebook as a source of building communities of practice, which in part transcended these distances and obstacles. Skype was used

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for client discussions, and although the time difference posed a challenge, the technological tools available reflected professional practice and added a learning dimension not available with local clients. Some design students come to university having experienced little collaboration with other disciplines, so it was necessary to facilitate relationships within the communities of practice. Haslam (2000) has put forth the idea that individuals who categorise themselves as part of a group (high congruity) are likely to engage. This is true of all subjects, but particularly so with advertising design. Creative teams were placed in small, secret or closed groups on Facebook with the ‘specialists’ and fellow designers, as well as myself as facilitator. Students were asked to share ideas and sketches as well as their on-going research and discoveries on a daily basis, rather than just days they were on campus for my lecture. In the early stages students were hesitant. Some individuals live in a fantastically oblivious bubble, the world around them is the world, they find it hard to understand points of view other than their own, and struggle to understand the motivations of people outside of their small circle of acquaintances. The target audience for the project was an entirely different demographic to students, and it was a challenge for the creative teams to deeply understand their audience. They found it difficult to uncover motivations of the audience from a personal standpoint, and to consider what would encourage individuals to engage with their brand through social media. Because they could not connect with the audience on an emotional level, the teams found the process frustrating and difficult at times. These stumbling blocks provided a deep learning opportunity for the teams, as they collected data and resources to exchange and interact in the sociotechnical environment to create a shared understanding and eventually connect with their audience through the process of discovery and interaction. The inability to understand can be addressed if students realise how little they know, and this is when the breakdowns and breakthroughs occurred. Ramsden (1992) says that self-critical awareness of one’s own ignorance in a subject that is the only true precursor of further inquiry. With that in mind, it is necessary to facilitate student’s ability to use the factual information they have learned and place it in a wider context of the world.

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The varying perspectives of the experts from other disciplines also caused some discomfort. Creating shared understandings can be difficult because of the very diversity of these communities of practice, but it also provides unique opportunities for the creation and sharing of new knowledge (Fischer, 2005a). The idea of communities of practice was first introduced by Lave and Wenger (1991), and digital habitats are also considered areas where communities of practice may occur. Creating a learning community across disciplines and in an online space meant that it was necessary to incorporate active and collaborative learning activities. Using complementary academic and social activities to bring the groups together was required to convert the student experiences into authentic learning (Chickering, 1974; Newell, 1999). It was necessary to include icebreaker exercises and facilitate the individual students coming together as a cohesive group, especially across disciplines. Once they were established, however, students (especially quieter ones who may not speak during a classroombased seminar) participated widely. Using these face-to-face methods to facilitate small learning communities can reflect a constructivist approach to knowledge (Cross, 1998), whereby knowledge is not simply “discovered” but is socially constructed. Rather than the lecturer transmitting information, students actively construct and assimilate knowledge through a reciprocal process (Bruffee, 1995; Schon, 1995; Whipple, 1987). There is a great deal of literature that deals with the emotional and motivational basis of learning and teaching, and in the practice-based modules I teach there must be room for experimentation and a feeling of safety. Students need to allow themselves to fail, but there first must be a feeling of trust not just between the student and myself, but also the student and his/her fellow learners. The frequent contact that secret groups provided, where students felt encouraged to fail and ‘kick about’ ideas meant that, more and more, they felt that they could share concepts. These approaches are linked with positive behaviours like increased academic effort and outcomes such as social tolerance and interpersonal development (Johnson & Johnson, 1994). Building learning communities helps students make connections consistent with this theoretical orientation, and the social creativity enabled by the socio-technical environment meant that students were more likely to

