Dance Production: Design and Technology 9781138795891, 9781138795914, 9781315758183

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Dance Production Dance Production: Design and Technology introduces

This book also features:

you to the skills you need to plan, design, and execute the technical aspects of a dance production. While it

●●

photos of dance productions.

may not seem that staging a dance production is that different from a play or musical, in reality a dance

●●

dancers, designers, and stage managers from

all on its own, from scenery that accommodates

companies such as Paul Taylor Dance Company,

choreography, to lighting design that sculpts the

Martha Graham Dance Company, David Dorfman

body, and costumes that complement movement. This

Dance, Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane Dance Company, and

unique book approaches the process of staging a dance

more.

production from a balanced perspective, making it an

Covering a broad range of topics, author Jeromy Hopgood takes the reader through the process of producing dance from start to finish, including pre-

Interviews with international working professionals in the dance industry, including choreographers,

performance offers up unique intricacies and challenges

essential resource for dancers and designers alike.

Hundreds of full-color illustrations and stunning

●●

Chapter-by-chapter projects and exercises for students.

●●

Companion website with chapter reviews, hand-outs, videos, bonus chapters, and additional projects.

production planning (collaboration, production process,

Jeromy Hopgood is a tenured Associate Professor at

personnel, performance spaces), design disciplines

Eastern Michigan University, where he created the

(lighting, sound, scenery, costumes, projections), stage

Entertainment Design & Technology program—one

management, and more. Bridging the gap between

of the only of its kind in the country. In addition to his

theatrical and dance design, the book includes a quick

teaching, Jeromy has designed more than 100 plays,

reference guide for theatrical and dance terminology,

musicals, dance, and opera productions over the last

useful in giving dancers and designers a common

decade. Jeromy worked at the Williamstown Theatre

working vocabulary that will ensure productive

Festival in its Tony Award-winning season alongside

communication across the different fields.

numerous Broadway designers, and he is an Artistic Associate for the Michigan Shakespeare Festival. Jeromy is also the author of QLab 3 Show Control: Projects for Live Performances and Installations by Focal Press.

Bound to Create Y are a creator. You Whatever your form of expression — photography, y filmmaking, y, animation, games, audio, media communication, web design, or theatre — you simply want to create without limitation. Bound by nothing except your own creativity and determination. Focal Press can help. For over 75 years Focal has published books that support your creative goals. Our founder, r Andor Kraszna-Krausz, established r, Focal in 1938 so you could have access to leading-edge expert knowledge, techniques, and tools that allow you to create without constraint. We strive to create exceptional, engaging, and practical content that helps you master your passion. Focal Press and you. Bound to create.

We’d love to hear how we’ve helped you create. Share your experience: www.focalpress.com/boundtocreate

Dance Production

Design and Technology Jeromy Hopgood

First published 2016 by Focal Press 711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Focal Press 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN Focal Press is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2016 Taylor & Francis The right of Jeromy Hopgood to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Hopgood, Jeromy. Dance production : design and technology / Jeromy Hopgood. pages cm Includes index. 1. Dance–Production and direction. I. Title. GV1782.H66 2016 792.8’4–dc23 2015014133 ISBN: 978-1-138-79589-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-79591-4 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-315-75818-3 (ebk) Typeset in DIN by Servis Filmsetting Ltd, Stockport, Cheshire Additional materials are available on the companion website at www.focalpress.com/cw/hopgood

Contents Acknowledgments ........................................................ viii Introduction...................................................................... 1

Part I: Thinking Ahead 1 Collaboration

Part II: Production Areas 4 Lighting

53

4.1 The Lighting Designer .................................. 54

7

1.1 Team Members and Responsibilities ............. 8

4.2 Functions of Dance Lighting (What Lighting can Accomplish) ............................. 54 4.3 Properties of Dance Lighting

1.2 The Choreographer....................................... 12

(Controllable Qualities of Dance

1.3 The Production Process ............................... 13

Lighting) ........................................................ 57 4.4 Lighting Systems .......................................... 60

1.4 Collaborative Models—How we Work Together? ...................................................... 15

4.5 Lighting Positions and Angles ...................... 62

1.5 Chapter Review ............................................. 18

4.6 Lighting Instruments .................................... 69 4.7 Atmospherics ................................................ 73

Interview The Choreographer’s Perspective: An Interview with Julia Gleich ...................... 19

2 Pre-production Planning

23

2.1 Purpose ......................................................... 24

4.8 Color in Lighting ........................................... 73 4.9 Chapter Review ............................................. 76

5 Creating the Lighting Design

79

2.2 Program Concerns ....................................... 24

5.1 Working with the Choreographer ................. 80

2.3 Performance Space Concerns...................... 27

5.2 Communicating the Design .......................... 81

2.4 Production Calendar ..................................... 27

5.3 Hang and Focus ............................................ 87

2.5 Production Budget ........................................ 31

5.4 Preparing for Technical Rehearsals ............ 88

2.6 Personnel ...................................................... 32

5.5 Technical Rehearsals ................................... 91

2.7 Chapter Review ............................................. 32 Interview The Production Manager’s Perspective: An Interview with Stacey-Jo Marine ............. 32

3 Performance Spaces

5.6 Chapter Review ............................................. 91 Interview The Lighting Designer’s Perspective:

35

An Interview with Seth Reiser ...................... 92

6 Sound

95

3.1 Proscenium Theatres ................................... 36

6.1 Thinking About Sound ................................... 96

3.2 Non-proscenium Theatres ........................... 47

6.2 Sound Design for Dance ............................... 97

3.3 Non-traditional Spaces................................. 49

6.3 Functions of Sound Design ........................... 98

3.4 Chapter Review ............................................. 50

6.4 Properties of Sound Design.......................... 99

v CONTENTS

6.5 Audio Equipment......................................... 100

10.5 Hair and Wigs .............................................. 183

6.6 Sound Systems ........................................... 104

10.6 Make-up Considerations ............................ 184

6.7 Legal Concerns ........................................... 105

10.7 Chapter Review ........................................... 186

6.8 Chapter Review ........................................... 107

7 Creating the Sound Design

11 Creating the Costume Design

189

109

11.1 Working with the Choreographer ............... 190

7.1 Working with the Choreographer ............... 110

11.2 Communicating the Design ........................ 192

7.2 Communicating the Design ........................ 111

11.3 Executing the Design .................................. 196

7.3 Sound Editing and Composition Tools........ 113

11.4 Preparing for Dress Rehearsals ................ 199

7.4 Preparing for Technical Rehearsals .......... 114

11.5 Dress Rehearsals and Beyond ................... 200

7.5 Chapter Review ........................................... 118 An Interview with Sam Crawford ................ 119

8 Scenery and Props

11.6 Chapter Review ........................................... 201 Interview The Costume Designer’s Perspective:

Interview The Sound Designer’s Perspective:

125

An Interview with Liz Prince ....................... 202

12 Projections and Video

207

8.1 Scenic Design.............................................. 126

12.1 The Projection Designer ............................. 208

8.2 Functions of Dance Scenery ....................... 127

12.2 Assessing Projection Needs ....................... 210

8.3 Scenic Elements ......................................... 132

12.3 Functions of Dance Projection Design

8.4 Dance Props................................................ 139 8.5 Chapter Review ........................................... 140

9 Creating the Scenic Design

143

(What Projection Design can Accomplish) ................................................ 214 12.4 Projection Systems ..................................... 218 12.5 Projection Equipment ................................. 219

9.1 Working with the Choreographer ............... 144

12.6 Software Solutions...................................... 222

9.2 Communicating the Design ........................ 145

12.6 A Word About Interactive Dance................. 226

9.3 Design Specifications.................................. 151

12.7 Chapter Review ........................................... 226

9.4 Scenic Construction and Painting .............. 155 9.5 Props Design............................................... 157 9.6 Chapter Review ........................................... 159 Interview The Scenic Designer’s Perspective:

229

13.1 Working with the Choreographer ............... 230 13.2 Communicating the Design ........................ 231

An Interview with Campbell Baird .............. 160

10 Costumes, Hair, and Make-up

13 Creating the Projection Design

165

10.1 The Costume Designer ............................... 166 10.2 Functions of Dance Costumes (What Costumes can Accomplish) .............. 166 10.3 Properties of Dance Costumes (Controllable Qualities of Dance

13.3 Content........................................................ 234 13.4 Preparing for Technical Rehearsals .......... 236 13.5 Technical Rehearsals ................................. 238 13.6 Chapter Review ........................................... 238 Interview The Projection Designer’s Perspective: An Interview with João Beira ...................... 239

14 Stage Management

243

Costumes) ................................................... 170

14.1 The Stage Manager ..................................... 244

10.4 Dance Costume Components ..................... 173

14.2 Pre-production ........................................... 248

vi CONTENTS

14.3 Rehearsals .................................................. 250 14.4 Technical Rehearsals ................................. 253 14.5 During the Run ............................................ 255 14.6 Chapter Review ........................................... 256 Interview The Stage Manager’s Perspective: An Interview with Julie Ballard .................. 257

Part III: Quick Reference 15 Dance Terminology

261

16 Theatre/Stagecraft Terminology

273

Index

283

vii CONTENTS

Acknowledgments The idea for this book as you see it today started in

me to see the work of my students and colleagues

the winter of 2013 while designing lights for a dance

represented in this book alongside the work of some of

concert at Eastern Michigan University, where I teach.

the giants in the dance world.

The roots of this project began many years ago, though. I imagined writing a book like this when working with my first student choreographer over a decade ago, and the idea has resurfaced with every student choreographer or designer I have worked with since. Like every other teacher, I owe my biggest thanks to my students, who always ask the best questions. Keep it up!

I couldn’t have created this book without all of the wonderful photographers who so generously contributed their work. Special thanks to Richard Calmes for the use of his amazing dance photography on the cover of the book, as well as a number of the photos inside. He is an amazing guy and a very talented photographer whose work you should definitely check out (www.pbase.com/rcalmes). Thanks also to Randy

As I began the task of researching, writing, and

Mascharka, the talented university photographer for

compiling illustrations and photos for the text, I had

Eastern Michigan University, who has documented

the distinct pleasure of making some new friends

so much of my work over the years. Zac Whittenberg

and standing on the shoulders of some amazing

and the wonderful folks at Hubbard Street Dance

colleagues. My heartfelt thanks to Campbell Baird of

Chicago truly delivered a treasure trove of production

NYU-Tisch School of the Arts, a true gentleman and a

and behind-the-scenes photos. Thanks, as well, to

scholar (and to Diane D. Fairchild for introducing us).

Lynn Wichern and the Merce Cunningham Trust for

My fondest appreciation also to Julie Ballard, João

assistance in including some of Merce’s amazing work

Biera, Sam Crawford, Julia Gleich, Stacey-Jo Marine,

in photo form.

Liz Prince, and Seth Reiser for being so gracious with their time and providing some insight into the world of professional dance. Thanks to the Appalachian State University Department of Theatre and Dance for giving me my first job that introduced me to a whole other world of design outside of theatre. To John Marty, in particular, thanks for being long-suffering as I delved into rep light plots. Thanks to Eastern Michigan University and the Entertainment Design & Technology program for creating such a wonderful workplace. I can’t say how proud it makes

viii ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

None of this would have been possible without the help of Stacey Walker and Meagan White from Focal Press. Thanks for your support on both this and my first book. It has been a pleasure. Finally, thanks to the people who truly support me every day: my family. Katie and Kira have given up so much time from their weekends, summers, and Christmas break for this project. Thanks for being so supportive of me through everything and always believing in me. To the newest member of the family, Isabella, your timing

was perfect. You arrived a month before the manuscript was due and missed out on all the drama. Here’s to making up all those lost days along the way, ladies.

ix ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

INTRODUCTION Coming together is a beginning; keeping together is progress; working together is success. Henry Ford

The Solitude. Choreography and Direction: Source line Julia to K. goGleich. here Photography by Lucas Chilczuk.

●

You have to love dancing to stick to it. It gives you

“I can’t talk about lights. I just know what I like when I

nothing back, no manuscripts to store away, no

see it.” Likewise, there is the case of the designer who

paintings to show on walls and maybe hang in

simply puts together a design without understanding

museums, no poems to be printed and sold, nothing

the intent of the dance or moments of significance. In

but that single fleeting moment when you feel alive.

both of these cases, the collaborative process has been

Merce Cunningham Some years ago, I began my foray into dance by taking a few theatrical dance courses as a part of my

short-changed because of the inability of one or more of the collaborators to relate to the creative process on the other side of the fence.

undergraduate theatre training. I had always been

As an educator, I have noticed that those of my students

involved in music since my childhood, so I found dance

who study both theatre and dance seem to have a much

to be a somewhat natural extension of that side of my

easier go of things when staging a production than some

brain. As anyone who had the misfortune of watching

of their peers. That is not to say that they are necessarily

my dance attempts can attest, though, my musical

more gifted students, but they have much less difficulty

ability certainly had no direct correlation with an

in navigating the collaborative process when working

ability to successfully move my body with the music.

as a choreographer or as a designer. This realization

After graduation, I went on to get my MFA in Scenic

brought home for me the importance of establishing a

and Lighting Design and spent very little time thinking

common language for communicating across the two

about dance, unless it was related to a musical theatre

disciplines.

production. My first tenure-track professor position was in the Department of Theatre & Dance at Appalachian State University in North Carolina. As a faculty scenic and lighting designer, my workload was divided across both theatre and dance productions. In many of my interactions with choreographers, I was told that my approach to dance design and the way that I spoke with the choreographers made the collaboration an easy one. Apparently, my background in music and dance went a long way towards making me a better collaborator. This experience taught me an important lesson: though theatre and dance share many similarities as art forms, the artists from these fields tend to come from widely different backgrounds and rarely share a common vocabulary. As a result, collaboration on dance productions have a potential for confusion at a basic level if the collaborators can’t find a way to get past these differences. Frequently, I have heard choreographers say to a designer for their production,

2 INTRODUCTION

In educational productions, I frequently work with student choreographers who may not always have a grasp of the technical side of the production process. I always try to have one or two meetings with them early in their process to discuss how their choices affect the design/tech side of things and vice versa. In some cases, I try to give a bit of a primer to areas like lighting, sound, scenery/props, costumes, and projections to explain how we achieve storytelling through their use. I also ask for an explanation of the intent of the dance piece, what it should communicate, and any special technical needs. This open collaborative process is so very important to establishing a relationship of trust between the choreographer, dancers, and design team. Sometimes this process can be a difficult one. The collaborative process is always complex. Collaborating with team members across multiple disciplines can be downright intimidating. It is for this reason that I decided to

write a book that addresses the specific needs of a multidisciplinary production and allows the reader to see different perspectives on the process.

Format of This Book

the world of the professional artist and his/her own unique process. Part III: Quick Reference is the one aspect of the book that generated the most interest across the board in early peer responses. This section

My goal in writing this textbook is to bridge the

offers up a collection of terms, photos, and

gap between theatrical and dance production by

illustrations to communicate commonly used

establishing a common vocabulary that will ensure

terms or ideas from both dance and theatre.

productive communication across the two disciplines.

This goes a long way towards bridging that gap

The text covers a wide range of design and technology

between the theatre and dance practitioners

components necessary to staging a dance production. In

by establishing a common lexicon. The better

researching the text, I spoke to a number of academics

acquainted we become with the terminology

and professionals to identify the specific needs in

used in a different field, the better prepared

teaching the process of dance production. I contacted

we are to understand and communicate our

individuals from both the dance world and the theatre

needs though collaboration.

world, since it is most often these two disciplines that converge to create a dance production. It is my hope that the text will find a home in both dance and theatre bookshelves, studied by both designers and dancers alike.

I hope that this book should serve the needs of educator and student alike. If you are a teacher, I hope that my end of chapter reviews, hand-outs, and supplemental materials on the companion website (www.focalpress. com/cw/hopgood) are useful in structuring your

The book is structured to provide an introduction to a

semester. I wrote the book to follow the syllabus that I

number of production areas as well as provide valuable

have crafted over the years to guide students through

insight from professionals in the field. There are three

an introduction to production design and technology.

different sections to the book.

For the student, I have tried very hard to keep the

Part I:

Thinking Ahead addresses the early stages of the production process, covering basic concepts such as the collaborative process, production planning, and performance spaces.

Part II:

Production Areas is the largest section of the book. This section covers all of the different design/tech areas of dance production. Typically, the first chapter will introduce you to the production area while the subsequent

writing approachable and conversational. I discovered early in my career that this is the best approach to any classroom. For those outside of academia, I believe you will find the text useful as well. With the addition of hands-on projects, interviews with working professionals, and multimedia materials on the companion website, this book can serve as an excellent handbook to learning more about the world of dance design and technology.

chapter delves into the specifics of the creative

Finally, I think it is worth stating that the content of this

process for that area. Scattered throughout

book is based on my personal experiences as a teacher

the book are interviews with professionals

and designer. I have worked with a number of different

from each of these areas, giving insight into

choreographers and artists over the years. This has

3 INTRODUCTION

helped form my approach to dance production. It is the

conflicts, communication breakdowns, and more.

nature of a textbook to take a stand on certain issues

Ultimately, though, in each of these interactions lies

as preferred practice. For all of that, it is important to

the potential for something wondrous—a dynamic and

recognize that the artistic process is one that depends

unique creation that tells a story more powerfully and

on personal trial and error. Just because something is a

evocatively than any individual could alone. It is that

preferred practice doesn’t necessarily mean that it will

potential that makes the risk worthwhile and drives us

work in every given situation. Artists should always be

onwards.

willing to take chances and experiment. If this book has given you enough information to spark your imagination towards trying out new and different approaches to dance production, then I have done my job well.

In Conclusion The process of creating any work of art through collaboration is a risky endeavor. There is always the possibility for misunderstandings, personality

4 INTRODUCTION

I hope that this book will help you in your personal journey as a collaborative artist and lead you to some new discoveries. I have learned so many interesting things in the course of writing this book. Hopefully, you will find its contents informative, insightful, and expiring. All the best, Jeromy

PART I THINKING AHEAD

CHAPTER 1 COLLABORATION In the long history of humankind (and animal kind, too) those who learned to collaborate and improvise most effectively have prevailed. Charles Darwin

Hubbard Street Dance Chicago + Alonzo King LINES Ballet take a curtain call following their performance of AZIMUTH by Alonzo King. Costumes by Robert Rosenwasser, Joan Raymond, and Rebecca M. Shouse. Lighting Design Source by line AxeltoMorgenthaler. go here Photo by Quinn B Wharton.

Dance and theatre are both collaborative art forms.

organization runs smoothly. Listed below are a number

In order to create a dance production, even a solo

of these individuals and a brief description of their jobs.

exhibition, a number of people are typically engaged in the process of staging the event: the choreographer

●●

establishes the overarching artistic vision for the

and dancers; a production manager who schedules,

dance company. The AD is frequently the bridge

budgets, and keeps things running smoothly; the design

between artistic and administrative personnel

team who create the visual and auditory world which

(for this reason, I have listed the AD in both

the dancers inhabit; the technicians and stagehands

administrative and artistic personnel below). The AD

who facilitate the designs and run the show backstage;

hires all artistic staff and is in charge of planning

the theatre personnel who control the day-to-day

the season(s) based on his/her vision for the dance

operations of the space; the marketing personnel who

organization.

get the word out about your performance; box office/ front-of-house personnel who interact with the public

●●

Board of Directors: The Board of Directors is the governing group of the dance company, whose

who come to see the show; there might even be a

primary interest lies in supervising the funding

producer/artistic director/board of directors for your

and business practices of the organization. As the

dance company who create the vision for the entire

board assumes the ultimate legal and financial

organization. In any given scenario, one might work

responsibility for the company, it is frequently

with some or all of these positions in order to produce

composed of professionals from the finance,

a dance concert. It is for this reason that artists in the

legal, and business sector as well as individuals

theatre and dance industries must be keenly aware of

well positioned in the community to generate and

the nature of collaboration and the process of working

maintain a donor base.

with others to create a work of art built on a common artistic vision.

Artistic Director: The Artistic Director, or AD,

●●

General Manager: The General Manager (or Executive Director, in some organizations) is an

1.1 Team Members and Responsibilities

individual with experience in arts management who

Though later chapters focus on many of these

works closely with the AD to realize the vision for

production areas in detail, a quick look at the production

the dance company. The General Manager hires and

team members and their responsibilities is useful in

manages administrative personnel and reports to

understanding the production process. The list below

the Board of Directors regarding the general state of

includes a wide array of production personnel and their

organizational stability and operations.

job descriptions. Though by no means exhaustive, this

●●

Business Manager: The Business Manager is

list includes a number of people who are frequently

in charge of bookkeeping and payroll for the

engaged in the process of producing dance.

organization. The Business Manager meticulously tracks all incoming and outgoing funds. If the

Administration

organization is not-for-profit, this individual is

Though the audience tends to focus on the dancers

instrumental in working with an auditor to ensure

onstage, there are a number of people behind the

the financials are properly reported each year.

scenes who work tirelessly to ensure the dance

●●

Company Manager: The job description for Company Manager varies, based on the organizational

8 THINKING AHEAD

structure and mission of the dance company in

Theatre Staff

question. The Company Manager oversees activities

It is important to recognize that many dance companies

in booking performances, communication with performance venues, the logistics of company touring, and outreach opportunities. ●●

●●

do not own a home theatre of their own used exclusively for presenting their dance works. Although this is a possibility, a much more common model is a dance

Development Director: Development Directors

company that presents their works in rental spaces

oversee fundraising for the dance company—working

or in various different spaces. In this case, there are

to establish a donor base, organizing fundraising

personnel that work with the dance company, but are

events, and spearheading grant writing.

employees of the theatre space. Some of these positions

Marketing Director: The Marketing Director is

are listed below.

responsible for promoting the dance company in the community. Marketing involves a number of areas:

●●

the employees working in the theatre’s box office

print media, broadcast media, Internet mailings,

and tracks ticket sales and box office earnings. Since

the company website, and more. Increasingly, social

the box office is the first face your patrons see, this

media plays an important role in the process of

position is instrumental in setting the tone for a good

branding a dance organization. ●●

Production Manager: The Production Manager oversees all of the production elements of the

audience experience and return patrons. ●●

audience experience and safety. The House Manager

production budget tracking, and hiring technicians

typically trains and supervises ushers and helps in

to run the performance. In short, the Production

seating patrons and facilitating the entry of those on

Manager is the person who keeps the production on

the waiting list. In addition, the House Manager has

schedule and on budget.

the important responsibility of ensuring compliance

Presenter: In dance, the Presenter is an individual

with fire codes and dealing with emergency

who represents a performance venue, festival,

situations that arise before, during, or following a

or presenting group. He/she invites artists or companies to present their work as part of the presenting group’s season or festival. The Presenter might sometimes be referred to as a Producer or Curator as well. ●●

Tour Manager: The Tour Manager’s sole job is the planning and organization of a tour. This individual books travel and lodging, coordinates with the presenter or performance venue, ensures the signing of performance contracts and technical riders, and coordinates a tour itinerary.

House Manager: The House Manager works closely with the performance venue to ensure positive

dance company from the production schedule, to

●●

Box Office Manager: A Box Office Manager manages

performance. ●●

House Tech: Many performance spaces have their own technicians assigned to the space to supervise guests in the space. This position is typically referred to as the House Tech, an individual hired by the space but not necessarily affiliated with the dance company. In a union setting, there are certain jobs that can only be performed by the house technicians.

Dance Artists Within the dance company, there are a number of artists who collaborate to produce a dance performance.

9 COLLABORATION

Though perhaps never seen onstage, these individuals

●●

Resident Choreographer: A Resident Choreographer

work to ensure a product of high artistic quality. Listed

is an individual serving in residence with a specific

below are these artists and their job descriptions.

dance company for a predetermined period of time,

●●

during which he/she will set new dance works to

Artistic Director: As listed in the administrative

be premiered through the dance company. In some

group, the Artistic Director is the bridge between

cases, the Artistic Director may serve as a Resident

the artistic and administrative personnel. He/she

Director.

creates the vision for the dance company, planning for the entire season and, in many cases, for many

●●

responsible for documenting and preserving

years ahead. As such, the AD must be firmly rooted

a Choreographer’s vision and intention. The

in all aspects of production. ●●

Choreologist is trained in special forms of notation to

Choreographer: The Choreographer works with

document the dance for future remounts or archival

dancers to set movement for the stage. This

purposes.

collective set of movements is referred to as choreography. These dances are sometimes based on an idea, story, poem, visual image, or piece of music, though many modern choreographers create dances meant to function independently of external constructs. Choreographers tend to be dancers themselves. ●●

●●

Dancer: The Dancer is anyone who interprets and

Musical Staff Dance and music have been interconnected throughout history. It is common to find one or more musicians associated with the production of a dance performance. These roles are listed below. ●●

Composer: The Composer writes the music for

performs the choreography. The Dancer may also

the dance. Some Composers collaborate with

be involved in the development of choreography in

Choreographers to craft the music specifically

conjunction with the Choreographer.

for a dance piece, whereas some modern

Principal Dancer: Many companies feature a

collaborations feature dance and music creation as separate entities that only come together for

Principal Dancer, one who has reached a high level

the performance. Sometimes a Choreographer

of technical proficiency and artistic interpretation.

may simply select music previously written by a

The Principal Dancer performs starring roles in the

Composer.

dance company’s repertoire and might receive billing (having one’s name listed prominently) in marketing

●●

Choreologist: A Choreologist is the person

●●

Accompanist: The Accompanist is a musician

for the dance.

who plays music for classes or rehearsal. Most

Rehearsal Director: The Rehearsal Director

frequently Accompanists play piano or percussion instruments. This individual should be aware of

schedules and runs rehearsals on behalf of

the specific needs and protocols for the dance

the choreographer, to ensure the dancers

class or rehearsal process. When playing piano,

interpret the choreography once set by the

the Accompanist is sometimes referred to as a

Choreographer. This individual is frequently

Rehearsal Pianist.

someone intimately familiar with either the dance company or the choreographer, though not necessarily both.

10 THINKING AHEAD

●●

Conductor: The Conductor is responsible for directing the orchestra and arranging music as

might interact. Sometimes, the Scenic Designer

necessary for performance. In some cases, the

manages properties, as well.

Conductor also hires musicians to play in the orchestra.

●●

Projection/Media Designer: Projection Design is a catchall phrase for the use of imagery, either

Design Staff

projected or displayed on monitors or display panels.

The designers are the production team members

This field, while relatively young, is one of the fastest

responsible for creating the visual and auditory aspects

growing design areas in dance. The Projection

of a dance performance. Frequently, these individuals

Designer generates content to be displayed and

have training in the theatre or live performance

assembles or specifies the necessary equipment for

industries. The list below includes a wide range of

the design.

personnel and job descriptions. Designers are hired

●●

as needed by the dance company and not part of the

responsible for facilitating the sound needs of the

permanent staff. ●●

production, from audio reinforcement for dancers

closely with the Choreographer to determine the

and musicians, to recording and editing of original

clothing needs of the dancers and the specific

music, and setting up a sound system for audio

requirements of costume as it relates to fabric and

playback and mixing. In some instances, a Sound

movement. The duties of the costume designer may

Designer might function as the Composer and write

include hair and make-up as well, or there might be

original music for a dance. It is more rare, though, to

a specific wigs or make-up designer hired for the

see the Composer serving as Sound Designer.

Scenic Designer: The Scenic Designer (or Set Designer) designs the visual world of the scenery based on the storyline, theme, or setting of the dance. The Scenic Designer must work closely with the Choreographer, as movement paths can be either created or inhibited by the placement of scenic elements.

●●

●●

production. These needs can vary depending on the

Costume Designer: The Costume Designer works

production. ●●

Sound Designer: The Sound Designer is the individual

Lighting Designer: The Lighting Designer (or LD)

Technical Staff Technicians are the group of artists who execute the designs and facilitate the designer’s vision for the production. Some of these roles are staff positions with the dance company, though others are frequently freelance positions that are hired in for a specific production. ●●

Stage Manager: The Stage Manager’s biggest

chooses an inventory of lighting instruments and

responsibility is “calling the show.” This phrase

determines their placement, colors, and intensity

refers to the act of calling cues for the show over

to accentuate the dancers’ movement on stage. As

the intercom system during the performance. The

dance programs frequently feature a number of

Stage Manager controls every aspect of the timing

differing dances, the LD must often create a light

for the show (lighting, sound, scenery movement,

plot that works for more than one type of dance as

projections, and dancer entrances) through calling

well.

the cues or triggering of cue lights. In addition, the

Props Designer: A Props Designer is responsible for

Stage Manager is responsible for the safety of the

creating any type of props with which the dancers

performers and crew while in the theatre. In some

11 COLLABORATION

settings, the Stage Manager works closely with the

●●

choreographer during the rehearsal period, while

controls the lighting board, typically pressing the GO

in others he/she only comes in for the technical rehearsals and production run. ●●

●●

button to proceed through the lighting cues. ●●

Spotlight Operator: The Spotlight Operator

Assistant Stage Manager: The Assistant Stage

(sometimes referred to as the Followspot Operator)

Manager (or ASM) assists the Stage Manager in their

operates a special lighting instrument called the

rehearsal duties and in the running of the show from

follow spot—a light mounted on a swivel turret that

backstage.

can follow a dancer across the stage, assuring that he/she will always be lit.

Technical Director: The Technical Director (or TD) is the individual responsible for overseeing all of

●●

Sound Board Operator: A Sound Board Operator

the technical elements of the production. The TD

controls the sound system—typically comprised of a

typically has experience in a number of different

sound mixer and/or audio control system. The Sound

production areas that enable him/her to supervise

Board Operator may control a number of different

the setup, facilities, equipment, and technical

components from audio playback to headsets and

concerns related to touring. For many dance companies the TD is responsible for the Technical

microphones for the orchestra and dancers. ●●

Rider for the show (a contract that stipulates what facilities and equipment are required for staging

Stagehand: A Stagehand is a technician responsible for moving scenery or properties for a production.

●●

a show at a touring venue). The TD is typically a

Flyman: A Flyman is a specific type of Stagehand who moves scenery attached to the theatre’s

permanent staff member of the dance company. ●●

Light Board Operator: The Light Board Operator

counterweight system. Such items are said to be

Master Electrician: The Master Electrician (or

“flown,” meaning that they can be stored overhead,

ME) coordinates the lighting for the dance space—

out of the audience’s line of sight, until they are

interpreting the Lighting Designer’s light plot;

needed for the show. At this time, the Flyman pulls

wiring, hanging, circuiting, and focusing lighting

on a rope that brings the scenery in.

instruments; and also purchasing, maintaining, and

●●

upgrading the lighting inventory. In some instances,

the maintenance and placing of costumes. A Dresser

the ME might serve as a Lighting Designer for some

is a member of the Wardrobe Crew specifically

dances, as well.

responsible for assisting the dancers to get into and out of costume during the show.

Running Crew The term Running Crew refers to those people working backstage who run the various components of a production during the performance. All of the Running Crew take direction from the Stage Manager during the run of the show. Common Running Crew positions are listed below. Some of these positions might be provided by the performance space, but it is most likely that each person will need to be hired as needed by the dance company for the duration of the performances.

12 THINKING AHEAD

Wardrobe: The Wardrobe Crew is responsible for

●●

Wigs/Make-up: Wigs and Make-up Crew Members are responsible for the application or assisting in the application of make-up, face, and/or body paints, wigs, hairpieces, or prosthetics.

1.2 The Choreographer Since so much of the dance process revolves around the choreographer and his/her vision, it is important to examine the role of the choreographer within the

context of dance production. The roots of the word

and shares some of the responsibility for training

choreographer can be traced back to a combination

dancers.

of two Greek words, khoreia (meaning dance) and graphein (meaning to write). Therefore, the literal meaning of choreographer is “dance writer.” This phrase aptly describes the role of the choreographer. In basic terms, the choreographer composes a dance piece, working with dancers to assemble a series of movements and patterns into a cohesive performance. Beyond this, though, the choreographer must consider the overall artistic vision and message and collaborate with designers and technicians to facilitate the visual world of the dance outside of the choreography alone. In the professional context, there are a number of different ways in which choreographers work. The choreographer could work solely on a given project, hiring dancers and designers to create the dance. Similarly, the choreographer could be brought in as a guest artist by a dance company to compose a piece as a premiere, or dance work seen for the first time. Some choreographers create their own dance company to support their artistic vision. Notable examples are companies like the Alvin Ailey Dance Theater, the Martha Graham Dance Company, or the Bill T. Jones/ Arnie Zane Dance Company. Frequently these are repertory companies, a dance company that has a number of dances in their repertoire that are presented multiple times (rather than a single event). These companies present multiple dances in one season, remounting pieces from their repertoire. In this case, a choreographer may be brought in to remount the original work as the original choreographer conceived it for the premiere. Frequently a choreographer functions as the artistic director for a dance company—the individual who sets the overarching artistic vision of the dance organization. In many ballet companies, the position of artistic director is frequently a retired dancer who choreographs some of the company’s productions

One additional area to consider for the choreographer is educational dance. Dance education can begin at a very young age and is present in many educational environments from preschool to K–12 and higher education. Choreographers might function as dance educators in a private studio scenario or as part of a physical education program through public schools. Likewise, there are a number of university professors who specialize in dance. Since the purpose of educational dance is to train, most often the dance and design/tech roles are filled from a group of students and faculty/staff. Though there are a number of ways in which a choreographer can work, the consistent truth is that all dance centers on the choreographer and his or her vision for storytelling. As such, the creative process of the choreographer affects all of the production team members involved in staging a dance.

1.3 The Production Process The creative process that goes into creating dance tends to be unique to the choreographer and his or her collaborative team. While it is true that each choreographer and production team have a unique approach, there are also some common themes that appear in the process of taking a dance from idea to public presentation. The steps below describe one such approach to the production process. Obviously, there are a number of artists who do not fit so neatly into this box, but it is a good place to start our exploration of the dance production process. The following list is created from the perspective of a choreographer selfproducing a dance, so as to see the full spectrum of considerations. Keep in mind that even though these are presented in a specific order, the arrangement of these individual steps may change based on the needs

13 COLLABORATION

of a particular project. Always remain flexible in your

performance style. Theatrical styles, on the other

creative process!

hand, tend to be associated with literary or artistic

●●

movements such as classicism, realism, naturalism,

Inspiration/theme: Like any work of art, the

absurdism, epic theatre, or more.

effective dance piece will have a central idea at its core that inspired the artist to create the work.

●●

backbone of any successful live performance. There

Since dance is most frequently paired with music,

are many components that must be considered when

it only makes sense that music or sound often

producing a dance: budget; contracts; rehearsal

sparks the creative impulse for a dance. This is far

space; securing a performance space; design/

from the only element that might inspire a dance,

technical aspects; marketing and promotion;

though. Visual elements like sculpture, natural

technical rehearsals and performance dates. Each

landscapes, or other physical objects often serve

of these elements should be combined into one

as artistic stimuli. Likewise, the impulse could be

master schedule that creates deadlines for all

more kinesthetic—a desire to explore a movement

elements of the production. Depending on the role of

style or action. One of the most common forms of

the choreographer in the dance company, he or she

inspiration for a dance, particularly in the context of

may be responsible for some or all of these details.

modern and contemporary dance, is the exploration

Additionally, there might be an Artistic Director,

of thought, emotion, or philosophical concepts.

Production Manager, or Technical Director involved

Ultimately, this inspiration might be unknown to

in this step. Whether the choreographer dictates the

the audience, but it is invaluable information for the

schedule or not, the creative process must fit within

choreographer, dancers, and design team. Any or

the confines of the production schedule.

multiple of these elements will combine to create a thematic approach to the dance—what are we trying to communicate? ●●

Style: The choice of style is an important consideration. Style can be defined as a method or approach to presenting a work of art. Style is typically tied to the historical period in which it was first created and, as such, one sees similarities between styles across the differing art forms. In music, style is frequently substituted with the word genre. Jazz, blues, dubstep, and folk are all examples of musical styles. Dance includes styles like jazz, hip-hop, ballet, and Latin/rhythm. One important consideration to working in a multidisciplinary

Setting a schedule: Planning and deadlines are the

●●

Assembling a team: The process of assembling a team varies wildly depending on the specifics of your dance project. When I say “team,” I am referring to the entire group of performers, designers, and technicians necessary to staging the dance. In an academic environment, chances are good that you will have a pool of student dancers auditioning for your dance piece. It is common in this situation to be one of a number of choreographers combining to mount a dance concert featuring multiple pieces. In these situations, it is not uncommon to have a design team assigned to your project.

art form such as dance is that one style can have

Depending on your specific project, you may find

different connotations across the differing art

yourself needing to secure a number of artists for

forms. In music and dance, style tends to be linked

the job. If hiring production members, the contract or

to the historical period and/or cultural origin of the

Letter of Agreement (LOA) is an essential element.

14 THINKING AHEAD

The LOA should include the specific responsibilities,

which the dances are run at full speed with technical

deadlines, rates of pay, and guidelines specific to

elements. Frequently, cue-to-cue and tech runs are

working for this unique production. This contract

combined into the same tech rehearsal. The dress

ensures that all participants have been made aware of

rehearsal is the last step of technical rehearsals, in

their duties before the project begins and agree to the

which costumes are incorporated.

predetermined conditions. ●●

Performance: Once the technical rehearsals have ended, we reach the final stage of the creative

selected, the rehearsal process begins in full.

process—bringing an audience in to watch the

Depending on the choreographer’s approach, this

performance. This is the step for which everyone has

process can vary greatly. It might involve arriving

been working so hard.

in the studio with the movement ready to teach

●●

Self-examination: In many dance companies, a

the dancers; working from a rough idea; asking

period of self-examination is included. Many theatre

dancers to create their own individual stories and

and dance companies refer to this as a postmortem,

accompanying movement; or working from props

a meeting in which the entire production team comes

to determine the material for the dance piece.

together to discuss the process, what worked, what

One should never assume that this process will be

did not, and what could be learned from the process

similar from choreographer to choreographer. At

to improve for subsequent productions.

some point after the choreography is complete, it is the dance piece. In these instances, I tend to create

1.4 Collaborative Models—How we Work Together?

a video recording for future reference. This simple

As we have seen above, there are dozens of different

step can make the tech process run much more

individuals who collaborate to produce a dance

smoothly.

performance. There are a number of different models

Technical rehearsals: Once the dance pieces are

for how these people work together to accomplish

fully choreographed, it is time to move from the

their goals. These approaches are as unique as the

studio into the performance space. This time period

differing types of organizations presenting the dance.

of rehearsing dance pieces with the technical

Once you get a job, it is important to understand how

aspects is referred to as a technical rehearsal.

the organization typically works in order to anticipate

Depending on the time and budget allowed, technical

what your expectations will be. Listed below are some

rehearsals can last anywhere from a week to a few

common collaborative models that you might find in any

hours before opening. Each dance company follows

dance organization.

beneficial to invite the designers in to see a run of

●●

●●

Studio time: At some point after the dancers are

different rules for the process, but it is common for the dancers to space through the dance piece

The Company Model

at a reduced tempo while the choreographer and

The dance company model is a common approach

designers look at the piece under stage lighting with

to producing dance. The idea is to bring together

props and other technical elements. This rehearsal

a group of like-minded artists to create a dance

is often referred to as a cue-to-cue, since the tech

performance. Companies tend to function as groups

process is to gradually proceed from cue to cue and

of artists, centered on the artistic vision of a specific

watch the progression. A tech run is a rehearsal in

choreographer or artistic director. An important

15 COLLABORATION

concept to understand is that the dance company model

within the company model listed above on a project and

is often distinctly tied to the genre of dance being

not be a member of the dance company.

produced. Ballet companies are wildly different in their management and operation than hip-hop companies. No matter the style, though, some aspects remain the same.

The nature of the freelance business is that the freelancer tends to work for a number of different companies. Since there is no assurance of a next job, the freelance artist must always be looking down

Unlike a single dance concert, the dance company

the road for the next opportunity. As such, it is not

model tends to produce works as part of an over-

uncommon to find freelance artists engaged to multiple

arching season of performances in one or more

productions at the same time. This is particularly true of

different performance venues. The company model

designers, who might be in various stages of the design

can be a more rigidly structured, business-minded

process on different shows simultaneously. This setup

approach to collaboration than some others. Producing

makes for a different sort of collaboration than that of

an entire season of dances requires a great amount of

the dance company model. Since freelance artists might

planning. Planning for individual productions occur in

frequently come in from out of town, they tend to not be

a production meeting. These meetings are where all of

involved in as many of the production meetings or be

the production and administrative staff come together

involved by telephone or video conferencing. This type

to plan for the dance performance. Since the company

of relationship means that there is less time for concept

has the responsibility of producing more than one

development and more of a focus on the tech process

singular concert, the decision-making for one show

for the production.

might be affected by the concerns for a previous or future production within the season. It is not uncommon to find many of the same artists working on multiple shows within the dance company season. In addition, the creative process likely involves the artistic director (and other key administrative personnel) in addition to the choreographer and designers. Given the number of collaborators, the company model requires perhaps a greater amount of collaborative flexibility than some of the other models listed below.

The Freelance Model The freelance model is a common approach to creating a production team for dance. This term freelance refers to a worker who is not attached to any one specific employer and, instead, is brought in by different companies to work on a project for a fixed period of time. It is important to note that a freelancer might work

Choreographers can also be freelancers. Depending on the nature of the contract, the choreographer might be in town for an extended time or only long enough to set the dance. In these shorter engagements, the choreographer will frequently set the dance and have a rehearsal director for subsequent rehearsals with the dancers. Most often, the choreographer is required to return for the tech process of the dance to give final notes and communicate with the designers, though this is not always the case. In this type of situation, it is important for the designers and choreographer to be in communication about the choreographer’s concepts and design preferences for his/her dance piece, since the tech rehearsals will be too late to make any substantive changes to the designs.

The Collective Method Another collaborative method is working in a collective, a group of like-minded artists with common

16 THINKING AHEAD

artistic goals who choose to work together. Like the

Warhol; filmmakers Charles Atlas and Elliot Caplan; and

dance company, a collective tends to be of a less

architect Benedetta Tagliabue (Figure 1.1). One of the

temporary arrangement, and might feature a group

most radical notions introduced in these collaborations

of artists working together again and again to create

concerned the relationship between music and dance.

performances. One of the interesting aspects of how

Cage and Cunningham embraced the notion that music

a collective can work is the tendency of blurring the

and dance may well exist in the same time and space for

lines between the creative roles. The dance tends

the performance, but should always be created separate

to be created in a more communal sense, with

of one another. Because of this, the music and dance

choreographers, dancers, musicians, and designers

in their collaborations stood alone as independent

contributing to the artistic creation. In this sense, there

components of the performance. This unique process

is a greater sense of collective artistic ownership of the dance. Though this model may be hard to achieve in practical terms, many artists find this to be a rewarding creative method in which to work.

The Independent Model Though collaboration is one of the benchmarks of dance production, some modern dance artists have blurred the lines between traditional collaboration and chance artistic creation. The father of this modern dance philosophy was Merce Cunningham, who created the Merce Cunningham Dance Company (MCDC) in 1953. One of his defining qualities as a choreographer was a belief in the use of chance as a choreographic device. He would collaborate with the dancers to develop movement sequences focused on time, space, and weight. Once developing a basic movement vocabulary, the dancers would roll a dice or use instruction manuals to determine which moves would be used, in what order and combination. This method created an element of surprise and lacked traditional compositional principles such as a clear beginning, middle, and end. In addition to chance in his own choreography, though, Cunningham often combined his dance with other works of art to create multidisciplinary collaborations. This multidisciplinary method combined the work of composers like John Cage and David Tudor; visual artists Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, and Andy

F IG UR E 1. 1

Fabrications (2004). Merce Cunningham Dance Company. Photo © Tony Dougherty. Décor and costumes by Dove Bradshaw. Photo courtesy of The Merce Cunningham Trust.

17 COLLABORATION

occurred in the visual elements of the dance production as well, featuring artists creating different aspects of the production separate from one another, only bringing their work together for the production. Though Cunningham is the most famous practitioner

Review Questions 1. What are the key responsibilities of the Artistic Director? 2. What is the difference (if any) between a Composer and a Sound Designer?

of this method, his process had a profound impact

3. What is the Stage Manager’s main responsibility?

on modern dance and the avant-garde art world in

4. Describe some common sources of inspiration for

general. Many modern dancers and choreographers have embraced this method and collaborate in this fashion.

1.5 Chapter Review There are a number of people who collaborate to produce a dance performance. For most productions, artists from a number of different disciplines unite to bring their unique skills to the project. A true collaborator appreciates the contributions of each member of the production team and has a basic understanding of everyone’s responsibilities. It is common to find administration, dance artists,

creating a dance piece. 5. What type of collaborative model appeals to you the most as an artist, and why? Chapter 1 Project: Communicating an Idea People communicate in so many different ways. Sometimes the best method for communicating an artistic concept is through combining differing methods into one presentation. For this project, you will be asked to put yourself into the choreographer’s shoes and create a multimedia presentation to discuss your vision for a new dance

musical staff, design/tech personnel, and running

piece.

crew collaborating on a dance performance. The

Using your preferred type of presentation software

successful dance piece will center on the vision of

(PowerPoint, Keynote, Prezi, Google Presentation,

the choreographer with all of the team members

etc.) create a presentation that showcases your

contributing to the storytelling through their individual

vision for a new dance piece. It should include:

craft. There are many different approaches to the ways in which all of these people work together—as a dance company, freelance model, dance collective, or independent model—or various approaches that might be an amalgam of multiple methods. Understanding all of the information presented in this chapter gives you the tools necessary to begin an earnest examination of the process of dance production. Subsequent chapters will elaborate on these concepts and break down the production process in greater detail.

1. The title of your dance piece. 2. Visual inspiration for the concept. This could be photography, video, poetry, or anything that moves you. 3. Your concept: a brief (one paragraph) description of what your dance should communicate. 4. Three adjectives that best describe how you want your dance to feel. 5. A brief statement on how/if music will be integrated with your dance. 6. A brief statement on your thoughts related to design and how you envision it integrating with the dance.

18 THINKING AHEAD

This project should be a fun opportunity for you to start thinking about different methods of

I still have those impulses today. But my serious training commenced in NY at the age of 11.

communication. Be bold in your choices and have

How did you transition into choreography?

fun with it, especially if you are a non-dancer doing

In the 1970s my family would go to Lake Placid Club

this project. One of the most useful tools we have as artists is the ability to look at the world through someone else’s eyes, even for a moment. You might find that you learn something about yourself along the way.

The Choreographer’s Perspective: An Interview with Julia Gleich Julia K. Gleich is a choreographer, teacher, scholar, and mathematics aficionado. She is on the faculty at Trinity LABAN Conservatoire of Music and Dance (London, UK) and Head of Choreography at London Studio Centre. In addition, she is founding choreographer and director of Gleich Dances, a company seen throughout the United States and in the UK. In 2004, Ms. Gleich and Jason Andrew founded Norte Maar for Collaborative Projects in the Arts, with a mission to renew and refresh the exchange between the interdisciplinary arts. She is also a founder and director of Aegis Live Arts, creating unique locational dance works that enliven history and architecture in London. Her practicebased research on vectors and dance has been presented at the Laban International Conference in London, at the CORPS de Ballet International Conference, and published through the Dynamic Body in Space.

in NY (which no longer exists). There were ballroom dancing lessons offered and the teacher found out I did ballet. He suggested I make a small dance every week and perform it for the Champagne Dance on Wednesday nights. I remember one of the dances was to the Coppélia mazurka. After that I didn’t really choreograph again for many years. I assisted many choreographers and danced in companies, but it wasn’t until I went to grad school (for Arts Administration) that I finally began to consider myself a choreographer. I made my first work in a performance with artistic explorer Dara Paprock. But I wouldn’t call myself a choreographer until I was produced by the Joyce SoHo in NYC several years later. How do you begin the process of envisioning a dance? Every dance I make is different. But my favorite way to create is in collaboration. Dance ideas are everywhere. I have made pieces about memory, perception, and the brain; I made an interactive piece in London called Speak Easy Secrets. I have developed narrative ballets and abstract contemporary dances. Sometimes I begin by working on movement material or processes that interest me. Like Vectors, which is my own mathematical system for generating movement. Other times I might be working with a theme or developing movement for a site. Sometimes I’ll

When did you first start dancing?

take a classical idea and recontextualize it.

I lived in MN [Minnesota] when I first started taking classes.

Do you normally enter a dance with clear-cut ideas

My sister took class and I peered under the barre to watch.

for the design aspects or does that tend to come out of

I used to copy some of the exercises at home while my

discussion with the production team?

mom played the piano. Initially, I used to make up dances in the living room from the age of about seven to music like Deep Purple, Swan Lake, Emerson Lake and Palmer, Led Zeppelin and Coppélia. Rather an eclectic mix. I think

I love working with other artists. There are so many creative ideas that can go into a work of art and I welcome other views, contributions, and artistic motivations. The visual aspects of the work are developed over time in a similar

19 COLLABORATION

way to making dance. There is a lot of risk and uncertainty

your observations on some of the key differences you

in this process and it requires trust in not only your

notice in academic vs. professional dance work?

collaborators but also your own artistic ability to embrace

Professionals who have the luxury of long periods of

uncertainty. On occasions I have had a brief for designers, like Speak Easy Secrets in 2013. Sometimes the design is the brief and I generate ideas from it. Can you describe your ideal process for working with designers? I don’t have one. I am very free in my approach and don’t like to overly plan all the aspects of a work. I suppose that might be a problem for some designers, but it also might be an opportunity. I can create structure or can work with a designer’s structure. Each project is different. Some of the best were simply opportunistic. That is, we knew each other and each other’s work and we had some related ideas that we had developed and noticed that they came together beautifully. There are different stages of each creation. Some designs are made specifically for a dance; some are

experimentation with designers will be able to create amazing theatrical works of art. But that is a rare privilege. I think government-funded institutions with their own theatre (think Europe) have an advantage. But risk-taking and imagination are paramount; anything is possible anywhere. In student work I find that darkness is overused as a lighting technique to create drama. Perhaps as I get older I just want to be able to see the dancers. But darkness has become a bit cliché for me now. In set design I always remember the Noguchi sculptures that were featured in Martha Graham pieces; many of them small and simple and yet iconic. I think she had a great relationship with visual art, like Diaghilev and the Ballet Russes. Both the professional and the student should embrace visual art a

artistic creations in themselves and when brought to the

bit more.

dance magnify into a new artistic vision.

One interesting aspect of your professional work is

Do you have any training in design and/or technical

your international experience in dance. What are some

theatre? I was an electrician at Dance Theater Workshop in NYC for several years. I studied lighting design for a term. I have been a stage manager many times and this taught me a lot of what I know. Lighting design is incredibly elusive as an art to me. I have ideas that occasionally work but I rely on a lighting designer’s expertise to make them reality. In London, I oversee a design collaboration with my choreography students at London Studio Centre and design students from Central St. Martin’s College of Art and Design. Lighting is always the most difficult component of the design. Experience is probably the best teacher for a choreographer. The set designs and costumes seem to be

of the differences you notice in American dance as compared to your work in other countries? Ah, this is a difficult question. American dance can tend to be more virtuosic and yet America is the home of postmodern dance. There are so many different approaches. Perhaps what I like about American dance is that there is a better sense of risk-taking and a willingness to cross over into different forms. I think Europe/the UK is more isolating. The forms of dance are aligned in defined camps and there is less opportunity to produce your work independently and get an audience. NYC is the home of gigging (project-based work) in dance. There are lots of dancers who have had successful careers in NYC working

less mysterious.

with several different companies. I wish there was more of

I know you have experience in both academic and

and support each other. It’s just a little more fun there.

professional environments. Could you share some of

20 THINKING AHEAD

that in London. Dancers tend to share information in NYC

What training or life experience outside of dance

As a choreographer, is there a particular member of

have you found to have the most impact on your

the production team on whom you depend heavily for

choreography?

assistance?

I have had so many different experiences in dance. I

I think costume is where I need the most support. Recently,

didn’t think I was a choreographer until I choreographed

I had Tamara Gonzales design costumes and she was

my first full evening’s work. My collaborator and friend,

nominated for a Bessie (a NY Dance Award). I worry so

Jason Andrew, has been a strong influence in my work.

much about costume and often feel I leave it until the

He has a great eye, is a big risk-taker, and supports

end. I don’t always see costumes in my choreography, so

collaboration. The work that I think epitomizes my ideas

I can’t present my vision easily. It is such a relief when I

in dance, involving collaboration, lots of research and

have a confident designer. One of the best collaborations

experimentation and also pure dance was The Brodmann

I had was with Bernard Johnson in 1995 at the University

Areas (2012). It reflected all of the facets of my work.

of California—Irvine. His designs worked so well for the

Jason was the producer of this work, which utilized chance

dance, both in terms of the dancers’ movements and the

operations, poetry, projection, and ballet.

vision for the work. His use of color and fabric created contrasting sections of my dance with subtlety and simplicity.

21 COLLABORATION

CHAPTER 2 PRE-PRODUCTION PLANNING A goal without a plan is just a wish. Antoine de Saint-Exupéry

Akua Noni Parker and Anthony Bell of Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre. Photography by Richard Calmes.

Most artists want their work to be seen by the public.

All of these scenarios listed above could affect the

This is true of dance, as in other art forms. With any

choices you make about the nature of your presentation

public performance comes an added responsibility

and what production elements are necessary for a

to the audience. Unless there is the understanding

successful performance. For better or worse, the

of your performance being a work in progress or an

expectations of an audience will dictate the success of a

informal event, patrons will have an expectation of

production and this should be considered as part of your

professional production elements to accompany their

planning.

dance concert (especially if your audience is paying to see the performance). No matter the size or scope of

What are You Trying to Accomplish?

the concert, you can be assured that the presentation

Not every concert should have the same outcomes

will be the result of many people collaborating to create

in mind. The nature of the performance should be

the performance. Planning is essential to the ultimate

dictated by the goals, though. This means that it is very

success of a live performance. This chapter touches

important to consider the desired outcomes from the

on some of the important questions that must be

beginning of the planning process in order to stay on

addressed in order to successfully produce a dance.

track. There are a number of different types of concerts

2.1 Purpose

that one could produce, each with different goals in mind. The formal concert is a presentation of dance

One of the most important questions that is too often

with accompanying production elements of costumes,

overlooked is, why are you producing a show in the

lighting, scenery, and sound. Audiences are sometimes

first place? Far too many artists get caught up in the

invited to see a work in progress or an invited showcase.

desire to present their work to the public before asking

Perhaps your concert is meant to be part of a larger

the hard question—why should someone come see my

artistic offering, like a dance festival or a summer

show? Like anything else, a dance concert should serve

arts program? Likewise, it could be a special event

a purpose. In determining your purpose, there are some

celebrating a specific occasion or theme. In academic

questions that you should ask of yourself to help clarify

circles, it is not uncommon to see an audience educated

your goals.

through (and even participate in) the presentation of

Who is My Audience?

a lecture-demonstration-style performance. All of these goals are legitimate reasons for producing a

This may seem like a simple question, but the answer

dance concert and each one presents its own unique

to this one question will shape your approach to all of

challenges to address.

the other concerns to follow. What type of people are coming to see your show? Is it primarily the family

2.2 Program Concerns

and friends of your dance company? Perhaps you are

Once the decision has been made to produce a dance

presenting in an educational venue, so the majority of

concert, there are a number of questions to address

your audience are students. Maybe your dance piece will

regarding the nature of the program itself. Many of

be presented at a dance conference and the audience

these questions will be directly related to the purpose of

will be comprised of professional dance colleagues.

the dance concert addressed earlier.

24 THINKING AHEAD

F I G UR E 2. 1

The lecture-demonstration is performance that is part presentation, part workshop, often seen in academic circles. Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

What Type of Program?

Length of Concert?

One of the important questions to address is the

While there are no firm rules as to how long

nature of your dance presentation. Is it a single dance

a concert should be, there are some obvious

or multiple dances presented as a collage concert? Is

factors to consider related to the length of the

there a unifying theme behind the works presented?

presentation. The number of individual pieces in the

Once you know this, it will affect all of the following

concert will affect the overall length and structure. If

program concerns listed below.

there are multiple dances, then there must be sufficient

Number of Dance Pieces?

time between each number to allow for things like costume changes, manually changing the color of the

If you go with a collage concert, how many different

gels for side lighting, and adjusting scenery and props.

dances are to be included? Is there a time limit on

One cannot simply add up the length of each dance

the individual dances? Should there be a certain

piece and get an accurate representation of the length

predetermined composition (i.e. half of the pieces by

of concert.

professional choreographers and the other half from student work)?

25 PRE-PRODUCTION PLANNING

Intermission?

With that in mind, consider these basic rules of thumb

Another important consideration is the inclusion of an

for programming:

intermission in your dance concert. Most audiences

1.

Start with a light, enjoyable opener that engages

expect an intermission for anything longer than an

the audience’s attention. This both serves as

hour and fifteen minutes. Though it makes the overall

a “warm up” for the audience and allows for

time of the concert longer, there are a number of

latecomers to be seated within a relatively short

benefits to adding an intermission such as giving your

period of time (should your theatre allow for late seating).

audience a break to talk about what they have seen and allowing for more pieces to be included in the

2.

Whenever possible, try not to place dances back to

offering. One important consideration that should not

back that feature the same dancers. This will make

be overlooked is the revenue potential of concessions.

for a longer transition.

Most theatres make a sizable amount of their earnings

3.

Longer, esoteric dances should be placed early in

from concessions. Particularly if your dance company

the show order, so the audience is not mentally

owns a performance space, offering concessions at

and/or physically tired.

intermission is an excellent way to increase earnings without higher ticket prices.

Arrangement of Concert? One of the most important considerations for

4.

directly before intermission to encourage your audience to come back for your second half. 5.

dance. Dances with water require a cleaning/drying

arrangement of programming for the evening. There are

of the floor before another dance can safely occur.

a number of considerations, both artistic and practical,

In this case, placing it at the end of the concert is

that go into deciding the concert arrangement. Ideally,

wise. Fog and haze tend to fill up the space and

your audience will be in attendance for the entirety of

linger. Make sure that the following dance will

the concert. It is your responsibility to create for them

not be adversely affected by lingering fog effects

an evening that takes them on a satisfying artistic

before finalizing the show order. Dances with

journey. The selection and arrangement of pieces for

elaborate scenic changes might do well directly

the concert requires a familiarity with all of the dances

before or after intermission, or as the final piece of

presented and some thought about where each dance concert is to think of it like a story or an album, creating

the concert. 6.

program the second act of your concert in keeping

On the practical side, one must make sure to check cast The goal should be facilitating a quick and effective

If you have one intermission, your second half should be shorter in length. Likewise, try to

a presentation with a logical beginning, middle, and end. lists and the technical requirements for each dance.

Always consider the technical requirements of a dance piece and how they affect the subsequent

assembling a dance concert is the variety and

would best fit. One common approach to arranging a

Try to include something upbeat and exciting

with the rules discussed above. 7.

Consider that the final dance of the concert is in

transition between each dance, eliminating long waits

a position most likely to hold onto the audience’s

between each dance number and organizing the dances

memory and, as such, you want it to be one of the

in such a way as to best keep the audience’s interest.

most memorable. Fast-paced, high-energy, visually

26 THINKING AHEAD

stimulating dances are a good choice for the final

7. What type of equipment is included and/or available with use of the space?

dance.

2.3 Performance Space Concerns

8. Are house technicians included with the rental fee and, if not, are your company members allowed to

The choice of a performance space affects many aspects of the dance performance. Depending on the type of space, certain varieties of staging might be

use the equipment in the space? 9. Is the theatre a union house (stagehands and/or musicians)? If so, how does this affect your choices:

required or limited. In addition, there are a number of

staffing, schedules, union contracts, live vs. pre-

practical concerns related to your choice of space that will affect other areas (i.e. budget, schedule, personnel, etc.). Included below is a list of questions that should

recorded music, etc. 10. Is there any information the space needs from the dance company regarding the performance?

be addressed in order to make sure you are making an informed decision regarding your performance space. For those working in academic settings, your performance space may be a given. Even if you have a space assigned to you, though, it is important to consider the same types of questions. Unless you are lucky enough to have a dedicated dance theatre, a dance program will often find itself performing in a space primarily used by and for the theatre program. In these instances, misunderstandings frequently arise regarding the appropriate use of a space—sometimes produced by rules about which the visiting dance company is completely unaware. One way to address this is to make sure to ask the right questions regarding space usage before going into the performance space.

Once you have addressed these questions, undoubtedly other information will arise from these conversations. Never be afraid to ask questions. It is always best to go into a project with answers, rather than assume that your expectations are the norm.

2.4 Production Calendar One of the most important considerations for any type of show is the production calendar. The calendar will affect every other aspect of the production from personnel to budget and even casting. In all likelihood, the production calendar and performance space will be determined concurrently as the selection of one affects the other. You should have a good idea of your ideal performance dates in mind when negotiating

1. How do you secure permission to use the space?

with a performance space. Once you have secured the

2. What is the fee for using the space?

actual dates, though, creating a production calendar is

3. What amenities are included with the space (and is

a relatively simple process of counting back from the

this for an additional fee)? 4. What are the front-of-house arrangements (box office, house management, ushers, ticket profits, publicity support, etc.)? 5. Is there a green room and/or dressing rooms in the

date and establishing important deadlines. Listed below are some basic guidelines for a production timetable, though you may find that some components need to be tweaked in order to match your expectations.

Six Months to One Year Prior to Opening

space? ●●

Create production budget and begin securing funds.

●●

Determine the choreographer(s) and number of

6. What type of staging is possible in the performance space?

pieces in your performance.

27 PRE-PRODUCTION PLANNING

●●

Secure the performance space and rehearsal space.

it will appear in the performance. Should designers

●●

Determine needs for publicity, ticket sales, and

not get the opportunity to personally attend a

house staff (this may change for each different

designer run, it is a good idea for choreographers

performance space, based on what resources are

to video the performance for the designer to watch.

available to you).

For that matter, the savvy designer may well want

Hire designers and agree on a timetable of mutually

to video the design run as a personal reference.

●●

This ensures that he/she will have an opportunity to

agreed upon benchmarks (date for designer runs,

observe the dance multiple times before going into

date for design drawings, design presentations, etc.).

Three to Four Months Prior to Opening ●●

Begin production meetings with designers, choreographers, and other production staff. A production meeting is an opportunity for all of the production team to meet and discuss pertinent elements to the production. Ideally everyone should participate in these meetings (artistic director, choreographer, designers, stage manager,

tech.

One Week Prior to Opening The period leading up to opening is frequently referred to as Tech Week, even if it is not necessarily a full week in duration. During this period, a number of events occur in preparation for the opening night of your dance performance. ●●

Load-in: At some point before opening, you will need

production manager), since decisions made in

to move all of your equipment and supplies into the

one area might affect another production area. In

performance space to prepare for the show. Your

professional settings, it is not uncommon to find

schedule will vary from company to company, but it

production members “calling in” via a computer

is fairly common to load-in a week prior to opening.

videoconference application such as Skype, Apple’s

This process typically involves laying the dance

FaceTime, or Google Hangouts. The frequency of

floor, hanging and focusing lights, assembling any

production meetings is determined by the needs of the dance company.

scenery, setting up sound, and bringing in costumes. ●●

Cueing sessions: Designers must have sufficient

●●

Schedule auditions and rehearsals.

time alone in the space to write and test their cues.

●●

Determine the number of technicians needed for

Sound designers need to hear the music in the

technical aspects of the performance and hire, as

space in order to set the appropriate levels for a

necessary.

performance. Lighting designers will also benefit

Determine the tech schedule for the production,

from cueing in the performance space. This is when

●●

including all pertinent information, such as load-in; lighting hang and focus; laying the dance floor; cueing sessions; sound checks; tech runs for each dance piece, etc.

Two Weeks to One Month Prior to Opening ●●

Schedule designer runs. These are rehearsals for designers to attend and watch a run of the dance, as

28 THINKING AHEAD

a video from the designer run comes in handy. By using the video, a lighting designer can write cues that match the specific timing of the dance piece before the tech period. This process may involve only the designers or choreographers might be invited as well. There are benefits and disadvantages to both methods.

F I G UR E 2. 2

Technicians laying a dance floor.

●●

Paper tech: Some dance companies incorporate a time for the designers and stage manager to meet before going into tech and discuss the placement of cues within the context of the individual dances. This process, called a paper tech, is a luxury that many companies cannot afford, but it is useful to help familiarize the stage manager with the process of calling the cues. If a paper tech is not possible it is always advantageous to set some time apart at the beginning of the first technical rehearsal for the designers and stage manager to meet and discuss cues.

F IG UR E 2. 3

A lighting designer writing cues.

29 PRE-PRODUCTION PLANNING

familiarize themselves with the stage at a slower

FYI: To the Dancer in Tech

pace or with less energy than a full-out run. In

For many dancers, tech week will be the only time

theatre, these first rehearsals are referred to as

in which they will be involved with the designers and

a cue-to-cue (sometimes abbreviated at Q2Q).

technicians of the production. While the rehearsal

This type of rehearsal moves from one cue to

and performance process is essential to the ultimate

the next, allowing the director and designers to

success of the show, it is important to recognize the

see and hear how the individual cues work with a

crucial role played by the designers and technicians

moment onstage. Once the cue has been worked

and to respect their process. During tech week, it

out, the stage manager calls “hold” and everyone

is helpful to understand that there will be a lot of

moves forward in the script to the next location of

“hurry up and wait.” Dancers should arrive at least 15 minutes before their call time and be ready to

a cue. ●

go at the start of the time slot, but understand

For dance, this process is difficult to reproduce, since it is harder to hold dancers and have them

that there may be a lot of start and stop during

move forward to a point in the dance with all of the

the initial technical rehearsals. Keep conversation

music and movement aligning seamlessly. Dance

with other dancers onstage to a bare minimum and

frequently employs a spacing rehearsal in which

always be aware of what’s happening onstage while

the dancers “mark” the performance. Marking is a

waiting in the wings. Likewise, this is the first time

dance term that refers to running through the dance

designers and choreographer will see the dance

at the appropriate timing, but with less energy than

in show conditions, so dancers should try to keep

running “full-out.” When marking, it is common to

conversation and questions with the choreographer

avoid complicated lifts or certain movement sections

limited to things that strictly affect the performance.

that may be physically taxing on the dancers. During

This is not a rehearsal slot, but a very small window

the spacing run, the designers and choreographers

of time in which numerous production elements have

get the opportunity to watch how the dancers

to come together.

interact with the design elements and to make

Many young dancers may not understand the

adjustments, as necessary. It is also common in the

importance of this process and inadvertently bog

spacing rehearsal for designers to work closely with

down the tech rehearsal period. Keep in mind to

the stage manager so he/she better understands

always listen to the stage manager, as he/she is in control of the stage and when things should occur. The role of the dancer in tech is to perform the role and choreography as accurately as possible. If everyone respects these rules of thumb, tech rehearsals can be an enjoyable process.

when to call cues. ●●

Technical rehearsal: The subsequent rehearsals following spacing are typically referred to as technical rehearsals. These rehearsals have the dancers running full-out with all of the technical elements incorporated. It is not uncommon during these rehearsals to stop in order to tweak a moment,

●●

Spacing rehearsal/cue-to-cue: Once the dancers

but the goal is to give the stage manager and

arrive in the space, it is a good idea to start off with

dancers ample time to run the show with the dance

a rehearsal that allows them the opportunity to

and technical elements combined.

30 THINKING AHEAD

●●

performance space to guarantee you are leaving the

Dress rehearsal: Dress rehearsals are the rehearsals

space in the expected condition.

in which everything is run under show conditions, with all technical elements in place. In addition, it is

●

previously, assessment is an important aspect of

costume changes, pre-show music, changing over

any production process. Many dance companies and

gels on the lights between dance pieces, etc. Only

academic programs include a meeting following

when considering all of these elements can you truly

the completion of the production referred to as a

know the running time of your show.

postmortem in which the production team members

It is also common to find that dress rehearsals are

and staff discuss the entire process and honestly

used for documenting the dance, either through

comment on what things were successful and how it

photography or video. In the theatre world, it is

could be improved for future productions. While this

common to have a photo call, a separate time

is a luxury for many professional organizations, it is

assigned specifically for getting posed photographs

an important aspect for improvement.

This process is less common for dance, since the

2.5 Production Budget

nature of dance is movement and frozen poses tend

Another important element of pre-production planning

to eliminate the kinetic nature desired in dance

is determining your budget. No matter the complexity

photography. Whether there is a separate photo call

of your performance, there will always be some level

or not, it is important to schedule a time specifically

of expenses incurred. It is essential to plan for these

for documenting the dance. For designers and

up front and create a realistic budget that accounts

choreographers alike, the documentation of the work

for both sources of revenue and expenses. If you are a

is an essential component for portfolios. Likewise,

professional dance company, everyone who contributes

the dance company will often use photos and video

to your production will need some sort of compensation.

for marketing/publicity purposes.

In addition, there are many other areas to consider,

Opening night: Opening night is the first performance

such as accompaniment costs, equipment rental fees,

of your dance. Frequently, there might be a reception

expendables (i.e. gels, lamps for lighting instruments,

to accompany the opening in which the dancers

etc.), space rental, transportation costs, publicity,

mingle with the patrons or sponsors. Events such as

printing costs, and more.

this are particularly useful in establishing a donor base. ●●

Postmortem (assessment): As mentioned

useful to consider the impact of all elements such as

(where the actors freeze in place for the photo).

●●

●●

Before you can contract designers or dancers, you need to have a good idea of the amount of funds available for

Strike: The final performance of the dance is

your performance. Consider anticipated ticket sales,

typically followed by strike, sometimes referred

funding reserves, external grants, funds provided

to as load-out. Though this event is often reserved

by student activity fees (if you are in an academic

for the design/tech production members, it is not

environment), or donations provided by patrons. All of

uncommon to have dancers assisting (especially in

these funds make up your available revenue for the

an academic environment). Strike is when all of the

performance or season. While it should go without

design elements are returned to their original state

saying, there is a danger in estimating funds before they

before load-in. Always make sure to check with the

actually are in hand. Just because you have traditionally

31 PRE-PRODUCTION PLANNING

sold tickets doesn’t mean you won’t have a bad year.

2.7 Chapter Review

Just because you have applied for a grant does not

No matter the scope of a dance performance, it is

mean you will receive it. Many an arts organization has had the nasty realization that they have incurred more debt than available funds. Always try to be realistic in creating your budget. After you have a good idea of your available production funds, you can determine how best to allocate the funds to various expenses. If you have produced dance performances in the past, you are likely to have a good idea of resources and artists in your area and their typical costs. If this is your first time, try to make contact with arts organizations of a similar size and mission to see how they approach

obvious that there is a great deal of planning that must go into any successful endeavor. A successful dance company understands its own mission in the context of its target audience. Once the decision has been made to produce a dance performance, the task of planning deals with both the artistic side and the management aspects. One must consider the performance space in addition to budgeting, schedule, and hiring personnel. Though the prospect of taking on so many details may seem daunting at first, the rewards far outweigh the initial frustrations.

the task.

2.8 The production manager’s perspective: An interview with Stacey-Jo Marine.

2.6 Personnel

Stacey-Jo Marine is a production manager/stage

As mentioned in Chapter 1, there are a number of

manager with experience in some of the top companies

different people involved in the process of bringing a dance to the stage. One of the important preproduction considerations is securing all of the individuals necessary for accomplishing your project. Depending on the scope of your performance, you may find that the list is small or incredibly large. Whether you are a professional dance company, independent contractor, or an educational entity it is important to have all personnel sign an agreement that makes clear the expectations of their position and what will be provided to them as compensation for their hard work. These letters of agreement should always cover the essential information, such as the individual’s name and job title, the dance organization, the duties/ expectations, compensation (if provided), specific

and academic programs in the entertainment industry. She has worked in over 30 countries and all 50 states touring with dance and theatre companies including Paul Taylor Dance Company, STOMP, Dar-A-Luz (Tight, Right, White), Richard Move’s Martha @ series, Lisa Giobbi Movement Theatre and Ballet NY. In NYC she has been the production stage manager for Maureen Fleming, Theodora Skipitares, En Garde Arts (Stonewall 25 and J.P. Morgan Saves the Day), Cortez & Co., American Ballet Theatre Studio Company, Dance by Neil Greenberg and Youth America Grand Prix. Ms. Marine is the production coordinator for the Conservatory of Dance at Purchase College and director of production for Martha Graham Dance Company. She has been at Purchase since August 2, where she also teaches dance

dates of employment, and specific employee policies/

production, stage management and lighting for dance.

workplace procedures, as necessary. It is a good

Do you have any background in dance beyond the

idea to provide the contract to a lawyer for review to ensure you are complying with labor laws in your state and that you are not accidentally making yourself legally liable.

32 THINKING AHEAD

design/tech aspects? No. My interest in dance began when I saw the Martha Graham Dance Company performing for Ms. Graham’s

memorial service in 1991 at City Center Theater in New

supervisor for Martha Graham Center of Contemporary

York City. I was already working as a stage manager Off-

Dance?

Broadway. I had a very little experience (watching dance

I am a commodity—all of my skills are available to my

in musical theatre) but that is all. The Graham memorial service was such an inspiration to me that I immediately wanted to start working in the field. Can you explain to the readers the “typical” job description of a production manager for a dance company? The production manager is usually the liaison between the venue and the company. The PM produces the technical schedule and the hanging schedule. The PM is also the liaison to the other company production staff—these duties include forwarding tech specs to the staff and pointing out anything out of the ordinary. The PM calls production meetings—company administrators and production staff get together for these meetings. Lastly the PM often also

employer. If not first hand (creating a new prop), then as a supervisor (hiring someone to get the work done). One of the fascinating things about your career is the balance between professional and academic roles. What are some of the key differences you notice in academic vs. professional dance work? In academia, it is typical to have an entire crew of dance students. It is very important to prepare the students and teach them the value of this work to make them better DANCERS. In a professional situation, I do not expect to have to coax the crew or coach them. Donuts help break the ice in all situations. I know you have worked internationally on a number

serves as the production stage manager.

of dance productions. Tell us a bit about that and if

I know you served as the production stage manager for

international work?

Paul Taylor Dance Company for a number of years. How does the role of a production manager differ from that of production stage manager? A production stage manager calls the shows. How does the nature of the job change for a touring production vs. a more residential production? I treat all performances like they are touring productions. I always make sure costumes, scenery/props, music, and lighting will be taken care of and ready for the load-in and

there were differences you noticed in American vs. Each country has its own work rituals, customs, and personalities. One commonality usually occurs when a crew is union (American, Greek, German, et al.). Union crews are generally more professional, experienced, and well organized. One interesting thing is that many stages are still raked in Europe. Summer festivals are difficult all over the world (including the States) because the company must fit into a house repertory plot and lighting has to be done after sunset.

then performance. I know you have a lot of experience in stage management, props, and lighting. How does that experience factor into your job as production

33 PRE-PRODUCTION PLANNING

CHAPTER 3 PERFORMANCE SPACES The stage is a concrete physical place which asks to be filled, and to be given its own concrete language to speak. Antonin Artaud

Student dancers from Eastern Michigan University’s production of Hope that Lines Don’t Cross. Choreography by Erik Abbott-Main. Lighting Design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo courtesy Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

Just as the painter uses a canvas to bring a work of art

designer alike have a working understanding of a wide

to life, so too the performer utilizes an empty space to

variety of performance spaces and their features. The

tell a story. To borrow a bit more from the metaphor of

following chapter introduces a number of different

the painter, different types of paper affect the style of

types of performance spaces and discusses some of the

painting that can be created on them. The same is true

inherent strengths and challenges of each type.

of performance spaces. The performance space and, in particular, the relationship of the audience to the stage

3.1 Proscenium Theatres

drastically affect how the audience can participate in

The most popular type of theatre for dance

the performance. The same dance seen in two different

performances is the proscenium stage. The proscenium

theatres (especially when seen from different vantage

is a theatre in which the audience sits in front of

points) can feel completely different to your audience.

the stage and watches the show through a picture

Likewise, each theatre is different and comes with its

frame opening, referred to as the proscenium arch

own unique variety of equipment and features. Some

(Figure 3.1). Though the proscenium arch is typically

performances might work quite well in a proscenium

rectangular in shape, it can be square as well. One

theatre, but not function at all in the round. For these

reason for the popularity of this type of theatre space

reasons, it is essential that both choreographer and

is that it places the audience in a good position to

F I G UR E 3. 1

The proscenium arch is the “picture frame” through which the audience watches the action.

36 THINKING AHEAD

watch the dancers’ bodies in a silhouette form,

to understanding how dancers must interact with their

highlighted against the theatre’s backdrop. In addition,

space is called stage directions.

the proscenium staging allows the audience to enjoy the performance without having to see the backstage

Stage Directions

trappings, such as the lighting instruments.

When referring to one’s position on the stage, giving movement directions can get confusing. A

The Stage

dancer onstage is facing the opposite direction to

No matter the type of theatre, one element remains

the choreographer in the auditorium, meaning their

constant—there is an area of the theatre separated

directions are all reversed. To address this problem,

from the audience upon which the performance takes

those in the theatre refer to movements in terms of

place. This is referred to as the stage. Though stages

stage directions. In stage directions, all directions are

come in a variety of sizes and shapes, they share a

relative to the person standing on stage. When looking

number of similar attributes. One important concept

at the stage from a bird’s eye view, the stage is split into nine separate areas (Figure 3.2). Everything to the right third of the stage (from the dancer’s perspective) is referred to as stage right. Everything to the left third of the stage is referred to as stage left, and the center third of the stage is called center stage. Adding to basic right and left, the stage is also divided into three areas that describe the dancer’s proximity to the audience. The third of the stage closest to the audience is referred to

-

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of the stage into nine areas commonly referred to as: downstage right, downstage center, downstage left, center stage right, center stage center, center stage left, upstage right, upstage center, upstage left.

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In addition to these basic directions, there are a few other terms that are handy in communicating movement on the stage. When the dancer moves from the perimeter towards the center of the stage, this is referred to as moving onstage. Likewise, moving from

F IG UR E 3. 2

The breakdown of stage directions, as seen from above. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

37 PERFORMANCE SPACES

an area away from the center of the stage is referred to

an imaginary line that runs from right to left, aligned

as moving offstage.

with the upstage edge of the proscenium arch. This reference line is indicated as a consistent dashed line

Stage Coordinate System

on a ground plan. The point at which the centerline is

When looking at a proscenium stage, we use two

bisected by the proscenium line is the 0,0 coordinate for

imaginary lines known as the centerline (or CL) and the

measuring object placement on the stage.

proscenium line to establish a system of coordinates used for measuring the placement of objects on the

When looking at proscenium stages, the stage might protrude out far past the proscenium line towards the

stage (see Figure 3.3).

audience, or it might end close to the proscenium arch.

The centerline is an imaginary line that runs upstage

If there is an area of the stage that extends downstage

to downstage from the back wall of the stage through

of the proscenium line, this is referred to as the apron.

the back wall of the auditorium, bisecting the space in

Sometimes, the apron is also built on an elevator or

half. In a ground plan (a drafting of the theatre from

has a removable stage deck to reveal an area beneath

a bird’s eye view), this reference line is indicated by a

the stage level. This area of the stage is frequently

specific dashed line: long, short, long. The proscenium

reserved for the orchestra, when a musical ensemble

line (sometimes referred to as the Plaster Line) is

accompanies the dance (Figure 3.4). In this situation,

PRo.5C(I\JIUM ARCH

PRo.5C(I\JIUM PRo.5C(I\JIUM PRo.5C(I\JIUM F I G UR E 3. 3

The proscenium line and centerline are imaginary points used to establish stage coordinates.

AUI/IIORIUM

Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

38 THINKING AHEAD

F I G UR E 3. 4

The former New York State Theater (now the David H. Koch Theater) at Lincoln Center. The orchestra pit is located between the stage and auditorium. Photo courtesy of David Shankbone.

this area of the stage is referred to as the orchestra pit

the majority of the audience and which locations are

or sometimes just “the pit.”

ideal for staging pivotal moments of the performance.

Traps

In order to determine just how much of the stage can be seen from the audience, designers use the audience

One of the many ways in which scenery or even dancers

seats located on the outside aisles and closest to the

can make a “magical” appearance on the stage is

stage. These positions are referred to as the extreme

through the use of trap doors in the stage floor. Many

sightlines, because they are the audience seats that

stages are equipped with panels in the stage floor that

see into the backstage area more than any other and

can be removed to create a trap door for special entry of

are looking at the stage from an extreme side angle.

effects. The area beneath the stage into which the trap

When staging a dance, it is important to walk through

doors open is referred to as the trap room.

the audience and watch the performance from these

Sightlines The term sightline refers to the unobstructed view of the stage from an audience member’s perspective. The sightline for each seat in the audience is slightly different from those around them. It is important for the choreographer and designer alike to have a good understanding of how much of the stage is visible to

locations to ensure your audience is not missing out on an important aspect of the dance. Figure 3.5 shows a ground-plan view of a theatre that indicates the stage and audience placement. In addition, it includes the symbol for extreme sightlines (the circle with a cross bisecting it). In looking at this illustration, the dotted lines extending from the extreme sightlines

39 PERFORMANCE SPACES

indicate the amount of the stage and backstage that

the area to either side of the stage, called the wings,

can be seen from the vantage point of that theatre seat.

is where lighting instruments are placed on tall poles

Since the back wall of the theatre is in the sightlines for

called booms in order to get side lighting for the

all audience members, many theatres utilize a backdrop

dancers’ bodies. While it can create an interesting visual

curtain called a cyclorama. This is described in detail

effect to see into the stage trappings, the audience

later in the chapter (see Figure 3.9).

should not always have to see what is located in these areas. For this reason, it is common to use curtains to

Masking

hide the areas of the stage you do not want the audience

When creating a space for performance, there are

to see. This process (as well as the curtains themselves)

undoubtedly aspects of the location that are best

is referred to as masking. When masking off the stage,

hidden away from the audience’s view. For instance,

there are some specific types of draperies used for the

the backstage area of a theatre is frequently a location

stage.

for scenic storage or lighting instruments. In dance,

The Grand Drape The grand drape, sometimes referred to as the main rag, is the main curtain that masks off the stage from the audience (Figure 3.6). This curtain runs the entire space of the proscenium and far enough into the wings

cYcLoRAMA

so that even the extreme sightlines cannot see around it. There are a number of different types of grand drapes, but they all have some elements in common. cYcLoRAMA cYcLoRAMA

cYcLoRAMA cYcLoRAMA

The grand drape is typically made of a heavyweight plush fabric called velour. In addition, the curtain typically has fullness sewn into it—meaning the fabric has pleats sewn into it, giving the curtain a rippled look which gives it more surface area and visual depth to catch light and create shadows. Since the grand drape fills the entire proscenium opening, it must move in some way for the audience to see the show. There are a number of different methods of rigging a curtain to open, but the two most common methods are for the curtain to move up or to open from the center. A curtain that raises or closes in the vertical plane is called a guillotine, whereas a traveller is a curtain with a split down the center in which the two F IG UR E 3. 5

Extreme sightlines. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

40 THINKING AHEAD

F I G UR E 3. 6

sides slide horizontally away from one another. For

The grand drape is a common drapery element used for dance productions.

dance concerts, it is a common practice to close the grand drape between each separate dance piece in the

Photo courtesy of Dilly Boase.

show.

Legs As you move upstage of the grand drape, there are a series of curtains used to mask off the audience’s view into the wings. These curtains, called legs, are tall and typically made of a black or neutral dark-colored fabric (Figure 3.7).

Borders A border is a fabric curtain hung overhead of the stage to mask off the audience’s view of lighting instruments or scenery that might be flown overhead. Typically, a border and set of two legs will be used in conjunction with the border slightly downstage of the two legs (Figure 3.7).

Blackout Curtain Sometimes, a dance calls for a black backdrop to create a stark contrast to the dancers on stage. In these instances, a blackout curtain is an ideal choice. A blackout curtain is typically a full-stage black masking

PROSCENIUM

PROSCENIUM

CYCLORAMA

AUDITORIUM

F I G UR E 3. 7

A view of the theatre from the side. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

PROSCENIUM

41 PERFORMANCE SPACES

curtain with no fullness made of black velour. Since it is black and a smooth surface, there is nothing to bounce light off and the background is a smooth neutral black.

Scrim Scrim is a type of gauze-like fabric with an open weave (Figure 3.8). Many theatres have a full-stage scrim curtain as part of their inventory. The scrim is used to create interesting visual effects. Because of its screenlike nature, when a light is shone on the front of a scrim, it looks solid. When the lights on the front side of a scrim are lowered, though, and it is lit from behind, the material becomes semi-transparent, giving a hazy, ghost-like appearance to anything seen through it. This means that a scrim could be used in a dance to create a special effect in which dancers behind the scrim could “magically” appear.

Cyclorama/Sky Drop The last element of masking for a stage is a covering of the upstage wall of the theatre. Most theatres use a large, light blue or light grey fabric drop called a sky drop. In older theatres, the back wall of the theatre was a concave, wrap-around wall with a plaster covering called a cyclorama. Over the years, most people began

F IG UR E 3. 9

The blue background for this image is a cyclorama illuminated with blue lighting. Photography by Richard Calmes.

referring to the sky drop as a cyclorama, or “cyc” for short. The cyclorama is used as a neutral backdrop that F I G UR E 3. 8

can be lit by lighting fixtures to create a colored wash of

The open weave of the scrim allows for invariant lighting effects.

a background. These lighting fixtures are typically hung above the cyc and positioned on the floor pointing up as well. This gives the opportunity for the lighting designer to mix multiple colors of light on the cyc (Figure 3.9).

Ground Row The ground row is an additional element of masking used for covering up the lighting fixtures positioned on the floor for lighting the cyc (Figure 3.7). Typically, the ground row is a simple series of small boards (around 1´ in height) attached to the floor, just downstage of the

42 THINKING AHEAD

F IG UR E 3. 10

A plan view of the stage showing in-betweens. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

cYcLoRAMA

lighting instruments. These boards are painted black or another neutral color matching the floor to hide the lighting instruments and cabling at the base of the

-

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SL lt\1-l

SL lt\1-1

cyclorama.

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Dependable Dependable

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In-betweens One important concept related to the dance stage is the “in” or “in-between.” An in-between is the location between the theatre’s legs. When looking at the stage in a plan view, in-betweens are labeled as either stage right or stage left and numbered from downstage to upstage (Figure 3.10). Sometimes, in-betweens are referred to simply as “ins” (as in Stage Right In-1, Stage Right In-2). In dance design, the in-betweens are also the location of lighting booms, used for side lighting the dancers.

Counterweight Systems Many theatres are equipped with a method for handling scenery in the air, “flying” it overhead to be hidden out of sight until it needs to be seen. This counterweight system utilizes a steel grid placed over the stage upon which is placed a system of pulleys. Beneath the grid is a collection of overhead pipes hung parallel to the proscenium. These pipes are suspended from wire cables that go up through the pulleys on the grid, allowing for scenic elements (or sometimes even people) to be “flown” overhead of the stage. Every theatre does not have a counterweight system, but it is such a common element that it is important to familiarize yourself with their function. Figure 3.11 illustrates a counterweight system in the theatre. F IG UR E 3. 11

The primary components of a theatrical fly system: A) batten, B) aircraft cables, C) loft blocks, D) head block, E) arbor and stage weights, F) tension block, G) rope lock, H) purchase line. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

43 PERFORMANCE SPACES

The Fly Loft

to balance out the load of scenery added to the batten

Flying scenery requires a large amount of space

(Figure 3.12). The purpose of the arbor is to allow for

above the stage. This area, referred to as the fly loft, should typically be two and a half times taller than the proscenium opening in order to fly the scenery above

“counterweighting” with an identical weight to balance out the load, thereby making the task of lifting hundreds of pounds of scenery a simple matter of pulling on one

the vertical sightlines of the first row of the audience.

rope. The lift line is tied to the top of the arbor, with

Grid

line. The purchase line loops down through a block

A grid is a series of steel pipes suspended in the upper

at the bottom of the system called a tension block

portion of the fly loft, used for securing pulleys for the counterweight system. The grid includes a series of I-beams running parallel to the proscenium. These I-beams are used to support another series of steel

another rope tied to the bottom called the purchase

(sometimes called the foot block) and is redirected back up through the head block to once more attach to the top of the arbor. In this way, the purchase line is one big loop attached to the arbor so that pulling down on the

bars running perpendicular to the proscenium, thus creating the grid. At key locations across the grid, there are a collection of pulleys called the loft blocks, used to guide the cables that help in flying scenery.

Batten The batten is a steel pipe that is hung horizontally and used to lift the load of scenery. Attached to the batten are sections of wire cables called lift lines that travel vertically up through the wells and into a loft block to be redirected to a head block on one side of the stage. As seen in Figure 3.11, the blocks in a counterweight system are used to change the direction of the lift line from vertical to horizontal, and then back to vertical.

Linesets The collection of lift lines attached to a batten is referred to as a lineset. The number of lift lines on a lineset is related to the size of a proscenium opening. Wider stages might have five to six lift lines, whereas smaller ones might only have three to four.

Arbor The component of the counterweight system for which it gets its name is the arbor. An arbor is a specially designed rack upon which stage weights can be added

44 THINKING AHEAD

FIG UR E 3.12

Arbors with stage weights.

rope makes the arbor go up (and the batten go down)

level, the arbor will be positioned at the top of the fly

and vice versa.

loft, just below the head blocks. Because of this, most

Lock Rail

counterweight systems have a balcony level positioned near the top of the fly loft, called the loading gallery

The lock rail is a level of the counterweight system that

(Figure 3.14). This area is used for loading stage weights

features a line lock, a simple lever for locking down

onto the arbors to counterweight the amount added to a

movement of the purchase line and, in conjunction,

batten. As a result, stage weights are also stored at this

the batten (Figure 3.13). These locks might be located

level for easy access.

at the floor level or at a position above floor level. This is the location from which the flymen operate the

Audience Seating

counterweight system, unlocking the line lock, flying the

There are a number of different components that affect

scenery, and then locking it back into place for safety.

the audience’s performance experience, but one of the

Loading Gallery

most significant is seating. This directly relates to how

One final point of interest for the counterweight system is how stage weights are added to the arbor, or more to the point where the weight is added. Since scenery is always added when the batten is at stage

F I G UR E 3. 1 3

F IG UR E 3. 14

A lock rail located at the floor level of the stage.

A loading gallery, with weights stored along the walkway.

45 PERFORMANCE SPACES

much of the stage an audience member can see and

level is often at a steep incline, so as to allow the

from what angle, in addition to their proximity to other

audience members to look down on the stage. While

audience members around them. When discussing a

the audience can get relatively close to the action

theatre space, there are some common terms with

from a balcony, keep in mind this will mean looking

which one should be familiar.

down on a production that was meant to be seen at eye-level.

In basic terms, the area of a theatre where the audience sits is referred to as the auditorium. In a proscenium

●●

Italian mezzano meaning “middle.” In theatrical

theatre, the auditorium is placed directly in front of the

terminology, this refers to the lowest balcony of the

proscenium arch. Some theatres may have only one

theatre (if there are more than one) or sometimes

large seating area of the auditorium, while others may

the front rows of the theatre’s balcony.

have different sections of the auditorium with audience seating. The following list indicates some common

Mezzanine: Mezzanine is a term derived from the

●●

Box seats: In some theatres, particularly those built

divisions of the auditorium, while Figure 3.15 includes

before the twentieth century, balconies may wrap

visual examples:

around the sides of the auditorium and extend all

●●

Orchestra: The part of the auditorium on the main floor and closest to the stage. Sitting roughly halfway back in the middle of the orchestra guarantees an excellent view of the stage and dancers.

●●

the way to the sides of the proscenium. These seats are referred to as box seats (also known as loge). While they may seem glamorous seats to some, the box seats are often the worst vantage point for a dance show, as it gives a direct line of sight into

Balcony: A balcony is an upper floor of seating in a

the backstage and makes for a distorted view of the

theatre that protrudes out above the main floor. This

action.

ORC\-lESTRA

STAGE STAGE

ORC\-lESTRA

STAGE

ORC\-lESTRA F I G UR E 3. 1 5

Divisions of the auditorium.

ORC\-lESTRA ORC\-lESTRA

Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

46 THINKING AHEAD

Typically, it is those seats closest to the stage and on

There are a number of different theatre types that make

the main level that cost the most, whereas those further

for interesting dance spaces, though each one presents

away or in the balcony areas of the auditorium are less

its own unique set of challenges for dance.

expensive. This is why some theatres feature an area of the orchestra referred to as premium seats, the first

Thrust Theatres

few rows of the orchestra closest to the stage, for a

The thrust is another type of stage configuration. A

higher ticket cost. Interestingly enough, though, most

thrust stage (sometimes called ¾ round, or theatre in

avid theatregoers prefer to sit a bit further back, as the

the round) is primarily defined by its relationship to the

front seats mean looking up at the stage and possibly

audience. In a thrust space, the stage is thrust forth into

missing some of the action as dancers move upstage.

the audience, with seating positioned on three sides

3.2 Non-proscenium Theatres

of the stage (Figure 3.16). While the thrust stage can have many different shapes, one of the most common

While the proscenium theatre is one of the most popular

resembles an octagon cut in half. Since the audience is

types of theatre space for dance, it is by no means the

incredibly close to the stage, this type of theatre makes

only type of theatre in which a dance can be staged.

for an intimate dance environment.

F I G UR E 3. 1 6

A thrust stage, with seating on three sides of the stage. Photo courtesy of Wharton Center for Performing Arts.

47 PERFORMANCE SPACES

One of the other identifying features of a thrust space is

Another important consideration when staging a dance

that the audience seating is frequently raked, meaning

in a thrust space is the lighting. When lighting dance

that each row of seating is raised higher than the row

productions, it is a common practice to use side lighting

in front of it, thereby guaranteeing a better view of the

on booms positioned in the wings. While these booms

stage. In most thrust spaces, the rake is extremely high,

remain hidden away from the audience’s line of sight

meaning that more than half of the audience will be

in a proscenium space, this is not always the case for

looking down on dancers onstage. As a choreographer,

lighting dance in a thrust space. Booms, if used, might

this is a challenge to keep in mind while setting the

have to be placed in the audience. If so, this process

dance. Thrust spaces typically have tunnels that lead

must carefully be executed in order to avoid blinding

beneath the raked seating called vomitories, or “voms”

some of your audience. The normal rules of dance

for short (Figure 3.17). These voms make for interesting

lighting do not necessarily apply when lighting for the

points of entrance for dancers, adding a unique staging

thrust. Talk early with the lighting designer and make

opportunity over the proscenium space.

sure to let them know it will be staged for a thrust space.

F I G UR E 3. 1 7

A view from the thrust stage, looking out towards the audience. Note the raked audience seating and vomitories (indicated by the arrows). Photo courtesy of Wharton Center for Performing Arts.

48 THINKING AHEAD

Arena Theatres

booms for side lighting would be visible and shining into

Like the thrust, the arena stage (sometimes called

some of the audience’s eyes.

theatre in the round) features seating at a raked angle looking down onto the stage, but instead of seating on three sides, the audience is located on all sides of the stage (Figure 3.18). The main challenge of staging dance in the round is sightlines. Since the entirety of the stage is exposed to the audience, there is no opportunity to hide dancers, props, etc. Likewise, traditional dance lighting is problematic for an arena stage, since any

Black Box/Studio Theatre Spaces The term black box or studio theatre refers to a small theatre space with flexible seating that can be configured in multiple arrangements. This type of space is ideal for student performances, showcases, and master classes, as the audience is in close proximity to the action. The black box space does not lend itself to complex production elements, but there is an inherent value to working in a space that can be adjusted to meet the needs of the particular performance.

3.3 Non-traditional Spaces These days, it is not uncommon to see dance pieces performed in spaces outside of the traditional theatre (Figure 3.19). From warehouses to churches, gymnasiums, swimming pools, or even rock quarries, there are a number of locations that can make for an interesting dance performance space. One of the key benefits of using a non-

Available

traditional space is that your imagination is the limit for the production. There are no predetermined ways in which the space is best suited for a dance performance. Though there are a number of technical challenges to be met, such as power supply, dance flooring, seating, and public amenities, the performance experience in a non-traditional space can be particularly rewarding.

F IG UR E 3. 18

The arena stage, viewed from above, with seating surrounding the stage. Often, there will be vomitories in the four corners of the stage for entrances. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

49 PERFORMANCE SPACES

F IG UR E 3. 19

This photo, taken in a sky bridge over downtown Atlanta, represents the unique opportunity of a dancer performing in a non-traditional space. Photography by Richard Calmes.

proximity to the stage can impact a great number of the artistic decisions that go into producing a dance. The dancer or choreographer who enters into the process of creating a dance with a working understanding of theatre spaces and terminology is at a decided advantage when collaborating with designers and technicians.

Review Questions 1. What is the name of the “picture frame” through which the audience watches the performance? 2. What is the area of the stage that extends downstage of the proscenium line? 3. In regards to stage directions, what is the area called furthest away from the audience? 4. What is the name of the imaginary line that extends from one edge of the proscenium arch to another? 5. What is the name of audience seats located in the outside aisles and closest to the stage? 6. What are the vertical masking curtains called that are placed to mask the wings? 7. This type of system is used to fly scenery overhead

3.4 Chapter Review The type of performance space can greatly affect the type of dance performance that can be staged in its halls. All too frequently, choreographers and designers do not consider the ways in which the theatre space affects the dance until far too late in the process. In particular, the placement of the audience and their

50 THINKING AHEAD

in the theatre. 8. What is the steel pipe called that is used to lift the load of scenery? 9. This type of stage features audience sitting on three sides of the stage. 10. This type of stage is sometimes referred to as theatre in the round.

PART II PRODUCTION AREAS

CHAPTER 4 LIGHTING Lighting affects everything light falls upon. How you see what you see, how you feel about it, and how you hear what you are hearing. Jean Rosenthal

Hubbard Street Dancers Alice Klock, above, and Kevin J. Shannon in AZIMUTH by Alonzo King. Costumes by Robert Rosenwasser, Joan Raymond and Rebecca M. Shouse. Lighting Design by Axel Source Morgenthaler. line to goPhoto here by Quinn B Wharton.

Lighting is one of the most essential production

developing the ability to assess a visual moment and

elements to any live performance. Since most shows

understand all of the component parts that made up

are performed indoors or outdoors at night, some level

the feeling of that moment—the angle of the light, its

of lighting is required for both seeing the performers

brightness, quality, colors, shadows, and texture. When

and to provide for their safety. More than just these

collaborating with a lighting designer, it is useful to

basic concerns, though, lighting is a design element that

have a common language for discussing light. To those

contributes to the storytelling of the performance and

ends, the following sections cover some basic lighting

enhances the audience’s experience. The successful

concepts, discussing why we use light and how it can be

lighting design considers elements such as visibility,

manipulated for the stage.

color, lighting direction and angle, brightness, and be seen while hiding away those elements that distract

4.2  Functions of Dance Lighting (What Lighting  can Accomplish)

from the storytelling. Though the tools and process for

In any work of art, all of the elements should be chosen

a dance lighting design are similar to that of theatrical

carefully to fulfill a specific purpose within the overall

lighting, the technique employed for creating dance

composition. Lighting is one of the most important

lighting varies considerably from theatre. Likewise, you

elements within a dance production, and it performs

may find that some of the terminology differs slightly

some very specific functions. Listed below are ways

between the two genres. This chapter details many of

of looking at the functions of dance lighting, or the

the considerations for dance lighting and examines the

purposes of lighting design within the context of a dance

role of the lighting designer in dance.

production.

4.1  The Lighting Designer

Visibility

The lighting designer must have a command of both

The first and most fundamental function of dance

design aesthetics and technological know-how—an

lighting is visibility. The audience cannot see

impeccable artistic eye with the understanding of

something that is in the dark. This basic concept is one

the equipment necessary to execute the desired

of the greatest tools of the dance lighting designer.

look onstage. In addition, lighting designers must

Sometimes what is not seen is much more useful

be excellent collaborators, since their work affects

to the storytelling of the dance than what is seen.

every other visual aspect of the production. Perhaps

Consider the possibility of dancers emerging from the

most importantly, the lighting designer should be

darkness onto lit areas of the stage only to disappear

skilled at describing the use of lighting and how it will

once more into the darkness. For dance, visibility is

emotionally, psychologically, and artistically affect the

more of a relative term than in theatre. For theatrical

production and given moments of the show. While this

performances, the old adage “you can’t hear what

may seem like a simple task, consider for a moment

you can’t see” is a time-tested mantra for explaining

the ephemeral nature of light and the way in which light

how audiences have a difficult time understanding

interacts with the world around us on a daily basis.

actor dialogue if they cannot see the actor’s face. In

Try to describe a sunset or the glow of light after a

dance, the spoken word is secondary to the dancer’s

thunderstorm. Most people take the lighting around

movement. Likewise, dance tends to be less of a

them for granted. Lighting designers have spent years

realistic art form than theatre, at times. For these

movement. Lighting is a tool for displaying what needs to

54 PRODUCTION AREAS

reasons, dance lighting is sometimes dimmer than

by the dancers (Figure 4.1). Sculpting is directly tied to

stage lighting, with a higher contrast between lights

the placement of lighting instruments and the direction

and darks.

and angle of light illuminating the stage.

Sculpting

Composition

When discussing dance lighting, the term sculpting

Composition is a descriptive term used in a number

refers to the combination of light and shadow on a

of different art forms. For the purposes of most visual

person or object to reveal or obscure its true form.

art forms, it refers to the combination of multiple

Also sometimes referred to as modeling, this function

elements and their placement or arrangement to create

is important to the overall purpose of dance—to

a cohesive work of art. Lighting, more so than any of

communicate a story or feeling through the movement

the other design areas, influences what the audience’s

of a dancer. This is why side lighting is so common for

eye falls on and what elements are seen or hidden.

dance lighting. The intense lighting coming from the

Since lighting has the ability to change in a matter of

sides emphasizes the human form and allows for the

seconds, lighting can also change the composition of

audience to see even the subtlest of motions performed

a piece numerous times throughout the performance.

F I G UR E 4. 1

The use of side lighting in this photo accentuates the dancer’s physical features and is an excellent example of sculpting with light. Lighting design by Jared Sayeg.

55 LIGHTING

F I G UR E 4. 2

Lighting can be used to affect the overall stage composition. Lighting design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

The primary use of composition in dance is to create

Mood

a sense of relationship between the dancers and their

Mood is often one of the easiest functions for

background. Figure 4.2 illustrates how the composition of a moment can be changed drastically through changes in lighting. In the first image, the entire stage is darkened, save the small pool of light isolating the dancer. The second image shows more of a full-stage illumination, with a much more open stage composition.

Rhythm While rhythm is an obvious component of any dance, many do not consider the way in which lighting

choreographers to identify about a dance. Mood (sometimes referred to as atmosphere) is the feeling associated with a certain visual moment, often invoked through the use of color, texture, and direction. It is important to discuss what type of feeling the choreographer wants the dance piece to evoke before determining the mood of the lighting design. Figure 4.3 illustrates how lighting can affect mood within a dance.

contributes to the overall rhythm of a dance piece.

Reinforcement/Punctuation

Many people use the term rhythm in dance to discuss

The final function of dance lighting is related to how

how a person or a piece of music moves. The same is true in lighting terms, with rhythm used to describe both how lighting moves within a given moment and in the overarching structure of the entire dance. Obviously, music is an important aspect of many dances (though certainly not all). Like the dancer, lighting can work in harmony with or in contrast to the music, or combinations of both within one dance piece. As the lighting “looks” change throughout the dance, it creates a definite sense of rhythm that either works in conjunction with or against the choreography and music.

56 PRODUCTION AREAS

lighting reinforces or comments on what is being done onstage by the dancers. Lighting should reinforce the storytelling of the choreography and support other design elements such as scenery, projections, and costumes. Likewise, lighting frequently functions as punctuation of a dance or moment within a dance. This can be something as basic as the length of time it takes for the lights to fade to black, or a drastic shift in the color scheme or lighting texture at a key moment within the choreography or musical accompaniment.

F I G UR E 4. 3

The lighting for this dance utilizes warm tones on the dancers with a cooler wash of colors in the perimeter, portraying a calm and serene mood. Lighting design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

4.3  Properties of Dance Lighting (Controllable  Qualities of Dance Lighting) The properties of dance lighting refer to the definable attributes of lighting, or the aspects of lighting that can be changed. Each of these properties affects one or more of the functions of dance lighting listed above.

Brightness Brightness is the property of lighting that refers to the amount of light present (sometimes referred to as intensity). This aspect of lighting can be both relative and absolute. Typically, brightness is a relative term referring to the overall stage picture. Perhaps the whole

stage is dimly lit with one dancer standing in a pool of light (Figure 4.4). Even if this pool of light was only moderately bright, it would appear much more intense compared to the dim areas of lighting surrounding it.

Color Of all of the properties of light, color is arguably the most powerful tool used to communicate with your audience. Long after seeing a show, the strongest visual memories tend to be of the color used in a dramatic moment (Figure 4.5). In stage lighting, color was traditionally created through the use of color filters (often called gels). A gel is a thin sheet of plastic

57 LIGHTING

F I G UR E 4. 4

Brightness is most often relative when compared to the entire stage picture. Lighting design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

impregnated with pigment. Due to the nature of the particular gel, only certain wavelengths of light are allowed to pass through, leaving the resulting light colored. In recent years, though, the use of LED (Light Emitting Diode) lighting instruments enables lighting designers to create and mix color through the lighting instrument itself without using gels.

Direction Direction in lighting refers to the placement of the light source in relation to the object being lit. The main directions of lighting are front, back, and side. Each of these directions has a distinctly different feel to them and evokes different responses. Looking at Figure 4.6, the dancer is lit from multiple directions. Front lighting illuminates the form well, but “flattens” out the dancer a bit. Side lighting accentuates the three-dimensional form of the dancer, but tends to decrease some of the specificity of the facial features. Back lighting

F I G UR E 4. 5

eliminates the frontal details altogether, while adding

Dramatic lighting created through strong contrasting colors. Lighting design by Jared Sayeg.

a halo glow around the figure, making her stand out from the background. When considering the placement

58 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 4. 6

The three common directions of light. Photography by Jeromy Hopgood.

FRONT LIGHT

HIGH ANGLE

SIDE LIGHT

HIGH ANGLE

DOWN

BACK LIGHT

of a lighting instrument, the lighting designer should always examine the available lighting positions in

/

relation to the desired stage locations and understand how this choice affects the appearance of lighting.

Angle Like direction, angle is a property of light that relates to the placement of the light source. In fact, direction is rarely discussed without a discussion of the light’s angle. The key difference lies in the fact that direction is related to the object in the horizontal plane, whereas angle is concerned with the vertical placement of the light. In general, lighting angles are referred to as up, low, or high angle, with a few specific terms like up-light or down lighting. The names are related to the placement of the instrument and mostly self-descriptive

LOW ANGLE

LOW ANGLE

LUP

(i.e. shins, mids, head-highs, etc.). Similar to our

F IG UR E 4. 7

Some common angles of lighting. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

59 LIGHTING

discussion of direction, angle of light greatly affects the

the gobo, it is blocked by the steel and passes through

mood and is a powerful tool for the lighting designer.

the openings thereby creating a pattern in the light.

Figure 4.7 shows examples of some common lighting

Some gobos are made of glass and can contain complex

angles.

colored images, so the gobo creates both texture and

Visual Quality The visual quality of light is a term that describes how an area of lighting looks. Two terms used frequently to discuss visual quality are focus and texture. These two terms are interconnected in that focus will always affect texture. When referring to a given light, focus indicates the relative sharpness or softness of the pool of light. In most lighting instruments, the light source allows for adjusting the focus of the beam of light from soft to sharp. Texture in lighting is the visual appearance of the pool of light. Certain lighting fixtures may have an inherent texture to their output. Likewise, texture can be created in stage lighting through the use of a special template called a gobo. A gobo is a thin sheet of steel with patterns cut into it (Figure 4.8). When light strikes

color. Changing the focus of the lighting instrument will affect how crisp or diffuse the resulting texture appears onstage.

Movement The final property of dance lighting is movement. Movement can refer to the physical movement of a beam of light as seen in a follow spot or moving light, or it can refer to the perceived sense of movement created by turning lights on or off within the overall design. For instance, a lighting designer might create special areas of focus on the stage for one particular moment of the dance and then move the pool of light to another area of the stage as the dancers change their positions. Since movement is such a key component of dance, it stands to reason that this is also an important property of dance lighting. When considering movement, tempo (the speed or pace of a given movement) is an important consideration, since the same movement can have different interpretations when performed at different tempos.

4.4  Lighting Systems A lighting system refers to the collection of equipment necessary to generate and control the lighting for a production. When working in a theatre setting, most of these elements will be included as part of the physical plant. In the most basic terms, a lighting system must include power, control, and lighting instruments. The following section details common components of a lighting system. Refer to Figure 4.9 for specific details. F IG UR E 4. 8

Steel and glass gobos with a gobo holder.

60 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 4. 9

An illustrated view of a simple lighting system. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

DIMMER RACK

INSTRUMENT

POWER PLANT (HIGH VOLTAGE) TRANSFORMER (STEP DOWN VOLTAGE)

!IJJNt+l g lmtft+l g

0 0 1I --==========~__J CONTROL SIGNAL 00

LIGHTING INSTRUMENT

LIGHTING CONSOLE

Power For a theatre with a dedicated power system, high voltage electrical service will be sent into the building and through a transformer to step the power down to 120-volt power service. This is then connected to a dimmer rack. Dimmers are electrical devices used to regulate the flow of electricity to a specific outlet. The outlet that receives this power is referred to as a circuit. Stage lighting equipment is typically connected to a circuit by means of a heavyweight electrical cable with a

F IG UR E 4. 10

The stage pin connector, featuring both the male and female connector ends.

stage pin connector, a specialized connector plug that is rectangular in shape with three cylindrical prongs on the male end and three openings on the female receptacle (Figure 4.10).

61 LIGHTING

F IG UR E 4. 11

A lighting console in use. Hubbard Street production table and, foreground, magic sheet in the Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago’s Edlis Neeson Theater. Photo courtesy of Hubbard Street Dance Chicago.

texture, beam quality, and special effects (such as strobe, bouncing effects, prisms, and more). For conventional lighting equipment, it need only be connected to a dimmer to be controlled. For intelligent lighting, the instrument must be connected to a dimmer for power and have a specific control cable that provides a control signal from the lighting console directly to the lighting fixture.

Lighting System Summary In summary, a lighting system contains a collection of equipment necessary to illuminate the stage. A lighting

Control

console is used to send control signals to the dimmer rack and additional lighting equipment in the lighting

For every lighting system, there must be a controller

system. The dimmers receive the control signal, telling

used to manipulate the dimmers and lighting

them how much power (voltage) to provide to circuits.

equipment. This controller is called a lighting console,

Lighting instruments are connected to these circuits

or sometimes simply referred to as the lighting board

to receive their power supply from the dimmers.

(Figure 4.11). A lighting console is an electronic device

Increasing the voltage increases the brightness of the

used to send control signals to the dimmer rack that tell

lighting instrument.

it which dimmer should turn on and to what intensity. This control signal is referred to as a channel. In

4.5  Lighting Positions and Angles

addition, the console can send signals to other lighting

As seen in the earlier discussion of direction and

equipment such as intelligent lighting, color scrollers,

angle, the placement of a light greatly affects the

gobo rotators, and environmental effects like fogger/

resulting lighting look. For this reason, it is useful

hazers.

for choreographer and designer alike to understand

Lighting Instruments

the possibilities for lighting placement within the performance space and how each unique position

Lighting instruments are the final component of the

can be utilized. The following section details common

lighting system. Conventional lighting instruments are

lighting angles, their qualities, and how best to achieve

lights that remain in a fixed position and whose intensity

them in a performance space.

can be changed by the amount of electrical power supplied to them. Intelligent lighting instruments are

Side Lighting

a variety of lights that have a number of controllable

Side lighting is the principal lighting angle used in dance

properties such as focus position, intensity, color,

lighting design. From an artistic perspective, it focuses

62 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 4. 1 2

Side lighting can come from booms or lighting towers

Side lighting reveals the physical form of the dancer, while creating interesting shadows.

placed in the wings, from the offstage ends of the electrics, or even from the box boom positions. Since the boom/tower is the most common position used in

Lighting design and photography by Jeromy Hopgood.

creating side lighting for dance, it is important to have a good understanding of its attributes.

Booms The primary position for side lighting is the boom, a vertical lighting pipe with heavy weighted base, placed in the wings (Figure 4.13). Booms are frequently bolted to the floor or weighed down with sand/shot bags to counterbalance the weight of the lighting instruments hung on them. In addition, since many booms are

Loyal

Responsible

on the physical form of the dancer, giving high contrast

Available

and allowing the audience to truly pay attention to the subtleties of the dancer’s physicality. From a practical standpoint, side lighting is relatively quick and easy to

Responsible Responsible

set up. It also allows for a variety of looks with the least amount of lighting instruments. All of this makes it an ideal choice for touring repertory in dance. By itself, side lighting can create a somewhat mysterious look that focuses on the edges of the dancer, while creating a heavily sculpted look (Figure 4.12).

F IG UR E 4. 13

A boom, featuring four side lighting positions. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

63 LIGHTING

F I G UR E 4. 1 4

focused off of the stage floor. This angle of light

The four primary side lighting positions from a boom.

creates an interesting effect of having the dancer suspended in space, magically hovering above the

Photography by Jeromy Hopgood.

floor (Figure 4.14A). 2. 

Mid-highs: Mid side lighting is hung approximately waist-high on the boom and pointing directly out towards the centerline of the theatre (Figure 4.14B). Some of the light will spill onto the stage floor. This lighting illuminates the dancer’s body and does an excellent job of revealing the threedimensional form. When dealing with dancers in

C. HEAD-HIGHS (2 SIDES)

a row, though, this might not be the best choice

D. HIGH SIDES (2 SIDES)

of instrument, as the dancer closest to the wings is brightly illuminated and casts shadows on the subsequent dancers. 3. 

Head-highs: Head-high side lighting is placed 6´ to 8´ off of the stage floor (Figure 4.14C). Heads are not focused off the stage floor, so there is an amount of light spilling onto the floor, but not so much as to distract from the dancer. This position, together with the shins, makes up the two essential lighting angles for side lighting in dance.

4.  C. HEAD-HIGHS (2 SIDES)

D. HIGH SIDES (2 SIDES)

10´ to 16´ in height, some have a safety line attached to the top of the boom that extends to the theatre’s grid. It is common to hang anywhere from three to six lighting instruments from each boom, typically ellipsoidal

Highs: High side lighting uses a lighting instrument hung 10´ to 14´ off of the stage floor pointed diagonally down onto the stage (Figure 4.14D). This angle creates interesting shadows from the dancer onto the stage floor and creates a great sense of space.

reflector spotlights with the ability to be tightly focused.

Front Lighting

Listed below are the descriptions of dance boom

Front lighting is any lighting source that points directly

lighting placement. Figure 4.14 illustrates the differing

towards the stage. It can be positioned overhead in the

looks of the four common instrument positions on a

auditorium or on stage. For theatrical lighting, front

boom.

lighting is the primary source of illumination. In dance

1. 

Shin busters: Low side lighting is a fundamental lighting angle for dance. These lights are hung approximately shin high (12˝ to 18˝ from the stage deck) and pointed up to head height, with the light

64 PRODUCTION AREAS

lighting, however, the most important lighting direction will always be side lighting. As such, front lighting for dance is mostly used as a “fill light” to wash across the stage and help the audience see the dancers’ faces.

Dance lighting tends to avoid an overuse of front light,

Foot Lighting

since lighting from the front tends to flatten out an

Footlights are a row of lights placed at floor level,

object, eliminate the sculptural look desired for dance, and cast odd shadows from the costumes onto the dancers’ bodies. The notable exception to this rule is in ballet, where the traditional approach is to use front lighting to eliminate the shadow in the center of the dancer’s body that results from side light alone.

typically at the front edge or back edge of the stage. Older theatres may even still have a “trough” at the front edge of the stage, sunken beneath the floor surface so that they are out of the audience’s line of sight. Footlights point upstage at the dancers, casting long shadows onto the upstage area and backdrop.

Front lighting is categorized by the different angles.

It is a rather unnatural look, since low front lighting

Figure 4.15 includes examples of various angles of front

rarely appears in nature. The effect makes the dancer

lighting.

seem quite tall, but has a somewhat limited use, since the projected shadow of the dancer on the backdrop can prove to be distracting from the actual dancer (Figure 4.15A).

Low-angle Front Lighting Low-angle front lighting in most theatres comes from the balcony level or from catwalk positions on the back wall of the auditorium. These positions are ideal to get light onto the dancers’ faces, but would “flatten out” the dancers and cast shadows on the backdrop if used on their own (see Figure 4.15B). As a result, they are often used at lower intensities for fill light.

High-angle Front Lighting In most theatres, the majority of front lighting comes COVESCOVES

COVES COVES COVES

at a high angle from either lighting positions in the auditorium (called ceiling slots) or from an overhead electric onstage (see Figure 4.15C). A ceiling slot, sometimes called a port, is a lighting position over the audience’s head, hidden out of sight by the architecture of the theatre. An electric is a batten from which lighting instruments are intended to hang. If it is a dedicated electric, the batten will have permanent circuits attached to it and be clearly labeled. Electrics can be used for a number of different lighting angles from front to side, back, or down lighting. For naming

F I G UR E 4. 1 5

Four common front lighting positions. Photography by Jeromy Hopgood.

purposes, electrics are labeled numerically from C. CEILING SLOT

D. COVES

65 LIGHTING

downstage to upstage (i.e. first electric, second

Back Lighting

electric, etc.).

Back lighting also plays an important role in dance

Front Low-angle Side Lighting Coves are lighting positions in the side walls of the auditorium. Like the ceiling slots, they are often disguised by the building’s architecture so the audience cannot see them. Not every theatre has coves, but some come equipped with multiple cove positions in the house. These positions make for good low-angle front side lighting across the downstage areas from the auditorium sides. Figure 4.15D includes an example of a dancer lit from a cove position.

lighting. The main benefit of back lighting on the dancer is to separate the dancer from the background and make the figure truly stand out. From the audience’s perspective, back lighting reads most strongly on the stage floor (Figure 4.16). Since so much of the other lighting angles are focused off of the stage floor, back lighting offers a unique opportunity to add color and textures to the stage floor. If back lighting is in a complementary color to the front lighting, a halo effect will be seen surrounding the dancer, particularly around the head and shoulders. Back lighting is most often achieved by hanging instruments on the overhead electrics, pointed downstage.

F I G UR E 4. 1 6

This image combines high-angle blue back lighting with a dim wash of front lighting. The back lighting creates a blue wash on the stage floor. Lighting design and photography by Jeromy Hopgood.

66 PRODUCTION AREAS

Low-angle Back Lighting

An electric is the obvious choice for down light

In addition to high-angle back lighting, low-angle back

instruments, as it is placed directly above the stage.

lighting can create an interesting effect. Low-angle back lighting is achieved from lighting instruments placed at the floor level and pointing downstage towards the audience. These are typically in the form of footlights, or floor mounts, a lighting instrument attached to a base on the floor. This lighting angle creates a strong silhouette, but eliminates all sense of form for the dancer. The body will be perceived as a dark silhouette surrounded by a bright background (Figure 4.17). One thing to be wary of with this lighting is the danger of blinding your audience. Though this can create an interesting effect, using this angle too frequently can lead to fatiguing your audience’s eyes.

Down lighting is very common in dance lighting, particularly when used as a special. A special is a light that is hung for a specific purpose, like a particular moment within the dance where you want to highlight a dancer or movement. Down light specials are commonly hung in each of the nine main areas of the stage, pointed down with a crisp focus. In this way, the designer can isolate a location on the stage and draw focus to that area. Keep in mind that the angle of down light makes for odd shadows on the dancer, though, so it is wise to use it sparingly. Figure 4.18 illustrates the creative use of down lighting in a dance production.

Lighting the Background

Down Lighting

One final element to consider is the lighting of

Down lighting is the use of a lighting instrument

background elements. For most dances staged in a

hung overhead to point straight down onto the stage.

theatre the background is a cyclorama, a painted drop, a scrim, or a combination of more than one.

Cyclorama A cyclorama, called a cyc for short, is a large fabric backdrop hung upstage (see Figure 3.9). Originally, the term cyclorama referred specifically to a curved backdrop, and flat drops were called a sky drop. Today, most people simply refer to all sky drops as a cyclorama. The cyc is typically gray or light blue in color and used for lighting effects to create a large colored backdrop. It is lit by special lighting instruments referred to as cyc lights or strip lights. These lights are specially designed to evenly spread their light across a wide surface area. In addition, cyc lights tend to have three to four lights in a cluster, each one having an individual color, such as red, green, blue, and amber. F I G UR E 4. 1 7

A dancer lit from behind, using a floormounted instrument.

Through the use of these colors, the lighting designer can mix colors and create a wide variety of colors for the backdrop.

Photography by Jeromy Hopgood.

67 LIGHTING

F I G UR E 4. 1 8

Strong down lights create an interesting high-contrast visual. Lighting design by Jared Sayeg.

Cyc lights are typically hung overhead on a batten

Drops are typically painted on muslin fabric. Lighting a

close to the cyclorama and sometimes placed on the

drop requires the use of high front light from a batten

floor pointing up at the cyc. These lights on the floor

downstage of the drop, similar to lighting a cyclorama.

are referred to as a lighting ground row. This type of lighting from both above and below the cyclorama

Scrim

makes for the ability to create a split lighting effect with

A scrim is a type of fabric with an open weave, similar

color control for both top and bottom. When lighting the

to gauze, used for creating a full-stage backdrop

cyclorama from below, it is important to use a scenic 

(see Figure 3.8). Scrim can either be a solid color

ground row, a short vertical row of flat scenery on the

or have scenic elements painted on it. This fabric is

stage floor used for masking the lighting ground row.

advantageous for theatrical applications because of the

Painted Backdrops

nature of scrim to appear either opaque or translucent, depending on the type of lighting cast upon it. When

A painted backdrop, sometimes simply called a drop, is

lit from the front, the color or painting on the scrim is

a large fabric backdrop upon which scenery is painted.

visible. When the front lighting is taken away and the

68 PRODUCTION AREAS

lighting behind the scrim left up, the scrim becomes

Instrument Types: Spotlight (Specific Lighting)

translucent, creating a magical “hazy” look to objects

When discussing lighting instruments, the instrument

behind it. Scrim is frequently used in dance as a backdrop near the cyclorama (Figure 4.19). When a black scrim is used downstage of the cyclorama, the lighting effects on the cyc can still be viewed, or the black of the scrim can create a neutral black backdrop when cyc light is removed. This makes for a versatile dance background. In Figure 4.19, a black scrim was used as a backdrop, with the back wall of the theatre space exposed upstage of the scrim. This made for an interesting contrast when lighting the wall.

4.6  Lighting Instruments The selection of a lighting instrument is one of the most important duties of the lighting designer. The lighting designer must understand the technical specifications of many different types of lighting instruments and how best to utilize them to achieve the desired artistic outcome. Though lighting equipment rapidly changes with advances in design and engineering, there are some common types of instruments that consistently appear in dance lighting. It is useful for choreographers and designers alike to familiarize themselves with some of these basic types of instruments and their attributes.

types are commonly grouped together based on their lighting output attributes. The spotlight fixture is a type of lighting instrument that can create a tight pool of lighting, has the ability for beam shaping, and can affect changes to the beam’s focus from crisp to soft. There are many different types of spotlight fixtures, though the most common type used in dance applications is the Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight, or ERS for short. An ERS is a type of lighting instrument that uses an ellipsoidal-shaped reflector in conjunction with its lamp to create a high-intensity beam of light. Introduced in the 1930s, the first ERS was called a Leko, named for its two developers, Joseph Levy and Edward Kook. Some people today may still use this term to refer to any ERS instrument. Though differing manufacturers offer a slightly different approach to the ERS, there are some common features (Figure 4.20): ●●

C-clamp and yoke: The lighting instrument is attached to a batten by means of a c-clamp. The c-clamp is bolted to a u-shaped steel piece called the yoke. It is tightened down to the batten to secure the light. In addition, there is a set screw attached to the c-clamp that can be loosened to allow the

F I G UR E 4. 1 9

In these images, a black scrim is used as a backdrop. When unlit (left), the background appears to be flat black. When the back walls of the theatre are lit (right), they magically appear behind the scrim, creating an ethereal look to the backdrop. Choreography by Erik Abbott-Main. Lighting design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

69 LIGHTING

F IG UR E 4. 20

The ERS lighting fixture. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

GOBO SLOT COLOR SLOT

GOBO GOBO

BARREL

●●

GOBO

~

Barrel: The barrel is the component of the lighting instrument that contains the lenses for adjusting the focus of the beam of light. By adjusting the distance of the barrel from the light source, the resulting pool of light will be either crisp or fuzzy in focus. Modern lighting instruments feature removable barrels that are interchangeable. This allows for one lighting fixture to be used in different situations. Barrels are named for the beam spread of lighting they produce.

BARREL ADJUSTMENT KNOB

Common beam spreads are 5-, 10-, 19-, 26-, 36-, and

SHUTTERS

50-degree. The smaller the beam spread, the further away the light is intended to be hung from the focus

instrument to pan from side to side for focusing purposes. ●●

●●

point and vice versa. ●●

Color slot (gel frame holder): At the end of the barrel

Shutters: One of the identifying features of the ERS is

is a slot for a gel frame holder. Gels are placed in

the ability to shape its beam of light through the use

a metal frame called a gel frame. The gel frame,

of shutters. A shutter is a moveable metal plate that

complete with gel, is then inserted in the gel frame

blocks the beam of light in order to shape the output.

holder at the end of the barrel. Most barrels also

There are four shutters than can be slid into different

have a locking clip so as to secure the gel frame and

configurations. Due to the shutter placement and the

keep it from falling out. In addition to the standard

nature of reflected light inside the ERS, the physical

gel, a color scroller can be used in the color slot. A

action of shuttering the light will be reversed in the

color scroller is a box-shaped lighting accessory with

resulting pool of light. This means that pushing in

a string of gels fused together on a loop. This string

the top shutter will affect the bottom portion of the

of gels is attached to a motor that can move the loop

pool of light, and the right shutter will affect the left

along until the chosen color appears in the gate.

side of the light.

Color scrollers have an external power supply and

Gobo slot: The ERS comes equipped with a gobo slot,

are controlled by a control signal from the lighting

a slot in the top of the lighting body made for the use

console.

of a gobo. This slot can accept either steel or glass gobos. Similar to the shutter, gobo patterns will be

The Follow Spot

reversed on the lighting surface. It is important to

A follow spot is a particular type of spotlight lighting

remember this fact when working with templates

fixture controlled by a human operator and designed to

that feature writing or recognizable symbols. In

create an intensely bright pool of light with a long throw

order to be correctly projected, the gobo must be

distance. It is typically located in the theatre’s control

placed upside down and reversed into the gobo slot.

booth or in special positions in the balcony so as to be

70 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 4. 2 1

that can create a large wash of evening lighting across a

A small follow spot unit.

wide area. Wash fixtures are best used for this purpose.

Photography by Jeromy Hopgood.

There are two conventional lighting instruments used for wash lighting: the Fresnel and the PAR-type fixture. The following section discusses these two instruments and some of their attributes.

The Fresnel The Fresnel is named for Augustin-Jean Fresnel, the French scientist who invented its interesting lens. Fresnel took the basic plano convex lens and cut away sections of the glass in concentric rings, thereby making a lens with the same refractive properties as the plano convex but with much less material. The Fresnel is an excellent choice for back lighting since it can create an even wash of the stage for large color fills. Unlike the ERS, a Fresnel has fewer internal tools for adjusting the overall appearance of light output. Inside the Fresnel are a spherical reflector and lamp mounted on a moveable carriage (sometimes called a sled), and a Fresnel lens (Figure 4.22). The quality of the light can

hidden away from the audience. Follow spots are often used in ballet productions. A typical follow spot (Figure 4.21) has a douser to “dim” the beam of light and an iris to change the size of the circular pool of light, a horizontal shutter control, and a “color boomerang” at the end of the barrel to change the color of light. The light is mounted on a moveable base that can be locked down into place. The follow spot’s yoke is attached to a central pedestal that enables panning and tilting the instrument with minimal effort.

Instrument Types: Wash Lighting (General Lighting) Whereas the spotlight is used for specific lighting, sometimes the lighting designer needs an instrument

F IG UR E 4. 22

A Fresnel lighting instrument. Photography by Jeromy Hopgood.

71 LIGHTING

be changed from spot (sharper) to flood (diffused) by

Instrument Types: Cyc Lights

moving the sled closer to or further away from the lens.

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, there are a variety

Sliding further away achieves a spot focus, whereas moving closer creates a flood focus. There are no shutters in the Fresnel for beam shaping, though there is a device called a barn door that can be attached to the end of the Fresnel to shape the light output. Though you can never achieve a crisp shutter cut like the ERS, the barn door is an effective tool for basic beam shaping.

of lighting instruments used for lighting the cyclorama or stage drops. These lights are intended to hang near the cyclorama from a batten above or placed as a ground row on the floor. Cyc lights tend to fall into three main categories: strip lights, quartz “far-throw” cyc fixtures, or LED cyc fixtures. Strip lights are a variety of cyc lights that feature a long

The PAR-type Fixture

rectangular lighting fixture with multiple paired cells

For years, the PAR fixture was the go-to lighting

of lights in sequence. They tend to feature three or four

instrument for dance and concert lighting because of its lightweight, cost-effective design and ability to create wide colorful washes of light. The PAR is named for its unique lamp (the Parabolic Aluminized Reflector) that combines together light source, reflector, and lens into one component (Figure 4.23). The PAR lighting fixture is simply a metal housing to hold the PAR lamp with a gel slot on the end of the barrel. The simple design of this lighting instrument led to the term “PAR-can” since it is essentially a PAR in a can. Like the Fresnel, the PAR must use barn doors for beam shaping (though you can change out the lamps for very narrow, narrow, medium, or wide flood).

different cells for maximum color mixing capabilities. The far-throw cyc fixture is a type of cyc light made up of one to four large rectangular quartz lamps per section and can be hung further away from the cyc or drop than a typical strip light. They cover a large area with a smooth, even wash of lighting but require around a 4´ distance from the cyclorama for effective coverage. LED cyc fixtures feature LED cells instead of conventional lamps. This allows for exceptionally bright light with color mixing capabilities without using a gel.

Instrument Types: Intelligent Lighting Intelligent lighting is a blanket term referring to a wide array of lighting instruments that have controllable attributes to make them more versatile than conventional fixtures. One of the most appealing attributes of an intelligent light is the ability to remotely adjust the light’s focus. This is why some people simply refer to them as “moving lights.” Many intelligent lighting fixtures have a wide array of controllable features, such as color change, gobos, gobo rotation, prism effects, strobe effects, and built-in effects engines, to simply create interesting visual effects. Intelligent lighting has become a mainstay of concert

F I G UR E 4. 2 3

lighting and audiences have come to expect this

A PAR64 lighting instrument.

dynamic look in concert settings.

Photo courtesy of Jonge Koning.

72 PRODUCTION AREAS

Like conventional lighting fixtures, intelligent lighting

Hazers

tends to be split into different varieties of wash and spot

Another type of atmospheric effect is called haze.

fixtures. Though intelligent lighting has a high initial cost, a small number of intelligent lights in a dance light plot can help the designer limit the number of instruments necessary to create a versatile design. One important consideration in using intelligent lighting is cabling. Unlike a conventional lighting instrument that is controlled by the power supply only, intelligent lighting needs both a power supply and a control signal. This means the use of DMX cable that runs from the lighting console to the intelligent lighting fixture for the control signal. Rather than run a separate cable for each instrument, though, it is common to “daisy chain”

Haze is a long-lasting mist that hangs in the air for an extended period of time without dissipating. Haze is popular for concert lighting and outdoor events as it can easily fill a large area even in locations with inconsistent air circulation. It is the haze effect that creates the iconic rock and roll lighting appearance of visible shafts of colored light in the air. Hazers use either waterbased hazer fluid or liquid nitrogen to create haze. Many models of smoke machines, foggers, and hazers are DMX-controllable and can be connected to a lighting console for remote control.

the instruments together and have cabling run from

4.8  Color in Lighting

instrument to instrument.

Color is one of the most powerful tools of the lighting

4.7  Atmospherics In addition to selecting the appropriate lighting instrument, there are a number of decisions to be made that affect how lighting is perceived onstage. One of the most important factors to how lighting is perceived is atmospherics, typically in the form of haze and fog. Since lighting is intangible, it can only be seen when it

designer. It can communicate mood and atmosphere more effectively than most any other attribute of lighting. There are entire books dedicated to color theory and how lighting affects color. For the purposes of this text, we will examine a few of the key characteristics of color in lighting and how to implement color in a lighting design.

touches an object. When a beam of light passes through

Talking About Color

a darkened space, the beam itself is unperceivable

It can be difficult to discuss something so technical as

unless the air contains particles (i.e. water, dust, fog, etc.) For this reason, there are a number of devices that can be used to create atmospheric effects.

Fog Machines The use of fog is a time-tested effect for theatre and dance. There are different types of machines that can produce both low-lying fog that clings to the stage surface or a more smoke-like airborne variety. Most types of fog machines use a water-based liquid called fog juice. Low-lying fog machines work through either the use of dry ice, a chiller unit to cool smoke, or by

lighting and color without having a basic understanding of vocabulary. It is important to have a common vocabulary between designers and collaborators, though, to ensure that everyone is on the same page. When discussing the name of the color, we commonly use the word hue. In basic terms, this can be interpreted as the color’s name or its placement in the visible color spectrum. When discussing the purity of the color, we tend to use the term saturation, which refers to the amount of a hue present in the colored lighting.

creating fog directly from liquid CO2.

73 LIGHTING

Another word used in relation to a color’s saturation

the resulting hue is closer towards white light. This

is value. In discussing pigment, value relates to the

phenomenon is referred to as additive color mixing.

relative amount of black or white in a color. This value  scale can be illustrated as a chart with black on one

Primary and Secondary Colors

end, white on the other, and the pure hue located in

A primary color is a pure color that cannot be created

the center. Since there is no black lighting, a color’s

by mixing together other colors. These primary colors,

value in lighting is relative to the amount of white light

though, can be mixed to create interesting colors known

present. Therefore, the value scale for a hue in lighting

as secondary colors. In pigment, we know that all

is illustrated with the saturated hue on one end of the

colors are made up of three primary colors: red, yellow,

scale and pure white on the other end (Figure 4.24). We

and blue. Many people are surprised to discover that

will discuss these terms a bit more as we address the

the primary colors in lighting are different than those

use of color media later.

in pigment. For lighting, the three primary colors are

Color Mixing

red, green, and blue. By mixing pure versions of these three colors together, one can create any color in the

Another fundamental aspect of lighting is color mixing.

visible lighting spectrum. Figure 4.25 illustrates the

Color in lighting behaves in a unique fashion, quite

colors of light and how color mixing works in lighting.

differently than colored pigment in paint or inks. In

The three primary colors (red, green, and blue) are on

examining what we call “white light,” all of the visible

the outside circles. Where these areas overlap, the

colors of the spectrum are present. The reason for

result is secondary colors. The illustration shows that

this difference lies in the fact that, unlike paint, when

red and green combine to create yellow, green, and

different hues of colored lighting are added together,

Loyal Caring Caring

Caring

Caring

F I G UR E 4. 2 4

F IGU RE 4. 25

This value scale shows the gradation of a red hue from pure saturation to white.

Color mixing in lighting. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

74 PRODUCTION AREAS

Loyal

Loyal

blue combine to create cyan; and blue and red combine

Four main manufacturers (Rosco, Lee, GAM, and

together to create magenta.

Apollo) make theatrical gels. In recent years, Rosco

Another important concept in colored lighting is how colors interact with one another. Looking at Figure 4.25, you will notice the arrows connecting certain hues. These hues, opposite to one another on the chart, are referred to as complementary colors. In lighting,  complementary colors are those that produce white light when combined together. When looking at these colors side by side, the effect is making both colors appear more bright and vibrant than seeing any one by itself. This can create an interesting effect, but can lead to visual overstimulation if used for too long on the stage. Colors closer together on the chart, called analogous colors, are more similar to one another and have less visual contrast (i.e. cyan and blue).

Producing Color in Light There are a number of different ways to create colored lighting for the stage. For most dance applications, though, there are three main devices used to produce color in lighting: color filters (gels), glass color filters,

purchased GAM, but left the GAM line of gels available for purchase as a division of Rosco. Each manufacturer makes swatch books with a small sample of their gels. When working with gels from different manufacturers, it is important to remember that some colors will have similar names, but produce a differing hue. For example, most manufacturers create a color called “bastard amber” but each one is slightly different in color. For this reason, manufacturers have a numbering system to differentiate the different colors between brands. Designers use the letters of the manufacturer to distinguish between makers. For instance, the color bastard amber could be listed as R02 (Rosco), L162 (Lee), G325 (GAM), AP7050 (Apollo)—even though it has a slightly different name for each manufacturer. It is important that a lighting designer be familiar with colors from all four manufacturers and maintains current swatch books. To obtain a swatch book, contact your local theatrical supplier or the manufacturers directly.

and LED lighting instruments. It is important to

There is some important information included in all

understand these different tools, how each of them

swatch books related to gel selection. The first item to

is used, and the difference in the quality of colors

look at is the gel’s transmission. Transmission refers

produced onstage.

to the amount of light transmitted through the gel. A

Color Filters

low percentage of transmission means that a small percentage of the visible spectrum passes through

There are a number of ways to produce color in light.

the gel, thus producing high color saturation. A high

One method is the use of a color filter, often referred

transmission means the opposite. Since a greater

to as a gel. As mentioned earlier in this chapter, a gel

amount of white light passes through the gel, the

is a thin polycarbonate or polyester sheet infused with

resulting color will be unsaturated—closer to white

pigment and placed in the path of a beam of light to

light.

produce a colored beam of light. In early days, they were made of gelatin, leading to the use of the term gel, which has continued in use over the years. Gels work by absorbing unwanted wavelengths of lights and only allowing the desired wavelength to pass though, thereby producing the resulting color.

In practical terms, it is important to remember that those gels with the least transmission have a shorter lifespan than high transmission gels. Since saturated colors convert a greater amount of light into heat energy, they often develop a hole burnt into the center

75 LIGHTING

of the gel over time. Some manufacturers make long-

it is wise to use LED lighting in conjunction with

life gels to counteract this effect, but for longer show

conventional fixtures.

runs gels will have to be regularly replaced. All plastic color media used in a conventional lighting fixture will eventually burn out.

Glass Color Filters Another possibility for producing colored lighting is a glass color filter. Strip lights can use special convex glass filters called roundels. In ERS fixtures and moving lights, glass color filters are used to create a vivid colored beam of light. In addition to a plain glass filter, there are also glass gobos with textures and color built in and variegated glass filters that create interesting color-blended textural effects, such as fire or water. All of these glass color filters can be used in addition to a conventional steel gobo for creating varied effects. Glass filters will never lose their color or burn out. The only danger in a glass filter is the possibility of dropping and breaking the filter. Though glass is much more expensive, the extended life may make it appealing for longer productions.

LED Lighting The final of the most common methods for producing colored lighting is LED lighting. As mentioned earlier, one of the greatest benefits of LED lighting is its ability to create vivid, brightly saturated colored lighting without the heat present in conventional lighting fixtures. LED lighting is still in many ways in its infancy. Initially, it was mostly in wash fixtures and strip lighting that LED fixtures appeared on the stage. Within the last few years, we have seen a number of the larger theatrical lighting companies make huge advances in their offerings, featuring LED moving lights, wash fixtures, and even ERS fixtures. At this point, most theatres and designers have not made a move to LEDonly lighting installations. For a number of reasons,

One thing to keep in mind with LED fixtures is that the instruments themselves, not separate dimmers, control the dimming of lights. As the LED lights dim, there are rapid pulses of the LED that happen too quickly for the human eye to take in under normal circumstances. This pulsing can often be seen under the camera, especially if the shutter rate of the camera is set in sync with the refresh rate of the LED lighting instruments. Make sure to research the settings available on your LED lighting if you intend to capture the dance on video. Likewise, in some instances a dance that is presented in low lighting with only LED lighting can create an effect similar to strobe lighting. Again, adjusting the refresh rate on the instruments can be useful in solving this problem. Finally, the quality of LED color can sometimes be described as electric, vivid, or extreme. While this is appropriate for some dances, it may seem off-putting in other situations. As we move forward with LED lighting, it will be more important than ever to keep in mind the old adage “you get what you pay for.” Often, low-cost lighting instruments, though able to create interesting lighting effects onstage, will not have the ability to make the necessary adjustments for the challenges mentioned above. High-quality fixtures (typically higher in cost) will have a number of features built into their control structure to address these issues.

4.9  Chapter Review Lighting design is a multifaceted component of dance production that requires both artistic and technical proficiency in a designer. In seeking to understand the basics of lighting, this chapter explored the functions and properties of lighting—both what we can accomplish through lighting and the controllable aspects of the light itself. In addition, we examined the physical theatre space and how where lighting instruments are placed affects distribution. Finally, a

76 PRODUCTION AREAS

focus on lighting systems, equipment, and color gives insight into how the technical side of lighting design truly affects the types of artistic decisions that the designer makes. From the choreographer’s perspective, it is advantageous to have a passing understanding of the

  3.  Describe the components of a lighting system and their individual functions.   4.  What is the most common hanging position for achieving side lighting?   5.  What is the name of a batten from which lighting instruments are hung?

basics of lighting design. Those who can enter the

  6.  What is a scrim?

collaborative process with this knowledge will find it

  7.  What does ERS stand for?

easier to communicate with the lighting designer and

  8.  What is uncommon about how shutters operate?

find the end product more closely matches their vision for the production.

Review Questions   1.  What are the functions of dance lighting?

  9.  What device is used to fill the air with a long-lasting mist? 10.  The combination of complementary colors produces which color of light?

  2.  What are two terms commonly used to discuss the quality of lighting?

77 LIGHTING

CHAPTER 5 CREATING THE LIGHTING DESIGN The secret lies in our perception of light in the theatre as something alive. Does this mean that we are to carry images of poetry and vision and high passion in our minds while we are shouting out orders to electricians on ladders? Yes, that is what it means. Robert Edmond Jones

The graceful lines of a dancer’s silhouette, captured through lighting. Photography by Richard Calmes.

The job of the lighting designer is a delicate balancing

Collaborative Models

act of artistry and technical details. The difficult part of

The history of dance in the last century is a study of how

the lighting designer’s role in a production is that much of his/her work depends on the ability to successfully communicate the ephemeral. The lighting designer must communicate with the choreographer and other members of the production team how a moment will look before ever having hung or focused the lights, cued the show, or sometimes even having stepped into the performance space. In order to make certain that these original concepts are successfully carried over to the actual performance, the lighting designer must create a vast amount of design drawings and paperwork, and work closely with the technicians who set up the lighting equipment. This chapter details the process of creating the lighting design from concept discussions to opening night. This information is useful not only to the designer, but also to the choreographer in the collaborative process.

5.1  Working with the Choreographer The process of working with a choreographer is, to a great degree, a question of interpersonal communication and individual personalities. Unlike most theatrical productions, dance allows you to work firsthand with the creator of the artistic work and not have a director as a mediator to the creative process. This would be akin to a playwright directing his/her own play. If all parties approach the process with open minds and flexibility, this unique relationship can lead to a rewarding collaborative process. Unfortunately, too many times someone comes to the table with a preconceived notion of “how things must work.” If there is one firm rule for collaboration, it is this: there are no set rules for how we can successfully collaborate.

the choreographer/designer paradigm visibly shifted. Before the early twentieth century, much of the larger context of professional dance was ballet-driven: large productions telling a story with elaborate scenery and costumes. In this model, lighting designers were generally expected to create a wash of light across the stage, with follow spots used to track principal dancers. In short, the role of the lighting designer was to create visibility. George Balanchine, considered by most as the father of American Ballet, co-founded the New York City Ballet and choreographed for both Broadway and Hollywood. His works from the 1940s onward introduced a new modernist take on ballet that was more abstract and stripped down. As works like these became more prevalent in the classical repertoire and choreographers like Martha Graham popularized modern dance with the general public, lighting design moved away from basic illumination and became equal parts alternative scenery and artistic expression. In the latter half of the twentieth century Merce Cunningham, as mentioned in Chapter 1, embraced the notion of “stand-alone” production elements in which the dancing, lighting, scenery, and music were created separately and then combined for the performance. In looking at this brief history, one can see three basic expectations for lighting designers that remain prevalent today. While individual cases vary, most often I see choreographers expecting one or more of these three approaches: Make sure I can see the dance; Support/comment on the dance’s narrative; I trust you to do what you like. As a choreographer and designer alike, it is important to identify the collaborative goals before heading into the production.

We must arrive at them together, if they are to be

Setting Goals

successful.

One challenge inherent in collaboration is that most people don’t go into a project consciously thinking about how they would like to work with their colleagues. For

80 PRODUCTION AREAS

this reason, I always find it useful as a designer to

Practical Concerns

approach each project with a series of questions to help

When working in a collaborative art form, the devil

define expectations. This is an approach I use in both theatrical and dance design. I find it to be useful for both parties, and have had many choreographers tell me that it helps them clarify their thoughts on the dance and consider it in a way they had not before. The following list is tailored for lighting design, but can be used to think about a number of different production areas.

Talking About Your Dance 1. 

Describe in two to three sentences what you want your dance to communicate.

2. 

3. 

is truly in the details. Communication is everyone’s responsibility, to ensure that all production participants are on the same page. When going into collaboration with a choreographer (especially for the first time) I always try to send a message with a list of practical concerns that will be important to the overall process. Listed below is a checklist of information with which the designers, choreographer, and dancers should be familiar. Keep in mind that the answers to these questions will always vary. There is no set formula that will always be followed. It is just useful for everyone to

Is your dance based on or influenced by any

start from a common place. It is also possible that the

particular work of art? (If so, feel free to include

choreographer will not have answers to all of these

images, links/references with this response).

questions. Some of these questions might best be

Is your dance in one piece, or are there distinctly

addressed to the production manager and/or technical

different “movements” or sections within the

director.

dance? (Some choreographers like to create a brief “script” of the dance, describing important events or changes in music within the dance. This can be

●●

Is this a new piece or a remount?

●●

If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that are important to reproduce?

particularly useful to designers who are used to ●●

What is the rehearsal schedule?

the designer and stage manager have a better

●●

What is the tech schedule?

understanding of the choreographer’s intent.)

●●

Will there be regularly scheduled production

working from the written word. It can help both

4.  5. 

meetings?

If there are different sections of the dance, how do they differ from one another?

●●

At what point will the dance be fully choreographed?

Give a few adjectives or short descriptive phrases

●●

Will you be at all rehearsals, or will a rehearsal

to describe how your dance (or individual sections) should feel. Try to avoid the temptation to explain

director run rehearsals? ●●

your concept—it tends to be more effective to focus, instead, on what the dance or moments should feel

recorded for cueing purposes? ●●

Can you share the music used in the dance?

●●

Will costumes be available to view before tech?

●●

Will projection be involved as a design element?

like. 6. 

What is the color scheme of your costumes?

7. 

Are there specific technical needs of your dance related to lighting?

Is there a point at which the dance can be video

5.2  Communicating the Design Creating a lighting design involves a number of steps bringing together the artistic and technical

81 CREATING THE LIGHTING DESIGN

elements into one elegant presentation. Though the

cases, this software even allows the designer to pre-

designer creates the concept for the lighting design,

program the show before ever entering the space. I

it is actually the stagehands that set up all of the

personally prefer to use such software for presentation

lighting equipment for the production. For this reason,

purposes and cueing in the theatre, but there are a

there is a series of design drawings and paperwork

number of different approaches. Some such programs

necessary for communicating the design specifics to

like WYSIWYG and ESP Vision work with a number of

a crew of electricians who implement the designer’s

different configurations. Other programs, like grandMA

specifications. Though the choreographer should not

3D, are designed to work specifically with a certain line

be expected to understand all of the requirements of

of lighting consoles.

creating these design drawings and paperwork, it is important to have a passing familiarity with all of the

Draftings: The Light Plot

elements. Such an understanding invariably leads to an

The light plot is a type of drafting. A drafting is a

increased appreciation for the job of the designer and

specialized drawing produced through mechanical

his/her role within the production.

means for the purpose of communicating details. It

Visual Communication

can be hand-drafted or created by CAD software, such as Vectorworks® or AutoCAD®. Draftings are always

The lighting designer tends to produce considerably

executed in scale, meaning that they include all details

fewer drawings or visual representations of his/her

with accurate sizes, but proportionately shrunk down

finalized design than the scenic, costume, or projections

by a certain amount. For instance, a ½˝ scale drafting

designers. Much of this is due to the fact that lighting

means that every ½˝ measured on the drafting is equal

works atop the palette of and in conjunction with those

to 1 foot in the real world.

other design elements. It is much more common to find the lighting designer communicating ideas through visual research, storyboards, or verbal exchanges than through a traditional rendering medium. This seems to be even more prevalent in dance lighting than in theatrical lighting. For all that, though, there are a number of methods commonly used by lighting designers to communicate the design idea.

The purpose of a light plot is to include all of the necessary technical information of the lighting design needed by the electricians to hang, circuit, and focus the design (Figure 5.1). Light plots are drafted atop a plan view of the theatre space and any included scenery. This drafting is provided to the lighting designer by the theatre staff or scenic designer. A plan view is a drafting done from a bird’s eye view of the theatre, looking down

Pre-visualization

on the performance space.

As the prevalence of 3D rendering and CAD (Computer

Light plots include hanging positions, lighting

Aided Drafting) technology has increased, more

instruments, circuiting and dimmer information, focus

designers depend on pre-visualization programs to

(where the light is pointed), color, and other information,

create a realistic representation of their design on the

such as if the light uses a gobo or accessory. Another

computer. Such programs allow the lighting designer

important aspect of the light plot is the instrument key.

to input a 3D model of the theatre, scenery, and

An instrument key is an information box included on the

human figures into a program with the exact lighting

drafting that shows all of the symbols used for lighting

fixtures included in their hanging positions. In some

instruments and accessories. This key will include the

82 PRODUCTION AREAS

FIGURE 5.1

A repertory light plot used for a dance concert.

83 CREATING THE LIGHTING DESIGN

F I G UR E 5. 2

An instrument key, featuring a number of different lighting instruments.

INSTQUMENT k:EY PRACTICAL

instrument name, beam spread, and symbols for any included gobos or accessories (Figure 5.2). FYI: Drafting Standards Light plots for theatre and dance use a standardized

I I 50UQCE: 4 "J PAQNE:L

system of notation developed by USITT (the United States Institute for Theatre Technology) called “Recommended Practices for Theatrical Lighting

soo

Design Graphics.” There are specific symbols used

50UQCE: 4 SOOE:G

to represent certain types of lighting instruments, accessories, and hanging positions. Following these recommended practices helps stagehands across

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the country clearly understand the intent of the

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standards for preparing a light plot and lighting symbols tend to vary. USITT publishes “Recommended Practices for

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lighting designer. It is worth noting that international

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Theatrical Lighting Design Graphics” online at the website www.usitt.org. At the time of publication, it is located on the Lighting Design & Technology Commission page.

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Draftings: The Lighting Section A lighting section is another drafting that depicts the theatre in a side view, removing one half of the theatre at the centerline (Figure 5.3). The purpose of the lighting section is to help the designer visualize the theatre architecture, scenery, and masking in the context of lighting positions and equipment. The lighting section helps the designer consider where best to place lighting instruments in the theatre space to accomplish the desired visual effect. As with the light plot, a section view of the theatre will be provided by the scenic designer or theatre staff.

Lighting Design Paperwork A big part of the lighting designer’s job is the creation of design paperwork to be used in conjunction with the

84 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 5. 3

A lighting section, indicating lighting positions, instruments, and masking.

light plot for executing the design. Most paperwork

today to see it created in a drafting program or through

follows a standard spreadsheet layout, utilizing rows and

specially designed paperwork software, like John

columns with outlined borders to keep the information

McKernon’s LightWright. Included below is a list of

properly grouped. The order of information varies

some of the common types of paperwork.

according to the type of paperwork, but the function remains the same—a list of all information related to

Channel Hookup

any lighting instrument in the light plot. In many cases,

The channel hookup, or hookup for short, is a list

paperwork is more important to the electricians setting

designed to show the channels on a lighting console

up the equipment than the plot itself.

and the information about the lighting instruments

Paperwork was once done by the lighting designer or assistant designer by hand, but it is more common

controlled by a given channel. It includes information such as channel, dimmer, hang position, instrument

85 CREATING THE LIGHTING DESIGN

F I G UR E 5. 4

• R&J

A simple hookup sheet.

10-2-()8

2

•

3 4

•• _D_Un __

5

•

40

Source 4 19deg

575W

X

R12

PORT 2

20

6

• 2

34

Source 4 26deg

575W

IV

R12

PORT 2

19

7

•

4

33

Source 4 26deg

575W

Ill

R12

PO_fll_2

18

8 9 0

• 6 • 17 • 18

10

Source 4 19deg

575W

R60

PORT 2

17

39

Sou·rce 4 1'9 deg

575W

R12

PORT 2

16

38

Source 4 19deg

575W

XI IX VIII

R12

PORT 2

15

9

Source 4 19deg

575W

X

R60

PORT 2

14

37

Source 4 19deg

575W

R12

PORT 2

13

32

Source 4 26deg

575W

R12

PORT 2

12

31

Source 4 26deg

575W

R12

PORT 2

11

8

Source 4 19deg

575W

R60

PORT 2

10

16

4

Source 4 '2•6deg

575W

VII II I IX IV

R60

PORT 2

9

17 18 19 22 24 26 27 28 29

3

Source 4 26deg

575W

Ill

R60

PORT 2

8

36

Source 4 19deg

575W

VI

R12

PORT2

35

Souroe 4 19deg

575W

v

7

R12

PORT 2

6

7

Source 4 19deg

575W

R60

PORT 2

5

6

Source 4 19deg

575W

R60

PORT 2

4

2

Source 4 '2•6deg

575W

R60

PORT 2

3

1

Source 4 26deg

575W

R60

PORT 2

2

5

Source 4 19deg

575W

VIII VII II I VI XVII XVI

R60

PORT2

1

R12

PORT 1

12

R12

P0~ 1

11

___________________

m_e~dC~ ban _n _e ~i.--------------------------olo_r

1

2

•• 111

3

•

4 5 6 7 8 9

• • • • • •

20

•

2 22 23 24

25

• • • • •

26

• 30

10

12 14 15

46

Source 4 '2•6deg

575W

45

Source 4 26deg

575W_

number, type, wattage, and focus. A channel hookup is

top to bottom in the case of vertical positions such as

shown in Figure 5.4.

booms. This information allows technicians to quickly

Instrument Schedule An instrument schedule is similar to the channel

identify lighting instruments when hanging, focusing, or troubleshooting.

hookup, but it sorts the information according to the

Color Cut Lists

hang position of the theatre. This includes fixture

Another type of paperwork useful to electricians is

information for every lighting instrument in a given

the color cut list. Gel comes from the manufacturer in

position, sorted in fixture order. Fixtures are numbered

a large sheet that must be cut down to fit in different

on a light plot from stage left to stage right and from

lighting instruments. The color cut list includes the

86 PRODUCTION AREAS

different types of gels organized by manufacturer,

pictorial example of how the stage is divided into

including the color number, number of cuts, and size

control and, at times, color. Figure 5.5 is a magic sheet

of gel cuts. This paperwork may sometimes include the

created for Hubbard Street Dance Chicago, illustrating

necessary number of gel frames, as well.

what channels are used for controlling different lights. In this example, the magic sheet is divided into

Magic Sheets

individual systems of lighting, such as back lighting,

A magic sheet, or cheat sheet, is a piece of paperwork

side lighting, etc.

designed by the lighting designer to help in the process of cueing the show. It is personalized to how

5.3  Hang and Focus

the lighting designer likes to work. As such, there is

Once the lighting plot has been finalized and all

no right or wrong on how a magic sheet should be set

the lighting equipment moved into the theatre, the

up. The goal of the magic sheet is to have a simple

process of hanging and focusing the lights begins. The lighting designer may not be involved with the process of hanging the lights, though it is not uncommon to see them participate. Lighting equipment will be hung by stagehands called electricians, with the master electrician heading up the work call. Typically the process begins with hanging the lights in their appropriate locations, followed by circuiting the lights into the appropriate dimmers. It is essential at this point to record all information and changes onto the updated light plot. Once the hanging and circuiting has occurred, the lighting designer will run the light focus. This is the process of instructing the electricians on the appropriate focus, shutter cut, and diffusion of the light. A common focus involves moving a lighting instrument to the focus point onstage, adding any necessary gobos, shuttering off of scenery or unwanted positions, and adjusting the diffusion of the instrument to create the desired visual quality of light. In touring productions, it is common for the crew to

F I G UR E 5. 5

Magic sheet for Hubbard Street’s Winter Series, Princess Grace Awards: New Works at the Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago’s Edlis Neeson Theater. Photo courtesy of Hubbard Street Dance Chicago.

use something called a focus chart. The focus chart is a specific type of paperwork that includes focus information for every lighting instrument in the lighting rig. It includes the focus position (in relation to the center and proscenium line), if the instrument is spot or flood focused, shutter cut information, and any

87 CREATING THE LIGHTING DESIGN

necessary information about color and gobos. Though

cues, but if a dark time is not scheduled you can be

this is less common for resident companies, it is a way

assured this will be the case.

of life for commercial dance tours.

Cueing the Show

5.4  Preparing for Technical Rehearsals

Cueing the show is one of the most important steps in

Technical rehearsals are a time-consuming and

creating lighting design. It is also one of the last steps in

laborious process devoted to getting all of the technical

the design process. Like many other steps in the design

details of the production in place before opening. As the

process, cueing is a personal approach arrived at by

lighting designer, there are a number of details to be

years of experience on the part of the lighting designer.

addressed before heading into tech.

The lighting designer should enter into this process

Preparing to Cue As the lighting designer prepares for the process of writing cues, there are a few basic questions that must

being fully familiar with the dance piece and with a plan of attack for creating cues. The following section details some thoughts on the cueing process.

be addressed in order to be prepared. Taking time to

Cue Sheets

prepare for cueing sessions can save a lot of time and

Just like the process of writing a paper, creating a

energy down the road.

lighting design requires an organized plan, taking into

Is Everything Set Up?

account the entire dance piece and the changes that occur to the lighting during the performance. A cue

While this may seem like a basic question, it is one of

sheet is a type of paperwork used to plan out all of the

the most important questions to ask. Before the lighting

lighting cues for a performance. It is typically presented

designer begins the cueing process it is a good idea to

in a spreadsheet format, featuring cues and cue

ask the master electrician if all of the lights have been

information in chronological order (Figure 5.6). A cue

hung, focused, gelled, and tested for proper operation.

sheet often contains the cue number, information about

A dimmer check (using the hookup paperwork to check

when the cue is called, fade times, and a description

each dimmer in the system for proper function) should

of the action of the cue. Like magic sheets, many

be done at the top of each day.

designers customize their own cue sheets to include

Dark Time

information they find the most useful. The cue sheet will be used by the designer to write cues and then

In the period leading up to technical rehearsals a

later given to the stage manager for use in calling cues

number of different departments will be vying for time

during the dance.

in the theatre. Everyone has a lot to accomplish in a short period of time. This is why it is so important for the lighting designer to schedule dark time in the theatre—a period of time in which all of the theatre’s auditorium and work lights will be turned off so the lighting can be seen under show conditions. Nothing is so frustrating to the lighting designer as having to compete with an offstage work light while trying to write

88 PRODUCTION AREAS

FYI: The Paper Tech Some dance companies have a special meeting called the paper tech, before going into the tech process. The paper tech is a meeting at which all of the designers with cues meet with the stage manager and choreographer to discuss the

FIGURE 5.6

A cue sheet, indicating all cues and pertinent information.

Cue List : PHASES OF DARK Cue# 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13

Prompt: Preshow Cued with curtain speech Dancers in places Music begins Skye on pointe Trio enters SR Upstage group exits DSR lift Upstage group enters Trio exits Abbie fl ies in on swing Pas de deux All exit

1/5/13

Designer: J . HOPGOOD

nme

placement of cues. This can involve scenery, lighting, sound, projections, and special effects. Paper tech is useful for getting all of the cues in the stage manager’s prompt book and giving an opportunity to talk through the entire dance. If your company does not do paper techs, it is important to confer with the stage manager before heading into tech so he or she can be prepared for calling the show.

4 4 6 9 4 4 4 6 8 4 9 12 3

Description I Notes : Sets up pre-show look Blackout for dancers to take places Lights up on scene - slow fade in Shift to warmer lighting Group freezes Listen for cello Slow fade out

to the next cue. Depending on the nature of the dance, the cues may build atop one another or be completely different looks having little to do with one another. The next consideration is fade time. Fade time means the amount of time it takes for the current cue to disappear while the subsequent cue comes up. Rapid fade times create an abrupt shift, whereas longer fade times create a subtle shift from one cue to the next. It is important for the designer to watch the design in proper order to ensure the timing works for the

The Lighting Console As discussed in Chapter 4, the lighting console is a specialized piece of equipment used for controlling lighting equipment. Today’s consoles are computers with unique control interfaces that vary between different manufacturers. It is important for the designer

dance piece.

The Cueing Process As I mentioned before, the cueing process can vary wildly from designer to designer. There are, however, some considerations that will apply to most cue

to understand the individual console and its use. The

sessions:

console is used to create a look onstage and then save

1. 

The tech table. One common convention seen

the parameters into its memory for playback at a later

in most theatres is the use of tech tables for the

time.

cueing and tech process. A tech table is a position

The process of writing cues in the lighting board begins

set up in the auditorium from which the designers

by setting levels of brightness with individual lighting instruments until a suitable look is achieved. Once this look is saved as a cue, the designer can proceed

and choreographer can work. The tech table allows the designers to see their work from the vantage point of the audience, rather than from

89 CREATING THE LIGHTING DESIGN

the control booth, which is typically far away from

consideration. Without this, the lighting levels will

the stage and from an awkward vantage point.

invariably have to be adjusted once the stage is

Typically, there will be multiple tech tables set

filled with bodies. Another necessary consideration

up for different departments. The lighting tech

is the costume color. Whenever possible, include

table should include sufficient space for a lighting

some fabric or clothing that is a similar color to the

console, lighting paperwork, headsets, and

dance costumes. This will give you the opportunity

typically room for the lighting designer’s laptop.

to see how the lighting affects the costume color.

It is common that the stage manager and lighting

2. 

4. 

music, it can be useful to listen to the music while

tech.

cueing. Especially in instances where fade times

What to bring? When moving into the theatre, it

must sync with music, there is no better way to get it right than working with the music.

is important to consider what things you will want on hand at the tech table. It is always wise to think

5. 

Working with a rehearsal video. As mentioned in

ahead so that you don’t find yourself having to leave

previous chapters, a rehearsal video is invaluable

to get something from home. A well-equipped tech

to the cueing process. By referencing the video,

table should include:

you can determine the location of certain moments

●●

pencils and scrap paper;

on the stage and ensure the timing is correct.

●●

all design paperwork and magic sheets;

Likewise, if using a rehearsal video that includes

●●

a flashlight;

music this allows you to include both music and

●●

a stopwatch;

●●

a crescent wrench (keep in mind some union theatres will not allow the designer to touch equipment, but it is always good to be prepared);

●●

a laptop;

●●

a portable hard drive and thumb drives for back up and file transport;

●●

3. 

Working with the music. If your dance incorporates

console operator will sit at the tech table once in

surge-protected power strips.

movement in one package. 6. 

With or without the choreographer? The lighting designer may create the cues alone or in the presence of the choreographer, depending on the customary practice of the choreographer and dance company. It is best to ask about the usual process if you are working together for the first time. There are benefits and drawbacks to both approaches. If cueing with the choreographer present, you go

Representing the figure. Since dance lighting

into tech knowing that they have seen the cues and

focuses on the dancers, it is important to include

know what to expect. Unfortunately, this can lead

some type of representation of the dancer during

to a longer process than if the designer cues alone.

cueing. If you have volunteers to walk the stage

Depending on the time constraints, it may simply

while cueing, this can be invaluable. Not every

not be feasible. Personally, I like to create my

design has this luxury though. In many cases, I

lighting cues alone in the theatre while watching

have used a costumer’s dress form as a stand-in

the rehearsal video and making any necessary

for a dancer. In a pinch, I have used a rolling chair

tweaks to the programming in the first mark-

or a music stand. Ultimately, having something

through of the dance.

to focus your light on is the most important

90 PRODUCTION AREAS

7. 

The Paper Tech. Paper Tech is a meeting that

5.6  Chapter Review

brings the stage manager, designers, and

The job of creating the lighting design is a long and

choreographer together for a discussion of the dance and when cues are called. This happens more often in academic theatre environments, but it can sometimes be useful for dance as well. More often, it is useful to have a combined final cueing session with the choreographer, stage manager, and designer in the darkened theatre to see how the lighting looks. It is important to have some type of stand-in for the dancers: actual people, dress forms with colored fabric similar to the costumes draped over them, or even something simple like a music stand with fabric hung over it. The purpose for this is that, since dance lighting is mostly from the side, you cannot see the details of the design

multifaceted process that combines both artistic and technical expertise. The lighting designer must be a master communicator, utilizing visual imagery, verbal and written communication to convey a design idea. In creating a lighting design, the lighting designer must use draftings, drawings/renderings, and paperwork to communicate his/her ideas. Planning and paperwork are central skills of the lighting designer, used to ensure continuity from his/her initial concept through the final performance. Through a study of the lighting design process, we gain an increased appreciation for the job of the designer and his/her role within the production.

without a figure on stage to be illuminated. This

Review Questions

rehearsal is a good time for the stage manager to

  1.  What is pre-visualization?

get cues recorded into his/her notes.

5.5  Technical Rehearsals Technical rehearsals are the rehearsals dedicated to working through the dances with all technical elements included. The idea of technical rehearsals varies wildly from dance company to dance company.

  2.  What is the type of drafting executed in a plan view that is used to communicate the technical information of the lighting design?   3.  What is an instrument key?   4.  What information should be included in an instrument key?

Some companies have a “tech week” that incorporates

  5.  Describe a lighting section.

many days of tech, followed by dress rehearsals, then

  6.  What type of paperwork sorts the information

opening. This method is most common in academic environments. When looking at professional dance companies, however, the deciding factor for length and number of technical rehearsals is the theatre space. If the dance company owns its own space, it is common to see longer periods of tech. If the company is renting the space, the tech process might be limited to one day or even a few hours before going into the performance. Refer to Chapter 2 to see a breakdown of spacing rehearsals/cue-to-cue, technical rehearsals, and dress

according to lighting hang positions?   7.  What is a focus chart?   8.  What type of paperwork is used to plan out all of the lighting cues for a performance?   9.  What type of paperwork does the lighting designer use as a visual example of how the stage is divided into control and, at times, color? 10.  What term describes the time it takes to move from one lighting cue to another?

rehearsals.

91 CREATING THE LIGHTING DESIGN

Chapter 5 Project: Thinking Like a Lighting  Designer

shaping our understanding of it in the un/natural world. Seth is interested in framing and telling stories. His work is characterized by an elemental approach to light

As you have seen in this chapter, lighting can be

through simplicity, constrained color palettes, and the

difficult to discuss. One tool that lighting designers

use of space and scenery to create textures and focal

use to aid in the process of communicating their

interest.

ideas is visual research. The old adage “a picture is worth a thousand words” is particularly true when describing light. This project will focus on the use of visual research to communicate an idea through lighting.

Recent designs include: Matthew Passion, directed by Peter Sellars; Come, and Back Again, with David Dorfman Dance; King Lear, directed by Kevin Moriarty; The Agony and the Ecstasy of Steve Jobs, by Mike Daisey, directed by Jean Michele Gregory; Radio Play, directed by Kip Fagan;

Frequently, lighting designers are called on to

The Whale, directed by Hal Brooks; Black Snow, directed

communicate an emotion or mood through lighting.

by Mikhael Garver; The Lily’s Revenge, by Taylor Mac; and

The properties of dance lighting (brightness, color,

Middlemen, directed by Josie Whittlesey.

direction/angle, visual quality, and movement) can

Seth holds an MFA in design from NYU’s Tisch School of

be used to successfully create a feeling through lighting. For this project, you will be given a list of words for which you must find an image that communicates this idea through the use of lighting. For each of the five examples below, choose a photo that illustrates how one of the properties of dance lighting could be used to communicate the

Design for Stage and Film, and a BA from Ohio Wesleyan University, where he studied theatre, philosophy, and the fine arts. He is the recipient of the NY International Fringe Festival Award for Outstanding Lighting, and has twice been nominated for the American Theatre Wing Hewes Design Award, Production Design.

idea. Include a brief description of why you feel the

What was your training in lighting design?

lighting communicates the word.

I started designing lighting as a teenager for my high

1  Fear 2.  Claustrophobia 3.  Excitement 4.  Anger 5.  Physical attraction

school and at a local rock club in Houston. I have a bachelor’s in theatre from Ohio Wesleyan University and an MFA from NYU’s School of Design for Stage and Film. Do you have a dance background/any formalized training in dance?

The Lighting Designer’s Perspective: An  Interview with Seth Reiser

I took a few dance classes in college, but I wouldn’t say I had any training.

Seth Reiser is a New York-based lighting designer

How did you first start working in dance design?

working in theatre, dance, and music. His interest

In high school we had a pretty great dance department

in light comes from the extraordinary effect that the

and we got to light their performances twice a year.

environment surrounding an event or story has in

Lighting dance at all levels of my education has played a major role.

92 PRODUCTION AREAS

I know that you recently collaborated with David

can be a much louder voice, whereas in theatre the lighting

Dorfman Dance on Come, and Back Again. Could you tell

needs to play a subtler role, generally speaking. Practically

us a bit about the collaborative process for that piece?

speaking, plays require more visibility when it comes to

C&BA was one of the dreamiest processes I’ve ever been

the actors, while dance is all about form and the air that

a part of. The piece took a long time to get together. David had spent more than a year on the piece before I even turned a single light on, and I had just over a year after that

surrounds the piece. Dance lighting is fun because you get to invest more emotionally speaking, the same way you would with music. It’s more abstract, so the lighting can be

to create the lighting for the piece. At first there was no

more abstract too.

set and we were working in the studio at UCONN. I made

Can you describe your ideal process for working with

a crude set out of paper and cobbled together some lights in addition to the lights in the space and we made what I think of as the first version of the piece. We had three other stages of the piece before we premiered it at BAM in October of 2013. Over the year we worked on the piece, it changed dramatically but the ideas I came up with in that studio came through in every subsequent version. A big part of that is David’s “yes, and” approach to the work; new ideas are always stacked on top of and combined with the old ideas so nothing is ever discarded until the end of the process when we all start trimming and honing in on the final product. This collecting of ideas became a major

choreographers? I think it’s really hard to nail down an ideal process. Some projects need lots of time, others need 30 minutes; some need tons of space, another just a chair; some need strict limits, others need to be free of all limits. I think the most ideal process is a process you choose and becomes part of the piece. This happened during C&BA without knowing it. The process suited the piece and helped create the story. We had time and made mistakes that stuck. It’s like life that way; life happens and it becomes part of you, you can’t put it down. What advice would you give a young artist interested in

theme in the piece. It’s all about what we carry with us; it’s

lighting for dance?

about everything we don’t leave behind. That stuff piles up

See everything you can. Talk to everyone about their work.

and is a part of who we are.

Find the people you love to work with and work with them

How do you find lighting differs for a dance and a theatrical project? I find lighting for both very satisfying, but in different ways.

as much as possible. Email people you don’t know when you see their beautiful work and get a coffee with them. Be part of a community and contribute.

Light for dance becomes another voice in the piece and it

93 CREATING THE LIGHTING DESIGN

CHAPTER 6 SOUND Music begins where the possibilities of language end. Jean Sibelius

Hubbard Street Dancer Emilie Leriche in Counterpoint by Kyle Abraham. Costume by Reid Bartelme and Harriet Jung. Lighting Design by Dan Scully. Photo Source by Todd line toRosenberg. go here

Sound is a fundamental concern in dance. All dances

Pre-recorded Music

are performed with some type of sound, even if it’s only

The easiest method for many choreographers is to

the sound of the dancers moving their bodies across the stage, breathing and interacting with their environment. This is why I prefer the use of the word sound as opposed to accompaniment, as I believe it covers a wider array of possibilities for music, sound, or effects that accompany the dance performance. Whether the dance is performed to music, with an accompanying “soundscape” of sound effects, or performed in silence, sound creates a dramatic impact on how the audience perceives the dance piece. The following chapter examines the use of sound in dance performances and begins the conversation about how sound is created, reinforced, and reproduced for each performance.

6.1  Thinking About Sound For most dancers, rhythm and music are a dayto-day part of their lives. That said, many dancers and choreographers might not be as familiar with the technique and craft that goes into creating and reproducing sound and music for a live performance. There are a number of considerations that go into thinking about sound for the stage.

Music, Sound, or Silence? The process for how a choreographer chooses sound is as unique as each choreographer. Sometimes a choreographer picks a piece of music to which a

select a piece of pre-recorded music as accompaniment for a dance. The only requirement of pre-recorded sound is a sound system and a sound operator to run the audio. This is one of the most common choices for dance companies as it eliminates the need for live performers and will always be a precise reproduction of the music. In addition, in touring companies very little setup is required. While this is an excellent choice in terms of time and money, it can lead to the question of copyright laws. Section 6.7 at the end of this chapter addresses the various legal concerns for using music in a dance performance.

The Composer If a dance requires original music, a composer must be secured to work on the project. This process is unique to the individual choreographer/composer relationship, but normally the composer would need to see the dance several times in order to understand concepts like the choreographer’s intent, internal timing, and the dramatic arc of the dance piece. The composer may write the music for live performance, create a recording of musicians performing the piece, or provide an electronic recording of the performance. The method of delivering the music affects the number of additional personnel required for the performance.

dance will be set. Other times the dance is completely

The Musicians

choreographed before he or she can consider an

Unless the composer alone will record the music,

appropriate piece of music or sound. In other situations, the choreographer might work in conjunction with a composer to create a new piece of music specifically for a dance. Ultimately, the question that must be asked of each piece is, should there be music, sound, or silence accompanying the dance (or a combination thereof)? The answer to this question tells you what kind of support your production will require.

96 PRODUCTION AREAS

musicians will be required for some portion of the process. It could be that the music will be recorded live for playback during the dance. In this case, studio musicians would be hired to work with the composer and to perform for the recording, along with a sound engineer. If this is not the case, then musicians will have to be secured for live accompaniment of the

dance. In this case, there are a number of concerns,

technician would not have insight into the dances

such as placement of the musicians onstage, the

themselves beyond the limited time of having seen them

use of microphones to reinforce their sound, what

in the performance space.

the musicians will wear, securing music stands and providing light suitable for reading, and, of course,

Reality Check: What Resources are Available?

paying the musicians. While the process of planning for

I have seen many dance performances suffer over

more performers can seem daunting, it is a rewarding

the years due to a choreographer or designer taking

experience to perform in a live environment with

it for granted that resources were available when, in

dancers and musicians working in sync.

truth, they were not and simply did not fit within the

The Sound Designer

production budget. This is most often a case of making assumptions and not asking the right questions. Always

As mentioned in Chapter 1, the sound designer is

approach a project by finding out what resources are

responsible for facilitating all of the sound needs for

available to you: equipment, personnel, budget, and

the production. A sound designer might function as a

space. These four resources will affect what choices

composer and create original music for a production,

can be made and should allow you to proceed into

but he/she is also involved in the selection of audio

the project with realistic expectations of what can be

equipment, recording and editing of sound, and creating

accomplished. The practical person will keep these

the cues for sound playback—something a composer

factors in mind while solving the artistic challenges of

would rarely, if ever, be involved with. It is a lucky dance

the production.

company that has a resident sound designer who can facilitate all of these needs.

The Technicians

6.2  Sound Design for Dance Sound design, much like lighting, combines artistry with technical craft. Sound designers must be familiar with

In most instances, the sound designer will not actually

composition, music history, sound recording/editing

run the sound for performances. This duty falls to the

techniques, and remain up to date in the constantly

sound technician. The role of the sound technician is

changing world of sound equipment. In addition to

to set up speakers, microphones, and communication

creating sound and music, dance sound design requires

headsets in addition to running the sound system

an understanding of dance practice and techniques and

during a performance. Depending on the size of the

how varying performance styles are connected to sound.

performance space and its staff, there may be one or

Considering all of these tasks, a competent sound

more sound technicians.

designer is invaluable to the dance company. Since so

In some cases, the dance company may not employ a sound designer but depend on the work of the performance space’s sound technician. It is important to recognize that, while the position of a sound technician is essential to the overall production, a technician would normally be involved in only running sound—not

many aspects of dance are interconnected with sound, the choreographer and sound designer will often work together closely on a dance piece. For this reason, it is helpful for the choreographer to have a common understanding of some basic sound and music concepts when collaborating.

the creation of design elements. Likewise, a sound

97 SOUND

6.3  Functions of Sound Design

Mood/Atmosphere

Like lighting design, I find it useful to discuss the

In most art forms, mood is one of the easiest things to

purpose of sound within the overall dance production.

identify, yet one of the hardest to put into words. Mood is

This can be addressed through the functions of sound

an emotional response to something experienced. In the

design, or what sound design can accomplish for a

case of sound, mood is evoked through what is heard,

dance production. Listed below are six functions of

and often depends on the listener’s past experiences.

sound design for dance.

Since sound is only one element of the production, it is

Audibility Audibility, or the ability to hear a sound, is the primary function of sound design. Pre-recorded music, sound effects, voiceovers, and live accompaniment must all be set to an audible level so that the audience can appreciate the sound without struggling to hear. The challenge of having multiple sounds is that they can compete with one another, so this may lead to the need to use microphones to reinforce sound of certain

important to consult with the choreographer and other members of the production team to make sure everyone is aiming for the common response. Atmosphere is a term commonly associated with sound. In sound, the atmosphere is a collection of the types of sounds that make up a certain environment or moment. In this context, the term soundscape is commonly used to indicate the combination of various sounds and effects to create an immersive acoustical environment.

aspects to be heard over others.

Rhythm

Performance

Rhythm is one of those terms that naturally applies to

Sometimes sound functions as a performance element within a dance. In tap dance, hip-hop, or modern music/ dance performance pieces, the dancer doubles as musical performer. As such, the sound designer must work closely with dancers to reinforce the sound of their movements. In a modern context, it is common to see dancers interact with props or musical instruments to create sound. In such a performance, the lines between musical and dance performance are blurred.

Accompaniment Accompaniment is the function of sound design that

both music and dance. In dance, it can be used to refer to a measured movement, typically with some sense of repetition. In music, rhythm refers to the combination of strong and weak pulses in the music to create a beat. This sense of pattern is what leads to a waltz being in three, since the strong beat comes on the one, followed by two more weak beats (one two three, two two three ...). Since sound and music are frequently used as accompaniment, the rhythm directly reflects on the choreography. Movement can work in sync or against the rhythm of the sound design, creating a sense of harmony or conflict.

refers to the use of music or sound to complement the

When considering rhythm, it is important to look at

dance performance—supporting, or partnering with, the

the entirety of the dance performance. While one

dancer. Though accompaniment is most often thought of

section may have one type of rhythm it is possible

as live musicians playing onstage, it can come in many

that others will have a different type. This can lead to

different forms (live music, pre-recorded music, sound

an overall rhythmic arc within the piece that is worth

effects, etc.).

acknowledging.

98 PRODUCTION AREAS

Reinforcement The final function of sound design on my list is reinforcement. Reinforcement simply means to strengthen or increase something. Sound can reinforce a number of different aspects of the production. It can be a certain sound effect that works in conjunction with a dancer’s movement. Likewise, it could refer to how a piece of music reinforces the dramatic action or overall theme of the dance. Finally, the term sound  reinforcement refers to the act of amplifying sound through the use of microphones and speakers. In dance

F IG UR E 6. 1

A low frequency pitch (top) and a higher frequency pitch (bottom). Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

this could be used for musical instruments, the spoken

the frequency, the higher the pitch, and vice versa

word, or used to amplify the physical sounds produced

(Figure 6.1). Pitch is important in creating harmony or

by the dancers’ bodies.

dissonance in sound. When hearing two or more tones

6.4  Properties of Sound Design

played together, the notes will either work together to create a harmonious or dissonant blend. Adjusting the

The properties of sound design can be described as

pitch of a sound can go a long way towards creating a

the controllable qualities of sound, or things that

soothing or discomforting sound design.

you can change about sound within the context of a dance production. The following list details all of the

Sound Quality

properties. Keep in mind that the properties of sound

Sound quality is a term that has many synonyms. In

design also affect all of the functions listed above.

musical terms, it is often referred to as timbre, or

Volume

tonal quality. Timbre (pronounced tam-bur) is the quality of a musical note or sound that distinguishes

Volume is a term that most of us use on a regular basis.

it from others. In the simplest terms, it is what makes

Like brightness in lighting, volume is a relative term.

one instrument sound different from another, even

For some people, certain volumes can seem very loud

if they are both playing the same note. There are a

whereas they may not affect the person sitting next to

number of different factors that affect sound quality

them. Volume is measured in decibels (dB). If a sound

of a musical instrument, like the materials that make

is amplified through a sound system, you have the

the instrument, the humidity or temperature of the

ability to increase or decrease the amount of output

environment, or any imperfections to the instrument

through the speakers, thus manipulating how much the

itself. When creating music or sound effects, sound

audience can hear.

quality can be affected in a number of different ways.

Pitch

The most common method is the use of soundprocessing equipment like an equalizer or other devices

Another property of sound is pitch, or how high or low

to change the tonal quality of the audio signal. There is

a note sounds. Pitch is directly related to frequency,

no doubt that sound quality can directly affect the mood

the speed at which a sound wave vibrates. The faster

of a given moment in a performance.

99 SOUND

When discussing sound quality on an audio recording,

so easily paired together since movement is such an

one of the biggest concerns is the file format of the

essential component of music itself.

recording. Today, most theatres are equipped with computers for audio playback. This means that the sound files used will be in a digital format. When dealing with digital audio, there are a number of different file types for different uses. Compressed audio files like MP3 were designed to be smaller data packets so they could be downloaded quicker through the Internet. There is always a trade-off between the size of the file and the sound quality of the recording. Smaller files tend to include sounds that were not present in the original recording and have a smaller dynamic range than the original, as well. Whenever possible, always use the uncompressed audio formats such as WAV or AIFF for playback and you will be much happier with the audio quality.

Direction Direction refers to where a sound is perceived to originate. In lighting, direction was related to the placement of the lighting instrument. For sound, direction is directly influenced by the placement of speakers in the sound system. When creating a sound design, it is important to consider the direction from which sound should come in relation to the audience and the stage. The change of direction can assist in creating immersive sound environments if done well or become disorienting if executed too quickly.

Movement In musical terms, movement can have different meanings. A movement within a piece of music refers to different sections within the composition— each frequently written in a different key and with a different mood. In another connotation, movement can refer to the way that music rhythmically varies within a composition, creating a sensation of physical movement. It is easy to see how music and dance are

100 PRODUCTION AREAS

In audio terms, movement can have a more technical meaning. For a modern sound system, any amplified sound has the ability to pan, or to be moved from one speaker to another within the system. Therefore, movement is the ability to mechanically manipulate an audio signal to give it the appearance of a changing direction.

Mix In audio terms, a mix is the combination of different audio signals into one cohesive output. For live productions, this might be a combination of live music, pre-recorded sound effects, and reinforcement of the dancers onstage. The mix is how all of these signals are balanced to create the resulting sound that the audience hears through the speakers. If everything were heard at equal levels, there is a potential for “muddiness” in the mix, as one sound drowns out another. Instead, it is important to identify the sounds that are most essential to the dance and make those prominent.

6.5  Audio Equipment When discussing sound with a designer or technician, the conversation can quickly move towards the realm of a foreign language for many. Though it may seem intimidating, at first, it is important for dancers and choreographers to have a basic understanding of audio equipment and terminology. There are entire books that could be devoted to the discussion of audio equipment. This section includes only the essential pieces of equipment within a sound system and describes their function.

Input Source When discussing sound systems, the term input source refers to any type of device that provides an audio signal

to be distributed through the system. For a recording

a belt-pack wireless transmitter that sends a radio

and/or reinforcement system, this is commonly the

signal to a wireless receiver connected to the sound

microphone. For a playback system, the input source

mixer. This audio signal is then sent through the

can be any of a variety of different devices: compact

reinforcement system. For handheld wireless mics,

disc or mini disc players; a computer; a portable

the microphone itself functions as the wireless transmitter.

music player; even a television. Though these are all possibilities, computers are the input source of choice

Boundary microphones: A boundary microphone is

●●

for most playback systems for their ability to run

a special type of microphone that is designed to have

playback software, which far surpasses the function of

a low profile and be placed on a hard, flat surface

other methods.

(like the floor, walls, or a tabletop). The design of a boundary mic places a microphone in a small metal

Microphones

housing mounted onto a flat plate. Though there are

A microphone (often called mic, for short) is a

multiple types of boundary mics, two of the most

mechanical device that turns sound waves into an

popular models come from Crown audio: the PZM

electrical signal. This electrical signal is not powerful

and the PCC. Without going into too much detail,

enough to activate a speaker on its own, though, so it

the PZM picks up sound in all directions around it.

must be sent through other hardware components to

Since it sits on a plate, this is 180° of sound around

boost the signal. While there are many different types of

the mic (called a hemispherical pickup pattern). The

microphone, the two most common for dance purposes

PCC, on the other hand, has a half-unidirectional

are the wireless mic and the boundary mic.

pickup pattern, picking up sound from the front

●●

Wireless microphones: The obvious benefit of a

while rejecting any sound from the rear. Figure 6.2

wireless microphone is the lack of a cable to get

illustrates the pickup patterns of the two types of

in the way of movement. Wireless microphones

boundary mics. One common reason to use these

are typically either handheld or headset models,

mics in dance is to pick up the sound of dancers’

with a miniature microphone that is attached to

feet on the stage. This is ideal for tap or stomp-style

the performer or attached to a headset. For the

dances.

miniature variety, the microphone is connected to

/

I I

I

F I G UR E 6. 2

The PZM and PCC, viewed from the side. Notice the difference in pickup patterns for the two microphones. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

I

PLATE

PZM

/

I

PCC

\

PLATE 101 SOUND

Mixer

microphone-level signal from mics to what is called line

The mixer (sometimes called the sound board) receives

level. This allows the signal to be powerful enough to

multiple audio signals, processes their individual signals, and creates a “mix” of the different signals to be outputted in different ways (Figure 6.3). It routes signals, sets volume levels, and affects the qualities of the audio signal. Most mixers receive a variety of different signals in a live performance: audio signals from the playback computer; multiple channels of audio from different instruments in the band; boundary microphones on the stage; and more. The mixer also serves an important function of boosting the

F I G UR E 6. 3

A sound mixer with several different channels of control. Photo courtesy of Junior Libby.

102 PRODUCTION AREAS

travel through the system.

Equalizer An equalizer, or EQ, is a device used to affect the frequencies of a sound (Figure 6.4). This device can either boost or limit the types of sound frequencies in an audio signal. The control in your car that features “bass” and “treble” is a form of equalizer, allowing you to adjust the sound to be either lower or brighter. The EQ in a sound system does the same thing, but breaks

F I G UR E 6. 4

A digital equalizer program, used on a computer to manipulate frequencies of sound.

down the audio signal on a much more complex level,

audio signal is not powerful enough to power a speaker

allowing for adjustment of a wider range of frequencies.

and produce sound.

In today’s sound systems, the EQ might be a physical device or a computer program that digitally emulates

Speaker

the process of a traditional EQ.

A speaker works in the opposite fashion of a

Amplifier

microphone—taking an electrical signal and turning it into sound waves we can hear. Most modern

The amplifi er is a type of equipment used to increase

loudspeakers combine two different types of speakers

the audio signals from the input sources from line level

(one suited for low frequencies and one better suited for

to speaker level, an electrical signal powerful enough

high) into one speaker cabinet so that they can produce

to drive a speaker. It is the last stop before the speaker

a wide range of frequencies. A specialized speaker

and a requirement for any speaker to work. Amplifiers

known as a subwoofer, or sometimes just a sub, is

must be plugged into an external power source in order

dedicated to only producing bass tones. As mentioned

to amplify the audio signal. Without an amplifier, the

earlier, all speakers require some type of amplifier to work. Some speakers, however, called self-powered 

103 SOUND

speakers, contain the amplifier and speaker in one

software, and speakers or headphones for listening

cabinet, thereby eliminating the need for a separate

to the recording (Figure 6.5). There are hundreds of

amplifier.

variations on a recording system, but these are the basic requirements to record audio.

6.6  Sound Systems Sound systems are a combination of different pieces of audio equipment into a system used for a specific purpose. When looking at sound systems, there are three distinct categories of use: recording systems, playback systems, and reinforcement systems. One or more of these systems might be present in a performance space. For our purposes, we will focus on computerized systems, as most sound recording, editing, and playback are now done on computers.

A playback system is a collection of audio equipment used to play back pre-recorded sound files during a live performance. In the past, these sound recordings were saved on everything from reel-to-reel, compact discs, or minidiscs. Today, almost all live performance venues use some type of computer running a software system to play back audio files. The audio signal is sent out from the computer and sometimes through additional audio equipment before ultimately outputting through the speakers. A common setup might have the audio

A recording system is set up for the purpose of

going through the house mixer, into an EQ, and then out

recording audio for playback at a later time. The

to the amplifiers and speakers (Figure 6.6). Of course,

main components of the system are a microphone,

each setup has its own specific needs and rarely are any

a computer running some type of sound editing

two systems exactly alike.

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138 PRODUCTION AREAS

the platform and damage it or, worse still, have their

is 1´, but for dance applications it is wise to go with a

foot break through the plywood.

deeper tread of 16˝ to 18˝. This allows plenty of room

Typically, platforms will have a layer of Homasote, a sheet good made from compressed recycled paper bits held together with glue. The Homasote dampens the sound of foot traffic on the platforming and offers an added layer of softness over the wooden lid of the platform. For theatrical purposes, most platforms will be covered in hardboard (sometimes called Masonite) as a paintable surface. Masonite can be a particularly slick surface for dance, though, so platforms will sometimes be covered in a layer of Marley for dance applications, though this is much more expensive. Sometimes a platform will be used to create an angled surface on the stage, like a ramp. In theatrical

for the dancer’s foot when quickly going up or down the stairs.

Traps One common device for theatrical performances is the trap door. As mentioned is Chapter 3, many theatres are equipped with a trapped floor that allows for the inclusion of special trap doors for scenic elements or even dancers to enter from below the stage floor. Trap doors are less common in dance applications than theatre, since there is the added complication of sprung floors and Marley used on the dance stage, but they are still a definite possibility.

terminology, any platform that is not level to the stage

8.4  Dance Props

floor is called a rake or raked platform. While raked

What is a prop and who is responsible for providing

platforms are common for theatrical applications and

it? The answer to this simple question seems

musical theatre, they are much less common for dance

to change from company to company. Larger

due to the increased stress placed on the dancer’s body

companies may have a props department with a

and an increased potential for injury. If using a raked

designer and props artists to build the properties. For

platform, the incline should be no greater than a ¾˝

most smaller dance companies, props seem to be

rise per foot.

the domain of the choreographer or, in some cases,

Stairs

the dancers themselves. This is understandable considering how intimate the relationship between

One common element in many scenic designs is the

dancer and prop must be. Understanding the nature

use of stairs. Stairs are obviously used to get from

of props for the given dance company and who is

one level of the stage to another. One important thing

responsible for their design is an important step to the

to consider with stairs for dance are the rise and run

process.

of the stairs. Rise is the height difference between each step and the stage floor. Stairs for dance should

Props Considerations

always have a consistent rise, since any variation in

Props design is a production element that must live

rise could easily lead to a dancer falling and being

in harmony with the scenery and costumes while

injured. The most common rises are 6˝ and 8˝. One

remaining functional for the dancers. This is why

should never exceed a 10˝ rise for dance as it can be

props design frequently falls into the domain of the

difficult for dancers to maneuver. Run is a term used

scenic designer for dance. Whether your production

to define the size of a stair’s tread (the place where the

has a props designer or not, though, it is important to

foot falls on a stair). A common size for stair treads

consider the need for properties, how they will be used

139 SCENERY AND PROPS

in the dance, and who will be responsible for making or

raked platform)? All of these questions will help in

procuring the props. The following list includes some

the design process to create a safe, weight-bearing prop.

important questions to ask regarding the use of props in a dance piece. ●●

Is it a prop, set piece, or a costume?

●

The line between prop, set piece, and costume is often a blurry one. Consider an item like a hat. It can be worn, certainly, but choreographers like Bob Fosse made a career of utilizing costume pieces as props. During initial production meetings try to determine who will be providing these items. Don’t assume that just because you think it’s a prop someone else will too!

●●

Is there a props budget? The question of a props budget is important to consider. Is there a separate line of funds available for props, or do the props need to come from the scenery budget (or some other general fund)? The answer to this question will affect a number of the design choices for props.

●●

●●

How will it be used?

●●

When do your rehearsals begin? Since it is dancers who use dance props, it is important for the designer to see the rehearsal to understand the prop within the context of the dance and see how the dancers use it. One important consideration is the date at which the choreographer needs props for rehearsal. It could be important to try out some rehearsal props before committing to building the show prop. Likewise, in some devised dances, the choreographer might want to bring in a large collection of props and see how the dancers work with them in rehearsal. This will ultimately inform the nature of the choreography.

8.5  Chapter Review Scenery and props design are important production elements to dance. Though they are not necessarily used in all dance productions, when used properly they can enhance the overall quality of the production and

One of the most important questions for any dance

aid in storytelling. Through the use of various scenic

prop is, how will it be used? Does the prop take

elements, the scenic designer creates an environment

abuse during the dance? A chair can easily become

in which the dance unfolds. In addition to defining the

a stepladder or a ramp in the context of a dance.

performance space, the scenery creates interactive

Chances are it would have to be reinforced for safety

elements, sets the time, place, and mood while

though. Make sure to know exactly how the prop will

contributing to the overall style of the dance production.

be used before purchasing or building.

In addition to scenery, props can be used to assist the

Does it need to be weight bearing?

dancers in their storytelling and amplify the moment

One of the most common requests of a dance

onstage. Certainly scenery and props are an important

prop is to be weight bearing. This is an important consideration that requires lots of research on the props designer’s part. What kind of weight does it

consideration for every aspect of dance production.

Review Questions

bear? If it is a dancer, you need to know how much

  1.  What is stock scenery?

he/she weighs. Does it only need to hold up a dancer

  2.  Describe a basket weave sprung floor.

standing on it, or will they be jumping? Where will

  3.  What is the more common name for PVC vinyl

the prop sit on the stage (a flat level surface, or on a

140 PRODUCTION AREAS

sheeting?

  4.  What is gaffer’s tape?   5.  How do gaffer’s tape and Marley tape differ?

  8.  What are the main differences between a soft flat and a Hollywood flat?

  6.  What fabric are most scenic drops made from?

  9.  What is a rake?

  7.  Describe a soft flat.

10.  What is a good size for stair treads?

141 SCENERY AND PROPS

CHAPTER 9 CREATING THE SCENIC DESIGN Design is interesting to me as it relates to narrative: the design has to support the narrative. Storytelling is the most important thing. Christine Jones

Student dancers from Eastern Michigan University’s production of Guthrie Redux. Choreography by Holly Hobbs. Lighting Design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo courtesy Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

Like any design area for dance, the scenic design

of questions related to the dance and the scenery and

process is a series of steps in which the designer

props can spark a conversation that gets to the heart

collaborates with the choreographer and other team

of the choreographer’s vision for the production. Some

members to create a visual image that enhances

of these questions mirror those asked in lighting and

the storytelling of the dance. The scenic designer

sound sections of the book, while others are customized

utilizes a number of different skills during the design

to scenery and props in particular. It should be expected

process from research to drawing and painting, model

that the choreographer may not have answers to these

making, creating technical draftings, or working with

questions in your initial conversations. The important

visualization software to create three-dimensional

part is to offer up the right questions to start a dialogue.

renderings. Though the process for each design is

In this way, you can arrive at the solutions together,

unique to the dance and collaborators involved, there

which is always the goal of a successful collaboration.

are some steps commonly utilized during the design process. This chapter discusses the process of working

Talking About Your Dance

from concept to finalizing the design onstage. For

1. 

the purposes of the chapter, scenery and props are addressed separately, though it is common to find one designer executing both scenery and props for the same

your dance to communicate. 2. 

Like all of the areas of dance design discussed thus

scenery/props should be used related to the script or your vision? 3. 

should feel. Try to avoid the temptation to explain

device to help communicate the choreographer’s vision

your concept—it tends to be more effective to focus,

for the dance. Unlike lighting and sound, however,

instead, on what the dance or moments should feel

scenery and props are tangible, physical items with consideration for how they will be used, these design elements can inhibit the storytelling and, in some situations, create an unsafe environment for the

like. 4. 

In what way do you see the dancers using the space for movement?

5. 

Are there ways in which the scenery could facilitate this movement style mentioned above?

dancers. For these reasons, it is essential that the designer(s) working on scenery and props have an open

Give a few adjectives or short descriptive phrases to describe how your dance (or individual sections)

far, scenery and props should function as a storytelling

which the dancer must interface. If inserted without

Is your dance based on a specific story or work of art? If so, are there any specifications for how

dance.

9.1  Working with the Choreographer

Describe in two to three sentences what you want

6. 

Are there specific technical needs of your dance

and thorough discourse with the choreographer to

related to scenery/props (i.e. flying a dancer,

establish how the design elements will be utilized in the

climbing a wall, etc.)?

dance and their overall purpose to the storytelling.

Practical Concerns

Setting Goals

Like the other design areas on which we have focused,

Going into the process it is important to start discussing

there are some practical concerns related to scenery

goals for the design. As with the other design areas

that can affect the decision making of the scenic

we have discussed thus far, starting off with a series

designer. Make sure to ask these questions early in the

144 PRODUCTION AREAS

collaborative process to identify potential challenges

details some of the methods used by a scenic designer

along the way, before getting too far into your creative

to communicate the design. While they may not all

process and discovering that your choices cannot

be used in every collaborative process, it is useful to

be accomplished within the given parameters of the

understand these techniques as each have their own

production resources.

unique purpose.

●●

Does the work stand alone, or is it part of a repertory concert?

Visual Research One technique common to most designers is the use

●●

Is this a new piece or a remount?

●●

If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that

with the choreographer. This is particularly useful in

are important to reproduce?

instances of creating a design to invoke a particular time

●●

What is the rehearsal schedule?

period. Each designer takes a different personalized

●●

At what point will the dance be fully choreographed?

approach to presenting research. Some prefer to print

●●

What are the specifics/limitations of the

out dozens of images and lay them out on a table to see

performance space? ●●

Will there be a need for raised levels (platforming) on the stage?

●●

Will projection be involved as a design element? If so, is there a projections designer or is the expectation that projections will be covered by another design area?

●●

Are there specific props needed for this production? If so, how will the dancers use the props?

●●

of visual research as a springboard for conversation

what the choreographer gravitates towards. Another method is to cut and paste images together to create a research collage (Figure 9.1). In this way, the designer can begin to communicate basic ideas about shape, line, texture, color, or other design elements without going through the entire process of creating a design. This allows the choreographer to respond to the “feel” of the imagery without getting bogged down on the details. Provided that the choreographer responds favorably, this then becomes the basis for creating the scenic design.

What types of costumes are being used and will they

Depending on the process and time restrictions, this

be available to view before tech?

might be a step that is revisited multiple times in the

9.2  Communicating the Design

process of envisioning the scenic design.

Unlike lighting and sound, scenic design offers up a

Sketches

tangible end product in the scenic elements. Since the

Sketches are often the next step in a scenic designer’s

scenery physically takes up stage space and affects

process. A sketch is any type of drawing used to

movement possibilities, it is essential that the scenic

communicate the design idea. Typically this means a

designer and choreographer have a clear understanding

freehand drawing executed quickly to get across the

of the design and how it will affect the choreography.

design idea. Some designers, however, might use

Since scenery is so much harder to change once in the

computer programs like Trimble’s SketchUp to create a

theatre than the other areas we have discussed to this

quick 3D model that communicates the size and shape

point, it is essential that the scenic designer effectively

of the design without having all of the details included.

communicates the reality of the scenic design to the

Others still might use a graphic tablet to input drawings

choreographer before the build begins. This section

into programs like Adobe Illustrator or Photoshop.

145 CREATING THE SCENIC DESIGN

F I G UR E 9. 1

A research collage with a number of images combined to create a composite. Image by Jeromy Hopgood.

Figure 9.2 includes an example of a hand-drawn design

execute all of their design drawings through the use

sketch.

of one or more computer programs. It is no longer

Renderings A rendering is a type of detailed design drawing done in scale with an accurate representation of color, lighting,

uncommon to see design renderings done digitally or as a hybrid of digitized hand drawing augmented with programs such as Photoshop.

texture, scenic details, and human figures as a scale

Scenic Models

reference (Figure 9.3). A rendering was traditionally

One of the traditional communication tools of the scenic

done in pencil and watercolor paint, though the process

designer is the model. A model is a three-dimensional

has changed over the years to include a number of

representation of the scenery created in scale (meaning

different types of media including markers, colored

that all of the elements are proportionately scaled down

pencils, or acrylic paints. Today, many designers

from the real-world dimensions). The model includes

146 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 9. 2

A rough sketch to indicate design details. Drawing courtesy of Campbell Baird.

147 CREATING THE SCENIC DESIGN

F I G UR E 9. 3

A digital rendering, indicating scenery, props, and characters. Design by Jeromy Hopgood.

a representation of the theatre space called a model

such as card stock or heavy stationary paper. Because of

box with the scenery inside. It is also important that

its small size, it is easy to transport and store. Likewise,

models always include a small figure that represents a

the materials are cost effective. Most often this type

human, for scale purposes. Models are quite useful for

of model does not include color and is executed in a

discussing the design with choreographers, since they

monochromatic color scale based on the color of the

provide a more accurate representation of the spatial

materials used (most often white). The 1/8˝ scale model

relations between the dancers and scenery. Figure 9.4

serves as a three-dimensional sketch, communicating

includes examples of a scenic model.

the basic design ideas and giving the choreographer an

There are many types of models that serve different purposes. A 1/8˝ scale model is the smallest scale used for creating scenic models (meaning that every 1/8˝ measured on the model is equal to 1´ in the real world). This type of model is made of simple thin materials,

148 PRODUCTION AREAS

understanding of the stage space. It does not include complex details, however, so it is understood that the designer would need to create a larger color model or color renderings to communicate the full scope of the design.

F I G UR E 9. 4

Two different scenes represented through the use of a color scenic model. Photo and design by Andy Broomell.

149 CREATING THE SCENIC DESIGN

A second type of model used to communicate more

all of the elements of color and texture. Models made

specific design ideas is the ¼˝ scale model. As the name

for commercial productions may have working scenic

implies, it is twice the size of the 1/8˝ scale model. This

representations, immaculately detailed components, and

increase in scale allows the designer to include many

even miniature working lights included in the model. It is

of the details regarding size, shape, and depth of scenic

important to note, though, that a presentation model is

units, but it still is likely not completely accurate in its

an expensive and time-consuming aspect of the scenic

representation of smaller elements. Models that are

design process and seen with much less frequency in

¼˝ scale can be either painted to represent the color

dance productions than in theatre.

choices in the design or painted in all white. This type of model is referred to as a white model. A white model can be created in any scale and is typically made of heavy white paper, illustration board, and/or foam materials. Frequently, a white model might be made of different materials that are all painted white to create a uniform look. Of course, the white model should always be accompanied with color renderings of the scenery so as to communicate the complete design idea.

Computers and Models Though the term model has historically referred to a three-dimensional object created by the designer, computers have changed the way in which many designers create their models. Many designers now have access to tools unheard of in the last decade, such as CNC cutting and 3D printing. Both of these tools refer to the process of using a CAD file to send information to a tool that can fabricate detailed pieces.

The most detailed and accurate type of scenic model

One type of CNC cutting process uses a laser to burn a

is the presentation model. It is crated in ½˝ scale,

pattern into a material until it cuts out the pattern. 3D

the largest scale typically used for creating scenic

printing works like a traditional inkjet printer, but uses

models. As such, it is much more accurate regarding

an additive process to lay down layers of successive

the specific details of scenic elements. Likewise a

material on top of one another to create a three-

presentation model is painted in detail to communicate

dimensional object from a 3D CAD file (Figure 9.5). Both of these tools have become affordable enough that a number of universities and professional designers have access to them for their designs. In addition to using computerized tools to fabricate scenic models, advances in digital rendering software have opened up a new world of possibilities for the creation of computer-generated scenic models. Most varieties of CAD software now include the ability to craft in both 2D and 3D, meaning the ability to create a scale model, adding textures, color, and lighting without ever making a physical model. Programs such as Trimble’s F IG UR E 9. 5

Two miniature scenic units printed via 3D printer. Photo courtesy of Michael J. Riha.

150 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 9. 6

A 3D model, featuring scenery, lighting, and human figures. Design by Jeromy Hopgood, 3D model created in SketchUp.

SketchUp, Autodesk’s 3DS Max, or Nemetschek’s

scale to communicate the minute details of a design.

Vectorworks (Renderworks) give designers the ability to

A drafting can be created by hand (with tools like a

quickly create 3D representations of scenery without the

mechanical pencil, drafting board, T-square, and

time and cost associated with the creation of a physical

triangle) or by computer (using CAD programs such

model (Figure 9.6).

as AutoCAD or Vectorworks), which is then printed.

9.3  Design Specifications In addition to creating drawings, renderings, and models

For both methods, the end goal is to produce a legible, precise drafting that uses industry-approved drafting standards to communicate the design idea.

to communicate the design idea to the choreographer, the scenic designer must also create a number of detailed documents to communicate the specifics of the design to those who will build the scenery. These design specifications make up the agreement between the designer and those fabricating the scenery.

FYI: Recommended Practices for Draftings The United States Institute for Technical Theatre (USITT) has created a series of recommended practices for generating draftings for the entertainment industry, such as light plots, ground

The most common type of document created is the

plans, and construction drawings. Though these are

drafting, a mechanically produced graphic, created in

not official “standards” per se, they are the accepted

151 CREATING THE SCENIC DESIGN

practices by those working in the industry to best communicate information through graphic practices.

●●

the architecture of the theatre space;

●●

the location of the proscenium line and centerline of the theatre (if a proscenium space);

To see information on the recommended practices, visit the USITT website at www.usitt.org

●●

the location of all scenic elements—onstage, offstage, and flown;

●●

The Ground Plan A ground plan is the principal tool of the scenic

the height of scenery above or below the stage floor; ●●

designer to communicate placement of scenic elements on the stage (Figure 9.7). It is a drafting of the stage drawn from a bird’s eye view—above the stage looking down. The ground plan cuts away all of the architecture above 4´ from the stage floor and removes any details above this point. Anything above this 4´ elevation is represented as a dotted line on the drafting. The theatrical ground plan includes a number of details. At minimum, the ground plan must include:

F I G UR E 9. 7

A design ground plan, featuring the theatre space and scenery. Drafting by Jeromy Hopgood.

152 PRODUCTION AREAS

dimensions of principal scenic elements, including a notation of the theatre’s fly system and all flown scenic elements;

●●

an indication of the theatre’s sightlines.

The ground plan is used by a number of people. The lighting designer uses it as a basis for the light plot. The choreographer uses the ground plan to determine the amount of space available for dance. The stage manager will need a copy of the ground plan in order to facilitate rehearsals. In addition, if the dance tours to multiple

locations, the ground plan will be an important element

the centerline and allows the viewer to see the theatre

used to make sure the load-in is accomplished at each

from a side view, including both the theatre architecture

location. As such, it is essential that the ground plan be

and scenery in the drafting (Figure 9.8). The centerline

precise and understandable to all parties.

section is useful for seeing the stage depth and height

The Centerline Section The centerline section is another type of drafting that

of elements and for determining how much of the stage and theatre loft is visible to the audience. The centerline section includes:

cuts the theatre along a vertical cutting plane—down the centerline of the theatre. The centerline section removes all architectural information from one side of

●●

the architecture of the theatre space;

●●

an indication of the theatre’s sightlines;

F I G UR E 9. 8

A centerline section of the theatre space, illustrating scenic placement, trim height, and hanging positions. Drafting by Jeromy Hopgood.

153 CREATING THE SCENIC DESIGN

●●

●●

the location of all scenic elements—onstage,

where electrics battens can be placed and at what trim

offstage, and flown;

height. Likewise, it allows the projections designer to

dimensions of principal scenic elements, including

determine the ideal placement for projectors in order to

the height above the stage floor (known as trim 

project imagery on the set and stage.

height); ●●

a notation of the theatre’s fly system, all battens, and flown scenic elements.

Design Elevations Another important drafting generated by the scenic designer is the design elevation. A design elevation,

The centerline section is principally used by the scenic,

or front elevation, is a drafting that shows an object

lighting, and projection designers. Once created by the

depicted from the front view, including all of the object’s

scenic designer, it should be made available to other

details in scale (Figure 9.9). The scenic designer

designers for use in their design process. The centerline

provides this drafting to communicate how the scenic

section allows the lighting designer to determine

element should look from the audience’s perspective.

F I G UR E 9. 9

A front elevation drafted above a plan view of the same scene, for detail. Photo courtesy of Campbell Baird.

154 PRODUCTION AREAS

This drafting includes a number of notations to include

intent for the stage picture (Figure 9.10). Painter’s

information about construction materials, texture, and

elevations can be created using paint, colored pencils,

more. Though the design elevations are front views only,

photo collage, or computer software. It should be

the page of drafting will likely include other views of

understood that the painter’s elevation is essentially a

the object, as necessary, to communicate the design,

contract between the scenic designer and the scenic

such as section views, plan views, side views, enlarged

artists as to how the final product should look. As such,

details, etc.

attention to detail is an absolute necessity.

Painter’s Elevations

9.4  Scenic Construction and Painting

One additional graphic element created by the scenic

Depending on the nature of the producing organization,

designer is the painter’s elevation. A painter’s elevation

scenic construction may be done by a staff member, a

is an elevation created in scale, but painted or rendered

professional scene shop, or even the scenic designer

in color to the exact specifications of the designer’s

him/herself. Ultimately, the scenic designer should

F I G UR E 9. 1 0

A painter’s elevation for a scenic drop used in The Nutcracker. Photo courtesy of Campbell Baird.

155 CREATING THE SCENIC DESIGN

approach the construction process as though he/she

Technical Drawings

will not be present to answer day-to-day questions

As mentioned above, the technical director is

about the construction process. This means the designer should include all of the details necessary for someone else to build the scenery directly from the design draftings and paperwork. For the purpose of this chapter, we will assume that there will be an additional team building the scenery that is not the scenic designer.

The Scene Shop In scenery terms, the scene shop refers to both the build location and group of technicians responsible for the construction of all of the scenic elements. In academic circles, this is frequently done in-house with either student or staff workers assisting in the process.

responsible for determining the appropriate materials and methods necessary for constructing the scenery so the appearance is in keeping with the scenic designer’s vision. One of the primary tools for communicating the method of construction for scenery is the technical drawing. Technical drawings are the draftings created by the technical staff used for construction of all scenic elements. Where the scenic designer creates a front elevation of the scenery, the technical drawing is commonly created as a rear elevation, a drafting from the rear view of the object showing how the framework of scenery is to be constructed, with what materials, and how it all fits together (Figure 9.11).

The scene shop is normally composed of a number of

The Paint Shop

different technicians with specialized expertise. The

The term paint shop is used to refer to both the physical

technical director is the overall supervisor of most scene shops, supervising the process of interpreting the design draftings and creating technical drawings necessary to build the show. Depending on the nature of the shop, there may be one or more assistant technical directors, master carpenters, carpenters, welders, riggers, and more.

F I G UR E 9. 1 1

A front elevation (left) and the rear elevation (right). Draftings by Jeromy Hopgood.

156 PRODUCTION AREAS

location of the paints and all painting tools necessary to paint scenery and the group of personnel who work to paint the scenery. The paint shop is supervised by a scenic charge artist, the lead painter in charge of stocking the shop, interpreting the painter’s elevations and renderings, and supervising a crew of painters in finishing and painting the scenery. Painters are

typically referred to as either scenic artists or scenic

column on the props list to be checked off when the

painters. The scenic charge artist is also in charge of

prop is completed.

budgeting for the paint shop necessary to create the finished designs. In the world of technical theatre, the

Build, Buy, Borrow, Pull, or Rent?

paint shop is responsible for preparation, texturing, and

The role of props design varies for every organization.

finishing all scenic surfaces to an exacting standard that

Often the person in charge of props has accumulated

precisely reproduces the scenic designer’s drawings,

a set of props over the years of doing the job, whether

renderings, and paintings.

this is actually housed as part of the company stock

9.5  Props Design

or a personal collection of the designer. Ultimately, the question arises of how to procure the prop. Some

Since the scenic designer is responsible for the overall

items can be purchased, however it is important to

stage look, it is common to find props included in his/

consider if there are alternate sources for a prop. Often

her set of responsibilities. Most often in the dance

it is wise to look into borrowing from (or even bartering

world, props are considered the domain of the scenic

with) another local arts organization to get a prop for

designer. In cases where there is a separate props

your production. There will be instances of props that

designer, the conversation about props should always

must be constructed. In these cases, it is important to

include a consideration of the scenery and costumes to

consider the specific needs of the prop to the dance:

be sure that the properties visually fit in the world of the

how it will be used, who uses it, how much it weighs,

design. This section details some considerations of the

and what types of stress it must endure are important

props design process for dance.

considerations when constructing a prop for a dance.

The Props List

Remember, safety should always be the primary concern in creating any element to be used in a dance.

The props list is a form that combines together all

This is especially true for anything with which a dancer

of the necessary props for a production and includes

will interact.

pertinent information about their use. Though there is no standard format for a props list, it should include important information such as:

When renting or borrowing a prop, it is essential to keep precise records of the transactions. Always note who the prop belongs to, the agreed-upon rental fee,

●●

prop description;

when it is due, when the prop is to be returned, and the

●●

where it appears in the dance;

replacement value of the prop should it not be returned.

●●

who uses it;

Too often, people do not consider this aspect of props

●●

how it is used;

●●

how it is procured (build, buy, borrow, pull, rent);

Rehearsing with Set and Props

●●

additional notes.

Rehearsing with the scenery and props is an important

The props list is frequently a collaborative effort between the designer, choreographer, and stage management. Since it serves as a makeshift to-do list for the designer, it is sometimes useful to include a

when making arrangements.

aspect for dance. In most instances, the dancers will never rehearse with the actual scenery, but it is important to ensure that the rehearsal space has a representation of the set. This often entails the stage

157 CREATING THE SCENIC DESIGN

manager taping out the physical boundaries of the set

30´ military-grade parachute under 45 mph winds

on the floor of the rehearsal space. In some instances,

(Figure 9.12). For this performance, the artist had a

it might be important to incorporate a sense of levels

residency in a warehouse to work with the parachute

in the space. This can be accomplished in a number

and a large industrial fan. In an instance such as

of ways—with the use of risers, tumbling mats, etc.

this, it would be impossible to choreograph the piece

The important consideration is making certain the

without working with the parachute in rehearsal. The

dancers get accustomed to the physical constraints of

choreographer had a number of interesting ideas

the set.

as to what to try, but without the process of actually

Likewise, since the dancers will be interacting with the props onstage, it is necessary to start working

interacting with the parachute they could not be explored.

with them as soon as possible. One excellent

During the rehearsal process it is important for the

example is the 2014 performance of Your Heart &

designer to be available for questions. In addition, do

Your Belly & Your Whole Insides Felt Empty & Wanting

not underestimate the importance of talking to the

& Hollow by multimedia director, choreographer, and

dancers in addition to the choreographer. Since it is the

performer Yara Travieso. In this performance, Travieso

dancers who will ultimately be working with the prop

created a “dance for two” between herself and a

onstage, theirs is an important perspective.

F I G UR E 9. 1 2

Your Heart & Your Belly & Your Whole Insides Felt Empty & Wanting & Hollow (2014). Created and performed by Yara Travieso. Sound design by Sam Crawford. Presented by Streb Lab for Action Mechanics (SLAM). Photo by Boofa Hobbs.

158 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 9. 1 3

A small props table prepared for production. Photo by Jeromy Hopgood.

Props Tables

outlines drawn in marker and the prop name labeled

Another important role of the props designer is

(Figure 9.13). This ensures that the prop will always be

facilitating the props table. A props table is a table located backstage with all of the props necessary for a dance piece or concert. There is often more than one props table set up backstage, depending on from which side of the stage the prop enters. Unlike most theatrical productions, it is important to keep the props tables far into the offstage wing space, since dancers so frequently congregate in the wings anticipating their entrance. In addition, it is important to keep any kind of a trip or fall hazard out of the wing space, since dancers

set in the correct location and be returned there as well. Likewise, it is easy to determine which prop is missing in the event of one being misplaced.

9.6  Chapter Review As we have seen over the last two chapters, scenery and props are expansive design areas that require a broad set of skills on the part of the designers and a number of persons for construction and finishing aspects. Scenery serves the dual role of creating a

often exit into the wings with lights blinding them.

visual surrounding for the dance, as well as dictating

It is common practice to cover a props table in brown

Properties enhance the storytelling tools available

craft paper or a similar white paper so it is easy to see in the dark. Props are placed on the tabletop with their

the useable space for the dancers and choreographer. to the dancers and expand on the visual world of the design.

159 CREATING THE SCENIC DESIGN

Review Questions   1.  How does a rendering differ from a sketch?   2.  What does a scenic designer create as a threedimensional scale representation of the theatre and scenery?   3.  What is a white model?   4.  Which type of drafting shows a section view of the theatre from above?   5.  Which type of drafting shows a section view of the theatre from the side?

3.  Write a short statement that explains the choices you have made and describes the rationale behind your artistic composition.

The Scenic Designer’s Perspective:  An Interview with Campbell Baird Campbell Baird has been active in the dance and theatre world for over 30 years, designing for some of the biggest names in the business. As a student, he gained a B.F.A. in stage design at the North Carolina School of the Arts and an M.F.A. at NYU-Tisch School

  6.  What does trim height refer to?

of the Arts. One interesting aspect about his work is

  7.  What organization publishes the recommended

his frequent double billing as both scenic designer and

practices for draftings?   8.  What is the role of the scenic charge artist?   9.  What is a rear elevation primarily used for? 10.  What is used to track props and their use? Chapter 9 Project: Thinking Like a Scenic Designer

costume designer. He was principal assistant to the legendary Oliver Smith for 11 years on productions for American Ballet Theatre, the Royal Ballet at Covent Garden, La Scala, San Francisco Ballet, and Joffrey Ballet. An eclectic artist, he worked as a scenic artist for the Metropolitan Opera House for 15 seasons, working on such productions as War and Peace, Il Trovatore,

The primary responsibility of the scenic designer

The Gambler, Samson et Dalila, La Traviata, Le Nozze di

is to create a three-dimensional world that visually

Figaro, Carmen, Lucia di Lammermoor, and Tosca; and

communicates the ideas of the dance and reinforces

for the films Malcolm X and Three Sovereigns for Sarah

the emotional and psychological subtext of the

(with Vanessa Redgrave). In addition, Mr. Baird was

choreography. This can be a challenging undertaking

resident designer/scenic supervisor for the Joffrey Ballet

for any designer. This project asks you to embrace

for eight seasons, including such works as Billboards,

the design process in order to better appreciate

Cotillon, Billy the Kid, and Empyrean Dances. In addition

the steps necessary in creating a scenic design for

to his professional work, Mr. Baird teaches graduate

dance. The steps are listed below:

studies in advanced rendering, scenic painting, and

1.  Find a piece of instrumental music that you find evocative of an emotion or idea. 2.  Create a three-dimensional composition

theatre history (“Connections”) at NYU-Tisch School of the Arts. He is listed in the Bristol Who’s Who as well as with the 2012 Marquis Who’s Who in America.

that visually communicates the ideas of the

At what point did you begin costuming?

music. Use any medium that you feel best

My educational background was in professional design and

communicates your piece—paint, sculpture, collage, etc.

execution for scenery and costumes—from high school on through undergraduate degree (high school diploma and B.F.A.—both from the North Carolina School of the

160 PRODUCTION AREAS

Arts, 1969–74) and then my graduate degree in scenic and

different voice and eye on a project, and that can be a lot

costume design (M.F.A.) at NYU-Tisch School of the Arts,

of fun. Usually my biggest concern is color palette, but so

Design for Stage & Film.

far I have been very fortunate to work with other designers

Before that, I was exposed to a lot of dance at home in

who have a sympathetic approach to color, which is very

NC. My mother was a professional dancer and teacher, and my maternal grandparents taught ballroom dancing back in the 1920s and 1930s. So I grew up seeing and knowing a good bit about dance and theatre. I also danced a lot and choreographed when I was a teenager, doing parts in musicals in summer stock—in addition to designing scenery and costumes for them. (I wasn’t

important to me. I am known as a “colorist,” and I guess that means I relish the use of color onstage. I have done my fair share of monochromatic and tight palettes, but I do find that in dance—particularly story ballet in a large 2—3000seat house—color blocking is extremely important for clarity, to know who is dancing and who they are dancing with. I also care deeply about the lighting design, because

great, but it certainly taught me to respect performers and

that affects every other design element onstage.

choreographers.)

How do you find scenery and costume design differs

How did you first start working in dance design?

between dance and theatre?

My first forays into serious dance design were at NCSA,

Dance and theatre are certainly related. Dance often allows

where I worked a lot in the dance costume shop for the five years I studied there. Christina Giannini was my design mentor and teacher for all things to do with dance, and she took me with her as her assistant on projects she designed

a freer expression of conceptual thinking—an open door to self-expression and getting at the heart of the material. I love design in all forms—dance, theatre, opera, film, musical theatre, and ballet—all of them need different

for companies around the United States—including the

viewpoints, but at heart they are always about storytelling.

Joffrey Ballet, American Ballet Theatre, and Ohio Ballet.

This past year I designed the world premiere of a

I was also fortunate enough to go to the Spoleto Festival

new ballet version of Peter Pan for Nashville Ballet,

in Italy in 1974 to work with her, in both the scenic and

choreographed by their artistic director, Paul Vasterling.

costume shops for the summer, on productions directed

This was our third collaboration and our most ambitious

by Roman Polanski and Robert Wilson. I assisted her on

to date. I had designed two different musicals based on

the Agnes DeMille Heritage Dance Theatre after working

the Peter Pan stories before, but suddenly seeing the

on the world premiere of De Mille’s ballet A Rose for Miss

piece without dialogue or singing made me re-evaluate

Emily, which later went into the repertory of American

all of the storytelling options available to me, and to the

Ballet Theatre. Most of what I know about dance costume

choreographer. Paul is a very sharp dancemaker, and an

is directly due to her patient work with me over my most

extremely knowledgeable choreographer regarding music

formative period—my late teens and early twenties, when I

choices. Once he had started to assemble the score (mostly

really had to make a lot of costumes myself.

early twentieth-century French composers) I was able to

Do you frequently design both scenery and costumes for dance, or work in one area in particular? I actually prefer to design both scenery and costumes for story ballet, but I am also very happy to collaborate with another designer. Sometimes you really benefit from the

grasp the weight of the piece that he envisioned. We had a nice long period to resolve the design ideas, which was of great use to us both. (I once, many years ago, had to design a Nutcracker in about three very short weeks—scenery AND costumes!—and I was a nervous wreck.)

161 CREATING THE SCENIC DESIGN

Scenery in dance is often about open space and simplified

Can you describe your ideal process for working with

imagery, whereas in theatre—plays and musicals and some

choreographers?

operas—there are more specific requirements as to spatial

Ideal process with a choreographer—or director for that

demands and props, furniture, levels, and stairs. AND doors and windows. Wow...doors and windows in dance are usually quite a complicated matter. Costumes in dance are about fit and movement, intelligent use of fabrics and trims and particularly cut, so as to clarify movement and make life for the dancer easier. Also, dance costumes take a beating, so you learn a lot about upkeep and maintenance so that your design will survive for as long as possible. Another issue in dance is that since the costume will probably be worn by four or five—or six!—different dancers, you design the character into the costume, the hair, and the make-up. This differs somewhat from plays and musicals, where you usually deal more one on one with a performer to create a singular costume or group of costumes for their character. Of course you always strive to make the costume suit each performer as well as you can given time and budget constraints. I know you do a lot of work in ballet. How does the process differ in designing for a ballet company vs. modern dance? I did more modern dance much earlier in my career, and would love to do it again. Designers get typecast just like

matter—is for them to come to me with a strong idea or “concept”—scary word in some quarters, but simply put a way of seeing the whole work. Some creative people work best from the music, others respond to research or colors or textures. Personally, I don’t like to have a lot of rules—I want to know what is going on in the director’s or choreographer’s mind, and what they want their work to do to the audience. Tom Skelton, the incredible resident lighting designer when I was with the Joffrey Ballet, was with me in a studio rehearsal once, and he gave the best explanation of a design process—one that I still hang onto with both hands and my mind and heart: “The piece that we see in the studio is often more complete for us as designers than anything we can possibly do onstage with lighting, or scenery, or costumes. Our real task is to have the audience feel the same feelings in the theatre that we were able to imagine in the studio—with work lights and old tights and practice skirts and bentwood chairs. Then we will really do something that will illuminate the material in a true sense. We will make it alive for the audience, as we saw it alive in our mind’s eye.” And that is what I really believe in, heart and soul.

performers, however. Modern dance can also include a

In many ways, costumes are very personally linked

lot of ballet technique—and nowadays the reverse is true

to the individual dancer. Do you consult with dancers

as well—so I always feel you design for the choreography

during your design process?

and the music and the performers. There is often a great

I certainly do consult with a dancer as much as the

deal of pleasure in doing more asymmetrical design work in modern dance, where off center focus is often easier to manage. It’s extremely difficult to make an off center tutu and have the dancer feel at ease in motion. Hats and headpieces have similar issues—of course a great choreographer will ask for something specific because he or she wants to challenge the dancer and the storytelling aspects of the work. And this is really challenging and exciting to solve.

162 PRODUCTION AREAS

choreographer wishes me to while designing for them. The fitting is the time where this is most important—not in the initial design stages where the choreographer is the voice you must hear. But the dancer will have opinions and issues that must be heard and addressed. I find that dancers are often nervous taking on a big classical role the first time, and if they are wearing a costume that already exists and is being refitted to them, they will have a lot to consider and talk about. I much prefer solving problems in

the fitting room and shop, and not in the theatre. In dance

sometimes lie on the surface, and stick with it. I show two

and ballet, there are unbelievable issues about safety that

films to my classes, Powell and Pressburger’s The Red

seem strange for a designer to consider—the length of a

Shoes and Baz Luhrmann’s Strictly Ballroom. These are

skirt, a sleeve, or a cape or train; the slippery quality of

commenting on life in dance and ballet, and how it affects

a fabric; the peculiar nature of certain materials as they

people.

absorb sweat; the shoes, oh gosh...so much about shoes

Go to theatre museums where they have collections of

and boots and slippers. And then add something technically challenging, like flying harnesses in Peter Pan? You really do have an awful lot to consider for these performers. What advice would you have for a young designer setting out to design his/her first dance? Best advice for a young designer interested in dance? See a lot of dance. Go to rehearsals, see performances, buy or rent DVDs—so much wonderful material is out there now that was not readily available when I was a student—

dance design: the Bibliothèque of the Paris Opéra is certainly a major resource, and Lincoln Center Library has a good deal of material. Learn what dancers do; watch them practice. Learn to admire their incredible devotion to an art form that at the best can only give them 15 to 20 years of a performing career. Every day they start over in class, take corrections, and try to improve. And then, when they get onstage, you will appreciate why your work can be so very important to them.

and read about it. Try to see past the snobbism that can

163 CREATING THE SCENIC DESIGN

CHAPTER 10 COSTUMES, HAIR, AND MAKE-UP The costume designer is not only essential (but) is vital, for it is they who create the look of the character without which no performance can succeed. Theirs is a monumental job, for they must be not only artists, but technicians, researchers and historians. Audrey Hepburn Hubbard Street Dancer Quinn B Wharton in Casi-Casa by Mats Ek. Costume and Set Design by Peder Freiij. Lighting Design by Erik Berglund. Photo Source by Todd line toRosenberg. go here

Costumes are an essential component of any dance

choreographer and dancers as related to movement,

production. Whereas a dance can technically function

the end product has to live onstage with all of the other

without many of the previously mentioned production

design elements, seamlessly integrating to create a

elements, it is a rare dance that works without

cohesive visual package. Looking at all of these different

costumes, hairstyling, and make-up. Like all other

aspects of the costume designer we begin to understand

design areas, costumes serve the dual purpose of

the multifaceted role of the costume designer and how

creating a visually interesting artistic element as well as

the job is much more than just picking out clothes for a

communicating the concepts and themes central to the

dancer to wear. The following sections detail the function

dance. Costumes affect the ability of the dancer to move

of dance costumes and their controllable properties.

in the space and can influence the choices available to

By examining these details, we can begin to better

the choreographer. For this reason, it is essential for the

understand what goes into making an effective dance

student of dance to have at least a passing familiarity

costume.

with dance costuming and the processes required to the role of costumes, hair, and make-up in the dance

10.2  Functions of Dance Costumes  (What Costumes can Accomplish)

production.

Like the other design areas, it is useful to discuss

produce costumes for the stage. This chapter addresses

10.1  The Costume Designer

the purposes of costume design within the dance production. The immediate purpose of costuming is

While some dance companies view costuming as an

obviously to clothe the dancer. Beyond this, though,

extension of the choreographer’s duties, it is important

there are specific outcomes that can be accomplished

to recognize that a costume designer brings a very

through the use of costume design. These are

specific skill set to the collaboration that cannot be

referred to as the functions of dance costume design.

approximated by the choreographer, unless he/she has

Listed below are seven functions that costuming can

some previous training in costuming. The designer holds

accomplish.

a unique role that blends together a number of different skill sets: visual artist; fashion designer; craftsperson;

Movement

tailor/seamstress; historian; and movement consultant.

Costume design for dance is linked closely to

In addition to all of these things, the successful costume

movement. A dance costume should clarify the

designer should be adept at working with individuals.

movement of the dancer and not inhibit movement

It could be argued that the costume designer has to

possibilities (unless it is the choreographer’s vision

collaborate with more individuals during the production

to actually force the dancers into working with the

process than many of the other designers on the

movement restrictions of a costume). There are a

production team. Since a costume is intrinsically linked

number of aspects of the costume that can affect

to the performer who wears it, the costume designer

movement needs, such as the fabric type, the cut of

is often in the position of working closely with a dancer

the costume, the fit of the costume (whether tight or

who is understandably concerned with his/her physical

loose), the size and shape of the costume, and even

appearance and, more so, the ways in which the

less obvious considerations like the way a fabric reacts

costume affects movement. Though the dance costume

to sweat (Figure 10.1). For this reason, it is imperative

designer’s primary concern must be the needs of the

that the costume designer meets early and often

166 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 10. 1

Consider the ways in which the larger costume, here in The Nutcracker, would affect the dancer’s ability to move compared to the other dancers onstage. Photo courtesy of Campbell Baird

with the choreographer to determine the specific

of these associations to assist in the storytelling of the

movement needs of the piece. Equally important to the

dance. Particularly when considering dance forms like

decision-making process is attending the rehearsal

ballet, which might occur in a larger theatre space,

period as often as possible to observe how the dancers

it is important that the costume be able to effectively

will be moving and interacting with one another.

communicate information about the character from a

These discussions and observations will help inform

distance. This is why the costume and make-up often

the decisions of the costume designer as related to

work hand in hand to accentuate the character traits of

movement needs.

a dance role.

Character

Costume as a Prop

Another function of dance costume is the

In some dances, such as Martha Graham’s Lamentations

communication of character information, such

or many of the works of Alwin Nikolai, costume functions

as gender, age, social standing, personality, etc.

as a prop, of sorts. A costume that envelops the dancer,

(Figure 10.2). Since clothing is such an important

made of a stretchy fabric, might be an element to

aspect of everyone’s day-to-day life, the audience will

explore through the choreography. In another dance,

have a number of associations related to the dress of

the physical act of putting on and taking off clothing

a character. The costume designer can take advantage

onstage could be the actual choreography. It is always

167 COSTUMES, HAIR, AND MAKE-UP

F I G UR E 10. 2

The wedding gown is a prime example of how roles can be communicated through the use of costume. Choreography by Holly Hobbs. Lighting design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

important to recognize the ability for costume to act as a

audience focused on which characters are dancing and

prop within the dance and consider the possibilities for

with whom.

its use.

Time/Place

Character Relations

Unlike a play that features dialogue and detailed

In addition to costume serving as a comment on

scenery to indicate the location and time period,

individual characters, it can also establish a sense of

dance rarely includes any of these elements. Instead,

relationships between characters on the stage. This

costumes are often the first and only indicators that

can be accomplished through similarity in costume

an audience gets regarding the time and/or place of

styles, color palettes, fabric types, or textures. As with

a dance. By using the lines, colors, and textures of

the previous function, it is particularly important in

the fashion associated with a particular time period,

larger theatres with the audience at a distance from

the costumer has the ability to instantly locate the

the stage to establish character relations through the

dance in a specific time or place from the moment

costumes, simply for clarity’s sake. The use of similar

a dancer enters in costume. For this reason, it is

color palettes or unifying themes can help keep the

important that the costume designer be adept in

168 PRODUCTION AREAS

historical research to find images of period dress

onstage. Perhaps she would be costumed in a muted

throughout history.

color palette with a cut that restricts movement, as

In addition to references to historic time periods, costuming can comment on other temporal elements, such as the season or even time of day. These kinds of details are important to the storytelling of a larger piece of work like a ballet, in which the audience follows

compared to the other dancers in bright, colorful flowing dresses. This approach would create a sense of visual isolation and would be particularly effective in communicating the choreographer’s theme, mentioned above.

a sequential storyline. In this setting, the costume can

Mood is the suggestion of a feeling or emotional quality

communicate the passage of time in a small scale (from

at a given time. This is most often summed up with

morning to night) or even in a large scale (from one

adjectives like “somber, joyful, tentative, or jubilant.”

century to the next).

Costuming is one element of the overall production

Theme/Mood

design that contributes to the establishment of mood. The selection of colors, textures, pattern, and cut in the

Theme is a word often used in the discussion of

costumes combine with other design elements onstage

works of art. There are two main definitions of theme

to create the mood of the dance.

related to dance. One meaning of the word refers to the dominant idea or unifying concept of a work of

Style

art. There is a second important meaning to consider

In performance, style can refer to a distinct visual

as well. In musical terminology, a theme refers to the

appearance purposefully chosen to aid the storytelling

principle melodic subject within a musical composition.

process. In art terminology, the term style is often

Frequently, music uses a form called theme and 

associated with different artistic movements. Words like

variation, in which the melodic theme is introduced and

realistic or stylized are frequently used to describe the

then repeated subsequent times with minor variations

opposite ends of the style spectrum. Realism mirrors

developed in each repetition. Both of these definitions

the actual dress of a time period and location without

can be used to discuss dance, as a choreographer will

having the appearance of being a stage costume.

often establish a unifying concept for the entire dance

Realism is closely tied to historical accuracy, so

piece and create variations on this theme throughout

research is an important element to realistic design.

the entire dance. In either instance, it is the designer’s

Stylized costumes, on the other hand, exaggerate or

responsibility to help reinforce these ideas in whatever

simplify some aspect of the costume, whether it is the

way seems appropriate.

line, the color, texture, or silhouette. A stylized costume

As with other design elements, costuming can communicate a great deal about the choreographer’s overall theme for the dance or the mood of a given moment. Consider a dance in which the choreographer wants to emphasize the isolation of a particular

might feature a dress with an enormously long train trailing behind it, or a dancer performing on stilts to appear larger than life. Within both realistic and stylized approaches, there are numerous variations and possibilities.

character and her inability to function in her world. In

One factor to consider is the way in which

this instance, the costumer might create a costume for

choreographers often affect the style of all design

this dancer that differs from all of the other dancers

elements within the dance. Certain choreographers

169 COSTUMES, HAIR, AND MAKE-UP

have become synonymous with certain stylistic

easily as natural fibers. It is important that the costume

approaches in costumes, lighting, and scenery. For

designer has a full understanding of all of these

instance, one cannot think of Bob Fosse without

attributes in order to make the best decision as to which

conjuring images of a black-clad dancer with forward-

fabric to use in constructing a costume.

thrust hips, turned-in feet, and a bowler hat on top. It is important to always communicate with the choreographer and have a full understanding of his/her vision before making costuming decisions that might clash with the overall production style.

10.3  Properties of Dance Costumes  (Controllable Qualities of Dance Costumes) While the previous section addressed what can be accomplished through costume design, we have not yet discussed how the costume designer goes about accomplishing those functions. For this discussion, we return to the idea of the properties of costumes—the aspects that can be changed or controlled. Each of these properties affects one or more of the functions of dance costumes listed above.

Fabric

The second important factor related to a fabric is its construction method. There are a number of different techniques for combining fibers together to create a fabric (weaving, knitting, crocheting, felting, netting, etc.). Each one creates a different quality of fabric. Some are rough, while others are smooth in appearance. Some are delicate, whereas others can hold up to the heavy abuse necessary for performance. One of the most important considerations is whether a fabric is stretched or not, and in which directions. Also, how does the fabric move? Is it smooth, stiff, clingy, or crunchy? The costume designer must take all of these factors into consideration when deciding on fabric choices for the costume. When selecting fabrics for dance costumes, it is always important to consider color, print (and the scale of the pattern), how the fabric moves, its durability, and

Fabric is the medium in which a costume designer

texture. All of these factors influence the way that a

creates the costume. As such, it is important for

costume can be used on the stage and may affect other

costume designers to have a deep understanding

design areas.

of fabric types and what factors control the overall qualities of the fabric itself. The first factor that

Line

contributes to the quality of a fabric is the fiber

In costuming, line can refer to the cut of clothing, or the

from which it is made. Fibers are the tiny, hair-like

way in which fabric sections are assembled to create

components combined together to create a fabric.

the costume. This property affects the silhouette of the

They come in two categories: natural or synthetic.

costume, which in turn defines the form of the dancer

Natural fibers are those that come from plant or animal

wearing the costume. Throughout history there have

products, whereas synthetics are created from man-

been a number of popular silhouettes that defined the

made materials. All fibers have different attributes,

style of the time. In this way, the line of a costume can

from their strength, to absorbency, how well they hold

place it within a specific historical context. Likewise,

dyes, or the type of care required in cleaning. Generally

it controls the way in which a dancer can move in a

speaking, silk, rayon, Lycra, and cotton are excellent

costume. Consider the movement restrictions of a

fabric choices for dance. When considering dyeing

long, form-fitting evening gown versus those of a short,

fabrics, keep in mind that synthetics tend to not dye as

flowing summer dress. These types of considerations

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are always important when assessing how the line of

removes all wavelengths of light except those in the

the costume affects movement possibilities.

desired color of light. If a red color medium were used

Shape/Form

to light a white piece of fabric, the fabric would look red. This is because the white fabric reflects back the

Where line creates the silhouette of a costume, shape

red wavelengths without altering the appearance.

or form is the three-dimensional consideration of the

However, if the same red lighting were cast on a piece

costume. Another way of looking at this is the amount

of fabric dyed green, the resulting color would not be

of space taken up by the costume. Again, this property

red, but gray. This occurs because a pigmented fabric

is often tied to certain historic contexts. When looking at

can only reflect back the colors of light present in the

historic research, it is apparent that the form of clothing

light. In this example, the green pigment absorbs the

changes in conjunction with the lines as well. Consider

red wavelengths of light, emitting a resulting color

the difference between a dancer moving onstage in

of gray.

a form-fitting body suit compared to the movement restrictions of a costume from the Victorian period with a tight corset, hoop skirt, petticoats, long sleeves, and high neckline. Such considerations are not only important for the singular dancer, but also in instances of partnering. Depending on the shape of the costume, certain types of movements would be impossible between two dancers, due to the inability to get in close proximity. Likewise, if a costume were too bulky, moves like lifts would be impossible because the partner could never have access to the legs or core of the body.

Color Color is one of the most important properties of costuming. The color of the costume can easily communicate a sense of mood or even aspects about the dancer’s character. Color in costuming comes from two main factors: the color of the fabric, and the color of the lighting.

For these reasons it is important for the costume designer to always have an open channel of communication with the scenic designer, lighting designer, and projections designer regarding the use of color onstage. Costume designers are expected to provide examples of their color choices before starting the build or purchasing costumes. When considering color choices, the costumer should have a good understanding of the other colors used onstage and how they might affect his/her resulting costume colors. This can be a difficult process, considering stage lighting often uses multiple different types of colored lighting in conjunction with one another during the course of the dance. As a reference, Figure 10.3 includes a chart of colors of fabric and their likely appearance under colored lighting. I use the term likely because there are always a number of factors, such as the pigment of the dye, the sheen of the fabric, the type of lighting instrument, and more. When in doubt, try to provide a

When discussing color in costuming, one cannot

fabric swatch to the lighting designer to see if you can

separate the color of the costume from the lighting.

experiment with its appearance under stage lighting.

Light will always affect the perception of a costume’s

This is especially important when you are using various

color. This section gives an example of how this works.

different fabrics that all look the same color under

Going back to our discussion of color in the lighting

regular indoor lighting. Black fabric, in particular, is

chapters, we know that a color medium is used in a

notorious for turning slightly green, red, brown, or

light to create colored lighting. The medium, or gel,

purple under stage light.

171 COSTUMES, HAIR, AND MAKE-UP

F I G UR E 10. 3

FABRIC

Fabric colors are listed in the left column, with their appearance under colored light to the right.

LIGHT

Illustration by Jeromy Hopgood.

AMBER LIGHT LIGHT LIGHT

RED LIGHT

VIOLET LIGHT

BLUE LIGHT

CYAN LIGHT GREEN GREEN GREEN

GREEN-GRAY GREEN-GRAY

LIGHT LIGHT ORANGE

GREEN-GRAY GREEN-GRAY ORANGEGREEN GREEN-GRAY

GREEN

GREEN GREEN

LIGHT YELLOW

BRIGHT YELLOW

GREEN

GREEN-GRAY

GREEN GREEN

GREEN YELLOW

LIGHT GREEN

BRIGHT GREEN

GREEN GREEN

GREEN GREEN

GREEN GREEN

LIGHT GREEN-GRAY

LIGHT

LIGHT LIGHT LIGHT

GREEN

GREEN GREEN

GREEN GREEN

LIGHT BLUE-GRAY

LIGHT

LIGHT LIGHT

GREEN GREEN

GREEN GREEN

GREEN GREEN

GREEN GREEN

Texture

step foot onstage to touch the fabric, we understand

Texture is defined as the visual appearance of an

they will interpret the true texture of a fabric based on

object, especially related to its tactile qualities. In short, texture refers to how an object feels to the touch. We often assume texture only refers to the rougher textures of the world; however, smooth objects obviously have a specific textural quality to them as well. When discussing texture in costumes, the first consideration is often the natural texture of the fabric itself. Going back to the discussion of

their lifetime of experience. As with some of the other properties of costuming, texture can be a safety issue for dance costuming. It is always important to consider what actions will be performed in the costume before deciding on the fabric’s texture. Fabrics that are too slick can be dangerous when partnering with another dancer, whereas something too rough can increase friction and make moves like sliding across the floor

what types of fibers and construction methods are

difficult to accomplish.

used to make a fabric, we can understand that there

In costuming, texture can be either true or implied

are various textural properties unique to a specific fabric. For instance, satin tends to be smooth and reflective, whereas burlap has a rough and porous surface quality. Though the audience will likely never

172 PRODUCTION AREAS

texture. True texture comes from the weave of a pattern or the type of material. Implied texture can be accomplished through pattern, a visual texture accomplished by repetition of visual elements to create

a design. Pattern can be created through the varying

of balance, unless the designer is purposefully trying

use of colored fibers, through paint or dye used to

to make a comment through creating imbalance. For

literally “draw” a pattern, or through the variation of

instance, a well-balanced, symmetrical design tends to

differing textures of fabric allowing the surface quality

communicate a sense of stability and formality, whereas

of the fabric to reflect light in differing ways. Small

an imbalanced, asymmetrical costume might appear a

patterns seen from a distance lose detail and create a

bit more wild, youthful, or natural. Striking a balance

textured look to the fabric, whereas larger patterns are

within a design is one of the many challenges of the

perceived as purposeful symbolic statements. In this

costume designer.

way, texture is largely tied to our next property.

10.4  Dance Costume Components

Scale

When considering a costume design, there are a

Scale is the property of dance costumes that compares

number of different approaches towards assembling

the proportion of one object or element to another. In

a costume. The designer can build a costume from

the case of costuming, there are a number of elements

scratch, pull it from a stock of costume components

that could be compared to one another. When discussing

already owned, borrow or rent from another company,

an individual costume, certain elements of the costume

or purchase costume elements. It is important to note

might differ in some way, like having a large pattern

that although there are a great many companies who

of stripes next to a small pattern of dots. Though they

build dancewear, any piece of clothing can be used as

might appear to clash when viewed up close, the small

a costume, given the right circumstances. For both the

scale of the dot pattern is only perceived as a textural

choreographer and the designer, a working knowledge

variation of the fabric. Likewise, scale could be used to

of standard dance costume components is essential to

compare aspects of one costume to another. Different

deciding on the appropriate costume for a dance. Listed

costumes might be designed in a similar approach,

below are a number of different types of dance apparel

but one having a small skirt and the second featuring

and their functions. The vast majority of the costume

a larger variation on the same skirt. Though these

pieces listed below are for female dancers, though there

two costumes share many similarities in design, the

are a few specialty items listed for males.

difference in scale will affect the dancers’ movements and the visual flow of the costumes. Yet another way of

Base Layer

considering scale is by comparing a costume or dancer

Dancewear typically features a number of layers of

to the overall stage environment. All of these different

different types of clothing. After the undergarments,

comparisons each represent a different method of

the base layer of most dance costumes is a form-

assessing scale within a design.

fitting garment that allows for ease in movement

One major consideration in the use of scale is the sense of balance in a costume. Balance is a perception of an equal distribution of visual weight within a design. A balanced design should appear visually stable between the horizontal and vertical planes of an object. Costumes typically feature a strong sense

without obscuring the shape of the dancer’s body. The apparel listed in this section is commonly worn for both rehearsal and performance.

Leotard The leotard is the foundation of almost every dance costume. The French acrobat Jules Léotard popularized

173 COSTUMES, HAIR, AND MAKE-UP

this unisex form-fitting garment in the 1800s. The

F I G UR E 10. 4

The dancer in this image is wearing a camisole-style leotard.

leotard resembles a woman’s one-piece bathing suit (Figure 10.4). As it is a one-piece garment without snaps

Photography by Richard Calmes.

or zippers, it must be put on by stepping through the neck. Many dance costumes feature the leotard as a core component upon which other elements are added. The leotard comes in many different styles, such as long sleeve, short sleeve, camisole, halter top, tank top, or even turtleneck.

Unitard A unitard is similar to the leotard, but includes long legs and often sleeves (Figure 10.5). It is essentially a one-piece garment that replaces the combination of leotard and tights. Since the unitard is incredibly sleek and snug fitting, it gives the dancer the appearance of

F I G UR E 10. 5

Unitards worn in performance for Merce Cunningham’s EyeSpace (2007). Emma Desjardins, Andrea Weber, Rashaun Mitchell (dancers featured), Merce Cunningham Dance Company at Carnival Center. Décor and costumes by Daniel Arsham. Photo by Ben Thacker.

174 PRODUCTION AREAS

uninterrupted lines and a contoured fit to the dancer’s

bottoms. Like all of the costume elements discussed in

form.

this section, there will be variations in names and styles

Biketard The biketard takes its name from the combination of a

between different manufacturers. Listed below are some of the common generic varieties of bottoms.

leotard with biking shorts. The design of the biketard

Pants

features legs that end at mid-thigh—somewhere

When discussing dance pants, there are a number of

between the length of a leotard and a unitard

varieties to choose from. One of the main concerns

(Figure 10.6). It is made of the same form-fitting

for pants in a classroom/rehearsal setting is that they

materials as the leotard and unitard and comes in a

should be short enough so that the instructor can

wide array of colors and prints.

see your ankles. This is extremely important in ballet,

Bottoms

considering the instructor cannot see your positioning to make corrections if the pant goes down longer than

When choosing the costume components, there are

the ankle. Likewise in a tap situation, a longer pant leg

a number of choices of elements that can be worn as

can interfere with the shoes making a clean tap sound.

F I G UR E 10. 6

The dancers in this piece wear longsleeved biketards with a mock turtleneck. Ritual Series One. Choreography by Jillian Hopper. Lighting by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

175 COSTUMES, HAIR, AND MAKE-UP

F I G UR E 10. 7

This photo showcases a wide range of pants worn in dances. Lighting design by David Koltunchik and Jeromy Hopgood. Photos courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

Pants should be light and form fitting for dance. Jazz  pants are typically made of a lightweight, stretchy knit fabric. Capri pants feature a shorter cut of the leg, around calf length. Most varieties of pants have different designs for males and females though, and as in most dance apparel, there are many more choices for women than men. There are a number of different fabrics to choose from, as well, such as polyester, cotton, spandex, Lycra, nylon, or blends. Each fabric responds a bit differently to factors such as breathability, wicking moisture away from the skin, and how slick the fabric is (slippery fabrics can make for dangerous movements in some types of choreography). It is always best to experiment with a certain fabric type before purchasing a large amount of costumes.

Tights and Leggings There can be some confusion when referring to tights and leggings, as a number of manufacturers tend to use the terms almost interchangeably. Technically speaking, tights are thin, semi-transparent clothing worn on the legs that start at the waist and tend to cover the feet (though there are both footless and convertible tights).

176 PRODUCTION AREAS

F IGU RE 10. 8

Tights are a common component of many ballet costumes for men and women. Photo by Richard Calmes.

Since tights are semi-transparent, they are not normally worn without some other covering, like a leotard. Due to the sheer, reflective nature of tights, they do a great job

of accentuating the natural contour of the dancer’s body.

bottom of the ribs) and low-rise (with the waist near the

Leggings are similar to tights, but made of a thicker

top of the hip bones).

material and normally stop at the ankle. Leggings can have a bit looser fit than tights, as well.

Shorts

Skirts/Tutus Skirts are an important component of any dancer’s wardrobe. They add a flourish to the dancer’s

Like pants, shorts come in a multitude of styles and cuts

movement and allow the audience to still see the

(Figure 10.9). Like most dance clothing, dance shorts

movement of the feet. Dance skirts come in a number

all tend to be a bit tighter of fit than street clothes and

of different varieties and lengths. The most common

made of materials that work well to wick moisture away

types are wrap skirts and pull-on skirts. Beyond this

from the body. The defining features of shorts tend to

distinction, the defining features are the skirt length

be the waist and the inseam length. Waist placement

and fullness.

commonly falls into high waist (with the waist near the

F I G UR E 10. 9

Shorts of different lengths. Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

177 COSTUMES, HAIR, AND MAKE-UP

For most people, the mention of dance, and in particular

of soft tulle, assembled to create a bell shape, with

ballet, brings to mind the tutu. It is probably the

a long flowing skirt. The Romantic tutu comes in two

singular most iconic element of a dancer’s wardrobe

variations, one with soft tulle falling from the waist, the

that communicates the visual essence of a dancer to

second with the tulle starting at the high hip, called the

most people. The history of the tutu seems to be a point

Romantic tutu with basque.

of argument between dance historians, some dating it back to the eighteenth century, while others contend it was earlier. The one point that everyone seems to agree on is the reason for the tutu’s creation. Early ballet features dancers wearing long, elegant dresses that fell below the ankle. As the legwork began to grow in complexity, there was a desire to raise the length of the skirt to showcase the legs and feet. Since then, there have been many variations on the design of the tutu. The Romantic tutu was the earliest version, featuring a long and floating skirt that begins at the waist and is cut somewhere around the calf to just above the ankles. This would be considered a ¾-length skirt. The Romantic tutu is composed of three to five layers

A basque is the section of the skirt that sits on the dancer’s hips and is sometimes used to connect the skirt to a bodice. The basque is separated into two separate sections: the upper basque, which is visible and covers the area from the waist to the hips; and the lower basque, which resembles a pair of panties under the skirt. In some types of tutus a decorative set of panties are sewn to the basque. Figure 10.10 shows a tutu with basque. The classical tutu was born from the interest in seeing even more of the dancers’ legs in ballet movements. It features a stiffer variety of netting jutting out horizontally from the dancer’s hips. There are two distinct looks of the classical tutu—the “pancake” style and the “bell” tutu. The pancake style is a tutu long favored by Russian ballet companies, featuring a crinoline, or steel wire, in one of the layers. This creates a rigid structure to keep the pancake flat and hold up the longest layers of netting. It is the crinoline that gives the pancake tutu its distinct flat shape. The bell tutu is slightly longer than the classical pancake style and does not include the hoop. This gives it a length somewhere in between the Romantic and the classical tutu. Both variations on the classical tutu tend to feature intricate ruffled panties combined with the tutu in matching fabric. Another type of tutu is the platter. The platter tutu is similar in style to the pancake tutu, with a flat top that

F IG UR E 10. 10

The tutu, with upper basque visible. Photo courtesy of Campbell Baird.

178 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 10. 1 1

Tutu styles (from left to right): Romantic, classical tutu—pancake style, classical tutu—bell style, platter tutu, Balanchine “Powderpuff” tutu. Photo by Richard Calmes.

sticks straight out from the waistline. It differs from the

One final variation on the tutu is the Balanchine/

pancake tutu in that where the pancake is a bit fuller

Karinska, or “powderpuff” tutu. This tutu is named

at the waistline, the platter is almost completely flat

after the famous Russian choreographer George

across the entire top surface.

Balanchine and his longtime collaborator in costumes, Barbara Karinska. Balanchine loved to put a large ensemble of dancers together onstage. The stiff nature of the classical tutu meant that the dancers’ tutus would frequently collide and create a bobbing effect, due to the metal hoops. Karinska devised a new type of tutu that used shorter, self-supporting layers of netting that gave a looser, fluffy appearance (i.e. powderpuff) without the need for hoops. Each of the tutu types is compared in Figure 10.11.

The Bodice Though not technically part of the tutu, the bodice is a frequent companion to a tutu for classical ballet. A bodice is a form-fitting top sewn from several panels of fabric (Figure 10.12). Some of these sections are cut on the bias, meaning that the fabric is cut along the diagonal plane, which allows the fabric to stretch more. The bodice cinches up tightly in the back and features boning to help shape the dancer’s form. Bodices are attached to the tutu at the waistline or high on the F I G UR E 10. 1 2

hip. There are literally hundreds of different designs

A bodice on a dress form.

for bodices and a quality bodice can cost hundreds to

Photo courtesy of Campbell Baird.

thousands of dollars.

179 COSTUMES, HAIR, AND MAKE-UP

Tops

Ballet

Dance tops come in a wide array of styles, colors, and

For ballet performances, ballet slippers or ballet pointe

prints. Unlike some of the other varieties of dance

shoes are the norm. The ballet slipper is commonly

garments, tops use the same names as most types

made of leather, canvas, or satin. It has a flexible sole

of street clothes, so they are easier for the novice to

with an excellent grip but no heel. The slipper has either

understand. A camisole is a sleeveless top with thin

a single elastic strap or a double, crisscross band that

“spaghetti” straps holding up the top. A tank top is

goes across the top of the foot.

similar, but with wider straps. A halter top resembles a tank top when viewed from the front, but on examination from the back you can see that there is only one strap holding up the top. This strap runs from the front of the garment behind the dancer’s neck. Other varieties of tops are wraparounds, turtlenecks, crop tops (with a raised bottom, showing the stomach), bra tops, and jackets. For men, there are a wide variety of T-shirt style shirts, as well.

Dresses Like tops, there are a multitude of dress types that can be worn for dance. Dresses should accentuate the movement of the dancer and serve the style of the dance piece. When discussing the common types of dresses made specifically for dance by dancewear manufacturers, defining factors are the length of the dress and the placement of the waistline. The primary question for a dress should be how it serves the movement of the dance.

Footwear

Ballet pointe shoes are a specific type of ballet shoe used for dancers en pointe, or dancing on the tips of the toes. Pointe shoes include a component called the box, a rigid reinforced toe of the shoe that encases and supports the dancer’s toes. The box features a flat toe called the platform that makes it easier for the dancer to balance. The top of the shoe is called the vamp and may sometimes include a drawstring that is used to help adjust the fit of the shoe. The sole of the shoe is made of a thin strip of leather stitched to the bottom of the shoe. Inside of the pointe shoe is a rigid reinforcement insert called the shank. The shank gives support to the dancer’s arch and can come in various different lengths of full, half, or ¾ length. The pointe shoe is kept in place by a combination of an elastic strap that goes across the top of the foot at the ankle and two ribbons that crisscross around the ankle and tie together in a knot. Figure 10.13 includes images of both types of ballet shoes. Ballet slippers are unisex and typically come in three colors: pink (the most common color for women),

Footwear (or lack thereof) is an essential consideration

black, or white (commonly worn by men). Pointe

of any dance costume. The dancer’s foot is the point

shoes are intended for females, but can be worn by

at which the body meets the stage and receives more

men in certain situations, such as a female character

stress than almost any other part of the body. For this

commonly played by a man, like the wicked stepsisters

reason, there is a wide array of footwear choices on the

in Cinderella.

market, specifically geared towards the individual needs of the dance performance.

Jazz Jazz shoes are similar to ballet slippers, but feature a slight heel and raised arch to accentuate the dancer’s

180 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 10. 1 3

Ballet slippers (left) and ballet pointe shoes (right). Photo courtesy of Jim Lamberson.

foot. Jazz shoes come in both the slip-on and lace-up

in a number of variations such as the jazz sandal, jazz

variety and feature a split sole for greater flexibility of

boot, jazz sneaker, etc. Each shoe behaves similarly but

the foot. Shoes are normally made of either leather or

has a different sort of look that is preferable for different

canvas. The soles are made of leather or rubber for

dances and costumes (Figure 10.14).

maximum shock absorption and grip. Another variation might include a reinforced toe for the ability to briefly

Tap Dance

rise en pointe. Common colors are either black or tan.

Tap is a specific dance style for which the shoe is

Jazz shoes can be worn by men or women and come

essential. The tap shoe has evolved quite a bit over the

F I G U R E 1 0 . 14

These slip-on jazz shoes feature a small heel and raised arch. Photo courtesy of Jim Lamberson.

181 COSTUMES, HAIR, AND MAKE-UP

F IG UR E 10. 15

A pair of tap shoes.

the character shoe. These shoes were originally named character shoes for the fact that they were worn by actors either auditioning for roles or acting onstage. The character shoe is very similar to the jazz shoe, but some make the argument that character shoes are slightly sturdier than traditional “dance” jazz shoes. Like the jazz shoe, character shoes feature a heel. Unlike jazz shoes, though, the heel of character shoes comes in a number of high-heel varieties. One of the defining features of the character shoe is the leather sole, which makes for more comfortable use onstage. Men’s character shoes look like a standard oxford shoe with laces and no decoration. For both men’s and women’s varieties, the character shoe can be equipped with taps to make them function as a tap shoe as well.

Modern Dance years since its introduction. Tap dance can be linked to the dance style of African slaves brought to America. Their dance style involved a dancer pounding out a rhythmic beat with bare feet on wooden planking. As time advanced, the use of a specialized shoe with wooden soles replaced bare feet. It was not until the early 1900s that we saw the addition of metal “taps” on the bottom of tap shoes. Today, there are a number of specialized types of tap shoe featuring specific tap sizes, thickness, and materials for creating a unique sound. Though there are many variations on the design, the common factor remains that tap shoes feature

Unlike ballet or tap, modern dance tends to hold an “anything goes” philosophy as related to footwear. Commonly dancers will go barefoot for modern dance pieces, though it is not uncommon to see dancers wear dance sneakers, slippers, boots, or other varieties of shoe. Even if the choreographer wants a unique look, it is always a good idea to select footwear from a dance manufacturer. There are a number of modern options to footwear created with the dancer in mind. Using street shoes can lead to a dangerous situation for the dancer and damage the dance flooring in the performance space.

metal taps applied to the underside of the heel and

When getting a barefoot look may be desirable for the

toes that are used to produce the signature tap sound

choreographer, there are certain options for the dancer

(Figure 10.15).

to give foot protection while still giving the appearance

Musical Theatre

of being barefoot to the audience. Capezio, one of the oldest dance shoe manufacturers in the United States,

Since dance is such an essential component of most

makes multiple varieties of their foot Undeez™, a

musical theatre productions, it is a good idea to address

nude shoe that covers either the ball of the foot or the

182 PRODUCTION AREAS

ball and heel. There are many different options on the

It is essential to recognize that a wig is a complex tool

market for the foot thong-style shoe, though many

that must be provided to the dancer in enough time to

dancers simply prefer the feel and lack of restriction

rehearse while wearing it. This will give both the dancer

that comes from being barefooted. Always make sure

and designer an opportunity to see the wig in action

to take special care in setting up the dance floor and

and determine what specialty needs there might be to

backstage for sweeping and mopping, since it is a given

secure the wig in place for the production. The style

that there will be dancers walking around in bare feet!

needs to be secure enough to withstand the movement

10.5  Hair and Wigs When considering hairstyles for dance, the two basic choices are natural hair or the use of wigs. Overall, the

of the dance, and the wig must be fastened to the head securely enough not to move around or come off. This point cannot be overstressed!

rules of hairstyles for dance are straightforward: keep

Hats, Masks, and Headpieces

it out of your eyes, don’t let it interfere with movement,

In addition to hairstyling, another common approach

and don’t let it clash with your costume. Some types

to drawing attention to the dancer’s head is the use of

of dance have expectations of how a dancer’s hair will

hats, masks, and headpieces. Each element has its own

be styled. Ballet, for instance, mostly assumes that

unique challenges. All three must be properly secured

a ballerina will have naturally long hair. The hair is

into place, else they move around and possibly even

normally placed up in a bun high on the back of the

fall off.

head. The final step is to use a shellac-style hairspray to affix the hair in place so that it stays up under the most rigorous of conditions. Though it is not necessarily a rule that all female ballet dancers must have long hair, it is something of a convention that many classical dancers follow.

Wigs and Hairpieces Sometimes a dancer may need to use a wig or hairpiece in order to achieve the desired look for a role. This could be because of the length of the dancer’s hair, his/her hair color, or for a specific look desirable for a certain character in the dance. A wig is a head covering with hair that covers the entirety of the head, whereas

Hats, while visually interesting, can create large shadows, making it difficult to see the dancer’s face. Masks present the unique challenge of possibly creating “blind spots” for the dancer, should they move to obscure the line of sight. It is important that a mask always be properly secured, have large openings around the eyes, and not protrude too far in any direction so as to block the dancer’s vision. For all of these reasons, it is important to make sure the dancer can rehearse with the mask as soon as possible. This is important not only for the dancer wearing the mask, but for anyone who might be partnering with the dancer, as it could create a hazard for the dance partner as well.

a hairpiece supplements a wig or natural hair. Both

Headpieces come in a number of varieties from crowns

wigs and hairpieces are normally made of human

to headbands, decorative hair combs, or strings of

or synthetic hair. Those made of human hair can be

jewels. Headpieces must be pinned securely into place

colored, curled, and styled in a similar fashion to the

to avoid jarring loose during performance. Figure 10.16

hair on your head. Those made of synthetic fibers will

shows a few examples of the use of masks and

often melt under heat and cannot be colored as easily.

headpieces for dance.

183 COSTUMES, HAIR, AND MAKE-UP

F I G UR E 10. 1 6

Four images featuring the creative use of headpieces and masks in dance (Peter Pan and The Nutcracker). Photos by Richard Calmes (top row). Photos courtesy of Campbell Baird (bottom row).

10.6  Make-up Considerations

the facial expressions of the character far into the

Although make-up is not technically a part of the

back rows of the auditorium. Although some of the

costume, many dancers believe that make-up is the final step to preparing for the dance performance and an essential component to taking on the character. Dance make-up is bold, so as to help communicate

184 PRODUCTION AREAS

techniques and tools are similar to street make-up or even theatrical make-up, there are some aspects of dance make-up that are unique to the art form.

The Make-up Kit

As a rule of thumb, start with the lightest color

There are a number of different manufacturers of

just beneath the eyebrow and work your way to the darkest color above the eyelashes. Use a clean brush

stage make-up. The types of make-up used for stage

to blend the colors together smoothly. This creates a

applications tend to be a bit thicker and are used to

sculpted look that really accentuates the eyes.

create a higher contrast on the face than for basic cosmetic applications. The basic dance make-up kit

●●

Accentuate the shape of your eyebrows with an 

should include cleanser, moisturizer, foundation,

eyebrow pencil. One of the most important elements

powder, eye shadow and eyeliner, eyebrow pencil,

to making the dancer’s expressions visible from a

mascara, blush, lip liner/lipstick, and a setting spray.

distance is the eyebrow. An eyebrow pencil can be

In addition to these varieties of make-up, it is useful to

used to fill in the eyebrow and elongate the shape.

have items such as sponges, cotton balls, brushes, false

The chosen shape of the eyebrow can go a long way towards portraying your character onstage.

eyelashes (and glue), and baby wipes. Manufacturers such as Mehron and Ben Nye sell specialty stage

●●

make-up kits for a reasonable price.

Apply eyeliner to eyelids. The purpose of the eyeliner is to darken the lines of the eyelashes and draw attention to the eye. Many dancers use liquid

Applying Dance Make-up

liner for the top lashes and an eyeliner pencil for the

When applying make-up, there are some basic steps

bottom. Others still opt for no lining on the bottom

to follow in order to achieve an appropriate look for the

lashes at all. The liquid liner on the top should

stage while protecting your skin. The list below includes

be bold in appearance and as close to the natural

a step-by-step approach to applying dance make-up.

eyelashes as you can manage. Lining on the bottom

●●

lashes should be subtle. Using heavy eyeliner on

Cleanse, tone, and moisturize your face and neck. 

both top and bottom can lead to the appearance of

This process is important for the health of your skin,

eyes being less open on stage—the opposite of our

as well as for creating a smooth palette on which

goal.

to apply the make-up. After cleansing your face, immediately apply moisturizer. This step fills in the

●●

applied more heavily to the top lashes and very little

tiny cracks on the surface of your face and makes for

to the bottoms. If using mascara on the bottom, start

a smooth application surface. For those with acne

with the bottom lashes and give a few minutes for

problems, use an oil-free moisturizer. If you have dry

the bottoms to dry before applying mascara on the

skin, choose something a bit thicker. ●●

top. Mascara should always be a darker color, often

Apply a foundation. Directly after moisturizing,

black.

apply your foundation over the face, neck, and upper chest (not forgetting the ears). This makes for an even transition from make-up to bare skin. Many people use a finishing powder at this point to set the foundation and prevent an overly oily appearance. ●●

Add eye shadow. Next apply the eye shadow. Many dancers use multiple colors of eye shadow to create a gradation of color from the eyebrow to the eye.

Apply mascara to the eyelashes. Mascara is also

●●

Affix false eyelashes, if desired. False eyelashes are often used for the stage. When using them, mascara is not required. In fact, using mascara can make it difficult to re-use a false eyelash after application. To apply false eyelashes, hold them in place with tweezers and apply glue to the strip that holds the eyelashes together. Let the glue dry for

185 COSTUMES, HAIR, AND MAKE-UP

a few moments so that it becomes tacky. The false

10.7  Chapter Review

eyelashes are placed as close to the root line of your

As this chapter illustrates, the world of dance

real eyelashes as possible and then pressed into place from the center outward. ●●

●●

area covering a number of different considerations.

Apply blush. Blush is used to accentuate the

In addition to the individual considerations for a

cheekbones and add definition to the dancer’s face.

production, there are also the traditional expectations

Powder varieties should be applied with a large

of dance styles to keep in mind. Perhaps more so than

brush for blending. Cream varieties can be blended

any other designer in dance, the costume designer must

with a sponge. For both methods, start at the center

blend together a wide array of skill sets and expertise

of the cheekbone (the “apples”) and work your way

in order to create the finished product viewed on stage.

out, blending evenly.

Whether it is the historian, the fashion designer, the

Color the lips and define the shape. Most dancers

archivist, the craftsperson, or movement consultant,

use either a combination of a lip liner and lipstick,

the costume designer is an integral part of the creative

or simply use a colored lip cream. For ladies, bold

process for producing dance and one whose expertise

red lips are the norm in dance. This may seem

affects many of the other production areas.

excessive from close up, but it is necessary to allow the dancer’s facial expressions to be read from

Review Questions

the audience. When using lip liner, first draw in

  1.  In what way is a costume linked to movement?

the shape of the lips, following the natural line of

  2.  What color would be the most likely result of

your lips. Next apply a colorstay variety of lipstick to the interior areas of the lips. The colorstay is important for keeping the lipstick on the lips and off of costumes. When using a color cream, the lip color is applied using a lining brush for details. ●●

costumes, hair and wigs, and make-up is an exhaustive

Finish the make-up application with a barrier  spray. After all of your make-up is applied, spray a finishing coat of barrier spray onto the face to set the make-up. This will help prevent the make-up running with perspiration and color rubbing off onto your costume or others.

shining a red light onto a green fabric?   3.  What is the key difference between a classical tutu and the powderpuff tutu?   4.  What is the flat toe of a pointe shoe called?   5.  How do jazz shoes differ from ballet slippers?   6.  Which dance style most commonly features dancers in bare feet?   7.  What is the difference between a wig and a hairpiece?   8.  What are some concerns when working with hats or masks onstage?   9.  Why is dance make-up so bold in appearance? 10.  What is the purpose of a barrier spray in make-up?

186 PRODUCTION AREAS

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CHAPTER 11 CREATING THE COSTUME DESIGN Costumes are the first impression that you have of the character before they open their mouth—it really does establish who they are. Colleen Atwood

Student dancers from Eastern Michigan University’s 62nd annual Faculty and Guest Artist dance concert. Choreography by Laura Zimmerman. Lighting Design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo courtesy Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

Since costume designs are so eclectic and involve

up some suggestions for initiating a conversation about

a number of different components, it only stands to

the dance and how the costume design can assist in the

reason that the process of creating the costume design

storytelling process.

would also be a multifaceted one requiring many specialized skills. The costume designer must work

Setting Goals

closely with the choreographer and dancers to create a

As mentioned above, the role of the dance costume

costume that both fits within the conceptual framework

designer is a bit different from its counterpart in

of the dance and assists the dancer in creating the role.

theatre. Though the ultimate goal of creating costumes

This chapter details the process for creating the design

for a performer remains the same, the path to getting

from concept to opening night.

there is a bit more circuitous. Since the choreographer

11.1  Working with the Choreographer

will often not have a definite concept for the costumes in the early stages of discussions, it is useful to start a

Other than the dancers themselves, no other aspect

dialogue that focuses on what should be communicated

does so much to communicate the essence of the

through the dance. Listed below are some questions

characters than costuming. Unlike the process of

that can spark this conversation and drive the

designing costumes for theatre, television, or film,

discussion to revealing pertinent information about the

when working on dance costumes the primary source

dance. Even if the choreographer has not begun the

of character information will most often come directly

process of discovering these things about the dance, it is

from the choreographer. For this reason, the costume

important to put the questions out there. In many cases,

designer and choreographer often have a close

this helps him/her frame their approach to the dance,

relationship. When working in the theatre, the script

especially as it relates to characterization.

dictates much of the story arc. As a result, the costume designer can enter production meetings with a fairly solid concept of where the costume design is heading. Since there is rarely a script for a dance, the process of creating the story happens in rehearsals. This means that designers typically do not have a notion of the story arc, pertinent themes, or concepts until well into the rehearsal process. For the costume designer who comes from a strictly theatrical background, this can be a foreign concept and take some time to adjust. For these reasons, it is important that the costume designer establishes an early dialogue with the choreographer

Talking About Your Dance   1.  Is your dance based on or influenced by any particular work of art? (If so, feel free to include images, links/references with this response.)   2.  Describe in two to three sentences what you want your dance to communicate.   3.  Is it important to distinguish different characters within the dance, or should the dancers all be a bit more uniform?   4.  If there are specific characters, do you have a sense

and makes time to attend rehearsals. Be aware that

of who they are and what they should be saying to

some choreographers may not like to bring the designer

the audience?

in until the piece is a bit closer to completion. The

  5.  Give a few adjectives or short descriptive phrases

bottom line is that the choreographer and designers

to describe how your dance (or individual sections)

have to determine a method that will work best for their

should feel. Try to avoid the temptation to explain

individual project and stick with it. This section offers

your concept—it tends to be more effective to focus,

190 PRODUCTION AREAS

instead, on what the dance or moments should feel

●●

like.   6.  Are there specific movement-related needs for the costuming?   7.  Will movement create specific demands of the

dancers will be moving? ●●

At what point will the dance be fully choreographed?

●●

What is the tech schedule?

●●

At what point do the dancers need to be working in

costume (i.e. will knee pads be necessary)?   8.  Is there any other design element that might affect

costume? ●●

the way in which costumes have to be used (i.e. scenery—the use of stairs, props: dancers all must hold umbrellas, etc.)?

there a requirement for quick changes—either within this dance or to/from the previous/ subsequent dances?

Practical Concerns In a perfect world, the costume designer would be able to provide any type of costume for the dance in any number required. The truth of the matter is more often that what can be offered in a design is factored on a sliding scale. The important factors to consider are the budget, the number of dancers to costume, the number of workers to help build the costumes, the skill level of available workers, timetable for construction, access to a costume stock to pull from, and more. For each production these factors must be considered as part of the design planning. Make sure to ask the right questions early in the collaborative process to identify potential challenges along the way, before getting too far into your creative process and discovering that your choices cannot be accomplished within the given parameters of the production resources. ●●

Is this a new piece or a remount?

●●

If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that are important to reproduce?

●●

What is the rehearsal schedule?

Are there specific props needed for this production? If so, how will the dancers use the props?

●●

Are there specific colors selected for the lighting yet?

●●

Are there any special effects needs that might affect

  9.  What kind of footwear is needed for the dance? 10.  If the dance is done in a repertory setting, is

Is it OK for me to attend rehearsals and see how the

the costuming (flying a dancer, etc.)? ●●

Does the dance company have a costume stock from which I can pull or a reciprocal arrangement with another company’s stock?

Attending Rehearsals As mentioned earlier, attending rehearsals is one of the important aspects of the costume designer’s job. Most designers would agree that the more time spent with the choreographer and seeing rehearsal, the better. There are a number of things one can take from watching a rehearsal, the most important of which is how the dancers will be moving onstage and what types of movement the costume must accommodate. Rehearsal gives the designer an opportunity to consider not only the needs of the choreographer, but also those of the dancer. Liz Prince, a Bessie Award-winning costume designer for such dance companies as Bill T. Jones and Pilobolus, mentions that her rehearsal process is often informed by the dancers’ clothing: “Sometimes I sneak a peek at what the dancer wore to rehearsal—their street clothes. It can give me a clue into who they are and how they like to present themselves. Sometimes their style shows me something about how garments will best fit their body. Even rehearsal clothes can sometimes be inspiring and useful to observe.”

191 CREATING THE COSTUME DESIGN

The rehearsal process is useful in planning the

choreographer can flip through and respond to elements

costumes for the dance and especially their

that he/she likes or dislikes. It is ideal to share them

construction. Watching rehearsals can greatly inform

in person and chat about the choices, but when this is

the choices a costume designer makes. Perhaps more

not a possibility, it is a good idea to assemble an online

important, though, is the ability to let a dancer try out

presentation that walks the choreographer through

the costume in a rehearsal setting. If at all possible,

the research. Online tools such as Google Presentation

it is of great benefit for the dancer to rehearse in the

or Pinterest offer unique possibilities for virtual

actual performance costume. This will let both the

interaction.

choreographer and costume designer see the costume in action and determine if changes are necessary before going into tech. Of course, this is only possible if there is sufficient time in the rehearsal process to view the piece. Many choreographers are hesitant to open up their rehearsal time for others to see the work before it is complete. It is always important to have an honest conversation with the choreographer about the pros and cons of an open rehearsal process and how it can benefit the overall process.

11.2  Communicating the Design The job of communicating the design is multifaceted. Not only must the costume designer generate information for the choreographer and other designers, but there is also the task of working with those who will be building the costumes, shopping, etc. Specificity in the design materials is a necessity. This section breaks down the many steps that go into communicating the costume design to other members of the production team.

Visual Research One of the most useful tools of the costume designer is visual research. Finding suitable images that represent possible choices in the costume design can save a lot of time and energy. Particularly in instances of historical dress, it is beneficial to find pictorial references of period costumes to show to the choreographer as a starting point. In this phase of the design process, it is often a stack of photocopied images that the

192 PRODUCTION AREAS

Research can take many different forms. Primary research, like photographs, paintings, or etchings of period costumes, is useful for realistic dress. When considering costumes that are a bit more stylized, though, it might be beneficial to draw from alternate resources, like works of art or textures found in nature, etc. Another more practical form of visual research might be looking through dancewear or apparel catalogs to see what pre-fabricated costume pieces might be suitable for the dance. Finally, it is not uncommon for the choreographer to provide research images of his/ her vision for the costumes. Every collaboration is a bit different. Try to find the right process to work for the given project instead of attempting to make the project fit a preconceived notion of how it should work.

Costume Sketches The process of determining design choices frequently begins with the costume sketch. The first sketches created by the designer are referred to as costume  roughs, sketches that include the basic form of the costume design on a human figure, but typically without color or specific details (Figure 11.1). The purpose of the rough is to present a quick representation of the design idea to the choreographer without spending too much time on the execution. If the idea does not work, then the designer creates another rough, gradually eliminating the undesired details and arriving at the essence of the desired costume. The next step is the creation of the costume rendering.

mostly purchased or rental elements, the designer may

F I G UR E 11. 1

Rough sketch for the mice in The Nutcracker.

decline the use of sketches and renderings in favor of including the actual photos of costumes to be used.

Design by Campbell Baird.

Costume Design Paperwork A big part of the costume designer’s job is assessing the costume needs for all of the dancers in a performance and planning how all of the costume pieces will be provided. In larger dances, or when costuming a dance concert featuring multiple dances, there can be hundreds of different costume pieces to keep track of. The most efficient method of planning for costume needs is costume paperwork. There are a number of different methods used by different designers to plan for and execute a design. This section details a few different lists that come in handy when assessing the costume needs of a dance production.

The Costume Plot The costume plot is a type of form used to track the action of a performance and list the costume elements worn by each character over the progression of the performance (Figure 11.3). This is most useful in dances where there are costume changes during the performance. It is more common in story-based dance forms like ballet, though it certainly is a possibility for

Renderings

any dance style. A costume plot is generally created in a spreadsheet layout with columns and rows customized

After discussions and design roughs, the costume

to fit the needs of the production. In Figure 11.3, dancers

designer will create a costume rendering, a color

are listed in the left column, with the breakdown of

illustration of the costume design that features precise

scenes progressing from left to right in the subsequent

details, patterns, color, and any additional notes that

columns. Each cell lists the necessary information

might be necessary to communicate the design to

regarding the dancer’s costume. The costume plot

those building it (Figure 11.2). In addition, the costume

is useful for tracking the progression of a dancer’s

rendering normally includes fabric swatches, small

costume changes throughout the entire performance,

pieces of fabric attached to the rendering that illustrate

listing the changes that occur and allowing the designer

the type of fabric used for the costume. Sometimes,

to see when quick changes happen. This information

swatches will be included after the actual fabric is

will be invaluable to the wardrobe crew when planning

purchased. In the instance of a costume design that is

for the performance.

193 CREATING THE COSTUME DESIGN

F I G UR E 11. 2

A costume rendering for multiple dancers with fabric swatches included, for Headless Woman, a dance from the University of Michigan 2013 dance concert, Translation. Choreography by Amy Chavasse. Costume design by Suzanne Young.

F I G UR E 11. 3

A mock costume plot for The Nutcracker.

Show: The Nutcracker

Designer: Deborah Sery

Character Mr. Stahlbaum Mrs. Stahlbaum Clara Stahlbaum Fritz Stahlbaum Drosselmeyer

Act 1 2-pc tailsuit, vest, wing shirt, tie, suspenders, gloves, hat, ballet slippers Evening gown, hoop, gloves, pointe shoes Party dress, bloomers, tights, large hairbow, pointe shoes Party suit, shirt, tie, hose, ballet slippers 2-pc frock, vest, shirt, bowtie, gloves, ballet slippers

Nephew

3-pc frock,shirt, tie, ballet slippers

194 PRODUCTION AREAS

Date:1-18-14

F I G UR E 11. 4

A concert breakdown, illustrating which dancers perform in each piece of a dance concert.

Show: Soul Kinetic

Dancer Abby Chloe Courtney Amber Jennifer Javon Deante Mykalah Randy Kira

Dance 1

Designer: Holly Ridges

Dance 2 x x

x x

Dance 3

x x x

x x x x x

x x

x

Dance 5 x

x x

x x x

Dance 4

Date: 1-18-14

Dance 6 x x

Dance 8 x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

Dance 7 x

x x

x

x x x

x

The Concert Breakdown

lists used for tracking specific needs. The costume

Unlike theatrical performances, dance is frequently

list breaks down the costume needs of each individual

presented in the concert format: an evening of dances that often feature dancers in multiple pieces intended to stand alone as independent works. The concert breakdown, a chart that breaks down each dance and the dancers that appear in them (Figure 11.4), is a form used to assess the number of dancers that appear in each dance and how their assignments might correspond. This is similar to the French scene breakdown for plays, a chart that shows each scene of the play and who appears in it. The concert breakdown is a useful tool for both the costume designer and those arranging the order of performances for the concert. By considering which dancers appear in which pieces, one can plan for a show order that does not require multiple quick changes and allows for the dancers to rest between individual pieces, if possible.

Lists Assembling the wardrobe for a production can be a daunting task when you consider the hundreds of articles of clothing that can go into even one dance. One time-tested method for keeping track of all of the costume needs is the list. There are multiple types of

dancer, with separate lists for each particular character they play. By creating a separate costume list for each character in the dance, the costume designer has a quick reference to see all of the wardrobe items required to create the costume. In the first column, the costume designer lists the wardrobe piece, such as camisole, tights, tutu, pointe shoes, etc. In the columns to the right of the wardrobe piece, there is a check sheet that lists the procurement method for each piece (build, pull, buy, rent) and a space for additional notes, as necessary. This simple list is essential in communicating information between the costume designer, costume shop manager, wardrobe crew, and others. In addition, this list can lead to other types of useful lists and forms, such as the shopping list, pull list, rental list, or the to-build form. The format for these simple lists and forms varies from designer to designer. The common theme is that this paperwork is used to communicate information to the costume construction personnel who might be working on the project, as well as to simply help organize the approach to different tasks necessary for the design implementation. The

195 Creating the Costume Design

shopping list, pull list, and rental list are all three

spreadsheet template that can be used for all of your

variations on the same type of list, including costume

costume designs. The first sheet you make should

items, the dancer/character who wears them, the

be the costume list, and then you can add other

appropriate size needed, and additional notes. Once

sheets for shopping lists, pull lists, rental lists, etc.

generated, these lists can be given to shoppers,

Since most spreadsheet programs allow you to link

costume shop personnel, or sent to rental houses to

information from one sheet to another, you can set

indicate the items needed.

up the shopping list to copy all of the costume items

The build list is a specific form used to indicate all of the steps necessary to building a costume piece. Most often, the costume shop manager creates this form in consultation with the designer. It lists all of the different

from your costume list that have been checked as “buy” directly into the shopping list. This eliminates the redundancy of re-writing a list of items already listed on your costume list.

costume pieces for a given dancer and all of the steps necessary to complete said pieces. Common steps include: purchase fabric, pre-wash fabric, dye fabric, iron fabric, cut fabric, attach trim, paint/decorate fabric, fit costume to dancer, etc. The build list becomes a to-do list for costume shop personnel and helps keep track of where each project is in the construction timeline. FYI: Spreadsheets for List Making

The Costume Bible During the process of preparing for a production, most costume shops will create a book referred to as the costume bible, or the show bible—a collection of all of the information necessary to plan for and execute the design. This includes basic information such as calendars, costume plot, measurement sheets, costume renderings, costume lists (build,

When considering the amount of paperwork that

buy, pull, rent), research, budgets and receipts, etc.

a costume designer might need to generate for

In addition, it is common to have a separate section

a given design, you might ask yourself if the time

for each dancer including costume renderings, build

spent making these lists might be better spent

lists, fitting schedules and notes, and additional notes

on actually building the design? While it can be a

pertinent to the build. While it may seem like a lot of

time-consuming endeavor, the more organized the

time and effort go into the creation of the costume

plan for creating the design, the better the chance

bible, the payoff is huge considering it provides

the costume designer has to finish on time without

a centralized location for all of the information

accidentally leaving something out. Perhaps more

related to the costume design. Frequently, costume

important is the fact that, without a detailed list,

shop personnel can get the answers they need by

no one can provide assistance without the costume

referencing the bible instead of waiting for an answer

designer taking time from his/her schedule to

from the costume designer. This alone makes the

explain everything needed for a project. One tool

effort well worth it.

that can speed up the process of creating and maintaining lists is the spreadsheet. Programs like

11.3  Executing the Design

Microsoft Excel or online versions like Google Drive’s

Once the designs have been approved and the build

spreadsheet can make the task of creating lists

process begins, there are a number of steps that go

much more manageable. I recommend creating a

into the design execution. The process of assembling

196 PRODUCTION AREAS

all of the necessary components for a costume design

hands-on endeavor. Since the quality, color, and

requires that the designer multitask and keep track

attributes of fabric can vary immensely, it is essential

of a vast amount of information. This section details

for the costume designer to touch and see the fabric

the process and personnel for executing the costume

in person. For fabric shopping, the fabric shop is the

design.

primary location for purchasing. Depending on your

Taking Measurements

location, you might have to make special trips out of town to visit a suitable fabric store, as the selection of

One of the most important steps to ensuring the

fabric is so important to designing the costume. Arrive

correct fit and movement of a dance costume is

at the store with the appropriate lists of fabric needs,

taking measurements. Who is responsible for

types, and yardage. Remember that when purchasing

taking measurements varies according to the type

fabric you often get a discount when purchasing in bulk,

of production. In a larger professional company or

so it is better to buy everything you need at once, rather

some academic environments, it is often the costume

than making multiple trips. Likewise, keep in mind

shop staff that will take measurements. For smaller

that fabric from different bolts can have an incredibly

professional companies, it would be the responsibility

different appearance, so always try to purchase the

of the costume designer. In a repertory company, it is

amount needed from the same bolt rather than having

common to have the company members’ measurements

to purchase from separate sections.

on file, but it is a good idea to update the measurements on file, and fluctuations in weight can occur over a

Costume Shopping

relatively short period of time. Whoever performs the

Some things are easier and more affordable to purchase

task of taking measurements, the process should be

than to build. This leads to one of the fundamental roles

professional and efficient. The dancer should give

of the costume designer: shopping. Since shopping is

basic information such as shoe size and weight. Most

only one component of the costume design process

other measurements will be taken and transferred

and it takes the designer away from the costume shop,

onto a measurement form that lists all of the dancer’s

shopping trips must be meticulously planned to make

measurements in one easy-to-reference sheet. In

the most of time and resources. When heading out on a

addition to common measurements, there should

shopping trip, try to plan ahead so as to make the most

be space for uncommon measurements that apply

of your time. Is the item you are looking for available

to specialty items. In addition, there should be basic

online? If so, how quickly can it be delivered and for

information about the dancer, such as hair color,

what cost? This will require some cost comparison up

length, eye color, complexion, allergies, and any item of

front, but it is definitely possible to save time and money

importance that might inform the design process. The

through ordering in costume items from the Internet.

measurement form should be kept on file for reference in patterning, shopping, or renting costumes.

Fabric Selection The Internet has drastically changed the way in which costume designers can shop for pre-made items, but the process of buying fabric still remains a mostly

Along those lines, before heading out to shop in a store, it is often useful to visit the store’s website to check their inventory and pricing. Spending a little time researching stores online can save you an unnecessary trip. Keep in mind, though, that most websites do not feature an up-to-date inventory, and even if it says an

197 CREATING THE COSTUME DESIGN

item is in stock, it may not always be available when you

developed a modest stock of costumes from which to

arrive. When you do head out, try to line up shopping

pull. The primary advantage of working from stock is

trips to visit vendors in similar parts of town, so that

that, since the company owns the pieces, designers are

you don’t find yourself wasting time and money making

allowed to alter stock to a much greater extent than

multiple trips.

when working with rentals. In addition, the use of stock

Thrift stores are an excellent resource in shopping for costumes, but definitely more hit-or-miss than a retail store. In addition, this type of shopping requires flexibility on the part of the designer to make use of available pieces that fit within the design intent but are not exact matches. For the lower budget production, the thrift store is definitely a must.

Rentals Rentals are a common part of the costume design process that enables the designer to pick pieces that might be impossible to build or buy. Typically, the costume designer should go to the rental house to peruse their stock, as this allows for changes in design on the fly based on availability. Go to the rental house with measurements and a rental list in hand in order to facilitate the selection process.

items is free of charge, which opens up your budget for other expenses.

Patterns When considering making a costume from scratch, there are a few different methods that can be used for construction. A pattern is a template that can be used to construct apparel according to the specifications of a design and the measurements of the dancer. There are commercial patterns available in a number of different styles. The benefit of using a commercial pattern is the low cost, lack of skilled labor necessary to create the pattern, and relative ease in locating the desired look. When the goal is a period costume, commercial patterns can look a bit modern in their approach. Another option is the creation of a pattern from scratch, drafting the pattern off of the measurements of the dancer. A wellequipped costume shop will also have slopers that can

When renting a costume, there is normally a flat

be used to make patterns quickly. A sloper is a pre-

fee per costume. The rental agreement should

made pattern custom-fitted to match a dress form or

be made with careful attention to allowances for

individual. It is sewn in muslin or a cotton fabric and can

modifications. Typically, modifications are allowed,

be used as a template for creating other patterns (Figure

so long as it is something that can be undone before

11.5). Still another option is draping a costume, in which

returning the costume. Obviously, this means no

muslin is hung on a dress form, pulled and pinned into

cutting or dyeing of the fabric. Always keep in mind the

the appropriate shape to create the desired style. After

arrangements that must be made for delivery time and

this is done, the seams are marked and the muslin taken

shipping costs when dealing with a rental house outside

apart to be used in the creation of a pattern for the actual

of your area. These fees must be included as part of

costume piece. Whatever process is used, patterning and

your overall budget.

working from patterns is a time-consuming process that

Working from Stock

requires a great deal of experience.

One of the benefits of working with an established dance

Fittings

company is the use of a costume stock. Most companies

A fitting is a meeting in which the dancer tries on

that have been producing for some period of time have

different aspects of the costume to see how well they

198 PRODUCTION AREAS

which the dancer comes back in to try on the costume

F I G UR E 11. 5

Some basic sloper shapes.

once final adjustments have been made. It is not

Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

uncommon to have only two fittings, but it should not be an expectation. In all fitting sessions, the costume designer and shop personnel should be prepared to take detailed notes as to what changes must be made to the costume. Fittings are a necessary component

FRONT BODICE

BACK BODICE

I I I

I SLEEVE

I

FRONT BODICE

BACK BODICE

I I I

to the costume design process that should always be factored into the production schedule.

11.4  Preparing for Dress Rehearsals Unlike the other design elements, costume designs are not always present from the beginning of technical rehearsals. First dress is the first technical rehearsal in which costumes are integrated into the process. As the time draws near for dress rehearsals, the pace begins to quicken and it is more important than ever to remain efficient and organized in approach. Though first dress is technically the first time costumes are required to be used, many choreographers and lighting designers will request at least one costume to be present for setting lights during a cueing session or cue-to-cue. Likewise, if the costumes are used in

fit and move. If the costume is being built, the first 

unique ways by the dancers, the choreographer may

fitting is often done with a muslin mock-up of the

request to have the costumes in rehearsal before going

costume. This allows the costume designer to check

into tech rehearsals. Always plan ahead to determine if

the pattern and make necessary adjustments according

there will be special needs for the costumes before first

to the fit and movement. Once this fitting has occurred,

dress.

the designer should mark changes as necessary and then use the corrected mock-up as a template for

Organizing Costume Elements

the final product. Once the actual costume has been

The final step of preparing the costume design for going

assembled, the dancer should be rescheduled for a

into dress rehearsals is an organization of the costumes

second fitting, to try on the show costume. This fitting

into logical groupings for moving into the theatre space.

should be a thorough meeting in which the costume

As pieces are completed in the shop, they should be

designer and dancer address the fit of the costume.

labeled for the character or dancer wearing them and

The dancer should be given the opportunity to work

combined together with other wardrobe elements for

through any movements that may be affected by the

the performance. Wardrobe racks, rubber bins, and

costume. If necessary, there may be a final fitting, in

banker’s boxes are some of the storage devices

199 CREATING THE COSTUME DESIGN

commonly utilized for organizing costumes. Small

pressing, and repair of costumes, if necessary. To

items such as jewelry, tights, etc. can be organized into

facilitate this, the wardrobe crew often posts a sheet

bags labeled with contents. It is important to keep the

backstage for dancers to note any repairs that need

finished wardrobe elements separated from those to be

to be undertaken before the next performance. This is

completed in the shop.

particularly important given the wear and tear that most

Working with the Wardrobe Crew

dance costumes endure.

The wardrobe crew is the group of people responsible

11.5  Dress Rehearsals and Beyond

for the running of the show and maintenance of costume

Dress rehearsals are the designer’s first chance to see

elements once the show opens. As you get close to

the costumes integrated into the production beside all of

first dress, it is important to bring wardrobe crew into

the other design elements. It is essential for the costume

the shop and begin the process of preparing for dress

designer to attend these rehearsals in order to see how

rehearsals. The wardrobe supervisor is the head of

the costumes work, specifically under the stage lighting

the wardrobe crew and supervises the crew once dress

and in the context of scenic and property elements.

rehearsals begin. The supervisor is familiar with the

Detailed notes should be made regarding the look of

production and all of the costume elements so that

costumes and any changes that might need to occur,

he/she can fully appreciate the requirements of the

such as toning down the color of a costume or adjusting

wardrobe crew throughout the performance.

the fit of a piece. Dress rehearsals should operate under

The wardrobe supervisor and the designer should coordinate with other design areas to allow for quickchange locations backstage. These areas often require running lights, a mirror, and sometimes masking for privacy’s sake. This means consulting with scenery and lighting in order to provide the appropriate backstage accommodations. During the course of the production, there may be members of the wardrobe crew who function specifically as dressers, wardrobe crew members whose responsibility is specifically working with the dancers during costume changes to ensure a

show conditions whenever possible in order to assess the amount of time needed for quick changes or costume demands. It is important to communicate openly and honestly with the choreographer regarding costumes. If a wardrobe element is incomplete or not present, make sure to mention it. Find out what is working and what he/ she does not like. Always communicate when changes are coming and try to make sure nothing is a surprise. There are typically a limited number of dress rehearsals in which to make adjustments. Make the most of your time and keep calm under pressure.

quick and safe costume change.

Performance Run

Another role of the wardrobe crew is setting up

Once the dance is up and running, the designer will

dressing rooms and organizing costumes into their

typically move on to his/her next project. If the designer

appropriate locations before first dress. Wardrobe crew

is part of a repertory company, this may mean the

will communicate with the costume designer and shop

next show of the season. As a freelancer, he/she may

supervisor before this point, as well, to determine

be heading across the country. Once the show is in

the specific maintenance and costume care needs

performance runs, it is up to stage management to

of the wardrobe elements. Once the show is up and

ensure that the dancers maintain a sense of continuity

running, wardrobe crew will be responsible for cleaning,

as related to the costume design; always wearing the

200 PRODUCTION AREAS

costume in the appropriate manner, reporting any

the costume designer is undeniably a major role on the

damage, and contacting the designer should there

dance production team.

be a need for a replacement costume. As dances become part of a company’s repertory, it is important

Review Questions

that detailed documentation be maintained in order to

  1.  What is a costume rough?

ensure future productions remain consistent with the

  2.  What is the difference between a costume sketch

original concept.

Strike The final step of the production process is strike, the

and a rendering?   3.  What is the purpose of a costume plot?   4.  What information is on the build list?

closing and putting away of the show. In most cases,

  5.  What is the costume bible?

designers are not required to attend strike, though

  6.  Explain the draping process.

this may not be the case in academic environments or

  7.  What is the purpose of a muslin mock-up used in

repertory companies. All rental and borrowed items must be cleaned and promptly returned. In addition, all pulled costume pieces must be returned to stock and new purchases added to the costume stock. Finding clean, safe, and dry storage for costumes can be a task, but it will save time and money in the long run to not shortchange this process.

11.6  Chapter Review

the first fitting?   8.  At what rehearsal are costumes first incorporated with the other design elements?   9.  What is the role of the wardrobe supervisor? 10.  What happens at strike? Chapter 11 Project: Thinking Like a  Costume Designer

As this chapter showed, the role of a costume

What a dancer wears communicates a lot about

designer is a wildly eclectic combination of skill

his/her character. The costume designer’s job is to

sets. From the initial planning stages to attending

use the wardrobe to help reinforce character traits

rehearsals, working with the choreographer and

without “spoon-feeding” the audience or coming off

dancers, facilitating the build, and making adjustments

as overly stereotypical. Included below is a list of

along the way, the costumer designer wears a number

character descriptions, short phrases that might be

of different hats to execute the design. Communicating

used by a choreographer to describe the dancer’s

the design occurs through visual research, costume

presence. Pick two descriptions from the list below

sketches, and color renderings. After this, the

and create a research collage that visually illustrates

process becomes a bit more hands-on by taking

the type of clothing choices that communicate the

measurements, selecting fabric, pulling and/or renting

character for each description. For your collage,

costume pieces, shopping, and building new costume

try to arrange the images in an aesthetically

pieces. Throughout it all, the costume designer must

pleasing composition that shows both attention to

maintain an open channel of communication with the

detail and clear choices. Think about how color,

choreographer, construction personnel, wardrobe crew,

fabric, textures, flow, and cut make statements.

and the other members of the production team. It is

If presenting these in a classroom setting, make

certainly not a job for which everyone is well suited, but

sure to take time for discussion and Q&A. Talking

201 CREATING THE COSTUME DESIGN

about design choices is an important aspect of the

New York Public Library for the Performing Arts,

designer’s role in the production process.

Cleveland Center for Contemporary Art, Snug Harbor

●●

Calm and reserved

Cultural Center, and Rockland Center for the Arts. Ms.

●●

Hot-tempered

Prince received the New York Dance and Performance

●●

Magical

●●

Mesmerizing

●●

Looking for attention

●●

A broken soul

●●

Noble

●●

Unremarkable

●●

Gracefully elegant

●●

Self-assured

The Costume Designer’s Perspective: An  Interview with Liz Prince

“Bessie” Award for costume design in 1990, as well as a 2008 Charles Flint Kellogg Arts and Letters Award from Bard College for achievement in her field. In addition to her professional work, she also teaches costume design at SUNY Purchase and Manhattanville College. Do you have a dance background/any formalized training in dance? Yes, I was a Dance and Theater Major at Bard College. When I moved to NYC after I graduated, it was to be a performer in dance and theatre. How did you first start working in dance design?

Liz Prince is one of the more prolific dance costume

My work-study job while I was attending Bard was to design

designers in the field today, having designed costumes

the costumes for the four dance concerts each year. It

for some of the most reputable companies for over 25

was very basic stuff that I came up with, but I remember

years. She has worked extensively with Bill T. Jones

well the struggle of trying to find something appropriate

and his company, Boston Ballet, Berlin Opera Ballet,

for each dance and tried very hard to understand what the

and Alvin Ailey American Dance. Other work includes

choreographer wanted—not always an easy endeavor!

designing for Doug Varone (Doug Varone and Dancers,

Aileen Passloff was one of my teachers there and she had

José Limón Dance Company, Dayton Contemporary

worked closely with James Waring and showed me some

Dance), Mark Dendy (Dendy Dance, Pacific Northwest

costumes he had created. They were very beautiful and odd

Ballet, Dortmund Theater Ballet), Trey McIntyre

and had a lot of handwork and detail. The pieces were like

(Washington Ballet, PHILADANCO, Pennsylvania Ballet,

animals, so lively and intense. I remember trying to create

Houston Ballet), Mikhail Baryshnikov’s White Oak

pieces like his work because they so impressed me!

Dance Project, PILOBOLUS Dance Theatre, Bill Irwin, Neil Greenberg, Ralph Lemon, Jane Comfort, Lenora Champagne, Bebe Miller, Sarah East Johnson, Gerard Alessandrini (MOBIL Masterpiece Theater Celebrates

Upon graduating from Bard I moved to NYC and started creating costumes for friends’ work as well as my own. It snowballed into a career.

20 Years on PBS), David Dorfman, Patricia Hoffbauer,

How do you find dance costume design differs for

Jennifer Monson, Lawrence Goldhuber, and Keely

theatrical costume design?

Garfield.

Theatrical design generally starts with a script and that

She designed costumes for Nancy Savoca’s film

script is the design team’s map for their work. It’s all about

Union Square (2011) starring Mira Sorvino and Tammy

realizing the director’s vision for the script. Designers are

Blanchard. Her costumes have been exhibited at the

trying to realize the choreographer’s vision for a dance,

202 PRODUCTION AREAS

but at the end of the day in theatre, the arc of the piece

is too heavy on one idea, it may squelch other ideas that are

pretty much is mapped out in the script from day one in the

being expressed in the dance as it progresses, and then the

creative process. This allows the entire team to play around

whole piece—the costume and the dance—will start to look

with ideas months in advance of rehearsals.

very static.

Dance is very different because, for the most part

Can you describe your ideal process for working with

(unless it’s a classical ballet with a story that everyone knows) the creation of the piece happens mostly in rehearsals and designers have no advance clues as to the arc of the piece. Often, where the piece lands isn’t even fully clear until very close to the technical rehearsals and premiere of the work. This can make the timeline for designing for dance somewhat hair-raising, especially for costume designers because sewing a costume from scratch takes a HUGE amount of time. On top of that, very often there are technical issues, like how a costume moves and what to do if it gets hung up on the body when the dancer flips upside down or how does it take sweat. There’s a lot of that stuff

choreographers? The more time a choreographer can give me the better. I like to come in early in the process and hear their ideas— even if they change. It gives me more time to mull over/ sleep on it and discover without feeling terrified that there’s not enough time. Sometimes choreographers don’t like to bring people in to design their piece until the piece is practically finished and often that leaves a designer with a tiny amount of time to work because the piece is about to be premiered. In many ways, costumes are very personally linked to the individual dancer. Do you consult with dancers

you don’t find out until the costume is fully made and on the

during your design process?

dancer in technical rehearsals.

I always consider the dancer. The two-dimensional piece

Also, many times there aren’t any costume changes in a

of fabric a costume designer works with to create a three-

dance as there are in theatrical productions. In a play a character moves through different times of day or a year etc. and will encounter other characters and the story progresses, so there are all these psychological changes and mood changes onstage that designers try to enhance or express (in my case through costume changes). This is very different from dance costuming, where often there is no costume change. Most often when I design for dance I

dimensional costume (you could even think of that costume as a sculpture) lives in space and works with the dancer’s body like one, so there is always some sort of dialogue going on with the dancer.…I always consult performers during fittings and listen to their comments. This is very important. Sometimes they are a little skeptical about what I am putting on them, and I have to explain my intention. At other times, it’s the other way around and they will come up

am trying to come up with one phenomenal costume that

with a great solution if there’s a fit issue.

will address a number of ideas in the dance and I endeavor

I know you have a lot of experience working with

to get that one costume to express those ideas as fluidly as the dance itself. This is a very important aspect of dance costuming, because these various ideas and concepts in the dance are often perceived on stage concurrently— there is no time for a costume change to express all these ideas at once. They must all be embodied in one costume. It’s a very nuanced way of having to work. If you create a costume that

companies like Pilobolus, where the dancers can be very interactively involved with their costumes. Can you describe the process for working with a company like this? If it’s a complex costume that needs to function in a particular way, you really need to respond to the dancer’s needs and make sure they feel like they can move freely

203 CREATING THE COSTUME DESIGN

and also not somehow hurt themselves if it’s a really

work. It’s a little intense because so much is happening at

complex costume. Getting a rehearsal costume into

once, but you can get great results. It’s important to have a

rehearsal as soon as a complex costume is conceived is

good sense of humor in those situations.

of utmost importance. Rehearsal costume pieces also

Sometimes we would use the actual set of garments we

can help the performer play with the costume so it is truly integrated into the dance.

put together and other times I would have them rebuilt so they fit better or also so they could ultimately withstand the

There are many approaches when beginning to work with

rigors of touring (lots of wear and tear, and washing with

a choreographer. Sometimes they know what they want

dance costumes!).

exactly and other times they just have a sense of a color or quality of fabric that interests them and other times I’m completely on my own as to what will happen with the costumes. Sometimes I build a look with the choreographer and dancers by bringing in a selection of clothes to rehearsal and come up with everyone’s costume together at the same time. Jonathan Wolken loved to work this way. I have done this often with other choreographers but this ended up being Jonathan’s only way of creating costumes when I worked with him. I think choreographers like it because it allows them to express their vision for the work in a similar way to how they build a dance with the dancers, and so it feels well integrated into their work and not a foreign imposed element tagged on at the end of the process. When working with Jonathan in this way we would chat a bit about the piece and then I would go off and hunt and gather a huge amount of garments for a couple of weeks. I would then come in and cover the rehearsal room floor with my finds and the dancers would start to put things on and come up with great combinations. Jonathan would approve the looks or suggest other things to try and I, of course, would be suggesting things like mad throughout the fitting time. Clothes are flying through the air and there’s a lot of joking of course because it’s half dress up time and half

204 PRODUCTION AREAS

What advice would you have for a young artist interested in costume design for dance? I think it is useful to understand dance as a dancer and as a choreographer. If you are in school and have the opportunity, take dance classes and make some dances as well! It’s a great artistic endeavor and will feed you creatively, also give you insight into what works when costuming dance and what doesn’t. It also really helps to understand how a choreographer works and appreciate what it means to be working and creating something with a large group of people in the room. It’s a tremendous feat to have all those personalities present and be directing them and creating at the same time! If you try to design for dance, be prepared to go to a lot of dance rehearsals. Go see dance! All kinds of dance! If you see something you like, figure out what it is you like about it, why you think it works, and if you don’t like it so much, figure out what exactly it is that isn’t working for you. Of course, go and see art. Lots of art! There is so much there that can give you a new perspective and also there are many visual artists that have designed for dance—great to see what they came up with and how they came at dance from their world.

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CHAPTER 12 PROJECTIONS AND VIDEO A film is never really good unless the camera is an eye in the head of a poet. Orson Welles

Hubbard Street Dance Chicago in One Thousand Pieces by Resident Choreographer Alejandro Cerrudo. Costumes and Set Design by Thomas Mika. Lighting Design by Michael Korsch. Photo by Todd Rosenberg.

Projection design is the art of integrating still and

nature of the performance, though, any of these tasks

moving imagery into a live performance. The use

could be expanded or reduced to a great degree.

of projected film imagery in live performance dates back at least as far as the 1800s, but the field of projection design as we know it today is still in its infancy. United Scenic Artists’ Local 829, the union that represents designers and scenic artists in the entertainment industry, created a section for projection designers in 2007. The first graduate program in projection design began in 2010 at the Yale School of Drama.

Projection design seems to use a number of different names in different locations across the world. Some refer to the projection designer as a video designer, media designer, or even video director. Whatever the title, the role of the projection designer is to be a blend of artist, technician, computer programmer, filmmaker, director, and performer. In addition to all of these things, a projection designer must be first and foremost a collaborative artist. The projected

The term projection design can be a bit misleading,

image must ultimately land on a surface, be it a

since imagery is not always projected. Productions

set piece, a prop, a performer, or the walls of the

that use LED walls, video monitors, or television

performance space. Since the nature of projected

screens would also be referred to as projection

imagery is to always work in conjunction with some

design. Projection design is not a given in every dance

other element, the projection designer must be adept

production, especially since the equipment required

in communicating and collaborating with all of the

for projection on a large scale remains somewhat

members of the production team in order to create a

expensive. It seems that every year projection

successful design.

technology becomes a bit more affordable, however. As this trend continues, we will see more dance companies incorporating projection design into their production programs. This chapter addresses the use of projections in dance design and some of the unique challenges inherent in integrating this discipline with dance.

12.1  The Projection Designer Like so many of the designers addressed in this text, the work of the projection designer is greatly dependent on the scope of the project and the design needs of the dance. At its core, the job description of the projection designer is the creation of visual content (photographs, animations, and videos), acquisition of any stock footage necessary for the performance, editing all content together, and designing a projection system for the presentation of imagery for the stage. Depending on the

208 PRODUCTION AREAS

As projection design is rooted in the world of film and animation, the designer must have an understanding of a wide range of tools from cameras to video editing software to display solutions, projection systems, and content creation software. Since the moving imagery will be incorporated into a live performance, the designer must also have a good working knowledge of other production areas such as lighting, scenery, and show control systems. Finally, the projection designer must be quick on his/her feet, with the ability to incorporate a wide range of imagery into a presentation and be ready to respond to changes that invariably come along due to the domino effect of collaboration (i.e. the wall that you were projecting on has to be moved ten feet upstage, or the choreography has changed and now we need to focus on the downstage instead of upstage right).

F I G UR E 12. 1

A projection designer at work at the tech table. Photo courtesy of Michael James.

FYI: Is it Projections or Lighting? Many people consider the projection design part of the lighting design. While it is true that projections are composed of light, it is important to recognize that the field is specialized and not simply a subset of lighting design. One important aspect of projection design is the necessity of a truly collaborative arrangement between a number of production team members—primarily, the choreographer, lighting designer, and projection designer. That said, it is important to recognize that the lighting design greatly affects the projection design and vice versa. An effective projection design is only achieved through collaboration. This is especially important in

limited budget situations where the dance company cannot afford powerful high-lumen projectors. If the projector is not bright, or the projection surface is not ideal for projections, then the lighting designer must compensate by trying to keep the lighting design from washing out the projections. Of course, this means that the choreographer must also agree to stage the movement away from the projection surfaces, so that there can be both clear projected images and well-lit dancers. If a dance is to successfully incorporate projection seamlessly with the other design elements, the project must be approached proactively with an open mind from all members of the team.

209 PROJECTIONS AND VIDEO

12.2  Assessing Projection Needs

year. This section focuses on a number of these functions

Similar to lighting design, projection design cannot

of projection design. However, if the choreographer and

be accomplished without specialized equipment. Often the producing dance company will have to rent this equipment for the performance. In addition, projection design requires the creation or acquisition of visual content in order to facilitate the design.

projection designer do not approach the project with a clear vision of how the projection design should be used, it runs the risk of coming off as an afterthought or a design element that seems out of place within the context of the performance. So the question must be

For these reasons, it is essential that the designer,

asked, how will we use projection design in this dance?

choreographer, affected design personnel, and

Will the projection be used to produce an immersive

management meet as early as possible to discuss the needs of the project. Projection design is closely related to both scenery and lighting and will affect both areas of design. For this reason, it is important to involve these other designers in discussions related to projections so that they are not surprised. Likewise, even though projections are created with light and also have the ability to serve as scenic reinforcement, the role of projection designer should not simply be piled on as an additional responsibility for either designer without additional compensation. It is a separate discipline and should be treated as a separate production line.

environment that creates a scenic backdrop for the dance performance? Should the projection be more interactive in nature, with media designed to respond to and interact with a performer onstage? Should it be used in a presentational method, projecting video footage of pre-recorded dancers with which the live dancers “partner”? Perhaps the need is a simple projection of words, like a poem or quotation, on to the cyclorama? Each approach carries with it different challenges and affects the amount of design time and equipment necessary for the project.

Projections should never be considered an afterthought

What Content Do You Want to Project?

or a simple solution to creating an environment. In

The answer to this question will no doubt be tied to the

truth, the process of integrating projection design into a dance has the potential to be more time-consuming than any of the other design areas. One of the first duties of the projection designer is to meet with the choreographer and others to determine the actual projection needs of the dance. So many times, a choreographer knows that he/she would like to use projection in the dance, but has no understanding of what that actually entails. The following list of questions offers a starting point for discussion that will inform the

previous question of how projections will be used in the production. Specifically, though, are there certain images, textures, or video footage in mind for the projection? This requires content creation or finding the appropriate stock footage. An important consideration here is permissions. Like music, video and film footage is typically under copyright and cannot simply be used without permission. It is important to identify at this stage if there is a need for using footage that is under copyright. If so, that means the added task of securing

entire team as to the reality of the projection needs.

permission for using the imagery in grand performance.

How Do You Want to Use Projections in the Production?

image you found through a Google images search is

Projection can be used for dance productions in so many

actually someone’s intellectual property. Don’t fall

interesting ways, with new applications surfacing every

210 PRODUCTION AREAS

It can be easy in the Internet age to forget that the

victim to this and find yourself on the receiving end of a cease-and-desist letter or, worse yet, legal action.

In addition to footage, another common type of projection

method of orienting a projector in front of an object

content is live video feed. Will the design feature

and projecting on to its surface. If there is only room

moments within the dance that should be captured on

to project on to a projection surface from the front,

video and incorporated into the projection design? Many

then there is the potential of the light from projectors

projection designs feature a combination of both pre-

also illuminating the dancers. This would create the

generated and live content. If so, this adds a number of

appearance of imagery projected on to the dancers

different pieces of equipment beyond a basic projection

and their bodies casting shadows on to the projected

system.

background. Sometimes this is an interesting visual,

What Type of Performance Space?

whereas other times it is undesirable. Another option is the use of rear projection, the orientation of a projector

Since projection design is the by-product of light, the

behind the desired projection surface. For this method,

performance space is always a concern. One main

the projection surface must be translucent, in order for

consideration should be the projectors’ positions. There

the image to be visible from the audience. Figure 12.2

are two common methods of projector placement: front

shows a projection design utilizing both front and rear

projection and rear projection. Front projection is the

projection.

F I G UR E 12. 2

In this projection design, the upstage wall and ceiling unit use rear projection on to special rear projection material, while the side walls use front projection, due to their solid surfaces. Projection design by David Koltunchik. Photo by Jeromy Hopgood.

211 PROJECTIONS AND VIDEO

Another important question is the amount of light in the performance space. For theatre spaces, lighting is a factor controlled by the lighting designer. In exterior spaces, though, it is important to consider time of day, season, and shade in order to determine the brightness needed for a projector to overcome the natural lighting of the space.

What is the Projection Surface(s)? Projections are incredibly versatile as a design medium. Since they are composed of light, virtually any substance, both opaque and translucent, can serve as a projection  surface. If the surface is intended to be an extension of

F IG UR E 12. 3

The image on the left is the original image. The one on the right shows the keystone effect of the image being projected on to a surface from a non-perpendicular angle. Photo courtesy of NASA.

the scenery, the scenic designer should have a say in the selection of the material to function as a projection

image is squared up when it lands on the projection

surface. This could be a common flat, scrim, any number

surface. Because of the keystone effect, it is important

of fabrics, or projection screen designed specifically

for designers to observe both the projector placement

for use as a projection surface. In addition, dynamic

and projection surface locations to determine how to

surfaces like fog, haze, or even water can function as

address the problem of keystoned images.

a projection surface. For exterior performance spaces, landscape and plant life itself could be used. In dance, it is common to project on to the performers themselves. The possibilities are virtually limitless.

Another important consideration is the number of faces or planes on the projection surface. When projecting on a flat surface, the image remains consistent. With the addition of raised, recessed, or angular planes

While it is a fairly straightforward process to project

to the projection surface, the resulting image will

imagery on to a flat surface when the projector is

be distorted. Projection designers use a process

aligned at a perpendicular angle to the surface, it is

referred to as projection mapping to address this

a different matter to project on to complex surfaces

phenomenon. Projection mapping is the manipulation

with multiple angles and planes. First, if a projector

of a projected image through the use of specialized

is not aligned directly centered on an object and at

computer software to “map” the projection in a way

a perpendicular angle to the surface, the resulting

that allows three-dimensional multi-plane surfaces to

image will be skewed, a result known as the keystone 

function as a suitable display surface for projections

effect (Figure 12.3). This distortion of the image

(Figure 12.4). Projection mapping enables the use of many

makes a square or rectangular projection appear to

non-traditional forms as projection surfaces, such as

be trapezoidal. Whether through the projector itself or

architecture, landscaping, stage props, or even the human

with projection software, the image must be augmented

body. For all of these possibilities, it is important to identify

through a process called keystone correction, or

early in the production planning process the types of

keystoning. This process simply adjusts the image to

surfaces intended for projection, as each type presents its

be trapezoidal before projecting so that the resulting

own unique challenges to the projection designer.

212 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 12. 4

projections in the past and should be more familiar with

Projection Mapping used in DLECTRICITY, Detroit’s nighttime exhibit of art and light at the Detroit Institute of Arts. The projection content was mapped to interact with the facade of the DIA building. Production credits: TLS Productions, Inc. XL Video. Mindfield.

the process and any potential problems that occurred in the past.

What is the Timeline? The timeline for creating projection designs can vary greatly based on the needs of the project. For

Photo courtesy of Carl Kedzierski.

something relatively simple, like the projection of words or a single image, the design can come together in a shorter timeframe. If the design is more complex and requires pre-production work (filming dancers, editing the film, creating animations, etc.), the timeline must be adjusted to facilitate these needs. Likewise, it is important to recognize that the needs of the projection designer may affect the schedule of the choreographer and other designers. If, for instance, the projection design incorporates pre-recorded video of the dancers then the choreographer must complete the choreography for those sections early enough in advance to allow for filming the dancers. Likewise, if the dancers must be in the same costumes, then the costume designer’s timetable will be affected by this decision. The projection designer is the only person qualified to determine how much time is needed for the

Does the Company Have Any Equipment in Stock?

recording, editing, and post-production work necessary to assemble the footage. Make sure to plan ahead and

One important consideration is if the dance company

allow for ample time in the schedule or everyone will

already owns any projection equipment. We will discuss

feel the crunch.

projection systems in depth later in the chapter, but some common needs for projection would include:

Reality Check: Is Projection Right for Your Dance?

projector(s), a mount for hanging the projector, a control

Projections are an amazing design element that can

computer (or multiple, depending on requirements),

contribute a certain magical element to a production.

cabling to run from the computer to the projector,

The bottom line, though, is that projection design

and a dowser to eliminate the light of the projector

is not suited for every production situation. For the

(especially important if there is ever a blackout or low-

young choreographer, it is so important to remember

lighting situation). If a dance company already owns

that flashy design elements are no substitution for

this equipment, then the cost of projections is reduced.

well-conceived, purposeful choreography. Any design

Also, unless the equipment was purchased for the

element can help or hinder the dance, but in my

dance in question, it means that the company has used

experience projection seems to be one of those areas

213 PROJECTIONS AND VIDEO

that has the most potential for seeming out of place

their very nature, ephemeral. The imagery projected

in the world of the dance. Don’t just decide to use

onstage has the potential to be constantly changing.

projections for the sake of novelty. Make certain that

This leads to a dynamic sense of movement on the part

projection is a tool to help illuminate your vision for the

of the projection design, something that very naturally

dance and the themes you want communicated to the

works in the context of dance. Some might be tempted

audience.

to refer to this as virtual scenery, but that is only one

Always keep in mind that projections will have a completely different aesthetic quality to them than painted scenery. Like LED lighting, projectors will create a bright and vividly colorful presentation. By its very nature, projection is eye-catchingly theatrical. It is important to remember that, if not carefully executed, projection has the potential to draw focus away from the dancers and

component of the dynamic environment. While projected scenery is certainly one possibility, the interesting thing about projections is how it marries together both scenery and lighting. In addition to virtual scenery, projections could be used to create ambient textures as a background, something popularized in concert touring and club environments for some time now (Figure 12.5).

overpower the visual composition of the stage.

Interacting with Dancer(s)

The unfortunate reality of projection design is that it is

Potential for interactivity is an important element

an expensive and time-consuming endeavor. It has the

of projection design. Typically, there are two basic

potential for looking amateurish if the designer does not

approaches to projections design content: linear and

have access to projectors that are both bright enough

interactive. Linear content is imagery that will always

and can fill a large enough area of the stage. If you are in

be presented in the same fashion for each performance

the position to decide on the inclusion of projections into

without the potential of change. This is common in many

a dance production, ask yourself if it can be executed in

theatrical, cue-based environments where it is desirable

a professional and aesthetically pleasing fashion. A dim

to reproduce similar results for each performance.

image that fills a small window of the stage picture can

Interactive content is created with the intent of featuring

be much more of a distraction than a benefit.

media with which the performer interacts and changes

12.3  Functions of Dance Projection Design  (What Projection Design can Accomplish)

in response to the performer’s actions. This type of interactivity has become ubiquitous in projection design with the proliferation of motion capture technology.

Projection design can be used to accomplish many

As computer technology has advanced, giving the

different outcomes in a dance production. It is important

public access to multiple forms of motion capture and

for the projection designer and choreographer to both

movement sensitive devices, projection designers

understand the goals for the projection design and how

have integrated this into their toolkits to expand the

to go about accomplishing them. Listed below are six

possibilities of interactive projection.

functions of dance projection design that explain how projections can serve the dance.

Creating a Dynamic Environment This function refers to the use of projections to create a scenic environment for the dance. Projections are, by

214 PRODUCTION AREAS

One common use of interactivity is the projection of virtual costumes on to dancers. Through the use of motion sensors built into the costumes or by the 3D, depth-sensing capabilities of hardware like Microsoft’s Kinect™ sensor, projection designers are now able to

F IG UR E 12. 6

This interactive projection design utilizes bio-sensors and motion tracking to capture the movements of the dancer and create an interactive pairing between the dancer and projections. Photo courtesy of João Biera.

way, the projection design almost functions as another performer, allowing the dancer to “partner” with the projections and add another level to the choreographed movement of visual elements on the stage.

Presenting/Representing the Dancer(s) One function of projection design that dance frequently utilizes is the presentation of the dancer as a projection F I G UR E 12. 5

An ambient video background, utilizing amorphous starbursts, pulsating lights, and numeric sequences. Dead Man’s Cell Phone, Eastern Michigan University. Scenic design by John Charles. Lighting design by Emily Clarkson. Projection design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photography by Jeromy Hopgood.

element. Whether this is in the form of a pre-recorded video of the dancer, or a real-time video capture, both options serve to capture the movements of the dancer and present them in a magnified format via projections.

interpret the movements and positioning of a dancer’s body and map projections in real time on to the dancer’s body onstage.

Another possibility that has emerged more recently is the representation of the dancer through projection design. There are a number of ways that this can occur. As mentioned earlier in the chapter, motion capture

Another possibility is allowing the dancer to change their

software has made it possible to analyze the movements

environment through interaction: triggering changes

of a figure in real time. By using simulation software,

in the projection design, appearing to move projected

the dancer’s movement can be captured and applied to

elements, or many other possible interactions. In this

the form of an avatar (a graphic representation of the

215 PROJECTIONS AND VIDEO

F IG UR E 12. 7

These images illustrate the use of projection to create a graphic representation of the dancer. Photo courtesy of João Biera.

the storytelling of the dance, thematic elements, or support other production elements such as scenery, sound, or costumes. In addition, one of projection’s greatest strengths in reinforcement is the fact it is a kinetic element itself, which makes it a natural choice to reinforce movement within the dance. If projections are moving in conjunction with or in counterpoint to the type of movement that occurs onstage, it can help draw attention to the movement of the dance. Finally, visual imagery has the ability to evoke emotional responses in the viewer in a way that can truly accentuate mood onstage. Projections, when used in conjunction with the visual storytelling of the dancers, can help communicate a tone or emotion in a given moment.

Stage Magic/Special Effects Projection design can function as a tool for the creation of special effects or magical moments for the stage. Projection could be used for creating a visual of explosions, magical appearances, flight, underwater acrobatics, or more. Typically special effects are best accomplished in projections when combined with another production element. For example, the spectacle dancer) projected in real time. This representation of

of flight might be best accomplished by flying a dancer,

the dancer can mimic the movements in a completely

while the projections track the movement of the dancer

different physical form. In addition, projection could be

around the stage.

used as a more abstract representation of the dancer’s movement, mood, or character through the use of

Creating a Commentary

changing colors, textures, or forms.

Projections can be used to comment on certain

Visual Reinforcement

elements presented onstage. This can be done in a number of different ways. Quite often imagery can be

Like some of the other design areas mentioned

used to draw comparisons and point out similarities or

earlier, projection design is useful in reinforcing

differences between actions being seen onstage and

elements seen onstage. Projections can reinforce

a concept with which the audience might already be

216 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 12. 8

A projection design for ballet utilizing rear projected imagery as a kinetic backdrop. Opera (2013), La Scala Ballet, La Scala, Milano. Choreography by Alexei Ramansky. Projection design by Wendall K. Harrington. Costumes by Colleen Atwood. Lighting design by Mark Stanley. Photo courtesy of Wendall K. Harrington.

familiar. An example of this might be a dance piece that features a dancer in obvious emotional/psychological distress onstage juxtaposed with a projected image of her idealized self, well dressed, smiling, and as she would want the world to see her. This form of commentary obviously is used to illustrate two opposite realities. Another common use of projections as commentary is the integration of text into the projection’s design. Words or commonly understood visual symbols (such

F IG UR E 12. 9

Dr. Faustus being pulled into the flames of Hell by a pack of demons. Dr. Faustus, Eastern Michigan University. Scenic design by Jeromy Hopgood. Lighting design by John Charles. Projection design by David Koltunchik. Costumes by Melanie Schuessler. Photo by Jeromy Hopgood.

217 PROJECTIONS AND VIDEO

F I G UR E 12. 1 0

This image showcases the use of projection to comment on the action of a scene. Urinetown: The Musical, Eastern Michigan University. Scenic design by John Charles. Lighting and projection design by Jeromy Hopgood. Costumes by Melanie Schuessler. Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

as a stop sign or skull and crossbones signifying

12.4  Projection Systems

poison) could be used to literally comment on the

As with our discussions of sound and lighting,

action in the dance. This is a dramatic tool that was pioneered in the theatrical works of Bertolt Brecht, whose style of Epic Theatre purposefully reminded the audience that they were watching a theatrical performance. As a function of projection design, using projections as a commentary runs the risk of coming off as overly simplistic or pedantic in its approach. While it certainly has its place, one should use it sparingly and with consideration of the tone it can create in a performance.

218 PRODUCTION AREAS

projections are created through the use of a projection system. A projection system can be defined as a collection of all the equipment necessary to execute the projection design. As such, each system is variable depending on the needs of the project. A basic system might include a collection of components: a media storage unit (computer); cameras; cabling/network; and output devices (monitors, projectors, televisions, LED/LCD panels). More complex systems might include peripheral devices that interact with the projection,

such as motion capture devices. As you might assume,

network. It is much more common in the video system,

there are a number of different configurations one could

however, to find a number of different computers

choose, based on the needs of the project. This section

networked together, each controlling different aspects

details the purpose of different projection systems and

of the playback.

their components.

Video Workstation Though not specifically part of the projection system used in a performance, the video workstation is the first step necessary to creating and/or editing content for playback. A video workstation is any computer with the necessary peripherals and software used to generate and edit video content. You could easily spend tens of thousands of dollars to create a highend editing station with digital video cameras, editing software, interfaces, graphics software, and more. Likewise, the beginner can do rudimentary video editing through software that comes pre-installed on their home computer.

The most basic form of a playback system is a computer connected to one projector or monitor displaying the media. Each computer comes with a graphics card, a device used to process graphic information on the computer and output to external display devices. Some computers have multiple outputs available on the graphics card, allowing the computer to connect to more than one display device. It is much more common, however, that consumer grade computers have only one video output.

The Video Reinforcement System In addition to playing back pre-recorded video, a projection system will frequently need to accommodate the use of live video as part of the

For video editing considerations, the most important

projection design. The video reinforcement system is

hardware aspects to consider are processor speed

used to capture and input live video into the projection

(CPU), RAM, and graphics card (GPU). Another

system. This type of system is similar to the playback

important consideration is storage. Video files are large

system except that the input video signal comes from a

and take up a lot of space. A video editing workstation

camera, rather than from a video or graphics file. This

should have a dedicated drive for video storage with a

system can include many components, but the basic

minimum of 1 terabyte storage capacity that is separate

setup would consist of a video camera connected to an

from your startup disk. In addition, invest in portable

input device that connects directly into the projection

hard drives for backup and transportation purposes

system.

since the projection designer deals in vast amounts of data transfer.

The Video Playback System

12.5  Projection Equipment Depending on the needs of the project, projection design can require a staggering amount of equipment. While

Video playback systems are a combination of all

this book is not intended to serve as an introduction to

the equipment necessary to play back pre-recorded

hardware, it is important to have a basic understanding

video or still images in a live performance/installation

of the tools used in creating a projection design. While it

environment. Like audio systems, the video playback

is by no means an exhaustive list, this section lists some

system is a combination of one or more computers

of the fundamental tools to the design process.

connected either directly to an output device(s) or into a

219 PROJECTIONS AND VIDEO

The Digital Video Camera

Media servers are expensive and require specialized

The digital video camera is a tool that captures moving

training to operate, but have become common

light and then sends the light through one or more sensors to translate this captured light into images. The captured video image is then translated into computer pixels. For live performance, the digital video camera will be connected to a computer interface so the video signal can be sent through the projection system. FYI: Pixels and Resolution A pixel is short for “picture element,” the tiny dots of colored light that make up a digital image. Typically, thousands of pixels combine together to make an image viewed on a digital monitor. The number and size of pixels in an image is related to the image quality. Images with smaller pixels (and greater pixel count) have higher resolution, the measurement of pixels in a given image. Images with lower resolution tend to be a bit fuzzier and, when enlarged, have a blurry, unclear look with individual pixels more visible called pixelation.

components of any high-end projection system.

Interface Connections For any type of audio/video system, physical connections (both hardware devices and cabling) comprise a substantial amount of the necessary components. Each device in your system will require some type of cabling for input and output. Typically, this is one of the commonly overlooked costs of setting up a projection system. Keep in mind that each project can have considerably different needs, based on the number of input devices, computers, output devices, and the distance between each component in the system. Check with all of your equipment to determine what types of connectors are required. It is also a good idea to sketch or draft out a plan that takes into consideration the distances between each component and the required physical connections between each device. Common connector types are VGA (Video Graphics Array), DVI (Digital Video Interface), HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface), and Category

The Computer

5/6 networking cables.

In any projection system, you will likely find one or more

Display Devices

computers serving various functions. For most basic systems, the computer serves as a media storage device and an interface for transmitting live video footage from the video camera. If recording video for later playback, the computer will be used in conjunction with video editing software to edit audio and video components of the digital video file.

A display device is any type of equipment used to receive a graphic signal and translate it into light impulses for visual display. There are many types of display device that can be used in a projection system: digital projectors, flat panel displays, LED walls, monitors, television sets, etc. The ultimate result is the visual display of graphics and video footage for the projection

Some installations make use of a media server, a

system. The list below covers some basic information

specialized computer built specifically for media storage

about the most common types of display devices.

and playback across multiple different displays. Most media servers are equipped with ultra-fast processors

Digital Projectors

and graphic cards, a large amount of RAM, intense solid-

Digital projectors, sometimes called video projectors,

state storage capabilities, and multiple video outputs.

are digital outputs that accept audio and video

220 PRODUCTION AREAS

For most entertainment applications, there

F I G UR E 12. 1 1

A digital projector.

are three suitable categories of lumens: mid range (2000–3000 lumens), high-performance range (3000–4500 lumens), and ultra-bright range (4500–12,000 lumens). For some applications the highperformance range is suitable and not cost-prohibitive. As throw distance and ambient light increases, though, the ultra-bright range is a must. Of course, the price of this range is incredibly high as compared to the lower range models. Operating distance is the second consideration that will influence the type of projector necessary for a given project. All digital projectors have a given throw ratio that describes the ratio of the distance to the screen (throw) to the resulting image width. For instance, if a projector has a throw ratio of 2:1 and the projector is placed ten feet away from the screen, then the resulting image width would be five feet. It is worth signals from a number of different source types, from

noting that, since most projectors have zoom lenses,

computers to DVD/Blu-ray to live input from a video

most ratios will be variable in nature (i.e. 2–2.4:1).

camera (Figure 12.11). Digital projectors work by

All decisions for projector selection should take into

receiving a video signal and transmitting it via a bright

consideration both the need for lumens and throw

light source and through a lens to enlarge the image

distance.

and project it across a distance. Considerations for digital projectors tend to fall into two categories: brightness (lumens) and operating distance (throw ratio). Brightness of a projector affects how visible the projected image will be, especially when in the presence of other light. The amount of light in a given space (outside of that created by the projector) is commonly referred to as ambient light. When ambient light reflects on to a projected image, there is a potential for the projected image to appear “washed out,” or lacking in definition and color. This is why most

Flat Panel Displays A flat panel display is a type of display surface known for being thin and lightweight (e.g. flat screen TVs). Most flat panel displays today are Liquid Crystalline Display (LCD) technology. Another variety of flat panel is the plasma display, known for producing vivid colors and deeper blacks, enabling a high contrast ratio for displayed video. Plasma displays can be manufactured in large panels and are quite thin— typically around 4˝.

dance applications call for the use of a digital projector

Another possibility with video displays is the ability to

with high brightness output, typically referred to as

link multiple displays together to create a video wall.

“high-lumens.”

The term refers to the use of multiple display devices

221 PROJECTIONS AND VIDEO

F I G UR E 12. 1 2

A projection design utilizing an LED wall. Merrily We Roll Along by Stephen Sondheim, Encores! New York City Center. Direction by James Lapine. Projection design by Wendall K. Harrington. Photo courtesy of Wendall K. Harrington.

arranged to create one large screen. In this instance,

12.6  Software Solutions

the displays are not treated as individual devices, but as

As important as hardware and equipment is to the

one display.

LED Panels One of the emergent trends in all areas related to lighting and media is the use of LED technology. LED displays are quite popular due to their ability to produce incredibly bright, vivid colors while using a smaller amount of electricity and having a longer life than traditional lighting fixtures or projectors. LED panels

projection system, the software used to control that equipment could be even more important. Software should be selected based on the needs of the project and what the designer wants to accomplish. Listed below are some common programs used for projection, organized according to their functions. Each has its own unique attributes and uses. Some are incredibly basic, while others require specialized training in order to use.

are basically circuit boards with clusters of LEDs

Slide-based Presentation

attached to the facing (Figure 12.12). They can be easily

This area is one of the most basic in form and function

connected together to form large surfaces and can even be constructed as a curved display surface.

222 PRODUCTION AREAS

and features software with which most casual computer users are familiar. Slide-based programs are created to

mirror the old slide projector method, creating a linear

system, individual looks called cues are saved into the

approach to presenting information where the presenter

playback device’s internal memory. Typically, these

can advance from one slide to the next in order.

cues are stacked in a column in ascending order

Microsoft’s PowerPoint is probably the best-known

with the lowest numeric values at the top. When the

program for this type of presentation method, though

performance begins, the operator simply presses the

Apple also makes a similar program called Keynote. 

GO button and progresses in a linear fashion down the

Both programs allow users to create slides with still

cue stack from cue to cue. In terms of consistent, linear

images, video, text, and basic animation effects (fade-in,

playback for projection design there is really only one

fade-out, etc.). While this software is not normally

program on the market: QLab by Figure 53.

utilized for projection design, it can be used in basic applications such as simple photo stills or projecting title card information for a dance, etc. The benefit of this is accessibility, as many computer users already have access to a slide presentation program. The down side is the somewhat unreliable nature of the software and a lack of interactivity.

Linear Playback For many years most theatrical and dance control systems followed the method popularized by lighting consoles, a cue-based linear setup. In the cue-based

QLab is a complete show control software package for Mac OS X that can be used for sound, projections, and controlling other devices in your system, like lighting or special effects (Figure 12.13). There are currently two versions of QLab for sale: version 2 and version 3. In version 2, there were basic projection design functions, but the program primarily remained in the domain of sound design. Since the release of version 3, however, the program has included a vast array of projection design tools, such as video effects, keystone correction, surface mapping, animation, and more. In addition to providing a robust range of functions for

F I G U R E 1 2 . 13

An example of a QLab workspace.

223 PROJECTIONS AND VIDEO

sound, projections, and show control, QLab also is

operator then manipulates the length, placement, size,

quite affordable and easy to learn. For these reasons,

and visibility of the cues in relation to one another in the

a number of dance companies have embraced QLab as

timeline. The power of Watchout is in its versatility. Each

their method of playback.

Watchout system is made up of a production computer

Timeline-based Playback

networked to display computers. The production computer holds the media and sends signals out across

Timeline-based playback is an alternate method for

the network to the individual display computers. Each

playback control. Dataton’s Watchout is the program

display computer can be connected to up to six display

most commonly associated with this type of playback

devices. The fact that Watchout uses separate display

for projection design in live performance. Watchout is

computers makes it remarkably scalable to almost any

used for multi-display applications, distributing video

size of application.

and stills across numerous different displays like video walls or seamless overlapping projected imagery.

Interactive Visual Programming

Unlike QLab’s linear approach, Watchout features an

From the beginnings of projection design, dance artists

interface with a horizontal orientation of cues stacked

have experimented with ways to interact with the

atop one another, called the timeline (Figure 12.14).

projections. The program most widely used in dance

Each instance of media (video, still images, sound files)

applications for interactivity in projection is called

is imported into the timeline as a separate cue. The

Isadora. Mark Coniglio, a composer and media artist,

F I G UR E 12. 1 4

The Watchout workspace.

224 PRODUCTION AREAS

created Isadora for use in performances by Troika

initially designed for dance production, there are a

Ranch, a media intensive dance company he co-founded.

number of functions that are appealing for the dance

Today, Isadora (frequently referred to as Izzy, for short)

environment. Isadora can control audio and video in

is distributed by TroikaTronix and used in production

real time based from pre-recorded or live feed. It can be

settings for dance, theatre, video artists (VJs), and more.

used to manipulate media based off of the movements

Isadora is a visual programming environment, meaning that the program can be used to manipulate media in real time while watching the effects live. One of the main benefits to this is a simplified workflow. Designers

of dancers and their location in space. Likewise, it can process a live video feed of the stage, enabling the projection design to integrate live dancers with their own processed image in the projection design.

can use the same program for editing and playback. It

With so many different interactive functions, it is no

works by using 250-plus basic building blocks called

surprise that Isadora is a favorite amongst dance

“actors” that are pre-programmed functions such as

companies across the world. In addition, it features a

image warping, opacity, and more (Figure 12.15). By

relatively low price point (currently $350 per license),

combining multiple actors together and applying them

educational and non-profit discounts, online video

to a media file, the designer can manipulate the media

tutorials, and a stable platform for live performance. It

in interesting and interactive ways.

can be a bit of a steep learning curve for the beginner,

The terms used most often when describing Isadora are flexible and interactive. Since the program was

though, so make sure to include ample experimentation time if using it for the first time.

F I G UR E 12. 1 5

An example of the Isadora programming interface.

225 PROJECTIONS AND VIDEO

12.6  A Word About Interactive Dance

and fashion into an interesting new genre that defies any

Interactive dance is a dance field that blurs the line

one label (Figure 12.16).

between dance, music, and projections, merging the performing and interactive arts. In traditional dance performance, the dancer performs to the media with no control over the music or projection. This means that the dancer must synchronize his/her movement to pre-recorded media, leaving little to no room for improvisation. Interactive dance, on the other hand, integrates motion tracking and data processing capabilities of modern rigs to create a new performance style, in which the dancer’s movement actually controls and interacts with the media. While experiments in interactivity have been popular in dance since the 1970s, it has not been until the last decade that advances in motion sensing technology combined with computer animation have broadened the scope of what is possible in integrating media and live performance. Companies like Kansas City’s Quixotic blur the lines between dance, electronic music, projection mapping, aerial acrobatics,

12.7  Chapter Review Projection design is an important field of dance production that enables a greater level of interactivity and versatility in presenting the choreographer’s vision for the performance. The technology used in projection design is changing at a rapid pace, making it possible for a wider range of users to have access. Even so, it is a production area that requires a great deal of planning and financial investment on the part of the producing dance company. As such, it should be discussed early in the production process with an honest assessment of the company’s resources. It is important for the choreographer and production team to consider the way in which projections will be used in the production and how projection design affects all of the other production areas.

Review Questions   1.  What is rear projection?   2.  How does ambient light affect projections?   3.  Describe the keystone effect.   4.  What is projection mapping?   5.  What is the difference between linear and interactive content?   6.  Explain the difference between a video playback system and a video reinforcement system.   7.  What is a media server?   8.  Describe a video wall and how it functions.   9.  Which program is ideal for linear, cue-based playback? 10.  Which program is a real-time visual programming environment?

F I G UR E 12. 1 6

Quixotic’s unique brand of interactive dance. Photo courtesy of João Biera.

226 PRODUCTION AREAS

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CHAPTER 13 CREATING THE PROJECTION DESIGN Projected images are ephemeral; they live in another more poetic dimension. Dance is the poetry of music as made manifest by the body. Projection and dance are an inevitable and welcome combination. Wendall K. Harrington Alexei Ratmansky’s Cinderella at the Australian Ballet, 2013. This world premiere ballet set to music by Sergei Prokofiev featured scenery, projections, and costumes inspired by Surrealist art. Photo courtesy Wendall K. Harrington. Choreography by Alexei Ratmansky. Costume and set design by Jérôme Kaplan. Lighting design by Rachel Burke. Projection design by Wendall K. Harrington.

The role of the projection designer, perhaps more so

For instance, perhaps he wants to use the work of

than any other dance designer, is defined by the needs

a well-known painter to create a three-dimensional

of the project. As illustrated in the previous chapter,

environment. In this example, the role of the projection

so many aspects of the design are dependent on the

designer is more centered on composition and visual

requirements of the dance. Like the lighting designer,

storytelling, rather than being rooted in the creation

the projection designer deals with the ephemeral

of original visual content. In another example, the

and must communicate his/her design ideas in great

choreographer may have only a loose concept in mind

detail, often before even having stepped foot into the

of the dancers creating movement onstage that will

performance space. In order to communicate the design

ultimately be represented in the projection design,

idea, the projection designer relies on research, pre-

with the projections serving as a counterpoint to the

visualization, draftings, and paperwork in addition to the

movement of the dancers onstage. In this instance, the

basic written and verbal communication skills. Since

projection designer will likely be involved to a greater

projection design is still a young and rapidly changing

degree in the rehearsal process and might even have

art form, there are a number of different approaches

a hand at collaborating with the choreographer to

to the creative process. This chapter details a few key

determine how the movement might best serve the

concepts for how a designer progresses from the design

projections and vice versa.

idea to execution.

Setting Goals

13.1  Working with the Choreographer

In my experience, projection design tends to be

The collaborative process for projection design can be a

the area with which choreographers are the least

bit more circuitous than some of the other disciplines,

familiar. As a result, there is often a tendency to rely

since projections tend to affect so many other areas

on the projection designer to define the goals and

of design. The successful projection designer must

outcomes of the project. While this can seem helpful

be prepared to be in constant communication with the

at first, it can sometimes lead to negative outcomes

choreographer, scenic designer, and lighting designer

in collaboration. Clear communication from the

about design decisions, since those decisions (and the

earliest stages is important to ensure that all parties

decisions of the other designers) can have such a great

know what the goals are for the projection design

impact on the process and affect a great number of

and how the designer hopes to accomplish them.

factors.

Like the other design areas we have discussed so

One of the most important goals for working with the choreographer is determining the function of projections within the dance. As discussed in the previous chapter, there are a number of ways in which projections can function in the dance setting. Determining the choreographer’s expectations for projections will help define the nature of your collaborative model. Sometimes the choreographer will enter the process with a specific vision in mind for the projected imagery.

230 PRODUCTION AREAS

far, I find it useful to present the choreographer with a series of questions to help focus the conversation. Sometimes the answer will be, “I don’t know. What do you think?” This opens the door to conversation that will help guide the way.

Talking About Your Dance 1. 

Describe in two to three sentences what you want your dance to communicate.

2. 

3. 

If possible, describe the basic “plotline” of your

●●

If so, has permission been secured for its use?

dance, describing important events or changes

●●

What is the rehearsal schedule?

within the dance.

●●

What is the tech schedule?

How do you see projection contributing to the

●●

Will there be additional time built into the tech

storytelling? 4. 

Is your dance based on or influenced by any particular work of art? (If so, feel free to include images, links/references with this response.)

5. 

Give a few adjectives or short descriptive phrases to describe how your dance (or individual sections) should feel.

6.  7. 

process for working with projections? ●●

Will the projections require filming the dancers?

●●

If so, will costumes, hair and make-up, props, etc. be required?

●●

Will projection design require syncing with audio (e.g. actor voiceover, video syncing with music, etc.)?

Do you see the projections as part of the scenery or

13.2  Communicating the Design

more of a stand-alone element?

No matter the design area, one of the primary roles of

Do you see the projections as a presentational

the designer is communicating his/her design ideas to

element or a design element with which the

other members of the production team and those

dancers interact?

working to execute the design. In the area of projection

Practical Concerns

design, this is particularly important since the projected imagery interacts with so many other areas of the

When going into collaboration with a choreographer

production. This section details some of the ways in which

(especially for the first time) I always try to send a

projection designers can communicate ideas.

message with a list of practical concerns that will be important to the overall process. Listed below is

Visual Communication

a checklist of information with which the designers,

The projection designer tends to produce fewer

choreographer, and dancers should be familiar. In

drawings than the scenic or costume designers

addition, some questions were listed in the previous

and deal more in the world of digital imagery. It is

chapter in Section 12.2. Try to address as many of these

much more common to find the projection designer

questions as possible early in the production planning

communicating ideas through visual research,

process, since the answers will dictate the choices that

storyboards, verbal exchanges, or pre-visualization than

must be made regarding equipment, content, budget,

through a traditional rendering medium. The following

and more.

list includes some common methods of visually

●●

Is this a new piece or a remount?

●●

If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that are important to reproduce?

●●

How will projections be integrated with the scenic and lighting design?

●●

communicating design ideas.

Research One of the first methods of communicating projection design ideas is the use of visual research. One of the primary benefits of this method is the ability to show

Is there specific graphic content needed for the

a number of different ideas without having to commit

projection design?

to hours of work in producing visual content. This can

231 CREATING THE PROJECTION DESIGN

be assembled in a collage method, or as a slide show

performance space and scenery. The purpose of this plot

featuring certain types of imagery for different moments

is to include all of the necessary technical information

in the dance, or simply as individual photos to discuss.

of the projection design rig needed to hang, circuit, and

The designer should always walk the choreographer

focus the equipment. It is drafted atop a ground plan

through the research, pointing out what aspects are

of the theatre space and any included scenery. Since

important: color, the actual image, the contrast, etc.

projection and lighting equipment are frequently vying

Pre-visualization Since light is such an ephemeral medium and is heavily affected by the projection surfaces, it is difficult to emulate the finished product of a design without the use of computer technology. As mentioned in our discussions of lighting design, pre-visualization (or pre-viz, for short) has become an expectation of many lighting and projection designers. In projection design, as in lighting, there are a number of software solutions that can be used for pre-viz. For some projects, the use of graphics editing programs such as Photoshop would be sufficient for presenting a design idea. This is not, however, true pre-visualization. Pre-visualization requires a 3D rendering program that allows the designer to input a 3D model of the theatre, scenery, and human figures into a program and include the projectors in their exact placement as well. Through the use of the software’s graphic engine, the geometry is calculated to determine exactly how the visual content will appear when projected on an object.

for the same space, it is important to coordinate with the lighting designer to determine placement possibilities. The section is a drafting of the theatre cut down the centerline and viewed from one side. Again, this is very similar to the lighting designer’s centerline section— used to visualize the theatre architecture, scenery, and masking in the context of hanging positions and equipment.

Design Paperwork and Informational Graphics The projection designer utilizes a vast amount of paperwork to complete the projection design. Unlike lighting design paperwork, there are few software solutions on the market created specifically for use by the projection designer. One interesting thing to consider about the projection design industry is that, since it is such a young field, there are not as many industry standards to design approaches as in the other areas examined. You will find that the workflow, paperwork, and design methodology will vary greatly from designer to designer, since there is not yet an

There are a number of different choices on the

official “right way” to do things. That is not to say that

market, such as Nemetschek’s Vectorworks, or Cast

there are not approved methods and recommended

Technology’s WYSIWYG. Other platforms like D3 are

practices, but in many ways the field is still discovering

intended to function as an extension of their own

how best to define its own industry standards. Listed

projection design hardware. In cases like this, the

below are some different types of paperwork and

software allows the designer to pre-program the show

informational graphics used by projection designers to

before even entering the space.

plan for the design execution.

Draftings: The Projection Plot and Centerline Section

Signal Flow Charts

The projection plot, similar to the light plot, shows the

One common informational graphic created by the

placement of projection equipment in relationship to the

projection designer is the signal flow chart. This chart

232 PRODUCTION AREAS

F I G UR E 13. 1

A simple block-style signal flow chart, showing the path of video signals from a video camera and media stored on a media server, outputting to eight separate digital projectors.

CAMERA INPUT

MEDIA SERVER

---3>-

Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

COMP.1

COMP. 2

COMP. 3

COMP.4

COMP.4 COMP.4 COMP.4 COMP.4 COMP.4 COMP.4 COMP.4COMP.4

(or charts) is a graphic representation of how the

dependent on only one person. In a collaborative

equipment is set up and in what direction the media

environment, however, other members of the production

flows from the source to the display device. This chart

team affect the workflow. For instance, if the projection

is helpful in determining the cables required to connect

design uses video footage of the dancers, filming might

devices and can be invaluable to the troubleshooting

have to wait until costumes are complete. Likewise,

process once something inevitably malfunctions. There

there might be multiple members contributing content.

are a number of different approaches to creating a

In this case, it is important to identify exactly who is

signal flow chart, but the most common approach is

doing what task and in what order. This is the purpose of

a series of boxes with lines that connect them to one

the content workflow diagram. This diagram illustrates

another and arrows to indicate the direction of the

not only who will be providing what content but in what

signal flow (Figure 13.1).

order and how one step affects others in the process.

Content Workflow Diagrams When creating the projection design, it is always

This type of chart can be used to increase productivity and help instill a sense of accountability to the process.

important to consider workfl ow. Workflow can

Cue Sheets

be described as the sequence of events and tasks

As the designer nears the process of creating cues for

required to take a design from concept to completion.

the dance, it is important to create a cue sheet, a form

Each designer develops his/her own unique approach

that breaks down the dance according to individual

to workflow. When working alone, the timetable is

cues, their timing, description, and routing (which

233 CREATING THE PROJECTION DESIGN

computer/projector sends the image to what surface).

Apple’s iMovie or Windows’ Movie Maker can be used

The cue sheet can be organized in a number of different

for basic video editing. For more complex applications,

formats, but it is common to use the spreadsheet-

programs like Final Cut Pro, Adobe Premiere, Avid

style approach, utilizing columns and rows to track the

Media Composer, and Sony Vegas Pro are all solid

information. Important considerations are cue number,

choices. Each of these programs has built-in functions

description (what happens onstage that motivates

to trim and splice video, create fade-in/fade-out effects,

calling a cue), and timing (how long it takes for the

add titles, manipulate brightness, contrast, and color

action to occur), though there may well be a number

settings, etc. It is common for a projection designer

of other areas included. The cue sheet is an important

to have access to a number of different video editing

way for the designer to cement his/her thoughts on

programs.

what will happen in the projections design and is used to communicate to the stage manager how the cues should be called for the dance.

13.3  Content The successful projection designer must have a balance of artistic talent and technical proficiency—an ability to generate original graphic content with an understanding of the tools of image and video editing. This is an area in which the artistic ability of the projection designer shines. Content creation allows the designer to create new artistic works for presentation on a wide scale, through photography, digital art, video, or animations. This section details a few of the tools common to the projection designer for content and editing.

Video Content When discussing video content creation, the basic requirements are a video camera and some type of editing software. Cameras can be either digital video or analog, though if a camera is not digital video your

In addition to basic editing, programs like Adobe After Effects allow the projection designer to create motion graphics, 3D and visual effects with video files. There are many interesting effects that these post-production editing programs can accomplish, such as explosions, blurring imagery, or animating moving elements into a video.

Stills In addition to video, photo stills are a common content element for projection design. For creating this type of content, the normal tools are a digital camera and/or some type of graphics software. Graphics programs like Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator have become staples in content creation for image stills. There is also freeware software such as Gimp that can accomplish many of the same outcomes. A common attribute of most graphics editing programs is the ability to stack different layers of imagery atop one another and change the opacity, enabling the designer to create rich and dynamic compositions.

computer must have specialized inputs for converting

The two standard types of graphics software generate

analog video to digital. Digital video cameras have

either raster graphics or vector graphics. Raster 

become incredibly affordable and offer up a number of

graphics are images made up of a series of dots called

high-definition options, even in entry-level models.

pixels, where each pixel is assigned a specific color

Once the video has been captured, it is necessary to edit the video takes into a final presentation. Programs like

234 PRODUCTION AREAS

value. These images are created in programs such as Photoshop or Gimp. While raster images are great for print and web media, they are not always ideal for

projection design. Since raster graphics are designed

Stock Footage

at a specific resolution, when the image is enlarged

When creating a projection design, the designer has a

or reduced, the pixels are affected, creating a blurry or pixelated image. Vector graphics, on the other hand, are images created from basic geometric forms such as points, lines, and curves. The vector graphic is expressed in a specific mathematical equation that enables the image to be reduced or enlarged without distortion. Vector graphics are created in programs such as Illustrator, CorelDRAW, or Inkscape.

3D Rendering and Animation In addition to the two-dimensional graphics mentioned above, projection designers are frequently called upon to create three-dimensional images. In contrast to 2D, 3D graphics use a three-dimensional representation of geometric data to create a representation of a three-dimensional object. The final image created by

number of choices for content. In addition to making content from scratch, many designers utilize stock  footage as components of the design. Stock footage is a catchall term referring to any type of pre-existing imagery, either stills or video, which can be used as part of the projection design. Stock footage can come from a number of different sources. There are numerous companies that provide stock footage for a fee. Of late, there are also many websites that offer free stock footage. Most projection designers also create a database of stock footage for their own use that can be repurposed for a number of different projection design projects. For these purposes, it is essential that the designer creates a logical system of naming and organizing the files.

this software, featuring color, textures, and lighting,

Legal Concerns

is referred to as a 3D rendering. These images are

There are many different legal concerns when dealing

amazingly realistic and often cannot be distinguished from an actual photograph or video. Projection designers use programs such as Autodesk’s 3DS Max or the open source Blender to create 3D renderings.

Audio Content Finally, no projection designer’s content creation setup would be complete without considering sound editing. Even though the projection designer does not execute the overall sound design for the production, it is a common occurrence that video would feature an audio feed. In these cases, the projection designer must be proficient in editing and/or creating audio content for the design. While many video editing programs have built-in sound editing capabilities, projection designers may also use programs such as Apple’s Logic Pro or Avid’s Pro Tools, both of which offer the ability to integrate video into the editing workspace and sync audio with your video.

with the use of an image created by another person. Technically speaking, the artist who created an image or took a photograph owns the copyright for that work of art from the moment of its creation. This means that, when using someone else’s work, you really need to understand the legality of use without violating someone else’s copyright. You should typically have the copyright holder’s permission when using any artistic work not of your own creation. Listed below are some important considerations for securing permission. Always get permission in writing for using the image. This permission form should indicate how the image will be used, in what performance, the number of performances, the number of seats in the performance space, and how/if the acknowledgement of the copyright holder will be listed to the audience. It is best to confer with a legal representative about the specific wording of such permission forms, so as to protect yourself.

235 CREATING THE PROJECTION DESIGN

When dealing with photographs of people, there is

surest course of action is to use original imagery, and

also a secondary consideration of the model. Ask

when in doubt about the legality of image use, err on

the photographer if there was a model waiver form

the side of caution and look for another option. Another

signed for the work. If the artist did not explicitly have

note of caution should be extended to those in academia.

permission to photograph the model in the work, then

Many academics make the false assumption that, since

he/she may not be able to give you permission to use

their work is created in an academic environment, the

the work.

use of copyrighted materials is covered as fair use. While

Licensing is another important thing to be aware of as a designer. There are a number of different license types for imagery. If an image is part of the public domain, it means that the rights for the image have been released for public use without cost. If the copyright expires on a work of art, it will fall into the public domain. Likewise, certain entities can choose to automatically release the work into the public domain. For instance, any work created by the United States government and its entities (US military, NASA, etc.) is part of the public domain and a valuable resource for stock footage.

it is true that the classroom is typically covered as a fair use environment, the moment that the work is integrated into a performance it leaves the domain of the classroom and becomes a public event. When in doubt, seek out permission for the use of copyrighted works.

13.4  Preparing for Technical Rehearsals Unlike scenery or costumes, much of the work of the projections designer is accomplished once the load-in occurs in the performance space. One of the indications of a designer’s success in technical rehearsals is often the amount of preparation done beforehand. A wellprepared designer will respond to the rigors of technical

Not all stock footage is part of the public domain,

rehearsals much better than one who plans on “winging

however. If using an image from a stock footage service,

it.” Listed below are some things to consider before

it is likely licensed under very specific terms. Two

heading into the tech process.

common types of licensing are royalty-free and rightsmanaged. With royalty-free images, you typically pay

Preparing to Cue

a one-time licensing fee and then own the right to use

Much of the content creation and organization can

the image in whatever way you choose. It is important to

be done offsite, but it is sometimes difficult for the

recognize that royalty-free does not mean free to use.

projection designer to truly cue the show outside of

In most every instance, royalty-free images must still

the theatre space. Since so much of the specific detail

be purchased up front to ensure licensing. With rights-

of the design is related to the physical projection

managed imagery, there is a licensing fee as well, but

surfaces, cueing is a process best accomplished in

your right to use the image is restricted to a greater

the performance space. Before beginning the cueing

degree. There are typically limitations for image use

process, however, there are a number of questions to

related to timeline, geographic location, purpose, etc.

address.

In this case, the license agreement will indicate exactly how the images can be used. The complexities of copyright law are far too great to be completely covered in this text. Keep in mind that the

236 PRODUCTION AREAS

Do You have all of Your Content? In preparing for the cueing process, it is important to collect and organize all of the content to be used in the projection design. At this point, the cue sheet

and paperwork are indispensible for knowing what

sequences of events. Like both lighting and sound, the

content is secured and what needs to be completed. Plan

cueing process will be affected by the type of projection

on bringing in all of the content and backup copies with

equipment and control software. Each program has

a few different methods for accessing the materials. It is

its own unique process for the creation of cues. The

unfortunate to be in the space with only one copy of the

projection designer should be intimately familiar with

content when a hard drive malfunctions or is damaged.

the use of the software and understand how it will

Is all of Your Equipment Installed and Working?

affect his/her cueing process. No matter what setup is used, though, there are some common considerations

While this might seem like an obvious question, it

for the cueing process. Listed below are some of these

is essential that all of the equipment be set up and

thoughts.

tested before going into the cueing process. Time is money and the projection designer will only be

1. 

previously, it is common for the projection designer

given so much time in the space. You don’t want

to have a tech table set up in the auditorium. The

to waste the valuable cueing time troubleshooting

tech table allows the designer to see his/her work

nonfunctioning equipment. In addition to basic

from the vantage point of the audience, rather

questions of equipment function, this is the time to

than from the control booth, which is typically far

consider any specific needs that might be required

away from the stage and in an awkward position.

for cueing. For instance, is the projection computer(s)

Sometimes it is impossible for the projection

positioned in a location where the stage is visible? If

control equipment to be positioned at the tech

not, is it possible to set up a remote network to control

table, however. In these cases, it is important

the computer? Perhaps a video feed of the stage would

that the projection designer has headsets for

be another option to aid in cueing. Taking the time to

communicating with the operator and, ideally, a

answer these questions before the cueing session will

method for remotely accessing and controlling the

save a lot of time later on.

Do you have Dark Time Scheduled in the Space?

projection control system. 2. 

on hand at the tech table. It is always wise to think

during the time leading up to technical rehearsals. This

ahead so that you don’t find yourself having to leave

is why it is so important for the projection designer to

to get something from home. A well-equipped tech

schedule a period of time in which all of the theatre’s

table should include: pencils and scrap paper,

auditorium and work lights will be turned off so the

cue sheet(s), design paperwork, a flashlight, a

projections can be seen under show conditions.

stopwatch, a laptop for the designer with a network connection, a backup computer for the control

Cueing the Show

system, a portable hard drive and thumb drives

The cueing process for projections is similar to the

for backup and file transport, and surge-protected

approaches to both lighting and sound. Like lighting space to see the work come to life. Similar to sound, so many of the cueing choices will be linked to timing and

What to bring? When moving into the theatre, it is important to consider what things you will want

Everyone has a lot to accomplish in a short period of time

design, it is important to be in a darkened performance

The tech table. Like the other areas discussed

power strips. 3. 

Working with the music. If your dance incorporates music, it can be useful to listen to the music while

237 CREATING THE PROJECTION DESIGN

cueing. Especially in instances where projection

of a production to ensure everyone has a sufficient

must sync with music, there is no better way to get

amount of time and resources to complete their work in

it right than working with the music. In addition, if

time for opening night.

the sound design must sync with the projections,

4. 

it is essential to meet with the sound designer and

13.6  Chapter Review

discuss the necessary equipment used and how the

The job of creating the projection design is a complex

two systems must integrate. For these purposes,

process with a number of different requirements.

a device called a word clock is used to synchronize

The projection designer must balance artistry and

the multiple devices in the system.

technical expertise to create a dynamic and visually

Working with a rehearsal video. As mentioned in

interesting design that contributes to the dance

previous chapters, a rehearsal video is invaluable

without drawing focus away from the performance. In

to the cueing process. By referencing the video,

creating the design, the projection designer must use

you can determine the location of certain moments

draftings, drawings/renderings, paperwork, and verbal

on the stage and ensure the timing is correct.

communication to communicate his/her ideas. Planning

Likewise, if using a rehearsal video that includes

and workflow are central concerns of the projection

music, this allows you to include both music and

designer, used to ensure continuity from his/her initial

movement into one package.

concept through the final performance. Through a

13.5  Technical Rehearsals The nature of technical rehearsals varies from project to project. At its essence, the technical rehearsals are those sessions dedicated to working through the dances

study of the projection designer’s process, we gain an increased appreciation for the job of the designer and his/her role within the production.

Review Questions

with all technical elements included. It might be a long

  1.  What is a signal flow chart?

process over the course of multiple weeks or only a day,

  2.  Which document is used to communicate who is

depending on the specific production arrangements. If the dance company owns its own space, it is common to see longer periods of tech. If the company is renting the space, the tech process might be limited to one day or even a few hours before going into the performance. The duration of the tech process is definitely a deciding factor for projection use and how they are integrated into the production. With a production that requires a

providing content and in what order work is done?   3.  What document is used to break down the dance according to individual cues, their timing, description, and routing?   4.  Name a software program that can be used for basic video editing.   5.  What is a raster based graphic?

high level of interaction between the performers and the

  6.  What is a vector based graphic?

projections, it is wise to schedule more time in technical

  7.  What is a 3D rendering and how is it created?

rehearsals. Likewise, if the technical rehearsal is a

  8.  What is stock footage and how is it used?

shortened time period, it will require that the designer

  9.  Explain the difference between royalty-free and

plan ahead and have the projection design fully cued and ready to go from the beginning of tech. These are the factors that must be brought up early in the discussion

238 PRODUCTION AREAS

rights-managed stock footage. 10.  What is a word clock used for?

The Projection Designer’s Perspective: An  Interview with João Beira

back in the beginning of 2000. I wrote my master’s thesis

João Beira describes himself as a new media artist

art forms such as live cinema. Their live experience with

and visual performer. His work in projection design is related to research in spatial augmented reality, interactive design, and responsive and immersive digital environments in real time. João is the founder and artistic director of Datagrama, a visual performance art project focused on interactive live visuals, stage design, and 3D video mapping. For the last decade, he has performed internationally at art and music festivals, participating in artistic residencies and

about the computer jockey and his relevance in upcoming media and in particular with digital media is the core of my expression as a visual artist. In 2010 I moved to the United States to do a Ph.D. and I met Professor Yacov Shariv, who became my mentor and also my supervisor. He worked for decades in the intersection of dance with technology and introduced me to interactive media design for dance. Since then, I have devoted my research and work to combining motion tracking with 3D video mapping, collaborating with many different artists such as musicians, choreographers,

collaborating with many artists and performers. He is

architects, designers, dancers, art directors, FX artists, etc.

also a collaborator with Kansas City’s Quixotic Fusion,

My experience as a projection designer extended from

a performance group that merges together dance,

the VJ and electronic music scene; since then I started

acrobatics, projection mapping, music, and fashion into

to use motion and 3D video mapping as my main forms

a multidisciplinary spectacle. Since 2010 he has been

of expression. I believe that the role of the VJ has gained

working on a dual degree Ph.D. in Digital Media at the

new meaning over the last decade, adding a stronger layer

University of Texas at Austin and in the FEUP at the

of creativity and DIY solutions for projection design and

University of Porto. João holds an M.A. in Multimedia Art

interactive art.

from the University of Porto and a bachelor’s degree in Fine Arts from ESAP. Two of his recent projects, 2&4 and 3D [Embodied], were nominated for best video design in 2012 and 2013 by the Austin Critics’ Table Awards.

One of the companies for which you have done some interesting work is called Quixotic Fusion. Can you describe Quixotic and the process of working with them?

The projection design world is such a new field in

Quixotic Fusion is an ensemble of artists from various

dance. Could you tell me a bit about how you got started

disciplines including aerial acrobatics, dance, design,

as a projection designer?

music, and visuals. It is a collective of creative designers

My exploration of video and design started with electronic

and performers.

live music events in my youth. This style of work is usually

My collaboration and role with Quixotic Fusion was an

referred to as VJ-ing and has been attracting young visual

extension of the work that I was developing as a practice-

artists over the last decade to projection design. Through

based Ph.D. student working with interactive dance, more

music and using real time strategies, VJs use light and

precisely my work with depth sensors and motion tracking

video projections to invoke an expression and design

with dancers. Quixotic Fusion has provided me with an

process.

amazing framework to explore the potential of motion

My background was in fine arts and design. My focus has

capture technologies for dance artists. In particular, to

always been related to real time visuals, even when that

explore the depth camera visualization tools with body

was not fully accepted as an art form in the academic world

mapping in real time. For this we use generative design

239 CREATING THE PROJECTION DESIGN

strategies. First, through the use of motion sensing input

significant number of artistic projects in interactive

devices we capture 3D data of the dance performer, the

dance. As Peter Kin wrote in 2011 in his blog www.

cloud point. This data is then translated into shaders and

createdigitalmotion.com: “the combination of sensing with

to specific design pallets. The visual outcome is projected

projection is to live digital visuals what a technique like

back onto her body and a transparent screen right in front

perspective was to painting centuries ago. It’s a calculated

of the performer—a scrim. This process changes and grows

illusion, but it could be the basis for an entire body of work,

as we perform every show. It is an evolving process just like

both a marvel in itself and a springboard to new art.”

a music band’s creative process. Using a depth sensor camera means that instead of working with light values that we have from video cameras we now use data values of depth and motion. The mapping process of this data to creative design strategies is the core of my work with Quixotic Fusion.

I know you work on a wide range of projects. How does working in a dance-based art form differ from what you do in some other genres? My work as a projection designer is based in interactive strategies for real time and also the exploitation of 3D space with video. This means I do a wide range of shows,

I know one of your areas of expertise is interactive

varying from architectural lighting with 3D animation, live

dance. Many of our readers may not be particularly

visuals, theatre, and dance performances.

familiar with that field. Can you tell us about interactive

Dance-based art relies on a collaborative process and the

dance as an art form?

articulation of different arts and it’s based in motion. This

Interactive dance is a field that emerged from performing

changes profoundly the creative process for media design.

and interactive arts. Choreography in the digital age had

When you work with musicians you usually focus on sound

a difficult start due to the complexity of human movement

and time, while in theatre we usually focus on storytelling

to be digitized. Technological development in computer

and narrative. In dance we focus on the body, space, and

hardware and software has made it possible to record digital

time. With the use of sensing technologies this process

3D representations of moving bodies. During the 1990s most

might be described as augmented reality, as we use live

of the work was based on pre-recorded content and based

direct physical real-world environment to augment in the

in pre- and post-production usage of the data gathered

virtual space. This process is referred to as mixed reality

from dancers. I believe this was not really augmenting the

and this output can be also described as spatial augmented

dancers’ movement but actually restricting it.

reality, merging real and virtual worlds in one display and

In general, performers had to do the same routine,

reality for the audience. In conclusion, the nature of the art

leaving almost no space for improvisation, creating a

form that you collaborate with dictates the creative process.

disembodiment for the dancers, for movement freedom

Do you have a dance background/any formalized

and expression. During the last decade this has changed significantly. With the introduction of motion tracking and data processing began a new philosophy and media design strategies for movement in the digital age. Dance and

training in dance? I do not have any formal training in dance; my background was in fine arts and multimedia.

technology attained a new and higher level of integration.

Have you done any “traditional” dance design? If so,

The scientific breakthroughs in sensing technology

how does this process differ from the work you do in

combined with computer animation have created a

240 PRODUCTION AREAS

interactive dance?

No, I have never done traditional dance design. But this

traditional approach of video design for live events. When

question brings us to the nature of “dead” media—pre-

I moved to the United States in 2010 as a Ph.D. student

rendered or pre-recorded media— and “live” media—real

I found there were opportunities to use live video design

time generative media.

for events. At this time it seemed to me that there were

Real time feedback and the use of sensing natural

clearly opportunities in the entertainment industry and that

interfaces are two benefits of choreographing in the digital age. The dance performer practices with the system like an instrument and the process is quite similar to the computer gaming experience. As a media designer and visual artist, I engage in regular sessions with them, and the outcome of each project is based on this collaborative process. With analog media, or “dead” media, it was too complex and demanding to map such large amounts of data. This process and technological development changed profoundly

not many people were creating work with a wider range of skills than traditional projection designers. In general, there are more resources and opportunities to develop bigscale projects in the United States. This is also visible in the academic world, especially in large universities, where you can have access not just to equipment, but also to multidisciplinary collaborations with different departments within the same university. I also found in the United States opportunities to conduct my Ph.D. work as practice-based

the creative process of media design for live dancers.

research, which is a great framework to work as a designer

I know you have worked internationally as a designer

for experimentation and pioneering development in Europe,

and educator. What are some of the key differences you notice in American vs. international work?

and educator. Overall, I believe that there is a lot of space but it is usually in the United States that these ideas gain a different scale and exposure. I also found that the American

My experience as a teaching professional and designer in

public is extremely receptive to new ways to experience

Portugal and Europe was quite relevant since it allowed

video and calculated illusions with light. My work in

me to gain experience and interest in the DIY culture and

collaboration with Quixotic Fusion is a great example of

architectural light design. France-based projects like

that, as we perform mostly in the United States, but also in

1024 and antivj highly influenced me to start to expand the

Asia and Europe.

241 CREATING THE PROJECTION DESIGN

CHAPTER 14 STAGE MANAGEMENT Perhaps, therefore, ideal stage managers not only need to be calm and meticulous professionals who know their craft, but masochists who feel pride in rising above impossible odds. Peter Hall

A photo from the studio collection “Simply Magic” by Richard Calmes. Photography of dancers in motion from the Gwinnett Ballet Theatre in suburban Atlanta, Georgia. Photography by Richard Calmes.

The stage manager is undoubtedly the linchpin of

the theatre artist, this chapter should be a useful primer

live performance. This is true for dance as well as

in considering the differences between theatrical and

theatre. From the initial discussions with designers,

dance stage management.

to the rehearsal period, to running the show and interacting with the company, the stage manager is the

14.1  The Stage Manager

single person whose job affects the greatest number

In both professional and academic circles, the role of

of individuals in the production process. As a dance

stage management is often linked to the individual

stage manager, one must be fluent in many different

dance company or academic department and their

languages—dance, theatre, and management being

specific needs. Since the role is often so specific to

three of the most important. The stage manager is the

the individual workplace, there will never be a cookie

source through which all information is disseminated

cutter, “one-size-fits-all” job description for a dance

and the individual responsible for keeping all production

stage manager. The term stage management refers to

members on schedule. In addition to organizing

the collective group of personnel responsible for the job

rehearsals and production meetings, the stage manager

of managing the production. In most dance companies,

also runs the technical rehearsals and during the

the main management roles fall under the categories

performance is the single individual coordinating cues

of production management and/or stage management.

and calling them out over the headset (referred to as

While, technically speaking, a production manager’s

“calling the show”). Finally, once the production is

duties do not fit neatly into the job description of stage

up and running, it is the duty of the stage manager

manager, many companies combine different aspects of

to continually watch performances and ensure

each of these roles into one job. Listed below is a brief

consistency to the original vision of the choreographer

description of some common roles for both areas.

and designers, so that the artistic integrity of all of the artists is maintained. It is a huge responsibility. Many

Production Management

dance stage managers come from the dance world

As mentioned in Chapter 1, the production manager (or

and have never worked as a theatrical stage manager

PM, for short) is the person who keeps the production

(the same is true in reverse for many theatrical stage

on schedule and on budget. In addition, most dance

managers). Though many of the duties are similar, the

companies utilize the PM as a liaison between the

dance stage manager tends to take on many specialized

performance venue and the company. Since many dance

roles within the dance company that would not typically

companies do not own their own performance space,

fall under the domain of a theatrical stage manager.

it is an important aspect of the job. Typical duties of a

This chapter details many of the aspects of serving as a

production manager include forwarding technical specs

dance stage manager. It is, by no means, meant to be an

to the design staff, examining the performance space

exhaustive study of the role of the stage manager. There

for any special considerations, setting up production

are many excellent textbooks on the market dedicated

meetings that bring together administrators and

to that pursuit. Instead, this chapter should introduce

production staff, creating the production schedule,

the aspiring dancer, choreographer, or designer to

tracking the production budget, and hiring technicians

the world of stage management for dance and foster a

to run the performance. In many dance companies,

sense of appreciation for all of the ways in which stage

it has become the norm to employ the production

managers assist in the creative process. Likewise, for

manager to participate in rehearsals and call the show

244 PRODUCTION AREAS

as well. In this case, the role is often known as the

●●

Communication: One of the primary roles of any

production stage manager. This term can lead to a bit

stage manager is communication. All information

of confusion, since many theatrical productions use the

should be shared through the stage manager to

term production stage manager to refer to the lead stage

ensure that it is properly documented in writing

manager in a group of several different stage managers.

and that all parties have access to the information (since one area’s choices might inadvertently affect

Stage Management

another). As a result, the stage manager documents

Depending on the size of a production, there might

all meetings, rehearsals, and correspondence to and

be more than one stage manager involved in running

from production team members.

the show. For smaller productions, there will likely be

●●

During the rehearsal period, the stage manager

one stage manager for the entire process. For larger

disseminates information to all production members

productions, there might be a stage manager and one or

through daily emails of notes and reminders. These

more assistant stage managers working to fulfill stage

are referred to as rehearsal reports. In addition, the

management duties. Sometimes the supervising stage

stage manager typically compiles notes for dancers

manager is referred to as the production stage manager

to be posted on the callboard of the rehearsal space

(PSM), head stage manager, or first stage manager. The

or through email. A callboard is a location in the

assistant stage manager (ASM) is commonly situated

rehearsal and/or performance space dedicated to

backstage during the production run and organizes

posting information for performers. It will include call

backstage traffic, calling dancers for places, and working

times for the following day’s rehearsal, notes, and

with properties and/or wardrobe crews to facilitate props tracking and quick changes. During the pre-production

pertinent information for the company (Figure 14.1) ●●

process, it is common to only have the stage manager

correspondence continues in the form of

working with the choreographer and production staff and

performance reports, a record of the performance

to bring in ASMs during the technical rehearsals.

including running times, accidents, technical problems that arose (and how they were addressed),

Common Responsibilities

technical problems that must be addressed before

No matter the nature of the organization, there are

the next performance, and information about

some duties that will commonly fall into the domain

upcoming performances and events (such as photo

of stage management. Listed below are a collection

calls, etc.). In addition, the performance report

of these responsibilities and a brief description of

frequently includes front-of-house information such

expectations. ●●

Once the show is up and running, daily

as attendance, when the house opened, when the

Scheduling: Stage managers frequently create

performance began, intermission times, and patron

rehearsal schedules, production meeting schedules,

issues. In this way, the performance report is a way

technical rehearsal schedules, and schedules for

a wide range of people can stay informed about the

tech times in the space for production members. In

performance.

addition to creating the schedule, the stage manager is ultimately responsible for disseminating the information (see next).

●●

Running rehearsals: If the dance company expects a stage manager to be involved in the rehearsal period, it is common for him/her to perform a

245 STAGE MANAGEMENT

F I G UR E 14. 1

A callboard used for theatre and dance performances.

number of tasks to ensure an efficient use of time

●●

Recording information: One of the more important

and resources. The stage manager will work with

tasks of the stage manager is to act as a sort of

the choreographer to determine the number of

human recording mechanism. In meetings, stage

dancers that should be called and at what times,

management will take minutes of what is said. In

thereby ensuring the dancers are only in rehearsal

rehearsals, stage management will take movement

when needed. Likewise, the stage manager will keep

notes and start to assemble a performance script

an eye on the clock during rehearsal and remind

of what actions occur in what order. Included with

the choreographer of the schedule, including break

this is important information such as tracking props

times. If the dance company is a union structure,

use during the show (what is the prop, where does

there are very specific rules that must be followed

it enter, where does it exit, etc.). This information is

for scheduling and running rehearsals.

useful in determining the placement of props tables

246 PRODUCTION AREAS

that any amount of additional time in one slot will

and presets. Likewise, the stage manager should

take time away from the next dance slot.

keep track of costume changes and the amount of time available for quick changes. This information

●●

●●

Calling the show: No matter what other duties are

will be necessary for the costume designer, since

assigned to the stage manager, the calling of cues in

there is normally a rigid and fixed amount of time for

the performance remains the primary responsibility.

quick changes in a dance.

This job requires patience, organization, and a calm

Compiling the prompt book: Another stage

demeanor. During the run of a performance, the

management task is assembling the prompt

stage manager might call hundreds of different

book. A prompt book is a special annotated

cues, many happening simultaneously. The job is

script used by stage managers to call cues

complicated by the fact that one must keep one eye

for the dance production. Section 14.4 details

on the prompt book and another on the stage, while

the specifics of assembling the prompt book and

communicating with the board operators on headset.

its use.

This role can be compared to that of an air traffic

Running technical rehearsals: Once the production

controller, controlling the operation and timing of

process enters technical rehearsals, the stage

numerous simultaneous tasks on a daily basis.

manager’s job becomes much more involved. The

●●

Maintaining the artistic integrity of the work: Once

stage manager’s role during tech is ensuring all

the production opens, most often the choreographer

personnel are present and ready to run the technical

and other members of the production team will

rehearsal. To those ends the stage manager will

have left to go on to other productions. This leaves

regularly check in with all production staff to ensure

the stage manager responsible for the day-to-day

all parties are familiar with the schedule and are

operations of the dance and the only remaining

ready to go. Once the tech process begins, the stage

member of the production team who has the insight

manager will call instructions out from the house

of having worked on the entire creative process.

for dancers and production teams alike. During this

For this reason, the stage manager is charged

period, it is important that the stage manager be

with maintaining the intent of the choreographer

intimately familiar with the dance and its structure.

and designers. During the course of a longer run

This is one situation in which it is beneficial for

it is sometimes necessary for the stage manager

the stage manager to have a command of dance

to give some notes related to the continuity of the

terminology. Since the technical rehearsal tends to

performance.

be stop and go, it is important to understand exactly

●

●●

what the choreographer means when he says “take it

Stage Management and Union Structures

from the pas de deux.”

There are a number of different unions who represent

Another of the important roles of the stage manager

artists and performers in the arts. The United Scenic

in technical rehearsals is that of timekeeper. The

Artists-Local 829 (USA-829) represents designers

stage manager must keep a watchful eye on the

working in all areas of the entertainment industry,

clock and be aware of the time remaining in the

including dance. The American Guild of Musical Artists

allocated timeslot. This is especially important in a

(AGMA) is the union that represents opera singers,

concert setting with multiple dances, understanding

dancers, opera directors, and backstage production

247 STAGE MANAGEMENT

personnel at opera and dance companies. Any artist

If you find yourself in this situation, there are some

working at a principal opera or dance company operates

things that can be done to help make the task more

under an AGMA contract. Unlike stage managers

manageable. For one, the choreographer should make

working in a theatrical production, dance stage

every attempt to take on some of the normal stage

managers are represented by AGMA and not the sister

management responsibilities, such as scheduling, notes,

union of Actors Equity Association (AEA). The union

etc. If at all possible, the choreographer should try to

structure is an important consideration for those stage

help get the stage manager up to speed on the dance—

managing in dance. If the production is operating under

shoot video of the dance, write a synopsis of the piece

a union contract, then union rules must be followed

with key moments, etc. The stage manager should try to

meticulously. Common rules relate to length of working

get in touch with the choreographer and the design team

days, duration and frequency of breaks, mandatory days

to establish communication. Attempt to determine what

off, amenities in the performance space, and many more

the needs might be before heading into tech rehearsals.

details. The stage manager is ultimately responsible for

Even a cursory understanding will go a long way towards

maintaining the rules and reporting infractions to the

making the process more manageable. Everyone can’t

union, a role that must be taken seriously.

be employed in an elite professional company, but it should not stop you from performing to the highest

FYI: Realistic expectations The material presented above is tailored for a professional dance company structure with a relatively large amount of personnel. Unfortunately, small companies with limited budgets and academic dance programs often cannot mirror this professional model. While it would be ideal to always have a stage manager involved in the creative process, the fact remains that many companies simply cannot afford to enlist a stage manager for anything other than calling the show. In an academic environment, the stage manager is often a student with little to no experience. It is a common situation for the stage manager to come into the job late in the creative process, not be involved with rehearsals, work with designers on a short timeline, and have a lack of assistants or backstage crew. It is not uncommon, in fact, for the stage manager to be the only backstage personnel and to be brought into the process for tech rehearsals only (sometimes as late as the day of the performance).

professional standards of your position.

14.2  Pre-production One of the many ways that a stage manager assists the dance production is in pre-production planning and organization. One of the important considerations is the stage manager’s contract. If operating under a union contract, the stage manager may not be available until rehearsals begin. In other instances, the stage manager might be considered more of a staff position, executing some of the day-to-day operations of pre-production. The following section lists some ways in which the stage manager might assist during pre-production.

Auditions The audition is an important event that allows choreographers the opportunity to see a wide range of dancers and cast available roles for their dance performance. The stage manager can play a pivotal role in the organizational process of auditions, especially if the auditions are for multiple dance pieces. When arranging the audition, it is common to have the stage manager(s) compile audition information that might be

248 PRODUCTION AREAS

included in the audition listing such as audition location,

for contact information. This is the contact sheet. The

time, number of roles being auditioned, performances

stage manager assembles the contact sheets for the

dates, etc. In addition, stage managers might be

production. It is common to have two separate contact

involved in the process of scheduling and booking an

sheets for cast and production staff. This information is

audition space. In this case, the stage manager should

collected from audition sheets and contact information

be intimately familiar with the rules of the space,

from designers and technicians. The stage manager

procedure for opening and locking up, and any special

must keep this information up to date and disseminate it

requirements such as piano or sound system.

to all the members of the production team.

When the time for auditions comes around, the stage

Assisting the Choreographer

management team will normally set up an audition table with registration forms. It is common for dancers to arrive with résumés and headshots. The stage management team will collect these and have the dancer fill out an audition form that includes contact information, physical information (height, weight, hair color), education and specialized training, scheduling information, and any important information about the production that the company would like the dancers to know. An important question to ask of the choreographer before auditions begin is how he/she wants to handle cuts. Some choreographers prefer to wait until the entire audition is complete to let dancers know they will not be cast. Others will make dancer cuts during the audition process in order to better study the dancers in whom they are most interested. Either method is acceptable, but the stage manager should know the preferred method before auditions begin. Some choreographers also prefer to have an audition with callbacks. Callbacks are the second round of auditions that bring in the short list of dancers to be seen a second time. This approach might offer the choreographer an opportunity to focus a bit more on basic skills in the first rounds of auditions and work a bit closely on the dancers’ interpretation of choreography in the callback.

Contact Sheets Since there are so many individuals involved in producing a dance, it is important to have one centralized location

Much of the stage manager’s role in the pre-production period is determined by the needs of the choreographer. Since every dance is different, even when working with the same choreographer, it is always important to determine his/her needs. Perhaps it is coordinating the arrangement of rehearsal props for the rehearsal space. Whenever possible, the stage manager or another member of the stage management team will assist the choreographer in tasks required to prepare for the rehearsal period. Sometimes the stage manager might be assigned to work with a number of different choreographers as well. In this case, the stage manager should be aware of all of the ways in which the dances interact, such as rehearsal times, use of similar dancers, etc. In some ways this setup is preferable, since the stage manager can enter into production meetings with a wider understanding of the needs of the production.

The Production Calendar Depending on the structure of your academic department or dance company, the stage manager might be handed a completed calendar, given a loose set of guidelines and asked to create the calendar, or any number of variations between. When assembling the calendar, it is important to consider for whom it is intended. For designers and other members of the production team, it is sufficient to create a standard calendar with the days of the week and month. For performers, it is likely that this type of graphic-based

249 STAGE MANAGEMENT

calendar will not be sufficient for containing all of the

and, as such, has a number of responsibilities linked to

necessary information. Often, rehearsals will include

the rehearsal process. Many dance companies do not

dozens of indications for individual performers, such as

utilize a stage manager during the rehearsal period,

their call time and when they are excused. For this type

or at least not for the entirety of it. This is often due to

of rehearsal calendar, it is often better to simply go with

the fact that budgets do not contain enough funds to

a text-based approach.

include the stage manager until closer to the technical

Meeting with the Production Team

rehearsals. For this reason, it is important for the stage manager to determine the expectations of his/her role

The stage manager is often responsible for organizing

before entering into the process. This section covers a

production meetings and recording minutes of the

number of concerns for the stage manager during the

production meeting. In some instances, a formalized

rehearsal period.

production meeting with all members of the production staff is not a possibility (due to scheduling conflicts,

Preparing the Rehearsal Space

non-local participants, or the dance company choosing

One of the duties of any stage manager is the preparation

to not have regularly scheduled meetings). By all

of the rehearsal space before rehearsals begin. There

accounts, the best-case scenario is having regularly

are multiple considerations to this process, many of

scheduled production meetings with all production

which will vary for different types of dance. Listed below

team members participating, whether in person or via

are some important questions to consider before the

teleconferencing. If this is not a possibility, though, the

dancers enter the rehearsal space.

wise stage manager will reach out to the production team members to communicate information about the project and determine their needs and expectations. It is not, strictly speaking, the stage manager’s job to accommodate the needs of each member of the production team. It is important to recognize, however, that the stage manager can serve an important function of gathering information from all parties and including them in regular correspondence with the entire team. In this way, each member of the production team has the opportunity to see what is going on in the other areas. This is especially important considering the collaborative nature of dance production and how one area’s choices can affect others.

14.3  Rehearsals Once the dance enters the rehearsal period, the stage manager’s role expands to include assisting the dancers in addition to the rest of the production team. The stage manager is the daily contact point for all of the company

250 PRODUCTION AREAS

●●

Is the rehearsal space the correct size?

●

This is an important question to address before rehearsals begin. If the dancers get accustomed to a certain amount of space, it is difficult to leave this muscle memory behind once they get into a different size performance space. This is particularly important for the choreographer as well. Sometimes there simply is not enough room to fit the entire cast of performers onstage at the same time. If this is the case, it must be understood from the beginning of rehearsals. The best practice is to determine the size of the performance space and tape out the constrictions of the performance space on the floor of the rehearsal space. In addition to the basic size and shape, if the dance will incorporate scenic elements that affect where the dancers can be positioned, it is important to spike out the placement of the set before rehearsals begin. This process requires a scale ground plan from the scenic designer and a

good understanding of how to interpret a drafting.

●

●●

Is there a sound system?

The stage manager uses a scale ruler to measure the

Since music is so important to the rehearsal

ground plan and multiple tape measures to precisely

process, it is always a good idea to know the details

measure out the placement of the scenery on the

of the sound system for the performance space.

stage and spike it in the rehearsal space.

Most dedicated dance rehearsal spaces will have a

There are a few options for marking the floor. Spike 

system in place for playing back CDs or inputting

tape is a special variety of thin cotton tape made

from a portable music player. Quite often, this

in a wide variety of colors. Spike tape typically

equipment might be locked up and require a key or

comes in ½˝ wide rolls and is used for “spiking”

combination to access, though. Also, if the space

important marks on the stage floor, such as set

does not include a sound system, then arrangements

placement or key locations for dancer placement to

must be made for bringing in a portable system

be appropriately placed in areas of lighting. Spike

for rehearsals. Likewise, it is important to discuss

tape can sometimes leave a residue or discolor

the sound needs with the choreographer and

Marley flooring, so it is important to know if the

sound designer. Some dances might require an

rehearsal space has rules about what can be used

accompanist for rehearsals. Does the space have a

as spike on the flooring. Sometimes it is preferable

piano? Has the accompanist been contracted for the

to use Marley tape, a vinyl tape intended for use on

rehearsal period? Even though these factors may

Marley dance floors. It typically comes in wider rolls

not be the responsibility of the stage manager to

(2–4˝) and can be cut down to the smaller strips used

arrange, it is always an important part of the stage

for spike marks.

manager’s role to ask the right questions. Are special rehearsal elements required?

●●

What are the rules of use for the space?

●

Another important consideration is the rules of use

Always ask the choreographer if there are special

for the rehearsal space, including basic policies

rehearsal elements required for the dance, such as

of unlocking and locking the space, acceptable

props, rehearsal costumes, video, etc. Since these

footwear, time limits, checking out equipment, and

elements are not a common requirement for the

more. Each space has its own unique rules and

rehearsal process, the only person who can speak to

limitations for use and it is important to know these

their need is the choreographer. If there are special

beforehand so this information can be communicated

needs, the stage manager can then contact the

to the choreographer. If, for instance, there are

necessary parties to inform them of the needs and

rules for the rehearsal space that keep music

timeline.

●●

from being played during certain times of day, this information would affect the rehearsal schedule.

FYI: The Stage Manager’s Kit

Some spaces may not allow for the use of tape on

All professional stage managers have a collection

the dance flooring. This can be a complication if

of essential supplies on hand for rehearsals and

there are scenic elements that must be represented

productions. This kit is normally held in some

for rehearsal purposes. A good stage manager will

sort of tackle box, duffle bag, or rolling suitcase—

always try to foresee any complications that may

depending on the stage manager’s preference. The

arise before going into rehearsal.

contents of the stage manager’s kit are typically

251 STAGE MANAGEMENT

an amalgam of first aid and office supplies.

During the Rehearsal

Sometimes the dance company will provide some

Once the rehearsal actually begins, the stage manager’s

of these items, though it is often a good idea for the professional stage manager to have their own supplies just in case. The following list is by no means exhaustive, but it would be a good starting point for the dance stage manager.

job is to assist the choreographer in the rehearsal process, supervise the dancers, and serve as the primary method of communication between the choreographer and other members of the cast and production team. The stage manager will create a cast list before rehearsals begin that includes a sign in for each rehearsal. When the

Keep in mind that the distribution of medicine is sometimes acceptable and at other times it can create a legal dilemma. Over-the-counter antiinflammatory medicines are beneficial in the event of an

dancers arrive, they will initial the sheet indicating that they are present. The stage management team will immediately contact any late arrivals, unless prior arrangements have been made. This process guards against a room full of

injury, but one should always ask about allergies before

people waiting on one person to show up.

distributing the medicine. Likewise, if the dancer is a

Once everyone has arrived and the rehearsal begins,

minor, the decision might best be left up to the parents. ●●

First aid supplies: Ace bandages, triangular bandages, Band-Aids of all sizes, gauze, blister plasters, instant heat/cold packs, nail clippers/nail file, antibiotic ointment, sterile medical gloves, throat lozenges, scissors for cutting bandages, tweezers, splinter removal kit, and Q-Tips.

●●

Basic medicines: Aspirin or other pain relievers, ibuprofen or other anti-inflammatories, cough drops, saline solution, antacid, and vitamin c supplements.

●●

Office supplies: Brads, stapler, paper clips, binder clips, hole punch, pens/pencils/markers/highlighters, pencil sharpener, scotch tape, Post-it notes, ruler, scale rule, scissors, whiteout pen, three-ring binder, blank paper, and reinforcement rings.

●●

Backstage supplies: Tape (Gaffer’s tape/spike tape/ glow tape/clear packing tape), measuring tape, batteries, flashlight, clip light, multi-tool, sewing kit, stopwatch, extension cord, and electrical plugging strip

●●

the stage manager’s role is to assist the choreographer in a number of different ways. The stage manager and choreographer should communicate beforehand to determine what services will be most useful. The stage manager can take specific movement and blocking notes or simply be there to observe and take general notes on the choreographer’s behalf. Whatever tasks the stage manager performs, this period is remarkably useful in that he/she will see the evolution of the dance and have a deeper understanding of the subtleties in the dance. This will be invaluable when it comes to calling the show, as the stage manager will understand all of the various parts of the dance completely.

Communication Communication is one of the most important aspects of the stage manager’s job. During the rehearsal period, this is performed in many different ways. The list below includes some of the ways in which the stage manager serves as the communication hub for the production.

Dancer supplies: Hand sanitizer, breath mints,

Rehearsal Announcements

hairpins, tissue, tampons, baby wipes, dental floss,

Since everyone is together for the rehearsal period,

and high-protein individual snacks.

this is often a good time to make announcements.

252 PRODUCTION AREAS

This might be a general announcement from the

same type of notes, so it is important to discuss with all

company regarding the upcoming performance or

of the production team what their needs might be.

specifics from the choreographer. Typically, rehearsal announcements are best placed at the end of rehearsal

14.4  Technical Rehearsals

when the dancers aren’t preparing for the rehearsal

Once the dance heads into technical rehearsals, the

and are free to take notes, as necessary. Sometimes,

stage manager’s role focuses on integrating all of the

the announcement might be as simple as reminding the

design, technical, and performance aspects into one

dancers to check the callboard for notes.

seamless package. The effective stage manager makes

The Callboard

this task look easy, even though it is without a doubt one of the most challenging roles in any type of production.

Many rehearsal and performance spaces use a bulletin

Planning and experience are essential to the success of

board to post information for the company. This is

the stage manager. Listed below are some thoughts for

referred to as the callboard. The callboard is a useful

how the stage manager can make the difficult task of

location for including notices such as rehearsal notes,

managing technical rehearsals a bit more manageable.

weekly schedules, fitting schedules, photo calls, and more. It is important to make sure everyone is aware of

Assembling the Prompt Book

the placement of the callboard and reminded to check

As mentioned earlier in the chapter, the prompt book is

it on a daily basis. It is also important to remember

a tool specifically used by the stage manager for calling

that the callboard is not the appropriate method for

cues in the show. As the stage manager approaches

disseminating sensitive or private information. The

the technical rehearsals, it is important to assemble a

stage manager must always be aware of the necessary

clean and legible prompt book that will be used for the

balance between communication and privacy.

production. For theatrical productions, this is typically a

Rehearsal Notes

three-ring binder with the script on one side (often the left side) and the notes on the opposite side (the right).

During the rehearsal process there are many different

Cues will be marked on one side with a line drawn to

types of notes that the stage manager takes for different

indicate the location in the script for calling the cue.

purposes. Since some of the design team may not be able to attend rehearsals, the stage manager is expected to provide answers to them regarding timing, tracking, and details. The stage manager is responsible for sending out a daily rehearsal report to all members of the production team to inform them of any information or questions that may have arisen during rehearsal. In addition to notes for the rehearsal report, stage management often tracks important information such as movement of props or set pieces (where items enter and exit), costume changes, and timing of certain

For dance productions, however, it is less common to have a true script. In lieu of a script, stage managers will often work with the choreographer to write out a shorthand script for calling the show, with descriptions of movements or music, the point in the running time when it would be called, and the cue name/description. For something of this nature, it is common for the stage manager to meet with the respective designers and assemble the cue script by combining information from the various designers’ cue sheets.

sequences that might relate to precise cueing of lights,

Another consideration is the type of prompt book

sound, or effects. No two dances will require the exact

used for longer story-driven dances, like ballet. When

253 STAGE MANAGEMENT

working with ballet or longer pieces, it is common for

manager. In this case, the production stage manager

the stage manager to create a prompt book from the

would often be responsible for hiring the necessary crew

musical score of the ballet. Since the orchestra will

members and communicating duties and schedules

be playing for the duration of the performance, the

before technical rehearsals begin. Even if this is not

score is a natural method for marking and calling cues.

the case, the stage manager should make an effort to

This means that the ability to read music is a must

reach out to all crew members, communicate duties,

for those interested in stage managing these types of

and answer any questions that might arise. All crews

productions. In truth, all dancers and those working in

should have a designated crew head that supervises the

dance production should have a passing familiarity with

crew and reports to the stage manager. Each crew head

musical notation and music terminology.

should have a detailed schedule and checklist of duties

The Paper Tech

for each performance, as well as receiving any training necessary to performing his/her role in the performance

As mentioned in previous chapters, some dance

space. In an academic environment, it is not uncommon

companies have a special meeting called the paper

to find crews comprised of dancers who have little to no

tech, in which all designers, the choreographer, and

technical experience. In this case, it is doubly important

the stage manager meet to talk through the cues and

to ensure the crew is properly trained in expectations

cue placement in the production. This is much more

and safe operation of any stage equipment. While this

common in academic environments and resident

responsibility may fall to the technical director or house

companies with in-house production support. When the

technician, the stage manager should make an effort to

production team is made up of freelance artists, it is

reach out to all crew members and identify these needs.

sometimes difficult to carve out a time for everyone to meet. In this case, it is essential that the stage manager

Assemble a Tech Packet for Dancers

receives cue sheets from the designers in advance so

Another useful tool that the stage manager often

that he/she can incorporate the separate cues into the

generates is an informational packet to give to the

prompt book.

dance company before heading into tech. This packet

Communicating with Cast and Crew

might contain useful information such as schedules, house rules for the performance space, maps (should

One of the main roles of the stage manager is to ensure

the dancers need directions to the performance space),

communication flows between all parties and that the

and any other information that might be of use to the

information remains both timely and consistent. This

company. This is particularly useful when taking a dance

is the reason that all information should be vetted

on tour, as each individual performance might offer up

through the stage manager. As the company nears

its own unique challenges.

tech rehearsals, the stage manager should reach out to both cast and crew to ensure all parties have all the

Daily Schedules

necessary information.

Since the stage manager will be sending out daily

Check in with Crew Members

reports to both cast and production staff, it is important to include with these messages a detailed schedule for

As mentioned before, many companies utilize the stage

the following day. These schedules, sometimes called

manager as a production manager or production stage

dailies, must be sent out as soon as possible to ensure

254 PRODUCTION AREAS

the performers are sufficiently prepared for call times.

Early Arrival

The schedule should include call times (the time at

The stage manager is often one of the first people in

which individuals are required to report to the theatre), release times (when people are free to go), and the evening schedule for things like sweeping and mopping the floor, lighting/sound/projections check, company warm-ups, curtain time, and anything else of specific importance.

the building. In some spaces, he/she would arrive early and unlock doors, turn on lights, and prepare for crew arrival. In other spaces, there might be a house tech crew that takes care of these responsibilities. Either way, it is always a good idea for the stage manager to be in the space from the moment it is available

FYI: A Word for the Dancers Throughout the rehearsal and performance process, the choreographer and stage manager will be your

so he/she can begin the process of prepping for the performance.

Check-in

constant points of contact. Keep in mind that, once

Before going into technical rehearsals, the stage

tech begins, you will be interacting with a wide

management team should create a check-in sheet

range of designers and technicians whose jobs are

that lists each cast and crew member. Beside each

multifaceted and demanding. Remember the rule of

name there should be a box for checking in. When the

thumb for communication protocol is to always go

performer or crew member arrives, he/she should

to your choreographer first. The designers always

initial the box. The stage management team will then

welcome the input of the dancers, but it can be

check the list to ensure all participants are present

difficult during the process of tech to address the

and on time. Should there be a late arrival, the stage

concerns of every dancer who brings up an idea. If

manager or assistant stage manager will call this

you have a question or comment about a production

person to determine their location and estimated arrival

element, bring it up with the choreographer, who will

time. While this may seem a bit tedious or excessive,

in turn talk to the stage manager and designers or

this system ensures that stage management will have

address the concern with the appropriate designer

sufficient time to locate and put in an understudy or

and/or crew member. This type of professionalism

replacement dancer, should this be necessary.

will make you look like a seasoned pro and get you hired back again. Everyone likes working with a team player.

Technical Checks Typically the crew will arrive a bit earlier than the performers so that there is time for running through

14.5  During the Run

various crew checks. Common checks during this time period are dimmer checks (making sure all of the lights

Once the show is up and running, the stage manager

are functioning properly), sound check, projections

transitions to a dual role of calling the show and

check, and headset check (to ensure all of the headsets

ensuring that the production remains true to the vision

are properly functioning). During this time period, it is

of the choreographer and designers. Listed below

important that the stage manager checks in with each

are some common responsibilities that occur during

crew head to determine if their pre-show checks have

the run.

been done and if there was anything amiss. If so, this

255 STAGE MANAGEMENT

would need to be addressed before opening or marked

14.6  Chapter Review

in the production notes to be fixed before the following

The stage manager has one of the most difficult jobs

performance.

Giving Calls Once dancers arrive in the performance space, the stage manager is responsible for keeping everyone aware of the time remaining until the curtain goes up. There are a number of different events that must occur at specific times, such as sweeping and mopping the stage, technical checks, dancers getting into costumes, stretching/warm-ups, etc. Typically, the stage manager will make an announcement on the theatre’s intercom system at the top of the call, letting everyone backstage know what time it is and how long remains until the house is open (when the audience enters the auditorium). Most theatre spaces open the house 30 minutes before the curtain goes up. At this point, the stage manager will announce to the backstage that the house is open and give a 30-minute warning. After this, there will be a 15-minute warning for dancers to be in places, followed by a 5-minute warning, and

of all the roles in performing arts. He/she must be a master communicator with the ability to juggle with one hand while taking notes with the other, all the while watching the stage and talking to multiple people over a headset. The stage manager, above all else, is dedicated to working behind the scenes to facilitate collaboration and help others out. From the initial discussions with designers, to the rehearsal period, to running the show and interacting with the company, the stage manager works with the greatest number of individuals in the production process. The role of the stage manager is fluid, with duties and expectations changing during the production process from pre-production planning to auditions, rehearsals, technical rehearsals, and running the show. The stage manager who can successfully balance the needs of the creative staff, dancers, crew, and performance space staff will be an invaluable member of the production team whose work is always in demand.

finally a call for places. The specific times may change

Review Questions

according to different companies, but the process

  1.  What is a production stage manager?

remains similar.

  2.  What is the role of the assistant stage manager?

Working with House Management

  3.  Explain the purpose of a callboard.

In addition to communicating with the cast and crew

  4.  What type of information is included in a rehearsal

backstage, the stage manager is also in communication with the house management for the performance space. The house manager is the individual who interacts with the box office and patrons and determines if the show will start on time or if there is to be a delay in order to get all of the patrons seated (called “holding the curtain”). The house manager will communicate to the stage manager once the house has been closed and, only then, the stage manager communicates with the cast and crew that the show can begin.

256 PRODUCTION AREAS

report?   5.  What are some of the duties of stage management at auditions?   6.  What are some of the stage manager’s responsibilities related to the rehearsal space?   7.  What is spike tape and how is it used?   8.  Explain the use of a stage manager’s prompt book.   9.  What is a paper tech? 10.  Describe the activities a stage manager undertakes during the performance run.

The Stage Manager’s Perspective: An Interview  with Julie Ballard

on, Power Goes, I was brought in quite early just to

Julie Ballard is a Chicago-based lighting designer,

as the lighting designer). We were lucky enough to

photographer, production/stage manager, and sound/ media designer. She worked as the lighting director at the Dance Center of Columbia College for nearly eight years, and is owner/operator of Overlap Lighting Productions. As an independent, freelance artist, Ms. Ballard is an artistic associate with Signal Ensemble

start getting ideas (more often than not I am doubling recently complete a technical residency at the Museum of Contemporary Art here in Chicago, and right up until I put the company in a stand-by, I am still the lighting designer. During our main run of the piece, I saw maybe five cues that I could take any type of lighting notes for. I’m usually having to record the show, watch the lighting there, and

Theatre and Unnatural Spaces, as well as technical

make adjustments from that.

director for The Seldoms, Same Planet/Different World,

Other times, I’m brought in two or three weeks before.

and Deeply Rooted Dance Theatre. Ms. Ballard has been

Again, 99 percent of the time (and I really can’t think of

a part of numerous festivals as well as American Dance

a time where I just called a show) I’m doing double duty.

Festival, and has toured nationally and internationally

Based on budgets during a tech week, I’ve seen the piece

with David Dorfman Dance and The Seldoms. Ms.

(recorded it from rehearsal) and I’m laying the Marley,

Ballard holds a B.A. in Theater, and earned her M.F.A. in

spiking the floor, getting the space ready for folks to

Lighting Design from the University of Florida.

arrive, and then switching gears back to design the lights

Do you have any background in dance beyond the design/tech aspects?

(sometimes set up QLab for sound), and then calling/ running lights and sound for the performance.

I have never even taken a dance class.

Are there any tricks/tools of the trade that you find you

How did you get into stage management for dance?

production?

While working on my M.F.A. at the University of Florida, I was introduced to some folks that were quite awesome. Kelly Drummond Cawthon (Shapiro and Smith Dance Company) took me under her wing and began to teach me what her SMs [stage managers] did for the company. I was aware that there were differences between theatre and dance, but I didn’t know how much. I went out on a summer five-city tour and got handed a priceless gift of what being an SM for dance was all about. You really need to be a Jill/Jack of all trades in the mid-size

just can’t live without when stage managing a dance Spreadsheets, schedules, and communication. I know what you are thinking—really? Recently, I filled in for an LD [lighting designer] that had a family emergency and in the beginning email correspondence it took three emails to even get the basic info of their name! Other than that: clear vinyl tape—don’t pull the backing off of glow tape to stick it to the floor. Just cut and cover it with the clear tape, you will save yourself hours pulling up goo off the floor!

dance company world here in Chicago.

Have you done stage management for theatrical

What is the typical process for you as a stage manager?

description differ for the two worlds?

It differs from project to project. I work with The Seldoms, under the direction of Carrie Hanson (Dance Magazine’s 25 to Watch 2012). For the new project we are working

productions? If so, in what ways do you see the job I have not stage managed for theatre since undergrad. When I started doing lighting, I couldn’t give up enough

257 STAGE MANAGEMENT

time to devote just to one show, those SMs are special,

differences you noticed in American vs. international

special people!

work?

Calling a dance piece is very different than a theatre piece—

Sometimes in Eastern Europe the [facilities and

there is no “script” that you can follow along with. You learn

equipment promised in] correspondence [are] not what

the piece or you miss cues. Setting up a cue sheet so that

is there when you get there. I was promised a great

it makes sense to you (and in a pinch to someone else) is

lighting rig on one show and we showed up and had a less

crucial. Again, it sounds silly, but my chicken scratch of cue

than desirable plot. What I say in that situation, you need

notes needs to make sense to someone outside.

to know your show! I also once had to give hand cues to my

I often give a cue sheet to the choreographer at the end of a

video op. because there was no other communication and

run, so that they have a record of what was done, and if they

no way to get light board and video computer in the same

need to remount it for a festival situation.

room or area.

I know that you also do lighting design as well. Do you

What advice would you give to a young artist interested

find that your work as a stage manager is affected by

in stage management for dance?

your lighting design experience? And vice versa?

Be a sponge! Learn everything, and take at least one

I’m a better LD because of the SM world. I have a great

class in each of the disciplines. Educate yourself, be

sense of timing with cues. In dance, for me, I really don’t do one without the other. I actually find it hard to turn over a dance design to a different SM. In theatre, no problem, here

involved, and don’t be afraid to ask questions. You really don’t know how and where your experiences will lead you. I’ve been from New York to San Francisco, Siberia

take my design and enjoy the run!

to South Africa—the better “armed” you are, the more

I know you have worked internationally on some dance

that interest you!

productions. Tell us a bit about that and if there were

258 PRODUCTION AREAS

employable you become, and you might find new things

PART III QUICK REFERENCE

CHAPTER 15 DANCE TERMINOLOGY One forgets words as one forgets names. One’s vocabulary needs constant fertilizing or it will die. Evelyn Waugh

Hubbard Street Dancers Jessica Tong, left, and Jesse Bechard in One Thousand Pieces by Resident Choreographer Alejandro Cerrudo. Costumes by Thomas Mika. Lighting Design by Michael Korsch. Photo by Todd Rosenberg.

Every successful collaborative project relies on good

of describing this method of choreography, with the

communication. One of the challenges in a multi-

repetitive use of movements or gestures that gradually

disciplinary endeavor such as dance production is

build up, or “accumulate.”

making sure everyone is communicating in the same language. Some years back, when I first began polling colleagues about what would be most useful in a dance production text, the most frequent request was a glossary of commonly used terms. These final chapters present just that—a quick reference guide of common

Alternate In dance, an alternate is a role performed by more than one dancer. Unlike an understudy, who only performs if someone gets hurt or can’t go on, an alternate is guaranteed some number of performances.

terms used in both the dance and theatre world. Neither

And

chapter is meant to represent the entire canon of dance

The “and” refers to the half-beat that is

or theatrical terminology, as that would be two separate

counted between the consistent down beat of

books worth of material. Instead, I have tried to distill

music—i.e. counting rhythms out for a dance as

the information down to the terms that will be of the

“one-and-two-and-three-and-four-and…”

most use to the uninitiated from either dance or theatre. This should be a good starting point to give you a working vocabulary of some of the most essential terms and concepts.

Arabesque A ballet term referring to a dancer standing on one leg with the other leg extended behind the body with a straight knee. There are a number of different arabesque

As a final thought, when in doubt please ask a question!

positions, defined by the placement of the arms in

It is so much better to know that you truly understand

relation to the body (Figure 15.1).

what is being said rather than to smile and pretend. This will lead to problems down the road. I hope that you find this as useful and interesting as I did when compiling it.

A

Attitude A ballet position similar to arabesque, but with the extended leg bent at the knee (Figure 15.2). The position can either be attitude devant (with the leg extended in front of the dancer) or attitude derrière (with the leg extended behind the dancer).

Abstract dance

En avant

An abstract dance refers to a type of choreography that

The French term, meaning “forward,” or to execute a

does not follow a narrative construction. Another way

move towards the audience.

to look at this is “movement for the sake of movement,” that is, not related to story, symbolism, ideas, or associations. Accumulation The notable choreographer Trisha Brown created a dance called Accumulation in 1971, comprised of dancers meticulously working through the graduated gestures of the piece. The title became used widely as a way

262 QUICK REFERENCE

B Ballet Ballet is the theatrical work which a choreographer creates to express his/her ideas through solo and group dancing to musical accompaniment, including scenery, costumes, and lighting.

F I G UR E 15. 1

A dancer in arabesque. Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

Ballet (Classical) A formal and structured style of dance that originated in the French courts in the sixteenth century. Classical ballet is typically performed to classical music and combines together highly technical dance work with elaborate scenery, lighting, and costumes in order to tell a story. It is often characterized by the use of light, graceful, and fluid choreographed movement. The term classical ballet is often used loosely to refer to the type of ballet that adheres to the performance framework established in the nineteenth century. Ballet (Romantic) Romantic ballet refers to the type of ballet created in the early nineteenth century. Based on the artistic concepts of Romanticism, the ballets often featured themes revolving around a return to nature or the supernatural. The Romantic ballets showed a decline in the use of male ballet dancers, and instead focused on the ballerina. Ballet blanc Ballet blanc, literally translated as “white ballet,” refers to the Romantic style of ballet popularized in the nineteenth century in such works as La Sylphide, Giselle, or Swan Lake. The term originates from the tradition of dressing the ballerinas and corps de ballet in all white Romantic tutus. Bar (measure) In musical terms, a bar refers to a section of the musical composition that contains a certain number of beats. In some instances, the measure may begin with an accented beat, as in the case of a waltz. For instance, waltzes are written with measures containing three beats. The first beat is a strong down beat, with the last two beats having a lesser emphasis (i.e. 1-2-3, 1-2-3…). F IG UR E 15. 2

Dancers in attitude devant. Photo courtesy of Randy Mascharka, Eastern Michigan University.

263 DANCE TERMINOLOGY

F IG UR E 15. 3

Barre work. Photo courtesy of Jim Lamberson.

of eight beats and starting over again at one (i.e. 5-6-7-8-1-2-3-4…).

C Canon See also unison. In choreographic terms, the repetition of choreographed movement by a number of dancers starting at different points of time. Character artist See also corps de ballet, coryphée, principal, and soloist. A senior position within a ballet company, the character artist often performs roles within the ballet that require a great deal of acting, as well as dancing. Seasoned Barre French for “bar,” this horizontal railing is either

professionals within the company or guest artists hired on for the ballet often fill these positions.

attached to a studio wall or free standing on support

Choreographer

legs (Figure 15.3). The railing is used primarily at the

The choreographer is the artist who envisions the

beginning of a class period for stretching, warming up,

movement of the dance. Though there are a number of

or performing specific exercises—commonly referred to

different choreographic methods, most choreographers

as barre work.

work specifically with the production staff and

Battement

performers to ensure their vision is realized onstage.

An extension of the leg to the front, side, or back,

Coda

creating a beating action of the extended or bent leg.

In ballet, the final suite of dances (called the grand

Beat See also down beat and up beat.

pas) is used as a high-energy showcase for the dancers. The coda, literally translated as “tail,” refers to the concluding portion of the grand pas, in which

A beat is the primary unit of time used to measure both

the principal performers execute the finale—either

music and dance. It is the regular repeating pulse that

separately or with their partners. If a large number of

is felt when listening to the music. In dance terms, the

performers participate, this might be referred to as the

beat is often a series of pulses counted aloud while

coda générale or grand coda générale.

learning choreography—often occurring in a sequence

264 QUICK REFERENCE

Contemporary dance

sometimes perform solos, while maintaining their

Contemporary dance is a form of dance that emerged in

position in the corps de ballet.

the mid-twentieth century, best illustrated by the works of Merce Cunningham. In terms of style, contemporary dance draws on both classical ballet and modern dance,

D

creating a movement language drawing from a number

Dance captain

of different sources. Contemporary dance is typically an

A role most often seen in musical theatre, the dance

unpredictable, non-narrative form of dance that focuses

captain is a dancer who is in charge of overseeing

on creative freedom. Often, contemporary dance features

dancers in a production, maintaining the choreography,

the use of scenery, lighting, projection, and sound

and running “put-in” dance rehearsals for an understudy

elements functioning independently from the dance

coming into a role.

elements.

Dance theatre

Contraction

See also Tanztheater.

See also release.

Dance theatre is a term used to describe a genre

A common term used in Graham technique, Horton

of performance that blends together performance

technique, and jazz. In Graham’s technique, all

elements from both dance and theatre. Dance theatre

movement was based around the opposite movement

is similar to musical theatre, with less of a focus on the

concepts of “contraction and release.” The process of

dramatic storytelling through the use of song. Though

contracting the abdominal muscles to make the lower

dance theatre may incorporate dialogue and some song,

back curve out and the abdomen appear hollowed out.

the focus will remain on storytelling through dance.

In contraction, the shoulders should remain positioned above the hips. Corps de ballet See also character artist, coryphée, principal, and soloist. In ballet, there are typically three tiers of performers in the company: principals, soloists, and the corps de ballet, or corps for short. Literally translated as the “body of the ballet,” the corps is a group of dancers who do not have lead roles but perform in group numbers, similar to a chorus role in the theatre. Most often, the corps is composed of a greater number of females than males.

En diagonale The French term meaning “on the diagonal.” Down beat See also beat, up beat. The down beat refers to the first beat of a measure of music, i.e. number one. In many musical styles it is also the accented, or emphasized, beat of the bar.

E Evening length dance

Coryphée

A dance piece, at least one act in length, which could be

See also character artist, corps de ballet, principal, and

used as a stand-alone performance.

soloist. A coryphée is a member of the corps de ballet who has been elevated to a higher rank within the corps. They

265 DANCE TERMINOLOGY

Extension This term is used in a number of different dance styles to refer to extending an arm or leg away from the body and holding it in place for a period of time. Often, the extension is an exaggerated pose or posture, done to accentuate a particular bodyline and to create an interesting picture at the end of a phrase.

F En face A French term referring to the dancer facing the audience. Fall A term used to describe a dancer quickly dropping his/ her body to the floor with the weight centered over the ball of the supporting foot. Freeze

J Jeté A ballet term that means “throwing.” Though the term is often combined with other words, when used by itself it means to lightly spring off of the floor on one foot and land on the other.

L Legato In dance, as in music, legato refers to a sense of movement that does not stop, creating a smooth sense of connected movement without breaks between the motions. Lift A lift is a dance movement in which one partner lifts the other so that both feet are off of the floor. There are many different variations on lift types.

When the dancer instantly stops movement and holds a fixed body position. Full out See also mark. To run the dance as choreographed, executing each move in the proper time and place with the music. Show conditions.

G Grand pas See also coda. In ballet, the grand pas is a suite of dances of the ballet, used as a showcase for the dancers. This suite of dances comes towards the end of an act or at the finale of the ballet itself. Though there are different variations on the grand pas, it typically consists of the entreé (the introduction), the grand adage (also referred to as the adagio, in Italian), which features dance partnering, and the coda.

266 QUICK REFERENCE

M Mark (mark it) When a choreographer uses the term “mark it,” he/ she refers to running the dance with the music, keeping your general place on the stage, but without executing the more complex moves like lifts or falls. This is often done in a technical rehearsal setting for the benefit of the designers to see the placement of dancers onstage without making the dancers physically exhausted by running the dance “full out” each time. Merde Like all of the performing arts, it is considered bad luck to say “good luck” before a dance performance. In music and theatre, performers often say “break a leg” instead of good luck. For opera, the phrase “toi, toi, toi” is used, often accompanied with knocking on wood and

spitting (whether literally or feigning the act) to ward off bad luck or a hex. Dancers prefer to use the word merde, the French curse word literally meaning “shit.” Like all superstitions in the performing arts, there are a number of wildly different theories on why this became the norm. One posits that in the olden days a successful ballet would be visited by a number of the wealthy elite who arrived in horse-drawn carriages. The more successful the show, the larger the pile of horse droppings. Another theory is that in the olden days, animals were often onstage for performances, leaving droppings. The term merde would be used before the performance to wish the dancer good luck and a reminder to avoid stepping in the manure. