Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation: Sensing, Control and Reduction of Emissions [1 ed.] 978-3-642-11975-0, 978-3-642-11976-7

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Green Energy and Technology

For further volumes: http://www.springer.com/series/8059

Michael Palocz-Andresen

Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation Sensing, Control and Reduction of Emissions

123

Michael Palocz-Andresen UCS Umweltconsulting Hamburg Germany

ISSN 1865-3529 ISBN 978-3-642-11975-0 DOI 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7

ISSN 1865-3537 (electronic) ISBN 978-3-642-11976-7 (eBook)

Springer Heidelberg New York Dordrecht London Library of Congress Control Number: 2012935235  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013 This work is subject to copyright. All rights are reserved by the Publisher, whether the whole or part of the material is concerned, specifically the rights of translation, reprinting, reuse of illustrations, recitation, broadcasting, reproduction on microfilms or in any other physical way, and transmission or information storage and retrieval, electronic adaptation, computer software, or by similar or dissimilar methodology now known or hereafter developed. Exempted from this legal reservation are brief excerpts in connection with reviews or scholarly analysis or material supplied specifically for the purpose of being entered and executed on a computer system, for exclusive use by the purchaser of the work. Duplication of this publication or parts thereof is permitted only under the provisions of the Copyright Law of the Publisher’s location, in its current version, and permission for use must always be obtained from Springer. Permissions for use may be obtained through RightsLink at the Copyright Clearance Center. Violations are liable to prosecution under the respective Copyright Law. The use of general descriptive names, registered names, trademarks, service marks, etc. in this publication does not imply, even in the absence of a specific statement, that such names are exempt from the relevant protective laws and regulations and therefore free for general use. While the advice and information in this book are believed to be true and accurate at the date of publication, neither the authors nor the editors nor the publisher can accept any legal responsibility for any errors or omissions that may be made. The publisher makes no warranty, express or implied, with respect to the material contained herein. Printed on acid-free paper Springer is part of Springer Science+Business Media (www.springer.com)

Preface

Since 1998, the introduction of the first Directive with On-Board Measurement in the EU, many parameters in transport have changed. Both the population of the world and the demand for transportation have been continuously increasing. Transport has become the basic foundation of the economy in all countries. In the course of this process, the environment and the climate have been changing in a remarkable way and in turn have influenced transport. Environmental legislation with Directives such as 98/69/EU, 99/96/EU, and finally 582/2011/EC with amendments, is already reducing emissions of individual vehicles. However, the number of motor vehicles, ships, and airplanes is rapidly rising, especially in fast developing countries. Parallel to this, the amount of oil products consumed and the mass of pollutants emitted are intensively increasing. A new, sustainable path is required, which focuses on reasonable mass transport at a reasonable price, short travel times with optimal connections, positive impacts in safety, and improvements in sustainability. Good examples are needed worldwide. Transportation could be improved with the introduction of carbon taxes, higher fuel efficiency standards and the use of new kinds of fuels. It is not enough to produce biogenic and synthetic fuels, although they can be optimally used in road vehicles, airplanes and ships, because they have their own additional problems. On the one side, their utilization lowers the consumption of fossil fuels, but on the other side, their exaggerated use could contribute to the destruction of agriculture and the landscape. Transport burns most of the petroleum of the world and emits the most air pollution, including unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrous oxides, and particles. It is the fastest growing consumption and emission sector on Earth. This leads to significant environmental and health problems especially in large cities and is a major contributor to global warming because of emissions of carbon dioxide. New urban infrastructure needs to primarily foster environmentally friendly modes and better management of transportation. Vehicles, airplanes and ships are becoming more and more efficient, i.e., lighter and more intelligent, with improved aerodynamics, optimized design, and higher

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performance. But can technology reduce fuel consumption and emissions effectively? While technological development has created many problems, such as climate change and loss of resources, at the same time it is part of the solution. The higher demand for transportation could be fulfilled with the assistance of new technologies, new materials and highly intelligent hardware and software systems. Additionally, navigation and active communication systems can optimally and safely regulate the increasing traffic. The higher comfort level and safety of new vehicles, airplanes and ships also contributes to more sustainability in transportation. However, improved infrastructure is often combined with increased traffic density and higher emissions. That is the reason why research and technological development have to survey alternative technologies and pilot projects to provide sustainable urban development and improve the potentials of mass transportation. Regarding fuel consumption and emission characteristics, regulations have been intensively expanded in the last 20 years. Energy use and emissions vary greatly between several modes of transportation. Electrification and energy efficiency of transport must be increased in the next decades. However, the introduction of new technology will not happen suddenly but only gradually. Less than optimal measures to order intensive fuel saving could cause major economic losses. Fuel substitution in transportation has high investment costs in comparison to other sectors of the economy. Therefore, besides technology, a sustainable strategy requires the increased use of renewable energy resources, worldwide intelligent navigation measures, common international regulations, and voluntary agreements between governments, civil, and international organizations limiting fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. The topic of this book is the comprehensive consideration of all aspects of intelligent fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions in transportation. It can be recommended as a source for the stimulation of further discussions to anyone interested in the field of sustainable transportation. Lüneburg, winter 2011

Prof. Dr. Wolfgang Ruck

Acknowledgments

Three years ago, 2008, my first book concerning On-Board Measurement was published by the Expert Verlag in Renningen, Germany. In that book the basic fundamentals of direct measurement technology (OBM) were described. Since that time, the legislation and the technology have been intensively developed. It seems to be necessary, to continue the work. The next logical stage of On-Board Measurement is Self Diagnosis (SD) which is the centre of consideration in this book. This is the result of three and a half years of work. Special thanks go to the researchers and teachers, scientists and professors of Leuphana University Lüneburg for the invaluable advice and support regarding sustainable transportation. The consortium of the University of West-Hungary Sopron supported several application-oriented sections in research and presentation and also gave important assistance. Within my own team, I would like to express my gratitude to Mr. János Székely (Budapest), Mr. Balázs Szegedi, Ms. Luca Héjja, and Mr. Gergely Krizbai (Sopron) for their efforts in the area of design, Mrs. Dóra Szalay (Sopron) for her support in the construction and checking of units and conversions in the book, and Dr. Hartmut Mädler and Mr. Ulrich Gross (Hamburg) in the translation of subtexts in the international literature and creation of subject indices. I would also like to heartily thank Dr. Huba Németh (Budapest) for his kind assistance and cooperation with regard to road technology. I am also grateful to Mr. Károly Galvácsy and Mr. János Mikulás (Budapest) for their support in the development of aviation and for many interesting discussions regarding safety, aircraft inspection, and maintenance and air traffic emissions. Concerning the shipping experiments undertaken for the purpose of this book, Mr. Joachim Goetze (Hamburg) and Mr. Csaba Hargitai (Budapest) were also extremely helpful.

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And finally, many thanks to Dr. Richard von Fuchs (Sopron) and Mr. David Carolan Kômoto (Hamburg) for proofreading this book. Hamburg, winter 2011

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Michael Palocz-Andresen

Contents

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Basics of Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions . . . 1.1 Comparison of Fuel Consumption and Emissions in Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.2 Principle of Continuous Controlling Combustion Process 1.3 Legislation Frame Conditions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.1 Lack of Micro Sensors and Micro Controller Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.3.2 Variability of Real Travel Conditions . . . . . . . . 1.4 Conversion of Real Operation Emissions to Test Bench Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.5 Specific Characteristics of Vehicles’, Airplanes’ and Ships’ Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1.6 Summary and Recommendations: Basics of Intelligent Monitoring of Fuel Consumption and Emissions . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Fuels in Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1 Classification of Types of Fuels . . 2.2 Road Transport Fuels . . . . . . . . . 2.2.1 Gasoline . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.2 Diesel Fuel . . . . . . . . . . 2.2.3 Reference Fuels . . . . . . . 2.2.4 Products of Natural Gas . 2.2.5 Synthetic Fuels. . . . . . . . 2.2.6 Biogenic Fuels . . . . . . . . 2.2.7 Blended Fuels . . . . . . . . 2.3 Aviation Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.1 Kerosene . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3.2 Testing Fuel for Engines .

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2.3.3 Alternative Fuels to Kerosene in Aviation . . . . . . Marine Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.1 Marine Distillate Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.4.2 Heavy Fuel Oil. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5 Summary and Recommendations: Fuels in Transportation . 2.5.1 Fuels in Road Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.2 Fuels in Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.5.3 Fuels in Maritime Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Construction of Transportation Means . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1 Road Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.1 Main Construction Elements of Cars. . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.2 Classification of Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.1.3 Influence of Light Weight Construction on Fuel Consumption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2 Airplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.1 Main Construction Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.2 Classification of Airplanes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.2.3 Comparison of Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions from Airplane Types . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3 Influence of Weight Reduction on Fuel Consumption . . . . . 3.3.1 Optimization of Takeoff Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.3.2 Use of New Construction Materials . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4 Construction of Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.1 Main Construction Elements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.2 Classification of Ships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.3 Type of Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.4.4 Comparison of Fuel Consumption of Ships . . . . . . 3.4.5 Influence of New Construction Principles on the Fuel Consumption. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5 Summary and Recommendations: Construction Technology. 3.5.1 Road Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.2 Airplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3.5.3 Ships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Fuel System and Fuel Measurement . 4.1 Fuel System in Vehicles . . . . . . 4.1.1 Fuel Measurement . . . . 4.2 Fuel System in Airplanes. . . . . . 4.2.1 Fuel Storage and Supply 4.2.2 Fuel Regulation . . . . . . 4.2.3 Fuel Planning. . . . . . . .

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4.2.4 Notes on ETOPS and Additional Fuel . Fuel Systems in Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.1 Fuel Preparation and Fuel Supply . . . . 4.3.2 Fuel Measurement on Ships . . . . . . . . 4.3.3 Fuel Planning on Ships . . . . . . . . . . . 4.3.4 CO2 Index Data Analysis . . . . . . . . . 4.4 Summary and Recommendations: Fuel System and Fuel Measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Combustion Products 5.2 Measurement of Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.1 Measurement at Test Benches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.2 Measurement On-Board. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2.3 Remote Sensing Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3 Emissions in Road Traffic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4 Emissions in Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.5 Emissions in Ship Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6 Summary and Recommendations: Emissions from Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.1 Vehicle Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.2 Airplane Emissions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.6.3 Ship Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Electronic Systems and Computer Technology. . . . . . . . . 6.1 Construction of Electronic Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2 Vehicles’ Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.1 Electronic Control Unit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.2 Controller Area Network Bus. . . . . . . . . . . . 6.2.3 Structure of Diagnosis. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3 Airplanes’ Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.1 Flight Management Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.2 Engine Monitoring System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.3.3 Airplane Instruments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4 Ships’ Electronics. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.1 Integrated Bridge System. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.2 Elements of Ship Electronics . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.4.3 Vessel Traffic Service and Automatic Identification System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5 Summary and Recommendations: Electronic Systems and Computer Technology in Transportation . . . . . . . 6.5.1 Electronic Technology in Vehicles . . . . . . . .

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6.5.2 Electronic Technology in Airplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.5.3 Electronic Technology in Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7

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Aerodynamics of Vehicles and Airplanes, and Hydrodynamics of Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1 Aerodynamics of Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.1 Air Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.1.2 Relation Between Speed and Fuel Consumption. . . . 7.1.3 Rolling Resistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2 Aerodynamics of Airplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.1 Laminar Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.2 Nacelle Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.2.3 Airframe Concepts with Advanced Aerodynamics . . 7.2.4 Wingtips and Riblets. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3 Hydro- and Aerodynamics of Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.1 Floating on a Cushion of Air . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.3.2 Inland Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4 Summary and Recommendations: Technical Results in Aeroand Hydrodynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.1 Aerodynamics of Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.2 Aerodynamics of Airplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7.4.3 Hydrodynamics of Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Propulsion Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.1 Propulsion Elements in Road Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2 Operating Functions of the Propulsion . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.1 Gear Choice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.2 Auxiliary Equipment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.3 Energy Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.2.4 Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3 Propulsion of Airplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.1 Integration of Airframe and Engine . . . . . . . 8.3.2 Retrofitting Old Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.3.3 Thermal Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4 Propulsion of Ships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.1 Propeller Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.2 New Propeller Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.4.3 Start and Stop System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5 Summary and Recommendations: Propulsion Systems 8.5.1 Propulsion of Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5.2 Propulsion of Airplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8.5.3 Propulsion of Ships. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Vehicle Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.1 Principles of Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.2 Operation of Spark and Self Ignition Engines 9.2.1 Spark Ignition Engines . . . . . . . . . . 9.2.2 Self Ignition Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . 9.3 Summary and Recommendations: Vehicle Engine Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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10 Airplane Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.1 Types of Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.2 Fuel Consumption and Thrust . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.3 Construction of the Combustion Chamber . . . . . . . . . . 10.4 Emissions from the Combustion Chamber . . . . . . . . . . 10.5 Measurement in Turbofan Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10.6 Summary and Recommendations: Combustion Process in a Jet Engine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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12 Type Approval and Type Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1 Tests of Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.1.1 International and National Legislation . . . . . . 12.1.2 Cars, Light and Medium Heavy Duty Trucks.

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11 Marine Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.1 Fuel Consumption in Marine Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . 11.2 Engine Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.1 Slow Speed Two-Stroke Marine Diesel Engines . . 11.2.2 Medium Speed Four-Stroke Marine Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.2.3 High Speed Four-Stroke Marine Diesel Engines . . 11.3 Main Operation Characteristics of Marine Diesel Engines . 11.3.1 Charging Marine Diesel Engines . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.3.2 Operation in Changing Environment Conditions. . 11.3.3 Impact of Bad Weather on Engine Operation. . . . 11.3.4 Cooling Circuit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.4 Operation Monitoring in Marine Diesel Engines. . . . . . . . 11.5 Development Tendencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5.1 Conventional and New Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5.2 Use of Diesel-Electric Systems. . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.5.3 Improving Operation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11.6 Summary and Recommendations: Development of Marine Engine Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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12.1.3 Heavy Duty Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2 Tests of Airplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.1 Emission Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.2 Sampling, Sample Transfer, Instrumentation and Measurement Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.2.3 JAR-E and CS-E for the Certification of Engines . . . . 12.2.4 Certification of Auxiliary Power Units . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3 Tests of Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.1 Classification and Judgment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.2 International Environmental Regulations . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.3 Sulphur Concentration. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.3.4 Nitrogen Oxide Concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4 Summary and Recommendations: International Type Approval and Type Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.1 Vehicle Type Approval . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.2 Airplane Type Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12.4.3 Ship Certification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

177 178 178 180 180 182 183 183 184 184 185 186 186 187 187 188

13 Inspection and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.1 Inspection and Maintenance in Road Transportation . . 13.1.1 OBD in Vehicles with Spark Ignition Engine. 13.1.2 OBD in Vehicles with Self Ignition Engine . . 13.2 Inspection and Maintenance in Aviation . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.1 Inspection of Airplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.2 Maintenance of Airplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.2.3 Maintenance Steering Group . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.3 Engine Deteriorations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.4 Commander’s Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5 Inspection and Maintenance in Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5.1 Maintenance Concepts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.5.2 Crew’s Responsibility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6 Summary and Recommendations: Inspection and Maintenance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6.1 Vehicle Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6.2 Airplane Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13.6.3 Ship Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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14 Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1 Road Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1.1 Ecologic Strategy of Navigation . . . . . . . . 14.1.2 Foresighted Driving . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.1.3 Convoy Travel with Heavy-Duty Vehicles.

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14.2 Navigation in Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.1 Airports and Aircraft Operators . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.2 Information for Civil Aviation Personnel. . . . . . 14.2.3 Air Traffic Control Services. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.4 Weather Conditions and Airport Operating Minima . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.5 Flight Rules . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.6 Optimum Climbing Path and Flight Profile After Takeoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.2.7 Descent and Approach Path Optimizing . . . . . . 14.2.8 Fuel Saving by Improved Airspace Coordination and Air Traffic Organization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3 Ship Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.1 Shipboard Routing Assistance . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.2 Ship Distress and Safety Communications . . . . . 14.3.3 Meteorological and Oceanographic Coordinator and Supporting Service . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.4 Broadcast for Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.3.5 Reporting Environmental Damaging Incidents at Sea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4 Summary and Recommendations: Impact of Navigation on Fuel Consumption and Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.1 Vehicle Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.2 Airplane Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14.4.3 Ship Navigation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15 Climate and Environmental Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.1 Transportation Emissions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.2 Interaction Between Climate and Economy . . . . . . 15.3 Climate Protection in Road Transport . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.1 Legislation and Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . 15.3.2 Comparison of Regulations . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4 Climate Impact of Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.4.1 Trading with CO2 Emissions in Aviation. . 15.4.2 Impact of Climate Change on Air Traffic . 15.5 Climate Impact of Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.5.1 Large Two-Stroke Marine Diesel Engines . 15.5.2 Average Auxiliary Engines . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6 Recycling and Climate Balance of Transportation . 15.6.1 Recycling of Vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6.2 Recycling of Airplanes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.6.3 Recycling of Ships . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Contents

15.7 Summary and Recommendations: Climate Protection in Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7.1 Vehicle Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7.2 Aviation Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15.7.3 Maritime Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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240 241 241 242 242

16 Transportation Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.1 Tendencies of Fuel Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.2 Prices of Fuels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.3 Prices of Measurement Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4 Cost of Road Mobility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4.1 Improvements in Low-Cost Car Models . . . . . . . . 16.4.2 Safety and Health . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.4.3 Environment and Climate Protection. . . . . . . . . . . 16.5 Costs in Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5.1 Development Phases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5.2 Purchase Price . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.5.3 Operating Costs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6 Costs in Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6.1 Improved Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6.2 Early Scrapping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.6.3 Costs and Tendencies of Natural Gas Application as a Marine Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.7 Cost Saving in Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.7.1 Vehicle Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.7.2 Aviation Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.7.3 Ship Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8 Summary and Recommendations: Costs in Road Transport, Aviation, and Maritime Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8.1 Costs in Road Transport . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8.2 Costs in Aviation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16.8.3 Costs in Maritime Shipping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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17 Future Transportation Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.1 Future Trends of Road Vehicle Technology. . 17.1.1 Near Future Phases of Development . 17.1.2 Far Future Phases of Development . . 17.2 Future Trends in Aviation Technology . . . . . 17.2.1 Near Future Phases of Development . 17.2.2 Far Future Phases of Development . .

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17.3 Future Trends in Ship Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.3.1 Near Future Phases of Development . . . . . . . 17.3.2 Far Future Phases of Development . . . . . . . . 17.4 Summary and Recommendations: Future Environment Friendly Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4.1 Future Vehicle Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4.2 Future Aviation Technology. . . . . . . . . . . . . 17.4.3 Future Ship Technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Appendix A: Applied Units and Conversions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

303

About the Author . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

309

Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

311

18 Interaction Between Future Transportation Technology and Future Fuel Supply . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.1 Time Dependency. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.2 Saving Fuel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18.3 Summary and Recommendations: Scenarios of Future Transportation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

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Abbreviations

AAC ACNS AFDS ADC AFL AFP AIP AIS ALU AMOC APU ARO ASTM AT ATC ATM ATS BEV BPR BSFC BTL CAA CAC CAD CAEP CAFÉ CAI CAN CARB CCNR CDA

Alaska Marine Vessel Visible Emission Standard Airborne computer-based navigation system Autopilot Flight Director System Analogue-digital converter Airplane flight log Alloy ferritic-pearlitic Aeronautical information publication Automatic identification system Arithmetic logic unit Area Meteorological and Oceanographic Coordinator Auxiliary power unit Air Traffic Services Reporting Office American Society for Testing and Material Auto throttle system Air traffic control Air traffic management Air traffic service Battery driven electric motor vehicle Bypass pressure ratio Best specific fuel consumption Biomass to liquid Civil Aviation Authority Charging air cooling Computer-aided dispatch Committee on Aviation Environmental Protection Corporate average fuel economy Controlled auto ignition Controller area network Californian Air Resources Board Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine Continuous descent approach xix

xx

CDU CDL CEV CFC CFD CLD CM CN CNG CNS COP CPU CRT CSR CVS DAC DGPS DME DOC DPNR DWT EASA EC ECAC ECD ECDIS EDC EEC EEDI EEP EEPROM EFIS EGAS EGT EPROM ERAA ETC ETP ETSO ETOPS EU-OPS FAA FADEC FAME

Abbreviations

Control display unit Configuration deviation list Combustion engine vehicle Carbon fibre composite Computational fluid dynamics Chemo luminescence detector Condition monitoring Cetane number Compressed natural gas Communication, navigation and surveillance Compliance of production Central Processor Unit Cathode ray tube Common structural rules Constant volume sampling Digital-analogue converter Digital global positioning system Distance measuring equipment Direct operation cost Diesel particulate NOx reduction Deadweight tonnage European Aviation Safety Agency European Commission European Civil Aviation Conference, Regional body of ICAO for European regions Electronic chart display Electronic chart display and information system Electronic diesel control European Economic Community Energy efficiency design index Engine enhancement package Electrically erasable programmable read-only memory Electronic flight instrument system Electronic accelerator gas Exhaust gas temperature Electronic programmable read only memory European Regions Airline Association Exhaust turbo charger Equal-time point European technical standard orders Extended-range twin-engine operation performance standards European operation performance standard Federal Aviation Administration Full authority digital engine control Fatty acid methyl ester

Abbreviations

FAR FBP FC FCC FCY FID FEW FHEV FM FMS FTIR FTP FAB GAMA GC GDP GHG GMDSS GPS GPU GSM GT GTL GVWR HCCI HCO HDDE HDT HDV HDC HFO HSLA HWFET IACS IATA IC ICAO ICCT ICT IFO IFR ILO IM IMC IMO

xxi

Federal aviation regulation Final boiling point Fuel cell Flight Control Computer Flight cycles Flame ionisation detector Fuel–water emulsion Full hybrid engine vehicles Field monitoring Flight management system Fourier transformation infra red Federal test procedure Functional airspace block General Aviation Manufacturers Association Green card Gross Domestic Product Green house gases Global maritime distress and safety system Global positioning system Ground power unit Global system for mobile telecommunication Gross tonnage Gas to liquid Gross vehicle weight rating Homogenously charged compression ignition Heavy cycle oil Heavy commercial diesel engine Heavy commercial truck Heavy commercial vehicle Highway driving cycle Heavy fuel oil High strength low alloy Highway fuel economy cycle International Association of Classification Societies International Air Transport Association International convention International Civil Aviation Organization International Council on Clean Transportation Information and Communication Technology Intermediate fuel oil Instrument flight rules International Labour Organization Inspection and maintenance Instrument meteorological condition International Maritime Organization

xxii

IOSA IRS ISA ISM JAA JAA-OPS JAR JTSO LCD LDT LDV LF LNG MARPOL MDF MDO MEL MEPC MF MGO MMI MOT MP MSC MSG MSI MTOW NAA NEDC NOTAM OAT OBD OBM OC OCA OFCA OPR PCM PHEV PO PROM RAM RBM RCM

Abbreviations

International operation safety audit Inertial reference system International standard atmosphere International Safety Management Joint Airworthiness Authority Joint Airworthiness Authority-Operation Performance Standard Joint airworthiness requirement Joint technical standard order Liquid crystal display Light duty truck Light duty vehicle Low frequency Liquid natural gas International convention for the prevention of maritime pollution from ships Marine destillate fuel Marine diesel oil Minimum equipment list Marine Environment Protection Committee Medium frequency Marine gas oil Man–machine interface Ministry of Transport Maintenance Program Maritime Safety Committee Maintenance Steering Group Maritime safety information Maximum takeoff weight National aviation authority New European Driving Cycle Notices to airman Outside air temperature On-Board diagnosis On-Board measurement On condition Oceanic control area Operational fuel consumption analysis Overall pressure ratio Phase changing material Plug-in hybrid engine vehicle Peak oil Electronic Programmable Read-Only Memory Random access memory Risk-based Maintenance Reliability centered maintenance

Abbreviations

RMF RNP SAFC SC SCR SD SFC SI SN SMS SOLAS SRAS TA TC TMC TEU Tier TOC TSFC TSO TST TST TÜV UDDS UHB UNFCCC VFR VHF VLA VTG WAFS WHSC WHTC

xxiii

Residual marine fuel Required navigation performance Solid acid fuel cell Start control cycle Selective catalytic reduction Self Diagnosis Specific fuel consumption International System of Units (Système International d’Unités) Smoke number Short message service Safety of life at sea Shipboard routing assistance system Type approval Type certification Traffic message channel Twenty equivalent units (20 feet container) Emission Standard in the USA Top of climb Thrust specific fuel consumption Technical standing order Total seaborne trade Type sample test Technischer Überwachungsverein Urban dynamometer driving schedule Ultra high bypass United Nations Framework Connection on Climate Change Visual flight rules Very high frequency Very large airplane Variable turbine geometry World area forecast system World harmonized stationary cycle World harmonized transient cycle

Chapter 1

Basics of Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions

The central topics of the book are fuel consumption and exhaust gas emission saving technologies, monitoring possibilities, infrastructure impacts, administrative and legislative options, and financial and social conditions in transportation. This book has five main chapters (see Fig. 1.1). All means of transport consume fuel and emit waste products into the air. The fundamentals of recent technology are depicted in [1]. This book deals with fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions from internal combustion and jet engines in motor vehicles, ships, and airplanes, and does not survey railroads, and it furthermore considers unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, nitrogen monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, particles and carbon dioxide, and does not include other pollutants and climate gases. Regarding the complexity of transport, the most important potentials for fuel savings are in the technology of vehicles, airplanes and ships, in the organization of transportation systems and in the optimization of environmental conditions, which is the main guide for consideration in this book (see Fig. 1.2).

1.1 Comparison of Fuel Consumption and Emissions in Transportation Fuel consumption of vehicles can be expressed using the metric unit system in terms of consumed fuel per passenger kilometer and passenger mile or per weight of transported cargo: • Fuel volume or fuel mass per passenger-kilometers in l (passenger km)-1 or kg (passenger kg)-1;

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_1,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

1

2

1

Basics of Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions Basic aspects of fuel consumption Types of fuel

Fundamental elements of saving fuel and reducing emissions

Measurement of fuel consumption Emissions and measurement of emissions Construction Electronic and computer technology

Technological elements

Aero-and hydrodynamics Propulsion technology Engine technology Type approval and Type certification

Administrative measures

Inspection and maintenance Navigation

Social and environmental conditions Future transportation systems

Climate and environment Cost situation Future transportation Closing remarks

Fig. 1.1 Structure of the book

• Fuel volume or fuel mass per freight mass and distance, or freight volume and distance in l (kg km)-1 and l (m3 km)-1, or kg (kg km)-1 and kg (m3 km)-1; and • Fuel volume or fuel mass per engine performance or engine thrust as Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC) in ml (kNh)-1 and ml (kWh)-1 or g (kNh)-1 and g (kWh)-1. Unlike the metric system (International System of Units (SI) or Système International d’Unités), the imperial measurement system gives details on attainable distance per volume of fuel, i.e., mile per gallon or mpg consumed. In the USA, and in the UK in the past (Imperial Unit), the energy intensity of travel was often expressed in units of BTU per mile, i.e., BTU mi-1. The tables and remarks in this text systematically contain all units [2]. In the metric system, the amount of exhaust gases can be expressed in g km-1 or oz mi-1 in road transportation, and in g nmi-1 or oz nmi-1 in shipping and in aviation. The particles can be characterized by the average diameter in mm or in inches, and the number of the emitted particles without physical units.

1.1 Comparison of Fuel Consumption and Emissions in Transportation

3

Technology

Organisation

Environment

Vehicle body

Type approval and Type certification

Education for sustainabilty

Propulsion and transmission technology

Inspection and maintenance

Protection against negative impacts of climate change

Electronic and micro controller system

Traffic navigation

Environmentaly friendly mobility for everyone

Fig. 1.2 Main routes of fuel and emission savings in traffic

Fuel consumption and emissions are measured at the test bench in control cycles. The consumption quotas from individual cycles are partly different in the road, ship and airplane technologies and therefore not directly comparable. CO2 emissions can be derived from the fuel consumption. Table 1.1 presents a comparison of the fuel consumption of different means of transportation.

1.2 Principle of Continuous Controlling Combustion Process Deterioration and wear and tear cause increased fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. Monitoring deterioration is an important way to detect errors in time. On-Board Diagnosis (OBD) was introduced in vehicle technology as the first continuous inspection measure in operation [9]. OBD makes it possible to control exceeding combustion and emission limiting values with sensor signals of combustion and emission relevant elements in vehicles. In principle, the diagnosis, i.e., the indirect control of combustion and exhaust gas emission technology has been applied to airplanes and ships in a very similar way but with other names. It is the current state of the art in all means of transportation. Direct control of the chemical composition of burning products with micro sensors in the combustion chamber and in the exhaust gas system is only partly state of the art although it could precisely characterize the combustion and the exhaust gas after treatment process. In the future, if appropriate sensors are suitable, a combination of OBD and On-Board Measurement (OBM) technology will be able to further improve fuel combustion and exhaust gas emission savings [10]. The next stage of direct measurement is the complex use of ‘‘Self Diagnosis’’ (SD) of engines in vehicles, airplanes and ships. SD does not only record when limit values are exceeded, but also all fuel consumption and emission relevant phases of operation which characterize the change of operation parameters during the whole life cycle. Real ‘‘may be wrong’’ fuel consumption and exhaust gas

4

1

Basics of Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions

Table 1.1 Comparison of the fuel consumption of different means of transportation in metric energy units per tons and kilometers, and in british thermal units per short tons and miles Means of Local passenger traffic Overland passenger Freight transportation transportation traffic Fuel consumption

Fuel consumption

Fuel consumption

(BTU kJ (t km)-1 (sht mi)-1)

kJ (BTU (t km)-1 (sht mi)-1)

kJ (BTU (t km)-1 (sht mi)-1)

Passenger cara 2,595.7 Long distance – busb Public service bus 1,192.4 Railway – Airplanec – Light duty vehicle – HDV (40 t, – 88.2 lb)) Inland shipd – Ferry – Fast ferrye Seagoing shipf –

(3,597.6)

2,633.1 811.3

(1,652.7)

– 757.6 3,116.8 – –

–

(3,619.5) (1,124.5)

(1,050.0) (4,319.9)

–

– 386.9 4,503.1 1,434.1 1,176.6

(536.2) (6,241.3) (1,987.7) (1,630.8)

865.0 1,678.1 2,366.4 564.2

(1,198.9) (2,325.8) (3,279.8) (782.0)

a

Mid-sized car with four-stroke self-ignition engine with turbocharger and Common Rail [3] Simple deck with 44 seats and a fuel consumption of 25 l 9 100 km-1 , i.e., 40.2 l 9 100 mi-1 or 9.4 mpg (US) and 11.3 mpg (UK) [4] c Mid-range single aisle airplane with two turbofan engines [5] d Small tugboat [6] e Water jet propulsion, speed 30–37 knots, SFC 200–212 g (kWh)-1 , i.e., 2.10–2.23 9 10-3 oz BTU-1 [7] f Large container ship [8] b

emission data can be related to the pre-defined norms, which generally describe the ‘‘may be proper’’ operation, usually measured against the starting phase of the life cycle. Similar optimal conditions of operation can also be attained after general inspections and maintenance measures. Comparison of currently measured data with stored parameters in operation can lead to the discovery of even smaller deteriorations (see Fig. 1.3). The preconditions for the Self Diagnosis technology are micro sensors of high quality and durability, and micro controllers of high storage capacity and high operation speed.

1.3 Legislation Frame Conditions The European Union Directives 1998/69/EC [11] and 1999/96/EC [12] contained an important and ground breaking formulation, which stated that monitoring is not only possible for individual components, but also for the composition of the

1.3 Legislation Frame Conditions

5

learning phase

utilisation phase

original and optimal state

new state in real operation

recording of road vehicles,’ ships’ and airplanes’ parameters

non - linear mathematical functions (artifical neuronal network)

comparison of the stored results with the current driving, shipping and flying parameters

proposal for preventive maintenance sanctions and suggestions for repairs

for road, ship and air traffic devices

specification of engine cards for the whole life-span

for internal and external use

data transfer of output result and decision for proposals improving measures

Fig. 1.3 Principles of Self Diagnosis in transportation

exhaust gas through the use of an appropriate measuring technique as a supplement to the pure OBD for road transportation. The direct survey of combustion and other emission relevant processes could be also used in ship and airplane technology. However, OBM should not be considered a substitute for diagnostics, i.e., for the OBD technology, but can be viewed as an additional element to the diagnosis. With respect to emissions from heavy duty vehicles (Euro 6), the European Commission has required the application of Portable Emissions Measurement Systems (PEMS) in the Commission Regulation (EU) No 582/2011 [13]. The on-board monitoring of NOx and PM emissions to improve the emission related maintenance is the main aspect of regulation.

1.3.1 Lack of Micro Sensors and Micro Controller Systems The current limitation of the practical use of Self Diagnosis systems is the lack of selective, durable and precisely functioning sensor systems, and the lack of fitted micro controller systems for the long time recording and analyzing sensor signals on-board. Micro sensors, which can be successfully implemented in air measurement technology, break down in emission measurement systems, e.g., in the exhaust gas after treatment system of road vehicles or ships. Figure 1.4 presents some examples of sensors for air quality monitoring [14].

6

1

Basics of Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions 1

1

1 18

16 2

3

4 5 6 7

8 9

electro chemical cell

10 11 12

14 13 8

17 13

9 IR cell

1 measured gas 2 selective filter 3 membrane 4 sensing electrode 5 electrolyte 6 reference electrode 7 counter electrode 8 circuit board with EEPROM 9 socket

15 8 9

photo ionisation cell 10 explosion-protection neck 11 window 12 detector 13 lamp 14 reflector 15 housing of cell 16 sealing area 17 ionisation cell 18 insulation

Fig. 1.4 Micro devices for air measurement technology

Current micro measuring sensors can only limitedly operate in the combustion chamber and the exhaust gas system of cars, airplanes and ships. One exception is the electrochemical technique which uses zirconium dioxide technology for the analysis of oxygen concentration in the exhaust gas.

1.3.2 Variability of Real Travel Conditions There is a meaningful difference between fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions measured at the test bench and in the real travel, flight, and ship navigation (see Fig. 1.5). Accelerating and braking phases are exactly defined at test benches. According to them, the measured signals of exhaust gas concentrations are unified and always comparable with each other. In opposite to these defined time distributions of signals at test benches, real concentrations of emissions are unregulated and depend on load, journey, and environmental conditions. Concentrations and mass flows measured in real traveling, flying, and shipping must always be related to internal engine and external journey parameters. The systematic comparison of ‘‘normalized’’ present data with stored ‘‘basic’’ data is the fundamental principle of the Self Diagnosis technology.

1.3 Legislation Frame Conditions

7 ambient air optional

three nozzles CVS dilution unit

circuits heated to 40°C

air dryer

air heater filter mixer

modal

integral

blower

air

driver control device

behind cat

in front of cat

CVS bag air sample sample control exhaust diluted raw gas unit diluted

Driving cycles on the test bench for the consideration of the most important factors affecting the emissions (1)

Storage “proper” data serie during driving in the beginnng phase of road driving (2)

Selected modelling sections of the route have to be measured regarding to the environmental effects (temperature, velocity, number of revolutions etc) (3)

Consideration of the deterioration during daily driving with help of sensors by exceeding of the determined limited values (4)

Daily function data have to be stored in the micro controller of the measuring device and have to be compared with the “proper” data series (5)

In the case of a deterioration signal through MIL and transmission of data to a centre (6)

temperature

load conditions

(6)

geographical situation 1. tropical and arctic regions 3. rain forests and deserts 5. start and driving hill up and hill down

pressure

(1)

(2)

humidity (4) wind

(3)

(5)

2. mountains and shallow lands 4. regions with high and low wind potentials 6. low and high level of load

Fig. 1.5 Comparison of test bench conditions with dynamic control of deteriorations with the help of Self Diagnosis

8

1 Environmental parameters

I

Driving parameters, flying parameters, shipping parameters

Basics of Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions

P

v

H

d

W

g

Measuring results of emission and fuel consumption relevant factors Iteration for comparison of fuel and emission relevant parameters of a real journey with test bench conditions Estimation of impact of deteriations related to NEDC measuring results

T temperature P pressure H humidity

reality NEDC

W W v

W

rpm

Not linear combination of impact factors

Questions: Are there relevant ranges of daily journey applicable to NEDC conditions? Is conversion of real fuel consumption and emissions to conditions at the test bench possible? Which time intervals are representative for NEDC? Combination of data by ANN in the high capacity micro controller on-board is successful or not?

wind power wind direction vehicle speed

d g rpm

vehicle direction gear number of revolutions

Fig. 1.6 Comparison of operation emissions to test bench emissions with the Artificial Neuronal Network (ANN)

1.4 Conversion of Real Operation Emissions to Test Bench Emissions The key problem of Self Diagnosis is the conversion of real operation emissions to test bench emissions. In practice, environmental conditions are very variable and must be related to the nominal conditions at the test bench [15]. A possible conversion can be obtained through the use of mathematical methods on-board, if future micro controller technology has very high operation speed and storage capacity (see Fig. 1.6). Similarly to the sensor technology, recent on-board micro controller systems are only partly able to fulfill all of these high quality conditions. Besides hardware also new, on-board software systems are needed to transfer and compare real data with stored data [16].

1.5 Specific Characteristics of Vehicles’, Airplanes’ and Ships’ Emissions Experiences show that only a few time intervals of real drive, flight, and ship navigation can be compared with original phases.

1.5 Specific Characteristics of Vehicles’, Airplanes’ and Ships’ Emissions

9

concentration of unburned hydrocarbons [ppm]

2 500 2 000 high emission level 1 500 1 000 low emission level

5 00 0 0

20

40

60

80

100

time [s]

Fig. 1.7 Unburned raw hydrocarbon concentration in a mid-size car without and with errors

Spark ignition engine emits larger amounts of unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide upstream to the catalyst which can be precisely recorded in the automatic cold starting phase (see Fig. 1.7). Peaks in cars have short time intervals between 0.1 and 1.0 s. Exhaust gas emissions of airplanes’ and ships’ engines are significantly different from car engine emissions. However, despite all of the differences in emission characteristics, the basic functions are the same. The composition of combustion products generally depends on the type and the load of the engine, and the operating conditions. On airplanes, micro sensors for burning products could be installed in the combustion chamber, similar to the temperature and pressure sensors. Micro measuring systems could compare the signals of individual jet engines measured against each other. On the basis of these variable and multistage comparisons, even small changes within the engines can be discovered over time and compensated with fitted correction measures. Micro emission measuring systems can combine burning parameters with all other sensor signals of the airplane and consider all phases of flight, including the speed, altitude, and maneuvering of the airplane. On ships, micro sensors must be protected against the raw environment conditions on oceans. Salt water, high humidity, and changing exhaust gas conditions require an accordingly protected case and resistance against corrosion. The most important parameters in ship exhaust gas are NOx, SOx, and PM. Changes over time are slow and signals are usually without fast occurring peaks.

10

1

Basics of Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions

1.6 Summary and Recommendations: Basics of Intelligent Monitoring of Fuel Consumption and Emissions Two European Directives EC 98/69 and EC 99/96 form the basis of intelligent, direct control of combustion and exhaust gas after treatment technology. Both Directives contain a passage concerning direct measurement technology in passenger cars and light duty vehicles. Fuel consumption and exhaust gas emission quotas of several driving cycles are different and not directly comparable with each other. Existing comparisons merely operate within average conditions. Direct monitoring opens the way to direct and quasi continuous measuring fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. Self Diagnosis uses the history of changes in engine operation and compares original data with real data measured in daily traffic. However, this technology is still under development. The first problem is the lack of high quality micro sensors. The second problem is the price of sensors. Recent systems are still too expensive for mass production and too sensitive to raw conditions in the environment. Currently, deteriorations are measured at test benches under artificial conditions. Certification prefers artificial measures. Exceeding limiting values can be tested through changing new and optimally operated elements with artificially worn and deteriorated elements in the fuel consumption and the related exhaust gas systems. Both cases ‘‘may be proper’’ and ‘‘may be wrong’’ operations are measured in driving, flying, or shipping navigation cycles on the test bench. The fuel consumption and parallel to it, the exhaust gas measuring procedure on the test bench, have to be repeated multiple times, with both ‘‘new’’ and changed ‘‘old’’ elements. Results are only partially related to the real fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. Although development has been accelerating in the last years, it is expected that the evolution of intelligent Self Diagnosis technology will be gradual and slow due to complex technological problems.

References 1. Palocz-Andresen M (2008). On-Board-Diagnose und On-Board-Measurement im Kraftfahrzeug-, Schiffs- und Flugzeugbau. Expert-Verlag Renningen. ISBN: 978-3-81692754-9 2. Fuel efficiency. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_efficiency 3. Fuel efficiency in the transportation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_efficiency_in_ thetransportation 4. Basic data for the energy demand of the different means of traffic used to transport passengers in the corridor Hamburg-Berlin. http://www.vr-transport.de/…/n003.htm 5. Specific fuel consumption (thrust). http://en.wiki/Specific-fuel_consumption 6. Inland Shipping. http://www.sustainablelogistics.org/Inland_Shipping 7. Ferry. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ferry

References

11

8. Bunkerworld Forums (2006). http://www.bunkerworld.com/forum/Ask+Dr.+Vis/thread_22/ 9. Performing onboard diagnostic systems checks as part of vehicle inspection and maintenance program. EPA 420-R-01-015. June 2001 10. Friedrich A, Tappe M, Garms S, Palocz-Andresen M, Schroll S (1998) On-Board-Diagnose (OBD) und On-Board-Messung (OBM) im Kraftfahrzeug. WLB Wasser, Luft und Boden. 7–8, pp 46–48 11. Directive 98/69/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 13 October 1998 relating to measures to be taken against air pollution by emissions from motor vehicles and amending Council Directive 70/220/EEC 12. Directive 99/96/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council on the approximation of the laws of the member state relating to measures to be taken against the emission of gaseous and particulate pollutants from compression ignition engines for use in vehicles, and the emission of gaseous pollutants from positive ignition engines fuelled with natural gas or liquefied petroleum gas for use in vehicles and amending Council Directive 88/77/EEC 13. Commission Regulation (EU) No 582/2011 of 25 May 2011 implementing and amending Regulation (EC) No 592/2009 of the European Parliament and of the Council with respect to emissions from heavy duty vehicles (Euro VI) and amending Annexes I and III to Directive 2007/46/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council 14. Dräger X-am 7000. Product catalogues of sensors 2007. http://www.draeger-safety.com 15. Development of Fuzzy Logic and Neural Network Control and Advanced Emissions Modeling for Parallel Hybrid Vehicles. CAR Dec. 2003, NREL/SR-540-32919 Ohio University http:// www.scribd.com/doc/61640893/67/ 16. Eckhardt U, Palocz-Andresen M, Oetjen PD, Weber T (2005) Determination of on road vehicle issue characteristics using artificial neuronal networks. Measuring tm technically, pp 524–531

Chapter 2

Fuels in Transportation

In 1900 there were no gas stations—blacksmiths and pharmacists sold the fuel. People first used petrol for lighting and later to lubricate machine tools. At the end of the 19th century, boilers in factories and in ships began to use oil instead of coal [1]. Since this time the consumption of oil, coal and natural gas has been continuously growing. Figure 2.1 presents the development of fossil fuel consumption and CO2 emissions [2].

2.1 Classification of Types of Fuels There is an increasing variety of fuels, which are presented in Fig. 2.2. The heating value of liquid fuels is relatively equal per mass unit. It is about 11.0– 12.0 kWh kg-1 (17,017–18,564 BTU lb-1), which is equal on average to 39,574– 43,172 kJ kg-1. Gasoline has a volume-specific heating value of 8.8 kWh l-1 (113,660 BTU gal-1 (US) or 136,512 BTU gal-1 (UK)), i.e., 31,680 kJ l-1 at a density of 0.762. Diesel fuel has a volume-specific heating value of 10.0 kWh l-1 (129,163 BTU gal-1 (US)), i.e., 36,000 kJ l-1, because of its higher density (0.835) [3]. Components of alternative fuels containing oxygen, such as biological ethanol (29,700 kJ kg-1, i.e., 12,771 BTU lb-1 or 155,132 BTU gal-1 (UK), ether, and fatty acid methyl ester have less heating value than pure hydrocarbons, since the oxygen bound in the molecule does not take part in the burning. Kerosene has a mass-specific heating value of 38,000 kJ kg-1, i.e., 16,340 BTU lb-1, and heavy fuel oil approximately 41,200 kJ kg-1 or 17,716 BTU lb-1. The density of kerosene is similar to diesel fuel. Heavy fuel oil has a higher density, depending on the quality [4].

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_2,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

13

14

2

Fuels in Transportation

6 000

400

375

18 000

350 4 000

12 000 325

2 000

6 000

concentration CO2 [ppm]

oil equivalent [10 6 tons]

fuel consumption CO2 production 24 000 8 000

300

0 1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

275 2010

year World oil consumption World coal consumption World natural gas consumption

Atmospheric concentration of carbon dioxide Sum of carbon dioxide emissions from fossil fuel burning

Fig. 2.1 Global consumption of fossil fuels and CO2 emissions per year

Fig. 2.2 Most important types of fuels

gasoline

diesel

hydrogen

CNG

BTL

kerosene

fuel sorts

CLT

ship diesel oils LPG

GTL emulsions

LNG alcohols

FAME

The different types of fuels have varying physical and chemical properties (see Table 2.1 [5]). The different physical and chemical properties lead to changes in containing, pumping, spraying, and burning characteristics.

2.2 Road Transport Fuels Gasoline, diesel, and environmentally friendly vehicle fuels are used in road transport in the largest quantity.

2.2 Road Transport Fuels

15

Table 2.1 Physical properties of liquids Substance Density g cm Gasoline/petrol Diesel Methanol Ethanol Fuel oil Flax oil Petroleum Lubrication oil Silicone oil Water

-3

0.72–0.75 0.81–0.85 0.79 0.79 &0.83 0.93 0.76–0.86 0.91 0.76–0.98 1.00

Melting point

Boiling point

(oz in )

C

(F)

C

(F)

0.42–0.43 0.47–0.49 0.46 0.46 &0.48 0.54 0.44–0.50 0.53 0.44–0.57 0.58

-50 to -30 -30 -98 -117 -10 -15 -70 ±0 – ±0

-58 to -22 -22 -145 -179 14 5 -94 32 – 32

25–210 150–360 65 78.5 [175 316 [150 300 – 100

77–410 302–680 149 173 [347 601 [302 572 – 212

-3

2.2.1 Gasoline Different national and regional norms fix the minimum requirements of gasoline (term in the USA) or petrol (term in the UK) or Otto fuel (term in other parts of Europe). In Europe, the requirements are laid out in the norm EN 228 [6]. The main characteristics of gasoline are contained in Table 2.2.

2.2.1.1 Environmental Friendly Gasoline and Additives Environmentally friendly products ensure optimal burning characteristics and pollutant emissions [7]. They contain a low concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons, benzene, and sulfur and have low vapor pressure as well as a low boiling end point. Additives in environmentally friendly fuels are required by law in the USA to protect injection systems [8].

2.2.1.2 Reference Fuels Directives require reference fuels for driving certification in Type approvals (TAs). Emission limits depending on the fuel type are strictly regulated in all regions of the world. The Euro 5 and Euro 6 norms are part of the EU committee overseeing the implementation (see Table 2.3 [9]). The American Society for Testing and Materials D439 (ASTM) specifies the norms for gasoline in the USA [10]. Table 2.4 presents the gasoline reference fuel in the USA for vehicles with a spark ignition engine.

16

2

Fuels in Transportation

Table 2.2 Characteristics of petrol Parameters Physical and chemical characteristics Type of fuel

Density

Octane number

Additives

Volatility

Vapor pressure

Sulfur content

Anti-aging protective substances Water

The most important types in road mobility are normal and super fuels. Super fuels have a lower knocking characteristic in high compression engines than normal fuels. In addition, the volatility is different in normal and super fuels which influence summer and winter applications in regions In Europe, the permitted density range for gasoline fuels is limited to 720–775 kg m-3 (44.94–48.44 lb ft-3) in the EN 228. Super fuels have a higher density than normal fuels and also an insignificantly higher heating value because of the generally higher concentration of aromatic hydrocarbons The octane number indicates the anti-knocking characteristic of petrol. If the octane number is higher, there are more anti-knocking substances in the fuel. The octane number can be characterized by the research octane number (RON) and the motor octane number (MON) Additions of components containing oxygen, e.g., methanol, ethanol, methyl tertiary butyl ether beneficially increase the octane number, but can lead to other difficulties. Problems can arise because alcohols increase the volatility and can attack the internal material of tubes, pipes, and tanks To ensure optimal road performance, volatile components must provide an optimal cold start, but high volatility must not lead to problems either in the hot start or in the ‘‘vapor lock’’ at higher temperatures. In addition, the evaporation losses must be kept low in order to protect the environment In Europe, the vapor pressure of fuels is measured at 38C (100F) according to EN 13016-1. Gas bubbles at temperatures between 80 and 100C (176 and 212F) can lead to disturbances while driving. Therefore, the steam pressure is limited in all specifications, e.g., in Germany in the summer at a maximum of 60 kPa (1,253.1 lbf ft-2) and in the winter at a maximum of 90 kPa (1,879.7 lbf ft-2) Sulfur lubricates mechanical parts inside the engine. It burns to SO2 and produces acids which are dangerous to human health and the environment. In the future, the sulfur content of fuels must be further reduced. A worldwide content of less than 10 ppm is desirable Anti-aging protective substances or deactivators increase the storage stability of fuels through the use of crack components. They prevent the oxidation of fuels and stop the catalytic influence of metal ions Water must not be contained in the fuel because it can destroy the entire injection system, starting with the injection valves

2.2.2 Diesel Fuel Diesel fuels consist of single hydrocarbon components, which boil between 180 and 370C (356 and 698F). They are produced through the gradual distillation of crude oil. The refineries also add conversion products, e.g., crack components to the diesel fuel in increasing volume, which are obtained from heavy oils by splitting the long molecules [11].

2.2 Road Transport Fuels

17

Table 2.3 Unleaded petrol reference fuel in the EU Parameter Unit Euro 4 Octane RVPa Density at 15C Distillation at 100C (212F) Distillation at 150C (302F) FBPb Aromatics Olefins Benzene Oxygen Sulfur Lead

RON/MON kPa (tonf ft-2) kg m-3 (lb ft-3) % vol % vol C (F) % vol % vol % vol % mass ppm g l-1 (oz gal-1)

Phosphorus

g l-1 (oz gal-1)

Ethanol

% vol

a b

95/98 56–60 (0.52–0.56) 748–775 (44.21–45.8) 50–58 83–89 190–210 (374–410) 29–35 B10 B1 B1 B10 B0.005 6.7 9 10-4 (US) 8.0 9 10-4 (UK) B1.3 0.17 (US) 0.21 (UK) –

Euro 5 and 6 95/98 50–60 (0.47–0.56) 743–756 (46.4–47.2) 48–60 82–90 190–210 (374–410) 29–35 3–13 B1 Ethanol only B10 B0.005 6.7 9 10-4 (US) 8.0 9 10-4 (UK) B1.3 0.17 (US) 0.21 (UK) 4.7–5.3

RVP reid vapor pressure FBP final boiling point

Similar to gasoline, national norms contain the requirements for diesel oil. In Europe, the norm EN 590 determines the quality of diesel fuel [12]. The main characteristics of diesel fuel are contained in Table 2.5. In Sweden and in California, environmental friendly diesel fuels are stipulated in tax terms in order to reduce pollutant emissions. They are produced at the end of the distillation process, when the content of aromatic hydrocarbons is reduced and the sulfur content is largely eliminated [13]. However, the use of these fuels can lead to considerable problems because of the low lubrication, which is the main reason for wear of the injection valves. In environmentally friendly diesel fuels, special additives are necessary to avoid damage.

2.2.3 Reference Fuels Diesel reference fuels are used, just as reference gasoline fuels in spark ignition engines, for the process of the Type approval (TA) of self-ignition engines.

18

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Fuels in Transportation

Table 2.4 Unleaded gasoline reference fuel in the USA Parameter Unit EPA

Octane RVPb RVP Evap T10 T50 T90

FBP Aromatics Olefins Benzene Sulfur Lead Phosphorus a b c

CARBa

Ambient

Cold CO low octane number

Cold CO high octane number

(R ? M)/2 psi (kPa) psi (kPa) F (C) F (C) F (C)

93 8–9.2 (55.2–63.4) 8.7–9.2 (60–63.4) 120–135 (48.9–57.2) 200–230 (93.2–110) 300–325 (148.8–162.6)

87 ± 8 11.5 ± 3

11.5 ± 3

F (C) % vol % vol % vol ppm g gal-1 (g l-1) g gal-1 (g l-1)

105–125 (40.5–51.6) 195–225 (90.5–107.1) 316–346 (157.6–174.3)

415 (212.6) 35 10

98–118 (36.6–47.7) 178–214 (81.2–101) 316–346 (157.6– 174.3) 413 (211.5) 26.4 ± 4 12.5 ± 5

15–80c 0.05 (0.013) 0.005 (0.0013)

15–80c 0.01 (0.0026) 0.005 (0.0013)

15–80c 0.01 (0.0026) 0.005 (0.0013)

413 211.5 32 ± 4 10 ± 5

6.7–7.0 (46.8–48.3) 7 (46.3–48.3) 130–150 (54.4–65.5) 200–210 (93.2–98.8) 290–300 (143.2–148.7) 390 (198.7) 22–25 4–6 0.8–1.0 30–40 0.01 (0.0026) 0.005 (0.0013)

Californian Air Resources Board RVP for altitude testing: 7.6–8.0 psi or 52–55 kPa Road fuel will contain 30 ppm on average and a maximum of 80 ppm

Table 2.6 presents the main physical and chemical properties of diesel reference fuel [14]. Table 2.7 shows the quality of diesel reference fuels in the USA for vehicles with a self-ignition engine [15].

2.2.4 Products of Natural Gas The most important fuels made from natural gas are Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) and Liquid Natural Gas (LNG). CNG is predominantly methane. For its use in motor vehicles, CNG must be dried, compressed to a pressure of 250 bar (522,136 lbf ft-2), and filled into the motor vehicle’s tank. Internal combustion engines must be adapted to be able to use CNG [16].

2.2 Road Transport Fuels

19

Table 2.5 Main characteristics of diesel fuel Parameters Physical and chemical characteristics Cetane number

Sediments

Flash point

Boiling point

Heating value

Viscosity

Hydrodynamic lubrication Sulphur content

Additives

Diesel fuel must ignite after being injected into the hot combustion chamber with compressed air in the shortest possible time. The ignition quality can be expressed by the Cetane number (CN). A high CN number leads to easy ignition Sediments of liquid paraffin crystals can cause interruption in the fuel supply and a blockage of the fuel filter at low temperatures. Crystallization can start at approximately 0C (32F) or in unfavorable cases above this point The temperature of the flash point describes the point at which a combustible liquid just passes enough vapor into the air over the liquid that an ignition source can ignite the air and fuel vapor mixture The boiling point influences the operational characteristics of diesel fuel. Although boiling points with lower temperatures lead to fuels suitable for cold temperatures, the Cetane number decreases. In this case, the lubricating qualities worsen and wear increases for the injection valves The heating value of diesel fuel depends on its density. Mixtures with strongly different densities can lead to fluctuations in the mixture flow because of the different heating values Too low viscosity leads to leakages in the fuel injection and to deterioration in performance. On the other hand, too high viscosity worsens the beam and spray processing. Therefore, the viscosity of diesel fuel has to be within narrow limits The hydrodynamic lubrication of diesel fuel influences the physical characteristics of the fuel mixture. In the EU, EN 590 regulates the level of lubrication Sulphur is particularly contained in crack components. The concentration of sulphur has been lowered in several steps worldwide over the last few years and is currently 350 mg kg-1, i.e. 350 ppm in Europe The bonus of additives for improving the quality of diesel fuel has various effects. The complete concentration of additives is on average less than 0.1%, so that the physical qualities of the fuel, such as density, viscosity and boiling point, are not changed

To produce LNG, natural gas has to be liquefied and stored at a temperature of -160C (-256F) and a pressure of 2 bar (4,177 lbf ft-2). The production of LNG needs a high energy amount to be liquefied. Safe storage in insulated tanks onboard is more complicated than the storage of CNG in gas pressure tanks [17]. Both CNG and LNG can be burned, emitting less CO2 than conventional fuels because of the greater hydrogen to carbon relationship relative to oil products. Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is a mixture whose main components are propane and butane and is produced in the extraction of crude oil as well as in the refinery process. It can be liquefied under high pressure [18]. LPG is more expensive than CNG and available in smaller volumes. Hydrogen is usually produced from natural gas or other fossil energy sources through a chemical reformation reaction. For its use in vehicles, hydrogen must be stored as a gas in a tank at up to 300 bar (626,580 lbf ft-2) or as a liquid in a

20

2

Table 2.6 Diesel reference fuels in the EU Parameter Unit Euro 4 Cetane Density at 15C (59F) Distillation T 50 Distillation T 95 FBP Flashpoint Kinematic Viscosity at 40C (104F) Polycyclic aromatics Sulfur FAMEa Oxidation stability

Oxidation stability at 110C (230F) a

kg m-3 (lb ft-3) C (F) C (F) C (F) C (F) m2 s-1 (ft2 s-1) % mass ppm % vol g l-1 (oz gal-1) h

52–54 833–837 (52.0–52.2) C245 (C473) 345–350 (653–662) B370 (B698) C55 (C131) (2.2–3.2) 9 10-6 ((23.95–34.37) 9 10-6) 3.0–6.0 9 10-6 B10 – B0.025 (B33 9 10-4 (US)) (B40 9 10-4 (UK)) –

Euro 5 and 6 52–54 833–837 (52.0–52.2) C245 (C473) 345–350 (653–662) B370 (B698) C55 (C131) (2.2–3.2) 9 10-6 ((23.95–34.34) 9 10-6) 2.0–6.0 9 10-6 B10 4.5–5.5 B0.025 (B33 9 10-4 (US)) (B40 9 10-4 (UK)) C20

Fatty acid methyl ester

Table 2.7 Diesel reference fuels in the USA Parameter Unit Cetanea Distillation T 10 T 50 T 90 FBP Flash point Aromatics Sulfur Kinematic Viscosity at 40C (104F) a

Fuels in Transportation

F (C) F (C) F (C) F (C) F (C) F (C) % vol ppm m2 s-1 (ft2 s-1)

EPA/CARB specification 400–460/400–490 (204–238/204–254) 470–540/470–560 (243–282/243–293) 560–630/550–610 (293–332/288–321) 560–630/550–610 (293–332/288–321) 610–690/580–660 (321–365/304–349) 130/130 (54/54) 27/8–12 7–15 (1.9–3.2) 9 10-6/(1.9–4.1) 9 10-6 (20.44–34.43) 9 10-6/(20.44–44.11) 9 10-6

The refinery can choose between the requirements for Cetane number and for aromatics

2.2 Road Transport Fuels

21

Table 2.8 Quality criteria of conventional and synthetic fuels in the combustion process Designation

Diesel fuel from the refinery

Synthetic fuel

Advantages and disadvantages

Sulfur content ppm

10–5,000

0

Cetane number

40–55

75–80

Density g cm-3 ((lb ft-3) Heating value MJ kg-1 (BTU lb-1)

0.82–0.86 (51.2–53.7)

0.78 (48.7)

ca. 43 (18.46 9 103)

ca. 44 (18.89 9 103)

Low local SO2 emissions and particles Easier handling in the exhaust gas after treatment system Low CO, HC, NO and NO2 emissions Low noise emission levels and smooth acceleration Enhanced technical efficiency in the engine driving characteristics Slightly increased consumption on volume basis Less particle emissions Slightly smaller consumption on mass basis Fewer CO2 emissions per kilometer

cryogenic tank at a temperature of -253C (-423F). [19]. Preventing leaks in the fuel tank is still an unsolved problem. The innovative storage of hydrogen in metal hydrides or in special carbon modifications is possible, but is rarely used except in submarines [20].

2.2.5 Synthetic Fuels Synthetic fuels can be produced from natural gas with the Gas to Liquid (GTL) and from coal with the Coal to Liquid (CTL) technology. The final product is identical in both cases. The convertibility of the products between natural gas and charcoal is ensured. With the CTL or GTL technologies the base materials are converted into water–gas (H2 and CO) and later into gasoline and diesel fuel through the use of catalysts with the help of Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. The by-products are liquefied gas and liquid paraffin. Table 2.8 shows the most important differences in the quality criteria between conventional and synthetic fuels in the combustion process [21]. This technology is mostly used in South Africa. Synthetic fuels are generally colorless and burn cleanly, have a high Cetane number, and are almost sulfur free [22].

2.2.6 Biogenic Fuels Biogenic fuel, i.e., bio-organic fuel is the name of any plant or animal substances that can be used in combustion engines. They can support not only the fuel production, but also aid the market position of agriculture worldwide, since they increase the income and the employment opportunities of farmers. The aim is to

22

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Fuels in Transportation

increase the proportion of biogenic fuels up to 10–20% in the worldwide fuel supply [23]. Generally, a distinction can be made between first-, second-, third-, and fourthgeneration biogenic fuels produced by ligneous cellulose or woody sources via new technologies and converted to the end product by the Biomass to Liquid (BTL) technology. The first generation consists of pressed and chemically improved oil from plants, such as canola or sunflowers. The second generation is produced from waste biomass, e.g., stalks of wheat, corn, wood, and biomass crops with help of fermentation. Alcohols such as methanol and ethanol are primarily used as alternative fuels for spark ignition engines. Methanol can be produced from raw materials containing carbon such as coal, natural gas, heavy oil, etc. Ethanol is produced from biomass, e.g., sugar cane and grain through fermentation and is used as a fuel or fuel additive in certain countries, e.g., in Brazil and in the USA. Many countries allow up to 53% ethanol to be added to conventional fuel [24]. The third generation is made of gasified organic materials in reactors and by artificial oils produced through the use of catalysts with the help of FischerTropsch synthesis (BTL). The fourth generation concerns the production of artificial oils from algae. This method is only at the beginning of the research phase. The physical and chemical characteristics of synthetic and biogenic fuels are presented in Table 2.9 [25]. Lubricity is a term used to describe the ability of compound to reduce friction between moving parts in the engine. Low sulfur fuels have a lower lubricity than high sulfur oils. Biogenic diesel fuels consisting of methyl esters of soybean oil had provide optimal excellent scuffing and adhesive wear resistance which is approximately equal to conventional diesel fuels features [31].

2.2.7 Blended Fuels Experiences show that the utilization of 10% of alcohol can lead to small changes in the spraying, mixing, and burning properties of fuels. The viscosity as a physical parameter may figure the differences between fossil fuels and alcohols. At 40C (104F), gasoline kinematic viscosity is 0.88–0.71 cSt, diesel fuel viscosity is 1.30–4.10 cSt, and depending on quality alcohol viscosity is 0.74–1.52 cSt [32]. Micro sensors in the exhaust gas system can discover changes under blended fuel operation condition in the combustion process over time and can provide signals for optimal regulation (see Fig. 2.3).

2.2 Road Transport Fuels

23

Table 2.9 Use of synthetic and biogenic fuels in road vehicle engine Biogenic diesel Poor biogenic oils pressed from plants of the first generation must be treated by transesterification [26]. The reason for the procedure is to improve the flowing and burning properties of the resinous raw biogenic oils. The end product is FAME, which is optimally suitable for application in spark and diesel engines Alcohols Biomethanol (CH3OH) and bioethanol (CH3CH2OH) can be used in internal combustion engines in 100% concentration and in blended fuels in variable concentrations [27]. Although bioethanol has a higher RON than fossil fuels, which allows increasing the compression ratio in the combustion chamber, some experiences show early wear in the combustion engine Dimethyl ether Dimethyl ether (C2H6O) is a synthetic product with a high Cetane number which can be burned in a self ignition engine without soot and with reduced nitric oxide formation [28]. Due to the low density and the high oxygen content dimethyl ether has a low heating value. In addition, it requires customization of the injection equipment because of its gaseous condition Emulsions Emulsions of water or alcohols in diesel fuel can be optimally used in self ignition engines [29]. However, alcohols, primarily methanol, are not or only badly soluble in diesel fuel. Therefore effective emulgators are needed to stabilize these mixtures. In addition, measures for anticorrosion protection are also necessary. Emulsions reduce soot and nitric oxide emissions. But application have only been used in a few fleets up till now. However, a broad testing of different injection systems could play an increasing role in the future Fatty acid methyl Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) can be produced with an alkali-catalyzed ester reaction between methanol and vegetable or animal fats which are obtained from oils and greases, e.g., from canola, soya, sunflowers, etc. [30]. FAME effectively increases the lubrication of fuels and determines the quality of the combustion process. However, recent FAME is not economically competitive with mineral oil-based fuels yet because its production is too expensive

valve timing, spray angle, beam swirl

feedback

A E 10 combustion engine air A

temperature, pressure, mass flow

exhaust system

OBM

CPU

HC, CO, NO high capacity sensors micro controller

feedback

A-actuators

Fig. 2.3 Measurement of the exhaust gas quality when using blended fuels

24

2

Fuels in Transportation

2.3 Aviation Fuels There are two different types of fuels for airplane engines: • Hydrogen carbon mixtures, mostly kerosene; and • Mixing fuel, e.g., wide cut petroleum ether.

2.3.1 Kerosene Kerosene has a leading position as a fuel in civil aviation [33]. It has a boiling range of 160–250C (320–482F), is thoroughly cleaned and desulfurized, and consists of 87% carbon and 13% hydrogen. About 5–8% kerosene is generally produced in the distillation process of mineral oil by cracking. Cracking means the splitting up of large hydrocarbon molecules into small ones. A concentration of 0.2–0.4% sulfur in the kerosene is allowed. Aromatic mercaptans provide the typical kerosene smell. The additive wide cut petroleum ether is available as an alternative jet B fuel for civil aviation. It has a distillation range of 90–250C (194–482F) and consists of up to 65% gasoline such as butane gas, pentane, hexane, and up to 35% cracked kerosene. This composition allows the production of larger quantities at lower prices. The low ignition point of 20C (68F) gives it the classification of the fire class Al. Jet fuel B is solely used in the military because its flash point is lower and it has a lower cold point than Jet fuel A. Civil aviation does not use Jet fuel B for safety reasons [34]. Fuels for gas turbine jet engines must fulfill a number of demands: • Low evaporation losses at higher altitudes; • High boiling point, because of the danger of becoming too viscous in a cold atmosphere; • Low viscosity also at low temperatures for optimal spraying; • No more than 15–20% volatile substances to avoid temperatures in the combustion chamber that are too high; • High lubrication ability from not too low viscosity to protect fuel valves and pumps; and • Near zero concentration of poisonous and corrosive sulfur compounds [35].

2.3.2 Testing Fuel for Engines International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO), Annex 16 Appendix 4 contains the specifications for fuel to be used for testing in aircraft turbine engines (see Table 2.10 [36]).

2.3 Aviation Fuels

25

Table 2.10 Specifications for fuel to be used in aircraft turbine engines for emission testing (Appendix 4 of ICAO Annex 16, Volume II) Properties Unit Value Density at 15C (59F) Distillation temperature 10% boiling point Final boiling point Heating value of combustion Aromatics Naphthalene Smoke point Hydrogen Sulfur Kinematic viscosity at –20C (-4F)

kg m3

780–820

C (F) C (F) MJ kg-1 (BTU lb-1) % vol % vol mm (in) % mass % mass m2s-1 ft2s-1

155–201 311–394 235–285 455–545 42.86–43.50 (18.42–18.70) 9 103 15–23 1.0–3.5 20–28 0.79–1.10 13.4–14.1 \0.3 (2.5–6.5) 9 10-6 (27.22–70.76) 9 10-6

2.3.3 Alternative Fuels to Kerosene in Aviation Airport infrastructure is optimized for supplying, delivering, and storing kerosene fuels. Any significant changes in fuel type or specification require major modifications of all these elements. This is a serious matter involving major perturbations to the existing system, with significant effort and costs. Alternative fuels have a significantly lower energy density compared with kerosene. For this reason, airplanes with alternative fuels propulsed jet engines have to be designed with larger fuel tanks. Table 2.11 compares the net heats in the combustion processes of several alternative fuels based on weight and volume [37]. Alternative fuels include alcohols, methane and hydrogen, and methyl esters of vegetable oils as extenders for kerosene. They must be compatible with kerosene and must have sufficient energy density, meet payload and range requirements, and must also be compatible with all metallic and non-metallic parts used in the fuel systems of jet engines, and must achieve adequate lubrication to ensure current safety standards. The introduction of alternative fuels require new storage and supply systems for current aircraft and airports. The limited availability of new fuels at several airports also requires a new quality of service for aircraft diverted by weather or mechanical problems. Table 2.12 shows the most important properties of alternative fuels in aviation. The military has pioneered the application of biogenic fuels. At first, the U.S. Air Force introduced using biogenic fuels in 2011. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) also wants to allow a 50% addition of biogenic fuel to

26 Table 2.11 Comparison of alternative fuel’s with kerosene’s properties

2

Fuels in Transportation

Kind of fuels

Density

Specific energy

Energy density

Kerosene Ethanol Methanol Liquid methane Liquid hydrogen

1.00 1.00 1.00 0.54 0.09

1.00 0.50 0.45 1.16 2.77

1.00 0.51 0.46 0.62 0.25

Table 2.12 Most important properties of alternative fuels used in aviation Substances Physical and chemical characteristics Ethanol and methanol

Ethanol and methanol are liquid fuels that can be pumped and metered in conventional fuel systems in airplanes [38, 39]. The heating value of alcohols is lower than that of kerosene. They have a very low flash point of only 12–18C (53.6–64.4F) and, respectively, a minimum allowed temperature of 38C (100F). There are also chemical incompatibilities associated with materials in the fuel system, although these problems could be remedied with relatively minor changes Fatty acid methyl Adding FAME from vegetable oils, such as soy bean or canola oils to other ester biogenic fuels, is starting to be used in aircraft [40]. In this case, additives and heated supply systems are needed since more than 2% FAME of soy bean oil raises the freezing point above the specified maximum. Ethanol blends with jet fuel and adding FAME of vegetable oils to jet fuel results in less exhaust smoke and particles in high-power conditions, but increases the emission of CO and HC during idling, along with the presence of acids and aldehydes. The emissions of NO and NO2 increase with higher flame temperatures Cryogenic fuel Aircraft gas turbines can be designed to operate with cryogenic fuels such as methane or hydrogen [41]. However, conventional fuel systems cannot handle these fuels. Alternative fuels require additional aircraft fuel system design, as well as new ground handling and storage systems. Moreover, cryogenic fuels have to be stored in the fuselage rather than in the wings to reduce heat transfer. Because methane and hydrogen have only 65% and 25% of the energy density of jet fuel, fuselages would have to be considerably larger than current designs, increasing drag and fuel consumption Hydrogen For long-range flights, an advantage would be offset by reducing the takeoff weight because hydrogen and, to a small extent, liquid methane have higher specific energy than kerosene [42]. Airplanes with ranges over 10,000 km (5,400 nmi) using hydrogen fuel show a reduction of almost 20% in fuel consumption compared to kerosene. Medium- and shortrange airplanes flying from 3,200 to 5,500 km (from 1,728 to 2,970 nmi) have a 17–38% higher consumption of fuel. For methane, there is only a small benefit for long-range aircraft and a 10–28% higher fuel consumption for medium- and short-range aircraft

kerosene with certification. One expects full official acceptance of biogenic fuel in aviation in 2012 and 2013. The relevant admittance standards of introduction are ‘‘D 6751’’ of the ASTMs and ‘‘Defstan 91-91 for Renewable Fuel’’ of the British Authority [43, 44].

2.3 Aviation Fuels

27

Brazil is planning the introduction of biogenic fuel obtained from sugar cane to civil aviation based on the successes in the use of alcohols in road vehicle technology [45].

2.4 Marine Fuels ISO 8216 and 8217 define the specifications of marine fuels. Marine Distillate Fuels (MDF) such as Marine Gas Oil (MGO) and Marine Diesel Oil (MDO) are on average clean fuels [46]. They are liquid at normal temperatures and have a relatively low density. The fuel can be directly pumped from the storage tank to the supply tank for one day. From here the fuel flows to a lower mixture tank. MDO and MGO fuels are usually used when the vessel is maneuvering [47]. Heavy Fuel Oil (HFO) is the residual part of distillation with a relatively high density. It must be stored in the bunker tank and preheated for pumping to the settling tank. HFO is made suitable for use in marine diesel engines through the addition of certain flammable substances [48]. The physical and chemical properties, such as the viscosity and the density, and the field of application of the Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO) are between MDF and HFO.

2.4.1 Marine Distillate Fuels Marine Distillate Fuels are mixtures of different middle distillates from petroleum refining for marine diesel engines which have four qualities for seagoing ships [49]: • DMX is a very light gasoil with an excellent cold quality, characterized by the Cloud Point. It is used almost only as an emergency fuel; • DMA can also be used as a navy gasoil or Marine Gas Oil (MGO). It is a gasoil of medium density; • DMB can be used as a navy diesel oil or a Marine Diesel Oil (MDO). It is a relatively heavy gasoil with parts of vacuum gasoil; and • DMC is a fuel consisting of heavy gasoil. Delay oils can also partly be mixed to DMC. Table 2.13 presents the main parameters of MDF [50].

28

2

Table 2.13 Main parameters of Marine Distillate Fuels Parameters Types Temperature Kinematic viscosity cSt (ft2 s-1) Density kg m-3 (lb ft-3)

Ignition temperature C (F)

DMX DMA DMB DMC DMX DMA DMB DMC DMX DMA DMB DMC

C

(F)

40 40 40 40 15 15 15 15

(104) (104) (104) (104) (59) (59) (59) (59)

Fuels in Transportation

Values max. 5.5 (5.9 9 10-5) max. 6.0 (6.5 9 10-5) max. 11.0 (11.8 9 10-5) max. 14.0 (15.0 9 10-5) max. 800 (49.94) max. 890 (55.56) max. 900 (56.17) max. 920 (57.44) min. 43 (109) min. 60 (140) min. 60 (140) min. 60 (140)

2.4.2 Heavy Fuel Oil HFO is the residual part of the distillation and cracking plants in petroleum refining. The international trade name is Residual Marine Fuel RME, RMG, or RMK. The parameters of HFO are presented in Table 2.14 [51]. The main ingredients of HFO are alkenes, cycloalkenes, and highly condensed aromatic hydrocarbons, such as asphaltene with about 20–70 carbon atoms per molecule and a boiling range between 300 and 700C (572 and 1,292F). Heterocyclic nitrogen with a nitrogen content of 0.5% by weight and sulfur substances with a sulfur content of 6% by weight and metallic pollutants obtained from oil such as nickel, vanadium, sodium, calcium, and others are concentrated in HFO [52]. The use of HFO is regulated in MARPOL 73/78 Convention, Annex VI, which defines the emissions of sulfur combustion products in certain areas of the ocean. The regulation is important for the environment, because most seagoing ships use HFO for the main engine on the high see with higher sulfur content than permitted in some individual areas. Ships have to switch to environmentally friendly fuels in protected areas [53]. Heavy Cycle Oil or slurry fuel can be contaminated with ‘‘catalyst fines’’ when a crushed zeolitic catalyst is used. Micro particles of slurry are often responsible for abrasion in the fuel system and engine. Fines can be eliminated in a separator system or in similar special devices in the processing phase of oil production [54].

2.5 Summary and Recommendations: Fuels in Transportation Table 2.14 HFO marine fuel gels at 20C (68F) Parameters Types Temperature Kinematic viscosity cSt (ft2 s-1) Density kg m-3 (lb ft-3) Ignition temperature C (F)

RME RMG RMK RME RMG RMK RME RMG RMK

C

(F)

50 50 50 15 15 15

(122) (122) (122) (59) (59) (59)

29

Values max. 180 (193.7 9 10-5) max. 380 (408.9 9 10-5) max. 700 (735.2 9 10-5) max. 991 (61.87) max. 991 (61.87) max. 1 010 (63.05) min. 60 (140) min. 60 (140) min. 60 (140)

2.5 Summary and Recommendations: Fuels in Transportation More than 95% of the fuels used in transportation are fossil fuels, despite fast growing prices. The aim is to decrease the proportion of fossil fuels in ship navigation to 80% worldwide by 2020. Fossil fuel consumption can be significantly reduced through the use of pure biogenic fuels of the first generation, like biologically produced diesel and FAME, but the substitution would require substantially higher costs than consuming conventional fuels. Second-generation biogenic fuels such as alcohols promise to be cheaper but are still under development and used only in few countries like Brazil. The third generation uses gasification of organic wastes and synthesis by the Fischer-Tropsch reaction and can be produced more economically than the first two generations. In the long term, the most economic solution is the production of BTL from waste biomass or algae. Synthetic fuels are produced from coal and natural gas. South Africa (CTL) and Qatar (GTL) are the most important producers [55].

2.5.1 Fuels in Road Transportation About 90% of fuels are consumed in road transport, only approximately 10% are consumed in other sectors of transportation. From this first amount, about 65% of the total fuel consumption in road transportation is used in passenger car transportation. The EU Commission has the aim of increasing the proportion of biogenic fuels in transportation to 20% by 2020 [56]. The use of biogenic and synthetic fuels is only in the growing phase at present, but they have to gain a higher proportion in the future fuel supply. Great interest is expected in all regions of the world. Synthetic fuels are produced from coal and natural gas with the FischerTropsch synthesis. Biogenic and synthetic fuels require the same infrastructure and

30

2

Fuels in Transportation

the same engines as commercial petrol and diesel fuels. The combination of individual fuels is possible. CNG is only a small portion of the fuel used in road transport and its share is growing very slowly. The use of LNG and hydrogen in road transportation as fuel is not yet sure.

2.5.2 Fuels in Aviation The most important fuel in civil aviation is kerosene. The use of synthetic and biogenic fuels in experimental airplanes is only a small portion of the complete structure. Widespread substitution of kerosene with both new types of fuel is not expected in the near future. The industry aims to develop and to produce several fuel types as uniformly as possible and to make it easy to switch between fossil and synthetic or biogenic fuels. Theoretically, the first step of adding 50% biogenic and synthetic fuel can be increased to 100%, because chemical additives make alternative fuels very similar to classic kerosene. However, the introduction of alternative fuels will take a long time to happen. The combustion of hydrogen results in 2.6 times more water vapor than the combustion of jet fuel and would completely eliminate CO2 emissions in aviation. Beside technological diffculties, a disadvantageous aspect is that the utilization of hydrogen requires a new system of logistics, storage, and handling for all aircraft and ground equipment.

2.5.3 Fuels in Maritime Shipping The most common fuels in ships are MDF and Heavy Fuel Oils. These are conventional fuels and available at a low cost worldwide. Marine diesel engines could theoretically use a broad range of synthetic and biogenic fuels and their mixtures, i.e., flended fuels if engines and containers of the ships were modified. The application of synthetic and biogenic fuels is not permitted in shipping since their energy content is too low to guarantee the average needed distances at sea, except special sea-going and inland ships. Moreover, the costs of first- and secondgeneration biogenic fuels are much higher than the cost of fossil marine fuels. It is expected that the next generations of biogenic fuel will achieve more advantages in marine transport. Despite all positive developing results, the introduction of biologic and synthetic fuels in ships will happen slowly and will be evolutionary. LNG is used in LNG carrying tankers, and hydrogen in the fuel cells of submarines. The proportion of non-fossil fuels used in the ship transportation is very small. The first broad ranged applications are expected in ferries, inland ships, and special purpose vessels.

2.5 Summary and Recommendations: Fuels in Transportation

31

GTL may be a fuel of the near future, if the consumption of demanded energy in the production process can be decreased. Biogas and biogenic fuels are already used in road transportation worldwide. In the shipping they can be introduced in city-ferry routes at first, and then later on short sea routes.

References 1. Tugendhat C (1972) Erdöl, Rohwolt Verlag. ISBN 3-499-16775-1 2. World CO2 emissions. Energy Information Administration/International Energy Outlook 2001, based on EIA, International Energy Annual 1999, DOE/EIA 0219(99) Washington DC 3. Combustion Values Fuel Gases. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/fuels-higher-calorificvalues-d_169.html 4. Approximative Heating Value of Common Fuels. http://www.hrt.msu.edu/energy/pdf/ heating%20value%20of%20common%20fuels.pdf 5. Kraftstoffe für Straßenfahrzeuge. Grundlagen. Fachreihe Forschung und Technik. Aral. Bochum 1998. http://www.aral.de 6. ÖNORM EN 228: Kraftstoffe für Kraftfahrzeuge-Unverbleite Otto-KraftstoffeAufforderungen und Prüfverfahren. Automotive fuels- Unleaded petrol-Requirements and test methods. 01.01.2009 7. Gasoline FAQ-Part 1 of 4. http://www.faqs.org/faqs/autos/gasolinegasoline-faq/part1/ 8. Fuels and fuel additives. http://www.epa.gov/otaq/fuels/index.htm 9. Passenger cars & light freight trucks 2011/2012. Worldwide Emissions Standards. Delphi Innovation for the Real World. http://www.dephi.com 10. World Trade Organization: United States-Standards for Reformulated and Conventional Gasoline. WT/DS2/AB/R. AB1996-1. Report of the Appellate Body 11. Absi-Halabi M, Beshara J, Qabazard M, Stanislaus A (1995) Catalysts in petroleum refining and petrochemical industries. Elservier. ISBN 0-444-82381-6 12. EN 590. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki//EN_590 13. Distillation of Petroleum. http://www.roughneckchronicles.com/oilindustry/ distillationofpetroleum.html 14. Anforderungen der DIN EN 590 an Dieselkraftstoff. http://www.tcs-schwyz.ch/cms/images/ stories/PDF-Dokumente/Dieselnorm_EN590.pdf 15. Heavy Duty & Off-Road Vehicles 2010/2011. Worldwide Emissions Standards. Delphi Innovation for the Real World. http://www.dephi.com 16. CNG. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressed_natural_gas 17. Liquefied natural gas. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_natural_gas 18. Liquefied petroleum gas. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquefied_petroleum_gas 19. Hydrogen fuel. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hydrogen_fuel 20. Der Wasserstoff, der Stoff, aus dem die Träume sind (2009) ADAC Motorwelt 12, pp 30–32. http://www.adac.de 21. Synthetic fuel. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Synthetic_fuel 22. World Coal Association. Coal to liquids. http://www.worldcoal.org/coal/uses-of-coal/coal-toliquids/ 23. Dahmen N, Dinjus E, Henrich E (2008) Synthetic fuels from the biomass. ISBN: 978-3-527408047 24. Biofuel. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel 25. Bio Alcohol Fuel Foundation. Welcome to the Bio Alcohol Fuel Foundation. http:// www.baff.info/english/ 26. Biodiesel. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biodiesel 27. Alcohol fuel. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alcohol_fuel

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28. Dimethyl ether. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimethyl_ether 29. Hielscher—Ultrasound Technology. http://www.hielscher.com/ultrasonics/oil_nox_reduction. htm?gclid=CNL34Zjxx6sCFQlXmAodXnI-0A 30. Fatty acid methyl ester. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fatty-acid_ethyl_… 31. Lubricity benefits. National Biodiesel Board. http://www.biodiesel.org/pdf_files/ fuelfactsheets/Lubricity.pdf 32. The engineering tool box. Fluids—kinematic viscosities. http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/ catalog/ProductDetail.do?D7=0&N5=SEARCH_CONCAT_PNO%7CBRAND_KEY&N4= 85416%7CFLUKA&N25=0&QS=ON&F=SPEC 33. Kerosene. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kerosene 34. Aviation jet fuel information. http://www.csgnetwork.com/jetfuel.html 35. Common aviation fuels, Mogas. http://www.experimentalaircraft.info/homebuilt-aircraft/ aviation-fuel-mogas.php 36. International standards and recommended practices. Environmental protection. Annex 16, to the convention international civil aviation. Vol. II. Aircraft Engine Emissions. 2nd edn, July 1993 37. Penner JE, Lister DH, Griggs DJ, Dokken DJ, Mc Farrland M (1999) Aviation and the global atmosphere. Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 0-521-66404-7 38. Methanol. http://de.wkipedia,org/wiki/Methanol 39. Ethanol. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ethanol 40. Ökosprit-Flug im Jahr 2012. Aero International. Hamburg. No. 01/2010, pp 36. http:// www.aerointernational.de 41. Criogenic fuel. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cryogenic_fuel 42. Use of biofuels and hydrogen in navigation. http://www.downloads.theccc.org.uk/ Aviation%20Report%2009/21667B%20CCC%20Chapter%205.pdf 43. The Biodiesel Standard ASTM D 6751. http://www.biodiesel.org/resources/oems/ 44. Ministry of defense: Defense standards 91-91. 8 April 2008. Turbine Fuel, Aviation Kerosene Type, Jet A-1, NATO Code: F-35. http://www.seta-analytics.com/documents/ DEF_STAN_91-91_R6.pdf 45. Mixing ethanol in aviation fuel. http://www.airliners.net/aviation-forums/tech_ops/read. main/127922/ 46. ISO 8216-1:2010. Petroleum Products—Fuels (class F) classification—Part 1: Categories of marine fuels 47. Marinedieselöl. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marinedieselöl 48. Fuel oil. http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/Fuel_oil 49. In-use marine diesel fuels. EPAA420-R-99-027. August 1999. http://www.epa.gov/otaq/regs/ nonroad/marine/ci/fr/dfuelrpt.pdf 50. ISO 8217 Fuel standards. For marine distillate fuels and for marine residual fuels. http:// www.dnv.com/industry/maritime/servicessolutions/fueltesting/fuelqualitytesting/ iso8217fuelstandard.asp 51. Schweröl. http://de/wikipedia.org/wiki/Schweröl 52. Residual Fuel Oil (HFO). http://www.Kittiwake.com/1_3_residual_fuel_oil_h… 53. DNV: Systems and Arrangement for Meeting Regulations in Emissions Control Areas (ECA). Rules for Classification of Ships. http://www.exchange.dnv.com/publishing/RulesShip/201101/ts625.pdf 54. Heavy Cycle Oil (HCO). Houston Refining. 11 Jan 2008. http://www.lyondellbasell.com/ techlit/techlit/refining/REV-AP0881_HEAVY_CYCLE_OIL.pdf 55. The renewable energy directive—a close up. http://www.ewea.org/fileadmin/ewea_ documents/documents/00_POLICY_document/RES_Directive_special.pdf 56. Gas to liquids. http://www.chemlink.com.au/gtl.htm

Chapter 3

Construction of Transportation Means

Construction is the oldest field of work in the history of transportation means. In the Stone Age, people constructed carriages and ships from wood. Since the Industrial Revolution steel has gained the leading role in construction. Today, there is a broad range of literature and experiences are nearly unlimited for vehicle, airplane, and ship construction. For this reason, the main aspect of the current development in construction is to find the optimal path for decreasing of fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions.

3.1 Road Vehicles The first vehicles were powered by steam engines in the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, and were followed by gasoline and diesel fuel-powered internal combustion engines from the beginning of the twentieth century. The first efforts to save fuel came after the Second World War, but the serious saving of fuel began after the first oil crisis in 1973 [1]. Since then, manufacturers have been developing vehicles that are more and more fuel efficient. According to the definition of ISO 3833:1977, a motor vehicle is a self-propelled, wheeled transportation mean for operation on roads [2]. Nowadays, there are more than 1 billion road vehicles, including station wagons, and light and heavy duty trucks in the world. More than half of them are cars, but the proportion of commercial vehicles, particularly of heavy duty vehicles (HDVs), is rapidly rising. The USA had the first largest and China had the second largest fleet of motor vehicles with 239.8 and 78 million pieces in 2010 [3]. The amount of fuel used in several countries of the world is quite uneven and depends on the number, the age and the technical quality of vehicles, the average distances traveled, the cost of fuel, and the personal incomes of people. The

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_3,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

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Construction of Transportation Means

body trunk

engine

chassis wheel and tire

exhaust gas after treatment

Fig. 3.1 Main structural elements of cars

number of inhabitants related to the number of cars and the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) nearly has an inverse relationship [4]. The ratios range from 234 people per car in the Far East to 1.6 people per car in highly developed countries such as those in the EU, Australia, and the USA. The distribution of commercial vehicles is more balanced than the density of cars on the world because supplying people with goods means an important task in all countries. The scope ranges from 55 people per commercial vehicle in Africa to 2.6 citizens per commercial vehicle in the EU, Australia, and Oceania [5]. By 2015, the number of road vehicles will increase to 1.124 billion. Currently fuel consumption is intensively growing in all sectors of road transport. Recent distribution is rapidly changing because of increasing meaning of developing countries. In the next years, Europe will have a portion of 33%, North America 33%, Asia 25%, and other regions 9% [6].

3.1.1 Main Construction Elements of Cars Automobile body styles are highly variable but the main construction principles are common. The main structural elements of passenger car construction are shown in Fig. 3.1.

3.1.2 Classification of Vehicles The long history of automobile technology has led to a wide spectrum of vehicle types (see Table 3.1) [7]. Depending on use and construction, the EU legislation classifies street vehicles with their own engines according to Directive 71/320/EEC in two classes (see Table 3.2) [8].

Convertible Station wagon

Motor scooter Bicycle with auxiliary engine

Special car Multipurpose car

Minibus

Sedan

Motorcycle

Light

Commercial vehicles

Regular bus Medium Over-country Heavy bus Trolley bus Tractor Articulated bus

Buses

Table 3.1 System of vehicles Motor vehicles Cars

Special trailer

Heavy freight trailer Bus trailer Station wagon

Trailer

Motor coach train Tractor train

Car train

Vehicle combination

Bus with trailer Commercial vehicle with trailer Tractor with trailer

Car with trailer

Motor vehicle with trailer

3.1 Road Vehicles 35

36

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Construction of Transportation Means

Table 3.2 Classification of motor vehicles in the European Union Class Description Groups Number of Gross vehicle weight rating people (GVWR) M

N

Transport of people (min. 4 wheels) Transport of goods (min. 4 wheels)

M1

Up to max. 9

M2 M3 N1 Cl. 1 N1 Cl. 2 N1 Cl. 3 N2 N3

Over 9

M1 with GVWR B 2,500 kg M1 with 2,500 kg B GVWR \ 3,000 kg GVWR B 5,000 kg 5,000 kg \ GVWR GVWR B 1,305 kg 1,305 kg \ GVWR B 1,760 kg 1,760 kg \ GVWR B 3,500 kg 3,500 kg \ GVWR B 12,000 kg 12,000 kg \ GVWR

N.A.

Table 3.3 Classification scheme of the EPA Vehicle GVWR lb

(kg)

LDTa

B8,500

(B3,855)

HDTb

[8,500

([3,855)

a b c d

LLDTc Light HDDEd Medium HDDE Heavy HDDE

lb

(kg)

B6,000 8,501–19,500 19,501–33,000 [33,000

(B2,721) (3,855–8,844) (8,844–14,966) (14,966)

LDT light duty truck HDT heavy-duty truck LLDT light light duty truck HDDE heavy-duty diesel engine

According to the European classification, cars and light duty vehicles (LDVs) with GVWR under 3.5 t belong to the classes M and N1, mid-size vehicles with GVWR from 3.5 to 12 t belong to the class N2, and HDVs with GVWR over 12 t belong to the class N3. The EPA classification has four main groups (see Table 3.3) [9]. In Japan, light cars ‘‘Keijidosha’’ are less than 3.4 m (11.2 ft) long, 1.48 m (4.9 ft) wide, and 2.0 m (6.6 ft) high. The engine has a cubic capacity of less than 660 cm3, i.e., 40 cu in. Compact size vehicles commonly called ‘‘5 number’’ vehicles are up to 4.7 m (15.4 ft) long, 1.7 m (5.6 ft) wide, and 2.0 m (6.6 ft) high. The engine’s cubic capacity is up to 2,000 cm3, i.e., 122 cu in [10].

3.1.2.1 Passenger Cars There are considerable differences in construction and operation among types of cars. Average low powered cars provide an engine cubic capacity from of 1.2–1.6 l, i.e., 75–100 cu in DI technology and operate with three or four cylinders. High-powered

c

b

a

Sport utility vehicle From 0 to 100 km h-1 , i.e., from 0 to 62 mph Converted to 100 km

Upper and SUVa

Middle class 30–32

20–30

12–20

108–115

72–108

43–72

102,364–136,485

68,243–102,364

40,973–68,243

9

12

15

30–40 (40–54) 147–221 (197–297) 240–250 (322–336)

Low power

140–170 (87–106) 170–200 (106–124) over 200 (over 124)

Accelerationb (s)

Table 3.4 Distance per hour, performance of engine, energy consumption per hour, and acceleration depending on car class Class of car Distance Performance Energy consumptionc km kW kWh MJ (BTU) (mi) (HP)

3.1 Road Vehicles 37

38

3

Construction of Transportation Means

Table 3.5 CO2 emissions and fuel consumption of average European cars Diesel fuel mpg US Class of car CO2 emissions g km-1 consumption l (100 km)-1

mpg UK

Low power Middle class Upper and SUVa Land rovers

81.64–62.78 62.78–45.34 45.34–30.21 30.21–20.79

a

100–130 130–180 180–270 270–390

3.46–4.50 4.50–6.23 6.23–9.35 9.35–13.59

68.03–52.31 52.31–37.78 37.78–25.15 25.15–17.31

SUV sport utility vehicle

upper class cars have an engine cubic capacity of 5.0–5.5 l, i.e., 312.5–343.7 cu in, and contain a 10 or 12 cylinder engine. Fuel consumption parameters depend on the main construction parameters (see Table 3.4) [11]. Table 3.5 shows the average CO2 emissions and fuel consumption measured according to the New European Driving Cycle [12]. Best results (3.4 l (100 km)-1, i.e., 69.2 mpg (US) and 83.08 mpg (UK)) can be achieved with internal combustion engines in low-powered cars, using a turbocharged, three cylinder 30 kW (41 HP) self ignition engine [13]. A middle class car powered by natural gas uses 4.0–5.0 kg (8.8–11.0 lb) of natural gas per 100 km (62.15 mi) and emits 100–140 g of CO2 per km (5.68– 7.95 oz mi-1). Natural gas-powered cars emit 20% less CO2 than cars with fossil fuel combustion in the engine [14].

3.1.2.2 Light Duty Vehicles Light duty vehicles are on average 7–8 m (22.95–26.23 ft) long, 2.5–3.0 m (8.20– 9.84 ft) high, 2.0–2.5 m (6.56–8.20 ft) wide, have a GVWR of 5.0–5.5 t (11,023– 12,128 lb) and can carry 13–15 m3 (9.95–11.47 yd3, i.e., 458.9–529.5 ft3) of freight [15]. The fuel combustion and exhaust gas emissions of LDVs are between cars and HDVs. The cold start at temperature of 20C (68F) should not last longer than 15 s. Electrically heated radiators or burners can lead to lower fuel consumption and emission especially in very cold weather [16]. In Europe, modern LDVs have to meet the requirements of the exhaust gas norm Euro 5 and they will have to meet the Euro 6 norm in 2014. These directives require special exhaust gas after treatment systems. The passive filter system consists of a filter and a catalyst module without electronics and an engine control system. It removes about 70% of particles. Active filter systems are always connected to the Engine Control Unit to be regenerated as required by the cleaning process. The filtering rate in active filter is better than in passive filters; however,

3.1 Road Vehicles

39 safety in road traffic

environment

vehicle

active safety

- driving safety - passenger safety - range of vision - service safety

man

passive safety external safety

internal safety

- deformation properties of the car body - shape of the car body - smooth surface

- stability of passenger seats - supporting system - internal oepration areas - steering device - occupants release - fire prevention

Fig. 3.2 Elements of active and passive safety

the costs of the highly complex system are much higher than in the more simple passive fitter systems. Regular maintenance of LDVs is necessary after 90,000–100,000 km (55,890– 62,100 mi). Guarantee intervals for engines in Europe are limited to 200,000 km (124,200 mi) or 2 years, depending on which limit is reached first [17].

3.1.2.3 Heavy-Duty Vehicles In Europe, Heavy Duty Vehicles (HDVs) have a GVWR over 12,000 kg. They usually use a six cylinder self-ignition in-line engine with four valves per cylinder, a Common-Rail direct injection system, a turbocharger and an Exhaust Gas Recirculation also often known as an Exhaust Gas Refeeding system. The cubic capacity is on average between 12,000 and 13,000 cm3 (0.42–0.46 ft3) and the maximum performance is 330–360 kW (448–489 HP or 313–342 BTUs-1) in the range of 1,000–1,300 rpm [18]. The wheel distance amounts to 4.5–4.8 m (14.75–15.79 ft), the unloaded weight to 12,000–12,500 kg (26,460–27,563 lb) and the GVWR to 25,000– 28,000 kg (55,125–61,740 lb). The tank volume contains about 600 l (21.20 ft3). The fuel consumption is between 30.0 l (100 km)-1 (7.84 mpg (US), i.e., 9.41 mpg (UK)) and 32.0 l (100 km)-1 (7.35 mpg (US), i.e., 8.83 mpg (UK)) [19]. The power transmission is carried out with an automated 12 gear but newest models contain a manual transmission up to 16 gears with a transmission factor of 4.0–5.0. The cubicle is usually equipped with four seats. Braking is carried out using disc brakes [20].

40

3

Construction of Transportation Means tail unit with horizontal stabiliser

fuselage (electric, pneumatic, hydraulic system, air condition, lighting, emergency equipment)

tail unit with vertical stabiliser

engine and nacelle landing gear wing and connecting parts

Fig. 3.3 Main structural elements of airplanes

3.1.3 Influence of Light Weight Construction on Fuel Consumption Tendencies in light weight construction are decreasing fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. Although new development has resulted in alternative materials, conventional steel sheets are still primarily used for the construction of the vehicle’s body. Alternative materials cannot replace steel yet because of its mechanical qualities of resistance, strength and plasticity as well as its cost. The practical way to reduce weight is to use smaller thicknesses and higher quality steel. The steel sheets that are currently used, are between 0.6 and 1.0 mm (0.024– 0.039 in). High Strength Low Alloy (HSLA) steel is used for construction, which allows the use of thinner metal sheets also in stressed structural parts [21]. Since 1994, aluminum bodies have been used for serial production of higher priced vehicles by stamping profiles out of aluminum. Today, aluminum can be used to reduce the weight of specific body parts like the hood, and the trunk lids, etc. The development is requiring more suitable aluminum-based alloys, new production methods, and special repair facilities. Some physical properties such as resistance, deformation, and distortion qualities of high strength aluminum alloys are equal or similar to the qualities of steel sheets, so they can be more and more optimally used in a lot of parts of a vehicle’s construction [22]. Light plastic materials are increasingly being used in vehicle construction. New ‘‘self-strengthening’’ plastics could allow the cars to be constructed using recyclable polypropylene plastic [23]. However, higher safety rules require a well-balanced compromise between minimizing construction weight and maintaining the commercial and operational competitiveness of passenger cars and LDVs. Safety is the sum of smooth driving, tight steering, optimal suspension, and brakes resulting in the high quality performance of the vehicle [24].

3.1 Road Vehicles

41 Flying apparatus

Space ship

Airplane

Heavier than air

Lighter than air

Balloon

Airship

Rotating wing airplane Helicopter Winged helicopter Gyroplane

Riding wing airplane Airplane Engine sailer Sailer

Fig. 3.4 Review of flying apparatus

In safety technology, the first important task is to prevent accidents; the second is to lower the number of injuries from accidents by using active and passive safety technology; see Fig. 3.2. Designed for passive safety, modern cars use not only lightweight materials, but also new vehicle geometries and components that can act as energy-absorbing crumple zones. Modern light cars achieve the performance of a conventionally designed heavy vehicle. More over, they usually provide a larger and highly safed space for crashes [25].

3.2 Airplanes Aviation began to develop about 120 years ago with the first winged airplanes which were powered by four stroke engines. Fuel consumption at this pioneering time did not play a decisive role. Development was fast and more than 2,100 airports were already in existence in the USA in 1932. In the decades after the Second World War, light weight materials, jet engines, and computer technology began to have more and more of an effect on the development of aircraft construction [26]. Currently, general aviation is defined as all aviation other than scheduled commercial and military aviation. In 2010, there were 320,000 active general aviation aircrafts and helicopters worldwide, including 17,770 passengers and 89,129 military airplanes, and 26,500 civil and 29,700 military helicopters. In addition to this number, there were also 4,000 private jets, according to the statistics of General Aviation Manufacturers Association (GAMA) [27]. The number of airplanes in the world has increased rapidly over the last decades. Worldwide general aviation billings rose by 1.2% to US $19.7 billion due to large-cabin, long-range aircraft. About 6,000 Instrument Flight Rules flights are in the air at peak travel times.

Amphibious airplane

Land According to the guideline of the international and national organizations of the civil aviation Water

Takeoff and landing facilities High

Wing assembly order

Shoulder Middle (from 1,000 to 3,000 km, i.e., from 540 to 1,620 nmi) Long ([3,000 km, i.e., Middle 1,620 nmi) Low

Short (\1,000 km, i.e., 540 nmi),

Operational range

Propulsion type

Number of jet engines

Double, three Multi

One

Four Multi

Three

One Four stroke engine with propeller One and a Jet engine Two half

Wing assembly number

3

Armed forces Sport and acrobatic formation

Business

Journey

Traffic

Table 3.6 System of airplanes heavier than air Use of plane Weight class

42 Construction of Transportation Means

667 (360) 160 750–850 (405–459) Over 500 995 (537) 100–150f 620–630 (335–340g)

72

7,620 (24,984) 12,000 (39,344) 13,115 (43,000)

2,522 (1,362) 4,500 (2,430) 15,200 (8,207) 3,000 (1,619)h 2,000 (1,080)k

32.84 (107.7) 39.5 (129.5) 73.0 (239.5) 25–30 (82.0–98.4 ft)

Engines

28.42 PW150A (93.18) 34.3 CPM56-7B26 (112.5) 79.8 Trent 900 (261.6) 35–40 (114.8–131.1)i

Wing span m (ft)

165 (37,095) 336 (75,539) 313 (70,368) 3,500 kW/engine (4,698 HP/engine)

Total thrust kN (lbf)

b

Bombardier Q-400 [37] Boeing B737-800 [37] c A380-800 [35] d Speed in nautical miles per hour or abbreviated as KTS knots per hour e C-130J: Above 15 m (49.3 ft) obstacle the takeoff distance is 1,400–1,500 m (4,590–4,918 ft), and the landing distance is 700–800 m (2,295–2,623 ft) [38] f Soldiers or paratroopers, 3–10 system operators, 1–2 loading foreman [38] g The maximum speed is 670–680 km h-1 , i.e., 362–368 nmi h-1 [38] h Special transporters reach the maximum distance of 6,500 km (3,510 nmi) [38] i The wing area is 150–160 m2 , i.e., 1,613–1,720 ft2 [38] j A330-200: Mass of transported fuel to other airlines is 65 t (143,172 lb) [39] k Maximum cruising time is 2 h [39]

a

Military tankerj

Military transportere

Twin aislec

Single aisleb

Small turbopropa

Table 3.7 Main parameters of basic types of airplanes Cruising altitude Maximum range Body length Type of airplane Seats Speed m km m km h-1 (nmi h-1)d (ft) (nmi) (ft)

3.2 Airplanes 43

3

fuel consumption -1 [1*(passenger*100 km) ]

44

Construction of Transportation Means

6.5 6.0 5.5 5.0 4.5 4.0 1990

1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

2006

year

Fig. 3.5 Fuel consumption of modern airline fleets

aluminum-lithium titanium

composites

standard materials composites

standard materials

Fig. 3.6 Material structures of a modern airplane

3.2.1 Main Construction Elements The main groups of structural elements of an airplane are presented in Fig. 3.3 [28].

3.2.2 Classification of Airplanes Airplane systems have become very complex (see Fig. 3.4) [29]. However, this book deals only with rigid wing airplanes (see Table 3.6) [30].

3.2.3 Comparison of Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions from Airplane Types There are three main types of airplanes: • Small airplanes;

3.2 Airplanes

45 plastics

advantages - small thickness - small specific weight - application of new joining techniques, like gluting - high quality of chemical and thermal resistance - improved physical properties

disadvantages - negative climate balance by the production - difficult abolishment at recycling - high cost of production - no protection against lightning in the vehicle body, airplane fuselage and ship hull (no Faraday cage) - ductile and lack of flexibility

Fig. 3.7 Advantages and disadvantages of plastics

• Narrow body airplanes; and • Wide body airplanes. Furthermore, there are several special purposed and individually constructed airplanes in military as well as in civilian aviation [31].

3.2.3.1 Small Airplanes Small airliners usually offer optimal fuel saving economy. In this type of airplanes the fuselage is very narrow. There are from two to four seats in a row. The cabin provides seals for 10 and 80 passengers. The cruising altitude is 7,000–8,000 m (22,951–26,230 ft), and the range is up to 1,500 km (810 nmi) [32]. Airplanes with modern turboprop engines have the lowest Specific Fuel Consumption (SFC). In the future, contra rotating rotors can further improve SFC. However, there are two main problems for a wide ranged application of small turboprop airplanes: • They are flying at low altitudes and useing very congested air spaces; and • The noise emission level of turboprop engines is high, especially that of contra rotating propellers. Improving these features and fulfilling requirements needs further intensive development in the near future.

3.2.3.2 Narrow Body Airplanes Narrow body or single aisle airplanes usually fly middle distances at altitudes of 12,000 m (39,344 ft). They have a maximum of six seats in the cabin in a row. New narrow body airplanes using turboprop engines with contra rotating

46

3

Construction of Transportation Means

Table 3.8 Development of the international maritime fleet from 2005 to 2009 in 106 DWT Ships Years Tankers Bulk goods Container ships General cargo Passenger ships Total

2005

2006

2007

2008

2009

368.4 319.2 99.2 95.3 5.9 888.0

387.7 341.7 1,117.7 97.4 5.9 944.4

411.0 363.6 128.2 100.6 6.1 1009.55

439.3 386.6 144.6 102.8 6.2 1,079.55

463.3 414.4 161.9 106.8 6.4 1,152.8

propellers provide very low SFC. However, the field of civil application is currently limited narrow body airplanes do not use long distances. Through new innovations, this situation could be changed in the future [33].

3.2.3.3 Wide Body Airplanes Wide body airplanes normally have a cabin with a large diameter, provide twin aisles, use turbofan engines, and fly middle or long distances. They are more fuel efficient than narrow body single aisle airplanes with the same or similar turbofan engines but do not reach the particularly low SFC of turboprop engine-driven small airplanes with contra rotating propellers which have an extremely high efficiency [34]. The newest and largest passenger airplanes (A380 and B787) use a very high portion of glass fiber strengthened composite substances and sandwich construction to reduce the weight [35, 36] Optimal aerodynamics, efficient main and auxiliary engines, and modern electronic technology in Very Large Airplanes (VLAs) save fuel and operating costs by up to 10–15% in comparison to mid-size airplanes. In addition to the basic models, new freight and long-range types with a shorter fuselage are in development. Table 3.7 shows examples of recent airplane types.

3.3 Influence of Weight Reduction on Fuel Consumption The consumption of fuel in airplanes depends on many factors, similar to other types of transportation means. International Air Transport Association (IATA) data show an exponential decrease of fuel consumption per passenger kilometer [40]. There has been a 23% reduction on average over the last 30 years; see Fig. 3.5 [41]. The fuel consumption rates of modern wide body airplanes are about 3.0–3.2 l per passenger-kilometer per seat, i.e., 1.469–1.567 gal (US) or 1.223–1.304 gal (UK) per passenger-nautic mile per seat.

3.3 Influence of Weight Reduction on Fuel Consumption

47

12 crude oil

world trade by 9 shipping [10 t]

10

oil products

8

iron ore coal

6

grain

4

other goods complete

2 0 2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

year Fig. 3.8 Development of the world Total Seaborne Trade (TST)

stern

smokestack or funnel

superstructure anchor deck

bulbous bow

bow

portside

propeller and rudder

Fig. 3.9 Main structural elements of a merchant vessel

3.3.1 Optimization of Takeoff Mass Fuel makes up a high proportion (near 50%) of the takeoff mass of airplanes. The B767-200/200ER, a modern long-range, wide body, twin aisle airplane has the maximum takeoff weight of 179,170 kg (395,070 lb), the empty weight of 86,000 kg (189,630 lb), and the maximum freight load of 30,000 kg (66,150 lb). Tanks contain approximately 73,000 kg (160,965 lb) of fuel which allows for flight time of 15–16 h, i.e., 12,500–13,333 km (6,749–7,199 nmi). Safety regulations require additional fuel of 7,000 kg (15,435 kg) to make it possible to fly an extra time of 1.5 h. This equals to the distance of 1,200–1,300 km (648–702 nmi) or the weight of 70–75 passengers [42].

3.3.2 Use of New Construction Materials Aluminum has been the first new material used in construction and its application resulted in lower weight and decreased operational and maintenance costs by 50%.

c

b

Lighter aboard ship Indentured servant Floating storage and offloading

Scow, row boat, barge Special ship Vehicle transporter Folding ship LASH carriera Labor shipb Hauler Batch ship Thrust lighter Pusher tow Offshore ship

Fire protection ship Cable layer Pipe layer Fishing boat Whaling mother ship Marine technique Fire service ship Cruise ship Research ship Marine emergency

Fuel cell ship Rescue cruiser Icebreaker Passenger ship Ferry boat Battle ship Aircraft carrier Sport boat Recreational craft Coffee boat Dinghy Yacht House boat Historical ship

Reinforced plastics with glass and carbon fiber

Steel Simple plastics

Concrete Iron Wood

Construction material Aluminum

3

a

Historical purpose Freighter Line freighter Tramp steamer Container ship Tanker Chemical tanker Gas tanker Bulk goods freighter Cooling ship Piece goods ship Ro-Ro ship FSOc

Table 3.9 Field of use, propulsion system, and type and construction material of ships Field of use Propulsion system Type Sea navy Paddle wheel Manpower driven rowing boat, galley Open sea navy Sail Sailing ship Coastal navy Propeller drive Steam engine ship Inland navigation (smaller inland lakes, Jet drive Diesel engine ship rivers and channels) Fishery (sea, coastal, open sea) Voith-Schneider-drive Gas turbine ship Pod-drive Nuclear engine ship Nuclear submarine Z-drive Solar ship

48 Construction of Transportation Means

3.3 Influence of Weight Reduction on Fuel Consumption

49

Table 3.10 Main types of ships Ship type Technical description Bulk carriers

Container ships

Ro–Ro ships

Refrigerated ships

Tankers for liquid cargo

Passenger ships

Bulk carriers are cargo ships used to transport bulk cargo items such as ore or food staples, e.g., rice, grain, and similar cargo [56]. There are double or folding bulk heads. For balance, bulk carriers have lower and upper wing tanks. The bridge is installed near the stern. The ships usually have five to nine holds, often of different lengths. The transverse bulkheads are either designed as double bulkheads or as folding bulk heads Container ships carry standardized 20 or 40 TEU containers [57]. There are also different lengths. Today all container ships are propelled by diesel engines and reach speeds of 24–27 kn, depending on their size and service. Feeder ships sail with 19 kn or less. Container ships have a lot of open spaces on the main deck which reduces the torsion rigidity of the ship’s hull Roll-on and roll-off ships or ‘‘Ro–Ro’’ ships are cargo ships designed to carry wheeled cargo such as automobiles, trailers or railway carriages [58]. The vehicles enter and leave the ship after arrival at the port of destination Special refrigerated ships are used for the transport of perishable foods such as meat, fish, or fruits and vegetables [59]. These ships are developed from the usual dry cargo freighters but they have a higher speed and appropriate cooling equipment including extensive insulation Liquid cargo is generally carried in bulk aboard tankers, such as oil, chemical and LNG tankers [60]. Tankers have a closed main deck, apart from the relatively small tank hatches, which influence the stability of the ship to a limited extent. If the ships run aground or are involved in collisions, large quantities of oil could spill. Therefore, the ship has to be equipped with a double bottom and a double outer skin. Recent legislation still provides for the phasing out of a single bottom construction tankers. DWT of large oil carriers is usually above 300,000 t (661 9 106 lb) and the engine’s performance is 25,000–28,000 kW (33,557–37,584 HP). The ships achieve a speed of 15–16 kn LNG carriers are on average smaller than oil tankers and reach a DWT of 10,000–12,000 t (22.1–26.5 9 106 lb) [61]. The capacity is 50,000– 70,000 m3 ((1.79–2.50) 9 106 ft3), and the engine performance is 5,000–6,500 kW (6,711–8,725 HP). The refrigerator cools 5,000– 10,000 m3 ((0.179–0.357) 9 106 ft3) gas per hour on average at the temperature of -164C charging the liquid gas containers for 8–12 h Passenger ships range in size from small ferries to large cruise ships [62]. Ferries move passengers and vehicles on short trips. Ocean liners carried passengers on one-way trips in the past. Cruise ships transport passengers on round-trip voyages promoting leisure activities on-board and in the ports. High speed ferries and warships use turbines which resemble those of airplanes. Most passenger ships use a diesel engine

In 1982, plastics made up only 8% of an airplane. Now, complete airframes are produced entirely from composite materials. Current plastics, made of carbon fiber, glass fiber, or composite substances with nano tubes are on average up to 50% lighter than aluminum [43].

15–151 (33–333)

1.0f–19.2g (2.205–42.336)

280–300 (921–984) 115–125 (378–411) 200–397 (656–1302) 300–350 (984–1148) 90–100 (296–329) 100–130 (329–428) 60–65 (197–213) 30–345 (99–1,132) 10–41 (33–135)

44–48 (145–158) 18–22 (59–72) 30–56 (99–184) 55–60 (181–197) 13–16 (43–53) 20–22 (66–73) –

Beam m (ft)

2.0–9.8 (6.6–32)

–

–

17–19 (56–63) 8–10 (26–33) 14–16 (46–51) 20–22 (66–72) –

Draught m (ft)

55–63 (52,182–59,772) 7–10 (6,641–9,488) 40–80 (37,950–75,901) 25–28 (23,697–26,540) 2–4 (1,896–3,792) 7–9 (6,639–8,539) 26 (24,669) 10–86 (9,488–81,594)

Main engine output MW (BTUs-1)

b

Smaller sea-going container ships carry approximately 5,000–6,000 TEU [64] Emma Maresk, the biggest container ship of the world in 2011, NT 55,396 t, i.e., 122 9 106 lb, container capacity 11,000 TEU, auxiliary engines power 30 MW, i.e., 40,000 HP [65] c Knock Nevis Supertanker 564.65 DWT d Speed 14–15 kn, TEU 500–560, year of construction 1975–1980 [66] e High speed ferry with 208 passengers plus 45 cars along 180 nmi, speed 52 kn (96 km h-1 ) with water jet propulsion [67] f Small passenger sea-going ships with a speed 17–18 kn, i.e., 32–34 km h-1 [68] g Queen Mary 2 [69]

a

9–10 (20–22) –

85–87 (189–192) 6–7 (13–15) 50–171 (110–377) 150–160 (330–352) –

160–180 (352–396) 9–10 (20–22) 50a–157b (110–346) 300–350c (661–771) 3–4 (7–9) 9–10 (20–22) –

LOA m (ft)

3

Passenger ships

Ferry boate

Ro-Ro shipd

Chemical tanker

Oil carrier

General cargo vessel Container ship

Bulk carrier

Table 3.11 Examples of vessels’ operation parameters GT Parameter DWT 1,000 t Ship type 1,000 t (106 lb) (106 lb)

50 Construction of Transportation Means

3.3 Influence of Weight Reduction on Fuel Consumption

51

In modern airplanes, the tail segments, the fuselage, the wing and the wing stabilizers, the skin, the spoilers, the leading and the trailing edge flaps, the engine inlet, and the aerodynamic cones are made of composite materials (see Fig. 3.6). Interior cabin furnishings and passive interior noise treatment, e.g., wall insulation for cabin noise may be reduced in the future if active noise control technology is developed. However, passive noise controls, i.e., insulation blankets are normally not only used for noise reduction, but also for heat insulation. Reducing insulation would require more power for heating and cooling [44]. The newest airliners’ major structural elements are completely made from Kevlar and CFC materials. Certification of this technology has been completed [45]. The disadvantages of most plastic materials are their higher rigidity and the lower conductivity. Many plastics are still too ductile to be used as airfoils as they tend to break under constant load; see Fig. 3.7. Military aviation started to use Carbon Fiber Reinforced Plastic (CFRC) materials approximately 20 years earlier than civil aviation [46]. Since that time, glass fiber strengthened composite materials have been increasingly used not only in civilian airplanes but also in military airplanes and helicopters. Even modern fighters which are subject to enormous loads in flight, use more plastic components. As experience has shown, the loading gate of future military airplanes can be completely manufactured from CFRC.

3.4 Construction of Ships The age of industrial shipbuilding began in the middle of the nineteenth century with steam ships which continued to be built until the first oil crisis in 1973. The propulsion system contained the coal bunker, the steam engine, and later the oilfired boilers and steam turbines. In recent decades, marine engine technology has been continuously changing [47]. In the last 10 years, maritime shipping has rapidly developed, compared to the previous centuries or millennia. Today, there are more than 43,349 civilian ships over 1,000 GRT. Panama (6,124), Liberia (2,162), and China (1,822) lead the rankings. Besides cargo and passenger ships approximately 4 million fishing vessels are also consuming fuel and emitting exhaust gas pollutants and GHG gases [48]. In 2009, the international merchant fleet consisted of 40% tankers, 36% bulk carriers, 14% container ships, and 9% other ships; see Table 3.8 [49]. The quantity of freight transported by ships is intensively increasing. In 2010, the shipping industry transported over 10,000 million tons of cargo, equivalent to a total volume of world trade by sea of over 42,000 billion ton-miles; see Fig. 3.8 [50]. Total cargo has increased by 8% over the previous years. Today, shipping contributes between 1 and 5% to the international GDP [51].

52

3

Construction of Transportation Means

The average age of the international fleet, including ferry boats and special ships is 18.6 years. The oldest types of ships are reefers and passenger ships with an average age of more than 25 years. Container ships and tankers are the newest types of ships on the sea [52].

3.4.1 Main Construction Elements The basic construction of a merchant vessel is shown in Fig. 3.9. The hull is subject to various hydrostatic and hydrodynamic constraints [53]. Therefore, it must be able to support the entire weight of the ship and maintain stability even with unevenly distributed weight. Furthermore, it must withstand the shock of waves and all weather conditions. Hulls are made of steel, but aluminum can be used on faster craft. Glass fiber can be used for the smallest vessels or for sport boats [54].

3.4.2 Classification of Ships Ship technology is an important part of modern commercial and military transportation. According to the old history of navigation the field of use, the propulsions system, the type and the construction materials of ships are variable and multilayered (see Table 3.9) [55].

3.4.3 Type of Ships There is a very variable selection system of seagoing and inland ships of vessels and passenger ships. One aspect of distingation in the construction. A further criterion is the application in civil and in military service. In this context submarines mean a specific class. The main characteristic parameters of ships are contained in Table 3.10.

3.4.4 Comparison of Fuel Consumption of Ships Merchant vessels are becoming ever larger to adjust to the load requirements and to decreased fuel consumption. Table 3.11 shows the main operation parameters of several types of vessels [63]. The Queen Mary 2, one of the largest ships of the world, has an engine which performs at 4 9 21.5 MW, i.e., 86 MW (two fixed and two azimuthing), i.e., 115,436 HP. The installed board power reaches 126.7 MW (170,067 HP) which is

3.4 Construction of Ships

53

higher than the engine power. At an average speed of 30 kn, i.e., 56 km h-1, the fuel consumption is 252 t d-1, i.e., 555,066 lb d-1 at an average speed of 30 kn, i.e., 56 km h-1. It equals to 40–45 ft per 1 gal (UK), i.e., 12.2–13.73 m per 4.546 l of navy oil or 6.6–6.0 9 10-3 nmi gal-1 (UK) or 7.9–7.2 9 10-3 nmi gal-1 (US). Container ships intensively vary in size, construction, and power. The largest containers ships have an 8–14 cylinder engine. Container transport must be fast, because goods in the containers have to be delivered to the customers as soon as possible. The SFC is between 163 and 170 g kWh-1 (1.68 9 10-3–1.75 9 10-3 oz BTU-1) in a speed range from 25.2 to 27.5 kn maximum, i.e., from 46.7 to 51 km h-1 [70]. The fuel consumption of container ships is approximately half of that of passenger ships in the same category. The largest ships such as tankers with no perishable goods have the lowest level of fuel consumption. They can optimize speed and operation. Comparisons consider a fuel oil viscosity of 730 cSt at a temperature of 50C (122F), according to Fuel Standard ISO 8217. Modern merchant vessels achieve 120 g kWh-1, i.e., 1.263 9 10-3 oz BTU-1 which is the lowest level in the transportation sector with internal combustion engines. The interval is wide ranged. In shipping, the highest SFC is provided by fast ferry and specific navy boats with hydrofoil, jetfoil, hovercraft, fast monohull, and catamaran technology which have a SFC above 220–250 g kWh-1, i.e., 2.317 9 10-3–2.632 9 10-3 oz BTU-1. The consumption rates are related to the rpm [71].

3.4.5 Influence of New Construction Principles on the Fuel Consumption Transportation by water is significantly less costly than transportation by road or air. In civil shipping, construction, size, and load decide fuel consumption. Small cargo ships consume fuel IFO 380 at a rate of 10–20 t d-1 (22,050– 44,100 lb d-1), light freighters 20–25 t d-1 (44,100–55,125 lb d-1), and large cargo ships 50–55 t d-1 (110,250–121,275 lb d-1). War ships consume much more fuel than civil ships because of the high weight, high speed, and high energy demand of engine system and special equipment. A destroyer of 14,000–15,000 DWT displacement consumes fuel 1,000–1,200 t d-1 ((2,205–2,646) 9 103 lb d-1). Enlargement of ships has clear limits. So increasing ship’s size and traffic intensity require new construction principles for higher safety on sea.

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3.4.5.1 Double Bottom Double bottom technology has been introduced in container ships first, later in bulk carriers, tankers, and then in other ships. For this type of construction is the reduction of corrosion, material fatigue, crack formation, overloads, and damage especially important [72]. However, double bottom technology contributes to higher manufacturing and operating costs and higher SFC.

3.4.5.2 Fast Mono Hull Concept The fastest ships are catamarans because of the very low hydrodynamic resistance. Fast mono hull designs cannot achieve the same maximum speed, but they are more economical and can be used for all kinds of fast ships, such as fast passenger ships, ferries, container ships, refrigeration, and Ro–Ro ships. The optimal streamlined form and the specific smooth surface of the hull reduce the resistance of waves below the waterline. Above the waterline the construction increases the crossways stability and the usable space. Ever larger hulls are being constructed with reduced specific weight through the use of high-strength shipbuilding steel instead of normal quality steel. Furthermore, in fast construction, the stern is optimized for the propeller to work at high speed. In the shipping fast catamaran and mono hull constructions consume the highest specific rate of fuel and emit the highest specific volume of exhaust gas pollutants [73].

3.4.5.3 Common Structural Rules for Designing and Monitoring Construction Ships for the North Atlantic are expected to be in service for 25 years. Therefore, hull scantlings and steel distribution must be constructed in accordance with the Common Structural Rules (CSR) [74]. CSR does not require a radical change from the existing rules, but it raises specific issues concerning structural strength, corrosion, watertight integrity, and fatigue. The CSR multi-purpose software supports the design and analysis of hull structures and the cross-section of vessels. The main aim is to minimize the additional amount of steel required. Computer software determines the scantlings of all structural components automatically based on requirements for the vessel’s size, shape, weight, class, cargo load, and fuel consumption.

3.5 Summary and Recommendations: Construction Technology

55

3.5 Summary and Recommendations: Construction Technology Construction has a significant impact on fuel consumption in all types of transportation. Light weight construction is gaining a leading role in development. Computer supported construction methods decrease costs and increase quality. Additionally, technological development often requires financial, organizational, and social measures, too.

3.5.1 Road Vehicles In cars, despite the possibilities for lighter construction that developments in material technology have provided, new vehicles are becoming heavier because of the increased requirements regarding safety and comfort with power steering, airbags, electronic stability programs, strengthened chassis, air conditioning, etc. The trend also affects heavier commercial vehicles such as buses and trucks. Vehicles with lighter weight have less rolling and acceleration resistance and therefore decreased fuel consumption. Besides transmission elements, especially the wheel structure and tires wear faster at higher speeds and with greater loads. In city traffic, fuel consumption and emissions are approximately 20–30% higher, depending on traffic, than on highways or country roads. In addition to technology, there are other important parameters, which significantly impact fuel and emission savings, e.g., safety, fuel type, car occupancy and traffic organization, etc. Most cars with four or five seats are rarely used at full capacity. This parameter can be improved by education, and organization measures. Congestion and urban sprawl also lead to inefficiencies in fuel consumption and emission savings. For improving recent situation, traffic organization can be improved through the use of computer-aided traffic steering and navigation measures.

3.5.2 Airplanes The main structural elements of an airplane are the fuselage, the wings, the tail unit, and the landing gear. Planned range, payload, speed, and altitude are decisive for the construction. The trend has continued toward larger and more comfortable airplanes in the last decades. Their dimensions and weights are increasing despite the use of lighter CFC materials. In the same time interval, parallel to it, new constructions lead to lower SFC and decreased specific operational costs.

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Airplanes must be designed to be able to operate as economically as possible and with maximum versatility. The structure, the range, the payload, the fuel consumption, and the exhaust gas emissions of an airplane are always closely related. Any increase in flight distance and payload raises the amount of fuel. For safety reasons, the payload of an aircraft must be reduced, in favor of the fuel amount required when the sum of required fuel and intended payload would be in conflict with structural and operational limits of the aircraft. There is a high demand for low weight airplanes predicted for the whole century. However, a lot of existing options for reducing the size and weight are limited by practical reasons for production, safety, and finance.

3.5.3 Ships Similar to other means of transportation, development in construction strictly defines the durability, the inspection, the maintenance, the fuel consumption, and the exhaust gas emissions of ships. Hull materials and size play a large part in determining the construction technology. The hull of a glass fiber sailboat is constructed from a mold. The steel hull of a cargo ship is produced from large sections welded together. The weight is reduced through the intensive use of highstrength shipbuilding steel instead of normal quality steel. Light weight materials are used in the construction of the deck and the equipment. Extremely low hydrodynamic resistance is provided in fast ships like fast passenger ships, ferries, container ships, refrigeration, and Ro–Ro ships. Besides catamaran technology, the fast mono hull construction provides the highest speed. However, not only the higher fuel consumption and higher exhaust gas emission rates, but also the higher operational costs make the high speed technology very expensive. Ships are the most fuel efficient means of transportation. Merchant vessels containing large, two stroke marine diesel engines have a SFC of about 120 g kWh-1, i.e., 1.24 10-3 oz BTU-1. Passenger ships, depending on the equipment, have a SFC of 180–200 g kWh-1, i.e., 1.86 9 10-3–2.07 9 10-3 oz BTU-1 and fast ferry boats have a SFC of 220–250 g kWh-1, i.e., 2.37 9 10-3–2.63 9 10-3 oz BTU-1.

References 1. Eckermann E (2002) Vom Dampfwagen zum Auto. Delius Klasing Verlag 1st Edition. ISBN: 3-7688-1339-8 2. ISO 3833: Road vehicles—Types-terms and definitions. http://www.iso.org/iso/ catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=9389 3. Motor vehicle. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_vehicle 4. Vehicle Miles Traveled (VMT), Gas Prices, and GDP Analysis, March 2011. http:// www.scribd.com/doc/51841381/Vehicle-Miles-Traveled-VMT-Gas-Prices-and-GDPAnalysis-March-2011

References

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5. UPI Umwelt-und Prognose—Institut e.V. http://www.upi-institut.de/upi35.htm 6. Wirtschaftszahlen zum Automobil. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirtschaftszahlen_zum_ Automobil 7. Vehicle types—types of cars. http://www.smartmotorist.com/car-accessories-fuel-andmaintenance/vehicle-types-types-of-car.html 8. 71/320/EEC. Braking devices of certain categories of motor vehicles and their trailers 9. Emission standard reference guide, vehicle weight classifications. http://www.epa.gov/otaq/ standards/weights.htm 10. Vehicle size class. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vehicle_size_class 11. Car classification. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Car_classification 12. Automobiles. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile 13. Fuel economy in automobiles. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_economy_in_automobiles 14. Gas-Nachrüstung ohne Reue. Auto Straßenverkehr. No. 6, Feb 2010, Stuttgart, pp 39–41 15. Kraftfahrzeugtechnisches Taschenbuch. Bosch (2007). 26th edn. Vieweg Verlag Braunschweig, Wiesbaden. Germany. ISBN: 3-834-80138-0 16. Cold start impact on vehicle energy use. http://www.papers.sae.org/2001-01-0221/ 17. Evaluating the impact of advanced vehicle and fuel technologies in U.S. light-duty vehicle fleet. Accessed Feb 2008. http://web.mit.edu/mitei/research/spotlights/bandivadekar_thesis_ final.pdf 18. Trucks. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truck 19. Lastkraftwagen. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lastkraftwagen 20. Heavy duty trucks. http://www.heavydutytrucksusa.com/ 21. HSLA steel content of vehicles. http://www.eng-tips.com/viewthread.cfm?qid=144011 &page=5 22. Aluminium in cars. http://www.eaa.net/en/applications/automotive/aluminium-in-cars/ 23. Plastics for cars. Science blog. http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/1998/B/ 199801418.html 24. Automobile safety. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile_safety 25. Lightweight, fuel efficient cars not necessarily less safe. http://www.green.yahoo.com/blog/ amorylovins/80/lightweight-fuel-efficient-cars-not-necessarily-less-safe.html 26. Mackworth-Praed B (2001) Pionierjahre der Luftfahrt. Paul Pietzsch Verlag. ISBN: 3-61301537-4 27. GAMA. Data Book 2011. General aviation fleet and flight activity. http://www.gama.aero/ files/GAMA_DATABOOK_2011_web.pdf 28. Aircraft basic construction. Chapter 4. http://www.home.iitk.ac.in/*mohite/Basic_construction. pdf 29. Engmann K (2006) Technologie des Flugzeugs. Vogel Verlag, Germany. 3. Edition 2. ISBN: 13:978-3-8343-306-1 30. Aircraft. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft 31. Aircraft classification. http://www.128.173.204.63/courses/cee5614/cee5614_pub/acft_ classifications.pdf 32. Regional airliner. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Regional_airliner 33. Airliner. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airliner 34. List of large aircraft. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_large_aircraft 35. A380. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus_A380 36. Boeing commercial airplanes. B787. http://www.boeing.com/commercial/787family/ 37. Horizon. Malév Hungarian Airlines Ltd. 05/2011, pp 90. http://www.malev.com 38. C-130J für die USA in Europa. Flugrevue, No. 06/2009. pp 32–35. ISSN: 0015-4547. http:// www.flugrevue.de 39. Tankflugzeuge für die RAF. No. 06/2009. pp 96–97. ISSN: 0015-4547. http://www. flugrevue.de 40. IATA. Online Store. https://www.iataonline.com/Store/default.htm?cookie_test=1&NRM ODE=Published&NRORIGINALURL=%2fStore%2fdefault%2ehtm&NRNODEGUID= {D1212892-1319-47D5-8C4C-87572B568624}&NRCACHEHINT=NoModifyGuest

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41. Fuel efficiency at the Lufthansa Group. http://www.verantwortung.lufthansa.com/fileadmin/ downloads/en/LH-fuel-efficiency.pdf 42. Boeing 767. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/aircraft/b767.htm 43. U.S. Centennial of Flight Commission. http://www.centennialofflight.gov/essay/Evolution_of_ Technology/composites/Tech40.htm 44. Discussions and correspondence with K. Galvácsy Aeroplex. Budapest, 2010–2011 45. Kevlar. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kevlar 46. Evolution of US military aircraft structures technology (2003). http://www.engbrasil.eng.br/ index_arquivos/art114.pdf 47. Dudszus A (2004) Das große Buch der Schiffstypen. Schiffe, Boote, Flöße unter Riemen und Segel, Dampfschiffe, Motorschiffe, Meerestechnik. Pietsch Verlag Stuttgart. 1st edition p. 99. ISBN: 3-613-50391-3 48. List of merchant marine capacity by country. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_merchant_ marine_capacity_by_country 49. Maritime Economy Report. Zukuft Meer. Maritimes Jahrbuch Schleswig-Holstein 2009/ 2010. A+1, pp 107–119. Verlag. ISBN: 3-937105-16-6 50. Shipping and World Trade. http://www.marisec.org/…/volume-world-trade-se 51. Trade Facilitation and Maritime Transport (2009). The Development Agenda. SIDA. ISBN: 978-91-86502-04-1 52. Ministry of transport seaborne trade statistics (1996–2006). http://www.mot.gov.mm/mpa/ seaborne_stat.html 53. Hull. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hull_(watercraft) 54. Category ship types. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Category:Ship_types 55. Schiffe. NGV Naumann & Göbel Verlag Köln. ISBN: 978-3-625-11412-3. http://www. naumann-goebel.de 56. Bulk carrier. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulk_carrier 57. Container ship. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Container_ship 58. Roll-on/Roll-off. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roll-on/roll-off 59. Refrigerator ship. http://www.encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Refrigerator+Ship 60. Tanker. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanker_(ship) 61. LNG carrier. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LNG_carrier 62. Schiff. http://de/wikipedia.org/wiki/Schiff. 63. Merchant vessel. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mechant_vessel 64. Feeder ship. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feeder_ship 65. Emma-Maersk-Klasse. http://org/…/Emma-Maersk_Klasse 66. Cargo ship. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_ship 67. Fast ferry scandal. http://en.wikipedia.org/…/Fast_Ferry_Scandal 68. Passenger ship. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passenger_ship 69. Queen Mary 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Mary_2 70. Bunkerworld forum. http://www.bunkerworld.com/forum/Ask+Dr.+Vis/thread_22/ 71. Brake specific fuel consumption. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brake_specific_fuel_consumption 72. Double bottom. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double_bottom 73. Fast monohull enters greek ferry motor ship. http://www.motorship.com/news101/fastmonohulls-enter-greek-ferry-market 74. Germanischer Lloyd (2008) Common structural rules for double hull oil-tankers. Nonstop. The Magazine for Customers and Business Partners. Hamburg, pp 23–24. OE 003, [email protected]

Chapter 4

Fuel System and Fuel Measurement

The fuel economy of SFC of the engine is usually measured on the test bench under nominal conditions and represented in a consumption identification diagram. The real fuel consumption in travelling, flying and shipping normally differs from the consumption on the test bench. Road vehicles’, airplanes’, and ships’ real fuel consumption depends on the performance, load, speed, and operation conditions at first. The Type Approval (TA) of the road vehicle’s, ship’s, or airplane’s engine has been developed for examinations at the test bench with defined test cycles. The analyzers are usually large devices certified by national authorities. The direct method is the measurement of fuel consumption. The indirect method is the analysis of carbon emissions and then mathematically calculating the fuel consumption on the basis of the CO2 balance [1]. Currently, fuel consumption is monitored by small sensors with a quick response time. Their basic principles are conductivity, capacitivity, ultrasound technology, and radiometry. Figure 4.1 shows the different variants of fluid flow measurement [2]. Depleting the tanks is to be strictly avoided in all types of vehicles, aircrafts, and ships. The amount of fuel in a tank is usually measured by static pressure or capacitive sensors at the bottom of the tank and by a floating switch at the surface of the fuel. Few methods continuously estimate the fuel flow in the fuel pipe between the tank and the engine. Combinations of static and dynamic control methods are useful for safety reasons. Fuel management systems record fuel consumption, fuel transfer, and refilling of tanks. Fuel management considers the daily consumption of the entire fleet, down to individual fuel tanks and maintains a complete history of all events, providing reports for billing purposes and integrating timely fuel inventory. Fleet wide fuel purchase, fuel consumption, and, in the future, emissions, i.e., the complete financial system can be continuously controlled by using the Internet [3].

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_4,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

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Coriolis force

magnetic induction

ultrasound

swirl pressure

thermal

dynamic pressure

impeller

Fig. 4.1 Measurement technologies in fluid flow

4.1 Fuel System in Vehicles The fuel tank is the central element of the supply system. It is made of surface treated steel or plastics according to the space requirements in vehicles, airplanes, and ships [4]. In road vehicles, the fuel system consists of a filter, a small reserve tank as a fuel reservoir for use when the vehicle is not level on a curve, an electric diving pump, a fuel level, a pressure, and in special cases a flow sensor as well as electrical and hydraulic connections; see Fig. 4.2. The fuel is pumped from the fuel tank into a pressure regulator, which keeps the pressure of the fuel constant, and forced through a fuel filter, a mass control valve, which controls the mass flow independent from the fuel level in the tank and at the end of the supply chain to the CR system with a regulator and control sensor. When electronic fuel injection was first introduced, the electric fuel pump was always outside the tank. In new vehicles it is more common to have the fuel pump installed within the tank. Fuel pumps must supply the engine with sufficient fuel under all operating conditions with the pressure necessary for injection. The essential requirements of pumps are:

4.1 Fuel System in Vehicles

61

high pressure pump with mass control valve additional transfer pump

wingwheel sensor (1)

00000000

fuel filter

additiv dosing unit

fuel pressure sensor pressure regulator CR tube

electronic layout and display sensor duct level indicator (2)

pressure control valve

pressure tube (3) diving fuel pump

Fig. 4.2 Tank system of a car with a self ignition engine

• To provide a flow capacity between 60 l h-1 (15.85 gal h-1 (US), 13.20 gal h-1 (UK)), and 200 l h-1 (52.84 gal h-1 (US), 44.03 gal h-1 (UK)) at nominal voltage; and • To regulate the pressure of the fuel system between 300 kPa (6,277 lbf ft-2) and 450 kPa (9,416 lbf ft-2) [5]. In addition, electric fuel pumps are increasingly used for modern direct injection systems, both for spark and self ignition engines at 700 kPa (14,647 lbf ft-2). This high pressure and the very wide viscosity range of diesel fuel mean new challenges for the hydraulic and the electric systems of fuel pumps. Several new production designs of fuel tanks are being developed to lower emissions from the tank. Brush-less pumps and new fuel level sensors are under development [6].

4.1.1 Fuel Measurement Current requirements for analyzing fuel consumption present a high level of technology. Driving cycles with artificial conditions create uniform and comparable conditions for the determination of fuel consumption. The measurement of fuel consumption in the EU is based on the NEDC according to the requirements of the guideline 80/1268/EEC, Appendix 1, amended

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by 93/116/EC and ECE-R101 [7, 8]. Fuel consumption is determined by a cycle simulating urban driving as described in 70/220/EEC, Annex II in: • Constant speed test at 90 km h-1; and • Constant speed test at 120 km h-1 [9]. The results of the test are expressed in l (100 km)-1. The fuel must be supplied to the engine through a device capable of measuring the quantity consumed to within ±2%. This device should not interfere with normal supply. There must be a valve to permit rapid changeover from the general fuel supply system to the measurement system.

4.1.1.1 Car and Light Duty Vehicle Technology 93/116/EC applies to the carbon dioxide emission and the fuel consumption of all motor vehicles of the category M1. The weight of fuel consumed is calculated according to the carbon balance method using the measured emissions of CO2 and other carbon-related emissions (CO and HC): Mgasoline ¼ f ðCO2 ; CO; HC Þ

ð4:1Þ

The CO2 emissions are measured during the test cycle simulating both urban and highway driving patterns as described in 91/441/EEC (1), Appendix 1 of Annex III. Test results are averaged and expressed in Europe in g km-1 or g mi-1 [10]. Similar to the EU method, in the USA the measured fuel is based on the regulation 40 CFR Part 600-113 [11]. Fuel consumption is determined on test benches according to the carbon balance method from the CO2, CO, and HC emissions analyzed in miles gal-1 (US) in US EPA II and in Highway Fuel Economy Cycle (HWFET) [12, 13]. In Europe, the fuel consumption is expressed in l km-1 or l (100 km)-1, in the USA in gal mi-1 or in the most cases, in mpg. Japan uses synthetic cycles, such as the 11 Mode cold and 10 ? 15 Mode hot cycle, respectively, New Driving Cycle JC 08, which is similar to the NEDC; however, they apply different speeds and gears [14]. The relation between the fuel consumption and the speed of an average midsized car in the NEDC is presented in Fig. 4.3 [15]. According to the statistics, the average fuel consumption of a European mid-class car is 6.2 l (100 km)-1, i.e., 47.6 mpg (US) and 45.5 mpg (UK). The cold start phase in the first 120–180 s demands an extraordinary large amount of fuel, above 30 l (100 km)-1 i.e., 105 mpg (US) and 126 mpg (UK). The urban fuel consumption in the second phase is 8.2 l (100 km)-1, i.e., 28.7 mpg (US) and 34.4 mpg (UK) and the highway fuel consumption in the last phase is 5.1 l (100 km)-1, i.e., 46.1 mpg (US) and 55.3 mpg (UK).

4.1 Fuel System in Vehicles

63 extra urban [5.1 l*(100 km)-1]

part one

200

20 hight street cycle

basic city cycle

160

16

120

6. 5.

80

4.

2. 1. 0 0

3. 2.

3.

40

5. 4.

2. 1.

fuel consumption [l*(100 km)-1]

speed [km*h-1]

urban [8.2 l*(100 km)-1]

12

10

4

1. 0 200

400

600

fuel consumption speed

800

1000 time [s]

Fig. 4.3 Fuel consumption of an average European car relative to time of NEDC

4.1.1.2 Heavy-Duty Vehicle Technology Since trucks and buses are too heavy and too large, not the entire vehicle’s but the engine’s emissions are controlled at an engine test bench with computer-supported driving cycle programs [16]. In Europe, the emissions of heavy-duty vehicles are examined using Directive 70/220/EEC including amendments and corrections. The European Stationary Cycle ESC is a steady-state procedure with a 13-point examination. The European Load Response Cycle ELR has the purpose of opacity determination. In the European Transient Cycle ETC, different driving conditions are represented by three parts, including urban (maximum speed is 50 km h-1 (31.05 mi h-1), with frequent starts, stops and idlings), rural (step acceleration segment, average speed is 72 km h-1) (44.7 mi h-1), and motorway driving (average speed is 88 km h-1) (54.65 mi h-1). The duration of the entire cycle is 1,800 s. Each part lasts for 600 s [17]. However, with specific and large test dynamometers, which sometimes have artificial cooling, pressurization, and air humidification, heavy duty trucks and buses can be dynamically controlled for research and development experiments; see Fig. 4.4 [18]. In the USA, the EPA Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS or Cycle D) has been developed for chassis dynamometer testing of heavy-duty vehicles. The

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exhaustion

rolling test bench

NOX CO CO HC

air filter gas temperature

receiving bag jet

dilution

outlet

pressure

Fig. 4.4 Test bench for heavy duty vehicles

HD-UDDS cycle should not be confused with the FTP-72/LA-4 cycle for light-duty vehicles, which is also termed UDDS [19]. In Japan, 6-Mode Cycle, 13-Mode Cycle, and JE05, also called as ED12, introduced in 2005, based on Tokyo driving conditions, are applicable to diesel and gasoline HDVs over 3,500 kg (7,709.25 lb). The duration is 1,800 s, the average speed is 26.94 km h-1 (16.73 mi h-1) and the maximum speed is 88 km h-1 (54.65 mi h-1) [20]. The accelerating and braking properties of the individual driving cycles are different, and therefore fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions are not directly comparable with each other. Although driving cycles are developed on the basis of country- or city-specific driving conditions, traveling has become more and more similar on the world. Unified driving cycles would simplify testing procedures worldwide. There are two harmonized cycles, the World Harmonized Stationary Cycle and the World Harmonized Transient Cycle for heavy-duty engines. They can be used for emission certification and TA worldwide [21, 22]. The fuel consumption of trucks and buses is traditionally tested in the journey with a standard engine in a standard vehicle, in standard traffic and in standard environment conditions. The weather must be dry and calm at a certain temperature and a certain air pressure. The examining speed has to correspond to 75% of the vehicle’s maximum speed. To compensate for uncertainties, the fuel that was consumed is increased by 10% over the measured distance [23].

4.2 Fuel System in Airplanes

65

Fig. 4.5 Fuel flow during a flight over a distance of 1,000 km

take off

-1

fuel flow [kg*s ]

2.5

2.353 1.913

2.0

climb out

1.5 cruise

1.0 0.5

final approach 0.980

taxi out

0.632

0.205

0.205

taxi out

0 0

20

40

60

80

100

time [min]

4.2 Fuel System in Airplanes There is a direct relationship between the volume of the fuel tank, the structure of the supply system, and the flow of the fuel to the engine. The fuel supply system of a jet engine has to regulate opening and closing valves, adjust compressor blades, thrust exhaust nozzles, and operation of the afterburner. It must avoid thermal and mechanical overload, prevent unstable compression, and burning when accelerating [24]. The fuel system of airplanes operates under variable air pressures and temperatures depending on flight altitude, which indirectly influences the combustion chamber temperature, and the compressor pressure. The fuel consumption of airplane engines depends on the flight phase, i.e., on the load of the engines; see Fig. 4.5.

4.2.1 Fuel Storage and Supply Aircraft typically uses three types of fuel tanks: • Integral tanks which are contained in ‘‘wet wings’’ and are applied in larger aircraft; • Rigid removable tanks in metal constructions for smaller aircraft; and • Bladed tanks for high-performance light aircraft [25]. Multiple engines demand a multiple tank system, consisting of main and auxiliary tanks. Selector valves, jettisoning, and defuel valves regulate the fuel flow; see Fig. 4.6. The fuel is moved from the tank assembly to the jet engine with a low pressure pump at 8.6 9 105 Pa, i.e., 125 psi, using geared wheel, wing cell, or piston pumps. The fuel in the aircraft fuel tanks cools down at cruising altitudes with an approximate Outside Air Temperature of -40C (-40F) [26].

66 Fig. 4.6 Fuel system of an airplane

4 fuel supply pressure gage (in cockpit)

Fuel System and Fuel Measurement fuel level gages (in cockpit)

main tank

submerged boost pump flowmeters or fuel pressure gages (in cockpit)

left engine

auxillary tank 1

auxillary tank 2 tank selector valve

system selector valve filters

carburetor or jet controls

defuel or refuel valve engine selector valve

engine-driven supply pumps

transfer pump

defuel or refuel line

right engine

Gear wheel or piston pumps are used for the high pressure circulation system. The fuel regulator unit provides the flow that corresponds to the load. The fuel nozzles distribute the fuel into the combustion chamber. Their number varies according to the construction of the combustion chamber and the size of the jet engine [27]. The fuel is preheated downstream to the low pressure pump to prevent water contained in the fuel from crystallizing into ice which could clog the filters and the regulation valves. The main fuel filter stops particles bigger than 0.03 mm or 1.18 9 10-3 inches [28]. Certain nozzles are used for the starting process and for the higher load ranges. Double channel burners have a primary and a secondary fuel nozzle. The primary nozzle delivers fuel during the start and the idle phases. Above these load ranges, the secondary nozzle takes over the supply of fuel. The diameter of the droplets is 0.05–0.10 mm (1.96 9 10-3–3.94 9 10-3 in). Primary and secondary nozzles spray droplets into the combustion chamber with an intensive whirl [29].

4.2.2 Fuel Regulation The regulator of a gas turbine has to provide the proper amount of fuel required under any operating conditions and has to prevent thermal or mechanical overload. Operations had to be simplified when flight engineers were excluded from the cockpit, because there were more input signals to be controlled by two pilots. This required computers to take over the monitoring function. Fuel management became more complicated due to the permanent increase of requirements regarding jet engines as a whole. The earlier hydro-mechanical regulators have

4.2 Fuel System in Airplanes

67

been replaced with a new electronic regulator, the Full Authority Digital Engine Control (FADEC) [30]. The main elements of the FADEC system are the micro electronic system, the sensors, and the actuators, and several elements for signal processing, such as the analog–digital transducers, the multiplexers, and the micro processors. In the airplane redundancy systems two permanently active channels generate signals, including sensors for monitoring the power supply. Modern electronic and micro computer systems enhance the reliability of the FADEC system compared with hydro-mechanical systems.

4.2.3 Fuel Planning Safety is the most important task in aviation. There must be enough fuel on-board at departure to cover the planned distance, the ground operation needs, and the amount has to meet the regulations for mandatory reserves including engine failure and reaching an alternate airport if necessary after takeoff, climbing, cruising, descent, and landing. The basic standards regarding fuel are contained in ICAO Annex 6 to the Chicago Convention, establishing the acceptable minimum level of safety for international civil flight operations and are reflected in the national codes. The national codes, such as the Federal Aviation Regulation for US Federal Aviation Administration and the European Operation Performance Standard (EU-OPS) for the European Community, may differ from each other, but must not be less stringent than the corresponding ICAO standard [31]. EU-OPS is very common to JAA-OPS [32]. Conventionally, the planned route must be in close vicinity of airports so that in case of an emergency like an engine failure, the airplane must be able to reach an airport within 60 minutes with one engine inoperative. As a result, instead of traveling straight, the route may become curved, consequently increasing the trip distance and the required fuel. An airline operator has to decide on the amount of fuel on-board with due regard to IFR for all phases of operation [33]. Figure 4.7 presents the flight segments of a typical trip at an altitude of 1,500 ft (457 m) above departure to landing at the destination [34]. For safety reasons a departing airplane must have a quantity of fuel on-board not less than the sum of the amount of: • Taxi out fuel, the fuel required at the departure airport for ground movement, i.e., from the gate to the takeoff runway end. It diverges from the final reserve fuel; • Trip fuel, the fuel required to fly from departure to destination; • Route reserve fuel, generally 5% of the required trip fuel quantity;

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Fuel System and Fuel Measurement

trip fuel including

climb

cruise

descent

approach

climb

from IAP to 15 m

climb

fuel for

initial climb, climb to TOC

from TOC to TOD for cruise climb and descent

from TOD to IAP

based on expected weather conditions

departure routing

ATS routing

arrival routing

runway

Fig. 4.7 Fuel for an altitude of 1,500 ft (457 m) to the destination

• Alternative fuel, that is required from destination to alternate airport, except in case of island operation; • Final reserve fuel, which has to be enough for 30 minutes holding above an alternate airport at least (in the case of jet aircraft); • Additional fuel, as when required by special operations such as Extended-range Twin-engine Operation Performance Standards (ETOPS) [35]; and • Extra fuel, an amount that the flight dispatcher or the pilot in command seems desirable when a period longer than the planned flight time is probable because of prolonged delays or when mandatory rerouting is expected in-flight on the ground due to traffic congestion or weather deterioration. The sum of the above quantities is called block fuel or fuel at brake release. Fuel items are mandatory by national codes. The one exception is the extra fuel, which is optional and left to the dispatcher’s or pilot’s discretion.

4.2 Fuel System in Airplanes

69

4.2.4 Notes on ETOPS and Additional Fuel The National Aviation Authority may grant ETOPS approval to an airline operator for certain twin engine jet aircrafts, provided that the operator complies with special requirements in addition to the conventional flight conduct, including enhanced reliability, maintenance and operation of the aircraft and training, checking, licensing of its relevant flight crew and flight dispatch personnel, and the procedures they must follow [36]. The time limits 90, 120, or 180 minutes are specified in the ETOPS Approval defining the maximum distance that an aircraft can be further away from an airport. The ETOPS flight planning rules require that the whole flight path be covered by the circles drawn with ETOPS time limit radius around selected airports [37]. Those airports must meet strict requirements also for in-flight emergencies and contingencies such as engine failure or loss of cabin pressure and are called En-route Alternate Airports (ERA). Moreover, ETOPS flight planning involves mandatory critical fuel scenario analysis for each ERA pairs and for each ERA of an ERA pair along the flight path. The aim of this analysis is to ascertain that fuel actually remaining in the tanks over a midpoint between two subsequent ERAs will be enough to reach either of the two ERAs or the original destination airport. The midpoint between two ERAs must be an Equal Time Point (ETP) [38]. That is, a point requiring equal flight time to reach any one of the two ERAs, i.e., the time to fly the distance corrected for wind effects. The analysis must consider and compute the fuel amount required for cases when both engines operate, i.e., long-range cruise and when one engine is inoperative, i.e., cruise with selected ETOPS speed. Over an ETP rapid decompression must be assumed with an emergency descent to 10,000 ft (3,050 m), than cruising on 10,000 ft up to ERA. Over the ERA a descent to 1,500 ft, i.e., 457 m and holding for 15 min follows, then a missed approach is executed after which an approach and a successful landing is made [39]. Other items in critical fuel analysis are considered for the required fuel amounts are: • • • •

Unreliable weather forecasts up to 5%; Expected Auxiliary Power Unit consumption up to 2%; Low temperatures or icing up to 1%; Engine degradation up to 5% [40].

Figure 4.8 presents a critical scenario with ETP conditions considering ERA1 and ERA2. Except for extra fuel, none of the above-mentioned fuel items are allowed to be used for purposes other than its specific role, i.e., to cover unexpected delays or reroutes. So, any time when a flight on its way ought to deviate from its original plans, a complete re-planning is mandatory. The re-plan shall ensure that the actual

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Fig. 4.8 Critical fuel scenario with analysis of possible additional fuel demand

ETP

flight track

ERA2.

ERA1.

fuel on-board will cover the new trip fuel, i.e., fuel required from the diversion point to destination, the new route reserve fuel, alternate fuel, final fuel reserve, and, if applicable, the new additional fuel amount [41]. Further aspects affecting the fuel plans of airlines: • Applying known alternatives for route reserves, i.e., contingency, which are depending on the statistical method approved by the authorities for continuous measurement and analysis of fuel consumption by the fleet; • Monitoring of the engine degradation due to wear and tear by aircraft which can reveal degraded fuel efficiency in addition to performance losses. The degradation as compared to a novel engine can be expressed as a percentage and can be included in planning the required fuel quantity according to the Emission Index consideration; and • Assuming engine failures that occur at the most critical points of the operation.

4.3 Fuel Systems in Ships Fuel systems in ships are used for the supply of the diesel engine. It contains the fuel system for the daily tank and the setting tank. The fuel system is processed in accordance with the performance data of the different engine manufacturers and the physical and chemical properties of fuels. The main elements of processing are storage, filtration, heating, and pressurizing [42].

4.3.1 Fuel Preparation and Fuel Supply Sea-going ships use HFO or IFO fuels to drive the main engines at sea. MDO and MGO are high-grade fuels of low viscosity, which are used when the vessel is maneuvering. HFO is a by-product from refining petroleum. It is warmed to 40C (104F) in the storage tanks and stored on the raised decks of the ship. This allows the fuel to

4.3 Fuel Systems in Ships

counter

71

MDO transfer fump

sample point

join user

MDO emergency MDO store

settling tank 1

settling tank 2

IFO transfer pump1

IFO store 1

IFO transfer pump2

IFO store 2 overrun

Fig. 4.9 Multistage fuel system on a ship

flow into tanks in the engine space. A part of the water and mud is already separated from the fuel in settling tanks which are heated to a temperature of approximately 70C (158F). Water and mud are regularly pumped into mud tanks [43]. Fuel is processed by separating and filtering. Oil synchronous separators are centrifuges, in which a geared wing pump thrusts the oil through a high-grade steel plate stack, turning at 12,000 rpm. The conically formed plates are equipped with separation channels. The purer and lighter oil substances flow into these channels and the heavy components, like water and dirt, are forced outside and are collected in a special waste container [44]. To optimally separate fuel, heat exchangers are in front of the synchronous separators. Their temperature is 70–99C (158–210F) depending on the fuel density. For heavy marine fuel oils with many pollutants, the separators are connected in series. The fuel filters in the marine technology are reversible flow filters. In separate modules, the HFO and IFO fuels are heated to the right injection viscosity of approximately 12 cSt at 130C (266F) at a pressure of about (7–10) 9 105 Pa, i.e., 102–145 psi or 14,620–20,885 lbf ft-2 [45]. Heavy marine fuels with high viscosity are pumped into a collection tank at a pressure of around (6–8) 9 105 Pa, i.e., 87–116 psi or 12,531–16,708 lbf ft-2. The modern type of injection is the Common Rail technology with a pressure of (200– 300) 9 105 Pa, i.e., 2,901–4,352 psi or 417,711–626,566 lbf ft-2. Common Rail technology is now mass produced by all marine diesel engine manufacturers [46]. Figure 4.9 shows the plan of a ship’s fuel preparation and supply system containing tanks for MDO and IFO fuels, transfer pumps, setting tanks, a sample point, a counter, and a joint user [47].

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In the preparation chain, foreign matter such as liquids and solids are removed from the fuel. For HFO and IFO fuels, a two-step preparation chain is necessary, while for distillate fuels such as MDO and MGO, a single-step preparation chain is sufficient. MDO and MGO are used for maneuvering in harbors or to navigate in protected sea areas. It is usually stored in MDO and MGO bunker tanks.

4.3.2 Fuel Measurement on Ships On ships the fuel is stored in tanks, which are arranged in the double bottom. According to the IMO Convention ‘‘Safety of Life at Sea’’ (SOLAS), a minimum quantity must be stored in tanks, which are not directly endangered in case of running aground or a collision [48]. In the settling tanks, water and impurities are separated from the fuel and drained off. The level sensors in these tanks must be robust and have high durability. From the settling tank, transfer pumps move the fuel through a pre-heater to a daily tank to preheat the fuel. Temperature and pressure sensors control the process and maintain a temperature in the supply tanks which is always independent of the ambient conditions. If the fuel is too cold it must be warmed before withdrawal from the tank. The temperature of the fuel should be adjusted in the daily tank with a final pre-heater. The heat flow density is approximately 1 W cm-2 (3.413 BTU h-1 cm-2, i.e., 22.014 BTU h-1 in-2) [49]. From the pre-heater, the fuel is led to a separator to purify the fuel at the second cleaning level. The surplus quantity is led back from the overflow of the daily tank into the settling tank. The level in the overflow tank is continuously monitored and attached to an alarm system. In the most cases piezoelectric sensors are used to measure the changing fuel level [50]. From the separator, the fuel enters the two daily service tanks. One tank may be used while the other is being filled. From the daily service tank the fuel is pumped to the second heater by the pressure fuel pump. From the heater the HFO and IFO fuels are passed through a viscosity meter and a regulator to the fuel filter, the flow counter, and the engine [51]. Engines or boilers, which are operated with different fuel qualities, should be equipped with a viscosity regulation via magnetic coupling. A connected electric pump saves a constant volume flow independently on fuel viscosity [52]. On modern ships, there is a flow counter in the transfer pipe which is a propeller or an oval wheel counter to determine the volume flow similar to the impeller system. The axis of the rotation must always be installed underneath the pipe axis, so that the analyzer chambers can be filled with fuel by gravity, depending upon the kind of fuel. The temperature has to be high enough to guarantee optimal flow for the continuous measurement of consumption [53]. Figure 4.10 shows the scheme of the fuel store, the pump, and the measuring system of a ship for MDO and IFO fuels [54].

4.3 Fuel Systems in Ships

daily tank IFO

73

daily tank MDO

mixing tank MDO and IFO circuit pump

circuit pump MDO and IFO

mix preheater IFO

steamer

join consumer

circuit pump IFO

pre-heater steamer viscosimeter separator

settling tank 1 IFO

filling conduit

settling tank 2 IFO

drain valve

Fig. 4.10 Scheme of a fuel storage, pump and measuring system

In electronically regulated pumps, impulse receivers control the operation. The feeding pump moves the fuel from the daily tank through a fine filter and a consumption measuring gauge to the mixing tank. The circulation pump moves the fuel from the mixing tank via a final pre-heater and viscosity measuring device to the injection pumps of the engine [55]. The settling tanks contain a combined overflow and bleeding pipe. The surplus fuel flows into the overflow tank, which is provided with connection to vents leading to the atmosphere. The continuous control of the volatile hydrocarbon concentration in the venting tube guarantees optimal safety; see Fig. 4.11 [56].

4.3.3 Fuel Planning on Ships The average fuel system consists of a store, a provision, a preparation, and a supply subsystem. The common quality of these subsystems determines the rate of the fuel consumption [57].

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Fuel System and Fuel Measurement

atmosphere inlet

HC feed back flow

vant

surge drum

alarm outlet counter

Fig. 4.11 Tank with hydrocarbon control equipment

The ship must be equipped with fuel to cover its power requirement. The necessary quantity must be determined before the start of a journey by route planning based on the relations of: B¼

bPS ¼bPt v

ð4:2Þ

. In this equation the parameters are: B the fuel needed for the journey in kg or in lb; b the Specific Fuel Consumption of the engine in kg kWh-1 or in oz BTU-1; P the propulsion performance in kW or in BTU s-1; S the journey distance in nmi, mi ,or km, including drift due to wind in atmosphere and currents in water; • v the speed of the ship in nmi h-1, in km h-1 or in mph; and • t the time of the journey in h [58].

• • • •

The necessary information can be obtained from the fuel management documentation [59]. Figure 4.12 shows an example of the required fuel quantity as a function of the ship’s velocity. Fuel management provides optimal solutions to reduce fuel consumption. Merchant vessels, such as container ships, drive at a reduced speed to save fuel since the reduction of the speed from 25 to 20 knots, i.e., 46.3–37.04 km h-1 lowers consumption by about 20–25% [60]. Bulk carriers often deliver perishable goods; therefore, reducing the speed is not possible. Tankers can usually reduce speed without encountering any delivery problems. The fastest civil ships are high

4.3 Fuel Systems in Ships

75 loaded

fuel consumption [kg*sm-1]2)

250 200

unloaded plus ballast

150 100 50 0 13

15

17

1)

knots 2) sea miles

19

21

23

velocity of the ship [kn]1)

Fig. 4.12 Planning the required quantity of fuel for a bulk carrier

speed ferries or hydrofoil boats. They have the highest SFC, and the highest specific exhaust gas pollution and GHG emissions.

4.3.4 CO2 Index Data Analysis The CO2 index data analysis focuses on optimal fuel consumption. It is an entry level analysis, which identifies the main factors of voyages with unexpectedly high or low fuel consumption. The analysis is split into the individual vessels and a comparison of the fleet’s fuel consumption [61]. Ideally, the CO2 index data of sister vessels are used; see Fig. 4.13. The result of the CO2 index data analysis can be applied as input for the Operational Fuel Consumption Analysis, together with data from each ship. The experience of key crew members and the fleet management is integrated into the interactive analysis of actual fuel consumption and ranking of improvement measures.

4.4 Summary and Recommendations: Fuel System and Fuel Measurement The global tendencies of the market for fuel products are very similar and are showing continuous growth in the price structure. Fuel consumption can be measured in the fuel tank and in the fuel lines of the vehicles, airplanes, and ships. Dynamic fuel sensors continuously analyze the fuel flow from the tank to the engine and back from the engine to the tank.

76

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Fuel System and Fuel Measurement

CO2 index

CO2 index data analysis

operational fuel consumption analysis

ship

engine

energy efficiency reviews

certificate

report

workshop

operations

checklist

engineering analyses

simulations

cost benefit analyses

payback

recommendations and reports

summaries

Fig. 4.13 CO2 index analysis

The principles of the individual flow analyzing methods are different, but all current technologies are relatively expensive. Most devices measuring fuel flow are high precision micro system equipment, such as micro wings or micro turbines with rotation. Other principles are Coriolis mass flow, magnetic induction, and ultrasound technology. Further sensors use eddy current, thermal mass flow, and pressure flow. Experiences have proven that vehicles, airplanes, and ships operate more effectively when using on-board fuel and exhaust gas management which provides data about the fuel cost per day by monitoring fuel consumption along each route and passage, combined with other important navigation information. Estimated parameters can be transferred to the fuel management center, which surveys the fuel consumed along the route. Planning and budgeting are made easier with a detailed history of the vehicles’, airplanes’, and ships’ speed and location, direction, fuel consumption, and emissions. Using the high quality of information obtained by the system, accountants can also know the fuel prices in each tax region in time and can recommend the optimal bunker station for the crew to buy fuel. Monitoring and managing the fuel supply reduces fuel consumption, optimizes maintenance, ensures in-time delivery, and maintains profit margins. Self diagnosis could optimally detect deteriorations caused by natural wear in the engines by the use of one fuel type and fuel mixtures or by changing the fuel.

References

77

References 1. 80/1268/EEC: Fuel consumption of motor vehicles (16 Dec 1980), amended by 89/491/EEC (17 July 1989), 93/116/EC (17 Dec 1993), 1999/100/EC (15 Dec 1999), 2004/3/EC (11 Feb 2004) 2. Endres + Hauser: Durchflussmesstechnik. http://www.de.endress.com/eh/sc/europe/dach/de/ home.nsf/systemcontentview/ index.html?Open&DirectURL=D88E971BD4847D91C12573A80039705AVDO: 3. Fuel management (2007) PPL/IR. Europe magazine, November 4. Tank- und Kraftstoff system. 45th International CTI Forum. Stuttgart 31 March–1 April 2009. http://www.tanksysteme-forum.de 5. Types of fuel pumps. http://www.ehow.com/about_6371177_types-fuel-pumps.html 6. Electrical brushless fuel pump technology. Federal Mogul. http://www.federalmogul.com/ NR/rdonlyres/41941A7A-C69F-44C7-9B7D-BAE03B455B19/0/ BrushlessFuelPumpPresentation.pdf 7. Commission Directive 93/116/EC of December 1993 adapting to technical progress Council Directive 80/1268/EEC relating to fuel consumption of motor vehicles 8. ECE-R101: Uniform provisions concerning the approval of passenger cars powered by an internal combustion engine only, or powered by a hybrid electric power train with regard to the measurement of the emission of carbon dioxide and fuel consumption and/or the measurement of electric energy consumption and electric range and of categories M1 and N1 vehicles powered by an electric power train only with regard to the measurement of electric energy consumption and electric range (18 June 2007) 9. 70/220/EEC: Measures to be taken against air pollution by emissions from motor vehicles (20 03 1970) 10. Council Directive of 26 June 1991 amending Directive 70/220/EEC on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to measures to be taken against air pollution by emissions from motor vehicles (91/441/EEC) 11. 40 CFR Part 600-113: Fuel economy and carbon-related exhaust emissions of motor vehicles 12. EPA Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS). CFR 40, 86, App. I. http://www. dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/udds.php 13. HWFET. 40 CFR, part 600, subpart B 14. Emission Test Cycle. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/jp_je05.php 15. Save as you drive. Background information for expert fuel savers. VW. March 2009. Article No. 960.1606.02.18 16. Kraftstoffverbrauch.http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kraftstoffverbrauch#LKW_und_Kraftomnibusse 17. Heavy-Duty Diesel Truck and Bus Engine. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/eu/hd.php 18. Weltweit leistungsstärkster Rollenprüfstand. http://www.emitec.com/technik/prueffeldeisenach/rollenpruefstand-leistungsstarker.html 19. EPA Urban Dynamometer Driving Schedule (UDDS) for heavy-duty vehicles. http:// www.dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/udds.php 20. Test method of heavy duty fuel consumption in Japan. 21 May 2011 http://www.iea.org/ work/2011/hdv/hirai.pdf 21. World Harmonized Stationary Cycle (HWSC). http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/ whsc.php 22. World Harmonized Transient Cycle (HWTC). http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/ whtc.php 23. DIN 700010:1990-05. System of road vehicles-Vocabulary of power-driven vehicles, combinations of vehicles and towed vehicles. Beuth Verlag. Norm. April 2004 24. Fuel system. http://www.encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/fuel+system 25. Fuel tank. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_tank#Aircraft 26. Hibbert A, Oxlade C, Pickening F (2004) Autos, Flugzeuge, Schiffe. Parragon. ISBN: 1-40543-467-8

78 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32.

33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. 46. 47. 48. 49. 50. 51. 52. 53. 54. 55. 56.

4

Fuel System and Fuel Measurement

Fuel pump. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_pump Fuel filter. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_filter Combustor. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustor FADEC. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Full_Authority_Digital_Engine_Control EU OPS. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/EU_OPS Commission Regulation (EC) No 859/2008 of 20 August 2008 amending Council Regulation (EEC) No 3922/91 as regards common technical requirements and administrative procedures applicable to commercial transportation by aeroplane. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/ LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:254:0001:0238:EN:PDF IFR flight. http://www.faa.gov/library/manuals/aviation/instrument_flying_handbook/media/ FAA-H-8083-15A%20-%20Chapter%2010.pdf Mikulás J (2010) Discussions and written recommendations. Malév. Budapest Hungary, 2010/2011 ETOPS. http://en/wikipedia.org/wiki/etops Conducting an effective flight review. http://www.faa.gov/pilots/training/media/flight_review. pdf ETOPS, Extended Operations, and En Route Alternate Airport. Boeing FAA/AAAE, 22 Oct 2003 http://www.boeing.com/commercial/airports/faqs/etopseropsenroutealt.pdf Equal-time point. http://www.aviaionglossary.com/airline-defintion/equal-time-point-etp-etops Minimum fuel for ETP. http://www.aviationshop.com.au/avfacts/sample/inst38.pdf Air support. Flight service providers. http://www.airsupport.dk/en/product_solutions/ flight_service_providers.aspx Flight planning. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_planning MAS—Maritime assembly systems. http://www.nauticexpo.com/prod/mas-maritimeassembly-systems/heavy-fuel-oil-supply-systems-for-ship-filtration-heating-pressurising31333-193061.html Handbuch Schiffsbetriebstechnik (2006) Seehafen Verlag. 1 Edition, ISSN-10: 3-87743-816-4 Nautic expo: ship engine supply systems. http://www.nauticexpo.com/cat/marine-propulsionauxiliary-systems-generator-sets-for-ships/ship-engine-supply-systems-air-water-fuel-oilDA-1446.html Guideline for proper heating of fuel oil storage tank. http://www.shipsbusiness.com/heatingof-fuel-oil-storage-tank.html Bright hub: fuel pump working principle simplified. http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/ marine/articles/44939.aspx Marine insight. a comprehensive list of fuel, diesel and lub oil tanks on ship. http:// www.marineinsight.com/marine/a-comprehensive-list-fuel-diesel-and-lube-oil-tanks-on-aship/ Double bottom. http://www.ariesmar.com/double-bottom.php Refrigerator engineer. http://www.refrigeration-engineer.com/forums/showthread.php?5793preheating-fuel-with-exhaust-gas-in-ship Ship fuel tank level measurement. http://www.vegacontrols.co.uk/applications_fp2.asp? caseStudyID=125 Oily water separators. Ensuring compliance with MARPOL. http://www.marisec.org/ OILYWATER6pp.pdf Micro Motion 7829 Viscomaster Meter optimizes engine fuel burning with more reliable viscosity control. http://www.documentation.emersonprocess.com/groups/public_public_ mmisami/documents/application_notes-tech._briefs/an-001238.pdf Gear meters: fuel flow meters. http://www.awflowmeters.com/about/fuel_flow_meters.html Controlling vessels and tanks. http://www.driedger.ca/ce6_v&t/CE6_V&T.html Engine monitoring system. Technical information. Version I. http://www.enginei.co.uk/ brochures/Enginei%20Tech%20info%20rev.pdf. 1 Oct 2010 SOLAS II-2-Construction. Part B: Prevention of fire and explosions. Regulation 4. Probability of ignition. http://www.dft.gov.uk/mca/mcga07-home/shipsandcargoes/mcgashipsregsandguidance/mcga-spubs/mcga-gr-solas_ii-2/mcga-gr-solas_ii-2-regulation4.htm

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57. Kongsberg: Vessel performance optimizer. Cost efficient vessel operation. http://www.km. kongsberg.com/ks/web/nokbg0397.nsf/AllWeb/302A1A3175AB5D4DC12574CC0045D82A/ $flie/KM-Vessel-performance.pdf?OpenElement 58. Bright hub: bunkering operations: precautions, checklist, calculations & corrections explained. http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/marine/articles/35476.aspx 59. Fuel measurement and management system. http://www.parker.com/portal/site/PARKER/ menuitem.7100150cebe5bbc2d6806710237ad1ca/?vgnextoid=f5c9b5bbec622110VgnVCM 10000032a71dacRCRD&vgnextfmt=DE&vgnextdiv=&vgnextcatid=2656571&vgnextcat= FUEL%20MEASUREMENT%20AND%20MANAGEMENT%20SYSTEMS.12574CC00 45D82A/$file/KM-Vessel-performance.pdf?OpenElement 60. Clean north sea shipping (CNSS). http://www.cleantech.cnss.no/ghg-technologies/operationalmeasures/operational-speed-reduction/ 61. Germanischer Lloyd (2008) CO2 index data analysis. Nonstop. The Magazine for Customers and Business Partners. Hamburg, pp 33. OE 003. [email protected]

Chapter 5

Emissions

Transportation produces exhaust gas emissions. The products are gases, particles, noise, and heat. However, pollutants can be emitted not only by engines but also by other devices such as fire extinguishers, fuel tanks, and refrigerators on vehicles, airplanes, and ships. Most emissions are produced by the burning process in internal combustion engines [1]. Combustion produces several types of substances, which intensively influence the atmosphere [2]. Diesel and kerosene contain approximately 85% carbon and 15% hydrogen [3], petrol has a higher concentration of hydrogen. They theoretically burn according to the equations [4]: 12 kgC þ 32 kgO2 ! 44 kgCO2 þ 407; 500 kJ

ð5:1Þ

4 kgH þ 32 kgO2 ! 36 kgH 2 O þ 481; 500 kJ:

ð5:2Þ

5.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Combustion Products The main products of combustion are CO2 and H2O: CH 4 þ 2O2 ! CO2 þ 2H 2 O:

ð5:3Þ

The CO2 emissions from human activities are approximately (21.00– 25.00) 9 109 t year-1, i.e., (46.26–55.07) 9 1012 lb year-1. Transportation emits approximately 1=3 of the whole CO2 emissions on the Earth, i.e., (8.5– 9.0) 9 109 t year-1, i.e., (18.72–19.82) 9 1012 lb year-1 [5]. The combustion of 1.0 kg of pure carbon produces 3.67 kg, i.e., 8.10 lb of CO2. Burning 1 kg, i.e., 2.208 lb gasoline produces 2.9 kg, i.e., 6.402 lb of CO2. Burning

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_5,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

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5

Emissions

1 kg diesel fuel or kerosene emits approximately 3.15 kg, i.e., 6.95 lb of CO2. Conversion from mass to volume depends on density. 1 l of gasoline produces about 2.32 kg, i.e., 5.11 lb CO2. Burning 1 l of diesel fuel or kerosene emits about 2.32 kg, i.e., 5.11 lb of CO2. 1 l of liquefied petroleum gas emits 1.8–2.0 kg, i.e., 3.96–4.41 lb CO2, depending on the proportion of C to H atoms in the fuel [6]. The fuel consumption of 5.6 l 9 (100 km)-1, i.e., 0.305 gal mi-1 (US) or 0.41 gal mi-1 (UK) petrol results in the emission of 130 g km-1, i.e., 4.585 oz km-1 or 7.384 oz mi-1 CO2. This is the current European level for car emissions in NEDC [7]. Burning 1 t diesel fuel or kerosene emits 1.24 t, i.e., 2 733 lb of water vapor. Emissions of H2O vapor on the Earth are much higher than the CO2 emissions, due to the large surface of the oceans but water vapor does not negatively influence the climate, with the exception of the emissions of airplanes at higher altitudes [8]. In practice, a small volume results in not completely burned end products of oxidation, such as CO and several hydrocarbon (HC) substances or oxidation products made of atmospheric nitrogen, such as NO and NO2. Substances such as CO, HC, NO, NO2, and SO2 are pollutants and dangerous to human health. They are not stable products because OH radicals change them from their intermediate state to end products in the atmosphere: CO þ OH ! CO2 þ H:

ð5:4Þ

A modern self ignition engine combusted by diesel fuel and a jet engine combusted by kerosene produce on average 3 kg (6.6 lb) of CO per 1.0 t (2,204 lb) of fuel [9]. Depending upon the type of internal combustion engine and the range of use, the value varies between 1.1 kg (2.4 lb) and 8.7 kg (19.2 lb). Global human CO emissions amount to approximately 1,077 9 106 t (2,372 9 109 lb) per year [10]. Transportation emits approximately one-fifth of the total CO amounts. Unburned HCs are the ultimate products of combustion and can react to intermediate and later to heterocyclic aromatic organic substances, which are carcinogenic: CH 4 þ OH ! CH 3 þ H 2 O:

ð5:5Þ

Self ignition and jet engines emit approximately 0.7 kg (1.5 lb) of unburned HCs per 1.0 t (2,204 lb) of fuel on average. The mass varies between 0.1 kg (0.22 lb) and 3.5 kg (7.7 lb) [11]. The amount of world anthropogenic HC production is approximately 275 9 106 t (606 9 109 lb) per year. Depending on the quality of combustion, between 6 kg (13.2 lb) and 20 kg (44.1 lb), on average of 14.7 kg (32.4 lb) of NO per 1.0 t (2,204 lb) fuel is produced, mainly due to the high temperatures in the combustion zone where the nitrogen molecule dissociates and finally oxidizes [12]: O2 þ N ! NO þ O:

ð5:6Þ

The annual global NOx (NO plus NO2) emissions are 195 9 106 t i.e., 430 9 109 lb. Most of them (156 9 106 t, i.e., 338 9 109 lb) are caused by

5.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Combustion Products Table 5.1 Properties of air and gaseous substances in air Melting point Substance Densitya kg m Air Oxygen Nitrogen Carbon dioxide Carbon monoxide Methane Propane Sulphur dioxide Steamb Hydrogen a b

1.29 1.43 1.25 1.98 1.25 0.72 2.00 2.93 0.60 0.09

-3

83

Boiling point

(lb ft )

C

(F)

C

(F)

(0.081) (0.089) (0.078) (0.124) (0.078) (0.045) (0.125) (0.183) (0.037) (0.006)

-220 -218 -210 -57 -199 -183 -182 -73 ±0 -258

(-364) (-360) (-346) (-71) (-326) (-297) (-296) (-99) (32) (-432)

-191 -183 -196 -78 -191 -162 -42 -10 +100 -253

(-312) (-297) (-321) (-108) (-312) (-260) (-44) (14) (212) (-423)

-3

Normal state 100C/212F

human beings through industry, transport, and domestic heating. Cars and trucks emit approximately 33 9 106 t of NOx. Both, the shipping and the aviation industry individually emit about 2.5 9 106 t, i.e., 5.51 9 109 lb per year, which is commonly 5.0 9 106 t year-1, i.e., 11.01 9 109 lb year-1 or 15% of the NOx exhaust masses caused by transportation [13]. Sulfur (S) burns with the oxygen of air and produces sulfur dioxide (SO2). S þ O2 ! SO2

ð5:7Þ 6

Anthropogenic sulfur dioxide emissions are approximately 150 9 10 t, i.e., 331 9 109 lb per year [15]. On the basis of the maximum value of the sulfur content in kerosene and gasoline, according to international standards, approximately 5 kg (11 lb) of SO2 is emitted per 1.0 t (2,204 lb) of fuel. However, in practice the emissions might be substantially lower owing to better fuel quality. SO2 causes acid rain which affects nature and also causes several diseases, and dangerous processes for human health and infrastructure [14]. Table 5.1 shows the properties of air and of gaseous components in air [16]. In both, the short- and the long-term scenarios, reducing fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions constitute the two most important topics of transportation.

5.2 Measurement of Emissions Definitions for emission analyzing technology are similar in all sectors of transport, i.e., road traffic, aviation, and maritime shipping. The measurement procedure and the equipment for the Type approval and the Type certification can be divided into four main groups; see Fig. 5.1.

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R&D expensive scientific instruments

I&M moderate cost device to test quality

TA & TC expensive large certified analysers for basic tests of quality

OBD inexpensive micro sensors and actuators for saving data during normal operation

R - Research D - Development

TA - Type Approval TC - Type Certification

I - Inspection M - Maintenance

Fig. 5.1 Instruments for measuring emissions in the whole life cycle of transportation

Emissions can be determined at: • Engine test benches; • Vehicle dynamometer test benches; and • On-board of vehicles, ships, and airplanes. The basic method of all procedures is the examination of engine’s fuel consumption and exhaust gas emission at test benches with large, registered and verified analyzers. However, fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions of the most full size ships and airplanes cannot be tested in the same way those of road vehicles. Only small models designed from the original airplane or ship, can be placed and analyzed in flow models and wind tunnels. On-board measurement could provide an optional way for mobile quality control. However, CO2 and pollutant emissions in exhaust gases in real operation are not continuously monitored yet, because small sensors with high durability, sensitivity, and selectivity and high speed micro controller are missing. Large, in most cases modified, compact analyzer systems can measure real emissions in experiments only for short time periods and under predetermined conditions [17]. High temperatures and pressures in the combustion chamber and changing conditions in the real environment make measurement of the concentration of exhaust gas components very complicated.

5.2.1 Measurement at Test Benches Emissions of vehicles’, ships’, and airplanes’ engine are usually tested at test benches. The example in Fig. 5.2 shows the analysis of exhaust gases behind a jet engine [18].

5.2 Measurement of Emissions

85 exhaust gas shaft

filler

engine

air flow exhaust gas exhaust gas pipe - stressed wires - sampling point - stainless steel gas pipe

measuring unit

Fig. 5.2 Test bench for the control of jet engines emissions

The exhaust gas can be taken via a stainless steel gas pipe behind the engine in the exhaust gas pipe. The measurement devices are basically the same for vehicles, airplanes, and ships. • • • •

Chemo Luminescence Detector (CLD) for NOx, NO, and NO2; Flame Ionization Detector (FID) for HC; Fourier Transformation Infra Red (FTIR) spectrometers for CO and CO2; and Opacimeters, and filter-based or photo acoustic methods for smoke and particle measurements.

5.2.2 Measurement On-Board In all means of transportation sensors are used for recording data. Sensors convert physical or chemical parameters into an electric signal on a miniature scale. The analog input signals may be steadily linear, steadily nonlinear, or repeatedly stepped. The output signals are current, tension, amplitude, frequency, etc., which are analog and can be changed to a binary digital form [19]. The common mechanical, physical, chemical, electrical, magnetic, and climatic conditions in vehicles, airplanes, and ships define the placement of sensors. Sensors must: • Steer, brake, and protect all operational processes if necessary; • Monitor the engine, transmission, undercarriage, wheels, and tires; and • Inform the driver or the captain of the performance, the fuel consumption, and the emissions.

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A small size and a low price are the main preconditions for the wide ranging use of sensors in transportation. There are different methods for the miniaturization of sensors and actuators [20]: • Combination of micro mechanical, micro electrical, and micro optical engineering production methods; • Utilization of uniform and flexible multibus interfaces, which is a standard application in industrial computer systems; • Combination of multi layer, hybrid, and semiconductor technologies; • Application of small measurement errors with highly developed tuner amplifiers; • Changing analog signals to High Frequency signals for data transfer with low hysteresis; • Correction of sensor deviations at the measurement site; • Comparison of measured values with stored basic values and compensation of the sensor signals; and • Storage of corrected information in the Electronic Programmable Read-Only Memory (PROM) Temperature, pressure, speed, number of revolutions, and inclination sensors are widely used in all means of transportation. The direct analysis of combustion products is still not state of the art and is one of the hardest measurement tasks. One exception is the solid electrochemical technology for oxygen measurement. These sensors are called Lambda tubes, operate with zirconium dioxide, and optimally measure the O2 concentration in the exhaust gas in two places— upstream and downstream of the catalyst. The measuring tube consists of an integrated heating element and provides the necessary operating temperature of 600C (1,112F) [21]. A changed form of Lambda sensor measures the NO concentration. Similarly designed solid electrolytic measuring cells can be used for the analysis of unburned substances such as CO and HC. Semiconductor and metallic oxide sensors do not have the required accuracy and selectivity yet. Anemometers, and Pitot and Prandtl tubes are important elements for the air mass flow estimation in the air intake system for the combustion engine measurement technology. The first operates with a heated wire, and the second with combined pressure, sensors. The detector elements are usually installed in a Wheatstone bridge to improve the precision of the signals [22]. The measurement of the mass flow of the exhaust gas is a very complicated technology because of high temperatures and pressures, and fast changes of the physical and chemical parameters in the combustion chamber and in the exhaust gas after treatment system. The mass flow of individual combustion products in the bend pipe of the combustion chamber and in the end pipe of the exhaust gas after treatment system can be estimated only with highly complex technology to achieve the required accuracy.

5.2 Measurement of Emissions

87

5.2.3 Remote Sensing Technology There are several optical remote sensing methods to measure the composition of exhaust gases, e.g., when flying over ships with airplanes. Laser analyzers, installed on the test airplane, measure the composition of the exhaust gas emitted from the smoke stack. These methods are very expensive and are used only in protected areas to control the ship’s real emissions. Similar methods have been used at airports for analyzing the emissions of taxiing and taking-off airplanes. The detection system measures the emissions using the absorption of laser signals from the reflected optical path. The lowest concentrations, which can be detected, are 0.5–1.0 ppm of CH4, 2.0–3.0 ppm of CO, 10.0–20.0 ppm of NO, and 0.5– 1.0 ppm of CO2. The resolution of laser operated remote sensing devices generally presents a very high quality measurement technology with clustered, coherent laser beams, not only at the test bench but under natural conditions too. Remote sensing systems cost from 20,000 to several hundred thousand Euros or US Dollars [23]. Monitoring combustion in the engines of vehicles, ships, and airplanes can be done in several phases. In the research and development phase, large, expensive, and locally fixed systems in laboratories are usually used. These devices can detect very small concentrations, provide large measuring ranges, and display extremely short-term events. They can also measure a wide range of different gases at the same time. However, the mobile application of these devices is very limited and transport of them is, in most cases, not possible.

Emissions in Road Traffic Emissions can be determined with large analyzers on-board, if the verified equipment tested at the test bench is carried by a holding device with springs and absorption devices in cars and in duty vehicles. Despite the general feasibility, the use of certified large instruments in traffic is still very limited because of their sensitivity to vibrations, high temperatures, pressures, and soot peaks in the exhaust gas. However, certified gas analyzers produce precise results in driving for short time intervals, if their mechanical construction is very stable and cushioned and high capacity accumulators save the energy. CO2 and NO concentrations present similar tendencies because all of these parameters are dependent on the load of the engine. In the most cases, unburned substances have an inverse or a diverged course. An oxygen sensor in road vehicles is the state of the art and uses a uniform interface system. Others, mostly experimental systems, consist of sensors for the common analysis of HC and CO, and individual temperatures or pressures. Further systems measure engine speed, acceleration, angle of inclination, turbidity, and NO concentration in the exhaust gas. The development of further sensors still requires intensive research activity.

5 12.0

optimal characteristics

-1

EI [g*kgfuel ]

8.0

changed characteristics with deterioration

4.0

thrust [kW]

0 0

120

80

200

400

600

800 1 000 1 200 [°C]

engine fuel flow rate [kg*s-1]

88

Emissions

12.0

8.0

4.0

0 0

deterioration normal function

200

400

600

800 1 000 1 200

exhaust gas temperature [°C]

deterioration

normal function

40

0 0

200

400

600

800 1 000 1 200

exhaust gas temperature [°C]

Fig. 5.3 Change of emission index by wear

5.4 Emissions in Aviation In contrast to reciprocating engines in vehicles, airplane jet engines show very gentle concentration distributions without high peaks, except during takeoff and landing phases. The mass flow is mainly dependent on the load and altitude, which correlates to the speed. The concentration of exhaust gases is usually very low, because of high dilution from the secondary air flow produces a low polluted mixture in the exhaust pipe of the engine. However, the total mass flow of pollutants and CO2 is basically high. Measurement of combustion procedures does not belong to the typical monitoring of jet engine technology yet, although deviations in engine operation clearly lead to higher fuel consumption and higher exhaust gas emissions. Recent technology operates with analyzes for temperature, pressure, and number of revolutions. Considerations of wear and tear are based on Emission Index technology; see Fig. 5.3 [24]. Emission Index technology surveys the emission of the engine on the test bench during the certification procedure and uses statistical results of short- and longterm observation of an engine’s operation. To estimate wear and tear of the engine, exhaust gas emissions are measured at test benches and given the standardized LTO cycle represented by an engine power

89

10 000

6 000 4 000 25 %

2 000

takeoff

cruise

20 43 % 10

0

takeoff

emission index NOx -1 per engine performance [kg*h ]

100 %

8 000

0

250

30 100 % emission index NOx per -1 consumed fuel [kg*kg ]

consumption per engine [kg*h-1]

5.4 Emissions in Aviation

cruise

100 % 200 150 100 50 0

11 % takeoff

cruise

Cruising altitude is 10 650 m (34 984 ft), speed is 850 km*h-1 (459 mi*hr-1)

Fig. 5.4 Comparison of average fuel consumption and emission data in takeoff and cruising of engine type A310/CF6-80

setting of 7% taxiing (26 min), 30% approaching (4 min), 85% climbing (2.2 min), and 100% takeoff (0.7 min). Outputs of HC, CO, NO, and NO2 in g kg-1 of the fuel burnt are reported together with the fuel flow. The measured emissions for all power settings are provided for a variety of engines [25]. To control air quality near airports strict directives require the continuous monitoring of pollutants’ concentration with environmental measuring stations. Recent technology, uses certified measurement instruments in these stations, in the most cases designed as a measuring container [26]. Real emission rates of individual airplanes cannot be accurately estimated with ground-based measurement. They need on-board experimental technology in airplanes. Recently, databases have been created from test bench experiments on airplanes. Merely a few individual airplanes with a specific and a very complete on-board ‘‘flying’’ laboratory present realistic results concerning the fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions in flight; see Fig. 5.4 [27]. There is the highest level of pollutants in the takeoff phase. Other phases of airplane operation at and near airports, i.e., taxiing, climbing, descenting, and landing cause less emissions. The air traffic is the origin of approximately 90% of emissions at airports; see Table 5.2 [28]. Exhaust gas emissions at airports have a special meaning for nearby residents, employees, and passengers. The measurement of individual emission sources at airports with environmental measuring stations such as measuring containers is not possible because of influencing factors in the environment. ‘‘Driving behind’’ is an uncommon experimental method where a motor vehicle with measuring instruments, and a sample tube and security plate follows the airplane on the taxiway; see Fig. 5.5 [29]. Despite the relatively small distance between the mobile analyzer in car and the airplane, the measured concentration strictly depends on the weather conditions. Experience has shown that substantially higher concentrations can be detected on calm and cold days than on sunny and windy days.

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Table 5.2 Ratio of emissions at airports

Source of emissions Air traffic Airport worka Ground traffic Sum of emissions a

Emissions

Ratio of exhaust gas (%) NOx

HC

CO

44 6 3 53

4 1 0 5

34 5 3 42

APU, Ground Power Unit, fuelling, apron, power station

steel protection wall CO2 + H2O + N2+ O2 SO2 + SO3 + HC + CO + CFM+ NO + NO2

runway air + fuel

sample take with steel tube

mobile analyser car

Fig. 5.5 ‘‘Driving behind’’ method

5.5 Emissions in Ship Navigation Like aviation, ship transportation belongs to the most intensively prospering branches of economy. Ships’ diesel engines burn heavy fuels with low volatility. Both fuel quality and engine operating characteristics have a high effect on the exhaust gas composition and concentration; see Fig. 5.6. However, despite similarities, the composition of exhaust gas substances and the level of emissions in ships are vastly different from other types of transportation. MARPOL 73/78 Convention, Annex VI requires intensively decreasing emissions, similar to the EU and USA, and to other national directives [30]. Clean Shipping Index technology is gaining importance [31]. Revision of MARPOL Annex VI and the NOx Technical Code prescribes measures to decrease emissions worldwide [32]. Environmental Committees create frame conditions for the introduction of new control mechanisms [33]. The Vessel Efficiency System already contains elements of Self Diagnosis technology [34]. It can be an important measure for saving fuel and for comparing exhaust gas emissions with limiting values or time intervals which are decisive for maintaining and replacing engine components. In the future, on-board measured

5.5 Emissions in Ship Navigation 1 concentration CO [ppm]

91 2

3

4

5

6

7

1 500 750 0

concentration CO2 [ppm]

concentration NO [ppm]

90 000 45 000 0

1 500 7500 0 2

4

6

8

20 time [min]

1. 3. 7. low rpm 4. middle rpm

5. 4. 6.

high level rpm very high level rpm

Fig. 5.6 Tendencies of the exhaust gas concentrations of a supply ship while idling in harbor

CO2 emissions from ships can help determine emission trading fees and pollutant emissions can be used to calculate harbor fees, both on the basis of real emission data.

5.6 Summary and Recommendations: Emissions from Transportation Certified large analyzers, such as Chemo Luminescent Detectors (CLD) are used at the engine test bench for the determination of the concentrations of nitrogen monoxide and nitrogen dioxide. The concentration of unburned HCs is determined using FID devices. Carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide concentrations are determined through gas absorption with FTIR spectrometer. Particle and soot emissions are measured by optical, photo acoustic, or filtering devices. This equipment is usually used in laboratories. Because of their sensitivity to vibration and their high energy demands, these devices can be applied only for short periods for mobile operations in the field. Laser technology opens up several possibilities for remotely sensing exhaust gas emissions in transportation. The outputs of vehicles can be measured by highly

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precise laser analyzers at the edge of the road or on bridges of the highway. The exhaust gases of jet engines near and at airports and of ship engines near and in harbors can also be determined by stationary remote sensing equipment.

5.6.1 Vehicle Emissions Exhaust gas emissions of vehicles are measured at engine test and dynamometer test benches with certified, large analyzers. Most precise instruments are sensitive to vibration, so they may be used if they can be positioned without move. Moreover, they are not suited for hard real traveling conditions during driving. Due to the high energy demand, the time interval of use in the field is limited. Micro sensors present a useful way to monitoring real operations. They always have to be combined with a micro controller system for in situ amplifying, correcting, and linearizing of measured signals. There are two ways to lower the exhaust gas emissions of vehicles. • Building new transportation systems with a high technical level of on-board monitoring; and • Retrofitting the existing fleet with additional monitoring and regulating devices. Retrofitting private cars is usually too expensive. However, heavy-duty vehicles could be advantageously retrofitted with adequate Self Diagnosis. Vehicle engines have become more intelligent through the introduction of advanced micro temperature and pressure sensors in the combustion chambers. They already provide a new control quality of highly dynamically changed parameters of burning processes. The tendency will lead to the combination and the integration of sensors, actuators, and micro computer systems for sensing, acting, and data processing. Future vehicles will become intelligent tools with the highest possible efficiency for transport, information, communication, and entertainment.

5.6.2 Airplane Emissions Since 1993, measurements of exhaust gas emissions of a single engine have been performed at the manufacturer’s test facilities as part of the certification process, in compliance with requirements of ICAO international standards and recommended practices of Annex 16 to the convention of international civil aviation. In addition to the test bench, the emissions of the airplane’s engine can be measured on the airplane during idling and taxiing at the airport with help of the ‘‘Driving behind’’ method. Disadvantageously, the results depend in a great extend on weather conditions. Specific aviation measuring technology with the ‘‘Flying behind’’ method provides realistic and very precise results. However, experiments at high altitudes are dangerous and expensive.

5.6 Summary and Recommendations: Emissions from Transportation

93

Airplanes emit the highest amounts of NO, NO2, and particles in the takeoff phase near airports. To monitor pollutants from aircraft in this situation, the ICAO established emission measurement procedures and compliance standards for soot, measured as Smoke Number, unburned hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide, and nitrogen oxides for procedures at aircrafts. Highly precise emission analysis devices in environmental measurement containers can estimate the distribution of exhaust gas components in the atmosphere, but the allocation of peaks to individual airplanes depends on weather conditions. That is why the landing and the takeoff cycle (LTO cycles) of an airplane is defined with test bench data which provide precise conditions for comparison. Aircraft operators can contribute to the reduction of pollutants in the exhaust gas by running and acting upon the results of an engine degradation monitoring program.

5.6.3 Ship Emissions Monitoring the emissions of exhaust gases in the smoke stack can precisely characterize the operation of a ship’s engine. Higher concentrations of exhaust gas products in comparison with the normal level can be used as recommendations for early maintenance or for engine repairs. Near harbors, remote sensing methods can be applied to control exhaust gas emissions, but fast changing ambient air temperatures, pressure, humidity, wind speed, and wind direction often make it impossible to use the signals to create clear decisions concerning the sources of emissions, although it allows to regulate levying taxes based on exhaust gas emissions. To reduce fuel consumption and pollutants in the atmosphere of harbors, management has to consider not only energy saving methods in the operation of ships, but also possibilities for improving the on-shore energy supply in harbors and replacing conventionally fuelled duty vehicles for logistic with environmentally friendly driven vehicles. Emissions of public and private cars, and logistic vehicles can cause a very high local concentration near parking garages and terminals at harbors. The use of alternative fuels in heavy duty vehicles, public buses, and cabs can intensively decrease emissions in harbors.

References 1. Combustion. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion 2. What is the balanced equation for the combustion of kerosene? http://en.wiki.answers.com/Q/ What_is_the_balanced_equation_for_the_combustion_of_kerosene 3. Emission facts: average carbon dioxide emissions resulting from gasoline and diesel fuel. EPA420-F-05-001 February 2005. http://www.epa.gov/oms/climate/420f05001.htm 4. Fuel chemistry. http://www.altfuels.org/backgrnd/fuelchem.html

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5. Carbon dioxide. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_dioxide 6. What’s the difference between gasoline, kerosene, diesel, etc.? http://www.auto.howstuff works.com/fuel-efficiency/alternative-fuels/question1051.htm 7. European emission standard. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/European_emission_standards 8. Fabian P (2002) Leben im Treibhaus. Springer, Berlin. ISBN: 3-540-43361-6 9. Carbon monoxide. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Carbon_monoxide 10. Earth trends—climate and atmosphere. Air pollution: carbon monoxide emissions. http:// www.earthtrends.wri.org/searchable_db/index.php?step=countries&ccID% 5B%5D=0&allcountries=checkbox&theme=3&variable_ID=814&action=select_years 11. Unburned hydrocarbons. http://www.Evri.com/substance/unburned-hydrocarbons-0xcbdab 12. Nitrous oxide. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nitrous_oxide 13. Nitrous oxide. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Special:Search?search=nitrous+ oxides&fulltext=Search 14. Sulfur dioxide. http://www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Sulfur_dioxide 15. Earth Trends. The environmental information portal. http://www.wn.org/project/earthtrends 16. Air composition. http://www.engineeringtoolbox.com/air-composition-d_212.html 17. Analyzing on-road emissions of light-duty vehicles with Portable Emission Measurement Systems (PEMS). JRC Scientific and Technical Reports. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ Combustion 18. Jet engine test cells, stands and facilities. http://www.edfinc.com/services-gas-turbineengine-test-facilities.html 19. Sensor. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor 20. Sensors web portal. http://www.sensorsportal.com/HTML/Sensor.htm 21. Lambda sensors. http://www.picoauto.com/applications/lambda-sensor.html 22. Hot wire anemometry. http://www.lab-systems.com/products/flow-mea/Hot_wire_anemo metry.html 23. Laser gas. Open path monitor. http://www.neomonitors.com 24. JAR-E. Joint aviation requirements for engines. http://www.jaa.nl/section1/jarsec1.html 25. AA241B: aircraft emissions. Stanford University. http://www.adg.stanford.edu/aa241/ emissions/AA241Emissions.pdf 26. Chapter 12: Pollutant emissions. Emissions methodology. http://www.lissys.demon.co.uk/ pug/c12.html 27. Umweltforschung, Schadstoff in der Luftfahrt. Abschlusskolloquium des BMBFVerbundprogramms. 31 March 1998. DLR Projektträger des BMBF 28. Flughafen Düsseldorf Internationale (2007) Nachbarschaftsdialog und Immissionsschutz. Berechnung der Flugverkehrsemissionen am Flughafen Düsseldorf 1993-2006 29. Eickhoff W (1998) Emissionen organisch-chemischer Verbindungen aus zivilen Flugzeugt riebwerken. Umweltplanung, Arbeits- und Umweltschutz, Flughafen Frankfurt. Report No. 252 30. Annex VI of MARPOL 73/78 Regulation for the prevention of air pollution from ships and NOx. technical code. IMO London 1998 31. Clean shipping index. Guidance Document Version 2. January 2010. Developed by the clean shipping project. Gothenburg, Sweden. http://www.cleanshippingproject.se/Guidance_ document.pdf 32. Revision of MARPOL Annex VI and the NOx technical code. http://www.dnv.com/industry/ maritime/publicationsanddownloads/publications/dnvtankerupdate/2008/no22008/ revisisonofmarpol.asp 33. IMOMEPC 59 Report. Lloyd‘s Register on the 59th session of IMO Maritime Environmental Protection Committee. Prevention of air pollution from ships (WG) (Agenda Item 4), pp 8–10. 24 July 2009. https://www.cdlive.lr.org/information/Documents/IMOMarineServices2009/ LR%20IMO%20MEPC59%20Report.pdf 34. IMO Reduction of GHG emissions from Ships. 13 August 2010. Vessel efficiency system. Proposal to establish a Vessel Efficiency System (VES). MEPC61/INF.2, pp 117–118 http:// www.imo.org/OurWork/Environment/PollutionPrevention/AirPollution/Documents/INF2.pdf

Chapter 6

Electronic Systems and Computer Technology

Manufacturers of ships, airplanes, and vehicles introduced the first electronic equipment at the beginning of the 1980s. These systems have different names in road transportation, aviation, and marine transport, but they universally mean an internal system of monitoring and regulating all operation functions with electronic systems and computer technology. Self Diagnosis is closely connected with the development of electronic technology. Electronics and computer technology opened novel possibilities for diagnosing errors and regulating optimal conditions in all vehicles, airplanes, and ships over the last few decades.

6.1 Construction of Electronic Systems In transportation, most mechanical, physical, and chemical parameters are analog quantities. The signals are usually variable and continuous. They have to be transformed into analog electric signals, which represent information by voltage, or capacity current, etc. Analog signals can be precisely transmitted by frequency modulation from the sensor to the electronic circuit or from the electronic circuit to the actuator or to the display [1]. Historically, the analog system determined the measurement of all important physical parameters of vehicles, airplanes, and ships including engine and auxiliary devices, and the environment. The advantage of analog electronic regulators is their simplicity. The justification is mostly only carried out with potentiometers. Analog electronic systems measure, e.g., the fuel level in the tank, the humidity of the intake air, the temperature, and the pressure in the engine’s combustion chamber are often placed in the cylinder head, the concentration of exhaust gas substances, such as the oxygen concentration in the exhaust pipe, etc. (see Fig. 6.1) [2]. Sensors which produce analog signals need an Analog–Digital Converter (ADC). One of the most important sensor types, the k sensor provides an analog M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_6,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

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injection pump

actuator

generator

engine

impulse receiver 3 1 2

analogue electronic module

4

desired value

5

1. divided monitoring feedback 2. output transfer

3. P control 4. I control 5. D control

Fig. 6.1 Analogue control and regulation devices in a ship’s engine

signal between 0 and 1.1 V. Digital systems transform continuous analog signals to discrete digital signals which represent two states, zero and a higher level one. They are more precise than analog signals and can be processed by computer controlled software. Digital circuits are usually more expensive and need a higher supply power than analog systems [3]. Digital parameters are the number of revolutions or individual positions in the engine which can be measured with impulse receivers. Digital–Analog Converters (DAC) convert digital signals to analog signals to drive electric motors or regulate actuators in vehicles, airplanes, and ships [4]. The hardware consists of electronic components on a printed circuit board equipped with analog elements, such as resistors, condensers, switchers, connectors, plugs, etc., and digital elements, such as integrated circuits and micro controllers (lC) [5]. The software is stored in the micro controller or other chips on the electronic circuit, typically in an Electrically Erasable Programmable Read-Only Memory (EEPROM) or flash memory. A micro controller is a small computer on a single integrated circuit containing a processor core, a memory and a programmable input or output peripherals. Programmable control units do not have fixed characteristics and can be reprogrammed by the user or the operator for several measures which are not essential for the basic functioning of the system [6]. In ships, digital systems may communicate text from Computer-Aided Dispatch (CAD). Digital processing, combined with the relatively narrow receiver bandwidths, provides a high quality of signal transmission with resistance to noise and fading [7]. Electronic systems secure more and more complex in all types of transportation means, i.e., in road vehicles, airplanes, and ships (see Fig. 6.2).

6.2 Vehicles’ Electronics

97

Fig. 6.2 Elements of a motor vehicle’s electronic system

sensors

actuators battery, starter generator, electric devices

networking

on-board hardware on-board software

electronic system

auxiliary device system elements of safety engineering

information technology equipment

6.2 Vehicles’ Electronics In the past, fuel injection, ignition timing, idle speed, variable valve timing and valve operation etc., were directly controlled by mechanical, pneumatic and hydraulic sensors, and connected analog electronic modules. Electronics is one of the most intensively developed fields in transportation [8].

6.2.1 Electronic Control Unit The main element of the current electronic system is the Electronic Control Unit (ECU). It is an embedded system that controls one or more of the electric and electronic systems, and the subsystems in a vehicle. Recently developed ECUs are equipped with a data logger which records all sensor signals using highly developed software in an on-board installed and operating micro controller system. Some modern vehicles have up to 80 ECUs, including engine, transmission, telephone, body, door, seat, indoor air condition, speed, convenience control units and Man–Machine Interfaces (MMI) [9]. Current ECU technology monitors many functions in vehicle systems such as: • The idling speed which determines the timing of the fuel injection with the crankshaft position; • The engine cycle which opens and closes the intake air and fuel, and exhaust gas valves; • The ignition which determines when the spark plugs should fire; • The revolution limiter which limits the highest number of revolutions allowed in the engine; • The cooling water temperature correction which is needed to regulate additional fuel consumption when the engine is too cold or dangerously hot; • Transient fuelling, i.e., a specific amount of fuel when the throttle is opened; • Fuel pressure modification which increases or decreases the timing of the fuel injection to compensate for a drop in fuel pressure;

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• The first Lambda sensor signal which monitors the O2 concentrations in the exhaust gas after treatment system and modifies the fuelling to achieve a stoichiometric combustion; and • The exhaust gas mass at the waste gate which regulates the operation of the turbocharger [10]. Comprehensive ECU systems are essential elements in modern vehicles. Nowadays, modern vehicles cannot be built without ECU technology. Speed and course regulation, and driving stability, low consumption and emission quotas in extreme situations, are special examples of optimal management with help of intelligent electronic control systems.

6.2.2 Controller Area Network Bus Communication chips implement the various standards which are needed to communicate with the Controller Area Network (CAN) that is often used for communication between individual devices such as the traffic indicators, the signal horn, the spark plugs, the display instruments, the monitoring light, the airbag systems, the central locking, the immobilizer, the alarm theft system, the air conditioner, the interior heating system, etc. It communicates using two wires at a speed of 500 kilobits per second [11].

6.2.3 Structure of Diagnosis In modern vehicles, nearly all electric and electronic components in engine, transmission, steering, braking and other systems are monitored. The measured values, which are taken from sensors, are checked according to their plausibility by comparison of the individual signals with stored reference values. Moreover, all electric circuits are checked for ground defects, short circuits, and breaks in the wires. The general ECU diagnostic functions can be grouped in: • Self-monitoring checks – Controlling the micro controller modules such as Central Processor Unit (CPU), Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU), static and dynamic Random Access Memory (RAM), EEPROM, electronically programmable flash memory for data storage, ADC and DAC converters. • Periphery checks – Controlling the sensors and actuators for availability and functionality. • Communication diagnostic checks – Monitoring messages and signals on different communication lines.

6.2 Vehicles’ Electronics sensors

99 control device

actuators

auto control

short circuit

micro computer

display of replacement values and emergency procedure program

short circuit

storage of static and sporadic faults to indicate a diagnosis running and a MIL signal

Fig. 6.3 Electronic and computer diagnosis in vehicles

• Plausibility checks – Functional monitoring all operation processes, if the detected condition could arise and uncover complex failure modes or deteriorations [12]. An appropriate error code is stored for any recognized fault, which can be designed as a warning signal in the diagnosis system (see Fig. 6.3) [13]. In addition to possible disturbances in the main engine and in the exhaust gas after treatment system, deteriorations in other components can also lead to increased fuel consumption and higher exhaust gas emissions. Optimal control and regulation needs a comprehensive electronic system.

6.3 Airplanes’ Electronics Airplanes’ electronic equipment belongs to avionics. Equipment A manages communication, navigation, aircraft control, flight management, and observation of air traffic. Equipment B is installed for the control of life support, rescue, and safety. Equipment C includes the passenger seats, the luggage lags, the toilets, and the on-board kitchens. In military airplanes, this category includes the weapon fittings, the photo equipment, and the parachutes [14].

6.3.1 Flight Management Systems Flight Management Systems (FMS) integrate diverse and independently operable aircraft electronic systems to aid the flight crew in managing the automatic pilot, optimizing in-flight performance, and monitoring fuel consumption at flight deck displays [15].

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The FMS has one or more Flight Management Computers (FMC) which work with [16]: • Flight plan information which is set by the crew; • Airplane system data; • Performance data including airplane drag and engine characteristics, maximum and minimum speeds, and maximum and optimum altitudes. The flight crew may display these parameters on a Control Display Unit (CDU) instead of referring to a performance manual during flight; and • Navigation data with the database which includes nearly all information that is portrayed on conventional navigation charts. It can be depicted on navigation displays or on the CDU [17]. FMC receives fuel data from the system indicating fuel quantity and predicts performance based on the last valid fuel quantity with periodic update inputs for the estimated fuel weight that is needed to keep the current gross weight data. A message informs the crew when no update has been performed within the prescribed time or when an unexpected drop in fuel quantity is detected. The content of an automatic FMC report transmitted at pre-defined points can be a message from the ground to the FMC. Most of them require a pilot action to be accepted. However, there may be messages that are automatically loaded into the FMC. The computer technology serves commands and information required to roll on ground, and to fly an optimum altitude and direction through climbing, cruising, and descenting. The most important commands and information are: • Pitch, roll, and thrust commands; • N1 rotation limits, N1 rotation targets, and commands to flight speed; and • Position data with the computed position, which is continually updated by signals from on-board radio navigation, Inertial Reference System (IRS), and Global Positioning System (GPS) depending on the airplane equipment [18, 19]. The information is passed to the Autopilot Flight Director System which includes two separate Flight Control Computers (FCC) [20]. They send control commands to their respective pitch and roll hydraulic systems. The flight control operates with two separate hydraulic systems and moves F/D command bars on the altitude indicator [21]. The Auto Throttle system (AT) provides automatic thrust control by computing the required thrust level and moving the thrust levers with servo motors which equalize thrust through the electronic engine controls while CDUs receive map and route information [22]. The pilot selects the desired information for the navigation and supervises the operating modes of the autopilot on the control display of the Electronic Flight Instrument System (EFIS) [23].

6.3 Airplanes’ Electronics

101

6.3.2 Engine Monitoring System A turbofan engine consists of two mechanically independent rotors [24]. One rotor operates inside the other. The main elements are: • • • •

Fan; Low pressure compressor; Low pressure turbine installed on the inner rotor called N1 rotor; and Outer rotor called N2 that holds the high pressure compressor and high pressure turbine. The engine fuel and oil system include:

• • • • • • •

Valve for passing the fuel to the engine; Pump to increase fuel pressure; Fuel and an oil cooler and heater; Fuel filter; Pump to further increase fuel pressure; Shut off valve before the combustion chamber; and Fuel flow meter providing flow information to the FMS. The basic parameters of the engine are:

• • • • • • •

N1 and N2 rotation speeds; Exhaust Gas Temperature; Oil pressure, oil temperature, and oil quantity; Fuel flow and filter saturation; Engine vibration; Fuel valve position; and Engine failure alert indication.

Theoretically measurement devices for combustion products and exhaust gas substances can be installed in two zones (see Fig. 6.4) [25]. Measuring parameters are indicated and displayed in the cockpit, and compared with their operating and calculated ranges. The mechanical or electronic engine control system senses the position of the thrust lever, and compares actual and target N1 to the aircraft’s configuration and altitude. It automatically sets engine thrust by adjusting the fuel flow to achieve the target N1, controlled by the auto throttle system or by the pilot.

6.3.3 Airplane Instruments Flight instruments give information to the pilot about the aircraft’s speed, direction, altitude, present position, and spatial orientation. Power plant instruments provide data about the status of the aircraft’s engines and the APU. System instruments give

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measuring zone of burning products

1.

2.

3.

measuring zone of exhaust gas products

4.

5.

fan

nozzle

6.

7.

1. intake zone 2. compression zone 3. combustion zone 4. turbine zone 5. exhaust zone

8.

9. 6. low pressure compressor 7. high pressure compressor 8. high pressure turbine 9. low pressure turbine

Fig. 6.4 Installation zones for a HC sensor in a turbofan engine

an overview of the aircraft’s other systems, such as the fuel delivery, the electric subsystems, and the pressurization. Signals can be displayed on computerized Cathode Ray Tubes (CRT) or Liquid Crystal Displays (LCD) in the cockpit [26, 27]. Pilots can monitor the status of the data link systems on the CDU monitor which gives access to maintenance personnel while the aircraft is on the ground. The flight recorder permanently records data about the flight’s conditions and the airplane’s operating performance. Maintenance personnel can enter correction factors for drag and fuel flow to refine the database. The recorded data can be used for maintenance and for further statistical analysis activities.

6.4 Ships’ Electronics On-board sensors are designed to measure and transmit signals from the engine and the complementary systems to the ship’s bridge and gate commands to

6.4 Ships’ Electronics

103

I Sw A D

5 1

2

3

4 6

Im E P

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

charging air pressure sensor temperature sensor oil pressure sensor combustion sensor control and sensor supervision single control unit required value

C

7

I. P. E. Im. Sw. A. D. C.

interface propeller engine impulse receiver switch alarm diagnosis device (OBD) interface controlling device (OBD) interface

Fig. 6.5 Digital electronic bridge system

monitor the state of the sensors and to regulate actuators such as stepped motors, electro-magnetic and electro-mechanical valves, piezo switchers, and pneumatic and hydraulic cylinders, etc., from the bridge [28]. All electronic equipment for use on ships is constructed according to sea conditions because sea sensors and actuators can come into contact with salt water. Therefore, the casings are produced to be corrosion resistant and waterproof.

6.4.1 Integrated Bridge System The integrated bridge is the central element for the monitoring and steering of the ship. The bridge receives inputs from various sensors, electronically displays the signals, collects positioning information, and provides regulation and steering signals required to keep the vessel on course [29]. The navigator becomes more and more a system manager interpreting the ship’s movements and monitoring the vessel’s performance (see Fig. 6.5). The communication with other systems, e.g., with the fuel management system, the air conditioning, and the refrigerator monitoring system can be managed using a standardized CAN bus system. Common interface technology makes it possible to store data and follow error signals [30].

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Table 6.1 Available elements of ship electronic systems Electronic Operation elements Autopilot system

Chart plotter

Compass

Sonar

Marine radio system

Digital selective calling

Radar

Autopilot collects all signals to coordinate data from many devices on the ship, engine, and propulsion system with a common interface to keep the vessel on a predetermined course with the optimal velocity [31] Chart plotter is a high capacity electronic device for the combination of GPS data with an Electronic Navigational Chart (ENC) to display the position and the speed of a vessel [32]. GPS is a radio navigation system based on space satellites that broadcast highly accurate navigation pulses to users on the Earth Compass determines the direction of a ship relative to the Earth’s magnetic pole [33]. Modern electronic and computer supported compasses use a series of electronic and fiber optic gyroscope sensors and connections to GPS to locate the North Sonar uses the movement of acoustic waves in water [34]. Electronic devices emit pulses of sound to locate underwater objects. Reflected waves are received and analyzed by acoustic detectors. Sonar is widely used in military technology, in fishing, in underwater construction, and in research field Marine radio system usually consists of a transmitter and a receiver, and uses Very High Frequencies (VHF) for communication [35]. It summons rescue services to all large ships and most small sea-going craft and communicates with harbors, locks, and bridges on standard frequencies. International frequencies between 156 and 174 MHz are specified for marine applications to avoid collisions. There are two channels. The first channel is used for emergency calls; the second channel is used for twoway wireless communication Digital Selective Calling (DSC) automatically sends distress alerts without satellites using VHF in the range from 30 to 300 MHz, High Frequency (HF) from 3 to 30 MHz or 3,000 kHz, Medium Frequency (MF) from 300 to 3,000 kHz, and Low Frequency (LF) from 30 to 300 kHz [36] Radar is an object detection system that emits electromagnetic waves and analyzes their interaction with objects [37]. It is able to identify the range, the altitude, and the velocity of moving and stationary objects such as aircraft, ships, and ground vehicles

6.4.2 Elements of Ship Electronics There are a wide variety of marine electronics on the market (see Table 6.1).

6.4.3 Vessel Traffic Service and Automatic Identification System The Vessel Traffic Service (VTS) is a system for identifying and locating vessels by electronically exchanging data with other nearby ships and other VTS stations

6.4 Ships’ Electronics

105

[38]. It is governed by SOLAS Chapter V Regulation 12 and adapted by the International Maritime Organization (IMO). The Automatic Identification System (AIS) is an automated tracking system used on ships and by VTS [39]. The information usually supplements marine radar and is the most important method for avoiding collisions at sea. Information provided by AIS equipment, such as identification, position, course, and speed can be displayed on a screen or an Electronic Chart Display and Information System (ECDIS) according to the IMO requirements of the computerbased navigation [40]. Electronic communication technology displays all information from electronic navigation charts and integrates position information from the GPS and other sensors, such as radar and AIS systems [41]. Nowadays, electronic technology is not only an alternative technique to paper charts but it is more and more an essential element of navigation.

6.5 Summary and Recommendations: Electronic Systems and Computer Technology in Transportation Vehicles, airplanes, and ships use analog and digital technology in electronic systems. The hardware consists of active and passive electronic elements. The software is usually contained in the EEPROM or the flash memory. Nowadays, electronic systems use digital micro controllers and regulate all related operation functions.

6.5.1 Electronic Technology in Vehicles Modern vehicle technology increasingly uses electronically supported systems. In current vehicles, ECU technology controls more than 80 systems. Inspection and maintenance are becoming more intelligent, but on average more expensive, because of the increasing complexity of electronics, computers, and supporting systems. In the most cases, the repair of highly complex and multistage systems is possible only in block form. Electronic systems are designed to control and regulate operations on-board. An engine malfunction can be recognized through the logical evaluation of individual sensor values and by the comparison of the measured signals with stored reference values. In precisely defined checking routines, the controller device provokes brief deviations from the system status and expects a defined recognition of the change in the sensor signal. In this way, components can be checked by sensors and appropriate signals of status can be prepared by connected control devices. Since the introduction of ECUs, manufacturers have the obligation to define malfunctions, to store disturbances, and to display them on an appropriate interface at a common level which is legally fixed.

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The continuous addition of electronic features to the car electronic supply system is one of the possible factors that will lead to an increase in the system voltage in cars from the current 12 V to 42 V level.

6.5.2 Electronic Technology in Airplanes Electronic systems are important in airplanes due to the rapid movement of the aircraft with changing weather and terrain. In contrast to road vehicle and ship navigation technique, the flight takes place in a three-dimensional space with the fourth dimension, time. In flight pilots are faced with extremely demanding tasks to fly safely. Therefore, on-board electronic systems are designed with the primary aim of alleviating the pilot’s workload and enhancing safety. Besides safety, a lot of electronic subsystems ensure optimum and cost-efficient operation to keep airlines profitable in the highly competitive air transport market. Flight instruments give information to the pilot about the aircraft’s speed, direction, altitude, and orientation. Power plant instruments provide data to the status of the aircraft’s engines and the APUs. System instruments give an overview of the aircraft’s other systems, such as the fuel delivery, the electric system, and the pressurization. The continuous expansion of electronic systems on the aircraft has led to a higher demand for energy on-board, similar to road and ship energy supply technology.

6.5.3 Electronic Technology in Ships Electronic control systems provide an excellent way to measure the effectiveness of a ship’s operation, and present an independent, highly accurate means of recording and comparing the data from different engines, transmission parts, and exhaust gas after treatment modules. Electronic information systems aid in the course planning, calculating of tides, and informing the captain of the hull’s condition and of the ship’s speed and direction. Electronic control systems also measure the consumption of fuel to improve the vessel’s performance. The electronic monitoring of the combustion process and the composition of exhaust gases is increasingly important, not only for environmental protection, but also for lowering the costs of maintenance and repair. The supply system of ships, similar to other sectors of transportation, must provide more and more on-board power for the increasing number and energy demand of electric and electronic equipment. Electronic and computer technology has significantly changed in the last decades. Today, captains and crews need more and more training for electronic and computer technology because of the generally increasing level of infrastructure and technology, including monitoring, steering and regulating on-board.

References

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References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41.

Electronics. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronics Speedometer. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Speedometer Electronic circuit. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_circuit Digital Analog Conversion. http://www.opamp-electronics.com/tutorials/digital_theory_ch_ 013.htm Microcontroller. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microcontroller A family of user-programmable peripherals with a functional unit architecture. http:// www.ieeexplore.ieee.org/xpl/freeabs_all.jsp?arnumber=126539 Computer aided dispatch. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computer-aided_dispatch Engine control unit. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Engine_control_unit Electronic control unit. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_control_unit Electronic Control Unit ECU. http://www.autorepair.about.com/cs/generalinfo/l/bldef_160.htm Controller area network. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Controller_area_network Nedians: The electrical system (an overview). http://www.nedians.8m.com/Starting.html Bosch (1999) Kraftfahrzeugtechnisches Taschenbuch. 23. Auflage. ISBN: 3-528-03876-4 Avionics. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avionics Flight management system. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_management_system Flight management computer. http://www.b737.org.uk/fmc.htm Flight instruments. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_instruments Inertial reference system. http://www.digilander.libero.it/andreatheone/irs.htm Global positioning system. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Positioning_System Flightgear. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flightgear Flight control. http://www.f20a.com/f20fces.htm Autothrottle. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autothrottle Electronic flight instrument system. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Flight_Instrument_ System Turbofan. http://www.fromtheflightdeck.com/Stories/turbofan/ Turbofan. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbofan Cathode ray tube (CRT). http://www.searchcio-midmarket.techtarget.com/definition/cathoderay-tube Liquid crystal display. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liquid_crystal_display Marine insight. http://www.marineinsight.com/tech/proceduresmaintenance/how-to-installelectronic-circuits-on-ship/ Partners in technology. Imtech Marine. Integrated Bridge System. The future stars today! http://www.imtech.eu/smartsite.dws?lang=EN&rid=24219 Marine fuel management. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_fuel_managemen Autopilot for ships. http://www.nauticexpo.com/prod/kongsberg-maritime/autopilots-forship-31233-191085.html Chartplotter. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chartplotter Compass. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compass Sonar. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonar Marine VHF radio. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_VHF_radio Digital selective calling. http://www.inmarsat.com/Maritimesafety/dsc.htm Radar. http://www.helzel.com/files/432/upload/Pressreleases/WERA_EJN_3-09-2.pdf Vessel traffic service. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vessel_traffic_service Automatic identification system. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_identification_system What are the amendments to the IMO performance standard for ECDIS? http://www.enavigation.com/reference/tag/imo Ship plotter. Automatic identification system. http://www.coaa.co.uk/shipplotter.htm

Chapter 7

Aerodynamics of Vehicles and Airplanes, and Hydrodynamics of Ships

The aerodynamics of vehicles and airplanes, and the common hydro- and aerodynamics of ships determine all events which influence the flow around vehicles, airplanes, and ships. Resistance causes draught which results from the shape of the means of transportation designed by manufacturers and is decisive for the aerodynamics of road vehicles and airplanes, and the common aero- and hydrodynamic properties of ships. The resistance factors are called the cR and cW values and can be optimized through the body design and by streamlining.

7.1 Aerodynamics of Vehicles The value of resistance factors are presented in Table 7.1 [1]. Individual measures like spoilers or sub-floor design do not make sense since the basic resistance depends on the aerodynamics of the vehicle body. Modern vehicle design contains aerodynamic components in an optimized form. Further improvements in the cR value are only small and the additional parts have primarily visual and less technical effects.

7.1.1 Air Resistance There are still considerable potentials for improvement in road vehicle technology. In this sector, the improvement of the cR value by several technological measures leads to a valuable decrease in average fuel consumption from about 1 to 2% at 40 km h-1 (24.9 mi h-1) and from 4 to 8% at 120 km h-1 (74.6 mi h-1); see Fig. 7.1.

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_7,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

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Table 7.1 Middle air resistance value for a surface of A = 2 m2 Car design CR value at the speed (km h-1) (mi hr-1)

Optimal streamlined car Car with chassis covereda Estate car, station wagon Off-road vehicle Motor bike Buse Heavy duty vehicle a

0.15–0.20 0.22–0.25 0.30–0.34 0.35–0.50 0.60–0.70 0.60–0.70 0.80–1.50

40.0 (24.8)

80.0 (49.7)

120.0 (74.6)

180.0 (111.9)

0.29 0.37 0.52 0.71 – – –

2.3 3.0 4.1 5.5 – – –

8 10 14 19 – – –

18 24 33 44 – – –

Reflectors and spare wheels in the trunk

relative fuel consumption [%]

10.0 Opening headlight Panorama mirrors

7.5

5.0 Conventionally running tyres 2.5 Smooth running tires 0 40

60

80 100 velocity [km*h-1]

120

Fig. 7.1 Consequences of technical changes in a mid-size car on fuel consumption

Opening headlights or the use of panorama outside mirrors increase resistance, however, these measures service the safety. In passenger car, the air resistance increases with the use of additional equipment; such as roof boxes, ski racks, roof racks, opened front and side windows [2]. Changing the aerodynamic form has clear limits. For example, if the construction of the front windshield has a too flat angle to optimize air resistance, the solar heat increases the temperature inside the car. In this case the driver needs to use air conditioning, a measure which usually negates all the positive results obtained through the saving the fuel.

7.1.2 Relation Between Speed and Fuel Consumption The power needed to overcome air resistance grows with the square of the velocity. Therefore, slower driving to reduce air resistance is the most important measure for drivers to lower fuel consumption; see Fig. 7.2 [3].

fuel consumption [1*(100 km)-1 *h]

7.1 Aerodynamics of Vehicles

111

40.0 35.0

SUV Mid-size car Micro car

30.0 25.0 20.0 15.0 10.0 5.0 0.0 80

100

120

140 160 velocity [km*h-1]

180

200

220

Fig. 7.2 Fuel consumption depending on velocity

7.1.3 Rolling Resistance The rolling resistance of tires impacts the total fuel consumption in passenger cars by approximately 10–15%. Modern commercial vehicles automatically monitor the pressure in the tires. Smooth running tires and light running oils decrease rolling resistance and lead to lower fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. The rolling friction of the tires is affected by the applied construction, the used material and the internal pressure. At 20 km h-1 (12.4 mi hr-1), rolling resistance is nearly 100% of the external resistance acting on the car and still makes up 60% of the external resistance at 50 km h-1 (31.1 mi hr-1). The fuel saving rates are smaller but also similar in heavy commercial vehicles [4].

7.2 Aerodynamics of Airplanes The aerodynamics of airplanes depends on the interaction of moving air with the surface of the aircraft [5]. The main resistance factors are: • • • • •

Fuselage: 0.02–0.05; Engine and nacelle: 0.10–0.15; Tail unit with horizontal and vertical stabilizers: 0.01–0.02; Wing and connecting parts: 0.2–0.3; and Winglet: 0.01.

Improved aerodynamics reduces fuel consumption and thus also CO2, NO, NO2 and particle emissions. The aerodynamic drag depends on the quality of the surface, similar to vehicles and ships. The main ways to reduce the fuel consumption of airplanes are laminar wings, laminar fins, laminar nacelles, smooth surfaces, riblet skins, wingtips, and variable

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smooth surface

wingtip device laminar wing riblets laminar fin

integrated design

engine installation PAI (CFD design)

laminar horizontal tail fin

variable chamber

PAI - Propulsion Airframe Integration

rear fuselage CFD - Computational Fluid Dynamics

Fig. 7.3 Main elements of airplanes with laminar flow

wing profiles regulated by high capacity micro controllers, fast sensors, and high speed actuators.

7.2.1 Laminar Flow The drag depends particularly on the shape and on the surface of the airplane’s body. Smooth laminar flow over the body produces less drag than turbulent flow. Current aircraft design generally produces turbulent flow. Slotted airfoils or actively heated, and cooled surfaces that encourage laminar flow are being explored, but their benefits still need to be proven [6]. If wing-mounted propfans and un-ducted fans are increasingly used in the future laminar flow airfoils that could tolerate the effects of propeller efflux over the wing surface also need to be developed. Alternative mounting arrangements, such as fuselage-mounted propfans may also be considered; see Fig. 7.3 [7]. Laminar flow without turbulence for wings, fuselage, stabilizers and nacelles is continuously reviewed and evaluated. Besides technology, the key consideration is the cost of laminar flow systems and their power requirements compared with savings obtained through drag reduction.