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experiment and push the boundaries with each other without trepidation. The primary way of making these connections is by encouraging students to connect ideas from different disciplines; this is aided by using groups of students who are enrolled in two or more courses (Klein, 2000; MacGregor, 1991). Design processes should include exploration, discovery of an idea or problem, gathering of knowledge—then idea generation, with a set of possible outcomes, a solution to the problem, then the development of these ideas/idea and solutions. Then comes evaluation, and the circle revolves again. Using social media as a closed forum for groups to share knowledge and evolve their ideas through the input of several students (with me as the facilitator checking in) has led to an increased level of understanding of the design process. It has also led to an increased level of student satisfaction, which, according to surveys, was higher during that year than any year previous. The calibre of work reflected the input of the specialists as ideas were developed beyond the draft or initial germ stage. Students tended to be more critical, and challenged one another to gather primary data and develop their own line of questioning, which lead to more dynamic research, including discussions with others and the collaboration that occurred across disciplines (Owens, 2012). The initial fundamental challenge of building inter-disciplinary communities on Facebook was the difficulty in establishing a shared understanding of the brief and the audience—the comprehension of the design problem evolved over time throughout the groups, with a great deal of the discussion taking place in the ‘secret’ groups. After establishing common ground (with some facilitation from myself as the ‘creative director’ of the teams), the different members were able to begin the process of sharing knowledge, vocabulary and ideas. The ensuing process of collaboration and initial discomfort of understanding unfamiliar perspectives and disciplines resulted in an opportunity for innovation and a unique learning opportunity. The results from the LifeApps project led to the development of more collaborative projects with the client as well as other cross-disciplinary projects, and I continue to use social media as the socio-technical environment. At the end of the project during the assessment period, students presented via Skype, and demonstrated a depth of understanding that could be expected after successful completion of a complex brief such

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as this, based on the feedback from the client, external examiner, and second markers of the submissions. One of the interesting things that has arisen as a result of this project is the students’ continual use of the Facebook groups. Students will even form their own, new creative small groups online, sharing information, feedback and expertise. It is evident that appropriate socio-technical settings can amplify the outcome of a group of creative people by augmenting creative individuals and multiplying rather than simply summing up individual creative activities (Fischer, 2005b). Building on this innovation in my pedagogical practice, I have established a complementary blend of new media tools, which I use in my modules to continue to foster and build an engaging environment. In addition to using closed Facebook groups to develop communities of practice and provide feedback and ‘checking-in points’ with students, I also use MP4 files as a feedback tool. When Skype calls or face-to-face sessions aren’t practical for personal and group tutorials, MP4 files provide a more personal response than email. In surveys and interviews, students frequently point to these files as a source of satisfaction and have said that they prefer the MP4 files to other formats, as they can hear my voice and replay the files (Owens, 2011c). Frequent comments are that in face-to-face feedback sessions and Skype calls they can forget what I’ve said after the fact, unless they take notes (which they are hesitant to do whilst having a discussion) (Owens, 2011c). Quick creativity exercises using smartphones have worked well, and have also been pointed to as helpful idea generation methods in student feedback. I have combined new media with traditional methods such as trips out of the studio and into the world, which can be particularly stimulating. In interviews and surveys, students have said that they have found sharing their experiences via the ‘open’ Facebook year group very satisfying and that it makes them feel as if they belong to a greater design community—they frequently contact graduates and other friends of the programme through these sites for feedback and to build professional relationships. Blogs are effective from an individual standpoint, and give students a space to reflect, but based on surveys and interviews, they are not shared communally as much as Facebook posts. I have found that there are many benefits of using digital technology, especially social media, as a tool to facilitate collaboration and creativity,

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and I will continue to utilise this tool. The benefits of using these tools outweigh the detractions. As a design educator, I feel that I must embrace new technology where appropriate, especially if it may assist in fostering creativity in my students.

5. Conclusion The ability to connect digitally has changed our world, and not just for those who receive messages, but also for those who produce them. Although the methods and media by which we deliver our messages may change over time, the core of what we do as designers remains the same: we must understand who we are speaking to and find the best tone of voice and medium to convey our message. It is crucial that all design decisions consider the humans at the other end of the process in addition to the technology we use to reach them. I must look to the ways humans and technology interact and see what cues I can take from this interaction. Using social media has enhanced the faceto-face communication that can occur in the design studio. Additionally, it provides another ‘space’ with which to continue development of ideas outside of class as it acts as a socio-technical environment. Students need not only collaboration, but time and space to incubate and develop ideas. Sometimes this may mean giving students a virtual space to foster creativity when studios or labs are not adaptable. Tayloe Harding, from the University of South Carolina, writes: If we are successful at preparing students who think creatively to use their imaginations to dream up solutions to problems, then the next task is to provide them with space to nurture and advance these creative thoughts to develop experience with making a case for their creative thoughts and building those thoughts into IDEAS—the first step to learning how to translate creative thought into creative action. We can do this by adapting courses, labs, or rehearsals… to provide more time for student reflection and explanation (Harding, 2010, p. 52).

Despite my initial hesitation in departing from the provided (and underutilised) university online learning environment to embrace a format such as Facebook as a teaching tool, I have found it to be surprisingly effective in fostering social creativity and motivating students. As Fischer puts forth, socio-technical environments can empower design communities to exploit distances and diversity as opportunities to enhance creativity, and

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creative activity grows out of the relationship between individuals and their work as well as from the interactions between individuals (Fischer, 2005a). My goals as a design teacher are to develop creative, well-rounded, critical thinkers, and to facilitate students’ development of their creative process. This means that I will utilise digital technologies to foster social creativity when possible, and I will include any new media that will assist in this endeavour. By infusing new media and methods in my practice-based modules, I hope to prepare students for lives in design where they are able to adapt to rapid technological changes as successfully as I have.

References Boden, M.A. (2004). The Creative Mind: Myths and Mechanisms. Second Edition. Routledge: London. Bruffee, K. A. (1995). Collaborative Learning: Higher Education, Interdependence, and the Authority of Knowledge. Baltimore, MD: John Hopkins University Press. Chickering, A.W. (1974). Commuting Versus Resident Students: Overcoming the Educational Inequities of Living Off Campus. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass. Clegg, P. (2008.) Creativity and Thinking in a Globalised University. Invitations in Education and Teaching International. 45(3). pp. 222223. Cross, K. P. (1998, July/August). Why Learning Communities? Why Now? About Campus 4–11. Committee of Inquiry into the Changing Learner Experience (CLEX). (2009). Higher Education in a Web 2.0 World. Available at: [Accessed 20 February 2013]. Cox, George. (2005). The Cox Review of Creativity in Business. Available at: [Accessed 1 February 2013]. Erickson, T. (2013). Social Computing. In: Soegaard, Mads and Dam, Rikke Friis (eds.). "The Encyclopedia of Human-Computer Interaction, 2nd Ed." Aarhus, Denmark: The Interaction Design Foundation. Available at: http://www.interaction-design.org/encyclopedia/social_ computing.html [Accessed 14 April 2013].

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Fischer, G. (2005a). Distances and Diversity: Sources for Social Creativity. In Proceedings of the 5th Conference on Creativity & Cognition (C&C '05). ACM, New York, NY, USA, pp. 128-136. Available at: [Accessed 14 April 2013]. —. (2005b). Social Creativity: Making All Voices Heard. In Proceedings of the HCI International Conference (HCII). Las Vegas, NV, USA. Available at: [Accessed 22 April 2013]. Harding, T. (2010). Fostering Creativity for Leadership and Leading Change. Arts Education Policy Review, 111:51-53. Haslam, S. A. (2000). Psychology in Organizations: the Social Identity Approach. London: Sage. Intel. (2011). Museum of Me. [video online] Available at:

[Accessed 22 February 2013]. —. (2011). Museum of Me. [online] Available at:

[Accessed 22 February 2013]. International Telecommunications Union (ITU). (2012). Measuring the Information Society: Executive Summary. Geneva: ITU. Available at: [Accessed 1 February 2013]. John-Steiner, V. (2000). Creative Collaboration. Oxford University Press: Oxford. Johnson, D.W., Johnson, R., & Smith, K. (1998). Active Learning: Cooperation in the College Classroom. Edina, MN: Interaction Book Company. Klein, T. (2000, July/August). From Classroom to Learning Community: One Professor’s Reflections. About Campus, 12-19. MacGregor, J. (1991). What differences Do Learning Communities Make? Washington Center News, 6, 4-9. Murphie, A., Potts, J. (2003). Culture and Technology. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Newell, W. H. (1999, May/June). The Promise of Integrative Learning. About Campus, 17-23. Owens, M. (2013). Using International Projects and Accompanying Technology to Reflect Professional Practice on a Creative Advertising Course. In: International Higher Education Teaching and Learning Association (HETL), Exploring Spaces for Learning. University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL, USA, 13-15 January 2013.

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—. (2011a). ‘Tech Geeks’ and ‘Ad Freaks’: Fostering Connections and Collaboration Across Disparate Student Groups. In: Society for Research into Higher Education (SRHE). Positive Futures for Higher Education; Connections, Communities and Criticality. Celtic Manor, Newport, UK, 7-9 December 2011. Available at:

[Accessed 14 January 2013]. —. (2011b). Using Facebook as a Tool to Build Online Communities of Practice and Encourage Collaboration Across Multi-Disciplinary Programmes. In: Society for Research in Higher Education (SRHE). Positive Futures for Higher Education; Connections, Communities and Criticality. Celtic Manor, Newport, UK, 7-9 December 2011. Available at: < http://www.srhe.ac.uk/conference2011/> [Accessed 14 January 2013]. —. (2011c). Using MP4 Files as a Feedback Tool. In: Higher Education Academy (HEA) Event, Assessing the Assessment Experience. University of Wales, Newport, UK, July 2011. Ramsden, P. (1992). Learning to Teach in Higher Education. London: Routledge. Rogers, C. (1994). Freedom to Learn. Third edition. New York: Macmillan College Publishing. Schon, D. A. (1995). The New Scholarship Requires a New Epistemology. Change, 27, 27-34. Wenger, E., White, N., Smith, J. (2009). Digital Habitats: Stewarding Technology for Communities. Portland: CPsquare. Whipple, W. R. (1987). Collaborative Learning. AAHE bulletin, 40(2), 37.

AUTHORS NOTES

Professor John Frazer. Leader in the field of generative design and the originator of the Evolutionary Digital Design Process and the field of tangible interfaces. An Evolutionary Architecture (1995) is a seminal work. His extensively published research at Cambridge University and the Architectural Association embraces the domains of intelligent and interactive design systems, sustainable design, participatory and cooperative design, and computer generated design. Sylvia Tzvetanova Yung, PhD is an interaction design researcher, founder of www.emotionresearch.com.hk: an online emotion research tool. Currently a Senior Lecturer in Interactive/Integrated Design at the University of Bedfordshire, UK. She is an editor for numerous design research conferences, most recently for the DesignEd Asia Conference, part of the Business of Design Week Hong Kong. Alise Piebalga is a new media artist based in the UK, working with performance, video, dance and interactivity. Her work has been exhibited widely, including the V&A in London and some high profile collaborations for Kinetica, London and Arnolfini, Bristol. Her current PhD studies explore the impact recent developments in Hybrid arts have on our perception of the relationship between humans and technology. Petri Mannonen works as a researcher at Aalto University’s Strategic Usability Research Group. His background is in computer science and usability engineering. His PhD research focuses on people’s encounters with technology and how the results of the encounters, i.e. success or failure of technologies in practice, could be forecasted and be taken into account already in early phases of product or service development. Sampo Teräs is a computer engineer based in Finland, working with value and benefits of information systems and consumer services. His PhD studies concentrate on finding value with user research methods and evaluating it with interactive prototypes in the actual context.

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Vance Woodward is a lawyer, patent attorney, entrepreneur and author. He forecasts and writes about legal, technological and cultural trends. Martyn Woodward is a doctoral researcher working within the visual arts, trained within visual communications design, with a parallel in film and media studies. He has been researching the limits/limitations of understandings of visual communication since 2004. He began his PhD in October 2008 at the University of Plymouth with a research focus on developing new strategies for Visual Communication, which are analogous with the emerging research into the Embodied human condition. His research is philosophically and historically situated, taking a transdisciplinary approach, focusing upon the perceptual and cognitively discursive experiences of audio-visual media forms in relation to issues of imagination, creativity, perception, and agency. Andrew Wodehouse, PhD is a Lecturer in Design at the University of Strathclyde. He worked as a product design engineer for several years before completing a PhD in interactive digital environments to support conceptualisation. Focussing on user-centred design, his research interests encompass interaction design, product aesthetics and innovative design teams. Marion Sheridan is a Lecturer in Theatre and Voice and Communication at the University of Strathclyde. An experienced actor, director and producer, Marion's work in recent years has been in relation to directing and performing in works involving music and theatre. Her current research interests are concerned with the partnership between science and humanities. Professor Yoshitsugu Morita is a professor for the Strategic Architecture Course at Kyushu Institute of Design. Previously he managed the Environment Design Department of GK Sekkei. He has won many awards including the Good Design Award for the public design of Ginza, Harumi Street, the Nishishinjuku area in Tokyo, Nishinakajimabashi in Fukuoka City and a plan for the area around Hakozaki Station. In a recent industryacademia-government collaboration, he was engaged in a project that involved the universal design of a shopping centre, housing complex, and museum brand design, the Japan-South Korea public design project, and the development of the Kansei Table and the design and sensibility value evaluation diagnosis system for creation of sensibility value (Quality Kartes).

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Haruka Sogabe is an Associate Professor in the Department of Design Strategy, Faculty of Design, Kyushu University, Japan. Sogabe is a member of the Japanese Society for the Science of Design and was awarded the 1st JUDI Public Design Award 2011: "The Hakata Exit Station Square of JR Hakata Station", Japan Urban Design Institute. Nermin Elokla, PhD is Associate Professor at the Faculty of Applied Arts, Helwan University, Egypt. Also, she is a visiting researcher at the Faculty of Design, Kyushu University, Japan. Nermin gained a Masters degree in engineering, specializing in architecture in 1997, Kyushu University, Japan. She was awarded the Doctoral Degree of Design from Kyushu University in 2005. Nermin’s research interest focuses on inclusive design, Kansei and emotional design methodologies for participation and social innovation. Her awards include the Excellent Works Award, temporary housing design, Architectural Institute of Japan (AIJ), 1995. Yasuyuki Hirai is Associate Professor at the Faculty of Design, Kyushu University, Japan. His expertise is in the areas of inclusive design and office design, both for innovative approaches to realising human and knowledge centric solutions. He received an MPhil with distinction from the Royal College of Art, UK, in 1990. His many awards include the Red Dot Award, the Good Design Award and the Kids Design Award in Japan. Isabel McPherson Prochner is a PhD student in design at the Université de Montréal, Canada. She explores social sustainability, advocacy, and conceptual design in her academic and industrial design work. Her current studies address feminism and queer theory in design, and she will blend academic research with design creation in her doctoral dissertation. Nuanphan Kaewpanukrangsi, Pae, is an interaction designer, and a young design researcher. She is doing her Masters in Interaction Design at Malmö University, Sweden. She has embraced holistic design perspectives and explored possibilities of design space in different societies. Many of her projects involve a range of people and materials. Her interests are about social innovation; design for change and sustainability; everyday experience design; embodied culture of interaction; time and space with the aim to make a better life for people. Find more on her works at: http://www.pae-nuanphan.info.

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Veronika Kotradyova, PhD is a researcher in the field of body conscious design/human-centred design, and since 2002 a lecturer and project manager at the Faculty of Architecture STU Bratislava, Institute of Interior and Exhibition Design, Slovakia. She is a founder of the Body Conscious Design Laboratory (www.bcdlab.eu), while she began with this research field in 2006 as a visiting Fulbright scholar at UC Berkeley, USA, and since this period she has been lecturing in this field at universities and international conferences in the USA, New Zealand, EU and Afghanistan. Currently she is completing a research project “Interaction of Wood and Human” at the Institute of Wood Technology, BOKU, Vienna and leading Slovak the research project “Interior design as a tool for prevention and Treatment of Civilization Diseases”. Molly Owens is a Senior Lecturer in Advertising Design at the University of South Wales and an award-winning art director, writer, and designer. She worked in the creative industries for over 20 years at several highprofile agencies. Her areas of research include creativity development, collaboration and the creative process, and the relation of space to creativity.