7.2.2 Nacelle Efficiency Suboptimal integration of the engine and the nacelle which does not incorporate the air inlet can be a source of significant drag. Effective nacelle-oriented wing and tail constructions reduce turbulent flow areas [8]. The effect can be supported through the use of advanced passive flow control devices, e.g., vortex generators to

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113

Table 7.2 Elements of improved airframes with advanced aerodynamics Flight systems Structure Propulsion Aerodynamics Safety and flight deck and materials system and comfort Composite Fly-by-wire Use of prop-fan Slotted cruise High safety for the materials On-Board evacuation airfoil Integration of passengers for fuselage Measurement Natural of nacelle on land and water Intelligent laminar and airframe and wing Acceptance of flow navigation Cast aluminum door Use of un-ducted passengers fan engines Integrity of Compatibility structure with airports

enhance lift and advanced winglets on outboard wings. Optimal construction optimizes the lift to drag ratio by the use of sweptback or of wings with glider construction. CFD design strengthens nacelles to improve fuselage and wing surface smoothness to reduce drag. A high bypass ratio leads to intensive turbulent air flow because large diameters have a high air resistance. On balance, high bypass ratio engines provide a significant gain for aircraft in terms of reduced fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions.

7.2.3 Airframe Concepts with Advanced Aerodynamics Improved aerodynamic efficiency means a higher lift to drag ratio, slotted cruise air foils and strengthened natural laminar flow [9]. New structural materials and advanced airframe systems can contribute to the improvement; see Table 7.2.

7.2.4 Wingtips and Riblets The available width at airport gates may limit the allowable wingspan. Wingtip devices improve the efficiency of fixed wing aircraft without extending length. They reduce the aircraft’s drag by altering the airflow near the wingtips; see Fig. 7.4. Wingtips increase the efficiency of the payload of a middle range turbofan driven airplane by 500 kg (1,102.5 lb) or by a distance of 185 km (100 nmi). The saving of CO2 can reach up to 700 t i.e., 1.5 9 106 lb per airplane per annum. Wingtips also improve aircraft handling and reduce the wake turbulence hazard for the following aircraft by approximately 3% [10]. Riblets are furrows in the direction of the air flow, which are added as a film with a thickness of less than 1 mm (0.04 in) instead of paint on the surface of

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modification with reinforcement of the profile structure and development and installation of electronic sensors 1 000 t less fuel consumption per year, which is approximately 25 % fuel reduction integrated winglet reduced noise modification in approximately 25 days variable profile curvature more effective lifting system by low velocity

Fig. 7.4 Wing of a middle distance airplane with raked wingtips

airplanes. The reduced aerodynamic resistance always leads to decreased fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions [11]. Development of a porous surface of airplanes is a high risk technical challenge. Contamination by insects and debris can significantly reduce the performance of laminar flow and increase maintenance costs. Therefore more time is needed before it can be introduced [12].

7.3 Hydro- and Aerodynamics of Ships The ship’s fuel consumption depends on the function: FC ¼ cR 

qw 2  v  S: 2

ð7:1Þ

In the function cR is the resistance coefficient, qw the density of water, v the speed of the ship and S the moistened surface. The resistance coefficient cR can be relatively easily tested and exactly determined for cars and airplanes, but not for ships because ships move through both the water and the air. The resistance is the sum of both determining factors [13]. There are different basic types of approach to assess the hydrodynamic resistance: • Testing in a basin; • Testing in wind tunnels; and • Using a computer model [14].

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115

Further, there are two main factors in hydrodynamic resistance: cR ¼ f ðdrag and wave resistanceÞ:

ð7:2Þ

The viscous resistance or drag is related to the Reynolds number and the roughness on the hull length, and has an intensive impact on fuel consumption. Silicon-based coloring on the hull with a very low hydrodynamic resistance significantly contributes toward decreasing fuel consumption. The best example is the world’s largest container ship, Emma Maersk which saves approximately 1,200 t, i.e., 2.6 9106 lb (0.01%) of fuel consumption per year through the use of silicon-based color [15]. Besides smoothness, construction factors, e.g., the form of the hull, the structure of propulsion system, and propeller also influence the resistance of the vessel. A rectangular form is usually required for high transverse stability, e.g., for tankers, and an appropriate depth of hull for longitudinal strengths in bulk carriers or container ships. If the weather is windy, the resistance of waves primarily influences fuel consumption [16]. On slow ships such as tankers and bulk carriers, which have a Froude number smaller than 0.20, predominantly the friction determines the resistance. On fast ships, such as ferries, refrigerator ships, container ships, and war ships, which have Froude numbers over 0.25, the friction is usually insignificant compared to the wave resistance [17]. In aerodynamic development in the last decades, the first improvement for fuel savings has been the enlargement of the ship’s hull; the second improvement has been the regulated decrease in the ships’ velocities with the introduction of automated speed control systems [18]. The interaction between hull and wave defines the choice of propulsion type in the construction phase and determines the required power of propulsion system in operation.

7.3.1 Floating on a Cushion of Air Large ships can save energy by floating on a cushion of air [19]. This technology needs compressed air which is pumped through holes in the bottom of the ship. A ‘‘carpet’’ of air builds up beneath the hull, reducing friction as it passes through the water. The air is dispersed to either side of the propeller. Decreasing friction between the hull and the water with an air cushion can reduce fuel consumption up to 15%. On modern ships, wave radar sensors measure the distance from the cavity ceiling to the water surface and level sensors automatically control the height of the air cushion. The heeling of the ship is also monitored, because the greater the heel angle, the higher the probability that air will escape.

7

Aerodynamics of Vehicles and Airplanes

0.9

1000 wave output [kW]

0.8 800

0.7 0.6

600

0.5 0.4

400

0.3 0.2

200

0.1 0 0

1000

2000 3000 DWT [t]

4000

0 5000

relation of wave output to DWT [kW*t-1]

116

Fig. 7.5 Wave output in relation to DWT on river

7.3.2 Inland Shipping On inland water ways, construction requirements for stability and rescue equipment are adjusted to the characteristics of where the ships are going to be operating. Inland ships are smaller than sea-going ships and the resistance in shallow water plays a decisive role in engine performance, fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions [20]. Inland ships have been constructed with an increasing load capacity over the last decades. Similar to sea-going ships, this increase in size has led to higher efficiency and to the reduction of the Specific Fuel Consumption (SCF) per DWT capacity [21]. However, there are strict limits in inland shipping. The main limiting factors are the resistance to the ground and to the river bank. Enlargement of inland container ships over 3,000 DWT usually leads to a volume of more than 5,000 m3 (176,553 ft3). In special cases the flow can be optimized through the installation of an additional propeller in the ship’s centre. Optimal flow reduces fuel consumption, especially in the mid-speed range. Shipping up river and against the wind with high waves at wide rivers or large lakes can increase fuel consumption by up to 10% [22]. Different rotation speeds of the propeller cause turbulence between the ship’s hull and the banks of the water way [23]. If the distance is too small, an increasing blocking of the feed stream to the propeller requires an increasing wave output from the engine; see Fig. 7.5 [24]. In inland freight transportation, tug boats highly efficiently push or tow a number of barges [25, 26]. The bow of a single ship should be as streamlined as possible. If a tug pushes a pre-coupled barge, the bow of the tug must be rounded by artificial designed flow plates in order to keep the turbulence at the coupling point as small as possible; see Fig. 7.6 [27].

7.3 Hydro- and Aerodynamics of Ships 1600 wave output [kW]

Fig. 7.6 Wave output of an inland tug boat with a precoupled barge, depending on flow plate application

117

short flow plate with a relatively high hydrodynamic resistance

1200 800

long flow plate with low hydrodynamic resistance and high efficiency

400 0 5

6

7

8

9 10 11 12 -1 velocity [km*h ]

13

14

15

16

Using a long rigid-foam wedge flow plate decreases hydrodynamic resistance and wave output at the same ship’s velocity by up to 10–20% [28]. Similar to seagoing ships, the inland ships’ contours must be designed and kept smooth to decrease draught. A clean outer surface can decrease fuel consumption by up to 15% compared to a dirty outer surface [29]. Erosion on the outer surface of the hull can be recognized with an optical under water observation device [30]. Bow thrusters improve maneuverability and decrease fuel consumption. Transversal propulsion devices built into the bow of a ship make the ship more maneuverable. Bow thrusters make docking easier, since they allow the captain to turn the vessel to port- or starboard without using the main propulsion mechanism [31]. Stern thrusters are fitted at the stern and operate in a similar manner [32]. In inland shipping, operating near cities with high population densities, directives require an exhaust gas emission level as low as possible. That assumes the use of high quality diesel fuel. Installation, inspection, and maintenance of exhaust gas after treatment systems are playing an increasing role. Depending on the ship’s course and geographical coordinates of harbors, inland ships emit pollutants near big cities. To protect environment and habitants, Self-Diagnosis system should be introduced into inland shipping first.

7.4 Summary and Recommendations: Technical Results in Aero- and Hydrodynamics There is still a large potential for improving the aerodynamics of vehicles, airplanes and the common hydro- and aerodynamics of ships. Both aero- and hydrodynamics is generally improved by smooth surfaces and compact constructions.

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7.4.1 Aerodynamics of Vehicles There are three approaches with different reduction potentials for fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions: • The use of smooth and aerodynamically optimal surfaces; • The introduction of new technologies to achieve low air resistance; and • Combining lightweight construction materials which have comparable or better surface characteristics than conventional materials such as steel and aluminum. The power to overcome air resistance increases roughly with the cube of the speed and the energy required per unit distance is roughly proportional to the square of the speed. The power needed to overcome the rolling resistance is also a decisive factor, particularly at lower speeds and higher gross weights. At very low speeds, the dominant losses are from internal friction.

7.4.2 Aerodynamics of Airplanes Redesigning the fuselage and the wings has the greatest potential for decreasing aerodynamic resistance. There are two main research emphases for improved aerodynamics: • Improvement of existing airplanes and their systems; and • Long-term development of completely new concepts for the next generations of commercial aircraft. The general use of winglets can save fuel on older as well as on new aircraft because resistance goes down and fuel consumption decreases. Radically new concepts for commercial aircraft, like a blended wing and body airplane would aerodynamically deliver substantially better lift, but there are also unsolved problems which will prevent the fulfillment of the concept in the next decades. Laminar flow can be partly realized with artificial vacuum at a very high cost level.

7.4.3 Hydrodynamics of Ships Hydro- and aerodynamics plays a decisive role in the construction of ships and determination of operating costs, similar to other sectors of transportation. Saving fuel in ships requires: • In the construction phase – Increasing the vessel’s size for higher fuel efficiency;

7.4 Summary and Recommendations: Technical Results in Aero- and Hydrodynamics

119

– Improving the shape of the hull’s design for low aero- and hydrodynamic resistance; and – Fitting the engine and the propulsion system to the main construction and operation condition. • In the operation phase: – Maintaining the cleanliness of the outer skin; – Using even and symmetrical distribution of freight; and – Optimizing the ship’s speed and the engine’s SFC. These common measures significantly increase the hydro- and aerodynamic efficiency. Since the resistance primarily influences the flow field, the question about the optimal hull form is always connected with the propulsion, i.e., with the complete drive. Apart from the size of the ship, optimally advanced propulsion technologies can lower transport costs in operation, and consequently increase the cost competitiveness of the ship. Also, in inland shipping, the proportions between the displacement of a ship and its power requirement improve as the ship is made larger. However, continuing development will become more and more difficult due to the limited size of inland waterways.

References 1. Wolf-Heinrich H (2008) Aerodynamik des Automobils, 5th edn. Vieweg-Teubner, Wiesbaden. ISBN: 978-3-528-03959-2 2. Passenger car aerodynamics. http://www.recumbents.com/car_aerodynamics 3. MPG for speed. http://www.mpgforspeed.com 4. Tire rolling resistance. http://www.analyticcycling.com/ForcesTires_Page.html 5. Aerodynamic drag. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aerodynamic_drag 6. Parasitic drag. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitic_drag 7. Laminar flow airfoil. http://www.aviation-history.com/theory/lam-flow.htm 8. Aviation and the global atmosphere. http://www.ipcc.ch/ipccreports/sres/aviation/index. php?idp=93 9. Airframe. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Airframe 10. Winglets für die 767. Austrian Airlines Group. Flugrevue, No. 6/2009. June, pp 18. ISSN: 0015-4547. http://www.flugrevue.de 11. Experimentelle Untersuchungen zur Widerstandsverminderung durch Riblets am Tragflügelprofil eines Segelflugzeugs der Standardklasse. http://www.iag.uni-stuttgart.de/ laminarwindkanal/riblets.htm 12. Greatly reducing turbulence and drag for aircraft and airfoils. http://www.mb-soft.com/ public/lowdrag.html 13. Autos, Flugzeuge, Schiffe. Parragon (2004). ISBN: 1-40543-467-8 14. Ship model basin. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship_model_basin 15. Emma Maersk. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emma_Maersk 16. Schiffe. NGV Naumann & Göbel Verlag Köln. ISBN: 978-3-625-11412-3. http://www. naumann-goebel.de 17. Froude number (Fr). http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/220946/Froude-number-Fr

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18. The tempomat: the automatic pilot for the inland shipping. http://www.technofysica.nl/ English/tempomaat.htm 19. Germanischer Lloyd (2008) Ship on a magic carpet. Environment/cover story. Nonstop. The Magazine for Customers and Business Partners. Hamburg, pp 19–22, OE 003, [email protected] 20. Jiang T (2001) A New method for resistance and propulsion prediction of ship performance in shallow water. Practical design of ships and other floating structures. Elsevier Science Ltd, pp 509–515. ISBN: 0-08-043950-012 21. Measures for the reduction of fuel consumption and CO2 emissions in inland navigation. Central Commission for the Navigation of the Rhine. d/Workshop_CO2_Tunnelschuerze_en 22. Binnenschiff. http://www.de/wikipedia.org/wiki/Binneschiff 23. Georgakaki A, Sorenson S, Report on collected data resulting methodology for inland shipping. ISBN: 87-7475-314-2 24. Propeller geometry. http://www.gidb.itu.edu.tr/staff/emin/Lectures/Ship_Hydro/propeller_ geometry.pdf, pp 120 25. Towboat. http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/Towboats 26. Barge. http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/Barge 27. Tugboat. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tugboat 28. Fluid-structure interaction during ship slamming. http://www.web.student.chalmers.se/ groups/ofw5/Presentations/KevinMakiSlidesOFW5.pdf 29. International conference on ship drag reduction (Smooth-Ships). Istanbul, 20–21 May 2010. http://www.web.student.chalmers.se/groups/ofw5/Presentations/KevinMakiSlidesOFW5.pdf 30. Tukker J, Kuiper G.: High-speed video observation and erosive cavitation. http://www. marin.nl/upload_mm/f/b/4/1806814280_1999999096_TVW0173.pdf 31. Bow thruster. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bow_thruster 32. Stern thruster. http://www.sternthrusters.net/

Chapter 8

Propulsion Systems

The propulsion systems generate the power and drive vehicles, airplanes, and ships. Although the operation mediums, i.e., the road surface, the air, and the water are physically and chemically very different, propulsion systems are similarly structured in all means of transportation. Parts of the propulsion are often called the transmission or drive chain.

8.1 Propulsion Elements in Road Vehicles The propulsion system contains all assemblies which are in the drive chain between the engine and driving wheels [1]. The elements of the power propulsion are: • Transmission system – Clutch gearbox, clutch, bridge, axis, drive shaft • Wheels and tires • Steering system – Steering wheel, steering gearbox, rods, cruise control • Braking system – Brake master cylinder, power lines, brake disc • Suspension – Spring shock absorber, spring column. The driving style and behavior significantly influences the propulsion efficiency.

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_8,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

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fuel consumption [l*(100 km)-1 *h]

14 1st gear 2nd gear 3rd gear 4th gear 5th gear 6th gear

12 10 8 6 4 0 0

50

100 speed [km*h-1]

150

200

Fig. 8.1 Influence of the gear choice on the fuel consumption in a mid-size car

8.2 Operating Functions of the Propulsion The most important operating functions of the propulsion system are: • • • • •

Starting and steering the vehicle; Interrupting the running engine; Changing the torque; Adjusting the speed of the driving wheels; and Operating the transmission system0 s elements [2].

Not only the engine technology, and internal and external resistances, but also the propulsion system significantly influences route fuel consumption:   ð8:1Þ RFC ð1Þ ¼ f SFC; PEð2Þ ; DRð3Þ : (1)

RFC Route fuel consumption (2) Propulsion efficiency (3) Driving resistances There is a strong relationship between the propulsion efficiency and resistances while driving. Driving resistances mainly depend on the rolling, the air, the acceleration, the slope and the brake resistance [3].

8.2.1 Gear Choice Independently from the gear technology, fuel consumption can be reduced by 1–3% through increasing the number of gears due to increasing the transmission ratio in the final gear because the operating point of the engine is thereby shifted towards higher efficiency. For example with 7/8 gears instead of 6 gears in an automatic transmission, fuel savings of between 5 and 6% can be achieved (see Fig. 8.1) [4].

8.2 Operating Functions of the Propulsion

123

Minimal energy consumption requires careful braking and accelerating when changing gears. Since the combustion engine operates most efficiently with relatively high loads at a low number of revolutions, minimum consumption is achieved with short and strong acceleration. In cars, it is useful to switch into third gear at 25–30 km h-1 (15.5–18.6 mph), into fourth gear from 35 to 40 km h-1 (21.8–24.9 mph), and into fifth gear at approximately 50 km h-1 (31.1 mph) [5]. In compact and mid-size cars, fuel consumption can be decreased by changing from a simple manual to an automatic transmission with a suitable switching program. In the upper mid-size and full-sized cars, automatic transmissions can be best adapted to the higher efficiency of the engine. Vehicles with spark ignition engine should always be driven with the lowest possible number of revolutions, since their efficiency depends on the load and the speed of the engine. The efficiency increases in a high gear compared to driving at the same speed in a low gear. The automatic transmission and the adaptive driving assistance system save most of the fuel, and improve road performance and comfort, e.g., with the automatic mechanical transmission that is widely applied in heavy commercial vehicles.

8.2.2 Auxiliary Equipment The auxiliary equipment consists of the power steering, the brake booster, the air conditioning system, the alternator, the windscreen wiper, the radio, the seat heating and the air heating etc. which are usually directly powered by the engine and significantly affect its fuel consumption. The use of the air conditioner has the greatest effect on the fuel consumption in a mid-size car. The amount and the energy demand of equipment is rapidly rising in all means of transportation: • Air conditioning system increases consumption from 0.5 to 2.5 l h-1 (from 0.13 to 0.66 gal h-1), depending upon the manufacturer and the cooling demand; • Headlights increase consumption from 0.1 to 0.2 l h-1 (from 0.03 to 0.06 gal h-1); • Rear window heating increases consumption from 0.1 to 0.2 l h-1 (from 0.03 to 0.06 gal h-1); and • Other electrical consumers, e.g., windshield wipers, stereo boxes, cooling boxes, electrical windows, electrically adjustable seats, etc., increase the fuel consumption from 0.2 to 0.5 l h-1 (from 0.06 to 0.13 gal h-1) [6]. It is predicted that the air conditioning system will remain the main source of increased consumption. Currently, it consists of a compressor directly powered by the engine, which requires a high amount of generator capacity. In the future, it may be that other solutions, e.g., the application of phase changing materials (PCM) can be used for more economical and ecological air conditioning. A few

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types of PCM can be produced from biomass whose use would mean basically a change to an environmentally friendly air conditioning technology [7]. Using headlights in the daylight requires a high energy demand. However, both lights are necessary for safety. Nowadays, new light emitting diode (LED) technology is reducing the electrical power requirements for the car lights [8]. Accessories need energy and contribute to fuel consumption. However, they are not considered in the measurements of the nominal consumption balance in the Type approval as determined by the NEDC. Since all these consumers use energy and lead to increased fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions, they should be considered in the estimation of future fuel consumption [9].

8.2.3 Energy Dissipation Propulsion in road vehicles converts the power from the engine to the tires. A chain of sub-systems can be the source of several losses [10]. A specific problem of vehicle technology is the variety of road and driving conditions. Driving in high mountains has different characteristics than driving in flat regions; or driving in arctic regions differs from travelling through a desert. Moreover, the energy dissipation in urban and in highway traffic is also very different. On city roads, the biggest energy losses arise through the internal friction of the engine and the transmission elements. In urban driving, apart from the kind of engine and fuel, the efficiency of the vehicle particularly depends on its accelerating and breaking characteristics. The efficiency of the vehicle on the highway is largely influenced by its aerodynamics. The fuel consumption increases with the velocity to overcome air resistance and depends on the construction of the transmission elements, the aerodynamic resistance of the vehicle, and the rolling resistance of the tires. In both urban and highway driving, the dissipation of energy in the propulsion system mainly depends on its thermal efficiency, its internal friction and the energy demand of its auxiliary equipment. The energy losses are directly characterized by the fuel consumption, which can be lowered to a minimum through suitable maintenance for lower resistances and through the use of optimal driving methods.

8.2.4 Thermal Efficiency All losses occurring while driving, flying, and shipping are converted into heat, kinetic energy and exhaust gas emissions. Presumably, thermal efficiency can be significantly improved in the future [11]. One of the most intensive phases of fuel consumption is the ignition. In this phase, the heated air in the compression stroke must ignite the injected fuel during the combustion period. The necessary minimum ignition temperature for diesel fuel is approximately 250C (482F).

8.2 Operating Functions of the Propulsion

125

relative fuel consumption [%]

8 winter (-9 °C to -5 °C) summer (11°C to 15 °C) 6

4

2

0 0

5

10

15 distance [km]

20

25

30

Fig. 8.2 Increased fuel consumption of a mid-size passenger car in cold weather

This temperature must be reached even with low environmental temperatures with a cold engine. At low temperatures, the fuel consumption of internal combustion engine primarily increases with higher internal friction (see Fig. 8.2) [12]. Several measures are useful for high thermal efficiency during ignition: • Using a low engine speed with optimal compression; • Minimizing leakage losses at the piston ring between the piston and the cylinder wall; • Decreasing heat losses in the combustion chamber with optimal thermal insulation; • Applying high quality batteries to provide a high number of revolutions and high power; and • Using light running engine oil with low viscosity even at low temperatures.

8.3 Propulsion of Airplanes The propulsion system of airplanes consists of the tanks, the fuel supply system, the airframe, the nacelle and the engines. Predictions estimate a decrease in fuel consumption by up to 25% with improved propulsion technology by the year 2050. Significant improvements require: • Improving the nacelle aerodynamics to reduce the load on the turbine and on the compressor; • Decreasing the size of the core engine; • Increasing the thermal efficiency with higher turbine entry temperatures to reduce air mass flow;

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Table 8.1 Mid and long term predictions for saving fuel and decreasing emissions Technology scenario Fuel efficiency LTO NOx level Year 2030 2050

20–30% better than 2010 level 40–50% better than 2010 level

10–30% below current CAEP/2 50–70% below current CAEP/2

• Using heat resistant materials; and • Decreasing internal resistances [13]. The next generation of jet engines with a larger diameter and higher air resistance could be placed over the wing instead of under it, because of the noise, which spreads directly downward from engines placed under the wings. New turboprop and especially contra-rotating fan engines emit a large amount of noise, and endanger employees and residents near airports. However, over wing application technology must be combined with improved mechanical and aerodynamic measures, because placing the engines over the wings disadvantageously impacts the elasticity and the inertness of the wings. Furthermore, over wing construction of engines moves the load of the weight distribution upwards and thereby increases the swinging of the wings at higher velocities [14]. The most important measure is to increase the bypass ratio of the engine from 12:1 to 15:1. This measure saves fuel, and lowers the CO2 and pollutant emissions in the fan by up to 50%. The application of a contra rotating fan and a new type of combustion chamber can bring further advantages in the propulsion [15]. The long term predictions see an effective decrease in the fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions (see Table 8.1) [16].

8.3.1 Integration of Airframe and Engine The integration of engine and airframe would result in a reduction of the airplane’s weight and the installation of specific aerodynamic elements to avoid drag. There are complex design problems in reducing interference drag caused by flow interactions in the region of the wing pylon. Recent improvements in modeling localize airflow and bring important benefits in reduced interference drag. However, high bypass ratio engines with a higher front diameter lead to higher air resistance and therefore higher specific fuel consumption. Nonetheless, the aerodynamic disadvantages are much lower than the benefits of the new high-bypass technology. Propulsion and airframe integration uses a large number of subsystems to manage the airplane in flight. Optimal integration of the airframe and engine allows lighter construction of the fuselage, the wing and the tail units and may contribute to a lighter undercarriage. Further system integration and extending

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127

fly-by-wire control systems offer the potential for 1–3% improvement in overall fuel efficiency including improved pollutant and noise emissions [17].

8.3.2 Retrofitting Old Engines The incorporation of a new staged combustion system into an existing engine requires changing several parts of the engine’s high pressure section including the combustor, the compressor and the outlet diffuser. In most cases, major changes in the fuel control and in the fuel supply systems are also required. Additional modifications of the turbine may be needed to accommodate changing temperatures during the retrofitted operation. The centre and the shaft sections of the old engine may be significantly different from the same engine with current combustor technology. These measures can unfortunately increase weight, maintenance costs and fuel consumption [18]. Retrofitting an older engine with one of new or advanced combustors is technically feasible, but it can involve not only the replacement of the existing combustor but also the replacement of almost all other elements of the engine core. The retrofitting could cost about 30–40% of the price of a new engine, even if it were to be done during a standard hot section overhaul. The type of the combustor chosen can affect the choice of aircraft systems and components such as the cockpit indicators, the auto throttle, the flight management computer and the interfaces [19]. In some cases, improvements of the combustion chamber and of its components should be done when building new engines.

8.3.3 Thermal Efficiency Higher thermal efficiency can be grouped into improvements to current, simple bypass designs and to new, more complex engine constructions. The approaches include: • Further increases of the pressure ratio of the compression system; • Wide ranged use of improved hot sections with reduced or eliminated cooling requirements; and • Application of components with higher thermal resistance. Making all the improvements would require substantial investments in many research and development fields, including aerodynamics, cooling technology, light weight materials, new mechanical design and optimized engine control. These common options could improve thermal efficiency by 10–20% [20].

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Wageningen

Kaplan

Propulsion Systems

Meyne

Fig. 8.3 Several forms of propellers

8.4 Propulsion of Ships The propulsion in a ship includes all of the elements from the engine to the propeller. The technology has been continuously and intensively changing over the last decades. Steam engines and their connected propulsion elements have been replaced by diesel engines or gas turbines. Highly developed technology is what determines the current propulsion systems. They have been improved for economic reasons and for environmental protection in the course of fulfilling the increasing level of requirements [21]. The most complex transmission systems are used in military technology in which the highest technology for fuel consumption, maintenance, redundancy, efficiency and availability is required.

8.4.1 Propeller Systems Propellers are ceaseless flow machines which take mechanical work and pass it to the surrounding water in form of flow energy. As the trend moves toward larger ships and higher velocities, the propeller’s efficiency must also be increased [22]. This requirement has led to the broad ranged application of nozzle propellers with an inflow ring. They consist of a steel ring attached in front of the propeller, which bundles the inflow of the water to the propeller and changes the flow direction [23]. Inflow rings (Mewis Duct) and higher skew increase the degree of effectiveness of the propeller and the drive performance of ships by up to 10%, primarily for large ships (see Fig. 8.3) [24]. Besides the engine, the propeller is one of the main sources of vibrations on a ship. In a lot of cases, it is necessary to change the geometry of the propeller to keep the vibrations at an endurable level for the crew and for the ship construction [25]. The number of blades in the propeller is variable. The pressure difference of the water stream in front of and behind the propeller determines the number of blades. Propellers can theoretically consist of one blade or of an unlimited number of

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129

blades. In reality, there is a practical limit to seven blades that is used on the biggest vessels such as container ships. Smaller ships have usually much fewer numbers of blades [26]. Ventilation and cavitation appear if air is vacuumed by the water surface or waste gases are vacuumed from the exhaust gas flow into the propeller, especially in fast sporting boats and in small, fast marine ships with exhaust gas end pipe at a side in the water, e.g., in stealth ships. This process reduces the performance of the propeller, and the thrust decreases. The reason for this is the decreased boiling of water if the pressure is low enough. In this case, steam formation starts at lower temperatures than 100C (212F). The high propeller speed can decrease the water pressure at the back surface of the propeller’s blade and steam bubbles can appear which could cause mechanical damage. Whirls at the blades formed both in air and in water lead to perforations in the propeller’s material [27]. The suitable measures against cavitation are: • Slow steaming; and • Sub-water coating. New coatings such as finely powdered Polyamide-11 perform better than metals, including stainless steel, and have exceptional resistance to cavitation erosion [28]. Ships like tugboats and icebreakers which must have a very high thrust require a propeller with a nozzle, a large number of blades and a highly skewed design. The Voith-Schneider propeller (VSP) can adjust the size and the direction of thrust in a broad range without changing the speed [29].

8.4.2 New Propeller Technology Important examples of new propeller systems are: • • • • •

Large propellers; Carbon fiber propellers; Pod propulsion systems; Linear jets; and Ring propeller driving and maneuvering systems.

8.4.2.1 Large Propellers Large ship propellers are up to 12 m in diameter (39.3 ft) and have a weight between 80 and 120 t (176,211 and 264,317 lb). They are produced with efficient casting methods. The application field attaches large diesel engines in the range from 50,000 kW (67,114 HP) to 75,000 kW (100,671 HP). The technological parameters range from a relatively low number of revolutions between 60 and 125 rpm to a directly coupled transmission without a gearbox and with high torque.

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Large propellers are usually used in very large container ships, bulk carriers and tankers as a controllable pitch propeller [30].

8.4.2.2 Carbon Fiber Propellers Carbon fiber propellers consist of elastic carbon fiber composite material which effectively protects against cavitation. They can be used in many types of ships of all sizes. Carbon fiber propellers can be adapted to different loads with a wide range of special contours and profiles. The result is higher propeller efficiency, light weight, less vibration and less noise [31].

8.4.2.3 Pod Propulsion Systems Pod propulsion systems are directly driven by an electric engine system. An efficient synchronous or asynchronous motor is built below the stern in a gondola which swivels all around. This ‘‘rotating’’ gondola is widely used in ice breakers, cruise ships and other large ships with a high maneuvering ability. The main thrust propeller is placed in front of the system and the auxiliary propellers are behind them [32, 33].

8.4.2.4 Linear Jets The linear jet is a relatively new ship propulsion system which is a highly powerful technology and has a large thrust load. In addition, the noise of the propulsion is reduced. It consists of a nozzle system without a ring around the propeller. On the one side, linear jets are advantageous for high speeds of up to about 35 kn (64.8 km h-1). On the other side, the fuel efficiency is relatively low because of high internal resistances in the system [34]. Combinations with the Voith-Schneider propeller technology are modern development directions [35].

8.4.2.5 Ring Propeller Driving and Maneuvering Systems Ring propellers are driving and maneuvering systems which are directly driven by an electric motor. They usually operate as a common generator and an engine with very large diameter, and are used to provide extremely high power, low speeds, and high gear torque. The advantage of the large stator and rotor diameter is the optimal maneuvering ability. The construction is mounted in a central position to safely absorb high radial and axial forces (see Table 8.2) [36].

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131

Table 8.2 Ring propeller systems’ parameters Parameters Size Engine

Small Large

Propeller

Wave output kW (BTU s-1)

Number of revolutions min-1 (rpm)

Torque kN m (BTU)

Diameter mm (ft)

Length mm (ft)

Weight t (lb)

3,000 (2,886) 19,000 (18,026)

225

127 (120) 1,396 (1,323)

3,500 (11.5) 6,000 (19.7)

6,675 (21.9) 13,050 (42.8)

42 (92,511) 229 (504,405)

130

8.4.3 Start and Stop System Starting and stopping put the highest load on the propulsion and have the highest fuel consumption of the engine. Ship’s diesel engines are started by compressed air because no electric motor of an acceptable size would be strong enough to move the cylinders. Before the start, the compressed air bottles and the air system are drained and the pressures are checked. Starting the engine requires a 30 bar compressed air system, i.e., 30 9 105 Pa (435 psi or 0.63 9 105 lbf ft-2). To start a large diesel engine, the main components must be set in motion and the first strokes of the engine with intake, compression, expansion, and exhaust must be started after the first moving of cylinders by the air pressure [37].

8.5 Summary and Recommendations: Propulsion Systems The propulsion system is the central element of technology in means of transportation. It converts the thermal energy from the engine produced by the chemical reaction of burning in the combustion chamber, to the transmission elements. In the propulsion system thermal energy is changed to mechanical energy that drives the wheels of vehicles and the propellers of airplanes and ships.

8.5.1 Propulsion of Vehicles The main parts of a vehicle’s propulsion system are the transmission, the braking, the steering, the suspension elements, the wheel mounting, and the tires. The effectiveness of propulsion is defined by the individual elements of the whole system. While driving, the internal and the external resistances have to be overcome by energy produced by burning of fuel in the combustion chambers.

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Electronic speed regulation through the use of an automatic gear is important for optimal operation of the transmission system. Automatic start and stop systems, and starter generators can save additional fuel. In commercial vehicles, a 42 V main power supply produces higher energy efficiency for the auxiliary components, e.g., for the heating and cooling of the propulsion system’s elements [38].

8.5.2 Propulsion of Airplanes The main elements of an airplane’s propulsion are the engine, the fuel supply system, the bearing and the steering elements. The integration of the engine and airframe results in the reduction of the airplane’s weight and the installation of aerodynamic elements to avoid drag. New propulsion systems have less noise and an increase in the bypass ratio from 12:1 to 15:1. These measures save fuel and lower the CO2 emissions in the fan by up to 50%. The introduction of new turbofan and turboprop engine series depends on the economical and environmental protection requirements. The most effective measures are the use of open rotor technology, the application of contra-rotating turbines, and new types of the combustion chamber. Certification of new fuels can extend current market ranges. Future technology will use even more intelligent and more sustainable propulsion systems with large turbofans and improved geared fans. An improvement in the future propulsion system efficiency of about 1% fuel saving per annum can be expected. The open rotor technology burns fuel cleaner in the combustion chamber, and consumes 15% less fuel and produces 20 dB(A) less noise compared with the present systems. It can go into service approximately by 2015. By 2018, lightweight construction, integration of the engine and the nacelle, and combination of integrated airplane and engine design will decrease fuel consumption by another 20% [39].

8.5.3 Propulsion of Ships A ship’s propulsion system consists of the diesel engine, the steam or the gas turbine, the diesel electric aggregate, the direct and the indirect operating transmission elements, and the propeller. Slower ships use a two-stroke or a four-stroke diesel engine and faster ships use gas turbines as a propulsion. Electric motors and connected transmission systems are common in submarines. Fuel cells and nuclear reactors are employed to propel some warships and icebreakers.

8.5 Summary and Recommendations: Propulsion Systems

133

Fast running diesel–electric systems are gaining more and more importance, although they have a higher SFC than slow running two-stroke diesel engines. Their advantage is the wide ranged variability in the construction, the relative freedom for increasing and decreasing the number of aggregates, and the low concentration of pollutants in the exhaust gases. The construction with diesel– electric system makes it possible to optimize the external aerodynamic design and internal space construction of the ship, because they are small and systems can be decentrally placed in the hull, contrary to the high pace demand of two-stroke crosshead diesel engines. There are many variations of propeller systems, including twin and contrarotating, variable pitch, and nozzle-style propellers. Smaller vessels tend to use a single propeller. Aircraft carriers use up to four propellers, supplemented by bowthrusters and stern-thrusters. Apart from the number of propellers, power is transmitted from the engine to the propeller by a propeller shaft, which may or may not be connected to a gearbox. There is a growing tendency in the use of large propellers, carbon fiber strengthened plastic propellers, pod propulsion systems, linear jets, and ring propellers.

References 1. Powertrain. http://en.wikipedia.org/wik/Powertrain 2. Guzella L, Sciarrette A (2007) Vehicle propulsion system, 6th edn. Springer. http:// www.idsc.ethz.ch/about/Books/Teaser.pdf 3. Physics in an automotive engine. http://www.mb-soft.com/public2/engine.html 4. Rev matching and gear shifting. http://www.drivingfast.net/car-control/revmatching.htm#axzz1aNewsm4t 5. Schallaböck KO, Fischedick M, Brouns B, Luhmann HJ, Merten F, Ott HE, Patowsky A, Venjacob J, Klimawirksame Emissionen des PKW-Verkehrs. Wuppertal Institut für Klima, Umwelt und Energie. ISBN-10: 3-929944-72-3 6. Apparatus for controlling auxiliary equipment driven by an internal combustion engine. Patent 5924406. http://www.patentgenius.com/patent/5924406.html 7. Phase change material. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phase-change_material 8. Light-emitting diodes. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Light-emitting_diode 9. Edinger R, Kraul S (2003) Sustainable mobility: renewable energies for powering fuel cell vehicles. Greenwood Publishing Group, Consumption and Emissions, pp 18. ISBN-10: 1-56720-484-8 10. Fuel economy maximizing behaviors. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_economy-maximizing_ behaviors 11. Thermal efficiency. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thermal_efficiency 12. Volkswagen: Save as you drive. March 2009. Article No. 960.1606.02.18 13. Hünecke K (2008) Die Technik des modernen Verkehrsflugzeuges, 1st edn. Motorbuch Verlag, Stuttgart. ISBN-13: 9789-3-613-02895-8 14. Leiser, weiter, sparsamer. Luftfahrt. Der Spiegel Hamburg. 02/2009. pp 113–114. http:// www.spiegel.de

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15. Potential impact of aircraft technology advances on future CO2 and NOx emissions. 19 May 1998. NASA Research Workshop II. http://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/events/encompat/ gynnppt.pdf 16. Engine–airframe integration during conceptual design for military application. http:// www.idearesearch.in/Papers/VivekSanghi_EngineCycleSelection.pdf 17. Airframe and systems design. http://www.aero.cz/en/airframe-and-systems-design.html 18. Jet engine test cells-emission and control measures: Phase 2. EPA 340/1-78-001b. April 1978. Washington. http://www.nepis.epa.gov 19. New engines give older jets new life, but values equation is still a challenge. http:// www.avbuyer.com/articles/PrintDetail.asp?Id=1417 20. Simple thermodynamics of jet engines. http://www.stat.physik.uni-potsdam.de/*pikovsky/ teaching/stud_seminar/jet_engine.pdf 21. Marine propulsion. http://en.ewikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_propulsion 22. Propeller. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/propeller 23. Perfekte propeller. http://www.dmkn.de/downloads/2f/c7/i_file_50119/PerfektePropeller.pdf 24. Zöllner J. (2003) Vortriebstechnische Entwicklungen in der Binnenschifffahrt. 24. Duisburger Kolloquium Schiffstechnik/Meerestechnik. Universität Duisburg-Essen Institut für Schiffstechnik und Transportsysteme. 15–16 May, pp 134 25. Propeller vibration. http://www.epi-eng.com/propeller_technology/propeller_vibration_ issues.htm 26. Selecting an equivalent multi-blade propeller. http://www.mh-aerotools.de/airfoils/ propuls2.htm 27. Pumps & systems. State of the pump industry 2005. http://www.arkema.com/pdf/EN/ products/technical_polymers/rilsan_fine_powders/pumps.and.systems.reprint.1.19.05.pdf 28. Cavitation erosion study of metals and coatings—including polyamide-11 powder coatings. Technical polymers R&D USA-France 29. Voith-Schneider Antrieb. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Voith-Schneider-Antrieb 30. Technology guidelines for efficiency design and operation of ship propulsion. http:// www.propellerpages.com/downloads/ Technology_guidelines_for_efficient_design_and_operation_of_ship_propulsors.pdf 31. Fuel saver/carbon fibre props. http://www.compositecarbonfiberprop.com/ 32. Azimuth thruster. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Azimuth_thruster 33. Pod-drive for ships (electric motor) AZIPOD. ABB. http://www.nauticexpo.com/…/poddrives.-for-ship… 34. First Voith water jet: Jet propulsion system. http://www.porttechnology.org/technical_papers/ first_voith_water_jet_jet_propulsion_system 35. Untersuchung tiefgetauchter Waterjet. http://www.m-schmiechen.homepage.t-online.de/ HomepageClassic01/prp_linf.pd 36. Advanced technology of propeller shaft stern tube seal. http://www.kemel.com/product/pdf/ SNAMEAirSealFinal07_30_03.pdf 37. Procedure for starting and stopping generators on a ship. http://www.marineinsight.com/tech/ proceduresmaintenance/procedure-for-starting-and-stopping-generators-on-a-ship/ 38. Ceuca E, The 42 volt power net architecture standards. http://www.uab.ro/auajournal/acta2/ Articol%20Ceuca%20E.pdf 39. GE and NASA to test open rotor jet engine system. http://www.uab.ro/auajournal/acta2/ Articol%20Ceuca%20E.pdf

Chapter 9

Vehicle Engines

Internal combustion engines use fossil fuels. They determine the typical construction of transportation means by transforming the chemical energy in fuel into mechanical power. The principle is common in vehicles, airplanes, ships and portable machines (see Table 9.1) [1]. In construction machines and tractors, internal combustion engines are advantageous since they can provide a high power-to-weight ratio usually with excellent fuel energy density. Gas turbines are used where very high power is required, such as in generators in the energy industry, in jet engines of airplanes and in the auxiliary equipment of ships. Performance standards and requirements for internal combustion engines have intensively increased over the last decades (see Fig. 9.1).

9.1 Principles of Operation There are three basic operation principles of engine systems: • Internal combustion engine: – Two-stroke cycle with one up and one down movement for every power stroke [2] – Four-stroke cycle with two up-down-up-down movements for every power stroke [3] • Rotary engine, e.g. Wankel engine [4] • Continuous combustion engine which operates with the Brayton cycle [5] – Gas turbine, e.g. in jet engines, including turbojets, turbofans, turboprops, prop fans, ramjets, rockets, etc. They operate without separate phases, instead perform them simultaneously.

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_9,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

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Vehicle Engines

Table 9.1 System of combustion engines Kind of procedure Open procedure Internal combustion Combustion gas equals to working medium

Kind of combustion Ignition Kind of engine Engine Turbine Kind of mixture

Closed procedure External combustion Combustion gas does not equal to working medium Continuous combustion

Cyclic combustion Self ignition Spark ignition Diesel Hybrid Otto Rohr Stirling Steam – – – Gas Hot air Steam Heterogenic Homogenic Heterogenic (in continuous flame) fuel and emission management

construction of a “green product“

extension of preventive inspection and maintenance measures

micro sensors and actuators

engine data transmission to a central control

on-board monitoring

high level of safety

on-board diagnosis

Fig. 9.1 Requirements for engine systems

gasoline

engines fuel combustion engine

diesel

electric engine

gas CNG

spark ignition

self ignition

LNG

leadacid

nickelcadmium

lithiumion

hybrid engine LPG full

mild

plug in

Fig. 9.2 Basic technical variants of engines

. Besides combustion engines, more and more electric engines are being used in transportation. Figure 9.2 shows the technical variants of the basic principle of operation [6]. The most important vehicle types in transportation, depending on engine type, are: • Combustion engine vehicles (CEV); • Plug-in hybrid engine vehicles which are the combination of a CE and a battery or a fuel cell driven electric engine (EE);

9.1 Principles of Operation

137

Table 9.2 Comparative data of spark and self ignition engines Compression Injection system Nominal number ratio of revolutions (–) (rpm) Spark ignition engines Passenger car engines with turbocharger HDV engines Self-ignition engines Cars with DI engine, turbocharger, and CACb HDV with DI engine, turbocharger, and CAC Construction machinery and farm tractors engines Locomotive engines

5,000–7,000

7–9

2,500–5,000

7–9

3,600–4,400

16–20

1,800–2,600

16–18

1,000–3,600

16–20

750–1,000

12–15

Ship engines (four-stroke)

400–1,500

13–17

Ship engines (two-stroke)

50–250

6–8

SFCa g (kWh)-1 (oz BTU-1) 380–250 ((4.000–2.632) 9 10-3) 380–270 ((4.000–2.842) 9 10-3) 210–195 ((2.211–2.053) 9 225–190 ((2.369–2.000) 9 280–190 ((2.948–2.000) 9 210–200 ((2.211–2.105) 9 210–190 ((2.211– 2.000) 9 10-3) 180–160 ((1.894–1.684) 9

10-3) 10-3) 10-3) 10-3)

10-3)

a

SFC measured by the intake air temperature of 298 K, charging air temperature of 298 K, heating value of fuel of 11,863 kWh kg-1 , i.e., 42,707 9 103 kJ kg-1 (18,357 9 103 BTU lb-1 ) at normal conditions according to ISO 8 217:2010 and ISO 8 216-1:2010 b Charging air cooling c Cars d Direct injection e Heavy duty vehicles

• Full hybrid engine vehicles (FHEV); and • Battery driven electric motor vehicles (BEV). .

9.2 Operation of Spark and Self Ignition Engines Most vehicles are designed with a spark or a self-ignition engine. Diesel power is increasing for passenger as well as freight transportation. The main properties of spark ignition engine types are presented in Table 9.2 [7].

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Vehicle Engines

Table 9.3 Main parameters of spark ignition engines Construction

Operation

Combustion chamber profile Combustion chamber design Compression ratio Spark plug position Ignition point Idle stroke-bore relationship to cylinder volume

Mixture generation Mixture regulation Valve timing Internal mixture creation Injection system Lean running

9.2.1 Spark Ignition Engines A spark ignition engine takes in a mixture of air and fuel and compresses it. The fuel is usually gasoline, but other hydrocarbons such as LPG or CNG are also becoming more and more common. It uses a spark plug to ignite the mixture when it is compressed by the piston head in the cylinders. The efficiency of a spark ignition engine mainly depends on its construction and operation (see Table 9.3).

9.2.1.1 Main Construction Elements Construction elements determine the design, the size, and the frame conditions of operations (see Table 9.4).

9.2.1.2 Main Operation Parameters Operation modes can be regulated depending on driving conditions (see Table 9.5). Changes of operation conditions intensively impacts fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions.

9.2.2 Self Ignition Engine In the past, self ignition engines were generally heavier and noisier than spark ignition engines. The newest models are small and of a very similar size to a spark ignition engine in the same performance class. On the other side, self ignition engines are more efficient in fuel consumption and more powerful at lower speeds than spark ignition engines, but differences are disappearing [22]. In Europe, sophisticated cars with self-ignition engine have about a 40% share of the market. The portion in the USA and in other regions of the world is lower but it is continuously increasing [23]. Most self-ignition engines operate in road vehicles, locomotives, construction machinery, tractors, buses, and ships.

Idle stroke bore relationship to cylinder volume

Ignition point

Spark plug position

Compression ratio

Combustion chamber design

Combustion chamber profile

A compact combustion chamber can save engine volume. However, low cracks and piston strokes increase NOx emissions, reduces flame quenching, and the cold wall could lead to the expiration of the flame [8] In spark ignition engines, the combustion chamber is predominantly in the cylinder head in contrast to self ignition engines with direct injection, by which the piston serves for the admission into the combustion chamber [9]. The pistons of spark ignition engines possess either a light hollow or they are flat. In the multi valve engine an inlet channel can be constructed as a swirl channel which can increase the mixture preparation in the lower partial-load area especially with a low mass flow. The second channel, which operates at a higher load and higher number of revolutions, serves as a filling channel [10] The compression ratio can be extremely high in the full load range. In a spark ignition engine, the limit is given by the knocking characteristics. The NOx emissions increase with extremely high compression ratios. Leaner burning with a higher Lambda number can decrease NOx emissions. Thermal efficiency in spark ignition engines is between 0.35 and 0.45 on average and in self ignition engines between 0.50 and 0.60, depending on construction [11] The situation of the ignition plug, the number of valves, and the conception of the valve impulse, e.g., a variable valve impulse influences the fuel consumption and the exhaust gas emissions. Four or more valves allow the spark plug to be centrally positioned [12] Fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions can be influenced by the ignition energy, and by the shape and position of the spark plug [13]. Late ignition points result in increasing exhaust gas temperatures, which produce favorable conditions for post reactions of HCs and CO. Additionally, late ignition increases fuel consumption. However, it shortens the warmup phase of the engine and optimizes the starting characteristics of the catalyst The longer the stroke of an engine, the smaller the HC and CO emissions and the partial-load fuel consumption. However, the size of the idle stroke bore relationship to the cylinder volume is not freely dimensionable, because criteria such as the mass forces, combustion chamber design, task of the construction, existing manufacturing plants, etc., usually permit only a closed range for the application [14] The long stroke engine offers a great potential for the improvement of the efficiency degree, in particular in fourvalve combustion chambers by higher compression ratios [15]

Table 9.4 Impact of construction on fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions Construction parameters Physical properties

9.2 Operation of Spark and Self Ignition Engines 139

Lean running

Direct injection

Internal mixture creation

Variable valve timing

Mixture regulation

Mixture preparation

Stricter requirements for environment protection concerning the exhaust gas limits require improved systems for the preparation of the air and fuel mixture [16]. Selective preparation of mixtures for each cylinder of the engine makes it possible to adjust the optimal mixture in all of the cylinders of the engine. The main limiting factors are the load and the number of revolutions per cylinder. Sequential injection improves lean running and lowers the output of HC, CO, and NOx emissions. The most important phases are starting, i.e., the warmup period, accelerating, and braking A Lambda control loop regulating the fuel and air mixture offers further improvements in the mixture stability and the exhaust gas concentration [17]. A Lambda sensor installed upstream, i.e., in the front of the catalyst, detects the air and fuel ratio and corrects the amount of fuel for each cylinder via actuators. The system works within a very narrow range around k = 1 in order to achieve a high conversion ratio on the three-way catalyst Variable valve timing allows stable idling. Experience has proven that on-board controlled systems effectively contribute to the stabilization of the combustion, to the reduction of raw emission, and to the increase of the torque in the low and middle range of number of revolutions [18]. The five valve system has three intake and two exhaust valves which greatly improves cylinder filling Internal mixture formation systems are expensive because they must be extremely durable [19]. The biggest dangers are deposits in the injection systems. Besides valve timing, optimal internal mixture formation with direct injection improves the combustion stability and lowers exhaust gas emissions during idling Direct injection through compression spraying lowers fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions compared to the intake runner injection. Optimal solutions can be achieved with multi-hole nozzles for the distribution of the air and with variation in the beginning and finishing time for the injection [20] Lean running means a Lambda number with k  1. This method effectively decreases SFC by up to 15%, but raw emissions of HCs and CO increase because of the long combustion time with a low flame speed. Stable combustion and low exhaust gas emissions in lean engines result from the sequential injection of the fuel, the special design of the inlet channel for swirling and tumbling the burning gases, and the optimal dose of combustion air to multilayered burning zones in the cylinder [21]

Table 9.5 Impact of operation mode on fuel consumption and emissions Operation modes Physical properties

140 9 Vehicle Engines

9.2 Operation of Spark and Self Ignition Engines

141

Table 9.6 Main construction and operation parameters of self ignition engines Construction parameters Operation parameters Valve propulsion Mixture formation Pre-heating Common Rail Sealing Cooling Lubrication Torque Performance

Combustion chamber Cylinder block and head Pistons and rings Crank shaft Cam shaft Con rod Cocks Air and oil containing parts Fuel filter Intake air tube and exhaust gas pipe

7 1 2 8 3 4

6 9

11 10

5

15

14 12 13

1. camshaft, 2. valve, 3, pistons, 4. injection system, 5. cylinder, 6. exhaust gas feed back, 7. intake pipe, 8. exhaust gas turbocharger, 9. exhaust gas tube, 10. cooling system, 11. piston road, 12. lubrication system, 13. engine block, 14. crankshaft, 15. flywheel

Fig. 9.3 Main construction elements of self ignition engines [24]

Similar to spark ignition technology, the SFC and the exhaust gas emissions of the self ignition engine depend on the construction and operation parameters (see Table 9.6).

Combustion chamber

9

Intake air tube and exhaust gas pipe

Fuel filter

Air and oil containing parts

Connecting rod

Cock

Crank shaft

Crank case

Piston and ring

Cylinder block and head

Physical properties

The combustion chamber is usually built as an omega hollow. An open, relatively wide design, which lies in the center of the cock, is the most efficient form [27] Cylinder head covers are primarily made of plastics for weight reduction. Leak tightness, flat bearing surface, light weight, and additional ripping lead to additional noise reduction [28, 29]. Complete sound enclosure is not necessary since the upper range of the engine is well shielded from the driving cab with insulation mats and damping [30] In mid-sized diesel engines of up to six cylinders with ‘‘in-line’’ design, continuous mono cylinder heads which are made of vermicular graphite cast iron, are predominantly used [31]. Wet cylinder bushings are made of centrifugal cast iron [32] Future pistons, if stress will be less, can be made of aluminum [33]. Current ring technology consists of two sealing rings and one oil wiper ring which leads to less friction and to optimal sealing behavior in the cylinder. The rings are made of specially coated steel and cast iron. Future pistons, if stress will be less, can be made of aluminum [34] The crank case, similar to the cylinder head, is made of vermicular graphite cast iron [35]. This material makes it possible to reduce weight by approximately 30% and compensates the weight advantage of aluminum through higher loads and better acoustic behavior Currently, crank shafts made of micro-alloyed steel with special hardened brake spaces with high rigidity and shock mounts are used [36]. Future multiple mounting of the crank shaft leads to smaller oscillations and thereby to reduced noise emissions Recently, undivided cocks are using in engine technology [37]. In the future, depending on development of material technology, divided cocks will be increasingly applied. On the strength of past experiences, the cock basement will be designed from steel in order to withstand high ignition pressures New powder technologies with heat treated, sintered, and pressed light powder elements are introduced. In the long term, carbon fiber reinforced plastics or light metal will lead to further mass reduction. Predetermined breaking points in new sintered elements will replace the more expensive divided technology with an integrated connecting rod [38] More and more oil and air containing parts are made of glass fiber reinforced plastics [39, 40]. Besides this technology, also doublewalled sheet metal oil pans play a substantial role in special vehicles, e. g., in military vehicles Fuel filters are made of paper and stand perpendicularly. In the future, low pressure downpipes made completely from plastics should be installed from the tank to the high pressure pump [41]. Apart from weight reduction, this change should also lead to increased service life without corrosion Intake tubes and bend pipes are made of plastics. In order to minimize noise the interior flow is optimized by vibration-free mountings [42]. Exhaust gas ducts and bend pipes are no longer designed from cast iron but more from sheet metal [43]. The heat insulation of neighboring components gain in importance. Auxiliary elements in the exhaust duct are the additional exhaust gas control valve, the compressor bypass for switching, the turbocharger, and the exhaust gate flap which supports the engine’s brake. Closing the exhaust gas flap produces back pressure in the exhaust gas which retards the engine. Braking efficiency can be improved with continuous monitoring and regulating the flap [44]

Construction parameters

Table 9.7 Main construction parameters in the self-ignition engine

142 Vehicle Engines

(continued)

The compression in self ignition engines is from 16:1 to 24:1, and in spark ignition engines from 7:1 to 13:1. Diesel fuel does not produce knocking, so the engine can ignite the air and fuel mixture at high pressures and high combustion chamber temperatures. The combustion air is compressed to (30–35) 9 105 Pa (435–508 psi, i.e., 62.657–73.099 lbf ft-2) in naturally aspirating engines and to (80–110) 9 105 Pa (1,160–1,595 psi, i.e., 1.67–2.30 9 105 lbf ft-2) in charged engines [45] The compression of the engine has a decisive effect on the cold start characteristics, the torque, the fuel consumption, and the noise and pollutant emissions. The temperature of up to 700–900C (1,292–1,652F) is sufficient to ignite the fuel which is injected into the combustion chamber [46] Valve propulsion Valves are moved by the camshaft. Conventional camshafts are made of steel and used to regulate the valves [47]. Valves are usually made from two metals and a central, perpendicular arrangement of the injection nozzle. A four valve system has two inlet and two exhaust valves which produce optimal gas exchange and cylinder filling. In the near future, the mechanical camshaft regulation of the valves could be replaced with electronic regulation. However, in the distant future, variable valve regulation in combination with Common Rail systems will make the camshaft redundant Preheating of fuel and Preheating the fuel and air is important for reducing exhaust gas emissions, especially during cold starts. In very cold weather, air additional burners are necessary [48] Common Rail Current Common Rail injection pumps use pressures above 1,000 9 105 Pa (14,505 psi, i.e., 20.89 9 105 lbf ft-2). Specific applications that must be protected against high temperatures in the combustion system should use a lower pressure than in the past by approximately 800 9 105 Pa (11,604 psi, i.e., 16.71 9 105 lbf ft-2). However, tendencies show in the direction of higher pressures and lower drop diameters. Radial piston pumps should be used for higher efficiency, longer life span, lower weight, and reduced noise [49] Sealing system Cylinder head sealing must be adapted to the increasing pressures [50]. The materials of the cylinder head define their use, which greatly influences the life span of the engine. Wave can be sealed with radial sealing. Crankshaft seals have to cope with high pressures and temperatures Cooling system The temperature of the self ignition engine is regulated by two different cooling systems [51]. Wet cylinder barrels and bored or calibrated ducts are used for interior engine cooling. Engine temperature is regulated by ambient air. Today, cooling fans with a special coupling are used which turn on in response to the engine temperature. The precise regulation is important because large fans in modern heavy commercial motor vehicles use a high proportion of the engine power, between 15 and 21 kW (20 and 28 HP). Future engines will work with higher combustion temperatures and therefore they must be intensively cooled

Mixture formation

Table 9.8 Main operation parameters in the self-ignition engine Operation modes Physical properties

9.2 Operation of Spark and Self Ignition Engines 143

Performance

Torque

Lubrication system

Lubrication reduces the internal friction of engines and affects the fuel consumption. Pressure lubrication systems lubricate the whole engine, meaning the crankshaft, the piston rod, the camshaft, the valves and the nozzles, the turbocharger, etc. Consumption of lubricating oil depends on the load. Oil must be changed because it ages. Heavy trucks consume lubricating oil at the rate of 2–3 l (1,000 km)-1 which equals to 0.53–0.78 gal (1,000 km)-1, i.e., 0.85–1.30 gal (1,000 mi)-1. Oil should be changed after 30,000– 60,000 km, i.e., 18,630–37,260 mi [52] Synthetic engine oils with low viscosity may be slightly more expensive, but they can cut fuel consumption by much as 5% by reducing the internal friction of the engine, particularly in cold starts in comparison with traditional oils [53] The force of the expanding air and fuel mixture which drives the piston together with the lever arm of the crankshaft downward is converted into torque [54]. The torque depends on the average piston speed and operating pressure. The number of revolutions of self ignition engines has been substantially increased since the beginning of the 1990s. Now car engines run up to 5,500 rpm; heavy-duty vehicles usually run at lower rpm. Future injection systems with electronic speed regulation, e.g., an Electronic Diesel Control (EDC) will deliver high engine torque with a smooth ride [55] The performance depends on the output, which is generated as a power per time interval. It increases with higher torque and higher rpm. Modern self ignition engines of vans with fuel injection operate in a performance range between 80 kW (109 HP) and 100 kW (136 HP) [56]

Table 9.8 (continued) Operation modes Physical properties

144 9 Vehicle Engines

9.2 Operation of Spark and Self Ignition Engines

fuel filter

fuel pipes

injectors

fuel system

injection

fuel pre-cooling and pre-heating

injection injection pump pressure

145 internal motor lubrication cooling system oil pump

seals

cooling system

external motor cooling

engine lubrication

oil lines

oil filter

Fig. 9.4 Cooling and lubricating system of self ignition combustion engines

9.2.2.1 Main Construction Elements Self ignition engines are usually built in a design with ‘‘in-line’’ and ‘‘V’’ engine form [25]. Friction losses in the construction are shared in the transmission by 32%, in the oil pump by 10%, in the valves by 8%, and in the piston rings by approximately 50%. Figure 9.3 presents the main elements of a self ignition engine [26]. The main construction elements and their influence on fuel combustion and exhaust gas emissions are presented in Table 9.7.

9.2.2.2 Main Operation Parameters Table 9.8 presents the impact of main operation modes on the fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions of self ignition engines. Figure 9.4 shows the common operation of cooling and lubricating system of self ignition engines.

9.3 Summary and Recommendations: Vehicle Engine Technology There are four- and two-stroke engines. The combustion cycle of four-stroke engines consists of the intake, the compression, the expansion, and the exhaust. A complete operating cycle of the engine requires two crankshaft revolutions. Four-stroke engines have one inlet and one outlet valve per cylinder for the gas exchange. Key parts of the four-stroke engine are the crankshaft, the connecting rod, one or more camshafts and the valves. In a two-stroke engine, two piston strokes and only one crankshaft revolution are needed for one combustion cycle. The first cycle covers the intake and the compression; the second cycle does the expansion and moves the exhaust gases

146

9

Vehicle Engines

from the combustion process. The intake and the exhaust of the combustion gasses can be moved only by the motion of the piston because of high flow inertness. Two-stroke engines require other forces such as an extra pressure gradient produced by a flushing blower which flushes the cylinder from the air intake to the exhaust gas side. In four-stroke spark ignition engines, the blower can be an internal system which is constructed by the crankcase volume change; in twostroke self-ignition engines, an external device, e.g., a Roots supercharger is used for positive displacement [57]. There are still potential for improvement both for the spark and the self ignition engine.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25.

Mollenhauer K (2002) Handbuch Dieselmotoren, 2nd edn. Springer. ISBN-10: 3-540-41239-5 Two-stroke engine. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two-stroke_engine Four-stroke engine. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Four-stroke_engine Wankel engine. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wankel_engine877-2 Brayton cycle. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brayton_cycle Internal combustion engine. http://www.en/wikipedia.org/wiki/internal_combustion_engine Introduction to car engines. http://www.autoeducation.com/rm_preview/engine_intro.htm Ottomotor-Management. Bosch. Vieweg+Teubner Verlag Germany 2005. ISBN-10: 3834800376 Lenz HP (1990) Gemischbildung bei Ottomotoren. Springer, Germany 1990. ISBN-10: 3-211-82193-7 Design to improve turbulence in combustion chamber by creating a vortex. http://pesn.com/ 2005/10/13/9600187_Design_to_Improve_Turbulence_in_Combustion_Chambers/ Comparison of Spark Ignition (SI) and Compression Ignition (CI) Engines. http:// www.brighthub.com/engineering/mechanical/articles/1537.aspx Schäfer F, von Basshuysen R (1993) Schadstoffreduzierung und Kraftstoffverbrauch von Pkw-Verbrennungsmotoren. Springer, Germany. ISBN-10: 3-211-82485-5 Ignition timing. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignition_timing Stroke ratio. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stroke_ratio Long Stroke and Short Stroke engines. http://bikeadvice.in/long-stroke-short-stroke-engines/ Mixture preparation strategies in an optical four-valve port-injected gasoline engine. Engine research. http://jer.sagepub.com/content/1/1/41.abstract Method for the regulation of the mixture composition in a mixture-compressing internal combustion engine. http://www.freepatentsonline.com/4829963.html Variable valve timing. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Variable_valve_timing The history of engines—How engine work. Part 3: Understanding the internal combustion engine. http://inventors.about.com/library/inventors/blinternalcombustion.htm Gasoline direct injection. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gasoline_direct_injection Improving IC engine efficiency. http://courses.washington.edu/me341/oct22v2.htm Kurek R (2006) Nutzfahrzeug-Dieselmotoren. Hauser. ISBN-10: 3-446-40590-9 Can diesel ever become fashionable in the U.S.? Bloomberg Business week. http://www. businessweek.com/autos/autobeat/archives/2008/09/can_diesel_ever_become_fashionable_ in_the_us.html car Dieselmotor-Management im Überblick. Bosch 2002. ISBN: 3-7782-2058-6 V engine. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V_engine

References

147

26. Friction loss analysis of combustion engine parts. http://www.iae.fme.vutbr.cz/frictionloss-analysis-of-combustion-engine-parts 27. Combustion chamber. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Combustion_chamber 28. Cylinder block. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_block 29. Cylinder head. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cylinder_head 30. Reducing road noise. http://www.ehow.com/way_5252111_reducing-road-noise.html 31. Vermicular graphite cast iron. http://www.keytometals.com/page.aspx?ID=CheckArticle &site=kts&NM=263 32. Centrifugal and static casting spheroidal graphite cast iron roll and ring with rolling mill. http:// www.chinahorton.com/mill-rolls/centrifugal-and-static-casting-spheroidal-graphite-cast-ironroll-and-ring-with-rolling-mill.html 33. Engine pistons. http://www.embeeperformance.com/engine-pistons.php 34. Piston ring. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piston_ring 35. Crankcase. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankcase 36. Crankshaft. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crankshaft 37. California Code of Regulations, Title 8, Section 6554: Stationary Internal Combustion Engine Driving Air or Gas Compressors. http://www.dir.ca.gov/title8/6554.html 38. Connecting rod. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Connecting_rod 39. Air filter. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_filter 40. How to locate the oil pan on a car? http://www.ehow.com/how_5458825_locate-oilpan-car.html 41. Fuel filter. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_filter 42. The air intake system. http://www.autorepair.about.com/cs/generalinfo/a/aa062803a.htm 43. Exhaust gas replacement. http://repairpal.com/exhaust-pipe-replacement 44. Exhaust system. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_system 45. Compression ratio. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compression_ratio 46. Diesel engine compression temperature. http://www.forums.tdiclub.com/showthread. php?t=270799 47. Valvetrain. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valvetrain 48. Fuel savings by preheating combustion air. http://www.newenergyalternative.com/energyefficiency/heat-recovery-fuel-savings-preheating-combustion-air 49. The common rail diesel injection system. http://www.swedespeed.com/news/publish/ Features/printer_272.html 50. Cylinder heat sealing technologies. http://www.elring.de/en/03en/07_zkd-tech.php 51. Compositions of diesel engine cooling system. http://www.clihouston.com/news/compositionsof-diesel-engine-cooling-system.html 52. Lubrication system—Diesel engine. http://www.engineersedge.com/power_transmission/ engine_lubrication.htm 53. Motor oil. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Motor_oil 54. Why do diesel engines deliver more torque than gasoline engines? http://www. robotics.caltech.edu/*mason/ramblings/dieselTorque.html 55. Electronic diesel control. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electronic_Diesel_Control 56. Diesel engine. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_engine 57. Roots-type supercharger. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Root-type_supercharger

Chapter 10

Airplane Engines

Aircraft engines operate with reciprocating, i.e. a four-stroke internal combustion engines or with gas turbines. Gas turbines, operating continuously and using the principle of the Brayton-cycle, have gained a leading position in the last 50 years. Most modern airliners use gas turbines in jet engines, fly faster and at higher altitudes than reciprocating engine and propeller driven airplanes [1]. The thrust depends on the mass of air moved, mixed with the exhaust gas in the core and with the air in the by-pass. Propellers and gas turbines‘ blades are flow machines to move airplanes, similarly to ships in water, through rotating and creating thrust in the air. Propeller engines have higher efficiency and lower fuel consumption than jet engines since they move a large air mass at a slower speed in opposite to jet engines which move a small air mass flow at high speed. The gas turbine in a modern jet engine produces usually low concentrations of pollutants in the combustion chamber (see Fig. 10.1) [2]. However, the real proportions are very different in airplanes depending on type, age, and maintenance of airplanes. Beside the high efficiency and the low concentration level, the general problems arise from the high mass flow of burning substances and the high altitude of the emissions. Cold temperatures and low density of ambient air in higher altitudes lead to long decomposition time intervals of the substances emitted [3].

10.1 Types of Engines The most important types of aircraft engines are the turbojet, the turboprop, the turbofan and the turboshaft engine type. Turbojet is the oldest kind of general purpose jet engine. Currently, the most important system is the turbofan technology. The main parameters of types are presented in Table 10.1.

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_10,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

149

150

1 kg kerosene

10 Airplane Engines

O2: 16.3 % N2: 75.2 %

15 kg air

burn product 8.5 %

SO2: 0.026 % H2O: 27.6 % CO2: 72 %

rest product 0.4 %

HC: 4 % CO: 11.8 % NOX: 0.2 % particle: 0.2 %

Fig. 10.1 Exhaust gas components of a turbofan engine in flight Table 10.1 Characteristics of turbojet, turbofan, and turboshaft engines Characteristics Description Turbojets

Turbofans

Turboshaft

Turbojets consist of an air inlet, an air compressor, a combustion chamber, a gas turbine and a nozzle [4]. The air is compressed into the chamber, and heated and expanded by the combustion. Turbojets can be made more fuel efficient by raising the BPR which is the combustor inlet pressure divided by the intake pressure modified by the turbine temperature Turbofan engines are designed to produce additional thrust by diverting a secondary airflow around the combustion chamber [5]. The secondary airflow bypasses the engine core and mixes with the faster stream from the core. BPR in turbofan engines means a factor higher than 2.5. The bypass air generates increased thrust, cools the engine and aids in suppressing exhaust noise. Turbofans have a higher exhaust gas speed than turbojets and are more efficient at subsonic speeds up to roughly Mach 1.6 The turboshaft is similarly designed to the turboprop engine [6]. The shaft is connected to a transmission system that drives helicopter rotor blades, electrical generators, compressors and pumps

Combinations of gas turbine and propeller have a high efficiency [7]. Thermal efficiency can be increased by minimizing heat losses. Consequently, net thrust will increase, while SFC, i.e., fuel flow per net thrust decreases. Currently, improved combustion chamber design, highly resistant turbine materials, and an optimal vane and blade cooling are required to cope with higher temperatures in the combustion chamber and in the turbine inlet. The best SFC values are reached by contra-rotating, unducted turbofan engines [8]. Turbofans optimally operate in the range from 400 to 2,000 km h-1 (from 250 to 1,300 mph) depending on the net thrust and the intake air flow. They are classified into two categories: • Low bypass ratio; and • High bypass ratio. In a low bypass turbofan, only a small amount of air passes through the fan ducts. The fan has a small diameter. The low bypass turbofan is always constructed in a very compact form. In high bypass turbofans the fan is larger to force a higher volume of air through the ducts; the thrust is greater, and the thrust specific consumption is lower than in low bypass turbofans [9].

269.60 (60,609) 316.30 (71,107) 422.60 (95,005) 435.90 (97,995) 320.27 (71,999) 514.00 (115,552) 311.40 (70,006) 311.23 (69,968) 283.60 (63,756) 283.76 (63,792) Boeing 787–8

Boeing 787–8

Airbus A380–800

Boeing777-300ER –200LR, Freighter Airbus A380–800

Airbus A330

Boeing 777

Boeing 777

Airbus A330

Boeing 747–400, 767–300

2.192 (7.19) 2.474 (8.11) 2.794 (9.16) 2.868 (9.40) 2.438 (7.99) 3.256 (10.68) 2.946 (9.66) 2.964 (9.72) 2.845 (9.33) 2.822 (9.25)

Fana m (ft)

9.2:1

10.4:1

8.7:1

8.7:1

7.1:1

5.3:1

5.8:1

5.8:1

5.0:1

4.3:1

By-pass ratio

41.4:1

47.7:1

36.1:1

38.5:1

42.0:1

34.8:1

42.8:1

41.6:1

35.5:1

34.5:1

OPRb

4,386 (9,671) 4,748 (10,469) 5,942 (13,102) 7,484 (16,502) 5,091 (11,226) 8,761 (19,318) 6,436 (14,191) 6,085 (13,417) 5,409 (11,927) 5,816 (12,824)

DMc kg (lb)

March 2008

Jan. 2006 Aug. 2007

June 2001 July 2003 Nov. 2004

Jan. 1994 (Trent 700) June 1999 Aug. 1999

Nov. 1989

CFd

Diameter b Overall Pressure Ration, which means the pressure ratio between the front and the rear of the gas turbine engine’s compressor. Higher OPR implies higher efficiency, but the weight of the engine increases. c Dry mass d Certification

a

GE Aviation Genx-1B64

Engine Alliance GP7270 Rolls-Royce Trent 1000-A1

Rolls-Royce Trent 970

GE Aviation CF6-80E1A3 GE90-115B

PW4098

Rolls-Royce Trent 895

Rolls-Royce Trent 772

Rolls-Royce RB211-524H

Table 10.2 Technical parameters of modern jet engines Use Parameter Thrust Engine kN (lbf)

10.1 Types of Engines 151

152

10 Airplane Engines primary air

film cooling

twist rose

secondary air fuel

injection nozzle combustion chamber housing

ignition vortex

cooling air flame pipe

1

2

3

4

1. diffusor channel between compressor and combustion chamber 2. division of the air throughput into primary and secondary air 3. mixing and gasification zone

5

6

4. combustion zone 5. thinning zone 6. smoothing of the flow in the combustion chamber`s exhaust zone

Fig. 10.2 Main elements of a jet engine’s combustion chamber

10.2 Fuel Consumption and Thrust Development is moving toward higher bypass ratios, larger fan diameters, higher masses, higher thrusts, and lower fuel consumption rates. Currently, thrust and speed are presenting continuously increasing and SFC decreasing tendencies in aviation (see Table 10.2) [10]. The production costs of jet engines are increasing. The price range of modern turbofan engines is from €10 to 30 million, i.e., from US $14.3 to 43.9 million. Increasing the bypass and pressure ratio without increasing the fan diameter means less core flow which increases the temperature at the turbine inlet [11, 12]. The control of the combustion chamber needs additional micro sensors for burning and exhaust gas products. Self-Diagnosis will become more important since modern jet engines are constructed with higher loads and higher durability.

10.3 Construction of the Combustion Chamber In the combustion chamber the burning process produces high pressures and high temperatures according to the mixture conditions. Most combustion chambers operate with an air surplus in the burner can [13]. The mixture in the combustion

10.3

Construction of the Combustion Chamber

153

zone can be influenced by the fuel to air relationship, i.e., the Lambda number. At lower engine speeds, the relationship is approximately k = 1.3, while cruising the mixture has a Lambda number of around k = 1.6. The mixture of fuel and air and the combustion process in a single combustion chamber are illustrated in Fig. 10.2 [14]. The main combustion chamber type is the ring combustor. The compressor pushes the air flow to the combustion chamber at a speed of approximately 150 m s-1 (335.61 mph), in which the kerosene and air mixture has a combustion speed between 25 and 30 m s-1 (55.93 and 67.12 mph). For efficient combustion, the fuel and air mixture must remain in the combustion zone from 0.004 to 0.008 s. This time interval is long enough to completely burn the fuel. The fuel drops must be gasified, mixed with air, and heated to the ignition temperature. The combustion temperature in the burning zone is approximately 2,573C (4,663F) [15]. Higher temperature and pressure increases the damage in the combustion chamber which requires more maintenance and repairs. Therefore, improved cooling technology in the combustion chamber and in the exhaust gas pipe are required which contributes to higher efficiency and to lower costs [16]. The optimal operation of the combustion chamber of a jet engine’s gas turbine must work with: • Stable, vibration-free combustion process on the ground and in the air; • Optimal thinning of the combustion gases at a temperature which does not lead to overheating of the first turbine stage; • Efficient burning fuel and efficient releasing the energy contained in the fuel; • Low pressure loss which could be the result of increased friction; • Simple maintenance and repair; and • High durability of all elements [17]. These facts are the preconditions for optimal operation and must be inspected and maintained during the whole life time of the engine. In the future, the following goals will be more important for the further development of combustion chamber technology: • Improving the construction between the compressor and the turbine to save space and weight; • Maintaining a more uniform temperature and pressure distribution in the exhaust cross-section; and • Optimizing ignition [18].

10.4 Emissions from the Combustion Chamber In aviation, the level of unburned CO and HC from engines is very low and the amount of visible smoke is under control currently. The exhaust gases contain more CO and HC only during idling because of the low air and fuel throughput, the

154

10 Airplane Engines

Fig. 10.3 Emissions of pollutants from a gas turbine specific mass of pollutants [kg*(1 000 kg fuel)-1]

100 NOx 10

CO CnHm

1.0

0.1 300

400

600

800 1 000 temperature [K]

low pressure and the low temperature in the combustion chamber which leads to the production of unburned substances (see Fig. 10.3) [19]. The Bypass Pressure Ratio (BPR) means the rate of air mass flow between the engine bypass and the engine core. Increasing the BPR has limits in turbofans because higher temperatures at the turbine rotor and compressor inlet produce material problems [20]. In this section, improved vane and blade cooling and high efficient compressors with heat resistant materials, e.g., plasma spray ceramic protective layers and thermal barrier coatings on the surface (ZrO2Y2O3), are still needed [21].

10.5 Measurement in Turbofan Engines Turbofans contain two mechanically independent rotors, one inside the other. The fan, the low pressure compressor and the low pressure turbine are installed on the inner rotor, called the N1 rotor. The outer rotor, called N2, holds the high pressure compressor and turbine. It includes an intake valve to pass fuel to the engine, a pump to increase fuel pressure, coolers, heaters and filters for the fuel, a second pump to further raise the fuel pressure, a shut-off valve in front of the combustion chamber and a fuel flow meter providing flow information to FMS. Turbofans contain tubes for analyzing rotation speeds N1 and N2, Exhaust Gas Temperature (EGT), fuel pressure, fuel temperature and fuel flow in the pipes, fuel quantity in the tanks and filter saturation. The electronic engine control senses the position of the thrust lever, compares the actual with the target N1. According to the aircraft configuration and altitude, it automatically sets the engine thrust by adjusting the fuel flow to achieve the target N1, commanded by the auto throttle system or by the pilot. Measuring points in the combustion and exhaust gas system are presented in Fig. 10.4.

10.5

Measurement in Turbofan Engines

temperature [°C] 30 pressure [kPa] 101.4

1

2

155

126

580

235.8

201.3

3

4

5

1. spiner cone 2. Low Pressure Compressor (LPC) containing 4 grades 3. Variable Bypass Valves (VBV) containing 12 valves 4. High Pressure Compressor and Variable Stator Vanes (HPC and VSV)

1 400

875 (max 950)

284.1 234.4

6

575 162.1

7

5. thrust reverser 6. combustion chamber 7. High Pressure Turbine and Low Pressure Turbine (HPT and LPT)

Fig. 10.4 Temperature and pressure at the main measuring points in the engine type CF6-50 E/C 2

Table 10.3 Main operation parameters of the engine type CF6-80C2B1F

Parameters

Values

Total thrust Fuel flow RPM N1 fan speed RPM N2 core speed Air flow Fan air flow Prim air flow Bypass ratio Compression-ratio EGT

226.85 kN (51,000 lbf) 9,300 kp h-1 (660,905 pdl h-1) 3,433 (100%) 9,827 (100%) 685 kg s-1 (1,510 lb s-1) 558 kg s-1 (1,230 lb s-1) 127 kg s-1 (280 lb s-1) 4.4:1 29.4:1 887C (1,629F) (max 950C (1,712F) up to 2 min) 1,400C (2,552F)

Turbine inlet temperature

Table 10.3 shows the main operation parameters. Fuel flow in engines of the 1990s has been approximately 2.5–2.6 kg s-1 (5.5–5.7 lb) [22]. The ratio of fuel flow in jet engines has been continuously decreasing in the last years. Modern engines consume less than 2.0 kg s-1 (4.4 lb s-1) of fuel. The TSFC attaches ranges from approximately 17.1 g (kN s)-1, i.e., 0.605 lb (lbf h)-1 to 8.696 g (kN s)-1, i.e., 0.307 lb (lbf h)-1.

156

10 Airplane Engines

10.6 Summary and Recommendations: Combustion Process in a Jet Engine The first fuel-efficient engines with higher bypass ratios were introduced in the 1970s and 1980s. They reduced HC and CO emissions but increased the NO and NO2 output. In contrast to unburned substances, NO and NO2 concentrations are higher in full load intervals because of the higher air and fuel throughput, and the higher pressure and temperature. The aim is to reduce NO and NO2 levels by 50% of the current level within 5–10 years. The new approach involves improving the uniformity of fuel injection, mixing fuel and air, and reducing emissions. NOx levels may be reduced to 50–70% of the present amount by using multiple combustion zones in radial and axial configurations, which permit optimal local temperatures and burning times in the combustor. High bypass turbofan engines are generally quieter than the earlier low bypass engines. Using multi-stage fans significantly increases thrust and velocity of exhaust gases. The combination of a higher BPR and a higher turbine inlet temperature further improves thermal efficiency and lowers SFC. Both economic and safety considerations limit the installation of new combustor designs to old engines. A new construction is often introduced as a package that includes modifications to the combustion chamber, to the fuel nozzles, and to the engine control. Positive steps must prevent intermixing of new and old components during maintenance. Of course, other requirements such as better fuel consumption, lower peak cycle temperatures, reduced NO, NO2, and particle emissions, and high durability with low costs must also be balanced if combustion technology is retrofitted. Micro sensors in the combustion chamber could become important in the future jet engine technology because they could add additional signals to the current sensor technology and control the first deteriorations in the burning process. Self Diagnosis can be a further developed stage in addition to recent Emission Index technology.

References 1. Götsch E (2000) Luftfahrzeugtechnik. Einführung, Grundlagen, Luftfahrzeugkunde, 1st edn. Motorbuch Verlag, Stuttgart. ISBN: 3-613-02006-8 2. Jet force. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jet_force 3. Almond P Aviation. Könemann Verlag. ISBN: 3-8331-2560-8. http://www.gettyimages.com 4. Turbojet. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbojet 5. MTU: Turbofan. http://www.mtu.de/de/globals/glossary/T/turbofan/index.html 6. Turboshaft. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turboshaft 7. Propfan. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Propfan 8. Mantelstromtriebwerk. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbofan 9. Thrust specific fuel consumption. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thrust_specific_fuel

References

157

10. Schubgiganten Top 10 (2010) Flugrevue. Das Luft- und Raumfahrtmagazin. pp 82–87. ISSN: 0015-4547. http://www.flugrevue.de 11. Bypass ratio. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bypass_ratio 12. Overall pressure ratio. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Overall_pressure-ratio 13. Gas turbines in simple cycle & combined cycle applications. http://www.netl.doe.gov/ technologies/coalpower/turbines/refshelf/handbook/1.1.pdf 14. Aircraft technical: The jet engine components. http://www.pilotfriend.com/training/ flight_training/tech/jet_engine_components.htm 15. Real-time measurement of jet aircraft engine exhaust. http://www.patarnott.com/pdf/ JetPA.pdf 16. Neue Brennkammer (2010) Flugrevue. Das Luft- und Raumfahrtmagazin. pp 88. ISSN: 0015-4547. http://www.flugrevue.de 17. Neue Klasse (2009) Business-Jet-Triebwerke auf der Suche nach Anwendungen. Flugrevue, Das Luft- und Raumfahrtmagazin, pp 66–67. ISSN: 0015-4547. http://www.flugrevue.de 18. Brennkammer. http://www.techniklexikon.net.d/brennkammer.htm 19. Raipdal K Aircraft emissions. http://www.ipcc-nggip.iges.or.jp/public/gp/bgp/2_5_Aircraft. pdf 20. Safeguarding our atmosphere. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/glenn/about/fs10grc.html 21. Micro-laminated (ZrO2–Y2O3)/(Al2O3–Y2O3) coatings on Fe–25Cr alloy and their high temperature oxidation resistance. http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007SRL....14..499Y 22. Turbofan. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turbofan

Chapter 11

Marine Diesel Engines

Marine diesel engines are very similar to the self-ignition engines in heavy-duty vehicles, but they are generally larger, more complex, and operate with higher efficiency. About 75% of all marine diesel engines are four-stroke engines; however, 75% of the installed power is produced by two-stroke engines. Four-stroke marine diesel engines are gaining importance not only in inland, but also in marine shipping, primarily in smaller container and bulk carrier ships. Fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions of ship engines depend not only on the principle of operation, but also on the type, the size, the power, the load, the speed, etc. [1]. On the one side, fuel saving and exhaust gas after treatment technology in shipping will gain more importance in the next years because fleet management will focus on fuel and exhaust gas emission saving. On the other side, fuel saving is directly combined with environment and climate protection. Higher costs of fuel intensively support developing fuel saving technologies. Fuel saving also contributes to innovations in climate protection technology and to development in legislation [2].

11.1 Fuel Consumption in Marine Diesel Engines Modern marine diesel engines with direct injection have a maximum brake efficiency of 40–43%. Further improvement of the direct injection technology is possible. Although improvements will continuously go on, they will be carried out in small steps. Retrofitting older engines has often high costs, particularly in larger ships. This is one of the reasons why quality of retrofitting measures must always have a high level. The attempts to improve engines include: • Controlling and reducing the friction of the main and auxiliary parts with lubrication;

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_11,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

159

160

11

Marine Diesel Engines

178

pressure [bar]

20

177 179 181

15

188 191 196

10

SFC -1 [g*kWh ]

201 207 213 219

5 400 500 600 number of revolutions [1*min -1] 6 -1 specific heating value of fuel 42.7*10 J*kg

Fig. 11.1 SFC of a medium speed marine diesel engine in fuel consumption diagram

• Reducing the heat losses of the cylinder walls by optimizing the thermal insulation of all heat parts, particularly near the cylinders; • Introducing variable swirl with the injection of the fuel; • Using variable intake air flow; • Introducing a variable compression ratio using specific high dynamic pressure and temperature sensor and actuator technology; • Using SCR catalyst and particle filters in the exhaust gas after treatment system additionally to recent silencer technology and occasionally in addition to the exhaust gas boiler technology; and • Applying gas concentration and particle sensors to monitor the catalyst and the particle filter [3]. All parts of the engine, the turbocharger, the compressor and the exhaust gas after treatment system must be optimized to reduce fuel consumption and emissions. The use of electric turbochargers is possible, but electric motors are great and have disadvantageous high inertia when starting. The SFC firstly depends on the number of revolutions and the exhaust gas pressure. The piston-stroke to bore ratio, the size and the form of the valve cross section and the valve timing additionally influences the SFC [4]. The SFC can be estimated, depending on the number of revolutions and the Break Mean Effective Pressure (BMEP), with fuel consumption diagrams drawn on paper or on computer (see Fig. 11.1) [5]. Changes in the SFC can be exactly measured with analyzing CO2, unburned hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide concentrations in the exhaust gas. The preconditions for successful analysis are suitable micro measurement devices applicable in ships, which can analyze the concentration with the required accuracy and durability [6].

11.1

Fuel Consumption in Marine Diesel Engines

161

Table 11.1 Characteristics of large, slow speed, two stroke marine diesel engine Engine Physical properties characteristics Operation parameters

Dimensions

Control system

Fuel Efficiency

Two-stroke crosshead engines have piston diameters from 350 mm (13.82 in) to 1,080 mm (42.66 in) and strokes of up to 3,200 mm (126.4 in). The average cylinder volume is 600–650 l (21.2–23.0 ft3) with a middle cylinder bore of 600 mm (23.6 in). The piston speed is between 4.0 m s-1 and 6.0 m s-1, i.e. between 13.2 and 19.7 ft s-1. Fast engines run at about 8.0 m s-1 (26.2 ft s-1). The ignition pressure ranges from 140 9 105 Pa to 160 9 105 Pa, i.e., from 2.92 9 105 lbf ft-2 to 3.34 9 105 lbf ft-2 or from 2,030 to 2,320 psi [9] Currently, the dimensions are up to 29 9 15.5 9 11.5 m or 95.1 9 50.8 9 37.7 ft, i.e., length x width x height and the weight is up to 2,300 t (5,066,079 lb) (Wärtsila 14RT-flex96C). The wave output ranges up to 84,420 kW (114 811 HP), (Wärtsila RT-flex/RTA96C) at 102 rpm. However, development is very fast and new engines will be larger and heavier [10] Fully electronic engine control makes it possible to separately regulate the fuel injection, the exhaust-valve opening and closing, the cylinder lubrication and the compressed air starting the engine operation after interruption. Sensors monitor pressures, temperatures, number of revolutions and other fuel management parameters, such as fuel consumption [11] Two-stroke marine diesel engines can burn a variety of fuels, even biogenic and synthetic fuels or CNG and hydrogen [12] The two-stroke engine theoretically would produce twice the power of an equal sized four-stroke engine. However, due to losses from the lower operating efficiency only approximately 60% of the theoretical efficiency can be reached. Two-stroke engines guarantee low fuel consumption and high reliability, optimal durability and extremely long lifespan also with low viscosity and variable quality of fuels [13]

Fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions can be reduced by approximately 20% with better exhaust gas recirculation and by pre-heating the engine before the cold start. Further measures are: • Reduction of mechanical and thermal losses in the complete chain of air and fuel injection and in the exhaust gas after treatment system; • Use of a two-step load of the turbocharger to improve the stationary performance; and • Application of an electric driven exhaust gas turbocharger with less inertia [7].

11.2 Engine Operation Engine operation mainly depends on the principle of operation, the size and the number of revolutions, often called the speed of the engine. There are slow, medium, and high speed diesel engines.

11

change of NOx concentration [%]

162 50 40 20 50 10 0 -10 -20 -30 -40

Marine Diesel Engines

two-stroke

four-stroke

-8

-5

-4

-2 0 2 4 6 change of fuel consumption [%]

8

10

Fig. 11.2 Impact of changing fuel consumption on NOx emissions at constant rpm

11.2.1 Slow Speed Two-Stroke Marine Diesel Engines Slow speed, high capacity marine diesel engines are the largest engines in the world which operate with a crosshead principle at a maximum of 300 rpm. Most large two-stroke, slow speed diesel engines operate below 120 rpm, even between 60 and 70 rpm. Two-stroke marine diesel engines have the best SFC among internal combustion engines. Their construction and operational characteristics are presented in Table 11.1 [8]. Slow speed marine diesel engines usually work with gate, valve, and port control as well as with a combination of them. In the largest engines only the valve and the port control are used. NOx emissions are directly related to the combustion temperature. Decreasing the amount of fuel injected into the combustion chamber usually requires more intensive mixing which increases the temperature in the burning zone and lead to locally higher NOx emissions at a constant number of revolutions (see Fig. 11.2).

11.2.2 Medium Speed Four-Stroke Marine Diesel Engines Medium speed marine diesel engines are widely used as main and auxiliary engines. They operate on diesel fuel or heavy fuel oil by direct injection in the same manner as low speed engines. There are natural gas fueled versions, which operate on the Otto cycle and also dual fuel versions (Table 11.2) [14].

11.2.3 High Speed Four-Stroke Marine Diesel Engines High speed marine diesel engines are usually used to provide high specific power, low weight, and small volume. They are special engines and have a maximum

11.2

Engine Operation

163

Table 11.2 Characteristics of medium speed four-stroke marine diesel engines Engine Physical properties parameters Operation parameters Performance Pressure range

The number of revolutions is between 300 and 900 rpm. The average piston speed ranges from 8 to 9 m s-1 (from 26.2 to 29.5 ft s-1). The cylinder diameter is usually between 200 mm and 640 mm (7.9 and 25.2 in) The power range is from 100 to 2,150 kW (from 134 to 2,883 HP) per cylinder The average pressure ranges from 200 9 105 Pa (4.18 9 105 lbf ft-2 or 2.901 psi) to 290 9 105 Pa (6.10 9 105 lbf ft-2 or 4.210 psi)

Table 11.3 Characteristics of high speed four-stroke marine diesel engines Engine Physical properties parameters Operation parameters

Future development

The number of revolutions is over 900 rpm and the average piston speed is between 9 and 11 m s-1 (29.5 and 36.7 ft s-1). The cylinder piston stroke volume reaches from 0.266 to 0.55 dm3 (from 9.3 9 10-3 to 19.4 9 10-3 ft3). There are three, four, six, and eight cylinder versions designed ‘‘in-line’’ and in a ‘‘V’’ shape The most important possibilities are increasing the fuel injection pressure, using variable preinjection time, applying adjustable swirl, and mass of intake air and introducing adjustable swirl and angle of injected fuel into the combustion chamber and regulating the ignition point depending on the exhaust gas quality

operating engine speed between 900 and 2,300 rpm. Similar to the medium speed engine, the ignition pressure is approximately 200 9 105 Pa, i.e., 4.18 9 105 lbf ft-2 or 2,901 psi [15]. There is no sharp differentiation between medium and high speed marine diesel engine (see Table 11.3). Medium speed four-stroke marine engines are particularly advantageous at lower speeds and lower partial loads. High speed four-stroke engines are used on sport and lifeboats, and on specific smaller ships. Gas turbines are used on ferries and navy ships, and provide higher speeds and power ranges. They have the highest SFC under marine engines [16].

11.3 Main Operation Characteristics of Marine Diesel Engines 11.3.1 Charging Marine Diesel Engines Charging any diesel engine with air increases its performance without increasing its speed by more than 50%. The efficiency of a turbocharger directly influences

164

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Marine Diesel Engines

Table 11.4 Influences of changing environment conditions on operation Environment Operation measures conditions Ambient air temperature

Charging air temperature

Exhaust gas counter pressure

Higher ambient air temperatures decrease the mass of the charging air and the Lambda number of the combustion. Disadvantageous results are the higher thermal load of combustion relevant parts, the higher temperatures of the exhaust gas and the after treatment system and the deterioration of the SFC. In principle, two-stroke and the four-stroke engines behave similarly [19] Increasing the charging air temperature reduces the requirements of the exhaust gas after treatment system, because the quality of the combustion improves and the concentration of unburned substances decreases [20] Highly turbocharged marine diesel engines are very sensitive to changes in the exhaust gas counter pressure downstream to the turbines. Particularly two-stroke engines consume more fuel with high counter pressure. Manufacturers usually do not permit exhaust gas counter pressures more than 20 to 30 mbar, i.e. from 2,000 to 3,000 Pa (from 41.8 to 62.7 lbf ft-2 or from 0.29 to 0.44 psi) [21]

the fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions of the engine. Improving the turbocharger’s efficiency from 60–70% decreases fuel consumption up to 2% [17]. Two-stroke engines must operate with a constant pressure in all cylinders and the charging air has to be equally distributed to all cylinders. Differences in the operation significantly influence the flow resistance. The result could be a lengthways flush with small air throughput in the cylinders. Precisely, regulating charging air supports the changing exhaust gases in the cylinders. The charging process can be further optimized by using additional compressors, e.g., electric boosters [18].

11.3.2 Operation in Changing Environment Conditions A ship can gain or lose efficiency as the weather changes. The most important factors influencing fuel consumption and emissions are: • Ambient air temperature; • Charging air temperature; and • Exhaust gas back pressure (see Table 11.4). Figure 11.3 shows the reaction of the engine to increased exhaust gas counter pressure.

11.3

Main Operation Characteristics of Marine Diesel Engines

variation related to output value

1.1

165

exhaust gas temperature before turbine fuel consumption output (constant)

1.0

charging pressure air throughput

0.9

0.8 0

10 20 30 40 50 pressure of exhaust gas before turbine [mbar]

Fig. 11.3 Impact of exhaust gas counter pressure on engine service data

11.3.3 Impact of Bad Weather on Engine Operation Marine diesel engines need reserve power to compensate for increases in resistance of the ship’s hull and decreased efficiency of the engine caused by wear and contamination. Minimum efficiency reserves must be 10–15%. The engine might only keep 75–80% of its theoretical efficiency measured at the dockyard under test drive conditions. The reserve efficiency of 20–25% can cover the resistance increases and the efficiency losses without reducing the ship’s speed at sea or at inland water ways. In bad weather, speed has to be decreased depending on the power of the waves and wind. The captain has to alter course according to the direction of the waves and the wind to save fuel and maintain the ship at slower speeds. Bad weather increases the temperature and the counter pressure in the exhaust gas in all relevant elements back to the outlet valves. Sailing in bad weather for a long time can increase the risks of overheating the engine and of high-temperature corrosion in the exhaust gas after treatment system [22].

11.3.4 Cooling Circuit The heat produced by burning in the combustion chamber must be conducted outside by a cooling medium, e.g., by air or water. Main ship engines usually use water cooling. The cooling water may have a maximum temperature of 80–90C (176–194F). Auxiliary engines often use air cooling. Tears in hot material sections which can arise from high temperature differences between heated and cooled elements can be observed by micro temperature sensors. Dangerous situations have to be always avoided. Ship engines have two independent cooling water units: • Internal circulation unit which uses fresh water; and • External circulation unit which uses sea water [23].

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Marine Diesel Engines

Contamination of the engine parts by sea water cooling must be prevented to avoid dangerous corrosion. This technology is disappearing on ships and is being more and more replaced by block cooling systems.

11.4 Operation Monitoring in Marine Diesel Engines In current technology, cylinder pressure, exhaust gas temperature, concentration of exhaust gas substances and several operation parameters of the main and the auxiliary engines are monitored (see Table 11.5). Modern main and auxiliary engines of a ship mean a highly complex, electronically monitored and regulated system. In the future, state-of-the-art technology for pressure and temperature measurement can be completed with appropriate combustion sensors to record the concentration of exhaust gas substances and discover disturbances and deviations in engine, and exhaust gas after treatment system.

11.5 Development Tendencies Although light weight materials are gaining importance in the construction of all means of transportation, many different and non-replaceable conventional materials such as steel and aluminum are still used in the production of marine diesel engines.

11.5.1 Conventional and New Materials The development of engines with rising power increases the stresses on the valves. The temperature of the inlet valves is 500–550C (932 – 1,022F) because of the cooling effect of the fuel and air mixture. Outlet valves may reach operating temperatures of about 850C (1,562F). For this task, Hardened Alloy FerriticPearlitic (AFP) such as martensitic-carbidic and austenitic-carbidic steels are being developed with higher strength [33]. The advantages of aluminum cast products are its light weight and precise tolerances. Aluminum alloys can be used for mechanical parts with small internal diameters, e.g., for cylinder elements with small oil channels or for pistons with small holes. The compressor wheels of the Exhaust Turbocharger (ETC.) can be made also of aluminum alloys. Currently, cylinder heads are made of aluminum and magnesium alloys instead of traditional gray cast iron. In the near future, aluminum alloys will be used to strengthen crankcases [34]. Ceramics made of non-metallic, inorganic materials based on nitrides, carbides and metal oxides are widely used for weight reduction, friction and wear of highly

11.5

Development Tendencies

167

Table 11.5 Operation monitoring of marine diesel engines Operation Operation measures monitoring Cylinder pressure

Cylinder pressure is used to control the efficiency of the cylinders. Changing cylinder pressure can be analyzed with sensors. The sources of efficiency losses are usually leaks in pistons, insulation rings, valves, etc. Regulating the injection pressure maintains the life time of these elements and saves a high quality of the injection and combustion process [24] Exhaust gas Currently, exhaust gas temperatures can be measured with micro sensors, temperature similarly to cylinder pressures. In the normal case, if the injection pumps are adjusted to the same capacity and to the same performance, the same or very similar exhaust gas temperatures exist in all cylinders Sources of differences must be discovered [25] Combustion process For short on-board analyzes, unburned substances can be measured with a solid electro chemical cell, CO2 with a micro FTIR analyzer and NO with a modified Lambda sensor. However, electro chemical cells cannot differentiate between HC and CO, on-board FTIR analyzers are very sensitive against particles and Lambda sensors have a cross sensitivity to NH3. Ammonia can be produced in the exhaust gas after treatment system if SCR technology is applied [26] Surge of compressor Under special operating conditions the turbocharger0 s compressor goes into surge or stalled operation. This process produces a loud noise because it works in an instable operation range which causes an intense back and forth flow on the compressor rotor. The surge can be avoided with improved operating conditions., e.g., with increased number of revolutions of the engine, with increased temperatures in the air entering, with cleaning the compressor, the turbine and the naturally aspirating air filter, and with blowing off the intake air channel and the exhaust gas channel [27]. Injection system Piezo-electrically actuated injection systems present the stand-of-the-art. Most reasons for deviations are defects in the injection valves, in the injection pumps and in the connected pipes. In most cases, the injection valves are carbonized, the pre-heating temperature of the fuel is too low or the fuel is contaminated by water. Measurement can be done with nozzle needle and valve lift sensors, pressure, temperature and actuator force analysis, dynamic pump drive, torque and power, and fuel consumption consideration [28] Inlet and outlet Inlet and outlet valves regulate the gas recirculation. They are constructed valves with overlapping. Most disturbances are related to leaky and dirty inlet and outlet valves [29, 30] Piston ring Statistics shows that the main reasons for repairs and changes of piston rings are leaks [31]. Turbocharger0 s The nozzle ring is one of the weakest points of the turbocharger’s compressor compressor. If the compressor’s nozzle ring is worn, the cooler of the charge-air does not operate efficiently [32]

loaded parts such as propellers. However, the costs of ceramics parts are still high. Moreover, they cannot fulfill a lot of mechanical and chemical requirements in the construction yet [35].

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Marine Diesel Engines

DC engine

synchronous engine rectifier

propellor

permanently activated synchronous engine

asynchronous engine

Fig. 11.4 Combination of the diesel-electric engine and propulsion elements

In last decades, new unconventional materials have been being developed, e.g., fine grain carbon and titanium alloys for pistons as a substitute for high-temperature steel alloys. However, the cost of alloys is high on average. Expensive alloyed parts should be partly replaced by steel with a boron or nitrogen bonus and spherical cast materials. Synthetic materials are replacing aluminum in many parts such as in the air intake lines. The advantages of synthetic materials are their low weight and the almost unlimited possibilities for form and design. In recent years plastics have become cost competitive with alloys [36]. For economic reasons, ship construction is decreasing the mass of equipment on-board. In modern engine design, steel is being replaced by aluminum, magnesium, and synthetic materials. Apart from mass advantages, light weight materials must show a positive climate balance and high recycling rate.

11.5.2 Use of Diesel-Electric Systems A diesel-electric transmission system includes a diesel engine connected to an electrical generator creating electricity that powers ship’s electric traction engine. The first diesel-electric system was launched in 1903. One advantage of diesel electric systems is the optimal promotion of space saving. Another advantage is the possibility of using smaller subsystems instead of one large main engine, according to the specific tasks and possibilities of the ship’s construction (see Fig. 11.4) [37]. The diesel electric propulsion makes the ship far more manageable. Some modern ships, including chruis ships and icebreakers, use electric motors in pods to allow for 360 rotation. Gas turbines provides in combination with electric motors a high speed and a low torque output of a turbine to drive a low speed propeller, without reduction gearing [38].

11.5

Development Tendencies

169 fuel 100 % engine radiation 1%

exhaust gas 18 %

cooling 8%

steam for turbo generator 11 %

heating 9%

steam for other users 1%

shaft output 52 %

Fig. 11.5 Dissipation of energy in a slow speed marine diesel enginediesel engine

pre-mixing fuel mixing fuel and air intensively improving the uniformity of fuel injection

pre-evaporating fuel

future combustion technology

changing the time that gases stay in the combustion chamber by variable spin formation and recirculation

avoiding incomplete (not stoichiometric) burning

adapting after-reaction zones in the combustion chamber

Fig. 11.6 Improvements of future injection technology

11.5.3 Improving Operation On average, a slow speed two-stroke marine diesel engine converts more than 50% of the chemical and thermal energy to mechanical work. With the slow speed of the piston, the combustion process is more complete than in fast speed four-stroke engines. Theoretically more than 60% thermal efficiency would be possible, but a higher heat recuperation rate is not yet possible. The efficiency depends on friction losses and recuperation of exhaust gases (see Fig. 11.5) [39]. Further improving common rail injection efficiency for large two-stroke engines is one of the most important technological tasks. In common rail systems, the pressure in the fuel rail is up to 1,000 9 105 Pa (20.89 9 105 lbf ft-2 or 14,504 psi) and the valve pressure is up to 200 9 105 Pa (4.18 9 105 lbf ft-2 or 2,901 psi) [40].

Marine Diesel Engines

160

10.0

155

9.0

150

8.0

145

7.0

140 2000

2005

2010 year

2015

middle piston speed -1 [m*s ]

11 maximum cylinder pressure [bar]

170

6.0 2020

Fig. 11.7 Development and prediction of important engine parameters

Higher efficiency of the injection process is the key element to further improvements (see Fig. 11.6) [41]. The slow speed two-stroke marine diesel engine technology will consolidate its leading position with higher thermal effectiveness, better resistance to wearing, longer durability, and more optimal regulation feasibility (see Fig. 11.7) [42]. The expected possible development scenarios depend on economic growth, availability of crude oil, and regulations in environmental and climate protection. Higher intelligence with self-diagnosis system can optimize the development process, save fuel, and decrease exhaust gas emissions.

11.6 Summary and Recommendations: Development of Marine Engine Technology Most large merchant ships use two-stroke marine diesel engines. Although the number of them is much lower than the number of four-stroke marine diesel engines, the two-stroke technology makes up approximately 2/3 of the worldwide fleet performance. Smaller boats and ferries use spark ignition engines with gasoline as fuel and very fast special ships, such as war ships, use gas turbines. Marine diesel engines apply the best self ignition technology with a high quality of mixture formation in the combustion chamber. The heat of the burning process can be used in heat exchangers of the exhaust gas section. In the last decades, the pressure in the cylinders has increased and has led to higher performance efficiency, lower SFC and decreased exhaust gas emissions. Fast running four-stroke engines can be easily down-sized and combined with an exhaust gas after treatment system. In opposite to internal combustion engines, gas turbines are expensive and are used in high-speed ships, such as ferries. They were formerly exclusively applied in navy ships. The progress in marine diesel engine technology over the last ten years can be summarized as follows:

11.6

Summary and Recommendations: Development of Marine Engine Technology

171

Performance has been increased by 42%; Exhaust gas emissions have been reduced by more than 50%; Fuel consumption has been lowered by 15%; Smooth running has approached the standard of spark ignition engine technology; and • Maintenance has been reduced by about 50%. • • • •

The introduction of Self Diagnosis technology will contribute to improving fuel injection, increasing the maximum injection pressure, optimizing spraying injection process, and controlling nozzle operation. There are four further ways to be used for near zero emission combustion: • Mixing the fuel and air homogeneously in the intake outside the combustion chamber; • Igniting fuel and air mixture with optimal compression; • Avoiding soot formation by effective regulation of a lean combustion; and • Burning fuel without flame in a porous inert medium, e.g., in a ceramic combustion chamber. Porous ceramic burners have an exactly defined structure of holes. Engines with porous combustion chambers are still in the development stage. Particularly, monitoring and regulating have to be developed to prevent backfires and special flashbacks.

References 1. Schiffsdieselmotor. http://de/wikipedia.org/wiki/Dieselmotor 2. Fuel Saving on Ships up to 15% with the Air Cavity System. http://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=0ry8cpbVHAw 3. Fuel Saving Report for RCL Ship Management (PTE) Ltd. http://www.tkfuels.com.au/ SiteMedia/w3svc967/Uploads/Documents/ Fuel%20Saving%20Report%20to%20RCL%2056475_small.pdf 4. Brake specific fuel consumption. http://www.autospeed.com/cms/title_Brake-Specific-FuelConsumption/A_110216/article.html 5. What is BMPE? http://www.bmepfuelandtuning.com/html/what_is_bmep_.html 6. NOx monitors for ships. http://www.nauticexpo.com/boat-manufacturer/nox-monitor-ships20974.html 7. Guider T Ph (2008) Characterization of Engine Performance with Biodiesel Fuels. Lehigh University. http://www.cmu.edu/iwess/publications/biodiesel/guider_ms_thesis.pdf 8. The marine diesel engine diesel. http://www.nauticexpo.com/boat-manufacturer/noxmonitor-ships-20974.html 9. Pounder’s marine diesel engines and gas turbines. http://www.books.google.com/books?id= RC_k4q6y-JIC&pg=PA143&hl=de&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false 10. Wärtsila RT-flex96C. http://www.wartsila.com/en/engines/low-speed-engines/RT-flex96C 11. Woodward controls for marine and naval applications. http://www.woodward.com/ Applications-MarineandNaval.aspx 12. Learn about marine fuel types & additives. http://www.marinefuel.com/about-marine-fuels/ 13. Sankey diagrams. http://www.sankey-diagrams.com/ship-engine-efficiency-visualized/

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14. Marine diesel engines & marine gas turbines information center. http://www.virtualpet.com/ pe/portals/mdrive.htm 15. MAN schnelllaufende Schiffsdieselmotoren im leichten, mittelschweren und schweren Betrieb. http://www.mandieselturbo.de/files/news/filesof10371/Leporello_Schiffsdieselmo toren_03-12.pdf 16. Jet engines for marine propulsion. http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/marine/articles/ 61952.aspx 17. Marine diesel engine improvements on the efficiency. https://www.maritimejournal.murdoch. edu.au/index.php/maritimejournal/article/viewFile/126/172 18. Scavenging and supercharging. http://www.tpub.com/engine3/en32-1.htm 19. Influence of ambient temperature conditions on main engine operation of MAN B&W twostroke engines. http://www.mandiesel.com/files/news/filesof762/5510-0005.pdf 20. Charge air cooler. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charge_air _cooler 21. Engines data. http://www.crmmotori.it/v12_enginesdata.htm 22. The Marine fuel-consumption operator. http://www.monohakobi.com/en/solutions/environ mental/fuelnavi.html 23. Engine cooling systems explained. http://www.boatsafe.com/nauticalknowhow/cooling.htm 24. Marine diesel engine cylinder pressure analyzer. http://www.techno.mes.co.jp/english/ products/de/MES-EPOCH_e.pdf 25. Diesel & Bio-fuel exhaust gas temperature EGT sensor with compression fitting. http:// www.thesensorconnection.com/egt-probe-thermocouples/sensors/exhaust-gas-temperature/ egt_diesel_probe.shtml 26. Exhaust gas emissions from ship engines. Significance, regulations, control technologies. http://www.maritimejournal.murdoch.edu.au/index.php/maritimejournal/article/viewFile/ 126/172 27. Compressor stall. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compressor_stall 28. Fuel injection system technology. http://www.fev.com/content/public/default.aspx?id=478 29. Exhaust gas recirculation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Exhaust_gas_recirculation 30. Poppet valve. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poppet_valve 31. Piston ring manual. http://www.federalmogul.com/korihandbook/en/index.htm 32. Turbocharger compressor calculation. http://www.federalmogul.com/korihandbook/en/index. htm 33. Precipitation hardening ferritic-pearlitic steel valve. http://www.freepatentsonline.com/ 5286311.html 34. Aluminium compressor wheels casting for turbochargers. http://www.turbotech.co.uk/ 35. NR-Ceramic pistons. http://www.image.dieselpowermag.com/f/diesel-engines/nr-ceramicpistons/34289610/nr.jpg 36. Engine air intake. http://www.roechling.com/en/automotive-plastics/products/engine-airintake.html 37. What are the main types of ship propulsion systems? http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/ marine/articles/27452.aspx 38. Diesel_electric transmission. http://www.en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diesel_electric_transmission 39. Clausen NB, Marine diesel engines: How efficient can a two-stroke engine be? http://www. ship-efficiency.org/onTEAM/pdf/Clausen.pdf 40. Sulzer RT, Flex marine diesel engine. http://www.dieselduck.ca/machine/01%20prime%20 movers/rt_flex/index.htm 41. Sulzer RTA84C and RTA96C engines. http://www.dieselduck.ca/machine/01%20prime%20 movers/Sulzer%20SRTA84C-96C.pdf 42. Demmerle R (1997) The reliable driving forces for large, fast containerships technologies. Review. Sulzer RTA-C. http://www.dieselduck.ca/machine/01%20prime%20movers/ Sulzer%20SRTA84C-96C.pdf

Chapter 12

Type Approval and Type Certification

Legislation prescribes strict procedures for the approval and the certification of vehicles, airplanes, and ships worldwide, but the requirements are different in individual countries.

12.1 Tests of Vehicles Vehicles are checked during the production phase in the ‘‘Compliance of production’’ which tests the gas and particle emissions of new motor vehicles. This examination decides whether production may be continued or not. The statistical rule for the sampling is very different in Europe, in the USA and in California [1]. Random Field Monitoring (FM) of used motor vehicles must prove whether the exhaust gas limits are maintained after approximately 80,000 km (49,720 mi) and 160,000 km (99,441 mi). This examination decides whether the producers will get a certificate verifying the fulfillment of the regulations over the defined runtime. Otherwise the manufacturer must recall all motor vehicles of that series to get them modified. Figure 12.1 summarizes the main methods of quality control of vehicles. Type Approval (TA) is prescribed for manufacturers to qualify the first type of vehicles. This examination decides whether a new type of vehicle or an existing vehicle with substantially changed parts, may be produced. In the future, Self Diagnosis can complete the methods of quality control. It can contribute to the improvement of mobile Field Monitoring.

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_12,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

173

174

12 Type Approval and Type Certification Self Diagnosis of Control Units On-Board Diagnosis and On-Board Measurement

Type Approval and Type Certification Inspection and Maintenance

control procedures

Control of Durability

Exhaust Gas and Fuel Consumption Test

In Use Compliance Compliance of Production

Fig. 12.1 Main methods of quality control

12.1.1 International and National Legislation There are many different regulations regarding exhaust gas legislation (see Fig. 12.2) [2]. Nowadays, the decreased emission limits increasingly determine the general equipment of vehicles, the fuel consumption of the engines, and the quality and the quantity of the exhaust gas after treatment systems. The worldwide limitation of exhaust gas emissions has resulted in an average decrease in the output of pollutants in the last decades. In new fleets, unburned hydrocarbons have been decreased by up to 97–98%, CO, NO, and NO2 have been reduced by up to 95–96%, and particles have been lowered by up to 90–91%. The legislation concerning the examination of exhaust gas quality is very similar in all countries. Classification procedures are divided into processes for passenger cars, light, medium, and heavy-duty vehicles.

12.1.2 Cars, Light and Medium Heavy Duty Trucks The examination is a highly complex and detailed procedure, which can only be done in specific certified institutions.

12.1.2.1 Procedures in the EU In the Type approval procedure, the motor vehicle is put on a roller test stand which simulates the traction resistance on the road. The driver sees the driving cycle with accelerating, delaying, braking and stopping. Exhaust gas samples are collected in Teflon bags. Constant Volume Sampling (CVS) technology is used to achieve a constant flow rate of the diluted exhaust gas and to avoid condensation of water vapor in the sample [3].

12.1

Tests of Vehicles

Japan

10/15 mode 11 mode

Europe

ECE cycle ECE+ EUDC cycle

US

FTP test cycle

175 2000/2002 Standards on 10/15 mode + 11 mode cycles

Standards on 10/15 mode + 11 mode cycles

EU

EC 1993 Euro1

EC 1996 Euro 2

ECE

ECE R 15/04

ECE R 83

EPA

Tier 0 US 87

Tier 1 US 94

CARB

TIER 0

TIER 1

EC 2000 Euro 3 ECE R 83/01

2005 long Term Standards 10/15 + 11 mode cycles

EC 2005 Euro 4 ECE R 83/02

EC 2010 Euro 5 ECE R 83/03

NLEV LEV 1

TLEV1

LEV1

2009 Post New long Term Proposal Mode cycles 10/15+JC 08

EC 2011 Euro 5

ECE R 83/04

ECE R 83/05

EC 2014 Euro 6 ECE 1) R 83/06

Tier 2 ULEV1

ZEV1

2)

LEV 2 LEV2 ULEV2 SULEV2 ZEV 2 LEV 3

Fig. 12.2 Test procedure in guidelines for the measurement of emissions for passenger cars

During the determination of pollutants, the exhaust gas is diluted with air. Volume flow is calculated from the air and the exhaust gas by a dilution ratio of approximately 1:8. A part of the exhaust gas is collected in three bags, from the three sections of the US driving cycle. The European test procedure combines the three samples into one bag. In addition, a part of the ambient or outside air is filled into three bags or into one bag to provide a comparison to the basic pollution level. The concentrations of the exhaust gas sample and of the ambient air components are measured with certified analyzers. The concentrations in the ambient air must be subtracted from the exhaust gas sample. The multiplication of the concentration with the flow rate and the integration over the whole driving route yields the weight of emissions per distance in g km-1 or g mi-1 for passenger cars and emissions per performed work in g (kW h)-1 or g (bhp h)-1 for heavy commercial vehicles. In the EU, cars and light duty vehicles are examined at roller test benches. The emissions of complete HDVs are estimated only for experiments at a specific roller test bench if it is required during the development. The engines of heavy-duty vehicles are usually examined at the engine dynamometer test bench. In both cases, at the roller and the dynamometer engine test bench, the driving cycle is regulated and steered by a computer program. The operation can be processed by test drivers who drive the car in accordance with the commands on the computer display. These displays give the speed and the gear including braking and accelerating. The other way is the use of automats which move pedals and levers in the car with bowden cables or steering bars.

12.1.2.2 Procedures in the USA In the USA, the Federal Test Procedure (FTP) 75 is similar to the NEDC in Europe [4]. However, in contrast to the European procedure, in the US FTP 75 test separate driving cycles are prescribed for the high-speed portion (UDDS), for aggressive driving characteristics (US06) [5], for driving with operating auxiliary

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12 Type Approval and Type Certification

Fig. 12.3 US driving cycles for passenger cars

devices, e.g., lights and air conditioning system (SC03) [6] and for the Highway Driving Cycle (HDC) (see Fig. 12.3) [7]. The Start Control Cycle SC 03 is driven after the appropriate preconditioning and subsequent 10 min holding time with the air conditioning switched on at an ambient temperature of 35C (95F). In the US 06 cycle, emissions are measured at high average speeds. It is used as a ‘‘hot-start test’’ at the normal test temperature of 20–30C (68–86F). The full test consists of preconditioning the engine to a hot stabilized condition, as specified in §86.132-00. In the USA, the balance between several methods is permitted. The substitution of different methods is possible if they contribute to the improvement of air quality and emissions do not exceed the limits.

12.1

Tests of Vehicles

177

Fig. 12.4 Japanese Driving Cycle JC 08 for passenger cars Luca Gray (08/12/11)

Emissions of heavy-duty vehicles are tested in the USA at a roller test bench with specific dynamometer transient driving cycles for HDVs. The methods in the USA are similar to the European Cycles in principle, but have a different specific speed profile and specify different gears [8].

12.1.2.3 Procedures in Japan In Japan, there are old driving cycles such as the Japanese 11 and Japanese 10 ? 15 modes [9], and new cycles such as the Japanese Cycle JC 08 for passenger cars and Japanese Cycle JE 05 for heavy commercial vehicles [10, 11]. The length of 11 mode cold cycle is 4.084 km and the time is 480 s. It involves a maximum speed of 60 km h-1, i.e., 37.3 mph and an average speed of 30.6 km h-1, i.e., 18.6 mph. The 10 ? 15 mode is a hot cycle. The driving time is 892 s; the distance is 6.34 km, i.e., 3.94 mi, the average speed is 25.61 km h-1, i.e., 15.9 mph; and the maximum speed is 70 km h-1, i.e., 43.5 mph. Emissions are measured in the last four segments over 4.16 km, i.e., 2.6 mi in the time interval of 600 s. The Driving Cycle JC 08 is measured over a distance of 8.2 km, i.e., 5.1 mi, and a time of 1,205 s at an average speed of 24.4 km h-1, i.e., 15.2 mph with a maximum speed of 80 km h-1, i.e., 49.7 mph (see Fig. 12.4).

12.1.3 Heavy Duty Vehicles The control cycles are different in the EU, the USA, and Japan, similarly to the passenger car control methods. However, there are harmonized test cycles which are based on world-wide pattern of real heavy commercial vehicle use. Two representative cycles, a transient test cycle (WHTC) with both cold and hot start requirements and a hot start steady-state test cycle (WHSC) belong to the cycle. The test time of WHTC is 1,800 s with several monitoring segments [12].

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12 Type Approval and Type Certification NAT 1)

TATA

2)

1)

ICAO

Producer

Holder

After check

JAA, JAR`s

Traffic permission

Piece check

National Authority

Master permission 2)

Master check

Master aeroplan

Type Certificate for Holders and A/C Manufacturers

Fig. 12.5 Structure of international and national aviation organizations

12.2 Tests of Airplanes The International Operation Safety Audit (IOSA) of the IATA for the airlines and the ICAO for the government belong to the international organizations [13]. Membership obligates each member state to apply and to keep the ICAO standards and recommendations in their national legislation concerning aviation. In most countries, the Ministry for Transportation is the highest national authority in aviation [14]. Figure 12.5 shows the structure of international and national organizations. The criteria for airplane certification are: • • • • •

The prototype must be approved; The airworthiness must be checked; The owner must be insured; The airplane must be registered in the list of the official national aircraft; and The maximum permissible noise, gas and particle emissions must be lower than the limit [15].

IATA vision 2050 represents a positive trend for the air transport industry by 32 million jobs, €2.45 trillion, i.e., US $3.5 trillion in economic activity and a growth up to 16 billion of passengers and 400 million tons of freight yearly [16].

12.2.1 Emission Requirements The main procedure is the Type Sample Test examination prescribed in the airworthiness requirements [17]. The aviation authority is responsible for carrying it out, but the test can be delegated to development companies. It is usually done for the military by the office for military technology and procurement [18].

12.2

Tests of Airplanes

Table 12.1 EASA requirements for aviation

179 Requirement

Content

CS-22 CS-23

Sailplanes and powered sailplanes Normal, utility, aerobatic, and commuter airplanes Large airplanes Small rotorcraft Large rotorcraft Hot air balloons Aircraft engine emissions and fuel venting Aircraft noise Auxiliary power units All weather operations Engines European technical standard orders Definitions and abbreviations Propellers Very light airplanes Very light rotorcraft General acceptable means of compliance for airworthiness of products, parts and appliances

CS-25 CS-27 CS-29 CS-31 CS-34 CS-36 CS-APU CS-AWO CS-E CS-ETSO CS-Definitions CS-P CS-VLA CS-VLR AMC-20

The regulations called Joint Aviation Requirements (JAR) are published by the Joint Aviation Authorities (JAA) on behalf of the member states [19]. The JAA was founded by the European Civil Aviation Conference (ECAC) which is the European organization of the ICAO. The members are the ministers for transportation of the European countries and representatives from the European Aviation Safety Agency (EASA) which is the airworthiness authority for aviation in the EU [20]. The JAA have adopted a set of harmonized rules for commercial air transportation, called Joint Aviation Requirements for Commercial Air Transportation (Airplanes) (JAR-OPS 1). These regulations provide for common safety standards of the designers, the manufacturers, the operation and the maintenance of the aircraft, as well as aviation personnel and organizations. In detail, the regulations contain requirements for the flying characteristics, the construction, the engine installation, the type and the operation limits of equipment. The civilian construction specifications have to refer to a series of requirements according to the JAA [21]. The JAA is an organization operated by volunteer European Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). EASA has taken over most of the JAA regulations, thereby creating the EASA requirements which are presented in Table 12.1. [22].

180

12 Type Approval and Type Certification exhaust nozzle nozzle center line

sampling sample transfer line

minimum of 4 mozzle diameters 18-25 nozzle diametres

nozzle exit

sampling point

Fig. 12.6 Sampling at the test bench

12.2.2 Sampling, Sample Transfer, Instrumentation and Measurement Technology The instrumentation and measurement technology requirements of jet engines are regulated in Appendix E of JAR-34, Section 1 of ICAO (Appendix 5 of Annex 16, Volume II) [23]. The test must be done at the required thrust setting on a properly equipped test bench. The engine must be stabilized at each setting and the probe must be made of stainless steel. If a mixing probe is used, all sampling orifices must be of equal diameter. The proposed design and position is shown in Fig. 12.6. The sample must be transferred from the probe to the analyzers via a tube with an internal diameter of 4.0–8.5 mm (0.157–0.334 in), taking the shortest practical route and having a flow rate of less than 10 s. The tube must be heated to 160C ± 5C (320F ± 41F). The branch tube must be maintained at a temperature of 65C ± 15C (149F ± 59F). When sampling to measure unburned hydrocarbons, CO, CO2, NO, and NO2, the tube must be made of stainless steel or carbon-loaded grounded Teflon. Basically, the analyzers for testing the engines of vehicles, airplanes, and ships are the same. The total amount of hydrocarbons can be analyzed with a heated FID, CO, and CO2 concentrations can be determined with a non-dispersible infra-red (IR) analyzer and NOx concentrations can be measured by CLD (see Fig. 12.7).

12.2.3 JAR-E and CS-E for the Certification of Engines JAR-E is based on European Civil Aviation Requirements (ECAR) Section C and is termed JAR for engines. It contains the airworthiness requirements of all aircraft engines [24, 25]. The relevant EASA, Subpart A-General regulations are contained in Table 12.2 [26].

12.2

Tests of Airplanes

181 group of valves implemented in required route selections tube temperature controlled at 160 °C tube temperature controlled at 60 °C

sample transfer line exhaust

vent

vent

vent

HC analysis

CO analysis

CO2 analysis

span

pump

zero zero

span

zero

span

pump NOX analysis

Fig. 12.7 Exhaust gas analysis system for Type certification of aircraft engines Table 12.2 Requirements of the sub-section A of the EASA Requirement Contents CS-E 10 CS-E 15 CS-E 20 CS-E 25 CS-E 30 CE-E 40 CS-E 50 CS-E 60 CS-E 70 CS-E 80 CS-E 90 CS-E 100 CS-E 110 CS-E 120 CS-E 130 CS-E 140 CS-E 150 CS-E 160 CS-E 170 CS-E 180 CS-E 190

Applicability Terminology Engine configuration and interfaces Instructions for continued airworthiness Assumptions Ratings Engine control system Provision for instruments Materials and manufacturing methods Equipment Prevention of corrosion and deterioration Strength Drawings and marking of parts—assembly of parts Identification Fire protection Test—engine configuration Tests—general conduct of tests Tests—history Engine systems and component verification Propeller functioning tests Engines for aerobatic use

The relevant EASA regulations are: • Subpart B: Piston engines, design, and construction; • Subpart C: Piston engines, type substantiation;

182 Table 12.3 Provisions for the design and construction of Auxiliary Power Units

12 Type Approval and Type Certification Requirement

Contents

CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU

Safety analysis Fire prevention Air intake Lubrication system Fuel system Exhaust system Cooling Over-speed safety devices Rotor containment Vibration Life limitations Bleed air contamination Continued rotation

210 220 230 240 250 260 270 280 290 300 310 320 330

• Subpart D: Turbine engines, design, and construction; • Subpart E: Turbine engines, type substantiation; and • Subpart F: Turbine engines, environmental, and operational design requirements. Fuel venting (CS-E 1010) and engine emissions (CS-E 1020) belong to Subpart F. For Self Diagnosis, the CS-E 1020 has a decisive character. It must be demonstrated that the engine type design complies with the emission specification of CS 34.2 in effect at date of engine certification.

12.2.4 Certification of Auxiliary Power Units The Joint Aviation Requirements for Auxiliary Power Units (JAR-APU) are based on the FAA’s Technical Standard Order TSO-C77a [27]. Subpart A provides the airworthiness requirements for the issue of Joint Technical Standard Order (JTSO) authorizations for turbine powered APUs used on an aircraft [28]. The relevant EASA, Subpart B design and construction regulations for all types are contained in Table 12.3 [29]. APU 250 and 260 deal with fuel consumption and emissions. In accordance with these requirements the exhaust gas systems must be designed and constructed to prevent leakage of exhaust gases into the aircraft. The exhaust piping has to be constructed of fireproof and corrosion resistant materials. The relevant EASA regulations of Subpart C for all APU type substantiations are shown in Table 12.4. Subpart D contains the additional requirements (see Table 12.5).

12.2

Tests of Airplanes

183

Table 12.4 Subpart C for all APU type substantiations

Requirement

Content

CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU

Calibration tests Endurance test Tear down inspection Functional test of limiting devices Over-speed test Over-temperature test Containment Electronic control system components

Table 12.5 Subpart D for all APU type substantiations

Requirement

Content

CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU CS-APU

Ice protection Foreign objects Automatic shutdown Ignition system

410 420 430 440 450 460 470 480

510 520 530 540

12.3 Tests of Ships International conventions for shipping are made by maritime umbrella organizations like the IMO, as well as the International Labor Organization (ILO). Both are executive organs of the United Nations (UN) [30]. IMO is responsible for SOLAS that is concerned with all aspects of seagoing vessels’ safety [31]. This includes the construction of ships regarding their stability after damage, the fire protection of the structure and the operation, the safety devices, the control of the ship’s machinery in emergencies, the equipment for personnel and the installed safety devices for distress communication, as well as the transportation of hazardous materials. Furthermore SOLAS 95 requires shipping companies to comply with the International Safety Management (ISM) code [32]. Within the IMO, the Maritime Safety Committee (MSC) is responsible for the examination of proposals and working out appropriate supplements to SOLAS on the basis of the proposals [33].

12.3.1 Classification and Judgment Classification and judgment, the organization of ships into classes, the regular supervision of their maintenance, the standards for design, construction or construction specifications, and marine technology research are done by the International Association of Classification Societies (IACS) [34]. The oldest classification society, Lloyd’s Register Group for shipping, was founded in London in 1760 with

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12 Type Approval and Type Certification

the main goal of enhancing the safety of life and property for the benefit of the public and ultimately, the environment [35]. Nowadays, there are ten internationally recognized classification societies which are organized under an umbrella organization in the IACS. There are further approximately 30 other classification societies which do not correspond to the international quality standards of the IACS. Statutory inspections manage security on-board, supervise safety regulations for labor conditions, and for environmental protection that are made by flag states. Class-conforming ships receive corresponding certificates from the classification society [36]. They contribute to maritime safety and regulation through technical support, compliance verification, and research and development. More than 90% of the world’s cargo carrying tonnage is covered by the classification design, construction compliance and life-cycle assessment. Rules and standards set by the member societies of IACS.

12.3.2 International Environmental Regulations Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from ships were adopted in the 1997 Protocol to MARPOL 73/78 and are included in Annex VI of the Convention [37]. They came into force in 2005 after ratification by 15 member states of the IMO, which represent more than 50% of the world tonnage. Regulations 13 and 14 of the Annex VI set limits for NOx from diesel engines and for SOx emissions from ships [38]. Similar to aviation technology, the rules of the IMO are valid internationally in contrast to road transportation whose rules are only valid within national or regional frames. The IMO regulations are moderately competition-neutral. Monitoring takes place via national classification societies, professional environmental associations and government port controls. Classification societies have also created new classes like the Environmental Passport [39], the awards for Environmental Protection [40], Clean Ships and Clean Design in recent years [41]. In 2010, the Marine Environment Protection Committee (MEPC) [42] of MARPOL introduced two drafts, the Energy Efficiency Design Index (EEDI) [43] and the Ship Efficiency Management Plan (SEMP) [44] for decreasing Green House Gas (GHG) emissions for the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) [45].

12.3.3 Sulphur Concentration A special problem arises from the sulphur content of heavy marine fuels on ships (see Table 12.6) [46].

12.3

Tests of Ships

185

Table 12.6 Sulfur limits for liquid fuels in Germany Type of fuel Sulfur content in the past mg kg-1 (ppm)

Decreased sulfur content mg kg-1 (ppm)

Gasoline Super plus Diesel oil Light heating oil Kerosene Heavy oil (land) Heavy oil (sea)

0.01 from 2003 0.01 from 2003 0.01 from 2003 2.00 from 2008 0.30 according to IP 336 10.00 45.00

a

10 10 19 2,000 300 10,000 (1.0%) 45,000 (4.5%)a

1.5% in Baltic and North Sea and in the English channel

The sulfur content of heavy fuel oils in maritime shipping is regulated according to the MARPOL 73/78 Convention, Annex VI, revised in 2008, which entered into force on 1 July 2010. In special cases, Sulphur Emission Control Areas (SECA), such as the Baltic Sea, the North Sea, and the English Channel, the sulfur content has been limited since 2006. Consequently, this requirement has led to the use of two different fuels on-board. Certified exhaust gas after treatment devices can be alternatively used, which further effectively limit the SOx content in the exhaust gas. The sulfur content of the fuel and the time to switch to low sulfur fuel must be documented upon entry into a SECA area [47]. However, before ships generally can use low sulfur fuel, the following requirements must be fulfilled: • The supply must be standardized worldwide; • The quality must be sufficient and constant; and • The color must be corresponding for separation from other fuels [48]. Environment and climate protection and the increasing cost of fuels intensively influence the introduction of new fuel types. In the future, more parallel supply systems must guarantee save supply with different qualities of fuels. However, it is expected that the complementary measures for the storage and the use of different quality fuels will lead to higher costs. The problem of the compatibility of fuels affects both the main and the auxiliary engines because ships use fuels from the same tank not only for the propulsion but for heating and cooling and other purposes.

12.3.4 Nitrogen Oxide Concentration The MARPOL 73/78 Convention, Annex VI, Regulation 13 sets the limits for nitrogen oxide emissions of international seagoing vessels [49]. Strengthened emission standards for new ships were adopted by the IMO in 2008, NO x emissions from international shipping in European sea areas are

12 Type Approval and Type Certification 20.0

-1

emissions of NOX [g*kWh ]

186

15.0

Tier I Tier II ( global)

10.0 5.0

Tier III ( NO X Emission Control Areas ) 0.0 0

200

400 600 -1 number of revolutions [min ]

800

1000

Fig. 12.8 NOx emission limits in MARPOL 73/78, Annex VI

projected to increase by nearly 40% between 2000 and 2020. The reason is that by 2020, the emissions from shipping around Europe are expected to equal or even surpass the total from all land-based sources in the 27 EU member states combined. In addition to the NO x requirements for new ships from 2011, the IMO decided that in ECAs, ships built after 01 January 2016 will have to reduce emissions of NO x by about 80% from the current limit values. Figure 12.8 shows the course of NOx limits depending on the number of revolutions [50]. Besides international legislation, national regulations also limit exhaust gas emissions, e.g., in Sweden, in Norway and in the USA. The authority in Alaska limits the visible emissions of seagoing vessels by the Alaska Marine Vessel Visible Emission Standard (18 AAC 50.070). The exhaust opacity at the end of the exhaust pipes is limited to 20%. Short excesses are allowed during maneuvering [51]. Europe Directive 97/68/EC, amended by 2004/26/EC, sets limits on the emissions of diesel engines on inland navigation vessels [52, 53]. The limits correspond to step two (Tier II) of the US EPA ship guidelines [54].

12.4 Summary and Recommendations: International Type Approval and Type Certification There is a large variety of laws and regulations concerned with reducing fuel consumption and emissions. Despite this variability, the procedures for quality control, production and operation are very similar for vehicles, airplanes and ships.

12.4.1 Vehicle Type Approval Type Approval is the most important procedure for the permission of mass production of vehicles.

12.4

Summary and Recommendations: International Type Approval

187

The complete TA procedure is regulated by the Type approval (TA), the Conformity of the Production (CP), the Field Monitoring (FM) and the Exhaust Gas Batch Testing (ET). After purchase, motor vehicles are monitored through exhaust gas checks organized by individual national authorities, examples of which are the ‘‘Ministry of Transport in England’’ (MOT), the ‘‘Inspection and Maintenance’’ in the USA (IM), the ‘‘Technischer Überwachungsverein in Germany’’ (TÜV), the ‘‘National Car Test in Ireland’’ (NCT) and the ‘‘Green Card’’ (GC) service in Hungary. There are three artificial driving cycles for passenger cars: • The European NEDC; • The US American FTP 75; and • The Japanese JC 08. Individual countries use one of these three procedures based on their political and technological connections. In the future, the unification of these procedures for passenger cars, similar to heavy duty vehicles could support cost effective production of vehicles, make it easier to sell them on the world market and reduce the purchase price. There are good examples such the World Harmonized Stationary Cycle (WHSC) for a hot start steady state cycle and the World Harmonized Transient Cycle (WHTC) with both cold and hot start requirements for heavy commercial vehicles.

12.4.2 Airplane Type Certification Airworthiness certification and verification of airplanes is checked by routine test runs carried out by the manufacturer. For an airplane already in production, the responsible national authority approves the individual airworthiness certificates. The exhaust gas composition of unburned substances such as HC, CO and NO, NO2, particles, and noise of jet engines and APUs have to be examined according to JAR-E Technical Standing Order and EASA regulations within the Type certification. JAR-E is based on ECAR Section C and is termed JAR for engines. It contains the airworthiness requirement of all aircraft engines. Further relevant EASA regulations are subpart B for piston engines, design and construction, subpart C for piston engine, type substantiation, and subpart D for turbine engines.

12.4.3 Ship Certification The ship certification depends on the regulations, ratified by the IMO. Basic safety requirements are specified in the EU in EEC and EC guidelines, which are to be partially taken over by national governments. Leading the proceedings in Europe

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12 Type Approval and Type Certification

are the environmental requirements for the Rhine, contained in the Central Commission for Navigation on the Rhine (CCNR). Further important guidelines for ship certification are: • 96/98/EC concerning marine equipment amended by 2002/75/EC [55][56]; • 98/18/EC concerning safety regulations and standards for passenger ships amended by 2002/25/EC and 2003/24/EC [57][58][59]; • 1999/5/EC concerning radio installation and telecommunication terminal equipment according to international requirements of the Committee International Special des Perturbations Radioelectriques or International Special Committee on Radio Interference (ISPR) [60]; • 2004/108/EC concerning electromagnetic compatibility [61]; and • 2006/87/EC concerning technical requirements for vessels on inland waterways amended by 2008/87/EC, 2008/126/EC and 2009/46/EC [62][63][64][65].

References 1. Klingenberg H (1995) Automobil-Meßtechnik, Band C: Abgasmeßtechnik. Springer. ISBN: -10:3-540-59108-7 2. Emission standards. http://www.implats.co.za/implats/Emission-standards.asp 3. Accuracy of exhaust emissions measurements on vehicle bench. http://www.implats.co.za/ implats/Emission-standards.asp 4. Emission test cycles. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/ftp75.php 5. SFTP-US06. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/ftp75.php 6. SFTP-SC03. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/ftp_sc03.php 7. Highway driving cycle. http://www.cta.ornl.gov/data/tedb30/.../Figure 4_04.xls 8. Heavy-Duty truck and bus engines. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/us/hd.php 9. Japanese 10 - 15 mode. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/jp_10-15mode.php 10. Japanese JC08 cycle. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/jp_jc08.php 11. Japanese JE 05 cycle. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/jp_je05.php 12. Emission test cycles. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/cycles/whtc.php 13. IATA operational safety audit. http://www.iata.org/ps/certification/iosa/Pages/index.aspx 14. ICAO in brief. http://www2.icao/en/Home3/Pages/ICAOinBrief.aspx 15. Product certification. EASA. http://www.eu.int/.../product-certification.php 16. Vision 2050—shaping aviation0 s future. http://www.iata.org/about/Pages/vision-2050.aspx 17. Type certificate. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Type_certificate 18. Federal office for military technology and procurement. http://www.economypoint.org/f/ federal-office-for-military-technology-and-procurement.html 19. JAR-TSO Joint aviation requirements—Technical standard orders. Amendment 6, 1 June 2003 20. What is the JAA? The European joint aviation authorities. http://www.jaa,nl/whatisthejaa/ jaainfo.html 21. Regulation (EC) No. 1899/2006 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 12 December 2006 amending Council Regulation (EE) No. 3922/91 on the harmonization of technical requirements and administrative procedures in the field of civil aviation. eurlex.europa.eu/Notice.de?more=d…

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22. Certification specifications. http://www.easa.eu.int/agency-measures/certification-specifications. php 23. Instrumentation and measurement techniques for gaseous emissions from afterburning gas turbine engines. Section 1, Jar-34, Appendix E 24. Joint Aviation Requirements JAR-E engines. http://www.caacro.hr/UserDocsImages/DL/ JARE.pdf 25. Joint Aviation Requirements JAR-E engines, Amendment 13. http://www.caa.gov.tw/big5/ download/08-03-JAR-E.pdf 26. Certification specifications for engines CS-E. European Aviation Safety Agency. Amendment 2. 18 2009. http://www.easa.eu.int/agency-measures/docs/certification-specifications/CS-E/ CS-E_Amendment%202.pdf 27. Technical standard order. http://rgl.faa.gov/Regulatory_and_Guidance_Library/rgtso.nsf/0/ 981916a7528ed36486256e93006690f3/$FILE/c77a.pdf 28. Joint aviation requirements JAR-APU Auxiliary power units. http://cagliari.khbo.eu/doks/do/ files/FiSe8a8199820e31b83d010e36fbc66d00a3/JAR-APU.pdf;jsessionid=E6298EED460E6 94D59DC92F7AB2A605F?recordId=SKHB8a8199820e31b83d010e36fbc4ad00a0 29. EASA. Decision No. 2003/5/RM of the Executive director of the agency on certification specifications, including airworthiness codes and acceptable means of compliances, for auxiliary power units (CS-APU). 17 Oct 2003. http://www.easa.eu.int/agency-measures/docs/ agency-decisions/2003/2003-005-RM/decision_ED_2003_05_RM.pdf 30. Internationale Maritime Organisation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Maritime_ Organization 31. International convention for the safety of life at sea. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ International_Convention_for_the_Safety_of_Life_at_Sea 32. Consideration and adoption of amendments to the international convention for the safety of life at sea, 1974. SOLAS/Conf. 3/46. http://www.shmsa.gov.cn/UserFiles/File/e%20SOLAS% 201995%20(CONF).pdf 33. Maritime safety committee 89. http://www.rina.org.uk/article978.html 34. International Association of Classification Societies IACS. http://www.iacs.org.uk/ 35. Lloyd register group. http://www.lr.org/default.aspx 36. Classification societies: what, why and how? http://www.iacs.org.uk/document/public/ explained/Class_WhatWhy&How.PDF 37. MARPOL 73/78. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marpol_74/78 38. MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI. Regulations for the prevention of air pollution from ships. Technical and operational implications. http://www.dnv.com/binaries/marpol%20brochure_ tcm4-383718.pdf 39. Ship safety & environment. http://www.gl-group.com/en/snb/ship_safety_environment.php 40. William M Benkert Marine Environment Protection Award. Classification News. November 2009. No. 37/2009. Lloyds Register. http://www.lr.org 41. Sustainable shipping. http://www.sustainableshipping.com/events/2011/london/categories. html 42. IMO. Provisional Agenda. 27 Sept–1 Oct 2010. MEPC 61/1. http://www.imo.org/Share Point/blastDataHelper.asp/data_id%3D28894/1.pdf 43. EEDI—rational, safe and effective. http://www.imo.org/SharePoint/blastDataHelper.asp/ data_id%3D28894/1.pdf 44. Ship energy efficiency management plan. http://www.shippingandco2.org/SEEMP.htm 45. United Nations framework convention on climate change. Panama climate change conferences, Oct 2011. http://www.shippingandco2.org/SEEMP.htm 46. Groups call for big cuts in shipping industry air pollution. http://www.foe.org/groups-callbig-cuts-shipping-industry-air-pollution 47. Air pollution: EU shipping strategy. http://www.ecmeurope.net/2010/01/06/air-pollution-eushipping-strategy/ 48. Sulphur content in ship bunker fuel in 2015. http://www.jernkontoret.se/energi_och_miljo/ transporter/pdf/sulphur_content_in_ships_bunker_fuel_2015.pdf

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49. International: IMO maritime engine regulations. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/inter/ imo.php 50. Change NOx emissions from ships. http://www.greenport.com/features101/tugs,-towing,pollution-and-salvage/safety/charge-nox-emissions-from-ships 51. SIP – Alaska – 18 AAC 50.070. http://yosemite.epa.gov/r10/airpage.nsf/283d45bd5bb 068e68825650f0064cdc2/55eafb3c374c976388256a090059aa5c!OpenDocument 52. 97/68/EC Measures against the emission of gaseous and particulate pollutants from internal combustion engines to be installed in non-road mobile machinery. http://www.delpak. ec.europa.eu/cpn/Supply%20Contract-Generators-08-03-11/Generators%20%20EU%20Directive%2097-68-EC%20on%20emission%20levels.pdf 53. Directive 2004/256/EC, amending Directive 97/68/EC. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/ site/en/oj/2004/l_225/l_22520040625en00030107.pdf 54. Nonroad diesel engines. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/us/nonroad.php#tier3 55. Council Directive 96/98/EC of 20 December 1996 on marine equipment. http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/consleg/1996/L/01996L0098-20021129-en.pdf 56. Commission Directive 2002/75/EC of 2 September 2002 amending Council Directive 96/98/ EC on marine equipment. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L: 2002:254:0001:0046:EN:PDF 57. Council Directive 98/18/REC of 17 March 1998 on safety rules and standards for passenger ships. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CONSLEG:1998L0018:19980604:EN: PDF 58. Commission Directive 2002/25/EC of 5 March 2002 amending Council Directive 98/18/EC on safety rules and standards for passenger ships. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/ LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:32002L0025:en:NOT 59. Directive 2003/24/EC of European Parliament and the Council of 14 April 2003 amending Council Directive 98/18/EC on safety rules and standards for passenger ships. http://eurlex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/site/en/oj/2003/l_123/l_12320030517en00180021.pdf 60. Directive 1995/5/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 1999 on radio equipment and telecommunications terminal equipment and the mutual recognition of their conformity. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=CELEX:31999 L0005:en:NOT 61. Directive 2004/108/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 15 December 2004 on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to electromagnetic compatibility and repealing Directive 89/336/EEC. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/ LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2004:390:0024:0037:en:PDF 62. Directive of the European Parliament and of the Council of 18 December 2006 amending Directive 2006/87/EC laying down technical requirements for inland waterway vessels. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2006:389:0261:0263:EN:PDF 63. Commission directive 2008/87/EC of 17 September 2008 amending Directive 2006/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down technical requirements for inland waterway vessels. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2008:255: 0005:0027:EN:PDF 64. Commission directive 2009/96/EC of 12 June 2009 amending Directive 2008/126/EC amending Directive 2006/87//EC of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down technical requirements for inland waterway vessels, as regards its date of transportation. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:150:0005:0005:EN:PDF 65. Commission directive 2009/46/EC of 24 April 2009 amending Directive 2006/87/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council laying down technical requirements for inland waterway vessels. http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2009:109: 0014:0036:EN:PDF

Chapter 13

Inspection and Maintenance

The inspection of vehicles, airplanes and ships is defined by different directives; but there are common points regarding the inspection measures in all types of transportation, which: • Give standards for the necessary repairs; • Provide information on the quality of the construction and the operation; and • Explain the reactions of vehicles, airplanes and ships caused by certain loads. The inspection and maintenance characteristics of ships, road vehicles, or airplanes result from the interaction of their parts, loads, and function and cannot be determined using individual parameters. Each disturbance of a system component can lead to losses in production, and in operation which can directly cause disadvantages to the manufacturer and to the transportation company. Inspection prevents losses and disturbances in operation and safety (see Fig. 13.1) [1]. Inspection and maintenance mean a system of actions that responds to loss of performance of engine and operation of road vehicle, airplane, and ship because of wear. This includes instructions and standards for preparation and operation checks, approvals and permissions, as well as evaluations and feedbacks. Like the cost of fuel, the costs for inspection and maintenance are an important part of the operating costs which can be effectively affected during the development as well as the operation phase. Inspection and maintenance intensively impact also the economy (see Table 13.1) [2]. Inspection and maintenance planning recognizes the critical links between transportation and other societal goals. The planning process is more than merely listing transportation projects. It requires developing strategies for operating, managing, and financing the area’s transportation system in such a way as to advance the area’s long-term goals [3]. It is estimated that corrosion costs ca. 4.8% of Gross National Product (GDP) [4]. Logistics amounts approximately 18.5% in GDP, and 80% of them are resulted from investment by private enterprises or individuals, and the rest from investment M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_13,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

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Standards

Site definition

Scope definition

Definition of structure

Guide for repair

Catalogue for replacement parts

Material definition

Specification of repair methods

Preparing stability study

Expert’s report

Possible material recording

Carry out of repair Supervision

Fig. 13.1 Schedule and execution of vehicle repair Table 13.1 Cost factors of inspection and maintenance Influence of operation Issues of inspection and maintenance measures Economic Technical Social and environmental

Increasing costs of engine systems and complete ships Increasing costs of inspection and maintenance Increasing automatic, monitoring and regulating processes Increasing rapidity of innovations Stricter rules for climate and environmental protection Shortage of resources Higher expectations of inspection and maintenance

by the public sector (national, state, or local governments). Estimated that inspection and maintenance costs are from 2 to 15% of the world’s total transportation costs [5].

13.1 Inspection and Maintenance in Road Transportation Inspection has very similar procedures in all regions of the world. Small differences in practice result from the different infrastructure of control organizations and vehicle manufacturers. Computer supported diagnostic methods are increasingly used in the inspection and examination procedures. Current diagnostic systems contain electronic

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failure-code 16-pol OBD interface

RS 232

exhaustion

Fig. 13.2 Control of heavy duty vehicles with ‘‘free acceleration’’

Table 13.2 Main OBD functions in a spark ignition engine Continuous monitoring systems Irregular operation of engine (misfire) Mixture adaptation (self adjustment) Other exhaust gas relevant components CAN bus communication

Sporadically monitoring systems Catalyst function Catalyst heating k sensor Secondary air system Exhaust gas refeeding Tank ventilation system Tank leak diagnosis

equipment and an external test device, which can be adapted to the motor vehicle via an OBD interface (see Fig. 13.2) [6]. After the connection with the interface, the test equipment automatically adjusts itself to the data transfer system used by the engine control device. The standardized format is specified for the nomenclature of components and systems which are obligatory for all manufacturers.

13.1.1 OBD in Vehicles with Spark Ignition Engine Electronic systems and computer technology open novel possibilities for electronic detection of errors in motor vehicles. Monitoring was first introduced in spark ignition engine technology. Nowadays, OBD controls the function of all exhaust gas components with a comprehensive monitoring system (see Table 13.2) [7]. Because of the multiplicity of information, the signals of individual elements are transferred via a CAN bus to the motor management system.

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Fig. 13.3 OBD system in spark ignition engines

Figure. 13.3 shows the complexity of the OBD in a spark ignition direct injection engine, model DI Motronic which has an Electronic Accelerator Gas pedal (EGAS), an Engine Control Unit (ECU) and an electronically controlled exhaust gas recirculation system [8].

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Table 13.3 Main functions of OBD in self ignition engines Combustion system Exhaust gas after treatment Irregular operation of engine (misfire) Fuel amount Charge pressure CAN bus communication

Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) Particle filter Control devices k sensor

Misfires causing an engine to run roughly are the most serious indication of ignition problems. There are two different classes of misfires • Irregular operations that endanger the engine; and • Exhaust gas misfires that endanger the catalyst. OBD technology permanently records the rough running of the engine from the angle speed of the crankshaft. If the rough running exceeds the limit, the number of misfires is counted [9]. The monitored systems are checked at specified intervals once per driving cycle, if the main operating conditions are within the defined range. The conditions are the operation temperature of the catalyst, the temperature of the coolant, the number of revolutions, the engine load and the status of the secondary air system. If the conditions are not in the defined range, the diagnostic function is not processed [10]. Besides thermal or mechanical deterioration of the catalyst, the normal aging process lowers its normal conversion rate. The exhaust gas after treatment system contains the mixture controlling and monitoring k sensors. The catalyst’s oxygen storage capability is measured to determine its operability. The storage capacity is represented by the comparison of the mixture controlling k signal (upstream of the catalyst) with the monitoring k signal (downstream of the catalyst) [11]. The tank ventilation system is controlled by the electric function of the tank ventilation valve. In Europe, tank leak diagnosis is not required in contrast to the OBD II in the USA. The manufacturer must merely ensure the tightness of the filler cap. This can be done with the help of an electronic control system or a security tape [12].

13.1.2 OBD in Vehicles with Self Ignition Engine The monitoring of self ignition engines originates from the technology in spark ignition engines. In Europe, the legal system of rules (98/69/EC) comprehensively prescribes the requirements of the OBD technology in vehicles with a self ignition engine (see Table 13.3) [13]. The OBD in a self ignition engine with Common Rail technology is shown in the Fig. 13.4 [14].

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1

fuel

air

2 4 5

7 6 air

18 air

25

recirculation

8

26

19 14

9

20

21

23

24

29

10

exhaust engine

11

17

22

27

28

reinforced lines

12 13

30 31

15 32

exhaust 16

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

air control valve fuel filter high pressure pump with additional pump fuel pressure sensor fuel tank with fuel level indicator and electronic fuel pump Common Rail pressure control valve air injector phase sensor revolution and relation indicator accelerator pedal brake indicator switch clutch pedal EGR valve with pressure regulator vacuum tank vacuum pump

17. exhaust turbocharger 18. intake pipe pressure and exhaust gas temperature sensor 19. air flow meter 20. exhaust temperature sensor 21. wide range λ sensor 22. oxidation catalyst 23. exhaust temperature sensor 24. NOX sensor 25. Ad-Blue tank 26. Ad-Blue pump 27. reduction catalyst 28. particle filter 29. difference pressure sensor 30. engine control device 31. malfunctioning indicator light (MIL) 32. diagnosis interface

Fig. 13.4 OBD system in self ignition engines

The OBD system must monitor the exhaust gas components, the subsystems and the electric components, whose malfunction could lead to exceeding the defined limits. The standardized MIL signals the errors. Faulty injection as well as loss of compression as a result of mechanical disturbances in the engine leads to incomplete combustion with increased emissions.

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Fig. 13.5 Distribution of particle diameters

The rough running of the crankshaft is basically monitored to recognize combustion misfires, similar to the spark ignition engine technology [15]. A usual reason for increased fuel consumption is a change in the injection time caused by wearing and aging. For the exact recognition and corresponding compensation of the deterioration, a small quantity of the fuel is injected into the cylinder. A revolution sensor recognizes the resulting change in the number of revolutions which is coupled with the amount of fuel injected. The process is repeated in all cylinders at different operation points. The fuel consumption can be corrected through an adjustment of the access time of the injectors [16]. The pressure of the turbocharger can also be controlled in certain time intervals. Changes in the position of the turbine wheel and the bypass valve of the exhaust gate cause a decrease of the charging air pressure which is monitored by pressure sensors [17]. Self ignition engines with a Common Rail system do not produce big particles which can be monitored by measuring the opacity of the exhaust gases. Modern self ignition engines, with a high pressure level of injection of fuel and intake air, produce small particles (see Fig. 13.5) [18]. The emission of particles can be checked in the ‘‘free acceleration’’ process at the test bench. However, an idling self ignition engine produces fewer particles or none at all compared to real driving on the road. Therefore, the measurement of the opacity correlates only in an indirect way with the real mass and number of particles [19]. Micro particle sensors are still in development. The requirements are extremely high. On-board sensors must work under the hardest operating conditions. Components must bear dirt, wetness, blows and temperature changes during daily operation. Despite their small size, micro sensors are very complex in construction and operation. For safety reasons a redundant system, consisting of two intelligent sensors for each important function, could be necessary [20].

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Table 13.4 Main elements and tasks involved in an aircraft inspection Main elements Involved tasks and work methods Lubrication Service Operational check Functional check General visual inspection Detailed inspection Visual check Special detailed inspection Restore Discard

Lubricate nose landing gear retract actuator Check APU oil level and add oil as required Check voice recorder Check cargo overheat temperature switch Inspect pneumatic nose assembly of off-wing escape slide Inspect check valve flapper and hinge pin of equipment cooling supply fan Observation to determine items not fulfilling their intended purpose (non-quantitative tolerances) Inspect the combustion chamber Clean cabin pressure outflow valve gates and seals Replace air-prefilters for recirculation

13.2 Inspection and Maintenance in Aviation Inspection and maintenance measures may include ensuring compliance with Airworthiness Directives (AD) or Service Bulletins (SB). Increased fuel consumption is often the initiator of an inspection and maintenance measure [21, 22].

13.2.1 Inspection of Airplanes An airline must not operate unless it is controlled and released to service by an approved maintenance organization, i.e., JAR—145 or EASA Part—145 applies. Aircraft inspection leads to maintenance with overhaul, repair or modification of the aircraft or the aircraft’s components [23]. The inspection checks all components of an aircraft or aircraft sub-assembly, but does not include: • Elementary work, such as removing and replacing tires, inspection plates, spark plugs, checking the cylinder compression; • Servicing, such as refueling and washing windows; and • Any work done on an aircraft or aircraft component as part of the manufacturing process, prior to the issue of the certificate of airworthiness or other certification documents (see Table 13.4) [24].

13.2

Inspection and Maintenance in Aviation

Fig. 13.6 Flow diagram for the maintenance plan

199 Maintenance Review Board

MRB report

Maintenance Planning Document worked out by producers

Aircraft Maintenance Schedule worked out by the user

13.2.2 Maintenance of Airplanes Requirements and aims are described within the Maintenance Program (MP) and methods are summarized in the Aircraft Maintenance Manual and in the Task Cards [25]. The work of the maintenance is recorded by the Maintenance Review Board (see Fig. 13.6) [26, 27]. The extent of the maintenance event depends on the number of flight hours, the number of landing cycles, and the time elapsed. Each event in the life of an airplane, e.g., flight, maintenance, and repairs that are evaluated and recorded have an influence on the MP [28]. Maintenance events include the routine examination of technical systems which are important for the daily operation as well as a thorough overhaul of the airframe. Depending on the aircraft type, the A Check must be done every 350–650 flying hours and the B Check approximately every 3 months. The C Check means the detailed inspection of the airplane structure and the test of the system. Depending upon the type of aircraft, the C Check is done every 12 months (see Table 13.5) [29]. Measurement of combustion processes does not belong to the typical control of engine technology yet, although changes due to wear caused by engine operation lead to higher fuel consumption and higher exhaust gas emissions.

13.2.3 Maintenance Steering Group The Maintenance Steering Group (MSG) has its own type of maintenance philosophy and requires a change within the organization of air carriers [30]. A MSG-3 supports the operational safety net and provides a positive contribution to the fiscal bottom line of air carriers. It was released by the Air Transport

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Table 13.5 Example of the inspection events of an airplanea Time Interval Event

Time on ground Man hours

Trip check Service check A check B check C check IL checkb

35 min 4h 6h 12 h 30 h 2 weeks

0.5 20 40 150 700 12,000

4 weeks

30,000

D checkc a

Before every flight Weekly 250 flight hours (4 weeks) 900 flight hours (3 months) 3,000 flight hours (12 months) First interval 12 500 flight hours (5 years) Following interval 6,500 flight hours (3 years) First interval 25,000 flight hours (9 years) Following interval 12,500 flight hours (5 years)

Designed in the 1970s and 1980s The prime aim of the IL and the D check is the maintenance of the structure

b, c

Association (ATA) of America in 1980. Its forerunners, MSG-1 (1968) and MSG-2 (1970), were used to encourage the industry to move away from the overhaul mindset. The basic overhaul is done to almost everything on an airplane at a fixed time interval, e.g., every 6 years. The MSG system has an engineering plan that determines the most appropriate maintenance task and interval for an aircraft’s major components and structure [31]. The definitions of the most important elements are in the MSG-2 memorandum: • Hard-Time limit (HT) which is the maximum interval for performing maintenance tasks. The intervals usually apply to overhaul, but are also used for the total life of parts; • On Condition (OC) means repetitive inspections or tests to determine the condition of systems or structural parts; and • Condition Monitoring defines items that have neither ‘‘Hard Time’’ limits nor ‘‘On Condition’’ maintenance as their primary maintenance process. It is responsible for finding and resolving problem areas [32].

13.3 Engine Deteriorations An aircraft’s lifespan is measured in pressurization cycles. An aircraft is pressurized during flight each time therefore, its fuselage and wings are stressed. In jet engines, gas turbine compressor blades are easily affected by pollutants, water droplets, and other particles in the air. Both are made of large, plate-like parts connected with fasteners and rivets, and over time, cracks develop around the fastener holes due to metal fatigue [33]. Erosion in the compressor and the carbonization of nozzles are the main sources of wear in engines during flight (see. Fig. 13.7).

13.3

Engine Deteriorations

201

Fig. 13.7 Increasing fuel consumption of jet engines depending on flight cycles

,

,

,

,

,

,

,

The erosive agents damage a turbine engine’s performance, lead to thermal deformations, increasing splits and decreasing efficiency. A new erosion-resistant nano coating is benefitting both of these sectors in significant ways [34]. However, due to the high load of turbines’ blades, deteriorations are natural processes and continuously impact fuel consumption, CO2 and pollutant emissions in the exhaust gas. New development results, electronic monitoring and Self Diagnosis of the combustion process are gaining increasing importance because of the growing complexity of engine system technology.

13.4 Commander’s Responsibility Before any departure, there is a visual check of the airplane’s outer surface and parts for damage, leaks, missing parts and an inside check that the aircraft systems are functioning properly. Furthermore, crew have to study the documents on previous maintenance activities and maintenance related crew reports filed in the operator’s on-board technical flight log, i.e., the Airplane Flight Log (AFL) and the Deferred Item Record (DIR) [35]. The decision to ‘‘go’’/‘‘not go’’ is aided by the manuals Minimum Equipment List (MEL) and Configuration Deviation List (CDL) concerning those missing or inoperable minor items and related actions to be followed which can be tolerated for a short period of time without compromising safety [36, 37].

13.5 Inspection and Maintenance in Ships Maintenance means the combination of all technical and administrative measures during the whole life time of a ship. The most important measures are checking the systems, investigating errors and repairing or replacing defective modules (see Table 13.6) [38].

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Table 13.6 Goals and details of maintenance Items Maintenance Inspection

Overhauling

Improvements

Aims

Delay of Determination and Recirculation Safety degradation evaluation of the actual in a useable enhancement of the tank conditions and causes of condition through wear, estimation of erosion consequences Guarantee of Visual control or measurement Exchange Activities Cleaning, future or repair of with help of analyzing lubricating, function components technology greasing, etc.

The right planning on-board inspection and maintenance is especially important on ships. At sea the conservation of the value of the ship and the freight is the responsibility of the crew. Therefore, crew members must operate in an extremely complex technical and environmental system. In general, inspection and maintenance operations on ship have to be done according to the requirements of the IMO, the certification society, the harbor authorities and the manufacturer’s service manuals. The EU directive 94/57/EC, amended by 97/58/EC and 2001/105/EC regulates the standards for inspection and supervision organizations [39–41].

13.5.1 Maintenance Concepts Inspection focuses on the reliability of individual machines according to the Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM) system or on the calculation of risk according to the Risk Based Maintenance (RBM) system [42, 43]. On ships there is a difference between maintenance based on time and on condition [44]. Maintenance based on time means that after a fixed runtime, components have to be replaced. Maintenance depending on condition does not set the overhaul time intervals, but it depends on the quality of the components. There are three classes of ship maintenance: • Corrective; • Preventive; and • Predictive. Corrective maintenance is a repair to the system after failure if necessary. Preventative maintenance involves the replacement of parts, adjustments of the system or changes of the system to improve the reliability of the system and prevent failure by staving off the effects of system aging. Predictive maintenance requires the assessment of the system by a system expert and unscheduled maintenance has to prevent the possibility of the failure based on unrevealed system problems. Enforcing predictive and preventive maintenance is most effective, as the timely

13.5

Inspection and Maintenance in Ships

203

replacement or repair of a defective subsystem. Well organized prevention is less costly than the loss in revenue caused by an inoperative ship [45]. The definition of the maintenance intervals requires an exact knowledge of the influence of different loads, operating conditions, and wear and tear of ship components. At this field, extensive checking and test stand examinations with experiments are necessary. Life cycle is important criterion for the sustainability of a component and for its efficiency during operation. This time can be determined by on-board monitored signals of the main engine and the auxiliary equipment. Marine engine manufacturers usually specify the maintenance intervals for certain motor types based on the amount of fuel consumed and pollutants emitted [46]. The load of a ship crucially determines the life span of the engine and the auxiliary parts. Life cycle is determined by the number and the amplitude of load changes. This can be done using a data recorder and a diagnostic system [47]. Monitoring operation conditions determines the amount and the kind of maintenance. Data monitoring systems can estimate the reasons and the consequences of higher fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. Classification and examination institutions increasingly define the maintenance intervals for certain types of engines depending on the fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions, and the frequency and the seriousness of error messages reported by the on-board micro controller system.

13.5.2 Crew’s Responsibility In inland shipping, specialists can be brought in. At sea, the crew does the inspection and operates the diesel engines, pumps, compressors, steam generating units, cooling systems, fresh water plants, fire-extinguishing systems, electric and computer plants, etc. The crew has an increased responsibility because of the increasingly complex technology on board [48]. Fuel accounts for 20–40%, in specific cases for 40–60% of an average shipping company’s total operating costs [49]. Therefore, fluctuations in oil prices directly influence earnings. Fuel and exhaust gas emission saving measures adapted for energy conservation and profitability are the most important tasks. In the future, exhaust gas emissions devices can be effectively controlled not only with on-board measurement technology but also by using remote sensing methods. The working efficiency of mechanical and electrical equipment has a direct impact on the fuel consumption, on the maintenance, and on the efficiency. Nowadays, crew members must not only navigate ships, but must be able to adjust the angle of fuel injection to the right position to reduce the lag time for ignition and improve heat efficiency. Cleaning the air inlets and exhaust gas outlets can also decrease fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions by 2–3% [50]. Periodic checks of cylinders improve the timing of the valves and the injection pressure, the mechanism of the fuel pump, the plunger coupling, the fuel injector spring, and the needle valve coupling. Failures in the central elements of the

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engine can cause a serious increase in fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. Preventions hinder wear of components in the combustion chamber, e.g., air leak which usually leads to damage to cylinders, pistons, and piston rings [51]. The maintenance of the lubrication system reduces mechanical friction and wear. It is important to raise the cooling water temperature of diesel engines to 65–90C (149–194F). Fuel is not optimally used at low temperatures, because higher fuel viscosity increases the friction and resulting wear of parts. Preventing oil leaks, especially at the connection of the oil injection and return line, improves fuel efficiency [52]. Optimal use of waste heat helps to decrease fuel consumption [53]. About 40% of all the heat generated is turned into the output power, while the rest is lost outside of the ship through heated fuel tanks and pipes, exhaust gases, and cooling water [54, 55]. Fuel consumption is also decreased through careful maintenance of the turbocharger, by periodic cleaning of the air filters and removing soot from the exhaust gas [56]. Besides technology, the economical plan of the routes and the shipping schedule are decisive for fuel consumption as well as for exhaust gas emissions. The choice of the most efficient port for avoiding congestion and having optimal connections to road and rail transportation are also decisive. Routes should be optimized according to the sea conditions and to the weather which strongly shortens or extends the journey distance and time. Efficient navigation helps to avoid unnecessary detours and dangerous situations. Rational use of ocean currents and winds also reduces fuel consumption. Modern telecommunication and Internet provide topical information about traffic. This makes it possible to avoid creating bottlenecks at water ways and in harbors, and enabling rational storage of goods. Freight transportation usually needs cargo for the return trip. Shipping companies cooperate in purchasing fuel. Energy conservation management and the proper handling of waste oil usually conserve 1–3% of fuel [57]. Ships in harbors are more and more switching to shore power and replacing their shipboard generators to save fuel and exhaust gas emissions near environmentally sensitive areas [58].

13.6 Summary and Recommendations: Inspection and Maintenance Optimal operation of vehicles, airplanes and ships depends on a variety of parameters. Inspection of engines requires highly developed on-board monitoring methods to control the quality of engine, propulsion and safety systems. A maintenance schedule with adequate training can increase safety and reduce costs

13.6

Summary and Recommendations: Inspection and Maintenance

205

13.6.1 Vehicle Technology OBD is the indirect monitoring of the combustion and the emission systems. The first systems were developed in the 1980s for the continuous inspection of vehicles. Today, a malfunction can be precisely recognized by logical evaluation of individual sensor values and by comparison of the measured values with stored reference data of the operating point. In exactly defined check routines, the OBD system starts periodic tests for monitoring the quality of controlled elements with sensor signals. Since the introduction of OBD, manufacturers are obliged to uniformly define and store malfunctions and to transmit MIL signals to the interface of the system. Preventive maintenance and repairs are vitally important for vehicles to ensure that they operate reliably. In well maintained vehicles, repairs are done only if a component fails by external influences.

13.6.2 Airplane Technology The inspection and maintenance plan is carried out according to internationally agreed guidelines. Inspection programs should be approved by the aviation authority of the state of registry. Individual actions are summarized in packages or during inspections. The operator has to continuously check the airworthiness and to report on the fuel consumption to the management. The development of inspection and maintenance programs for a new airplane begins approximately two to five years before its production. Close cooperation between airplane manufacturers and operators is important for the development of its Maintenance System Guide (MSG). The comprehensive MSG-3 system identifies more than 3,000 parts. Nowadays the volume of modern maintenance plans requires an electronic storage capacity of more than 1 GB. Improved inspection and maintenance activities decrease costs in both civil and military aviation. New methods in maintenance technology are very often introduced in military jet airplanes first. A positive example is the increase in the maintenance interval with the automatic control system Engine Enhancement Package which lowers the life time maintenance costs by about 30%.

13.6.3 Ship Technology Each manufacturer establishes its own individual inspection and maintenance documents. Experience shows that monitoring ship operation positively affects the costs during the ship’s entire life.

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Beside the maintenance and repair manual, there is also a list of replacement parts. It specifies which modules must be replaced after certain time periods of engine operation. The results are definitions of required maintenance which are usually described in the job cards. Electronic or paper card systems usually contain the number and the qualification of the workers, the lists of the necessary tools, the set-up times, and the safety requirements for the ship. The engine document lists only original parts for replacements. Using unauthorized parts for maintenance or for repair invalidates the guarantee and the confirmation of the Type approval.

References 1. Intelligent transportation system inspection and maintenance manual. (ITSIMM) 02. 19. 2008. Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey. http://www.rits.rutgers.edu/files/training_ presentation.ppt 2. Frangopol DM, Lin KY, Estes AC, Life-cycle cost design of deteriorating structures. http:// www.digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1013&context=aen_fac 3. A briefing book for transportation decision makers, officials, and staff. A publication of the transportation planning capacity building program. Federal highway administration. http:// www.planning.dot.gov/documents/briefingbook/bbook.htm 4. Corrosion costs and preventive strategies in the United States. http://www.corrosioncost.com/ pdf/techbreif.pdf 5. Calculating national logistics cost. http://www.unescap.org/ttdw/Publications/TFS_pubs/ pub_2194/pub_2194_Appendix.pdf 6. Commission Directive 2001/9/EC of 12 February 2001 adapting to technical progress Council Directive 96/96/EC on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to roadworthiness tests for motor vehicles and their trailers. http://www.eur-lex.europa.eu/ LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2001:048:0018:0019:EN:PDF 7. Impact assessment/On Board Diagnostic (OBD) systems for passenger cars. http://www.ec. europa.eu/enterprise/sectors/automotive/files/projects/report_obd_en.pdf 8. Abgasuntersuchung. Handbuch zur AU-Schulung von verantwortlichen Personen und Fachkräften. Schulungsphase 2008–2011. TAK. 2008 Bonn. [email protected] 9. Auto systems and repair. http://www.repairpal.com/OBD-II-Code-P0300 10. On board diagnostic (OBD) function. http://www.europeantransmissions.com/Bulletin/ DTC.audi/01V%20DTC%20read%20out.pdf 11. Overview of OBD and Regulations. Toyota motor sales USA. http://www.autoshop101.com/ forms/h46.pdf 12. Evaporation emission system components. http://www.aa1car.com/library/evap_system.htm 13. Diesel OBD/AU. http://www.aa.bosch.de/aa/de/berufsschulinfo/media/2006_4.pdf 14. Summary for 6.7L diesel engines. http://www.motorcraftservice.com/vdirs/diagnostics/pdf/ DOBDSM1101.pdf 15. Summary for 7.3L diesel engine. http://www.motorcraftservice.com/vdirs/diagnostics/pdf/ DOBDSM971.pdf 16. Diesel injection common faults and maintenance points. http://www.obdchina.com/dieselinjector-common-faults-and-maintenance-points-5177.html 17. Garrett by Honeywell. Turbo application search engine. http://www.turbobygarrett.com/ turbobygarrett/tech_center/turbo_optimization.html

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18. Diesel particulate and occupational health issues. http://www.aioh.org.au/downloads/ documents/PositionPapers/AIOH_DieselParticulatePositionPaper.pdf 19. Standards and test procedures for free acceleration. Part II: Details of standards and test procedures for measurement of smoke levels by free acceleration for in-service vehicles fitted with diesel engines. http://www.peak3.com.au/index.php?option=com_content&view= article&id=28&Itemid=8 20. Portable diesel particulate monitors. http://www.peak3.com.au/index.php?option=com_content &view=article&id=28&Itemid=8 21. Aviation: service bulletin. http://www.dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection-R/Statcan/51-004XIB/51-004-XIB-e.html 22. Aviation: service bulletin. http://www.dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection-R/Statcan/51-004XIB/51-004-XIB-e.html 23. Federal aviation regulations. Sec. 91.409—inspections. http://www.risingup.com/fars/info/ part91-409-FAR.shtml 24. Repül}ogépek karbantartási rendszere. Malév Documentation for TMK, 2009. Galvácsy, K., Aeroplex Budapest 2010 25. Maintenance Review Board Reports (MRBRs). http://www.easa.eu.int/certification/flightstandards/maintenance-review-board-reports-MRBR.php 26. SAP Group (SUGAIR) Addresses the tough issues of aviation maintenance. http://www. uptimeblog.enigma.com/the-uptime-blog/tabid/50748/ Default.aspx?Tag=Maintenance%20Planning%20Documents%20(MPD) 27. The manufacturers maintenance schedule. http://www.tc.gc.ca/eng/civilaviation/publications/ tp13094-menu-348.htm 28. Commercial Aviation Service. Operational performance—engineering and maintenance operation. http://www.boeing.com/commercial/maintenance/index.html 29. Aircraft maintenance checks. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aircraft_maintenance_checks 30. Maintenance Steering Group 3 (MSG-3), Aviation glossary. http://www.aviationglossary. com/maintanance-steering.group-3-msg-3/ 31. Empower MX: Why transition to a MSG-3 based maintenance schedule? White Paper. VP Consulting Services, pp 1–4. http://www.faa.gov/AVR/AFS/HBAW/HBAW9404.TXT 32. Vandersall S Maintenance Steering Group 3 (MSG-3). 730 ACSG. 9 Nov 2006. http://www. wrcoc-aic.org/Archive/Rs/Rs06/Rs06_20.pdf 33. Fundamentals of gas turbine engines. http://www.cast-safety.org/pdf/3_engine_fundamentals. pdf 34. NETL nanotechnology flies high. http://www.netl.doe.gov/newsroom/features/02-2011.html 35. Interagency Committee for aviation policy. Federal agency aircraft. General maintenance manual guide. Federal_Agency_General_Maintenance_M…I_Guide_R21-x2-p_0Z5RDZ_i34KpR.doc 36. Minimum equipment list. http://www.nbaa.org/ops/maint/inoperative-equipment/minimumequipment-list.php 37. Configuration deviation lists. http://www.move.amtonline.com/publication/article.jsp?pubId= 1&id=1016 38. Maintenance, repair and operations. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maintenance_repair_and_ operations 39. Council Directive 94/57/EC of 22 November 1994 on common rules and standards for ships inspection and survey organizations and for the relevant activities of maritime administrations. http://www.ifremer.fr/charm/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=473%3 Acouncil-directive-9457ec-of-22-November-1994-on-common-rules-and&catid=61%3Asecurite directive&Itemid=195&lang=en 40. Commission directive 97/58/EC amending council directive 94/57/EC. http://www.library. coastweb.info/503/ 41. Directive 2001/105/EC amending council directive 94/57/EC. http://www.eur-lex.europa.eu/ LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2002:019:0009:0016:EN:PDF 42. Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM). http://www.ebme.co.uk/arts/rcm/index.htm

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43. Risk based maintenance. http://www.widepin.com/website/content.php?t=2&a=18 44. Ship maintenance basics. http://www.belzona.com/articles/Ship-Maintenance-Basics.aspx 45. Digital ship design manufacturing and lifecycle management. http://www.3ds.com/solutions/ shipbuilding/overview/ 46. Life cycle of ships and offshore structures risk-based strategies for the next generation of maintenance and inspection programs. http://www.eolss.net/Sample-Chapters/C05/E6-177OC-02.pdf 47. Low cycle fatigue analysis of marine structures. http://www.eagle.org/eagleExternalPortal WEB/ShowProperty/BEA%20Repository/References/Technical%20Papers/2006/LowCycle FatigueAnalysis 48. Seafarer’s professions and ranks.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seafarer’s_professions_and_ ranks 49. Record fuel prices place stress on ocean shipping. http://www.worldshipping.org/pdf/ WSC_fuel_statement_final.pdf 50. The Boaker0 s guide to successful re-powering. http://www.marinedieseldirect.com/repower/ repowerguide.php 51. Preventive maintenance. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Preventive_maintenance 52. SKF lubrication solutions. http://www.skf.com/portal/skf_lub/home/industries?contentId= 868897&lang=en 53. Fuel treatment and conditioning systems. http://www.exchange.dnv.com/publishing/Rules Ship/2011-07/ts614.pdf 54. Waste heat recovery. Bureau of energy efficiency. Chapter 8. http://www.em-ea.org/ Guide%20Books/book-2/2.8%20Waste%20Heat%20Recovery.pdf 55. Internal combustion engine cooling. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internal_combustion_ engine_cooling 56. Operating faults in turbochargers. http://www.brighthub.com/engineering/marine/articles/ 72117.aspx 57. Fuel management systems. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_management_systems 58. Shorepower. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shorepower

Chapter 14

Navigation

The word ‘‘navigation’’ historically means the art of the steering a ship. Therefore, changes in operation are related to the route and the journey. Today, navigation is a widely used method for the optimal regulation of traffic on roads, water, and in the air. There are two preconditions for modern navigation [1]: • Precise determination of the vehicles’, airplanes’, and ships’ position; and • Knowledge of the best routes to the planned destination under current conditions. Navigation consists of different elements in road traffic, in aviation, and in shipping, but the basics are similar in all types of transportation.

14.1 Road Transportation On the road, vehicle navigation uses an integrated telecommunication system based on computers, also known as Information and Communication Technology or Telemetric Technology [2]. This system sends, receives, and stores information via wireless telecommunication devices. The position of vehicles, similar to other types of transportation means such as airplanes and ships, is determined by Global Positioning System (GPS) [3]. The main elements of the GPS system are satellites in space with antennae. All means of transportation have a micro antenna, to send and receive signals to and from satellites. Corresponding measuring devices are built into waterproof boxes and installed at ground level in several positions, e.g., • As optical sensors over roads, pavements or crossings at traffic lights, hanging lamps, or on traffic signal posts; • As induction wire coils in the asphalt on roads; and

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_14,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

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traffic light

Navigation

sensing

data transferring camera

optical receiver

Fig. 14.1 Sensors for navigation at a crossing

increasing communication

management of fuel consumption and emissions

training better drivers

management of finance and taxes

navigation management of inspection and maintenance

controlling health and safety conditions avoiding traffic problems

management of tracking

Fig. 14.2 Methods of navigation in road transportation

• As on-board navigation systems in vehicles; see Fig. 14.1 [4]. Telemetric systems in road transportation intensively include fleet management and complex technology for optimizing driving, health and safety conditions; see Fig. 14.2 [5]. Experience shows that better navigation effectively saves fuel and exhaust gas emissions. When drivers in Europe travel more than 20,000 km (12,420 mi) a year in regions with high traffic density and high population, optimal navigation can save a distance of 2,500 km (1.553 mi) a year [5]. This equals to approximately 12% of the entire annual fuel consumption. Navigation systems are especially useful in traffic jams, in that drivers save up to 20% of fuel if they continuously use information from the Traffic Message Channel [6].

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14.1.1 Ecologic Strategy of Navigation Navigation systems help to find the fastest way to a certain destination. New systems calculate not only all possible ways but also the routes with the shortest direction and the smallest fuel consumption across the field [7]. Route calculation improves services and profits and protects the environment. Trucking firms usually use a special algorithm for the calculation of the most economically optimal and least polluting route. This technology offers enormous profit potential for trucking services. High capacity computers determine the optimal route within milliseconds. Saving fuel means decreasing CO2 and pollutant emissions and also a decrease in other pollutants. Self Diagnosis system can support ecologic navigation in a network due to communication between the vehicle and an electronic checkpoint. Congestion in traffic including different accelerating and braking phases of a lot of vehicles leads to higher concentrations of exhaust gases in the local environment. Fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions can be particularly effectively decreased if traffic light signals are synchronized. Other measures of traffic organization, e.g., the construction of modern roads, the removal of redundant crossings, etc., also contribute to lowering the specific fuel consumption and the specific exhaust gas emissions per road vehicle. However, optimally organized traffic conditions often lead to an increasing amount of traffic which usually causes more global fuel consumption and higher global pollution on reconstructed and renewed roads.

14.1.2 Foresighted Driving Navigation supports not only the best route but also the choice of the optimal speed. Increasing the velocity of commercial vehicles weighing 25–40 t on roads in villages, cities, and highways leads to higher fuel consumption; see Fig. 14.3 [8]. Not only accelerating but also braking requires surplus fuel. Braking from 90 to 60 km h-1 (55.9–37.3 mi h-1) on a highway leads to additional fuel consumption of approximately 0.7 l (0.18 gal (US) and 0.15 gal (UK)) of diesel fuel. The time advantage of not driving with foresight is small, because basic traffic conditions strictly determine the time needed to the destination, independently from short accelerating and decelerating phases; see Fig. 14.4. Higher than optimal speed leads not only to increased fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions but also to more accidents. Fuel and emissions can be saved and unnecessary stops and goes can be avoided with foresight to recognize obstacles in time by observation and navigation [9].

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41.0 26 t 40 t

fuel consumption [1*(100*km)-1]

36.0 31.0 26.0 21.0 16.0 73

75

77

79

81

83

velocity [km*h-1]

Fig. 14.3 Fuel consumption of mixed driving on country roads and highways depending on speed and load

50

foresighted driving aggressive driving

velocity [km*h-1]

40 30 20 10 0 0

50

100

150 time [sec]

200

250

Fig. 14.4 Differences between travelling with and without foresight

14.1.3 Convoy Travel with Heavy-Duty Vehicles The average speed on highways is decreasing worldwide because traffic is generally becoming denser. For this reason, the automatic regulation of the driving speed on highways effectively saves fuel and exhaust gas emissions. One possible way is to structure heavy-duty vehicles into a convoy on the highway so that they drive in a line with automatic regulation without drivers except for the first vehicle [10]. Besides saving fuel, this system also contributes to the optimal use of the highway’s capacity. The vehicles following behind the convoy would also save fuel; see Fig. 14.5 [11].

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Road Transportation

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controlled drive of vehicles

duty vehicle with driver driving direction

in case of turning off automatic control of traffic order

sensors and actuators automatically maintain distance

Fig. 14.5 Driving and leaving the convoy journey

adjustment regulation planned result communication achieved result

actuator

sensor

Fig. 14.6 Measurement and communication in a convoy

Complex driving assistant and monitoring systems must control distance, speed, and direction in front of and behind the convoy and between the vehicles in the convoy; see Fig. 14.6. Automatic driving assistant systems are still in the predeveloping phase. Current route planning systems already effectively save fuel. Drivers using trafficenabled navigation devices are spending 18% less time driving on an average trip versus drivers without navigation [12].

14.2 Navigation in Aviation 14.2.1 Airports and Aircraft Operators Airport layout, the infrastructure, and the organized ground movement determine the distance and the time that an airplane has to travel between its parking position and the runway. This movement may unnecessarily increase fuel consumption on

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the ground. The length and the altitude restrictions for landing and the required turns for departure and arrival routes also influence fuel consumption. Planners who design departure and arrival routes have to consider alleviating noise over populated areas and the terrain and the airspace requirements of nearby airports [13]. The airline must also decide the construction of aircraft, the types of on-board equipment, the kind of license, and the rating of the pilots. On-board navigation equipment must match with the radio waves to the ground equipment along the flight path [14].

14.2.2 Information for Civil Aviation Personnel No safe and efficient flight planning is possible without in-time knowledge of actual and forecasted weather and the present and expected state of the flight conditions along the route and during the flight. These facts influence fuel consumption and emissions in different ways [15]. The demand, the role, and the importance of aviation information have significantly changed with the evolution of: • • • • •

Communications, Navigation, and Surveillance [16]; Air Traffic Management [17]; Area Navigation (RNAV) [18]; Required Navigation Performance [19]; and Airborne Computer-based Navigation Systems [20].

In aviation the requirements for quality, accuracy, precision, and integrity of air traffic and terrain data are rising; see Table 14.1.

14.2.3 Air Traffic Control Services Each nation maintains its own Air Traffic Service (ATS) services responsible for flights within its territory. The ATS system consists of flight information, alerts, air traffic advisory, and air traffic control (ATC) services. No aircraft is allowed to enter into or operate within a controlled airspace unless it has ATC clearance, except for a few but strictly regulated cases. A flight is controlled when it is subject to ATC clearance. Over the high seas, the ATC services are provided according to regional agreements concluded by the nations involved. There are generally three basic controls and some subdivision services in air traffic; see Table 14.2 [26]. ATC Services can be divided or integrated otherwise and further subdivisions can be established according to the traffic volume and to the density of structural elements, such as the airports and the airways. The terminal control of the airport

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Table 14.1 Information systems in aviation Information system Description Weather information

Aeronautical information

Dangerous air traffic incidents

Aviation weather information observed locally is collected and disseminated by the World Area Forecast System (WAFS) and by national meteorological offices in a timely manner as printed reports and weather charts [21]. The local observations are added to in-flight observations by pilots and satellite data. Observations are made by humans or automated weather stations, based on internationally accepted methods, equipment and timing. The reports and forecasts are also encoded as texts according to international standards Information on the state of aviation infrastructure called ‘‘aeronautical information’’ is published as a package by the nations for their territories according to ICAO standards in Annex 15 Aeronautical Information Services (AIS) on the manner and timing of promulgation. Aeronautical Information Publication (AIP) and Notices to Airmen (NOTAM) are the main elements of the integrated information package [22]. NOTAMs are issued and distributed within aviation communities through a dedicated communication network at all times. This information should be available for the operator before takeoff and, in some instances, must be provided during flight There is a mandatory system for pilots to report on dangerous air traffic incidents and occurrences experienced during flight to the appropriate Air Traffic Control (ATC) authority [23]. A report is due if a near-collision could have been avoided, if prescribed procedures cannot be complied to or if ground equipment and facilities failed. An air traffic incident report serves the standardized fashion of written records on circumstances and details. The pilot reports it by radio if the incident occurred in-flight. At the first landing following the incident within the shortest time period the pilot submits the report to the nearest Air Traffic Services Reporting Office (ARO), or if none is available, to the office of any Air Traffic Service (ATS) [24, 25]. ARO was established for the purpose of receiving reports concerning air traffic services and flight plans

Table 14.2 Air Traffic Control services Control services Description Airport control service

Approach control service Area control service

Airport control service is responsible for the airport’s traffic at and near airport area. The airspace around the airport for a horizontal distance of 10–15 km (5.4–8.1 nmi) and an altitude of 1,000 m (3,279 ft) is included in the controlled area. Furthermore, it may include tower control, ground control, clearance delivery and other units Approach control service is responsible for the departing and arriving flights of the airport along designated corridors between the airport and the airspace border of an area control service Area control is responsible for controlled flights within controlled airspace, generally along the cruise portion of flights. An example is the overwater portion of flights between the continents, where Oceanic Control Areas (OCA) are designated and oceanic control centers are responsible for control [27]. These regions are mainly without radar coverage

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and possible subdivisions is responsible for the control of confluenced routes in the vicinity of the airport which covers an area, typically 50–80 km (27.0–43.2 nmi) around the airport [28]. In addition to its basic functions, ATC may provide weather advisories, terrain information, navigation assistance, and other services to pilots. ATC is vital for maintaining separation between aircraft flying at high speed in congested areas and bad weather when pilots are unable to see the environment and for avoiding distances to other aircraft that are too small [29, 30].

14.2.4 Weather Conditions and Airport Operating Minima In the beginning, landmarks were the only way for pilots to safely navigate. The pilot had to see other airplanes in order to avoid collisions. Clouds, fog, and other weather conditions restricted a pilot’s sight. Therefore, safe flying required that limits of visual conditions had to be established. Airport operating minima expresses the weather limits of the usability of an airport for takeoff, landing in a precision approach, or landing in a non-precision approach. The terms used are ‘‘visibility’’ or ‘‘runway visual range’’, ‘‘decision altitude’’ or ‘‘minimum descent altitude’’, and, if necessary, ‘‘cloud condition’’ [31]. Each participant, the airport, the airplane, and the pilot has its own minima. Airport minima depend upon the available approach facilities. Aircraft minima are based on on-board equipment. The personal minima of a pilot are determined by his experience. The least favorable of these minima should be applied in practice, including any increments required due to system failures.

14.2.5 Flight Rules Flight rules play an important role in planning and carrying out fuel efficient flight, for example through eliminating uncertainties that would otherwise increase the need for surplus fuel. There are visual and instrument flight rules; see Table 14.3. There are still minimum conditions and limits which must prevail so that takeoff or landing can be legally initiated. These conditions and limits vary according to weather conditions, location, and the height of terrain and obstructions in the vicinity of the airport, the available equipment of the aircraft, and the qualification of the crew [35]. Key factors in alleviating, the load on the environment besides expediting traffic flow are good control practices creating airspace design with airways as straight as possible, and new concepts such as Free Route Airspace Concept for free flying areas [36]. There are specific airspaces within which users can freely plan their routes between an entry point and an exit point, without references to the ATS route network. In these airspaces, flights remain subject to ATC. Consequently and

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Table 14.3 Flight rules Type of rules Description Visual flight rules (VFR)

Instrument flight rules (IFR) Safety aspects

VFR is the set of rules that apply to an aircraft that navigates solely by visual references [32]. Spatial disorientation or collision with ground and obstacles may occur when a pilot continues VFR into instrument conditions IFR regulates the procedure for flying in weather conditions below VFR weather minimums [33]. IFR has rules for pilot ratings, pilotcontroller communication procedures and radio navigation procedures The main purpose of IFR is to ensure safe flights by enabling precise and reliable determination and tracking of positions even in Instrument Meteorological Conditions (IMC) and either within or outside of controlled airspaces and by clearly stating the environmental and manmade limits, conditions and rules of operation [34]. Flying IFR in ATC airspace increases safety and the controller provides safeguards against collisions

independently from the routes inserted in flight plans, it can become common practice to offer aircraft operators the shortest routes. Eurocontrol Airspace Concept ECAC includes: • The ‘‘packaging’’ of en route and terminal routes, optimized trajectories, airspace reservations, and ATC sectors into Airspace Configurations which are designed and dynamically managed together to respond flexibly to different performance objectives which vary in time and place; and • Airspace Configurations activated through integrated collaborative decisionmaking processes at national, regional Functional Airspace Block, and European airspace network level reflected in the Airspace Network Management component of the 2015 Airspace Concept [37].

14.2.6 Optimum Climbing Path and Flight Profile After Takeoff The takeoff and the initial climb are the noisiest phases of a flight using the highest power at the airport and in its surroundings. Takeoff usually starts at the beginning of a runway with full thrust on the engines. If necessary, the thrust reduction is in accordance with the actual takeoff weight. The climbing path and profile following the takeoff can be optimized using modern navigation systems. The main phases of takeoff and climbing are presented in Table 14.4 [38]. The takeoff thrust can be tailored to the actual conditions. The pilot sets lower than the full thrust which the engine is able to deliver but enough thrust for safe operation in the actual conditions. This measure can conserve engine life and reduce fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions and lower noise at and near airports.

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Table 14.4 Takeoff flight path segments Path segments Description First and takeoff segment

Second segment Third and final segment

In general, the takeoff ends at a height of 35.2 ft (10.7 m) above the end of the runway where the speed for safe climbing is attained. The fuel consumption and the concentration of NO and NO2 have the highest level in these phases Takeoff is followed by a short climb with takeoff thrust settings meanwhile the landing gear is retracted The third segment, started at a minimum of 400 ft (122 m) above field elevation, is acceleration, performed in level flight to attain the final segment at climbing speed, during which the flaps and slats are retracted and thrust is cut-back. The final segment is a climb that generally ends at 1,500 ft (457.5 m) above the field elevation

There are noise abatements in practice for takeoff and climbing procedures. Many airports publish departure routes indicating noise-sensitive areas along the flight path with the corresponding altitude and routing restrictions for the airplanes [39].

14.2.7 Descent and Approach Path Optimizing The Flight Management System of a modern airplane automatically optimizes the flight profiles including the descent and approach segment profile [40]. Continuous Descent Approach (CDA) also has advantages for the reduction of fuel consumption, and noise and gaseous and particle pollution affecting residents around the airport. Instead of stepping down on a virtual stair the airplane glides with no flaps or with partially extended flaps. Full flaps and landing gear are extended only in the final segment of the approach. CDA can be started right at the end of the cruise portion of a flight, at the start of an arrival route, or at a start of an approach procedure depending on the circumstances, i.e., traffic controller’s knowledge, available airspace for separating the traffic, etc. [41]. The pilot can check the distance to the airport using Distance Measuring Equipment, if available, while the controller can supervise the progress of the flight by radar [42].

14.2.8 Fuel Saving by Improved Airspace Coordination and Air Traffic Organization Eurocontrol, the European Organization for the Safety of Air Navigation, estimates that 1.5 9 106 t (3.3 9 109 lb) of fuel are still unnecessarily lifted into the air every year because airplanes must be able to divert from their planned destination. About 1% of all European aviation emissions, corresponding to

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Navigation in Aviation

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0.63 9 106 t (1.39 9 109 lb) CO2 emissions per year, could be saved through improved methods [43]. Improved coordination is required between civilian and military users concerning the daily use of airspace blocks in order to avoid airspace congestion and to increase fuel savings. Through reforming flight navigation, airspace organization, and ATC, the aviation industry could reduce fuel consumption by 15%. In the European Union, the ‘‘Single Sky’’ initiative started in 2008. EU researchers demonstrated new technologies on a large scale within the SESAR initiative. According to the aims of the Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research, the fuel consumption and the CO2 emissions in European aviation should be reduced by 50% by 2020 compared with the year 2000. NO and NO2 emissions should be lowered by 80% and noise output by 50% [44].

14.3 Ship Navigation Planning of marine transportation involves freight and business conditions. Navigation in shipping is the process of steering a ship from one harbor to another. The quality of navigation highly influences fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. Nowadays, the navigation system determines the position of a ship by collecting information from satellites [45]. Figure 14.7 shows the main influencing factors for ship navigation [46]. IMO guidelines define appraisal, planning, execution, and monitoring of the voyage which are parts of the passage and navigation planning and are reflected in the local laws of IMO signatory countries [47]. Navigation planning comprises a complete description of vessels from the start to the finish of the voyage. The plan includes leaving the dock and harbor, the end route portion of the voyage, and the approach to the destination. According to international law, the vessel’s captain is legally responsible for navigation planning, but on larger vessels, the task is usually delegated to the navigator [48]. The appraisal stage deals with the collection of information relevant to the proposed voyage as well as fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. In the execution of the voyage, the navigation plan takes all special circumstances into account, e.g., changes in the weather which may require the navigation plan to be reviewed or altered [49].

14.3.1 Shipboard Routing Assistance Shipboard Routing Assistance (SRAS) increases the safety of the ship and reduces the risk to the ship and its cargo. With SRAS the officers on the bridge can

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journey’s parameter influenced by v, D, a, g, rpm environmental conditions to t, p, h, w, wD

Navigation

fuel quality (v, De, F, S) emissions, measured by OBM (HC, CO, NO, PM) safety parameters (distance to other ships, costs and dangerous areas)

navigation

management instruction (journey time limit, connections to train and road capacity in harbour, tax conditions

water conditions Wa,WD, St

hull resistance (cleanliness, design factor, load of deck with containers, exhaust gas after treatment (with CSR and filter technology)

air conditions t p h w wD

temperature pressure humidity wind power wind direction

fuel conditions

vessel conditions v D a g rpm

speed direction acceleration gear choice number of revolutions

v De F S

viscosity Wa density WD flaming point St sulphur content

water conditions wave amplitude wave direction streaming

Fig. 14.7 Main influencing factors for ship navigation

immediately recognize and monitor weather and dangerous operating conditions and can start corrective measures if necessary [50]. The ship’s speed, wave direction, and wave heights are continuously measured by radar and compared with databases of the voyage. Forecasts can be calculated for the current ship movements in the on-board computer.

14.3.2 Ship Distress and Safety Communications Global Maritime Distress and Safety System (GMDSS) is an integrated communication system using satellite and terrestrial radio communication to ensure aid for ships in distress [51]. GMDSS communicates with protocols to increase the safety and assist in the rescue of distressed ships. The Maritime Safety Information system provides meteorological and navigation information anywhere at sea [52]. All passenger ships and cargo vessels over Gross Tonnage (GT) 300 t, i.e., 661 9 103 lb on international voyages must comply with GMDSS. Vessels under 300 GT, recreational, and offshore ships are not subject to GMDSS requirements, but they increasingly use Digital Selective Calling (DSC) VHF radios [53]. Regulations governing GMDSS are contained in the International Convention of SOLAS [54].

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DSC is a part of the GMDSS. It automatically sends a digital distress signal identifying the calling vessel and the nature of the emergency with the help of Maritime Mobile Service Identity which can identify ships and coastal stations [55]. Ship distress and safety communication contributes to optimal fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. The system does not yet give direct information on fuel management, but informs the captain and officers about all conditions which can influence the maneuvering a ship [56].

14.3.3 Meteorological and Oceanographic Coordinator and Supporting Service The world’s oceans are divided into 16 areas of responsibility for broadcast purposes called either Metareas for meteorological information or Navareas for navigational warnings. The Area Meteorological and Oceanographic Coordinator (AMOC) and the Supporting Service must provide [57]: • Basic meteorological forecasts; and • Warnings tailored for specific areas. The service may also include: • Basic oceanographic forecasts for the concerned areas; • Observing, analyzing, and forecasting of meteorological and oceanographic variables required as input for models describing the movement, dispersion, and dissolution of marine pollution; and • Operating these models and accessing national and international telecommunication facilities [58]. This information may be prepared by AMOC, another supporting service or by a combination of both. The authority responsible within the designated Marine Pollution Incident must receive information about the location and details of any marine pollution or emergency response operations [59].

14.3.4 Broadcast for Navigation The combination of Automatic Identification System (AIS) and beacon technology can be provided as a backup system to make navigation more reliable [60]. AIS transponders continuously transmit a vessel’s position, course, speed, and other data to all other near-by ships. In ship-to-shore mode, coastal surveillance is important. Many countries deploy automated AIS base stations ashore to monitor the movement of vessels in their adjacent waters and to navigate ships on inland

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waterways. In ship navigation, developments make it possible to introduce specific navigation centers, similar to aviation. AIS VHF transmission can ensure uninterrupted Differential Global Positioning System (DGPS) availability, even in severe weather conditions or with high interference. AIS information is collected with additional signals from radar, echo locators, and sonar [61]. Signals of all sensors could be displayed on a monitor of the bridge. The integration of Self Diagnosis service with AIS base station broadcasts could save costs for fuels and future fees for exhaust gas emissions.

14.3.5 Reporting Environmental Damaging Incidents at Sea Exhaust gas emissions and fuel consumption do not yet belong to the control parameters of AMOC. However, the rising prices of marine fuel and the heightened emission regulations could lead to the measurement and reporting of both parameters [62]. An electronic Fuel Marine Monitoring device could discover deteriorations, wear in the combustion, in the exhaust gas after treatment system, in the auxiliary devices, and also in the propulsion, regulation, and steering system and send the message to the ship’s owner so that management can reduce fuel costs and increase the operational efficiency [63]. Figure 14.8 presents the main elements of ship’s navigation.

14.4 Summary and Recommendations: Impact of Navigation on Fuel Consumption and Emissions Transportation is based on two main fields: • Worldwide navigation; and • Reasonable fuel prices for road traffic, aviation, and maritime shipping. The efficiency of transportation strongly depends on the quality of navigation. Data and information for optimal navigation are transmitted via a worldwide communication net.

14.4.1 Vehicle Navigation Road traffic uses telemetry to continuously organize traffic flow. Navigation systems have electronic, magnetic, or optical sensors and wires installed in measurement and operating equipment.

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satellite DG

GMDSS (DSC, MMSI)

PS

MSI, AIS

SRAS

MPI, FMM

coastal station ship with telecommunication equipment

Fig. 14.8 Elements of ship’s navigation

Sensors installed in roads and on vehicles communicate with each other. Data can be sent via GPS, Global System for Mobile communication, and Short Message Service to a telemetry center controlling the traffic. The combination of on-board sensors with satellite systems is gaining influence. Organization measures for the continuous flow of traffic, e.g., intelligent ‘‘green wave’’ in variable road intersections and the introduction of environmentally friendly road pricing and on-board measurement in traveling vehicles can improve road navigation. In the future wireless units could be built into vehicles and at traffic lights and emergency call boxes along the road. Sensors in vehicles and at fixed locations, as well as connections to wider networks, could provide information to drivers. The range of radio links could be extended by forwarding messages along highly frequented paths. Drivers could use this information to reduce the chance of collisions, to avoid bottlenecks, and to decrease the rate of fuel consumption and emissions.

14.4.2 Airplane Navigation Current airspace has a density four times higher than 20 years ago. Safe and efficient flight has been gaining more and more importance. Starts begin with

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careful preplanning through taking data and information about the environment and infrastructure into account. Inflight data exchange between the dispatcher, pilot, and controller requires automated processes based on computer technology. Traditional ATC practices need changes, i.e., good practices, in the first line: • Allowing directs airspace designs with airways as straight as possible; and • New concepts with free flying areas. Optimal takeoff and climbing paths and CDA are key factors in alleviating the load on the environment. Radio and satellite navigation has brought about better position recognition and tracking. With modern navigation, the advanced aircraft systems can optimize flight profiles and provide even more benefits from computers.

14.4.3 Ship Navigation Methods of ship navigation have greatly changed. New procedures enhance the ability to complete the voyage and save fuel. Coastal networks are established or are planned in Europe, North America as well as South-East Asia, India, China, Korea, Japan, South Africa, and several other countries. Similar networks are also planned along major inland waterways. A coastal AIS will soon replace the current DGPS beacon stations. It will not only provide frequent determination of position relative to geographic coordinates but also report the hydrographic features in restricted waters. Fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions monitoring completed with other operation parameters has become possible with GPS navigation in combination with data transfer to route management centers.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

Navigation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Navigation Telematics. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Telematics Global navigation satellite system. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_navigation Az új szoftverrel nincs baleset Japánban. Népszabadság. 22 June 2009, Budapest Hamburger Abendblatt, 19/20/02/2011, pp 42: So können Navigationsgeräte im Auto beim Spritsparen helfen Traffic Message Channel. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Traffic_message_channel Routing helps find the most efficient route, but navigation and mapping help the driver get there. http://www.trucking.randmcnally.com/ctonline/assets/images/tridion/HDT%20TECH_ REPORT_July_tcm18-189521.pdf Völlig verheizt. Trucker 08/2009, München, pp 3–44. ISSN:0946-3218. http://www.trucker. de Fuel economy-maximizing behaviors. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuel_economy_maximizing_ behaviors

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10. Entwicklung und Untersuchung von Fahrerassistenzsystemen für elektronisch gekoppelten Lkw-Konvoi. https://www.zlw-ima.rwth-aachen.de/intern/seitenaendern/ldb/downloads/ 1788.pd 11. Konvoi. 24th of Aug 2009. http://www.fahrerassistenzsysteme.de 12. Navteq study shows traffic-enabled navigation. Chicago, 27th August 2009. http://www.corporate. navteq.com/webapps/NewsUserServlet?action=NewsDetail&newsId=765&lang=en& englishonly=false 13. Aviation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aviation 14. Landung via Satellit. Aero. Hamburg. No. 09/2009, pp 40. http://www.aerointernational.de 15. Sikora I, Pavlin S, Bazijanac E, Different automation concepts in civil aircraft cockpits of today and their influence on airline flight operations. http://www.36755.rad_v3_99.doc Flight Operation, Emirates Airlines, Dubai UAE 16. Communication, Navigation and Surveillance (CNS) section. International Civil Aviation Organisation Air Navigation Bureau (ANB). http://www.icao.int/icao/en/anb/cns/ 17. Air Traffic Aviation Organization. Air (ATM) section. International Civil Aviation Organization Air Navigation Bureau (ANB). http://www.icao.int/icao/en/anb/atm/ 18. Area Navigation. Navigation systems—level 3. http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/aero/rnav.htm 19. Required Navigation Performance (RNP). http://www.jeppesen.com/download/briefbull/ den01-j.pdf 20. CASR Part 175—Aeronautical information services. http://www.casa.gov.au/scripts/ nc.dll?WCMS:PWA::pc=PARTS175 21. World Area Forecast System (WAFS) (DSI-9939). http://www.gcmd.nasa.gov/ KeywordSearch/Metadata.do?Portal=GCMD&KeywordPath=&NumericId=26234&Meta dataView=Full&MetadataType=0&lbno 22. Aeronautical Information Publication. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aeronautical_information_ publication 23. Air Traffic Control CATS. http://www.cats.com.kh/airservice.asp 24. Common Core Content and Training Objectives for Basic AIS Training (Phase 2—Specialist. Eurocontrol. Air Traffic Services Reporting Office (ARO). http://www.scribd.com/doc/ 22380466/14/Air-Traffic-Services-Reporting-Office-ARO 25. Air Traffic Services. Air Safety Support International. http://www.airsafety.aero/ air_traffic_services/ 26. Air Traffic Control. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_traffic_control 27. Flying the Atlantic Ocean. http://www.bcavirtual.com/VA%20flight%20School/atlanticfly iingrules.htm 28. How Air Traffic Control Works. http://www.science.howstuffworks.com/transport/flight/ modern/air-traffic-control.htm 29. Air traffic congestion. http://www.ideaconnection.com/solutions/447-Air-traffic-congestion. html 30. Business Aviation. Understanding Aviation Weather. http://www.businessaviationdirectory. com/aviation-training/understanding-aviation-weather/ 31. Instrument landing system. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_landing_system 32. Visual Flight Rules. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Visual_flight_rules 33. Instrument Flight Rules. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_flight_rules 34. Instrument meteorological conditions. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Instrument_flight_rules 35. The Free Route Airspace Concept. http://www.eurocontrol.int/airspace/public/standard_page/ 1492_concept.html 36. The Airspace Concept & Strategy. http://www.eurocontrol.int/airspace/public/standard_page/ 141_Airspace_Strategy.html 37. Single European Sky. FAB Europe Central Redefining Air Traffic Control in the Heart of Europe. http://www.belgocontrol.be/belgoweb/publishing.nsf/AttachmentsByTitle/FAB_ Europe_Central-en-07-03.pdf/$FILE/FAB_Europe_Central-en-07-03.pdf 38. Take Off and Climb Segments…? http://www.pprune.org/archive/index.php/t-95292.html

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39. Noise Mitigation for Airport Growth. http://www.wyle.com/ServicesSolutions/science/ EMMA/AcousticandVibrationConsulting/Resources/DocumentLibrary/WyleReports/Pages/ nmag-T8.aspx 40. Flight Management System. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flight_management_system 41. Basic Principles of the Continuous Descent Approach (CDA) for the Non-Aviation Community. http://www.caa.co.uk/docs/68/Basic_Principles_CDA.pdf 42. Distance Measuring Equipment. http://www.allstar.fiu.edu/aero/DME.htm 43. New plan for European airspace to save fuel and reduce emissions. http://www.euro control.int/press-releases/new-plan-european-airspace-save-fuel-and-reduce-emissions 44. What is single Sky? http://www.eurocontrol.int/dossiers/single-european-sky 45. Germanischer Lloyd (2008) Safe Ship Operation. Containerships. Maritime Services. Nonstop. The Magazine for Customers and Business Partners. Hamburg. pp 23–24, OE 003. Publications@gl-group. de 46. Discussions with Mr. H. Mátyás ship captain, and Mr. M. Palócz ship technician 47. Discussions with Cs. Hargitai. Tu Budapest 2010 48. Ein Auge auf die Sicherheit. Sonar für mehr Sicherheit auf See. Zukunft Meer. Maritimes Jahrbuch. Schleswig-Holstein 2009/2010, pp 75–77. ISSN: 3-937105-16-6. A ? 1 Verlag Hamburg 49. Passage Planning. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Passage_planning 50. Rathje H, Beiersdorf Ch, Gannenann F, Shipboard routing assistance decision making support for the operation of container ships in Heavy Seas. http://www.ipen.org.br/ downloads/XIX/CT4_TRANSPORTE_MAR%C3%8DTIMOS_Y_FLUVIALES/ Fritz%20Grannemann.pdf 51. Global Maritime Distress Safety System. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global_Maritime_Di 52. Maritime Safety Information. http://www.msi.nga.mil/NGAPortal/MSI.portal 53. DSC—Digital Selective Calling. http://www.ybw.com/expert-advice/vhf.dsc 54. What is the GMDSS. http://www.inmarsat.com/Maritimesafety/gmdss1.htm 55. Maritime Mobile Service Identity. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maritime_mobile_service_ identity 56. Germanischer Lloyd (2008) Safe Ship Operation. Nonstop. The Magazine for Customers and Business Partners. Hamburg. pp 23–24, OE 003. publications@gl-group. de 57. Area Meteorological and Oceanographic Coordinator. jcomm. http://www.maes-mperss.org/ MPI-AMOC.html 58. Supporting Service. jcomm. http://www.maes-mperss.org/MPI-Support.html 59. Reporting a Marine Pollution Incident. http://www.ccg-gcc.gc.ca/eng/Ccg/er_Reporting_ Incident 60. Automatic Identification System. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automatic_Identification_ System 61. Improved DGPS navigation with AIS broadcasts. Ship & Port 02/09, pp 16–17. http:/http:// www.digimagazin.schiffundhafen.de 62. Marine fuel management. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Marine_fuel_management 63. Any Bridge. Maritime fuel monitoring. http://www.anybridge-m2m.nl/maritime-fueltelemetry

Chapter 15

Climate and Environmental Protection

The air of the Earth can be divided into different layers, which are defined through clear temperature differences. The two lower layers are important when referring to climate change: 1. The troposphere, the layer with weather events and 2. The stratosphere, the layer above the troposphere [1]. The upper limit of the troposphere varies daily and mostly depends upon the season and geographical latitude. In the area of the equator it is at an altitude from 16 to 18 km (from 52,459 to 59,016 ft or 9.94 to 11.19 mi), at the poles it is from 8 to 12 km (from 26,230 to 39,344 ft or 4.97 to 7.46 mi). In the tropopause between the troposphere and the stratosphere the temperature is approximately -60C (-76F). The ozone O3 layer is in the stratosphere at an altitude from 25 to 30 km (from 81,967 to 98,361 ft or 15.5 to 18.6 mi) [2]. The climate has been rapidly changing because of the rise in the concentration of CO2 and other Green House Gases (GHG) in the atmosphere. Global warming on the Earth is the result of emissions of CO2 and other climate changing gases [3].

15.1 Transportation Emissions CO2 is the most important Green House Gas that originates from the burning of hydrocarbons, decomposition of biomass, e.g., from plants as well as from the respiration processes of humans and animals. The combustion of 1l (0.264 gal (US) and 0.220 gal (UK)) of gasoline produces 2.33 kg (5.14 lb) of CO2. The combustion of 1 l of diesel or kerosene emits 2.64 kg (5.82 lb) of CO2. The concentration of CO2 in the air is currently 370 ppm and increasing. CO2 remains in the atmosphere for approximately 100–200 years, depending on the concentration [4].

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_15,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

227

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Climate and Environmental Protection

The worldwide CO2 emissions increased from 22,500 9 106 t (49,606 9 109 lb) in 1991 to 30,892 9 106 t (68,108 9 109 lb) in 2009. Despite the economic crisis between 2007 and 2010, the average worldwide emissions increased and will continue to rise in the next few decades. On the other hand, CO2 emissions have declined in many countries because of the economic crises in recent years [5]. Water vapor, H2O, is the most important greenhouse gas beside CO2. Without the naturally originating vapor from water, the Earth’s surface would be approximately 20C (68F) colder. Unlike CO2, the water vapor emissions caused by humans are too small in relation to the natural evaporation on the Earth to influence the climate [6, 7]. Natural sources of nitrogen oxides, such as NO, NO2 and other nitrogenous substances, are caused by lightning and microbes in the ground. However, improvements in fuel efficiency have been achieved through the development of modern internal combustion and jet engines, which operate at higher temperatures and higher pressures than in the past. Unfortunately these improvements also increase the formation of nitrogen oxides, which can be reduced through further changes in the combustion chamber or in an appropriate exhaust gas after treatment system [8]. Unburned hydrocarbons, HC, are mixtures of several hydrocarbons which remain after incomplete combustion processes. The concentration of HC emissions depends on the load of vehicles, airplanes and ships. HC is a climate gas with a GHG factor that is three times higher, than CO2. At ground level, they contribute to the formation of summer smog [9]. Ozone, O3, is a three-atomic oxygen molecule. At ground level, ozone is a component of dangerous summer smog. At higher altitudes of the stratosphere, O3 molecules filter dangerous UV radiation [10]. While road and maritime transportation contribute to the summer smog near ground level, aviation contributes to the ozone hole in the stratosphere. Pollutants, such as NO2 reduce O3 concentration at ground level and lead to highly dangerous and unhealthy situations, initially in big cities. Smog decreases the O3 concentration at the poles by 2–4% in the winter and 4–8% in the summer. Sulphur dioxide, SO2 molecules are dangerous to human health and form acid rain. In addition, SO2 is an important aerosol creator and lowers the temperature of the atmosphere through dispersion of sunlight. The climate role of SO2 is not yet completely clear [11]. Transportation will grow very intensively over the next few decades in comparison to other sectors of the economy, especially in the rapidly developing countries; see Fig. 15.1 [12]. The most meaningful international goals are: • • • • • •

Increasing independence from fossil fuels; Decreasing climate gas emissions; Minimizing the cost of alternative fuels; Increasing the efficiency of road vehicles, airplanes and ships; Supporting new financial investments; and Creating new jobs for climate protection.

Interaction Between the Climate and conomy emissions [109 CO2 equivalent]

15.2

35

229

developing countries

30

developed countries

25 20 15 10 5 0 2000

2005

2010

2015 year

2020

2025

2030

Fig. 15.1 Total Green House Gas emissions in developed and developing countries

mobility with recent car, ship and airplane technology climate gas emissions climate change

weather disasters change of environment and weather conditions

Fig. 15.2 Interaction between the climate and the transportation

15.2 Interaction Between Climate and Economy In the past, industrial production influenced the climate, but the relationships have changed and climate change is very intensively influencing transportation today. There is a clear interaction between both systems; see Fig. 15.2 [13].

15.3 Climate Protection in Road Transport CO2 emissions from transportation have an impact on the climate and pollutants have an impact on the environment, and the human and the animal health. In contrast to solids and liquids, gases mix their substances very fast. The long decomposition time of GHG substances of approximately 100–200 years leads to the homogenous mixing of gases in the air. Exhaust gases from vehicles and ships, which are emitted at ground level, also impact higher atmospheric layers [14].

230

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Climate and Environmental Protection

Table 15.1 Regulation of emissions of Green House Gases in road traffic in the world Country Regulation China

Japan

USA

EU

China introduced limits on CO2 emissions in 2005, 2008, 2009, and 2011 to protect the environment [15]. The Chinese regulations limit vehicle weight. High performance vehicles with high fuel consumption will not be sold in China in the future. Next steps are China 4 for self-ignition engines (gasoline propelled engines have been regulated in 2011) and China 5 in 2012 In June 2010, the Japanese government started a study of further CO2 requirements for 2020. Each manufacturer has to achieve fuel efficiency as a weighted average in each weight class. Consumption has been determined on 10–15 and FC08 test cycles. New Regulation 2015 Fuel Economy will consider diesel and gasoline vehicles together [16] Moderate Corporate Average Fuel Economy standards are valid for fleet consumption. Energy Independence & Security Act of 2007 estimates introduction of renewable fuels and consumer protection [17]. EPA and NHTSA proposed new fuel economy and GHG regulations for vehicles in 2009. Progressive proposals such as the SULEV 20, SULEV 50, and SULEV 70 to update them are being advanced by the CARB [18]. This regulation was valid for private vehicles, with less than 12 people and achieved a reduction in CO2 emissions from 205 g km-1 (7.231 oz km-1 or 11.635 oz mi-1) in 2000 to 180 g km-1 (6.35 oz km-1 or 10.217 oz mi-1) in 2008. The agenda is to lower the CO2 output to 125 g km-1 (4.409 oz km-1 or 7.094 oz mi-1) by the year 2020. Light Duty Trucks (LDT B 8,500 lb (3.8 t)) emit about 250 g km-1 (8.818 oz km-1 or 14.188 oz mi-1) presently. By 2020, that should be reduced to 200 g km-1 (7.055 oz km-1 or 11.351 oz mi-1) European legislation requires decreasing fuel consumption and CO2 output [19]. The middle performance category of private vehicles in the EU produces about 159 g CO2 km-1 (5.608 oz km-1 or 9.023 oz mi-1) with an average consumption of 6.6 l 9 100 km-1 (42.73 mpg (US) and 35.61 mpg (UK)). CO2 emissions are limited to 130 g km-1 (4.586 oz km-1, or 7.379 oz mi-1) in 2015. 65% of the fleet of cars must meet the requirement by 2012, 75% by 2013, 80% by 2014, and 100% by 2015. After 2015, it should be decreased to 120 g km-1 (4.233 oz km-1 or 8.811 oz mi -1) and to 95 g km-1 (3.351 oz km-1 or 5.392 oz mi-1) by 2020. The decision about how to reach the objectives for 2020 must be prepared in 2014

15.3.1 Legislation and Regulations CO2 emissions depend firstly on the weight and the power of vehicles and secondly on the driving behavior of drivers and the traffic organization. Therefore, many governments regulate the weight and emissions of vehicles. Yet these standards are not easily comparable, due to differences in policy approaches, test drive cycles and units of measurement.

15.3.2 Comparison of Regulations The relevant stringency and implementation years of fuel economy and GHG emissions standards in the world are in Table 15.1.

Climate Protection in Road Transport

Fig. 15.3 CO2 emission limits of cars in the EU

CO2 emission limit value [g*km-1]

15.3

231

250 limits 200 150

130 g*km-1

100 50 0 500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

vehicle weight [kg]

Emissions of pollutants can be mainly decreased by increasing the efficiency of engines, the gears and reducing the weight of vehicles. Installing solar cells on top of cars can moderately decrease emissions by 7 g km-1 (0.247 oz km-1, i.e. 0.397 oz mi-1). Further expected innovations will decrease emissions by 10 g km-1 (0.353 oz km-1 or 0.568 oz mi-1) by 2015; see Fig. 15.3. In 20 years, the number of cars on the world is expected to go from one to two billion and the amount of energy used for transport will also double by 2050. The goal of the International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) is to protect public health, minimize climate change and improve quality of life for billions of people as the world’s transportation infrastructure grows. ICCT consists of about 30 government officials and policymakers from the 10 largest motor vehicle markets—which together account for 85% of the world’s new car and truck sales—and providing them and other interested parties with accurate information about research, best practices, and technical resources for improving the efficiency and environmental performance of cars, trucks and other vehicles, so ICCT helps accelerate an urgently needed transition to sustainable transportation [20].

15.4 Climate Impact of Aviation The environmental aim of flight profile, airspace and airway optimization is to minimize climate changing emissions. However, up to now, flight altitudes and routes are optimized according to the weather conditions, the traffic situation and safety aspects, fuel consumption and costs, and not climate protection. Normally, the formation of condensation trails and cirrus clouds can be avoided by not flying through cloud and vapor saturated air masses. This is important for lessening greenhouse effects. Altitude and route optimization is frequently restricted by severe weather phenomenon. Aircraft adaptation to this phenomenon would bring more penalties than gains [21].

232

15

Fig. 15.4 Climate impact of gases at different altitudes

Climate and Environmental Protection

impact [%]

100

CO2 H2O

75

NOX

50 20 0 0

2

4

6 8 altitude [km]

10

12

14

The purpose of optimizing flight routes is to avoid critical atmospheric zones by changing the altitude or the route of the flight to minimize climate changing emissions. New turboprop jet engines fly at altitudes between 7,000–8,000 m (22,951–26,230 ft) and produce the least damage to the environment and the climate. Despite its economic advantages, the very limited airspace limits the use of this altitude, especially in Europe and North America [22]. The altitudes of flight influence fuel consumption and emissions. In flights, the formation of condensation trails and of cirrus clouds can be avoided by flying at altitudes in the troposphere. However, at such altitudes the aerodynamics of airplanes and the efficiency of engines deteriorate due to the denser air, which increases fuel consumption by about 4% and lengthens flight times. At lower altitudes the takeoff and the approach time is shortened and the fuel consumption is decreased in the ascent and in the descent [23]. The impact of exhaust gas on the climate is different at different altitudes. At higher altitudes H2O and NOx emissions increasingly impact the climate, CO2 emissions have a decreasing impact; see Fig. 15.4 [24]. The type of the fuel also determines the climate impact of airplanes. The comparison of kerosene and hydrogen fuel shows different effects in the atmosphere; see Fig. 15.5. Hydrogen significantly reduces negative climate impacts of combustion gases in comparison to kerosene at all altitudes. However, hydrogen is more a solution for the long term climate protection due to the technological and economical difficulties.

15.4.1 Trading with CO2 Emissions in Aviation A trip from Europe to the east cost of the USA emits about 674 kg (1,485 lb) of CO2 per passenger (between Hamburg and New York). Aviation is responsible for 2.4% of the global CO2 emissions, but consumption and CO2 emissions will increase to 3 or 4% in 2050, in spite of expected improvements in the SFC [25]. The accelerated introduction of more modern aircraft would reduce emissions per passenger-kilometer. Other opportunities arise from the optimization of airline

15.4

Climate Impact of Aviation

233

Fig. 15.5 Climate impacts of combustion products in the atmosphere

14

altitude [km]

12 40/60

10 55/45

8

hydrogen kerosene

6 4

95/5

2 0 0

0.5

1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 factor for relative greenhouse effect

4

4.5

timetables, route networks and flight frequencies. Emissions can be further reduced by increasing loads, minimizing the number of empty seats and improved regulation of air traffic [26]. However, the total number of passenger-kilometers is growing at a faster rate than manufacturers can reduce emissions. At this time, there are almost no alternatives to burning kerosene. In the short term the growth in aviation is therefore likely to continue to generate an increasing volume of GHG emissions [27]. The IATA has the following environmental targets: • Fuel efficiency must improve by 25% in 2020 and by 50% in 2050 in comparison with 2005; and • 10% alternative fuels must be used in 2020. Besides climate protection, aviation has two other environmental challenges: • Decreasing noise in air traffic; and • Improving the air quality on the ground, primarily reducing NOx emissions [28]. According to plans of the European Regional Airline Association (ERAA), the upper limit of pollutant emissions in air traffic must be 97% in 2012 and 95% in 2013 on the basis of the average emissions between 2004 and 2006. 15% of CO2 emission certificates must be auctioned off by 2013. Therefore, low emission airliners will have a cost advantage, while older airplanes with higher emissions will have to buy additional certificates [29]. The EU states which auction certificates must invest only in appropriate projects for climate protection. The roadmap of the EU plans to cut CO2 emissions by 60% by 2050. In addition, every state is obliged to transparently report its investment in climate protection.

Climate and Environmental Protection

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Fig. 15.6 Connection between temperature of the ocean’s surface and frequency of tropical cyclones

15.4.2 Impact of Climate Change on Air Traffic The Earth’s atmosphere absorbs 7% more humidity close to the surface per degree of warming. Feedback from local wind can increase humidity by up to 14%. This process leads to more tropical storms over sea and land, like hurricanes, cyclones and tornados; see Fig. 15.6 [30]. Wind velocities can reach 500 km h-1 (311 mph). Extreme precipitation events appear more frequently. In the northern hemisphere, the number of short, extremely intensive downpours is increasing. In summary, the number of storms is constant, but the number of severe storms with lightning strikes is increasing; see Table 15.2 [31]. Climate change strongly influences aviation. Cumulous clouds reach altitudes of 15–16 km (49,180–52,459 ft, i.e., 9.3–9.9 mi) with different electrical charges. Because of the wide area and the high altitude of storm clouds, airplanes flying in these air corridors do not have any possibility to fly over these zones. Positively charged lightning is dangerous even several km from the actual thunderstorm zone at an altitude from 11 to 12 km (from 36,066 to 39,344 ft or from 6.8 to 7.5 mi). Their temperature is 30,000C (54,032F) in the lightning channel and their strike velocity is 100,000 km h-1 (62,150 mph). Although only 5% of all lightning is positively charged, it is more dangerous than negatively charged lightning because it has particularly intensive discharges with considerably higher current intensities and longer time intervals [32]. Some composite airplanes also have an additional layer of protection against lightning strikes by installing Metal Oxide Varistors (MOV) throughout the circuit. If an MOV senses a sudden surge of current than it is designed to break and protect the rest of the aircraft’s delicate electronic systems [33]. Aircraft design principles

15.4

Climate Impact of Aviation

235

Table 15.2 Number and density of lightning strikes in Germany Year Number of lightning strikes on earth’s surface 2004 2005 2006 2007

Absolute number

Specific number (number km-2)

1,752 1,927 2,484 2,662

4.9 5.4 7.0 7.5

455 941 791 409

Table 15.3 Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of non-military shipping Average values Average values Sort of shipping Average values 2020 2050 2009 106 t (109 lb) 106 t (109 lb) 106 t (109 lb) Total ship fuela consumption Total ship CO2 emissionsb CO2 emissions of maritime shippingc a b c

333 (734) 1,019 (2,246) 843 (1,858)

400 (882) 1,428 (3,148) 1,012 (2,231)

899 (1,912) 2,751 (6,065) 2,276 (5,018)

Calculated excluding fishing vessels Calculated including domestic shipping and fishing, but excluding military vessels Calculated subtracting domestic emissions from the total emissions

and precautious operating procedures exclude nearly any in-flight emergency events happening due to severe weather phenomenon.

15.5 Climate Impact of Shipping Maritime shipping emitted approximately 843 9 106 t i.e., 1,859 9 109 lb CO2 in 2009 and therefore contributed to 2.8% of anthropogenic CO2 emissions. In comparison, aviation presented a similar—if slightly smaller—annual emission rate with 733 9 106 t (1,616 9 109 lb) CO2 [34]. Sea-going vessels consume fuels with a sulfur content of 2–3% and annually emit (10–12) 9 106 t i.e., (22.03–26.45) 9 109 lb SO2 into the atmosphere. The production of SO2 is the reason that ships’ emissions have a disproportionally high absorption of infrared radiation. According to the IPCC predictions, CO2 emissions in maritime shipping will increase by factors of 1.1–1.3 up to 2020 and by factors of 2.4–3.0 up to 2050. They are the most powerful rates of increase in transportation; see Table 15.3 [35]. In inland navigation, ships often use higher quality fuels, i.e., diesel fuel. Table 15.4 shows the current and future proportions of fuel consumption and emissions in inland shipping [36].

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15

Climate and Environmental Protection

Table 15.4 Domestic fuel consumption and CO2 emissions Fuel quality Shipping quantity 2009

HFO MDO Total

2050

Fuel 106 t (109 lb)

CO2 106 t (109 lb)

Fuel 106 t (109 lb)

CO2 106 t (109 lb)

13.3 (29.3) 19.7 (43.4) 33.0 (72.6)

40.2 (88.6) 61.0 (134.5) 101.2 (223.1)

35.91 (79.2) 53.19 (117.3) 89.10 (196.4)

108.5 (239.2) 164.7 (363.1) 273.2 (602.3)

Table 15.5 Dependence of fuel consumption and emissions in maritime shipping on economy, transport efficiency and energy demands Categories Variables Related elements Unit Economy

Demand

Transport efficiency

Efficiency depending on fleet composition, ship technology and operation

Energy demand

Carbon content in navy fuel

Number of inhabitants, local, regional and global economic growth Ship design, propulsion advancement, vessel speed, environmental regulations, trade with GHG emissions Cost and availability of fuels, use of residual fuels, distillates, biogenic fuels or other fuels

(t mi) year-1

MJ (t mi)-1

g (MJ)-1

Fuel consumption and emissions of fleets are determined by the economy, the transport efficiency and the energy demand of ships; see Table 15.5 [37]. Predictions have to consider all factors. For shipping technology, despite the greatest care, predictions contain inaccuracies and uncertainties.

15.5.1 Large Two-Stroke Marine Diesel Engines Fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of large two stroke marine diesel engines can be examined at a test bench. In artificial conditions at a test bench, Best Specific Fuel Consumption (BSFC) corresponds to single operating points. The real SFC in operation is expected to be 10–15% higher than in test measurements, because: • An engine does not always operate at its best operating point; • The energy content of its fuel may be lower than that of the test bench fuel (residual fuels typically have heating values which vary ±5%); and

15.5

Climate Impact of Shipping

237

Table 15.6 Marine engine’s specific fuel consumption (SFC) Energy supply Engine work kW (BTU s-1) SFC

B5,000 (B4,739)

5,000–15, 000 (4,739–14,218)

C15,000 (C14,218)

g kWh-1 (oz BTU-1)

195–185 ((20–19) 9 10-4)

185–175 ((19–18) 9 10-4)

175–150 ((18–16) 9 10-4)

Table 15.7 Auxiliary engine fuel consumption Energy supply Auxiliary engine work kW (BTU s-1) SFC

C800 (C758)

\800 (\758)

g kWh-1 (oz BTU-1)

200–210 ((21–22) 9 10-4)

210–220 ((22–23) 9 10-4)

• SFC values are given also with ±5% tolerance because of engine wear, ageing and sub-optimal maintenance of fuel injectors and injection pumps, deterioration of the propeller, defects in the turbocharger, increased filter resistances and wear and tear of the heat exchanger. The SFC of the main engine depends on the performance of the engine; see Table 15.6 [38]. The fuel consumption depends on a number of parameters including average load, number of speed variations, chosen route, wind and rain, waves, degradation of the hull and drag of the ship.

15.5.2 Average Auxiliary Engines All ships use residual fuel and need it to power different engines and equipment on-board. When the ship is at sea, the heat is taken from the exhaust gas through the steam boilers and hence no additional fuel is consumed. In port, the main engine does not run and the ships need auxiliary engines and boilers using extra fuel to generate heat. The SFC of auxiliary engines primarily depends on the power they need; see Table 15.7 [39]. The average calculation of a ship’s economy includes the auxiliary engine’s fuel consumption although the load and operating hours of auxiliary engines greatly varies between types of ships. This is especially true in tankers, where heat is required for cargo heating, pumping, and the energy supply of auxiliary equipment. Fuel consumption of auxiliary equipment in tankers can be 20–25% of the whole consumption.

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Table 15.8 Boiler’s fuel consumption for auxiliary equipment on tankers Voyage Load Discharge Type of ship Gross per annum tonnage DWT Very Large Crude Carrier Tanker and greater Suez Max Tanker

200,000

10

5

5

120,000–199,999

12

6

6

Aframaxa Tanker

80,000–119,999

–

–

–

Small Crude Tankerb

60,000

–

–

–

Product Tankerc

–

a b c d

Weight of boiler fuel t (lb) 250 (550,661) 150 (330,396) 60 (132,159) 30 (66,079) 10 (22,026) 5 (11,013) 50/60d (110,132/ 132,300)

Heated cargo 50 days per year Heated cargo 100 days per year Heated cargo 150 days per year 40% of oil fuel is used for heating charges

Table 15.8 shows the boiler fuel consumption for auxiliary equipment in tankers [40]. Air-conditioning requires a performance of approximately 5.0–10.0 W (6.8– 13.6) 9 10-3 HP per 1.00 kW (1.36 HP) of the main engine power on an average merchant vessel. With the increase in average air temperature because of climate change, also the costs of air-conditioning and perishable goods’ cooling in shipping will increase [41].

15.6 Recycling and Climate Balance of Transportation Recycling has a growing meaning in environmental technology. Today, an increasing number of people want vehicles, airplanes and ships which meet the highest environmental standards, including recycling. People require batteries which do not have heavy metals, coolants which are biologically degradable, construction which can be recycled and energy recovery systems which use the stored braking energy.

15.6.1 Recycling of Vehicles In accordance with legislation, all parts of road vehicles, airplanes, and ships have to be recyclable by up to 90–95%. Besides traditional materials for building

15.6

Recycling and Climate Balance of Transportation

239

Recycling and climate balance

Development

Production

Use

Disposal

Build recoverability into design

Rubber recycling and reuse

Waste collection system by dealers

Using shredder residue effectively

Design for recycling

Resin recycling and reuse

Replacing and remanufacturing parts

Battery recycling system

Use of recycled materials

Fig. 15.7 Recycling and climate balance

vehicles, such as steel and aluminum, light plastics, composite, and fiber glass strengthened materials are increasingly used and recycling them requires a specific technology; see Fig. 15.7 [42]. Light construction plastic materials on average require a higher level of energy in the production process than considerable metal products. That is the reason why plastic elements of road vehicles, airplanes, and ships are usually difficult to recycling and need a very long time to decomposing. There are still a lot of open questions for future development in production and recycling of light construction materials.

15.6.2 Recycling of Airplanes As airplanes are very expensive, most of them are typically leased for 20–40 years. Very few go back into service after a long lease because evolving aerospace technology leaves older airplanes unable to compete against newer airplanes, which can be operated at a lower cost with decreased fuel consumption. To protect the environment, professional decommissioning and recycling of older aircraft will increase in the future. There are no regulations for recycling airplanes. Many of them stay in the desert. Expensive equipment for aircraft, e.g., navigation and safety devices are often collected and utilized in special second uses [43]. The self-obligation of aviation companies is moving in the right direction. Many of them wanted to realize 50% recycling or more. In the future, legislation should be similar to cars and 90–95% of all parts of an airplane should be recycled.

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15.6.3 Recycling of Ships An agreement for safe and environmentally friendly recycling of ships has a lot of unanswered questions. Ships from member states will only be allowed to be scrapped if basic environmental and climate protection rules are in force. Currently, there are only some countries which have specialized reglementations in cutting up ships. Similar to aviation, the environment and ecology need common legislation for the recycling of ships. Steel plays an important role in maritime shipping. Steel is the most important construction material and it is particularly close to nature. No other material has such a closed circuit and can be recycled so often without losing its quality. In the long run, the demand for new steel types remains high. Annual steel consumption will probably increase by 40% within the next 10 years. This tendency will determine recycling technology in future ships [44].

15.7 Summary and Recommendations: Climate Protection in Transportation The amount of CO2 emitted from all means of transportation depends on the type of fuel. Certain fossil fuels contain more carbon per energy output than biogenic and synthetic fuels and hence produce more CO2 emissions per unit of work done. Although future scenarios contain positive assumptions about biogenic and synthetic fuel use, the market penetration of individual fuels shows the leading role of fossil fuels between 2020 and 2050: • Petroleum or gasoline will remain the most important energy source supplying from 16 to 28% of the world’s primary energy demand; and • Mineral oil and natural gas products as fuels will contribute to the transportation from 57 to 82%. The Kyoto Protocol, Annex I, Article 2.2 made requirements for the reduction of the emissions of climate gases in 1997. Members of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), a sub-group of the UN, take the necessary actions in two ways: • Controlling emissions in national regulations. The precise accounting of fuel consumption is a good indicator of the real activity; and • Setting targets for all sectors of transportation and developing global and regional policies within a limited time according to the UNFCCC review.

15.7

Summary and Recommendations: Climate Protection in Transportation

241

15.7.1 Vehicle Technology Road transportation emits approximately 3,500 9 106 t i.e., 7,717 9 109 lb CO2 in the atmosphere yearly. This is approximately 0.2% of the absolute CO2 content of the atmosphere. The pace of change in road transportation strongly depends on the price of oil. Vehicles emit the highest amount of GHGs such carbon dioxide and other substances, which negatively influence the climate and the environment. Besides regulations, the following measures can effectively reduce fuel consumption and emissions: • Widespread use of sensor, actuator and computer technology, data communication, stream lining, heat insulation, engine efficiency, light weight construction, etc.; • Increasing driving efficiency with improved navigation; • Financially right and socially well-balanced introduction of climate protection measures, e.g., taxes; • Reducing the transport demands between work and residences; • Reorganization of districts for work, residence, and recreation in cities; • Improvement of conditions in mass transportation; and • Decreasing the costs of public transportation. Changing the awareness of people depends more on motivation than on technology. Programs can teach drivers to save fuel and protect the climate.

15.7.2 Aviation Technology Trends of gas and noise emissions in commercial aviation show that CO2 emissions will rise from the recent level of 733 9 106 t i.e., 1,615 9 109 lb to 1,480 9 106 t i.e., 3,264 9 109 lb by 2025. NO and NO2 mass is expected to grow from 2.5 9 106 t i.e., 5.513 9 109 lb in 2000 to 6.1 9 106 t i.e., 13.40 9 109 lb by 2025. Aviation intensively influences the climate because jet airplanes fly at high altitudes near the tropopause and emit particles and gases, and leave contrails. Both can increase cirrus cloud formation. Airplanes can also release chemicals that interact with GHGs in the atmosphere. Nitrogen compounds are particularly dangerous, because they destroy ozone molecules at high altitudes. Emissions from passenger aircraft vary per passenger kilometer, according to the size of the aircraft, the number of passengers on-board, and the cruising altitude. The rule of thumb shows that the average level of emissions depends on the distance of the flight: • Short-haul airplanes on flights under 463 km (288 mi) or under 3 h emit approximately 259 g km-1 of CO2 (9.1 oz km-1 or 14.71 oz mi-1);

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• Mid-haul airplanes on flights over 463 km (288 mi) up to 3,000 km (1,863 mi) or between 3 and 6 h emit 178 g km-1 of CO2 (6.28 oz km-1 or 10.1 oz mi-1); and • Long-haul airplanes on flight over approximately 3,000 km (1,863 mi) or more than 6.5 h emit 114 g km-1 CO2 (4.02 oz km-1 or 6.47 oz mi-1). The SFC per passenger and kilometers in aviation is approximately 130–140 g (4.59–4.94 oz) and similar to the emissions of a car with four seats and one person on-board. New developments may produce emissions lower than 100 g (passenger km)-1, i.e., 5.68 oz (passenger mi)-1 for very large jet airliners. Currently, the taxiing noise level of most Western aircraft is between 123 db(A) and 133 db(A). Specific noise level of airplanes is decreasing in course of new technologies in aviation. However, the average noise emission level near terminals of airports will increase from 24 dB(A) in 2000 to 30.3 dB(A) by 2025 due to the higher air traffic.

15.7.3 Maritime Technology Currently, ships emit less than 1,000 9 106 t i.e., 2,205 9 109 lb of CO2 each year. Emissions have grown more than 85% since 1990, the base year of the Kyoto Protocol. Predictions show that global fuel consumption and CO2 emissions of ships will increase continuously and will be 160–284% higher in 2050 than in 2009. However, new technologies can decrease ships’ fuel consumption and emissions. Short-term goals are slow steaming and optimal use of existing technologies and resources. Long-term goals require new technologies, particularly the use of renewable energy sources in ships. These measures require not only new technology but also new international and national laws. Scenarios predict an increase in maritime emissions of 75% by 2020. The reason is the expected growth of the world trade fleet, which cannot be balanced with improved SFC of new vessels. UNFCCC has the goal to reduce emissions from ships by 40% by 2020 and by 80% by 2050. New propulsion systems are needed, which could reduce emissions from ships by 10% and improved operations, which could reduce them by another 10%.

References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Troposphere. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Troposphere Stratosphere. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stratosphere Ozone layer. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone_layer Global Warming. http://www.library.thinkquest.org/CR0215471/global_warming.htm CO2 Emissions. http://www.sunearthtools.com/dp/tools/CO2-emissions-calculator.php

References

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6. Environment Statistics: CO2 Emissions by country. http://www.nationmaster.com/graph/ env_co2_emi-environment-co2-emissions 7. Water vapor. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Greenhouse_gas 8. Nitrous Oxide. http://www.bbc.co.uk/climate/evidence/nitrous_oxides.html 9. Air pollutants: Hydrocarbons. http://www.arc.govt.nz/environment/air-quality/air-pollutants/ hydrocarbons.cfm 10. Ozone. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozone 11. How SO2 Affects Global Climate Change. http://www.tetontectonics.org/Climate.html 12. Global Greenhouse Gas Data. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/emissions/globalghg.html 13. Climate change and poverty. http://www.uk.oneworld.net/guides/climatechange 14. Comparison of Passenger Vehicle Fuel Economy and Greenhouse Gas Emission Standards around the World. PEW Center Global Climate Change. http://www.pewclimate.org/ docUploads/Fuel%20Economy%20and%20GHG%20Standards_010605_110719.pdf 15. China: On-Road Vehicles and Engines. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/cn/ 16. Safety Requirements for Exporting Cars to Japan. http://www.ehow.com/list_7433128_ safety-requirements-exporting-cars-japan.html 17. U.S. vehicle CO2 emissions still almost double Europe and Japan. http://www.gizmag.com/ us-european-japanese-car-market-co2-pollution/15485/ 18. CARB—Diesel Emissions Overestimated 340%. http://www.co2insanity.com/2010/10/07/ carb-diesel-emissions-overestimated-340/ 19. CO2 Emission Credits for Car Manufacturers under New EU-Regulation. http:// www.lexegese.blogspot.com/2011/07/co2-emission-credits-for-car.html 20. International Council on Clean Transportation. About the ICCT. http://www.theicct.org/ about-2/ 21. Contrails. http://www.2010.atmos.uiuc.edu/(Gh)/guides/mtr/cld/cldtyp/oth/cntrl.rxml 22. North Atlantic Tracks. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/North_atlantic_tracks 23. Flight for Range and Endurance—Propeller Airplane. http://www.selair.selkirk.ca/Training/ Aerodynamics/range_prop.htm 24. Climate Impact of Aviation: Issues and present Assessment. DLR. Oberpfaffenhofen. http:// www.dlr.de/pa/Portaldata/33/Resources/dokumente/ceas/CEAS_WS_Schumann.pdf 25. Air travel and climate change. http://www.davidsuzuki.org/issues/climate-change/science/ climate-change-basics/air-travel-and-climate-change/ 26. Flight Emission Calculator-Carbon Dioxide (CO2) Pollution. http://www.cheap-parking.net/ flight-carbon-emissions.php 27. Environmental impact of aviation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_ aviation 28. A global approach to reducing aviation emissions. http://www.iata.org/SiteCollection Documents/Documents/Global_Approach_Reducing_Emissions_251109web.pdf 29. Regional airline associations call on ICAO member states to press for a global sectoral approach to climate change. http://www.greenaironline.com/news.php?viewStory=788 30. C blueprint for drastic CO2 cut. http://www.abtn.co.uk/news/2915576-ec-outlines-blueprintdrastic-co2-cut 31. Tödliche Wetterfallen. Klima Magazin Hamburg. No. 04/2009. July/August, pp 68–71. ISSN: 1866-9247. http://www.klima-magazin.de 32. When Lightning Strikes. http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story_channel.jsp?channel= bca&id=news/thundr0310p01.xml 33. What happens when an airplane is struck by lightning? Ask a Flight I. Instructor. http://www. askacfi.com/914/what-happens-when-aircraft-struck-by-lightning.htm 34. Maritime transport and CO2 emissions. http://www.oecdobserver.org/news/fullstory.php/aid/ 2600/Sea_fairer:_Maritime_transport_and_CO2_emissions.html 35. UNFCCC must include international aviation and shipping emissions in measures on climate change. [email protected] 36. Protocol 1A3d: CO2, N20, and CH4 from inland shipping. http://www.broeikasgassen.nl/ documents/1A3d_CO2_CH4_N2O_inland_shipping_NIR2011.pdf

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37. The environmental impacts of increased international maritime shipping—past trends and future perspectives. http://www.oecd.org/dataoecd/32/43/41750201.pdf 38. Marine Engine. IMO Tier I, Programme 2009. http://www.doosan.com/doosanengine/ attach.files/cp.pdf/Doosan-MAN01.pdf 39. Adamkiewitz A, Kolwzan K, Marine power plant pollutant emissions. http://www.docstoc. com/docs/22791237/1-MARINE-VESSEL-MISSIONS 40. Tankers. http://www.scribd.com/doc/37400636/Tankers 41. Aframax Tanker saves 283 MT fuel oil, ($82,000) in single voyage. http://www.network. tankeroperator.com/profiles/blogs/aframax-tanker-saves-283-mt 42. ACEA agreement. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/ACEA_agreement 43. Aircraft and Composite Recycling. http://www.boeingsuppliers.com/environmental/TechNotes/ TNdec07.pdf 44. World Shipping Council (2009) The liner shipping industry and carbon emission policy. Sept 2009. http://www.apl.com/environment/documents/20091006_Emissions_Policy.pdf

Chapter 16

Transportation Costs

Developments in transportation intensify effectivity of individual sectors of the economy. Beside freight transport, transportation has a high impact on labor mobility which is directly embedded in economic conditions not only in the private but also in the enterprising sphere. On the other side, economic development depends on engineering sciences, because technology forms the frame conditions of global transportation.

16.1 Tendencies of Fuel Supply The transportation especially strictly depends on production conditions of the oil industry. Strategy in fuel production has to be considered in transportation planning [1]. Since 1980, the discrepancy between oil production and new discoveries has increased (see Fig. 16.1). The linear extrapolation of the recent fuel consumption of approximately 4,700 9 106 t i.e., 10,362 9 109 lb per year predicts an increase to approximately 5,000 9 106–6,000 9 106 t i.e., 11,023 9 109–13,228 9 109 lb per year in world oil consumption in the next years. This tendency should lead to the consumption of the half of all oil reserves on the Earth by 2030. The total CO2 emissions would probably grow from the current level of 14,000 9 106–16,000 9 106 t i.e., 30,867 9 109–35,276 9 109 CO2 per year to approximately 25,000 9 106– 30,000 9 106 t i.e., 55,119 9 109–66,143 9 109 lb per year in 2030 [2].

16.2 Prices of Fuels The costs of fuels are very unevenly distributed on the Earth (see Fig. 16.2). Unbraked development would require lower fossil fuel prices on the world [3]. Apart from single processes, the global growing tendencies in fuel price level are

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_16,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

245

246

16 Transportation Costs

6

-1

oil [10 barrel*day ]

110 100 90

need of mineral oil

80

production of mineral oil

70 60 50 40 2005

2010

2015

2020

2025

2030

year

Fig. 16.1 Discrepancy between oil production and new discoveries

180

140

-1

price [cent*litre ]

160

120 100 80 60 40

Venezuela

Saudi Arabia

Algeria

China

USA

Russia

India

South Africa

Canada

Australia

Brasil

Singapore

Spain

France

Germany

0

Norway

20

Fig. 16.2 Price of petrol in 2010

very similar. The example of Germany shows the typical changes in the price of fuel in the last decades (see Fig. 16.3). An acceptable petrol reduction can be achieved by using pure biogenic fuels of the first generation, such as alcohols and FAME, but at a substantially higher cost level than consuming conventional fuels (see Fig. 16.4) [4]. Second-generation biogenic fuels promise to be cheaper but the technology is still under development and only a few countries such as Brazil use them. The amount of fuel that can be produced is limited by the amount of crops that can be grown. Biogenic fuels can be produced at lower prices in the future. In the long term, the most economic solution is the production of BTL, but it requires new innovations and a high level of research. On the other side, excessive use of biogenic fuels could endanger the world’s agricultural areas because of the increasing use of pesticides and artificial fertilizers on industrial produced monocultures.

16.3

Prices of Measurement Technology

247

price [Euro*litre-1]

1.6 1.2 0.8 0.4 0 1990

petrol 1992

1994

1996

1998

2000

2002

2004

diesel 2006

2008

2010

year

Fig. 16.3 Tendencies of fuel prices in Germany

800

fuel costs [%]

600 400 200 0 petrol

diesel

LPG

CNG alcohols CTL

FAME

BTL H 2 (NG) H2 (wind)

kind of fuels Fig. 16.4 Retail costs of fuels in 2010

16.3 Prices of Measurement Technology Scientific measuring instruments for analyzing engine’s emissions which are needed for development and Type approval in transportation, cost more than €100,000–150,000 or US $143,000–214,500 at the same level [5]. Laser remote sensing, depending on the type, costs on average between €50,000 and 100,000 or US $71,500 and 143,000 [6]. The measurement devices for Type approval are the same for vehicles, airplanes, and ships: • Chemo Luminescence Detector for NOx, i.e., the sum of NO and NO2; • Flame Ionization Detector for HC; and • Fourier Transformation Infra Red device for CO and CO2. Sensors for temperature, pressure, and oxygen concentrations in exhaust gas cost only one to two dozen Euros or US Dollars, because mass production lowers their cost. It is expected that the development of selective and durable OBM sensors for the measurement of exhaust gases is more expensive and the process requires a longer time interval.

248

16 Transportation Costs

Table 16.1 Technical parameters and list price of cars Category Parameter

Low classa Mid class Upper classb Hybridc Gas powered card

Size l (in3)

Performance kW (HP)

Price € (US $)

\1.4 (\85.4) 1.4–3.6 (85.4–219.7) [3.6 ([219.7) 1.5 (91.5) 1.4–3.6 (85.4–219.7)

80–110 (109–150) 110–130 (150–180) 220 (299) 84 (114) 96–111 (131–151)

15,000–16,000 (21,450–22,880) 23,000–27,000 (32,890–38,610) 70,000–76,000 (100,100–108,680) 22,000–27,000 (31,460–38,610) 20,000–25,000 (28,600–35,750)

147–221g (200–301) 240–250h (326–340)

80,000–90,000 (114,000–128,000) 200,000–220,000 (286,000–314,000)

Electric car Mid classe Top classf a

Convertible with special equipment costs €20,000–25,000, i.e., US $28,600–35,750 V6 design of engine c Electric motor performance 10 kW (13.6 HP) d Maximum range 350–380 km (217.5–236.2 mi), reserve gasoline tank’s volume 12–14 l (2.64– 3.07 gal (UK) or 3.17–3.70 gal (US)), range 150 km (93.15 mi), top speed with high turbo charging 200 km h-1 (124.3 mi h-1 ) e Acceleration from 0 to 100 km h-1 (from 0 to 62.15 mi h-1 ) in 4 s. The lithium–ion battery costs €15,000–20,000, i.e., US $21,450–28,600 f Outside temperature of 20C (68F) g, h Specific experimental models b

16.4 Costs in Road Mobility When automobiles were first produced they had large engines with low rpm and heavy construction with long durability and an extremely high price. Later mass production led to low prices of cars and all social classes could buy them. In 1957, a Fiat Nouva 500 cost DM 2,650, in 1970 a 500 Luxus cost DM 3,850, and currently the new Fiat 500 costs €11,300 [7]. The price situation of cars, depending on size, performance, and special equipment is presented in Table 16.1 [8]. Electric cars will only sell after the battery price drops to about €5,000, i.e., US $7,150. Some manufacturers are planning to rent rather than sell future electric cars or the battery to avoid the high cost of purchasing one [9]. The cost of automobile transportation, particularly fuel cost, will generally increase in the future (see Fig. 16.5).

16.4

Costs in Road Mobility

249

300 250

price of maintenance price of fuel purchase price

change [%]

200 150 100 50 0 1990

2000

2010

2020

2030

year Fig. 16.5 Predictions of road mobility prices

16.4.1 Improvements in Low-Cost Car Models Small, cheap, and fuel-efficient vehicles are advancing fast. Low-cost models have become a new market segment. The upper financial limit of purchase depends on personal incomes in each region [10]. Retrofitting fossil fuel engines with natural gas combustion adds on average €280–300, i.e., US $300–329 to the list price of a car with a spark ignition engine and adds €680–900, i.e. US $972–1,287 to the list price of a car with a diesel engine. Higher purchase prices usually amortize after 2–4 years. The surcharge depends on the price of fossil and gas fuel [11].

16.4.2 Safety and Health Vehicles influence health by noise, exhaust gas and particle emissions, and accidents. However, the risk of traffic accidents is usually lower than the risk of an accident in the home. In highly developed countries, traffic is increasing while fatal accidents are decreasing. In developing countries, most accidents are caused by poor planning, inadequate design, old infrastructure, and lack of driver training. Efficient emergency services are needed to reduce the severity of accidents [12]. WHO estimates that approximately 1.3 million people are killed and more than 50 million people are injured in accidents each year. Transportation safety is very problematic in some developing countries with more than seven fatalities per 1,00 thousand million km, i.e., 4.35 fatalities per thousand million mi. Countries which

250

16 Transportation Costs 8.0

fatalities per 109 travelling km

HL 6.0

level education HL

4.0

2.0

0 2000

2005

2010

2015

2020

year HL: High Losses (Developing countries) LL: Low Losses (Scandinavian countries)

Fig. 16.6 Current and predicted traffic fatalities in the world

have the best infrastructure, present the highest safety on roads with 3.5 fatalities per thousand million km, i.e., 2.17 fatalities per thousand million mi (see Fig. 16.6). Lead emissions have been successfully reduced. Calculations show a positive trend, thanks to the increasing introduction of lead-free fuels. The forecast is less favorable for other pollutants because the total number of cars is increasing and emission controls which are technically possible have not been universally adopted. Outside Europe and Japan, people do not treat noise as a health risk despite the increasing standard of living. One of possible ways is the increasing intelligency of road vehicles. Selfdiagnosis provides visible results on-board. Visualization of dynamic driving character in driving schools can contribute to an improvement in driving behavior and to a long-term improvement in traffic safety.

16.4.3 Environment and Climate Protection Reducing fuel consumption limits climate change. Efficient cars are important for saving energy. They can reduce the dependence on oil imports and its associated geopolitical risks [13]. The estimation of the speed of climate change over time is the biggest unsolved problem of climate predictions. Newest environmental conceptions require CO2 limits for new cars at 120 g km-1, i.e., 4.23 oz km-1 or 6.81 oz mi-1 by 2012, 80 g km-1, i.e., 2.82 oz km-1 or 4.54 oz mi-1 by 2020 and 60 g km-1, i.e., 2.12 oz km-1 or 3.408 oz mi-1 by 2025. Further requirements are penalties of €150, i.e., US $214.5 for each surplus 1 g km-1, i.e., 35.3 9 10-3 oz km-1

16.4

Costs in Road Mobility

251

or 56.8 9 10-3 oz mi-1 for additional CO2 emissions, with no exceptions for small-volume car manufacturers and no credits or incentives for cars that can run only on mixtures of fossil and biogenic fuels, or CNG or LPG without absolute decreasing SFC [14].

16.5 Costs in Aviation Airplane operating costs are a crucial sales argument for the airlines besides safety, comfort, and environmental friendliness. This economic calculation includes direct, indirect, and total operating costs.

16.5.1 Development Phases Modern airliners are designed for a life span of approximately 20 years and 60,000 Flight Cycles, i.e., landings [15]. The sequence of development of airplanes can be divided into phases of research and construction, preparation, and mass production. These main stages have several smaller phases, e.g., technical preproject to define concept, building a prototype, carrying out a wind tunnel test, defining the preconstruction, working out of details of construction and of production documents, constructing mock ups, system trials, structural test plans, realizing flight tests for production, customized changes, technical improvements, and further developments (see Fig. 16.7). Airplanes are produced according to their production documents and manufacturing processes. Mass production comes after completion of the mock-up phase.

16.5.2 Purchase Price At first, the purchase price depends on production, i.e., on labor and equipment costs; see Table 16.2. Turboprop engine-driven short distance airplanes are very economic. The range is very broad, and reaches up to €270 million, i.e., US $307 million. Table 16.3 shows the main technical data and price of modern airliners from the manufacturer Embraer [26].

16.5.3 Operating Costs The Direct Operation Cost (DOC) is determined by the technical data of the airplane. DOC can be divided into fuel costs (28.4%), costs of cockpit, and cabin

252

16 Transportation Costs

Fig. 16.7 Phases of the development of an airplane prototype

personnel (19.8%), landing and navigation fees for the airport and air traffic control which correspond directly to the weight (15.6%), the maintenance costs of the aircraft (8.8%) and of the engine (2.7%), the amortization (16.7%), the financing costs (7.0%), and the insurance costs (1.0%). The last three parameters directly depend upon the airplane’s price [28]. The DOC of a medium range, single-aisle airplane can be reduced up to 0.40% by a 1% reduction in the SFC, up to 0.30% by 1% reduction in drag, up to 0.20% by 1% reduction in weight, and up to 0.25% by 1% reduction in investigations during development and production [29]. Experience shows that reducing the cockpit crew from 3 to 2 men saved approximately 4% of the DOC. Further crew reductions are planned for freight transportation. In civil aviation, two pilots will continue to remain in the cockpit in the future. Unmanned airplanes, so-called drones has become more important not only in the military but also in the civil aviation for research, economy and ecology. All new technologies in aviation aim to decrease the direct operating costs. Using rebuilt or new jet engines with propfans is one of the best ways to decrease SFC. A propfan is a modified turbofan engine with the fan placed outside the engine nacelle and sitting on the same axle as the fan blades of a turbofan. It is also known as Ultra High Bypass engine which requires an open rotor jet engine with contra-rotating blades. The design is intended to offer the speed and the performance of a turbofan, with the fuel economy of a turboprop [30].

16.5

Costs in Aviation

Table 16.2 Price list of airplanes Category

Small turboprop airplanesa Smaller middle range airplanec

Larger middle range airplane

VLA

Military transporterh Military fighter

253

Parameter Type

Price 106 € (106 US $)

Q 200–Q 400b Boeing 737-600 Embraer 195/CS 100 Sukhoi Superjet 100d Boeing 737-800 Boeing 737-900ER Irkut MS-21e A 380 Boeing 787-8 (Dreamliner)g Boeing 787-3 Boeing 787-9 C-130J Sukhoi Su-30i F-16j Dassault Mirage 2000k

9.1–18.9 (13.0–27.0) 39.8 (56.9) 41.7–52.4 (59.6–74.9) 17.5–18.1 (23–25) 56.6 (80.8) 60.0 (85.8) 24.5 (35.0) 262.4 (375.3)f 109.8–116.8 (157–167) 105.9 (151.5) 152.4 (218) 50–65 (71.5–92.9) 24.5–28.0 (35–40) 10.2–13.2 (14.6–18.8) 16.1 (23.0)

a

Bombardier [16] Stretched version of Q 400 in preparation c Distance of flight 4,000–5,000 km (2,160–2,670 nmi) [17] d Russian airplane, expected to be introduced in 2012. Length 26–29 m (85–95 ft), seating capacity 78–103 [18] e Russian airplane, expected to be introduced in 2014. The seating capacity is 150–230, 15% structural weight efficiency advantages, 20% lower operating costs and 15% lower fuel consumption than the Airbus and Boeing aircraft in the same class, e.g., A320 [19] f Depending on installed equipment [20] g First whole composite airplane [21] h Twin-engine, two-seat i Russian fighter [22] j Light weight, for all weather, multirole fighter, sold more than 4,000 pieces on the world, price 1998 [23] k Turbojet driven [24, 25] b

A propfan delivers 35% better SFC than contemporary turbofans, but it is very noisy. Therefore, application requires further passive and active noise protection measures which must also be included in the cost calculation. Military transporters use propfans because of their low fuel consumption and high durability.

16.6 Costs in Shipping A ship’s prices depend on its complexity, i.e., on the propulsion, the engine, and the auxiliary equipment, etc. Technology increasingly defines the costs of ships, not only in the military but also in the civil shipping too (see Table 16.4).

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Table 16.3 Technical parameters and list of prices of C Series of Embraer Parameters C Series data

Passengers Engine Takeoff thrust per engine kN (pdl) Length m (ft) Height m (ft) Wing span m (ft) Empty weight kg (lb) Takeoff weight kg (lb) Max. landing weight kg (lbs) Max. payload kg (lb) Takeoff distance ISAa, SLb, MTOWc (m) (ft) Landing distance ISA, SL, MTOW m (ft) Max. cruising speed Max. cruising altitude m (ft) Max. range km (nmi) List price a b c d

CS100/CS100 ER

CS300/CS100 ER XT equals ‘‘Extra thrust’’

Embraer 195 standard/advanced range

100–125 2 Pratt & Whitney PW1524G 93.4 (675,343)

120–145 2 Pratt & Whitney PW1524G 93.4 (675,343) XT:: 103.6 (7,50,725 pdl) 38.0 (124.6) 11.5 (37.7) 35.1 (115.1) 35,154 (77,431) 59,557/63,095 (131,183/138,975) 54,431 (119,892) 16,556 (36,467) 1,872/1,890 (6,138/6,197) XT: 1,661 (5,446) 1,521 (4,987) Mach 0.82 12,497 (40,973) 4,074/5,463 (2,200/2,950) €36.4 million US $51.9 million

106–122 2 GE aviation CF34-10E 82.21 (5,94,432)

34.8 (114.1) 11.5 (37.7) 35.1 (115.1) 33,340 (73,436) 54,749/57,969 (120,722/127,822) 49,895 (109,901) 13,971 (30,773) 1,509 (4,947) 1,423 (4,666) Mach 0.82 12,497 (40,973) 4,074/5,463 (2,200/2,950) €36.7 million US $52.4 million

38.65 (126.72) 10.55 (34.6) 28.72 (94.1) 28,950/28,850 (63,767/63,546) 45,800/45,000 (100,881/99,119) 45,800/45,000 (100,881/99,119) 13,650 (30,067) 2,179 (7,144) 1,282 (4,203) Mach 0.82 12,495d (40,967) 4,077 (2,201) €36.3 million US $41.7 million

ISA international standard atmosphere SL sea level, i.e., under IFR when flight altitude is above 912 m (3,000 ft) MTOW maximum takeoff weight [27] Max. allowed altitude

About 40% of all merchant ships are bulk carriers. They range in size from single hold mini-bulker to large bulk ships with DWT 365,000 t (359,252 ltn, i.e., 804 9 106 lb) [44]. The most expensive parts of ships are the embedded electronic modules, especially in navy ships. Therefore, submarines and aircraft carriers are the most expensive ships on the world.

16.6

Costs in Shipping

255

16.6.1 Improved Efficiency The costs of operation per kilometer depend on the utilization of the capacity of a ship. In public transportation, such as ferries, fuel consumption and emissions could be reduced if it were possible to cancel trips that were under capacity. This measure could increase flexibility of ship owners in planning routes but reduce passengers’ convenience. In similar cases, airlines substitute smaller airplanes for larger ones [45].

16.6.2 Early Scrapping New ships are more efficient than old vessels. The life cycle of ships is long. There are a lot of vessels, which consume more fuel and emit more pollutants and noise than newer types. Replacing old ships with new efficient models reduces fuel consumption and emissions. However, the early scrapping of ships is a very complex decision involving a variety of factors such as expected fuel prices, the market forecast, the liquidity of the shipping company, and the expected capital return [46].

16.6.3 Costs and Tendencies of Natural Gas Application as a Marine Fuel According to SOLAS, products of natural gas or biogenic gases are not allowed to be used on ship as fuels because the flammability limit is below 608C (1408F). Applications with gases without a special permission are not allowed because special tanks are needed for liquified or compressed gas. Although LNG is currently a cheap energy source, the drawback is that it needs high energy amounts to be liquid and to be safely stored on-board in the ship. CNG needs twice the tank volume than LNG. The main reasons are – The ship cannot travel far enough on one pressure-tank load; and – The supply infrastructure is not sufficient. Therefore, the best possibility to start using gas would be on ferries or vessels with short voyages according to experiences in Norway. In inland shipping, the use of LNG will rapidly gain high importance because of less pollution [47]. On sea, the introduction of gases as fuel is much more difficult, because of the small energy density of gaseous fuels. Ships have to carry a large amount of CNG to save the required performance [48]. LPG is heavier and less flammable than methane and burns at higher temperatures than CNG and LNG. The specific density higher than air requires special safety measures on ships. Additionally, LPG is more expensive and available in smaller volumes than CNG and LNG [49].

256 Table 16.4 List price of ships Category

Small general cargo shipa Large bulk carrierb Modern handy size bulk carrierc Container shipd Small chemical and LPG tankere Compressed Natural Gas (LNG) carrierf Raw oil and chemical tankerg

16 Transportation Costs

Parameter DWT t (lb)

Price 106 (€) 106 (US $)

5,000–10,000 ((11,025–22,050) 9 103) 150,000–180,000 ((330,750–396,900) 9 103) 80,000–100,000 ((176,400–220,500) 9 103) 1,000 TEU–14,501 TEU

10–20 (14.3–28.6) 20–40 (28.6–57.2) 30 (42.9) 10–145 (7.0–102.4) 20–125 (28.6–179) 200 (286) 80–100 (114–143) 10–20 (14.3–28.6) 450–750 (644–1,073) 2,308 (3,300) 350–4,895 (500–7,000) 699–8,042 (1,000–11,500)

11,000–15,000 ((24,255–33,075) 9 103) 30,000–36,000 ((66,150–79,380) 9 103) 250,000–300,000 ((551,250–661,500) 9 103)

Small passenger shiph Highest class of cruise shipsi Navy distroyerj

14,564 ((32,114) 9 103)

Submarinek Aircraft carrierl a

100,000 (220,462) and over

LOA 70–120 m (230–393 ft), beam 15–20 m (49.2–65.6 ft), draft 6–9 m (19.7–29.5 ft) [31] LOA 250–280 m (820–918 ft), beam 35–45 m (115–148 ft), draft 15–18 m (49.2–59.0 ft) [32] c With double side bulk, LOA 120–130 m (393–426 ft), beam 15–20 m (49.2–65.6 ft), cost is depending on equipment [33] d Very variable size from small container ship to Ultra Large Container Vessel (Emma Maersk) [34] e LPG tanker, not only for propane and butane, but for chemicals, such as chlorine, ethylene, methyl bromide, etc. [35] f GT 40,000–48,000 t (88.2 9 106 –105.8 9 106 lb), NT 10,000–15,000 t (22.1 9 106 – 33.1 9 106 lb), capacity 50,000–70,000 m3 (1,766 9 103 –2,472 9 103 ft3 ), engine power 6,000–8,000 kW (8,046–10,729 HP or 20.5 9 106 –27.3 9 106 BTU h-1 ) [36] g GT 130,000–160,000 t (286.3 9 106 –352.4 9 106 lb), LOA 250–330 m (820–1,082 ft), breadth 50–60 m (164–197 ft), depth 25–30 m (82.0–98.4 ft), draft 15–21 m (49.2–68.9 ft) [37, 38] h At first in coastal navigation [39] i QM2 [40] j Zumwalt class, in series 2013, LOA 180 m (590 ft), breadth 24.6 m (80.7 ft), draft 8.4 m (27.5 ft), propulsion 78,000 kW (105,000 HP or 266.2 9 106 BTU h-1 ), speed 30 kn (56 km h-1 or 35 mph) [41] k Costs are depending on country of production, type, and equipment [42] l Costs are depending on country of production, type, and equipment [43] b

16.6

Costs in Shipping

257

GTL and biogenic fuels are energy carriers of the future. The production process of GTL consumes 40% of the energy contained in GTL. Biogenic fuels can gain a role in in-city ferry routes or other short sea trades [50]. In the 70s and 80s, scientists expected, that hydrogen will gain a leading role in the economy and ecology. However, currently, the dominant technology is steam reforming or hydrocracking. Hydrolization, a specific way of electrolysis means only a small portion of H2 production. On the other side, hydrogen requires approximately six times the space of LNG. The fight and safe storage of H2 on ships is yet a not solved problem.

16.7 Cost Saving in Transportation Fuel price has become the most decisive factor in transportation. Unleaded gasoline costs on average €1.469, i.e., US $2.1 in the EU. The span ranges from €1.212/l up to €1.662/l. The price of diesel has been intensively increased last years. Recent price ranges between €1.205/l and €1.667/l. The average is €1.180/l [51]. LPG has a ca. 60–70% lower price level. It costs approximately €0.8/l. The span ranges from €0.578/l up to €1.229/l. CNG has the same specific price level than LPG when the heating value per m3 or cu ft is converted to liter [52].

16.7.1 Vehicle Technology Road transportation consumed approximately (1,290–1,350) 9 106 t y-1 ((2,841.4–2,973.6) 9 109 lb y-1) of gasoline and (850–880) 9 106 t ((1,872– 1,938) 9 109 lb) diesel fuel in 2009–2010. Until recently, most cars used spark ignition engines which burn gasoline; however, currently an increasing number of cars are using self-ignition engines which burn diesel fuel [53]. There is a high potential for reduction in fuel consumption and emissions. Experience shows that a 10% reduction in weight, a 10% reduction in air resistance, and a 10% decrease in rolling resistance in a mid-sized car leads to about a 6, 3, and 2% reduction in fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions.

16.7.2 Aviation Technology World aviation Jet A fuel consumption is approximately (258–270) 9 106 t y-1 [(568.3–594.7) 9 109 lb y-1] and kerosene consumption is about (68–70) 9 106 t y-1 [(149.8–154.2) 9 109 lb y-1] according to the statistics from 2009 to 2010 [54]. Average passenger airplanes use approximately 4.5 l fuel (100 passenger-km)-1 or 1.2 MJ (passenger-km-1), i.e., 52.3 passenger-mpg (US) and 62.8 passenger-mpg

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(UK). The newest very large airliners consume\3.0 l (100 km and passenger)-1 of fuel, i.e., 78.4 passenger-mpg (US) and 94.1 passenger-mpg (UK) because they fly at higher altitudes, i.e., above 40,000 ft (12,200 m) than conventional jet airplanes. Similar to vehicle technology, a 10% reduction in the weight of airplanes leads to about a 7.5% and a 10% reduction in air resistance leads to a 4–5% reduction of fuel consumption. Aviation technology is moving toward the intensive decreasing fuel consumption and pollutions. However, changes in the combustion processes are part of the natural aging of jet engines. Measurement and storage of the data of combustion products can provide precise information about the burning quality and help to find the right balance between the individual combustion chambers of the airplane.

16.7.3 Ship Technology Transportation by water for large quantities of non-perishable goods is much cheaper than road or air transportation. World sea and inland navigation consumed approximately (360–370) 9 106 t y-1 ((793.0–815.0) 9 109 lb y-1) of heavy marine fuel oils in 2009–2010, which are specially refined types of petroleum, also referred to as bunker fuels [55]. Considering the increasing price of HFO fuel (€1.73 or US $2.471 per gallon, i.e., €0.457 or US $0.653/l for end-users) in 2011, the financial advantages of 1– 2% fuel saving could amount to €1.37–2.74 thousand million or US $1.96–3.92 thousand million per year [55].

16.8 Summary and Recommendations: Costs in Road Transport, Aviation, and Maritime Shipping A ‘‘life cycle’’ is the time interval from the beginning of the development to the end of the service life of all transportation means. It is different for road vehicles, airplanes, and ships. Life cycle assessment considers the following time intervals: • Technology development, preliminary designation, and Type approval and Type certification of road vehicles takes 3–5 years, of aircraft and of ships 5–10 years; • Production run of road vehicles takes 10–15 years, of aircraft and ships 15–20; and • Operation of road vehicles takes 15–20 years, airplanes and ships 25–30 years. The total cost of a ship, an airplane, and a road vehicle is influenced by a chain of investments and events during the whole life cycle. The costs of development, Type approval and certification procedures have to be compensated with incomes during they service life.

16.8

Summary and Recommendations

259

16.8.1 Costs in Road Transport The cost of car travel is rapidly increasing worldwide because of the rising cost of fuels. To increase private mobility for all social classes, manufacturers have built more and more fuel-efficient cars in the last decade. The cheapest new cars in the world cost about €2,000, i.e., US $2,859. They are mainly accepted in developing countries. The future belongs to new technologies and new models, but only large financial investments can support the introduction of new technology, such as electric cars and new energy storage systems. Combustion engines will dominate development and will have cost advantages for the next few decades. Electric transport will remain at a relatively high cost level, including development, production, and daily operation.

16.8.2 Costs in Aviation The Total Operation Cost (TOC) in air transportation is the sum of the Direct Operating Cost (DOC) and the Indirect Operating Cost (IOC), which are usually in a 100:80 ratio. The direct operating cost can be reduced up to 4% by using high bypass ratios in turbofan jet engines. Using propfan engines saves up to 5%: The construction of a new type airplane with traditional ‘‘heavy’’ materials saves up to 1%, a new type with ‘‘light’’ alloys up to 2%, and with plastic materials up to 4%. The best costs saving, up to 12% of DOC would be from using ‘‘super light’’ composite materials with nano tubes as filling in the construction and propfan jet engines in the propulsion system. Rebuilding older jet engines in relatively new airplanes with propfan technology can save up to 10%. IOC is reservation, sales and advertising (34% of IOC), administration and training (14%), fuel (35%), and dispatching (17%). New technologies in aviation are expensive. High wing ratio and smooth, light fuselage construction need new innovations, inventions, and high investment over a long time. These measures have been effectively increased lift and decreased drag of new airplanes, lower fuel consumption, and TOC in the last decades. However, for economic reasons, relatively simple optimizations are in the most cases more practical, that the total reconstruction of the aeroplane. Relatively simple measures are • • • • •

Improvement of the aerodynamics of older airplanes; Use of winglets; Application of new aerodynamically optimized painting on the surface; Realize of weight reduction; and Introduction of new interiors.

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16 Transportation Costs

16.8.3 Costs in Maritime Shipping The costs per ton or nautical mile are the lowest in maritime shipping. Larger ships have lower costs. That is why ships in both ocean and inland navigation are becoming larger. The costs of ships similar to airplane’s cost structure can be divided into TOC, DOC, and IOC. The TOC depends on type, construction, performance, and on inbuilt electronic equipment. Technical measures to decrease TOC usually improve the hydrodynamics and aerodynamics of ships in water and in the air and improve engine, propulsion, and construction. Effective inspection and maintenance generally save fuel and costs. Port infrastructure and connection of ports to their hinterland with rail and road networks also influence shipping costs. Considering developing fuel prices and CO2 taxes, fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions must be lowered in the future. Improving maneuvering and approaching routes near harbors and reducing waiting times at harbors also increase economy. Expected, that in the future, harbor fees will be partly based on exhaust gas emissions. Not only CO2 emitted by combustion, but also hydrocarbons belong to GHG. Optimal bunkering and refueling processes are also very important. Other climate protecting measures come from using shore power in harbors for energy and cooling. This is the ‘‘green’’ power source from land produced by electric utility companies instead of the ship’s engines. The problem is very similar to aviation. Airplanes must be supplied by GPU, a specific type of ‘‘shore power’’, at airports. In the future, shore power can be generated by renewable energy sources such as wind, solar, biomass, or geothermal energy, depending on the local geography and infrastructure. However, the price of renewable energy for this type of energy generation is still high. Common taxation and promotion of shore power technology produced by renewable energy is in development.

References 1. Running Dry. The Economist. http://www.economist.com/blogs/dailychart/2011/06/oilproduction-and-consumption 2. Crude oil. Uncertainty about future oil supply makes it important to develop a strategy for addressing a peak and decline in oil production. GAO, Feb 2007. http://www.gao.gov/ new.items/d07283.pdf 3. Benzin ist in Europa am teuersten. ADAC Motorwelt. No. 8/2008, pp 8. http://www.adac.de 4. Renewable Energy as a Hedge against Fuel Price Fluctuation. http://www.cec.org/Storage/62/ 5461_QA06.11-RE%20Hedge_en.pdf 5. Chemoluminescence Measurement of NO/NOx in Gas-Analysis. http://www.k2bw.com/ chemiluminescence.htm

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6. Portable laser gas detection systems. http://www.austdynatech.com.au/pages/resources/lasergas-detection-systems.php 7. 100 Sparsamere Autos: Ein Gewinn für Verbraucher und Volkswirtschaft. UBA Dessau. http://www.umweltbundesamt.de/verkehr/mobil/downloads/sprit_sparen.pdf 8. Economics of automobile usage. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Economics_of_automobile_usage 9. The True Costs of Powering an Electric Car. Focus on Low Kilowatt-Hours, Not Cost Per Gallon. http://www.edmunds.com/fuel-economy/the-true-cost-of-powering-an-electric-car.html 10. A nano car in every driveway? How to succeed in the ultra-low-cost car market! http:// www.atkearney.com/index.php/Publications/a-nano-car-in-every-driveway.html 11. Spekulation (Wirtschaft). http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spekulation_(Wirtschaft) 12. World report on road traffic injury prevention. http://www.who.int/violence_injury_prevention/ publications/road_traffic/world_report/intro.pdf 13. SMP Sustainable Transport Project of the WBCSD World Business Council for Sustainable Development 2004. http://www.wbcsd.org/work-program/sector-projects/mobility/overview.aspx 14. Rebates and penalties for new, low and high CO2 emissions vehicles. http:// www.france.angloinfo.com/transport/vehicle-ownership/rebates-penalties/ 15. What determines an airplaneairplane’s lifespan? http://www.airspacemag.com/need-to-know/ NEED-lifecycles.html 16. Bombardier Dash 8. http://en.wikipedia/wiki/Bombardier_Dash_8 17. Boeing, commercial airplanes. Jet prices, http://www.boeing.com/commercial/wiki/index.html 18. Sukhoi Superjet 100. http://en.wikipedia.org./wiki/Sukhoi_Superjet_100 19. Irkut MS-21. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MS-21 20. Airbus A380. http://en/wikipedia.org/wiki/Airbus_A380 21. Boeing 787 Dreamliner. http://en/wikipedia.org/wiki/Boeing_787_Dreamlines 22. Sukhoi Su-30. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sukhoi_Su-30 23. General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon. http://en.wikipedia/org/wiki/General _Dynamics… 24. Dassault Mirage F1. http://en.wikipedea.org/wiki/Dassault_Mirage, F1 25. Dassault Mirage 2000. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dassault_Mirage_2... 26. Embraer. For the Journey. http://www.embraer.com/en-US/Pages/Home.aspx 27. Maximum Take off Weight. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maximum_take-off… 28. Von Papier zu Metall. Erste Tests für die C-Serien beginnen. Flugrevue, No. 6/2009. June, pp 10–11. ISSN 0015-4547. http://www.flugrevue.de 29. Innovative Cooperative Actions of R&D in EUROCONTROL Programme CARE INO III. Dynamic Cost Indexing. Technical Discussion Document 9.0. Aircraft maintenance—marginal delay costs. http://www.eurocontrol.int/eec/gallery/content/public/documents/projects/CARE/ CARE_INO_III/DCI_TDD9-0_Airline_maintenance_marginal_delay_costs.pdf 30. What determines an airplaneairplane’s lifespan? http://www.airspacemag.com/need-to-know/ NEED-lifecycles.html 31. Cargo-ship. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cargo_ship 32. Sandwich plate system. http://www.digplanet.com/wiki/Sandwich_plate_system 33. Bulk carrier. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bulk_carrier 34. What is the cost of an ocean going container shipcontainer ship? http://www.answers.yahoo.com/ question/index?qid=20090118185814AAsUvcb 35. What is LPG carrier? http://en.wiki.answers.com/Q/What_is_lpg_carrier 36. LNG carrier. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LNG_carrier 37. Panamax. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panamax 38. TI Class Supertanker. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ti_class_supertanker 39. 120 Pax Small Cruise Ship Case Study (Private Entity) Draft—Jun 30, 2008. http://www. access-board.gov/pvaac/casestudy-120pax-small-cruise-ship.htm 40. RMS Queen Mary 2. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/RMS_Queen_Mary_2 41. Seawolf class submarine. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Seawolf_class_submarine 42. SSN-21 Seawolf-class. http://www.globalsecurity.org/military/systems/ship/ssn-21.htm 43. Queen Elizabeth class aircraft carrier. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen_Elizabeth_ class_aircraft_carrier

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44. Cargo. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freight 45. Bericht zur Lage der maritimen Wirtschaft. Wirtschaftsdaten. Maritimes Jahrbuch. Schleswig-Holstein 2009/2010, pp 93–106. ISSN: 3-937105-16-6. A ? 1 Verlag Hamburg 46. Transportation planning. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transportation_planning 47. Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) as a transportation fuel. Consumer Energy Center. http:// www.consumerenergycenter.org/transportation/afvs/cng.html 48. World Liquefied Petroleum Gases Consumption by Year. http://www.indexmundi.com/ energy.aspx?product=lpg8graph=consumption 49. Liquefied Petroleum Gases Consumption—Petroleum—Energy Information Administration— Country Comparison. http://www.nationsencyclopedia.com/worldstats/EIA-consumptionliquified-gases.html 50. World Biodiesel Consumption by Year. http://www.indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?product= biodiesel8graph=consumption 51. Price of petroleum. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Price_of_oil 52. Europe’s Energy Portal. http://www.energy.eu 53. Petroleum & other liquids: U.S Energy Information Adminnistration. http://www.eia.gov/ petroleum/data.cfm 54. World kerosene consumption by year. http://www.indexmundi.com/energy.aspx?product= kerosene&graph=consumption 55. World distillate fuel oil consumption by year. http://www.indexmundi.com/energy.aspx? product=fuel-oil&graph=consumption

Chapter 17

Future Transportation Systems

Instead of a quick revolution, new technologies will slowly evolve in all sectors of transportation. However, customers worldwide need sustainable, high quality transport at a reasonable price [1]. Figure 17.1 shows the expectations regarding properties of new transportation systems. Change in road transportation, aviation, and ship navigation requires a high investment, a long time interval, and well-coordinated research activities worldwide to turn to sustainability. There are several possible paths what will be analyzed in next paragraphs.

17.1 Future Trends of Road Vehicle Technology Development of vehicle technology can be divided into: • Methods for short distance travel; and • Methods for long distance travel. One supposes that people will use electric vehicles for short distance travel. Cost-based predictions show that internal combustion engines will retain their leading position in the near future for both short- and long-distance transport. Although the price of petroleum products is rising worldwide, there will be an increasing number of single quality combustion engine cars especially in the lowand mid-size class; see Table 17.1 [2].

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_17,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

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264

17 Future Transportation Systems

wordwide social acceptability

sustainable production

high convenience perfect navigation and communication technology

low taxes simple inspection and cheap maintenance low procurement and operating costs, low fuel consumption

means of transportation

excellent design and comfort for recreation

high level of mechanical safety low pollutant and climate gas emissions

optimal load and power parameters easy disposal, totally recycling

efficient driving characteristics

Fig. 17.1 Expectations regarding properties of new load vehicles

17.1.1 Near Future Phases of Development It is predicted that new technologies will make it possible to decrease the prices of small cars to a reasonable level. Therefore cost-efficient and low performance four-seat family cars will be increasingly used in both highly developed and developing countries. The trends indicate the largest growth rate to be in freight transportation in all industrial sectors. The number of commercial vehicles is expected to increase by about 55% in the next 20 years.

17.1.1.1 Combined Combustion System Homogeneous and lean combustion is essential to further decreasing fuel consumption. The aim is to lower pollutant emissions in the engine not in the exhaust gas after treatment system because the use of an external system behind the engine can considerably increase the fuel consumption. Homogeneous burning aids both the spark and the self ignition engine in two ways: • In the spark ignition engine the burning process is similar to the advanced self ignition engine which operates with lean and homogeneous fuel mixture in the combustion chamber. This technique is called Controlled Auto Ignition (CAI); and • In the self ignition engine the burning process is similar to the advanced spark ignition engine which operates with high pressure fuel injection and high exhaust gas recirculation rates. This technique is called Homogenously Charged Compression Ignition (HCCI) [3]. With CAI and HCCI technology, particle emissions should be almost completely eliminated. The NO and NO2 emissions can be decreased by up to 4% and fuel consumption by up to 5% compared to a traditional self ignition engine which uses a conventional high pressure injection. A disadvantage is the higher emission rate of CO and HC at lower loads. Improvements can be attained by improving the

17.1

Future Trends of Road Vehicle Technology

265

Table 17.1 Prediction for car numbers up to 2050 Year 2020 2030 Number of cars 9 109

2040

2050

North America European Union European countries not in the EU Japan China Other Asian countries Other continents Total

0.41 0.32 0.20 0.13 0.22 0.21 0.27 1.76

0.43 0.35 0.24 0.15 0.24 0.24 0.29 1.94

0.34 0.27 0.11 0.09 0.09 0.11 0.19 1.20

0.39 0.29 0.18 0.10 0.20 0.18 0.24 1.58

shape of the combustion chamber, controlling the combustion, optimizing the injection, and using a regulated exhaust gas recirculating system.

17.1.1.2 Downsizing the Engine Downsizing the engine reduces the cubic capacity and the weight of the engine. However, the use of a very high number of revolutions can increase fuel consumption, especially in very small engines. Driving downsized engines in the best speed and gear ranges without excessive braking and accelerations saves a high amount of fuel and emissions [4]. It is possible to further downsize two- or three-cylinder engines with a Common Rail system which operate in all ranges of load at the most favorable number of revolutions especially in starting phases, which are highly sensitive against irregular running in small highly downsized engines. Electronic control will more and more support optimal operation in all ranges of number of revolutions and under all environmental conditions.

17.1.1.3 Turbocharging the Engine Originally, the charging of piston engines was developed for aircraft engines to compensate for the reduced air density at higher altitudes and to compensate for the resulting reduction in the engine’s performance. The turbocharger is a special device which forces more air and fuel into the engine. Unlike the compressor, which is driven by the crankshaft, the turbocharger is driven by the exhaust gas. Variable Turbine Geometry makes it possible to regulate the charger pressure to a large degree. It is primarily used in self ignition engines due to the maximal exhaust gas temperature of 700–800C (1,292–1,472F). The exhaust gas temperature of turbocharged spark ignition engines can reach a dangerously high temperature of 1,000C (1,832F) which is the usable limit of the advanced materials. These new materials make it possible to use high level of turbo charging as well in spark as in self ignition engines. Nowadays, for the

266

17 Future Transportation Systems compressor

compressor belt drive magnetic coupling

throttle charged air cooler

fresh air

air filter

crankshaft

flap

waste gate

ventilation turbo-fill

catalyst

exhaust gas

Fig. 17.2 Use of a positive displacement compressor in a four-cylinder spark ignition engine

required high temperature resistance in turbines constructors use nickel-based steel alloys [5]. Further devices are valves and pressure regulators for flexibly steering the charging air and the additional use of a compressor with an electric booster providing compressed air from the air reservoir.

17.1.1.4 Compressor Technology Turbochargers can be started only when the engine produces sufficient exhaust gas. The turbo lag in the first seconds of start is an unfavorable side effect of this technology. Positive displacement compressors improve the engine response without significant delays or turbo lags. They need a direct drive, which is taken off at the crankshaft; see Fig. 17.2. Positive displacement compressors usually run up to 2,000–2,400 rpm; the turbocharger starts at higher rpm. Future compressors will need high temperatureresistant materials, in the air intake as well, because they will operate with a higher number of revolutions and therefore at a higher charge air temperature. Monitoring emissions will become more important to achieve improved inspection and maintenance under extremely raw operation conditions [6]. Engine performance due to fully loaded and optimized compressor technology has increased by about 15% in the last years. However, the use of compressors also has disadvantages, such as the higher fuel consumption and the delayed start of the catalyst. The operation temperature of the exhaust gas after treatment system is higher compared to the turbocharged system and an early aging of the catalyst is possible. The combined use of a turbocharger and a compressor needs less space than two turbochargers usually placed above the engine, because the turbocharger and the compressor can be put between the cylinder heads. This construction has a lower temperature in the engine compartment compared to two turbochargers. A lower temperature with better aerodynamics partly compensates for the higher fuel consumption.

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267

injection pump EGR valve Common Rail piezoelectric injection

heat exchanger

2.2.1 self ignition engine with 4 in-line cylinders

exhaust port injector EGR cooler air filter

pressure diference sensor variable nozzle turbocharger Lambda sensor oxidation catalyst

NO X reduction catalyst DPNR catalyst gas temperature sensor

exhaust gas

Fig. 17.3 Common Rail and exhaust gas after treatment system in a self ignition engine

17.1.1.5 DPNR Technology Injecting pure fuel into the exhaust gas when congestion in the particle filter is detected increases the temperature and leads to the combustion of the particles as well as to the reduction to nitrogen oxides. A system that includes exhaust recirculation is called Diesel Particulate Nitrogen Reduction (DPNR) which eliminates the remaining CO, HC, NO, and NO2 emissions in downstream catalysts. In this technology, no additional urea is necessary in contrast to the conventional SCR technique [7]. Today, a common exhaust gas after treatment system consists of: • • • • • •

SCR catalyst; NOx storage catalyst; DPNR catalyst; Oxidation catalyst; Particulate filter; and Appropriate sensors; see Fig. 17.3.

17.1.1.6 Heat Recovery and Noise Reduction in the Exhaust Gas System The primary task of the exhaust gas system is decreasing pollutant concentration in the exhaust gases. The exhaust gas after treatment system of the engine discharges the exhaust gases and also recycles energy, depending on the engine power. Air-borne noise

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generated by the engine and from the exhaust gas system is harmful. The exhaust gas after treatment system must also reduce noise by means of mufflers [8]. There are three basic methods to improve the efficiency of exhaust gas after treatment systems: • Improving particle diminution in the engine’s rough emission; • Combining the particle filter with the NOx reduction catalyst; and • Developing highly durable filters which can be frequently heated and regenerated. This technology has been successfully developed over the last years, but still requires further investment, especially in heavy-duty vehicles and ships. In ships, the system can also recover heat, in order to use a part of the exhaust gas energy for preliminary fuel heating. An exhaust gas recovering system consists of a recuperator that may be a steam generator or a distribution heater fitted to the gas turbine or the self ignition ship engine.

17.1.2 Far Future Phases of Development Although hybrid technology is state of the art in the spark ignition passenger car technology, the development will go more and more on in the self ignition and heavy-duty technology. Self ignition hybrid in passenger car is state of the art. In the far future, electric vehicle technology could be improved in a way that is not yet imaginable. However, the rate of development is not sure. Recent experiences have proven that new technology will develop slowly and not in a revolutionary way. This includes the cost, safety, durability of the electric storage battery, the supplying manufacturers with new raw materials, e.g., with lithium and the recycling of all parts of the electric engine and the connected technology.

17.1.2.1 Hybrid Propulsion Systems Hybrid technology means the common use of an internal combustion and usually an electric engine for driving. Theoretically, many principles are possible for hybrids, which can store and utilize the recuperated energy from braking, e.g., flywheel, hydrostatic systems, compressed air, etc., but today the electric solution seems to be the most viable way. Wide ranged applications for commercially usable vehicles with hybrid technology are available only up to lower mid-size performance. The main markets are Japan and the USA, but the European market is increasing [9]. There are new hybrid commercial vehicles in specific sectors of road transportation, e.g., in mining technology. However, the development is going in the direction of general using hybrid technology in road transport. In hybrid vehicles, recent performance of the internal combustion engine attaches 250–1,397 kW (335–1,873 HP), the cylinder volume reaches up to 7–16 l (0.25–0.56 ft3), and the

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Future Trends of Road Vehicle Technology

269

gear transmitter, automatic start-stop system and V-belt drive reach a limited recovery of the brake energy. battery

internal combustion engine

transmitter

starter

propulsion

electric engine and internal combustion engine can be connected and disconnected by couplings

starter

crankshaftstarter

coupling

battery

propulsion

internal combustion engine

crankshaftstarter

coupling

battery

propulsion

automatic start-stop system and regenerative brake energy support the electric drive

starter

battery

starter

electric engine

internal combustion engine

coupling

electric engine, generator and internal combustion engine are serially connected

internal generator

combustion engine

Fig. 17.4 Basic types of hybrid technology

electric engine has an average performance of 88.2–147.1 kW (119.9–200.1 HP), i.e., 10–15% of the internal combustion system excepted range extender technology [10]. There are micro, mild, and full hybrid vehicles; see Fig. 17.4.

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17 Future Transportation Systems

Hybrid cars are particularly advantageous in large cities, where traffic congestion causes an enormous waste of time and energy and where pollution causes several diseases and environmental damage [11]. Future hybrid motor vehicles will remain more expensive than similar cars with combustion engines, since all supplementing parts of the propulsion must be doubled, which measure increases the costs of production and maintenance. However, future vehicles with hybrid propulsion will be more comfortable and will need less fuel [12].

17.1.2.2 Electric Vehicles The propulsion of an electric motor vehicle consists of the engine, the transmission system, and the power sensor which converts the accelerator pedal’s position into the appropriate current and voltage regulator of the engine. The main characteristics of electric vehicles depend on the battery type. Any household electric socket can be used to charge the battery, supplying electric power of 3.7 kW (3.51 BTU s-1) per hour. Charging for one hour can fuel a trip of approximately 20 km (12.43 mi). Shorter charge times can be achieved by the use of an industrial current connection which is often used for forklifts in stores. It takes 100 times longer to recharge a battery than to refuel a combustion engine to travel the same distance [13]. The design of the newest lithium-ion batteries is compact, the construction is of a relatively light weight, and the durability covers approximately 10 years or 600,000 charging-discharging cycles. Some models are surrounded by a cooling gel and achieve 25–50% higher energy density than conventional nickel-metal hydrid batteries; see Fig. 17.5. Lead–acid batteries are most common in road vehicles. In modern electric cars, nickel and lithium-ion technology are replacing lead–acid batteries. The advantages of the lithium-ion technology are the high thermal stability and the high capacity. However, some elements have to be improved, such as the cooling unit, the battery management system, and the high voltage connection. Batteries with organic lithium electrolytic solutions are combustible and can lead to severe injuries in case of accidents. Therefore, it is important to design future batteries that do not burn. For this reason, non-flammable lithium-polymer technology, including an electrolyte solution made of polydimethylsiloxane and electrodes designed with nanotubes will gain importance in the future [14]. Fiber-reinforced synthetic materials and metal containers with a strengthened wall are used to protect against mechanical shocks. The electronic control unit avoids overcharging the lithium-ion battery, saves it from damage when starting at high temperatures, and records events which are important for the maintenance of the system [15]. In contrast to the internal combustion engine, the electric propulsion must distinguish between short and long time engine power. The short time power is limited by the maximum power of the supply. The maximum power is a half hour

17.1

Future Trends of Road Vehicle Technology

Fig. 17.5 Comparison of storage technology

271

density of performance [W*kg-1 ]

10,000

1,000

6

5

4

100

3 1

2

10

1 1

10

100

1,000

10,000

density of energy [Wh*kg-1 ] 1. lead-acid 2. nickel-cadmium 3. nickel-metal hybrid

4. lithium-ion 5. internal combustion engine 6. gas turbine

of power which is limited by the permissible engine temperature. Depending on the kind of propulsion, the power factor is 1–2 min for short time and 30 min for long time. The maximum propulsion power must be monitored and reduced according to the limits of the power actuator, engine, and battery [16]. Table 17.2 shows the most important parameters of current electric motor vehicles. An annual world production of 800,000 electric cars is forecast within 9– 10 years. In reality, experiences of the last years has proven that this prediction is highly uncertain; see Fig. 17.6. In 25 years, the driving characteristics of electric cars could be similar to cars with self ignition engines. However, current electric cars are still slower and reach smaller distances than cars with internal combustion engines. Short distance transport of less than 20 km (12.42 mi) is most common in megacities and in congested areas. Here, nearly 80% of trips could be optionally made with electric vehicles. Nowadays, there are first commercial vehicles with electric propulsion on the market. The GVW of current types is up to 12 t (26,432 lb). The performance reaches up to 120 kW (160.9 HP), the distance 200 km (124.3 mi) with one charging [17]. In the future, electric propelled commercial vehicles, e.g., buses can gain on importance, particularly in short range mass transport. However, in the long distance transport, there are no real alternatives to the internal combustion engine in the next 20–30 years.

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17 Future Transportation Systems

Table 17.2 Features of current electric motor vehicle ATd MSe EEc Type of motor BTb kW s km h-1 vehiclea -1 (mi h-1) (BTU s ) Car

Ni–Cd

Car

Ni–MH

Car

Lith.–ion

Commercial motor vehicles

Lead–acid

21 (19.9) 49 (46.4) 62 (58.8) 80 (75.8)

9 7 6 7

90 (55.9) 130 (80.8) 120 (74.6) 120 (74.6)

ODf km (mi)

ECg kWh (100 km)-1 (BTU (100 km-1))

80 (49.7) 200 (124.3) 200 (124.3) 90 (55.9)

18 (61.4 26 (88.7 23 (78.5 35 (11.9

9 103) 9 103) 9 103) 9 103)

a

From 0 to 50 km h-1 , i.e., from 0 to 31.1 mi h-1 BT battery type c EE engine efficiencies d AT acceleration time e MS max. speed f OD operation distance g EC energy consumption

b

900.0

number of vehicles*10 6

800.0 700.0

vehicles with combustion engine

600.0

micro and mild hybrid

500.0

full hybrid

400.0

electric cars

300.0 200.0 100.0 0.0 2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

2020

year

Fig. 17.6 Predictions for future propulsion systems

17.1.2.3 Electric Recharging Stations Optimistic predictions say that by 2030 or 2050 no more new motor vehicles will be sold without electric or hybrid drive but in fact, the time when mass transportation with new technology can achieve a leading role at a reasonable price, seems to be very uncertain. To supply electric cars a net of intelligent recharging stations will be necessary. The condition and the efficiency of the battery must be measured by the recharging stations. Future charging stations will be able to control the battery functions [18]. Pay stations at public parking places or at company parking lots will recharge most electric cars. The data will be passed on to a computer for accounting by the

17.1

Future Trends of Road Vehicle Technology

wind

273

wind power plant

power plant

rectifier

frequency and tension control

switch

virtual synchronous engine

electric vehicle with charging device

power supply one way

plug-in hybrid vehicle

power supply both directions

Fig. 17.7 Connection of the electric grid to electric cars for charging and storing energy

energy supplier. The vehicle will be able to communicate with the on-board power supply system or its account data management at the recharging station.

17.1.2.4 The Electric Motor Vehicle as a Storage System Renewable energy has the disadvantage of variable production which often does not meet the demands of industry or consumers. The power output of wind and solar power plants entirely depends on the weather; but energy consumption depends on the time of day. It would be ideal if electric cars could store and use renewable electric energy. The additional power of wind or solar plants could be stored in the batteries of electric cars. This would improve the alternative network management and simplify the regulation of the net’s stability; see Fig. 17.7 [19]. The timing of charging electric cars is very beneficial for the electric supply because motor vehicles should be recharged when the current is cheaper, i.e., at night. Workers would drive to work in the morning and while parked at their place of employment the extra current from the car could be fed back into the net at a top price.

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17 Future Transportation Systems

100

solution of technical problems

costs [%]

80

application of innovative materials and new production technology

60 40

introduction into market

20 0 2010 prototype

2015 prototype

2020 first small quantity production

2025 quantity production

years

Fig. 17.8 Required reduction of expenses in fuel cell technology

The electric car as a storage system is still a research project for the regulation and storage of electricity in a future grid, but it seems to be very meaningful.

17.1.2.5 Fuel Cell Technology Fuel cells function similar to batteries and produce electricity from chemical reactions of H2 and O2 by combustion without flame at lower temperatures in the presence of catalysts. They replace large, heavy batteries, and run with a high efficiency and low emissions. Recent models are usable from a few Watts to a few Megawatts. However, the price of fuel cell technology must be greatly decreased before it become popular; see Fig. 17.8 [20]. In solid oxide fuel cells, the temperature of operation decreases from 800C to 650C, i.e., from 1,472F to 1,202F. The technology uses a high power density and is of optimal durability. The oxide layer could be sprayed by an automated process which could be a path towards cost-effective mass production [21]. Solid Acid Fuel Cells operate at low temperatures, have a performance of 250 W (0.34 HP), and use diesel fuel for the hydrolysis. One predicts they are the best solution for the future [22]. Currently, there is no enough data on the life span and durability of fuel cells in regular use. The most important application of fuel cells is the production of energy in spacecraft and in submarines. This is still a very small field. Profitable mass production seems to only be realistic in the future.

17.1.2.6 Hydrogen in Fuel Cells Hydrogen can be burned like gasoline inside the engine or used in fuel cells to generate power. A hydrogen fuel cell produces current made from hydrogen and

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Future Trends of Road Vehicle Technology

275

Table 17.3 Full chain consideration of energy production for vehicles Well-to-wheels Well-to-tank (WTT, fuel chain) Production

Transportation

Crude oil Crude oil pipelines, drilling tankers, and trains, and pumping trucks Frequency Wind rectifiers energy station

Tank-to-wheels (TTW, vehicle) Fuel processing

Transport

Petroleum refineries

Trucks and Gasoline refueling pipelines, stations tankers, and tanks

Distribution

Internal combustion engine vehicles

End use

H2 production and storage systems

Electric grids Connectors

Electric motor vehicles

oxygen. Experimental electric cars with hydrogen fuel cells and electric motors produce 100 kW (94.79 BTU s-1) and have a range of 450 km (280 mi). The current is stored in a lithium-ion battery which powers an electric motor. A tank holds about 4 kg (8.31 lb) of compressed hydrogen [23]. Hydrogen has two main benefits. Its mass-specific energy content is three times higher than gasoline and it produces water in the exhaust of the combustion. However, production of pure hydrogen from water through hydrolysis requires high energy. Hydrogen produced from natural gas by hydrocracking is not an environmentally friendly production process. Future generations of alternative energy will also improve hydrogen production, primarily through the use of wind power; see Table 17.3 [24]. The range of hydrogen-powered cars is further and the refueling time is shorter than of average battery powered electric cars. However, the storage of hydrogen is difficult and dangerous because its tiny molecules escape from almost every pressure vessel. These problems do not exist with liquid hydrogen. Hydrogen becomes liquid at minus 253C (-487F). This very low temperature is produced by cryogenization, which is an expensive energy-consuming process. Hydrogen fuel cell technology needs a few more years of development until the cells are cheaper and convenient enough to be mass marketed. The attainable energy densities of electricity stored in batteries or of hydrogen stored in fuel cells cost about 0.01 kWh Euros-1, i.e., 0.009 BTU s-1 Euros-1. In comparison, the gasoline energy density costs approximately 6 kWh Euros-1, i.e., 5.69 BTU s-1 Euros-1 [25], i.e., it is more economic. According to experiences, it is not possible to replace fossil fuels such as gasoline, diesel, kerosene, or heavy marine diesel oil in the transportation of passengers and goods by known alternatives within the next decades. Alternative energy carriers and fuels will come slowly and replace fossil fuels only in a small sector of the market.

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17 Future Transportation Systems

17.1.2.7 Natural Gas in Fuel Cells CNG costs much less than gasoline or diesel fuel. The reason is not only its optimal physical and chemical properties, but also the current taxation system. Vehicles powered with compressed or liquefied natural gas emit 25% less CO2 and 75% less pollutants than those using gasoline. Instead of natural gas, cars can use biomethane produced in a renewable way. Using Liquefied Petroleum Gas is usually less sustainable for the environment because it emits more pollutants in the exhaust gas [26]. Retrofitting costs €2,000–3,000, i.e., US $2,860–4,290. Changing from gasoline to CNG to fuel a car is cheaper only after driving 50,000–70,000 km (31,075– 43,505 mi) per year. New CNG vehicles have a more reasonable price. In the future, the advantage of natural gas will certainly appear sooner for drivers because of the increasing price of gasoline and diesel fuels. 17.1.2.8 Methanol in Fuel Cells The reformation of methanol (CH3OH) seems to be the key to fuel cell technology. Methanol is produced from natural gas with approximately 65% efficiency. It is a liquid similar to gasoline and diesel fuel, and has a high energy density. Methanol is available in the existing infrastructure. The reaction takes place with air and water at temperatures of 800–900C (1,472–1,652F). Natural gas is partially oxidized and converted in two catalytic steps with H2O to H2, CO2, and CO. Carbonization and inhibition of the catalyst must be avoided. The remaining residue of CO must be separated by gas selection, because it inhibits the electrodes of the fuel cell [27]. The reformation of methanol is substantially more difficult than the conversion of methane to hydrogen. The process could be substantially improved in the future if catalytic technology were developed.

17.2 Future Trends in Aviation Technology Civil air transportation will need approximately 24,000 new airplanes in the next 20 years. Freight transport is expected to increase 5.2%. About 3,440 new airplanes and approximately 850 rebuilt airplane will be needed for air freight service. The total cost of all the new airplanes will be approximately €145 thousand million, i.e., US $210 thousand million in 20 years [28]. By 2030, passenger transportation will require approximately 1,700 Very Large Aircraft each carrying more than 400 passengers. The investments will cost €399 thousand million, i.e., US $571 thousand million in 20 years. There is a projected need for about 6,250 large airplanes carrying 250–400 passengers, i.e., 42% of the market and for about 17,000 small single aisle airplanes, i.e., 39% of the market in the same time interval.

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277

17.2.1 Near Future Phases of Development New technological innovations to reduce of fuel consumption will remain the focus of future airplane technology. Airplanes with large capacity and low operating costs will work more reliably and sustainably than current types. Future commercial aircraft will use highly advanced technology, but without spectacular innovations, similar to other types of transportation. The design objectives in aviation are lighter structures, better aerodynamics, and new jet engines with lower fuel consumption, lower pollutant outputs, and GHG emissions and maximum safety. 17.2.1.1 Improved Aerodynamics Reducing drag ensures the most benefits in fuel consumption and lowers operating costs. The improvement in the wing geometry of older models, compared to new types of airplanes could decrease aerodynamic resistance by approximately 12%. Variable wing profile in the rear area of the wing could also save 8–10% and will be advantageous especially when applying extended flaps. Improving aerodynamics is expected to save 3–4% of fuel while cruising despite the larger size and weight. The wing box would remain unchanged [29]. Winglets at the wing tip will be widely introduced and will already increase the aerodynamic efficiency of airplanes in the near future.

17.2.1.2 New Materials and Designs Noticeable weight savings are expected through the use of better materials and improved designs. The best examples are aluminum–lithium alloys, which are 5% stronger and 10% lighter than conventional aluminum alloys [30]. In the future, Carbon Fiber Composite (CFC) will be extensively used in loadbearing structures such as the wings and the fuselage. Reducing weight with CFC will reduce fuel consumption by up to 25%. The rudder assembly was the first primary structure built with CFC material. Today, CFC has already proven itself in secondary structures such as in spoilers and in landing gear. In the future both the quantity and the quality of new composite materials will increase. However, they will only become advantageous if their costs are reasonable, the inspection and the maintenance requirements do not increase, and the risks of using them are safely controlled.

17.2.1.3 New Fuels for Engines Several airplane manufacturers are attempting to introduce new fuels for airplanes. Not only environmental and climate protection, but also the price of conventional

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fuel demands continuous development. New fuels based on sugarcane have been tested in several laboratories of the U.S. Air Force and the Royal Air Force. Manufacturers and legislators have predicted that biogenic fuels in aviation can be widely marketed [31].

17.2.1.4 Improved Propulsion Technology The most spectacular step in the history of commercial flight was the transition from the piston engine to the gas turbine. There will not be similar revolutionary innovations in foreseeable future but a series of small improvements [32]. Greater bypass and higher compression ratios will further lower the fuel consumption. Enlargement will be limited by the increasing cross-section area and the higher aerodynamic resistance of larger jet engines with more and more increased bypass ratios. Currently, the upper limit seems to be a bypass relationship of approximately 10:1. Future jet engines will work with even higher compressor pressure ratios which are over 50:1 but the turbine inlet temperature does not allow a ratio higher than about 45:1. If the ratio went above this then the maintenance costs would become too high. Emissions and fuel consumption can be decreased by 10% with improved combustion chambers. However, the technology will be developed slowly and research will become increasingly expensive. New propfan engines will increasingly combine the advantages of turboprops and turbofans. The modified propeller drive of the fan will reach an efficiency of 80%. However, future improvements require better noise insulation of the fuselage. Passive methods such as optimal insulation walls and active sound reduction technologies, such as the use of fast regulated loudspeakers with different frequencies and amplitudes will gain a decisive role also in civil aviation. Currently, this technology is widely used in military transportation. Improvements in the construction of the transmission and in the design of the propeller blades can further decrease noise emissions and increase durability.

17.2.1.5 Fuel Cell-Driven Electric Motors for Taxiing The use of advanced fuel cell technology could make taxiing near terminals more environmentally friendly. New type of electric motor could be built into the nose wheel of airplanes. Taxiing a mid-range single aisle airplane requires about 50 kW (67.1 HP) of energy with high torque [33]. The starting inertia of an airplane can be optimally overcome through the use of an electric engine in the first seconds of taxiing because they have relatively high performance with low inertia. A fuel cell can be installed in the fuselage near the wheel. The way to practical introduction of this technology is the development of light weight fuel cells with high efficiency because a large weight of current fuel cells could result in increased fuel consumption of the airplane in flight.

17.2

Future Trends in Aviation Technology

279

17.2.1.6 New Maneuver Control Concepts Electronic flight management systems can improve maneuvering and compensate for vibrations by controlling the variable load on a wing by turbulence. Regulation can be done with high performance and high speed micro controllers, which allow fast redistribution of weight and changes in the wing profile according to the external aerodynamic conditions [34]. The distribution of lift forces along the wingspan of a commercial aircraft has an elliptical form. This distribution produces the lowest resistance while cruising. In maneuvers like turning along a curved trajectory, the wing must produce more lift. However, the distribution changes which leads to a higher load near the wing root. For this reason the wing must be strengthened for the increased load. This surplus weight must be carried unproductively while cruising [35]. Future control of maneuvering loads will be presumably able to make a fast redistribution of the lift forces, which depend on the angle of attack and altitude. By controlling the maneuvering loads, the lift will be shifted toward the wing root while the load on the outer wing will decrease. Control of the maneuvering load will be managed by leading and trailing edge flaps, and spoilers. The wing profile will be varied by computer-based flight control systems. For cruising, the trailing flaps will be retracted. For landing and take-off they will be extended to increase the wing area and the camber. The time span for regulation measures for flight maneuvers is extremely short. New, high speed and high capacity microcontroller systems will be increasingly used for this task.

17.2.2 Far Future Phases of Development Airplanes which are just being tested in flight today will be in regular commercial service in the next 30–40 years. During their long service life, their interiors, fuselages, and cabins may be frequently modernized and their jet engines may be modified many times. Older airplanes can be retrofitted to the most modern standard. This is the way that airliners are going if they are rebuilt to being freight transporters after a long service time interval. 17.2.2.1 Construction of Large Airplanes Airports and airspaces are currently becoming more and more overcrowded. Since air traffic will double within the next 15 years, the available airport capacities cannot handle these increases. Super large airplanes with 600–1,000 passengers could be a way out [36]. Future airports will manage large numbers of passengers, especially, if several large airplanes arrive or takeoff at short intervals. Airport services such as fire fighting, de-icing, and ground handling equipment will need to be increased.

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Future runways, taxi ways and aprons must be able to carry over 500 t (492 lnt, i.e., 1.102 9 106 lb), compared to 350 t (344 lnt, i.e., 0.771 9 106 lb) today. They will have to manage wing span widths of 85 m (278.7 ft), instead of 60–70 m (196.7–229.5 ft) currently, to keep parked airplanes from touching each other. Will the fight for market share produce still bigger and faster airplanes? Airplanes will probably not be bigger or faster than the most recent large airplanes in the foreseeable future. In large airplanes, the design of the space for the passenger’s compartment represents the greatest challenge, because more passengers must be accommodated in the cabin. Besides the fuselage, the wings and all other parts require new designs. The development is cost intensive and requires time.

17.2.2.2 Laminar Flow Reducing air resistance permits flights at higher speeds and improvements in the glide ratio. In the last few decades, the average Mach number of civil aviation has increased from M 0.78 to M 0.82. Adding winglets and improving the wing profile provides only a limited improvement. Apart from this technology, improving laminar flow will be a really revolutionary step. Currently, the boundary layer leads to friction resistance which is half of the complete resistance of a commercial aircraft while cruising. The Reynolds number determines whether the bordering layer will be laminar or turbulent. In flight there is a Reynolds number between 20 9 106 and 70 9 106, so the boundary layer is always turbulent. With artificial laminar flow, the friction resistance could be reduced by 90%. No other measure yields such large benefits. This will be the central topic in future aeronautical research [37]. Improving the wing construction will produce laminar boundary layers. In practice, only a part of the wing will have a laminar flow, but with an artificial vacuum, 75% of the wing area will be attainable. At this way, friction resistance will be lowered to 30% and the glide ratio will be correspondingly improved. The profits will be considerable. 10% fuel will be saved on short range flights. Long range flights will save up to 20%. However, tests are still in progress.

17.2.2.3 Oversized Gliders Wing load is the loaded weight of the aircraft divided by the area of the wing. The faster an aircraft is flying, the more lift is producing by each unit area of the wing, so a smaller wing can carry the same weight in level flight with a higher wing load. Correspondingly, the takeoff and landing speeds will be higher. High wing load also decreases maneuverability [38]. Table 17.4 shows the parameters of airplanes with different wing aspect ratios. The airplane of tomorrow can be constructed like an oversized glider with efficient aerodynamics, but the enormous wings will have to be reinforced through

17.2

Future Trends in Aviation Technology

281

Table 17.4 Wing aspect ratio depending on flight velocity Airplanes Velocity km h-1 (mi h-1)

Wing aspect ratio [–]

Military fighter Reconnaissance Airliner Transporter STOLa Sport airplane Glider airplane

4–6 4–6 5–10 7–10 7–11 4–9 18–30

a

1,800–2,700 900–1,200 800–1,100 600–700 300–500 100–300 100–300

(1,119–1,678) (559–746) (497–684) (373–435) (186–311) (62.2–186) (62.2–186)

Short takeoff and landing of airplane

strutting, to safely connect with the fuselage. If possible, the wings must be retractable to enhance the safety of taxiing; see Fig. 17.9. Important aerodynamic improvements require further developments for attaching the fuselage to the wing. The tail unit and the horizontal stabilizers could be constructed with high vertical size. The optimally insulated engines with low noise emissions can be placed near the fuselage which can also stabilize the operation of the airplane [39]. The aspect ratio of the wing depends on the price of fuel. If the fuel is cheap, the price of the airplane is decisive and a very small wing aspect ratio is optimal. If the fuel is more expensive, small fuel savings are also profitable. In this case, manufacturers will build a larger wing aspect ratio which will be bigger than the optimal size.

17.2.2.4 Blended Wing Body Airplanes Blended wing body airplanes could be introduced after 2050. Figure 17.10 shows a model of a blended wing airplane. The cost of fuel will bring about a radical change in transportation. It is absolutely not certain whether a blended wing airplane will be developed, even in the distant future. An earlier introduction could be possible as an air freighter. However, from an operator’s point of view, it is cheaper and simpler to convert a passenger airplane to being a freight carrier, after 10–15 years of service [40].

17.2.2.5 Electric Airplane Propulsion Smaller experimental aircraft already use an electric powered propeller. The wing span is 13–14 m (42.6–45.9 ft), the empty weight with the battery is 250–300 kg (551–661 lb), and the motor produces 40 kW (54 HP) [41]. The battery supplies the engine with 66.6 V for a power of 30 Ah. The lithiumion-polymer battery provides 54 cells. The weight is 12 kg (26.4 lb) per cell, which

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Fig. 17.9 Large cargo airplane designed as an oversized glider

supplies power to the engine for 1.5–2.0 h. The price is about €100,000, i.e., US $143,000. The development of an all-electric airplane with fuel cell technology has high potential for saving fuel while cruising in the very far future.

17.2.2.6 Glider with Hydrogen Fuel Cell The fuel cell powered experimental airplanes has two additional outer tanks under the wings for the hydrogen powered fuel Antares DLR-H2 cell and for the compressed gas. It is an unmanned airplane with hydrogen fuel cells which produces 25 kW (34 HP), i.e., 23.7 BTU s-1 [42]. The small airplane is able to fly 750 km (466 mi) in 5 h at a speed of 170 km h-1 (91.8 nmi h-1); see Fig. 17.11. In the future, fuel cells may become more important in specific sectors of aviation, depending on their efficiency.

17.2.2.7 Solar Cell-Powered Airplane Solar airplanes are equipped with solar cells. They are still able to fly around the world. The fuselage is 20–22 m (65.6–72.1 ft) long; the wing is 63.0–63.4 m

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two or three floor construction

tfour or six aside blended wing fuselage

Fig. 17.10 Model of a blended wing airplane

(196.7–207.9 ft) wide on the leading edge. The airplane is built of CFC substances and honeycomb sandwich construction modules for the fuselage to achieve the required strength, rigidity and lightness. The wings have a lot of risks to strengthen the construction, e.g., 120 carbon fiber ribs at 0.5 m (1.64 ft, i.e., 0.55 yd) intervals to create the airfoil shape, and support the skin of the upper and lower wing. Therfore, the proportions of the experimental airplane and the length of the wing are very similar to a single-aisle airplane [43]. In fact, solar cells cannot provide the entire energy for future airplanes, but they can contribute to the utilization of solar energy as auxiliary power.

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propeller

H2 reservoir fuel cell

Fig. 17.11 Fuel cell powered experimental airplane

17.2.2.8 Development of Airports All forecasts assume growth in air traffic. Particularly, the leading airports will have to cope with more air traffic in a few years. For solving the task, several ways are imaginable to increase airport capacity [44]. The first way is intensive international cooperation which will be generally necessary to solve the problems. In this process, airfreight may be shifted from civilian airports to former military airports. Parallel to it, smaller secondary airports could be strengthened more for intercontinental aviation with modern navigation and communication equipment. The demand for very short distance air travel could decrease in the future depending on fuel prices, infrastructure, and economy. This problem should be solved by development of special low cost airplanes with open, contra rotating turbofan engines with high efficiency.

17.3 Future Trends in Ship Technology Shipping will be presumably developed with the highest speed in transportation. However, development could be decelerated by intensively increasing fuel costs. In the future, ships will profitably use wind and sun energy. Theoretically, natural energy has an unlimited energy-saving potential on the open sea. Nevertheless, this attractive potential has not been used recently, because no existing photovoltaic, thermal, or solar power systems can fulfill all of the power requirements of a ship.

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residue of NOX emissions in exhaust gases [%]

100

80

60

40

20

0

emulsion with 20% H2O

emulsion and exhaust gas water injection late injection recirculation 10% with 50% H2O

SRC

Fig. 17.12 Decreasing diesel nitrogen oxide emissions from ships

17.3.1 Near Future Phases of Development New developments in all types of ships, such as bulk carriers, tankers, container ships, cruise ships or freighters, etc., will increase their safety, economy, power, durability, and flexibility. Besides the development with fossil fuels in the conventional way, continuous development will be possible if new types of fuels and renewable energy sources such as wind and sun energy will be used with higher efficiency. Complementary new propulsion technology will become more important. Decreasing exhaust gas emissions with internal and external measures will be more important in the future. The inherent advantage of the slow speed marine diesel engine is its high efficiency. The amount of HC and CO in the engine’s output is usually very small. However, the concentration of particles has to be decreased with a special exhaust gas after treatment system behind the engine, particularly when heavy fuel with high sulfur concentration is burnt. Marine exhaust gas after treatment technology is important for decreasing SOx, NOx, and particle emission concentrations.

17.3.1.1 Reduction of NOx Emissions There are increasingly strict requirements for decreasing emissions from the engine and the exhaust gas after treatment device in marine technology. NOx emission values must be lowered to MARPOL 73/78 Convention, Annex VI limits between 2.0 and 3.5 g kWh-1, i.e., 21.0 9 10-6 and 36.8 9 10-6 oz BTU-1 for ships launched after January 1st, 2011 [45]. A further stage is the 80% reduction of emissions with Tier 3 limits applicable from 2015/2016 [46]. NOx can be reduced by approximately 30–40% by injecting a direct water emulsion and through further measures, e.g., late injection; see Fig. 17.12.

17 Future Transportation Systems change of fuel consumption [%]

286 30

20

14% for IFO 10

7% for MDO 0 emulsion with 20% H2O

emulsion and exhaust gas water injection late injection recirculation 10% with 50% H2O

SRC

Fig. 17.13 Changes in fuel consumption with fuel preparation and exhaust gas after treatment

The highest rates of reductions, of up to 95%, can be reached by the use of SCR technology. In a two-stroke marine diesel engine the SCR reactor nury advantageously be put in front of the exhaust gas turbocharger because of the optimal temperatures in the area [47]. Furthermore, there are several other methods for decreasing emissions. However, these methods usually have individual side effects which are disadvantageous. Humid air engines require less water, but need large humidification towers. Emulsified fuels require large quantities of water from freshwater production plants. Fuel-Water Emulsions (FWE) have lower heating values and higher viscosities than pure HFO. Emulsified fuels require an increased injection pump capacity and a bigger final heater [48]. FWE requires increased preheating temperature and higher feeder pump pressure to avoid water evaporation. Parallel to decreasing the exhaust gas emissions all these methods cause higher fuel consumption; see Fig. 17.13 [49]. Further aims for improvement of exhaust gas quality in marine technology are: • Reduction of NOx concentrations in the exhaust gas by 40–50% at sea and up to 80% in coastal waters, i.e., 50–200 nmi or 92.6–370.4 km off shore [50]; • Reconstruction of existing engine technology on ships built before 2000 to be in compliance with the current NOx emission limits; and [51] • Lowering the operating costs and space requirements of exhaust gas after treatment systems for broad ranged applications [52].

17.3.1.2 Reduction of SOx Emissions The average sulfur content of marine diesel fuel is 3.0–4.0% by weight. Operation with a standard HFO with sulfur content higher than 1% may lead to clogging the catalyst because the exhaust gas temperature of marine diesel engines is too low to avoid deposits under most operating conditions. The best results can be reached through the combined use of low sulfur fuel and SCR technology [53].

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In the future, SOx emissions can be decreased by: • Global reduction of sulphur content of up to 1.0% by 2015. EU ports have required low sulphur content fuel since January 1st, 2010; • Global reduction of sulphur to 0.5% from 2020; and • General use of sea water scrubbers. A special problem of ship technology is the demand for storage of the caustic soda produced on ships with the SCR technology through the use of sulfur-containing fuels. A further problem of fuel supply is the cost saving bunkering of future, i.e., alternative fuels, such as synthetic and biogenic fuels, which need additional measures to be optimally bunkered. Alternative fuels and fossil fuels, such as HFO, MDO, and MGO require separated tanks and sensors to monitor combustion quality. Blended fuel requires homogenizers. 17.3.1.3 Reduction of Particles Decreasing particle emissions is especially important in marine engines in comparison to other types of transportation. However, elemental carbon, such as soot, is by far the smallest part of particles emitted by marine diesel engines. Approximately 80% of the particles are sulfur products, such as sulfates and sulfur contained ash which are produced in the combustion process by sulfur in the fuel. The chemical process of sulfur reaction cannot be effectively influenced by the engine [54]. MGO fuel produces the smallest environmental problems burnt in ship engines. Typically, particle emissions from ships using MGO fuel are 30% lower than those using HFO fuel. The best levels of particle emissions can be reached in large, slow speed marine diesel engines. The concentration level of emissions in this case is comparable to high speed engines in automobiles. The consumption of lubrication oil also contributes to the particle emissions. The amount becomes higher at high loads and high speed of the engine. Large marine engines usually do not need to change their lubrication oil [55]. IMO requires the reduction of particles in engines operating with HFO. Regulation of the sulfur content of fuel is only the first stage. Further important measures for lowering particle emissions are: • • • •

Improving the injection and nozzle system, e.g., introduction of slide valves; Optimizing the mixing technology in the combustion chamber; Using intelligent catalysts, particle filters, and scrubbers; and Developing an entirely electronically controlled engine system.

17.3.1.4 Integrated Catalyst and Filter System Currently, single filter system is state of the art in ship technology. In the long term, particle filters will be integrated into catalyst system in an effort to

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pipes and nozzles

oxidation catalyst

air intake

turbocharger

reduction catalyst

exhaust system

single filter

PM-Cat filter

engine brake

Fig. 17.14 Common air intake and exhaust gas after treatment system

effectively reduce common NO, NO2, and particle emissions. Systems must be suitable for both retrofitting and for new engines. The required separation rate is approximately 70% [56]. Figure 17.14 shows the elements of the common air intake and exhaust gas after treatment system. SCR and connected filter technology offers the largest future potential for the improvement of the exhaust gas treatment on ships. This procedure can be combined with exhaust gas recirculating and the catalyst can be integrated into the muffler. SCR technology in ships can only be used when ships combust low sulfur bunker fuels. Filter on ships have to operate under raw conditions. The pressure difference in the filter between the entrance and the exhaust side can be measured with pressure sensors. A blocked filter leads to an increased pressure difference between the sensors. The filter must be regenerated before high counter pressure can seriously increase fuel consumption or stop the engine. In ships, the filter is heated by a burner to 600C (1,112F). Starting at 550C (1,022F), the deposited soot burns away and leaves the filter as CO2. If the filter is frequently clogged with ash, the regeneration requires longer time interval or higher temperatures. In critical cases, it cannot be regenerated anymore [57].

17.3.2 Far Future Phases of Development 17.3.2.1 Use of Biogenic and Synthetic Fuels in Ships Future development will need cooperation between refineries and manufacturers of combustion engines. New generations of biogenic and synthetic fuels could be added to recent navy fuels in ratios of up to 20–25%. Liquid biogenic and synthetic fuels do not need a new distribution system and can be bunkered, and used in the existing fuel system. However, new regulations are in the starting phase. Although CNG is a new fuel in road vehicles, with clear environmental advantages in comparison to oil products, CNG has been forbidden as a marine fuel by the IMO in international sea-going shipping for safety reasons up to now. According to SOLAS, only fuels

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Future Trends in Ship Technology

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tow kite

steering system launching and landing system steering gondola pull rope

winder power

Fig. 17.15 Use of wind energy with Sky Sail technology

with a flashpoint of over 60C (140F) may be used on ships. That is the reason why kerosene is also prohibited. So far exceptions to this rule are ships in inland navigation, e.g., ferries and seagoing LNG tankers which are allowed to use the burn-off gas in their internal combustion engines [58]. 17.3.2.2 Sky Sails Tow kites generate 2–3 times the energy per square meter compared to normal sails depending on their shape which is comparable to that of a paraglide [59]. The kite system consists of a simple main stunt kite for propulsion, made of a strong and weather-resistant textile and is able to fly at altitudes between 100 and 300 m (328 and 984 ft), where steady winds are predominant; see Fig. 17.15. Tow kites decrease the operating costs of a ship between 10 and 34%, depending on the wind. With optimal winds, fuel consumption can be temporarily reduced by up to 50%. In the future, nearly all bulk carriers, cruise ships, and trawlers may use tow kites which can be retrofitted. This means that approximately 10,000 ships could be retrofitted worldwide with a tow kite system.

17.3.2.3 Photovoltaic Cells on Ships Currently a new experimental ship with a four man crew, such as a catamaran with a particularly low hydraulic resistance coefficient and light weight is already able

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Fig. 17.16 Solar and wind energy supply for a ship automatically adjustable sail controlled by micro computer

solar cells

to successfully navigate around the world using photovoltaic cells [60]. The ship is 23 m (75.4 ft) long, 6.1 m (20 ft) high, and reaches a weight of 85 t (187 225 lbs). It is built from CFC and other light weight plastics, and can run with battery power for 66 h, and costs about €1.0 million, i.e., US $1.43 million. Large vessels such as bulk carriers are also experimenting with photovoltaic cell technology. By means of some examples, the solar panels are installed on the deck of a bulk carrier; see Fig. 17.16. Initial tests show that solar cells generate 1.4% more energy at sea than on land because of higher radiation intensity. However, photovoltaic solar power provides approximately 1–3% of the on-board electricity of large tankers, when all the free places are covered by solar panels. From experience, current panels survive severe conditions in heavy storms with constant rain, lightning, and pounding from waves up to 4 m (13.1 ft) high. The far future aim is to use solar and wind power to reduce fuel consumption and CO2 emissions by up to 50%. The newest photovoltaic cells have efficiency of more than 17.5%, but their durability and costs for the marine technique must be still improved. The same requirements are valid for other alternative energy sources. Despite all improvements, the current level of alternative technology can only save a small part of the energy that a ship needs [61]. 17.3.2.4 Hydrogen Fuel Cells in Ships Fuel cell propulsion has been developed for submarines of first, because they operate without ambient air for a long time. Fuel cell technology in civil ships would provide a lot of advantages such as better environmental protection, lower costs, and higher durability than conventional propulsion systems. Civil ships usually use small and in the most cases transportable 160 kW (215 HP) hydrogen fuel cells in 20 ft containers consisted of four separate modules by a performance of 4 9 40 kW (4 9 54 HP).

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Experimental equipment consists of a battery and a tank for hydrogen, similar to airplanes. The power is 160 kW (215 HP). Recent prices were over €2 million, i.e., US $2.86 million, but in the future the expected price will be decreased to €300,000, i.e., US $429,000. In the first instance reasonable prices are necessary because a comparable marine diesel engine merely costs between €60,000 and 70,000, i.e., US $85,800 and 100,000. Therefore, the production of fuel cells for ship transportation can only begin when the cost of fuel cell technology generally drops by a meaningful factor [62]. Fuel cells generating approximately 500 kW (670 HP) are needed to drive ferries and recreational boats. Except for tests and demonstrations, the first mass produced fuel cells will be used in ferries and they will not be used on other ships until 2020–2025. Expected that the first freighters may be powered by hydrogen fuel cells about in 2030. Experimental and special research ships will probably be powered by a battery which will be recharged by a hydrogen burning fuel cell onboard earlier [63].

17.4 Summary and Recommendations: Future Environment Friendly Transportation Electric drive and fuel cells can only be realistically introduced in the market when their price is reasonable. In the future, reduction of fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions will become increasingly important. The requirements will impact both, the direct costs, i.e., the production as well as the indirect costs, i.e., the operation costs. However, customers will certainly not be willing to pay the higher costs, if the only benefit is the protection of the environment. More safety, higher intelligence, more comfort, better durability and lower specific costs are also decisively important.

17.4.1 Future Vehicle Technology The internal combustion engine will not be replaced in the near future but rather will be continuously developed. In highly intelligent cars, navigation can effectively contribute to lower fuel consumption and emissions. Cars and trucks, driving in convoys could additionally save fuel and space on the highways and main traffic roads. The combined combustion of natural gas and petrol as a fuel will be further improved in the near future. Future pollution can be reduced by about 30% by premixing the fresh air and the fuel, recirculating the exhaust gas, using a SCR catalyst, and a particle filter system. Passive filter systems consist of a single filter and a catalyst module, which filter up to 70% of the particles. In these simple filter systems, neither an electronic nor an engine control system needs to be adapted. In opposite to them, active filter

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systems are common with the catalyst, are connected to the ECU, and can be regenerated by heat when required. They reach a higher rate of filtering than passive filter systems, but their costs are higher. Hybrid vehicles with both an electric motor and an internal combustion engine will become more accepted in certain regions, initially in megacities. Electric motors can be optimally used when large forces are needed, when accelerating, driving up hill, and in ‘‘stop and go’’ traveling. Nowadays not technology or human behavior, but traffic jams are usually the main reason for higher fuel consumption and higher exhaust gas emissions. In the future more plug-in hybrid vehicles will be recharged from the net, extending their range. The cost of hybrid systems will remain very high, since a combined system must contain many duplicate elements in comparison to single systems. Due to new promising developments in low and high temperature membrane technology, many manufacturers consider the fuel cell as an alternative to the combustion engine. May be, future designs could sooner prefer fuel cells. However, the single cell is only one component of the combined engine and storage system in the vehicle. Realistically, it will be a long time before it is on the market. Self Diagnosis system will ensure that internal combustion engines operate with optimal combustion and beyond it, at the best range of load level and number of revolutions over longer distances. The specific fuel consumption and the pollutant emissions of future cars will be lower, in comparison with recent types, particularly in urban traffic. The energy of future electric vehicles will be stored in new types of lithium-ion batteries.

17.4.2 Future Aviation Technology The airplanes of the future will presumably look just like those of today. However, finances, not the engineering, will more and more determine future designs. The cost of the fuel, operation, inspection, and maintenance, as well as environmental friendliness will powerfully influence the economy of an airliner. Biogenic and alternative fuels or other renewable energy sources will become more important to protect the environment and the climate. Other aspects will also become more important, such as the use of light weight materials, the introduction of laminar flow over the wings, the integration of airframe, and nacelle and new engine technologies. Airspace near airports is overcrowded everywhere, so aviation must develop higher safety standards. The growth of aviation requires new innovations, such as • The Single Sky initiative in Europe, flights on individually optimized tracks and profiles, independently from the established route structures; • The complete digitalization and automatic communication between airplane to airplane, not only between pilot and flight officer;

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• Last minute changes in infrastructure posing hazards to operation, e.g., weather advisories; • Introduction of free flying areas; and • New policies at airports. In Europe, people have a great sensibility to noise. However, there are other regions in the world whose habitat do not have such high requirements for noise emissions. The further decrease of pollutant emissions and noise will raise costs, because positive results usually require a cost-intensive and long development phase. New turbofan and propfan engines will produce less noise in comparison with older propeller and turboprop or turbofan engines. At the start of the twenty-first century, consolidation in the aviation industry has meant that only a few manufacturers have kept producing commercial passenger airplanes. However, tendencies are proving that new manufacturers in several countries will independently start producing modern airplanes in the next years and decades. Can nuclear power replace oil? There were projects with nuclear-powered airplanes in the Soviet Union, the USA, and Great Britain at the beginning of the 1950s. The hopes of these projects could not be achieved because of economic, technical, environmental, and security reasons. It is not expected that nuclearpowered airplanes will be developed in the future. Dirigibles are lighter than air. Modern industrial types transport heavy minerals or other raw materials from inaccessible areas to processing plants. The current models can carry a payload of 40 t (39 lnt, i.e. 88 360 lb) up to 360 km (194.4 nmi) [64].

17.4.3 Future Ship Technology The slow speed two-stroke marine diesel engine will certainly consolidate its leading position with its optimal thermal effectiveness, resistance to wear, and high durability. It converts more than 50% of the chemical and thermal energy to mechanical work because of its high thermal efficiency. Theoretically more than 60% thermal efficiency is possible. However, higher heat recovery is not possible currently because the exhaust gas heat is used to produce steam, hot water and fresh water, and to warm the air in the intake which lowers the real thermal efficiency of engine. In the future, the power of the engine will assumebly increase. Considerable potential is still available in the application of new materials in the combustion chamber and in the turbocharger. This development also presupposes an improvement in environmental compatibility and in climate balance of new materials. Currently, the highest concentrations of pollutants exist in the exhaust gas of HFO fuel. However, the change between current HFO to higher fuel qualities, especially to diesel oil, may show incompatibility in the following way in the future:

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• Low sulfur diesel fuel may not lubricate engines as required; therefore, mechanical parts may need extra lubrication; and • The change from hot HFO to cold diesel fuel must be done smoothly to avoid the injection pump piston seizing up. The use of an SCR catalyst is the primary method for decreasing NOx emissions. This can be implemented in up to 90–95% of all ships. Advantageously, SCR is an additional technology and does not influence fuel consumption. The secondary method is adding water to fuel to produce a fuel emulsion and humidifying the air for combustion which can lower emissions by 10–15%. However, these measures can cause corrosion in the engine and in the exhaust gas after treatment system, and increase fuel consumption. On-board monitoring equipment can discover deteriorations caused by humidifying. In the future, emission trading will more and more emphasize decreasing technologies of fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions also on ships. For the precise analysis of quality parameter the implementation of a monitoring system in the combustion and in the exhaust gas after treatment system may become more widespread. Strengthened use of wind and solar energy and improving fuel management are a realistic way of increasing the efficiency of marine engines. Although new renewable energy sources will be quickly developed, there will be no alternatives to internal combustion engines using navy fuel for the next 30–40 years. Broad range applications of technologies with synthetic and biogenic fuels in shipping are expected in the far future. Ships on inland water ways are becoming a more important part of sustainable transportation. In the course of this process, inland and coast navigation produce pollution which has an effect on residents in especially sensitive regions such sea coasts and harbor areas. Expected that in this sector, applications of biogenic and synthetic fuels will be more quickly introduced than in offshore zones.

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38. Dryden Flight Research Center. http://www.nasa.gov/centers/dryden/news/FactSheets/FS044-DFRC.html 39. Wing aspect ratio. http://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/Contexts/Flight/Science-Ideas-andConcepts/Wing-aspect-ratio 40. NASA pushes blended wing/body. http://www.aviationweek.com/aw/generic/story.jsp?id= news/Body011309.xml&headline=NASA%20Pushes%20Blended%20Wing/Body%20& channel=space 41. Elektrisierend! Aero-International. 04/2010, pp 4–8. http://www.aerointernational.de 42. Mit der Brennstoffzelle über den Atlantik? Flieger Revue. Magazin für Luft- und Raumfahrt. 03/2010, pp 15. No. 58. ISSN: 0941/889X. http://www.fliegerrevue.de 43. Prototype solar powered aircraft unveiled. Reinforced plastics. 10 July 2009. http://www. reinforcedplastics.com 44. Airports of the future. http://www.airportsofthefuture.qut.edu.au/ 45. Reduction of NOx and SOx in an emission market- a snapshot of prospects and benefits for ships in the northern European SECA area. http://www.sweship.se/Files/080222slutversion Report.pdf 46. A review of present technological solutions for clean shipping. http://www.cnss.no/wpcontent/uploads/2011/10/Summary-brochure10.pdf 47. About turbochargers. http://www.ehow.com/about_5139120_turbochargers.html 48. NOx-reduction by oil/water emulsification. http://www.hielscher.com/ultrasonics/oil_nox_ reduction.htm 49. Selective catalytic reduction: exhaust after treatment for reducing nitrogen oxide emissions. http://www.mtu-online.com/fileadmin/fm-dam/mtu-global/technical-info/white-papers/ MTU_White_Paper_SCR_EN.pdf 50. Integrated marine and coastal area management (IMCAM) approaches for implementing the convention on biological diversity. http://www.cbd.int/doc/publications/cbd-ts-14.pdf 51. Stationary diesel engines (NSPS). Catalytic converters. http://www.dieselnet.com/standards/ us/stationary.php 52. Gas turbine technology for advanced cruise ships. http://www.touchbriefings.com/pdf/858/ jofs.pdf, Lowering space requirements and costs 53. SO2 from ships new proposal. http://www.euissuetracker.com/en/focus/Pages/SO2-fromShips-New-Proposal.aspx 54. Strategy to reduce atmospheric emissions from seagoing ships. http://www.europa.eu/ legislation_summaries/environment/tackling_climate_change/l28131_en.htm 55. Clean oil reduces engine fuel consumption. http://www.machinerylubrication.com/Read/401/ oil-engine-fuel-consumption 56. Combination and integration of DPF-SCR after treatment technologies. Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) 2011. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/vehiclesandfuels/pdfs/ merit_review_2011/adv_combustion/ace025_rappe_2011_o.pdf 57. Diesel particle filter regeneration. http://www.gillet.com/en/diesel_particle_filter_ regeneration 58. LNG boil-off re-liquefaction plants and gas combustion units. DNN Classification notes No. 61.2, 2006. http://www.exchange.dnv.com/Publishing/CN/CN61-2.pdf 59. Sky Sails. Forum 03/2007, pp 68–70. ISBN: 1865-4266 60. Freighters and tankers ship will sail using solar energy. http://www.solarcellssale.info/newssolar-cells/freighters-tankers-ship-will-sail-solar-energy.html 61. Future vision for PV: a vision for PV technology up to 2030 and beyond. http://www.ec. europa.eu/research/energy/photovoltaics/introduction_en.html 62. Navy ship propulsion technologies: Option for reducing oil use-background for congress. Order Code RL 33360 m 2006. http://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/weapons/RL33360.pdf 63. Hydrogen powered ship energy balance. http://www.ergobalance.blogspot.com/2008/01/ hydrogen-powered-ship.html 64. Dirigibles, Zeppelins, and Blimps. Airships. The Hindenburg and other Zeppelins. http:// www.airships.net/dirigible

Chapter 18

Interaction Between Future Transportation Technology and Future Fuel Supply

It seems to be a remarkable fact that discoveries and inventions for transportation were made at nearly similar time intervals in history because technology, legislation, and financial conditions influence all sectors of transportation in a very similar way (see Table 18.1) [1]. Can technology generally solve the problems of mobility and save the longterm transportation? The answer is more sited and not simply to form.

18.1 Time Dependency The lack of time limits for future development is the main unsolved problem of strategies. The dependence on ‘‘time’’ is common in all sectors of transportation but the interpretation of time intervals is different [2]. The construction, production, marketing or inspection, and maintenance phase of vehicles, airplanes and ships is measured in months or years. The reference value is based on the subjective sense of time, depending on temporal experiences of human beings. This scale could lead to false conclusions and uncertainties or even qualitative mistakes in the interpretation of trends and prognoses. The most critical situations are expected in the interaction of fuel supply and engineering technology. The description of possible scenarios with analysis of future developments in transportation can foresee qualitative changes only in a limited way. For this reason, only some basic relationships between fuel supply and engineering technology can be examined.

18.2 Saving Fuel Saving fuel is the most important measure for the protection of the environment and the climate. Development will be shaped by saving resources, decelerating fuel consumption, supporting technical developments, and producing new type of M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7_18,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

297

1750 • 1765 first steam engine • 1768 steam car for military transport (4 km h-1) • 1786 steam car for passenger transport 1850 • 1813 stationary gas engine • 1865 two-stroke atmospheric engine without compression (3 HP) • 1878 four-stroke compression engine • 1887 three-wheeled car • 1897 self ignition engine • 1899 first commercial vehicle 1900 • 1900 delivery open cab truck • 1903 mass production of cars • 1934 front wheel drive • 1942 mechanical turn off indicator with internal light

Ship

• 1903 high speed liner ‘‘Vandal’’ • 1913 ‘‘Vandal’’ rebuilt as a warship with diesel–electric transmission • ca. 1920 coal replaced by heavy navy fuel oil • ca. 1940 first ship diesel engine

(continued)

• 1903 war production • 1909 automobile market increasing (GB used 1 million liters of gasoline per year) • 1939 war production • 1945 increasing prices worldwide

• 1857–1859 drilling for oil in Romania, Germany and in the USA • 1861 distillation of navy oil • 1876 distillation of gasoline • 1892 distillation of diesel oil

• ca. 1750 kerosene used as a lubricant • ca. 1800 lamp oil

Fuel

18

• 1903 airplane ‘‘Flyer’’ (12 s, 53 m, i.e., 174 ft) • 1909 crossing the English Channel • 1919 commercial aircraft ‘‘F13‘‘ • 1930 jet engine • 1937 helicopter ‘‘VS 300’’ • 1939 jet aircraft ‘‘HE-178’’

• 1783 flight with captive balloon • 1807 merchant vessel ‘‘North River’’ with a steam engine lighter than air • 1784 hydrogen balloon crosses • 1812 steam surface condenser with elimination of water in the the English Channel boiler • 1852 airship with steam engine • ca. 1870 screw propeller • 1877 merchant vessel ‘‘Turbinia’’ (26 km, 85.3 ft) with steam turbine (103 ft, • 1870 balloons used as blockade 27 kn) breakers • ca. 1880 higher steam pressure • 1890 airplane with steam • ca. 1885 multiple expansion engine (50 m, 164 ft) engine • 1890 gliding flight • ca. 1890 effective transmission for steering and propulsion

Table 18.1 History and tendencies in transportation Year Vehicle Airplane

298 Interaction Between Future Transportation Technology and Future Fuel Supply

1950 • Constructions with high weight, but low performance and low rpm • 1972 exhaust turbocharging • ca. 1975 supercharger • 1980 carbon fiber material ‘‘Kevlar’’ 2000 • Improved aerodynamics • Composite substance in construction • Micro controller technology • On-board diagnosing • DI, HCCI, combined combustion system CCS • Mass produced hybrid car • Experimental electric car

Table 18.1 (continued) Year Vehicle • 1956 1st oil crisis • 1970 2nd oil crisis • ca. 1980 introduction of synthetic and biogenic fuels • ca. 1980 drilling down to 6,000 m

• 1955 gas turbine in warships • 1960 nuclear powered merchant vessel ‘‘Arctica’’ • 1986 steam turbine replaced by diesel electric propulsion in ‘‘Queen Elisabeth II’’ • ca. 1990 use of LNG as fuel in liquid tankers • Tendency to larger hull of merchant vessels • Double hull • Fast monohull • Ring propeller • Linear jet • Pod propulsion • Decreasing SFC and exhaust gas emissions • Solar power • Sky Sails

• 1952 regular civil traffic with jet aircraft between London and Johannesburg • 1967 rocket engine airplane ‘‘X15’’ • 1976 fastest reconnaissance airplane of the world ‘‘SR 71’’ • 1980 Fly by Wire in ‘‘Concord’’ • Higher temperatures and pressures in the combustion chamber • Higher bypass ratio and thrust • Satellite based navigation • First whole plastic and CFC material airplane

• Exploitation rates at 50% by water injection • Tertiary recovery methods by hot steam and water injection with tenside mixtures in deep soil layers • Excessive production of biomass for BTL worldwide • Saving environment and resources

Fuel

Ship

Airplane

18.2 Saving Fuel 299

300

18

Interaction Between Future Transportation Technology and Future Fuel Supply

100

depletion of mineral oil supply

[%]

80 60

increase of CO 2 concentration in air

40

decomposition time depending on top concentration level

20 0 0

200

400

600

800

1,000

1,200

1,400

year

Fig. 18.1 Relation between oil consumption and CO2 concentration in air

fuels. However, the introduction of new types of fuels into the market will take a long time. According to current perceptions, the development of biogenic and synthetic fuels will probably proceed slowly. The technology of the next decades will permit blending traditional fuels such as diesel and gasoline with synthetic fuels, biogenic fuels, or compressed natural gas but this single measure will only moderately improve complex efficiency. The technical development of all means of transportation will take place over a number of human generations in comparison to the development of fuel production. The combustion of fuels and the existing of combustion end products in the atmosphere impact the environment and climate for much longer periods of time than the life cycle of road vehicles, airplanes, and ships. So, the decomposition time of CO2 takes hundreds of years; see Fig. 18.1. The time period ‘‘1 year’’ has a different meaning in transportation and in the resource system. A circulation of 10 years in technical development is adequate compared to 1,000 years of transportation’s effects on the environment and on resources. An optimal organized balance between both time levels is the main task of engineering technology, and environment, climate, and energy protection.

18.3 Summary and Recommendations: Scenarios of Future Transportation The time intervals in which new technologies penetrate the market, play a decisive role in development. A new technology must be reliable, safe, and the operating costs have to be more favorable than existing technologies in road, air, and sea transportation, otherwise new solutions will not be accepted by consumers. After the Second World War, futurologists already intensively searched for scenarios to analyze the future. Even transportation was considered in the context of quickly changing and developing cultural values to those time. Since this period in history, petroleum products have been used in 98% of the world’s transportation [3].

18.3

Summary and Recommendations: Scenarios of Future Transportation

301

Peak Oil (PO) time is the time point when the world oil consumption will reach its highest level at around 97 9 106 barrel per day, i.e., approximately 5 9 109 t per year. This time point is expected in this century [4]. Saving fuel between 0.1 and 1.0% with intelligent monitoring technology could mean a financial benefit from €140 to 1,400 thousand million, i.e., US $200–2,000 thousand million. Future transport will strongly depend on the market penetration of new fuel types. However, there are only restricted possibilities to substitute new fuel types for traditional fuels. For this reason, saving fuel will be the most important measure to take for a long time. The longer the epoch of using petroleum in transportation, the bigger are the chances of developing technology, ecology, economy, society, and politics. Saving fuel is the only way into the future.

References 1. Jahresbericht (2006) InstitutfürZukunftsstudienundTechnologiebewertung. Berlin, April 2007. http://www.izt.de 2. Hopp V, Berninger G, MathematischeFunktionen zur BeschreibungvonVorgängen in NaturundTechnik. GITFachzeitschrift Lab. 8/87, pp 682–691 3. Kahn H (1980) Die Zukunftder Welt 1980–2000, 2nd edn. Fritz MoldenVerlag, München. ISBN: 3-217-00376-4 4. Ölfördermaximum. http://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globales_Ölfördermaximum

Appendix A Applied Units and Conversions

Table A.1 Base units of the International System of Units (SI) (Système International d’Unités) Description Name Symbol Length Mass Time Electric current Absolute temperature Amount of a substance Light intensity Flat angle Rigid angle

Meter Kilogram Second Ampere Kelvin Mole Candela Radian Steradian

m kg s A K Mol Cd R Sr

Table A.2 Supplementary units of the International System of Units (SI) (Système International d’Unités) Description

Name

Definition

Frequency Strength

Hertz Newton Pond Dyn

1 1 1 1

Hz = s-1 N = 1 kg m s-2 = 105 dyn p = 9.807 9 10-3 N dyn = 10-5 N

Poundal Pound-force Ton-force Pascal Phys. atmosphere

1 1 1 1 1

Conversions pdl = 0.138 N lbf = 4.448 N tonf = 9.964 kN Pa = 1 N m-2 atm = 1.01325 9 105Pa = 760 Torr = 1.01325 bar = 1.03327 at

Mechanical tension

(continued) M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

303

304

Appendix A: Applied Units and Conversions

Table A.2 (continued) Description

Name

Definition

Techn. atmosphere

1 at = 0.980623 9 105Pa = 735.559 Torr = 10 m WS = 104 kp m-2 = 0.96780 atm 1 Torr = 133.3 Pa = 1.333 mbar = 1 mm Hg 1 Pa = 9.86923 9 10-6 atm = 7.50062 9 10-3 Torr = 10-5 bar 1 bar = 1 dyn m-2 = 105 Pa 1 kp m-2 = 9.807 Pa = 9.678 9 10-5 atm = 10-4 at

Torricelli Pascal Bar Kilopond per m2

Energy

Pound per square inch Pound-weight per square foot Poundal per square foot Ton-weight per square foot Joule Volt-Ampere second Electron volt Calorie Meter kilopond Kilowatt hour

Performance

Electricity Temperature

Pound-weight foot British thermal unit Ton of coal equivalent Ton of oil equivalent Horsepower hour (UK, US) Watt

Horsepower Pound-weight foot per second British thermal unit per hour Volt Temperature difference Degree Celsius Degree Fahrenheit

Conversions psi = 6,894.757 Pa lbf ft-2 = 47.88 Pa pdl ft-2 = 1.488 Pa ton ft-2 = 107.3 kPa J = 1 N m = 1 Ws = 0.2388 cal = 0.102 kp m = 2.778 9 10-7 kWh 1V A s = 1 J = 107 erg = 0.101kp m = 0.238846 cal = 6.241 9 1018 eV 1 eV = 1.60219 9 10-19 J = 1.6335 9 10-20 kp m = 96.485 kJ mol-1 = 23.061 kcal mol-1 1 cal = 4.187 J = 0.427 kp m = 3.97 9 10-3 BTU 1 kp m = 9.807 J = 2.342 cal = 6.122 9 1019 eV 1 kW h = 1.341 HP h = 860 kcal = 367,097 kp m = 3.6 9 106 J = 3,412 BTU

1 1 1 1 1

Conversions lbf ft = 0.138 kp m = 1.356 J BTU = 0.252 kcal = 107.6 kp m = 1 055.56 J tce = 2.931 9 1010 J toe = 4.187 9 1010 J HPhr = 0.7457 kWh = 641.616 kcal = 273 959 kp m = 2.649 9 106 J 1 W = 1 J s-1 = 0.856 kcal h-1 = 1.36 9 10-3 HP = 0.101 972 kp m s-1

1 1 1 1 1

Conversions 1 HP = 550 lbf ft s-1 = 745.670 W 1 lbf ft s-1 = 1.356 W 1 BTU hr-1 = 0.2931 W 1 V = 1 W A-1 1 K = tC + 273.15 = 5/9 (tF-32) + 273.15 1oC = tK- 273.15 tc = 5/9 (tF - 32) 1F = 9/5 (tk -273.15) + 32 tF = 9/5 tc+ 32

Appendix A: Applied Units and Conversions

305

Table A.3 Additional units of the International System of Units (SI) (Système International d’Unités) Description

Name

Symbol

Definition

Time

Minute Hour Day Year Mega year Giga year Degree Meter

min h d a Ma Ga  m

Kilometer

km

1 min = 60 s 1 h = 3.6 9 103 s 1 d = 8.64 9 104 s 1 a = nrl. 3.155 9 107 s 1 Ma = 106 years = 3.155 9 1013 s 1 Ga = 109 years = 3.155 9 1016 s 1 = (p 180-1) rad 1 m = 100 centimeter (cm) = 103 millimeter (mm) 1 km = 1,000 m = 106mm = 0.621 mi

Statute mile Nautical mile Inch Foot Yard League Fathom Cable Sea league Square meter

Conversions mi nmi in ft yd lq fa cl slq m2

Square kilometer

km2

Square inch Square foot Square rod Square yard Acre Square mile Liter Cubic meter

Conversions in2 ft2 r2 yd2 ac mi2 l m3

Cubic foot Cubic yard Cubic inch Pint (US) Pint (UK) Quart (US) Quart (UK) Gallon (US) Gallon (UK) Barrel (US) Dry barrel (US) Gross register tonnage

Conversions cu ft cu yd cu in pt (US) pt (UK) qt (US) qt (UK) gal (US) gal (UK) bbl dbbl GRT

Flat angle Length

Area

Volume

1 mi = 1 760 yd = 1.609 km 1 nmi = 1.852 km 1 in = 2.54 cm 1 ft = 12 in = 0.305 m 1 yd = 3 ft = 0.914 m 1 lq = 3 mi = 4.828 km 1 fa = 6 feet = 1.829 m 1 cl = 608 feet = 185.31 m 1 slq = 3 nmi = 5.556 km 1 m2 = 104 square centimeter (cm2) = 106 square millimeter (mm2) 1 km2 = 100 hectare (ha) = 104 Ar (a) = 106 m2 1 in2 = 6.45 cm2 = 6.45 9 10-4 m2 1 ft2 = 144 sq in = 0.093 m2 1 r2 = 30.25 sq ya = 25.29 m2 1 yd2 = 9 sq ft = 0.836 m2 1 ac = 4,840 sq yd = 4 047 m2 1 mi2 = 2.589 km2 11 = 1 dm3 = 0.264 gal (US) = 0.22 gal (UK) 1 m3 = 103 cubic decimeter (dm3) = 103 liter (1) = 106 cubic centimeter (cm3) = 106 milliliter (ml)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

ft3 = 1,728 in3 = 28.317 dm3 yd3 = 27 ft3 = 0.765 m3 in3 = 16.387 cm3 pt (US) = 0.473 l pt (UK) = 0.568 l qt (US) = 2 pints (US) = 0.946 1 qt (UK) = 2 pints (UK) = 1.137 1 gal (US) = 4 quarts (US) = 3.785 l gal (UK) = 4 quarts (UK) = 4.546 1 bbl = 42 gal (US) = 158.987 1 = 0.159 m3 dbbl = 0.1156 m3 GRT = 100 ft3 = 2.8317 m3

(continued)

306

Appendix A: Applied Units and Conversions

Table A.3 (continued) Description

Name

Symbol

Definition

Mass

Kilogram Ton Kiloton

kg t kt

1 kg = 103 gram = 106 milligram = 2.205 lb 1 t = 103 kg 1 kt = 106 kg

Pound Ounce Hundredweight (UK) Long ton (UK)

Conversions lb oz cwt ltn

1 1 1 1

Conversions mpg (US) mpg (UK) mpg (UK/US)

1 mpg (US) = 235.21 l 9 100 km-1 1 mpg (UK) = 282.48/l 9 100 km-1 1 mpg (UK) = 1.2 mpg (US)

g kWh-1 g HPh-1 LHV g km-1 oz mi-1 mW m-2 P

1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Density

Speed

Short ton (US) Slug Kilogram per liter Pound per cubic foot Pound per gallon (UK) Pound per gallon (US) Meter per second Foot per minute Miles per hour Knot

Fuel consumption

Liter per 100 km

Miles by gallon (US) Miles by gallon (UK) Miles by gallon (UK/US) Gram per kilowatt hour Gram per horsepower hour Lower heating value of fuel Specific emissions Gramm per kilometer Ounce per mile Radiation forcing Milliwatt per square meter Dynamic viscosity Poise

Kinematic viscosity

lb = 16 ounces (oz) = 0.454 kg oz = 28.35 g cwt = 112 Ib = 50.802 kg ltn = 20 cwt = 2,240 Ib = 1.016 metric t = 1,016 kg shtn 1 shtn = 2,000 Ib = 0.907 metric t = 907 kg sl 1 sl = 14.594 kg 1 kg dm-3 = 1 t m-3 = 1 g cm-3 = 103 kg m-3 kg dm-3 lb ft-3 1 lb ft-3 = 16.018 kg m-3 = 0.016018 kg t-1 1 lb gal -1 (UK) 1 lb gal -1 (UK) = 0.099776 t m-3 lb gal-1 (US) 1 lb gal-1 (US) = 0.11983 t m-3 m s-1 1 m s-1 = 3.6 km h-1 = 2.237 mph 1 ft min-1 = 5.08 9 10-3 m s-1 = 1.83 9 10-2 ft min-1 km h-1 = 1.14 9 10-2 mph mph 1 mph = 1.609 km h-1 = 0.447 m s-1 kn 1 kn = nautical or sea mile per hour = nmi h-1 = 1.852 km h-1 = 0.514 m s -1 -1 1 9 100 km 1 l 9 100 km-1 = 282/mpg (UK) = 235/mpg (US)

Conversions Pound per foot and second lb (ft s)-1 Pound-force second per lbf s ft-2 square foot Square meter per second m2 s-1

g kWh-1 = 10.527 9 10-6 oz BTU-1 g HPh-1 = 1.360 g kWh-1 LHV = 10,200 kcal kg-1 = 42 707 kJ kg-1 g km-1 = 56.8 9 10-3 oz mi-1 oz mi-1 = 17.543 g km-1 mW m-2 = 636 lbf ft (s yd2)-1 P = 0.010 (kp s) m-2 = 0.1 N s m-2

1 lb (ft s)-1 = 1.487 N s m-2 1 lbf s ft-2 = 47.88 N s m-2 1 m2 s-1 = 106 cSt = 3.6 9 103 m2 h-1

Centistoke

cSt

1 cSt = 10-6 m2 s

Square foot per second Square foot per hour

Conversions ft2 s-1 ft2 h-1

1 ft2 s-1 = 0.0929 m2 s-1 1 ft2 h-1 = 2.5806 9 10-5 m2 s-1

-1

= 10-2 St

Appendix A: Applied Units and Conversions

307

Table A.4 Prefixes of the SI International System of Units ((Système International d’Unités) Factor Name Symbol 1018 1015 1012 109 106 103 102 10 10-1 10-2 10-3 10-6 10-9 10-12 10-15 10-18

Exa Peta Tera Giga Mega Kilo Hecto Deca Deci Centi Milli Micro Nano Pico Femto Atto

E P T G M K H Da d c m l n p f a

Table A.5 Units of concentration Name

Symbol

Definition

Percent parts per hundred Parts per million Parts per million Parts per billion Parts per trillion

% ppm (v) ppm (m) ppb ppt

10-6 to volume 10-6 to mass 10-9 10-12

Table A.6 Conversion factors Unit PJ

TWh

106 t CU coal unit

106 t ROU Crude Oil Unit

1 Petajoule (PJ) 1 Terawatt hour (TWh) 106 t CU 106 t ROU

0.2778 1 8.14 11.63

0.0341 0.123 1 1.429

0.0239 0.0861 0.7 1

1 3.6 29.308 41.69

308

Appendix A: Applied Units and Conversions

Table A.7 Calculation of weight to volume Physical properties Fuel sorts

Mineral oil (medium) Gasoline Diesel oil

Density by 15C (59F) g ml-1 (lb ft-3) ca. 0.862 (53.82) 0.725–0.780 (45.26–48.69) 0.820–0.845 (51.19–52.75)

1 ton equals liter l

barrel bbl

ca. 1,160

ca. 7.3

1,280–1,380

8.1–8.7

1,180–1,220

7.4–7.7

About the Author

Professor Palocz-Andresen studied mechanical engineering and energy systems at the TU Montan University Mining Academy Freiberg, Saxony Germany. Finishing his PhD in 1978, he later became a scientist at the University of Karlsruhe at the Engler-Bunte-Institute and received his habiliation in 1993. At Maihak AG, Hamburg, he was the head of Environmental Application Analysis. He is a professor for Environmental and Climate Protection at the University of West Hungary in Sopron (Oedenburg). At the Leuphana University in Lüneburg he is has been offered a guest chair for Sustainable Transportation. Professor Palocz-Andresen holds 50 German and 3 international patents which are registered in approximately 40 countries. He has directed 35 technical scientific projects in the energy industry, in gas supply technology, in water and waste water analysis technology, in mobility research, in micro measurement techniques, and in climate protection. Professor Palocz-Andresen is a member of the Committee ‘‘New Innovations’’ of the Chamber of Commerce Hamburg and of the ‘‘Meeting of the Respectable Merchants’’ in Hamburg. M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

309

310

About the Author

In this book, covering all areas of transportation such as road vehicles, airplanes, and ships, solutions for economical and environmentally friendly technology are being examined. Fuel consumption, combustion processes, control, and the limitation of pollutants in exhaust gas are important environmental problems, for which guidelines such as 98/69/EC, 99/96, and 582/2011 determine the measuring technology and the processes for the reduction of fuel consumption and exhaust gas emissions. In addition to technological solutions, the consequences of international legislation and its effects on environmental and climate protection, and sustainability in the area of transportation are discussed.

Index

A Acceleration and brake phase, 211 Acceleration resistance, 55 Acid rain, 83, 228 Active filter system, 38, 291 Active sound reduction, 278 Additive, 15, 19, 26 Aerodynamic condition, 279 Aerodynamic resistance , 114, 124, 278 Aeronautical information, 215 Aerosol, 228 Aggressive driving characteristic, 175 Agricultural area, 246 Air conditioning, 110, 123, 176 Air corridor, 234 Air resistance, 110, 118, 126 Air space, 45 Air traffic control clearance, 214 Air traffic service, 214 Airbag, 55, 98 Airfoil, 51, 112, 113 Airframe, 113, 126, 132 Airline timetable, 233 Airplane, 55, 65, 92 Airplane manufacturer, 205, 277 Airspace block, 219 Airspace congestion, 219 Airworthiness requirement, 178, 180, 182 All-electric airplane, 282 Altitudes of flight, 232 Aluminum-lithium alloy, 277 Ambient or outside air, 175 Angle of attack, 279 Anti-corrosion protection, 23

Approach control service, 215 Aromatic hydrocarbon, 15, 17, 28 Arrival route, 214, 218 Artificial laminar flow, 280 Asphaltene, 28 Atmosphere, 93, 241 Automatic transmission, 123 Auxiliary device, 95, 175, 222 Average noise emission level, 242 Aviation infrastructure, 214, 215

B Basic pollution level, 175 Battery, 268, 281 Beacon technology, 221 Benzene, 15 Biogenic fuel, 21, 26, 246 Biomass, 22, 124, 227 Blended fuel, 287 Boiling point, 19 Boundary layer, 280 Braking, 39, 123, 211 Bulk carrier, 75, 159, 254 Bunker fuel, 258, 288 Bunker tank, 27 Burner, 38, 65, 143 Butane gas, 24

C Cabin noise, 51 Calculation of risk, 202 CAN bus communication, 193

M. Palocz-Andresen, Decreasing Fuel Consumption and Exhaust Gas Emissions in Transportation, Green Energy and Technology, DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-11976-7,  Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2013

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312

C (cont.) Carbon dioxide, 1, 91 Carbon monoxide, 1, 91 Cargo heating, 237 Cargo vessel, 50 Catalyst function, 193 Catalyst heating, 193 Catamaran, 53, 54, 56 Certified analyzer, 175 Charcoal, 21 Charging air pressure, 197 Chemical composition, 3 Chemical reformation, 19 Cirrus cloud formation, 241 Civil air transportation, 276 Civil aviation, 24, 179, 252 Civilian airports, 284 Classification society, 183 Cleaning process, 39 Climate change, 184, 234, 250 Climate gas, 1, 240 Climate protection, 159, 240 Climbing, 217, 218, 224 Coastal surveillance, 221 Cockpit, 66, 101, 252 Cockpit and cabin personnel, 251 Cold start, 62, 143 Collision with ground, 217 Combustion chamber, 19, 86, 138 Combustion process, 3, 21, 167 Commercial vehicle, 34, 35, 177 Composite and fiber glass strengthened material, 239 Composite material, 51, 130, 277 Compression ratio, 139, 278 Compressor, 154, 167, 265 Computer aided traffic steering, 55 Computer display, 175 Computer supported diagnostic method, 192 Condensation of water vapor, 174 Conductivity, 51, 59 Congestion, 55, 211, 270 Consumption quota, 3 Container ship, 46, 49, 115 Control cycle, 3, 176, 177 Control system, 101, 183, 291 Controlled area, 215 Conventional fuel, 26, 29, 246 Conventional jet airplane, 258 Conversion of methane to hydrogen, 276 Conversion of real operation, 8 Convertible, 35, 248 Cooling, 123, 143, 165

Index Cost of automobile, 248 Crack component, 16, 19 Cracking, 24, 28 Crankshaft, 143, 144, 265 Crew member, 75, 202, 203 Cross section area, 278 Cruise ship, 49, 285, 289 Cruising, 45, 254, 277 Cryogenic tank, 21 Cryogenization, 275 Crystallization, 19 Curved trajectory, 279 Customized change, 251 Cyclone, 234 Cylinder, 138, 139, 167

D Data recorder, 203 Data transfer system, 193 Deactivator, 16 Decomposition time, 149, 229, 300 De-icing, 279 Delayed start of the catalyst, 266 Developing country, 228, 249 Diagnostic function, 195 Diesel engine, 132, 159, 163 Diesel fuel, 13, 16, 23 Digital distress signal, 221 Diluted exhaust gas, 174 Dimethyl ether, 23 Dirigible, 293 Disc brake, 39 Distillation process, 24 Distress communication, 183 Distribution of lift force, 279 Double side bulk, 256 Driving assistant, 213 Driving cycle, 174, 175, 177 Driving route, 175 Durability, 248, 253, 274

E Economic calculation, 251 Efficiency, 112, 124, 203 Electric booster, 266 Electric motor vehicle, 137, 271, 275 Electric powered propeller, 281 Electrochemical technique, 6 Electrodes of the fuel cell, 276 Electromagnetic compatibility, 188 Electronic checkpoint, 211

Index Electronic detection of errors, 193 Electronic stability program, 55 Embedded electronic module, 254 Emergency fuel, 27 Emergency response operation, 221 Emergency service, 249 Emission, 82 Empty weight, 47, 251, 281 Emulsion, 23, 285, 293 Energy density, 26 Engine control device, 194 Engine technology, 170, 171, 197 Environmental and climate protection, 170, 185, 240 Environmentally friendly vehicle fuel, 14 Equipment of the aircraft, 216 Erosion in the compressor, 200 Established route structure, 292 Ethanol, 22, 26 Euro 5 and Euro 6 norms, 15 European directive, 10 Evaporation, 16, 24, 228 Excessive braking, 265 Exhaust gas, 84, 160, 267 Exhaust gas after treatment system, 84, 160, 267 Exhaust gas quality, 23, 163, 174 Exhaust gas refeeding, 39, 193 Extended flap, 218, 277

F Fast re-distribution of weight, 279 Fast regulated loudspeakers, 278 Fatal accidents, 249 Fermentation, 22 Ferry, 52, 257 Field elevation, 218 Fighter, 51, 253, 281 Filter system, 38, 292 Financing cost, 252 Fire fighting, 279 Fireproof and corrosion resistant material, 182 Fischer-Tropsch synthesis, 22, 29 Fishing vessel, 51 Flammable substance, 27 Flash point, 19, 24, 26 Fleet management, 75, 159, 210 Flight by radar, 218 Flight condition, 214 Flight frequency, 233 Flight profile, 218, 224 Flight test for production, 251 Flow rate, 174, 175, 180

313 Flywheel, 268 Fossil fuel, 23, 240, 275 Four-seat family-car, 264 Framework, 184, 240 Free flying area, 217, 224, 293 Freight transportation, 4, 204, 264 Freighter, 48, 281, 283 Friction loss, 169 Friction resistance, 280 Fuel cell, 274, 278, 290 Fuel consumption, 1, 117, 237 Fuel level detection, 10 Fuel saving economy, 45 Fuel saving technology, 159 Fuselage, 113, 281, 283

G Gas bubble, 16 Gas station, 13 Gas turbine, 26, 132, 149 Gasoline, 13, 257 Gear, 121, 123, 132 General aviation aircraft, 41 Geothermal energy, 260 Glass fiber strengthened composite material, 51 Glide ratio, 280 Global transportation, 245 Global warming on the Earth, 227 Gradual distillation, 16 Ground control, 227 Ground handling equipment, 277 Guideline, 42, 175

H Harbor, 93, 204, 260 Hazardous material, 183 Heat insulation, 51, 141, 241 Heating value, 13, 19, 25 Heavy commercial vehicle, 177, 187 Heavy duty vehicles, 39, 63, 187 Heavy marine fuel oil, 71, 258 Heavy metal, 238 Heavy storm with constant rain, 290 Helicopter, 41, 51 Heterocyclic nitrogen, 28 Hexane, 24 High durability, 72, 156, 253 High sea, 214 High speed four-stroke marine diesel engine, 162 High strength aluminum alloy, 40

314

H (cont.) Holding time, 176 Homogenous mixing, 229 Honeycomb sandwich construction module, 283 Horizontal distance, 215 Hot start, 16, 177, 187 Hot-test, 176 Humidity, 9, 93, 234 Hurricane, 234 Hydrocarbon, 82, 180, 228 Hydrocracking, 275 Hydrodynamic, 109, 117, 260 Hydrodynamic lubrication, 19 Hydrogen, 26, 274, 290 Hydrogen to carbon relationship, 19

I Ignition quality, 19 Improved maneuvering, 278 Industrial current connection, 270 In-flight data exchange, 224 Infrastructure, 11, 260, 293 Inhibition of the catalyst, 276 Initial climb, 217 Injection system, 16, 137, 167 Inland and coast navigation, 294 Inland shipping, 116, 117, 225 Inland waterway, 119, 188, 224 Inspection, 191, 192, 205 Insulation blanket, 51 Insurance cost, 252 Integrated telecommunication system, 209 Intelligent monitoring technology, 301 Intelligent recharging station, 272 Internal combustion engine, 125, 271, 291 International trade, 28 Interpretation of time intervals, 297 Irregular operation of engine, 193, 195

J Japanese 10?15 mode, 177 Jet engine, 149, 200, 259 Jet fuel A, 24 Jet fuel B, 24

K Kerosene, 13, 24, 26 Kevlar, 51

Index L Lack of time limit, 297 Landing and navigation fee, 252 Landing cycle, 199 Landing gear, 198, 218 Last minute change in infrastructure, 293 Lead emission, 250 Lead–acid battery, 270 Leakage of exhaust gas, 182 Level of emission, 90, 241, 287 Life cycle of ship, 255 Light duty vehicle, 10, 38, 62 Light gasoil, 27 Light plastic, 239 Lightning strike, 234 Ligneous cellulose, 22 Limited airspace, 232 Limiting value, 3, 10, 90 Linear extrapolation, 245 Liquid fuel, 13, 26, 185 Liquid hydrogen, 275 Liquid paraffin, 19, 21 Liquidity of the shipping company, 255 Lithium-ion battery, 270, 274 Load of the engine, 9, 65 Local environment, 211 Long distance transport, 263, 271 Long range flight, 26, 280 Low boiling end point, 15

M Main engine, 28, 99, 237 Main propulsion, 117 Maintenance cost, 47, 127, 192 Maintenance philosophy, 199 Malfunction, 105, 196, 205 Maneuvering load, 279 Marine diesel engine, 160, 168, 285 Marine pollution, 221 Market forecast, 255 Mass transportation, vi, 241, 272 Maximal exhaust gas temperature, 265 Maximum freight load, 47 Maximum takeoff weight, 47, 254 Mechanical deterioration, 195 Medium speed, 160, 162 Megacities, 271, 292 Member state, 178 Merchant fleet, 51 Merchant ship, 170, 254 Metal container, 270

Index Metal hydrid, 21 Meteorological and navigation information, 220 Methane, 26, 83, 276 Methanol, 22, 26, 276 Methyl tertiary butyl ether, 16 Metric unit system, 1 Micro controller, 5, 8 Micro particle sensor, 197 Micro, mild and full hybrid vehicle, 269 Middle distance airplane, 114 Middle distillate, 27 Mid-size car, 4, 62, 257 Mid-size performance, 268 Military airplane, 41, 51, 99 Military airport, 284 Military aviation, 51 Misfires, 195, 197 Mixed fuel, 22 Mixture adaptation, 193 Mixture tank, 27 Mock up, 251 Modified propeller drive, 278 Molecule, 24, 28, 241 Monitoring operation condition, 203 Motor octane number, 16 Motor vehicle, 18, 173, 272

N Narrow body airplane, 45 National authority in aviation, 178 Natural gas, 19, 255, 276 Navigation, 209, 219, 235 Navigational warning, 221 Navy gasoil, 27 New distribution system, 288 New energy storage system, 259 New propfan engine, 278 New technology, 242, 268, 300 Nitrogen dioxide, 1, 91 Nitrogen monoxide, 1, 91 Nitrogen oxide emission, 185, 285 Noise insulation of the fuselage, 278 Noise level, 242 Nomenclature of components, 193 Nominal condition, 8, 59 Non-perishable good, 258 Normal aging process, 195 Nose landing gear, 198 Nuclear power, 293 Number of revolution, 97, 160, 265

315 O Obstructions in the vicinity of the airport, 216 Oceanographic forecast, 221 Octane number, 16 Oil fired boiler, 51 Oil production, 245 On-board electricity, 290 Open rotor jet engine, 252 Operating cost, 203, 251 Operation parameter, 138, 141, 155 Optical sensor, 209, 222 Optimal bunkering, 260 Organic lithium electrolytic solution, 270 Overhaul interval, 202 Oversized glider, 280, 282 Oxygen, 13, 95, 195 Ozone, 227, 228, 241

P Particle, 81, 197, 291 Particle filter, 160, 268, 291 Passenger airplane, 257, 281, 293 Passenger car, 175–177 Passenger kilometer, 1, 241 Passenger mile, 1 Passive filter system, 38 Payload, 55, 113 Peak travel time, 41 Pentane, 24 Performance, 49, 128, 144 Permissible engine temperature, 271 Petrol, 13, 15, 27 Petroleum refining, 27 Photovoltaic solar power, 290 Pilot-controller communication, 217 Pilot rating, 217 Piston engine, 278 Pollutant, 126, 211, 292 Position of vehicle, 209 Positive displacement compressor, 266 Power factor, 271 Pre-defined norm, 4 Present data, 6 Pressure regulator, 60 Pressure sensor, 86, 92, 103 Preventive maintenance, 202, 205 Prices of gasoline and diesel oil, 276 Private jet, 41 Professional decommissioning, 239 Propane, 19 Propeller, 116, 128, 278

316

P (cont.) Propulsion system, 115, 121, 132 Protected sea area, 72 Public parking place, 272 Public transportation, 241, 255

Q Qualification of the crew, 217

R Radar coverage, 227 Radio and satellite navigation, 224 Radio navigation procedure, 216 Radio wave, 214 Rear area of the wing, 277 Rebuilt airplane, 276 Recreational and offshore ship, 220 Recycling, 238–240 Recycling of ships, 240 Refined maritime type of petroleum, 258 Refinery and manufacturer, 288 Refinery process, 19 Reformation of methanol, 276 Refueling, 260, 275 Refueling time, 275 Regular commercial service, 279 Regular supervision, 183 Renewable energy source , 260, 285, 292 Replacing old ships, 255 Research octane number, 16 Resistance to wear, 293 Retrofitting cost, 276 Revolution sensor, 197 Reynolds number, 115, 280 Road traffic, 87, 209, 230 Road vehicle, 34, 55, 121 Roller test bench, 175 Rolling resistance, 111, 118, 124 Rough running, 195, 197 Route network, 233 Rudder assembly, 277 Runtime, 173, 202

S Safety communication, 221 Safety standard, 25, 179, 292 Sampling orifice, 180 Sandwich construction, 46, 283

Index Satellite and terrestrial radio communication, 220 Scenario, 83, 240, 300 Seaborne trade, 47 Seagoing ship, 4, 27 Secondary air system, 193, 195 Sediments of liquid paraffin crystal, 19 Self ignition engine, 139, 257, 264 Sensor signal, 9, 98, 205 Separator system, 28 Service time interval, 279 Settling tank, 27, 72, 73 Ship construction, 33, 128, 168 Ship exhaust gas, 9 Shipping schedule, 204 Shore power, 204, 260 Short distance airplane, 251 Short time power, 270 Single-aisle airplane, 252, 283 Single sky initiative, 292 Slow speed two-stroke marine diesel engine, 168, 170, 293 Slow steaming, 129, 242 Slurry fuel, 28 Smooth driving, 40 Solar, 259, 283, 290 Solar cell powered airplane, 283 Solar cell technology, 290 Soot, 23, 91, 288 Spacecraft, 274 Spark ignition engine, 137, 138, 193 Spatial disorientation, 217 Spoiler, 51, 109, 277 Spoilers in landing gear, 277 Spraying, 24, 140, 171 Stainless steel, 85, 129, 180 Starting phase, 4, 9 Station wagon, 33, 35, 110 Statutory inspection, 184 Steady wind, 289 Steam boiler, 237 Steam engine, 51, 128, 298 Steam turbine, 51, 298 Steel and aluminum, 118, 166, 239 Steel sheet, 40 Stopping, 131, 174 Storage capacity, 205 Storage of electricity, 273 Storage of hydrogen, 21, 275 Storage of the data, 258 Storage tank, 27

Index Stratosphere, 227, 228 Strengthened wall, 270 Submarine, 132, 274, 290 Substantially changed part, 173 Substitute new fuel type for traditional fuel, 301 Sugar cane, 22, 27, 278 Sulphur, 19, 184, 287 Sulphur content, 19, 28, 184 Sulphur dioxide, 83 Sunflower, 22, 23 Super fuel, 16 Supply tank, 27 Supporting service, 221 Suspension, 40, 121, 131 Sustainable transportation, 231 Synthetic fuel, 30, 240 System trials, 251

T Takeoff weight, 47, 217, 254 Tank, 49, 66, 72 Tank leak diagnosis, 193, 195 Tank ventilation system, 193, 195 Tank volume, 39, 255 Taxiing, 278 Taxiing noise level, 242 Technical improvement, 251 Teflon bag, 174 Temperature sensor, 160 Test bench, 6, 59, 84 Test procedure, 175 Thermal effectiveness, 170, 293 Three-cylinder engine, 265 Thunderstorm zone, 234 Tight steering, 40 Tightness of the filler cap, 195 Tornado, 234 Total CO2 emissions, 245 Total life of parts, 200 Tow kite system, 289 Tower control, 215 Traffic incident report, 215 Traffic jam, 292 Traffic organization, 55, 211, 218 Trailing edge, 51, 279 Trailing flap, 279 Transmission factor, 39 Transportation by road, 53 Transportation by water, 53, 258 Transporter, 279, 281

317 Tropical storm, 234 Troposphere, 227, 232 Trucking firm, 211 Turbine engine, 24, 182 Turbine wheel, 197 Turbocharger, 137, 167, 265 Turbofan engine, 101, 102, 150 Turbo lag, 266 Turboprop engine, 46, 132, 251 Turboshaft engine, 149 Twin-engine, 68 Type approval, 59, 173, 186 Type certification, 173, 181, 258

U Unburned hydrocarbon, 93, 180, 228 Unloaded weight, 39 Unmanned aircraft with hydrogen fuel cell, 282 Unmanned airplane, 252 Upper class car, 38 Upstream to the catalyst, 9 Urban sprawl, 55

V Vacuum gasoil, 27 Vapor lock, 16 Vapor pressure, 16 Variable wing profile, 277 Vehicle, 34, 55, 109 Very large airliner, 258 Vessel, 74, 104, 219 Viscosity, 19 Visible emission, 186 Volatile component, 16 Volatility, 16, 90 Voltage regulator of the engine, 270 Volume specific heating value, 13

W Waiting time at harbor, 260 Waste product, 1 Water, 15, 16, 74 Water–gas, 21 Water vapor, 82, 174, 228 Weather information, 215 Weight of airplane, 258 Weight of vehicle, 231 Weight saving, 277

318

W (cont.) Whole life cycle, 3, 84, 201 Wide body airplane, 45, 46 Wind, 69, 74, 93 Wing, 51, 113, 126 Wing aspect ratio, 280, 281 Wing box, 277 Wing geometry, 277

Index Wing stabilizer, 51 Woody sources, 22 World oil consumption, 245, 301

Z Zirconium dioxide, 6, 86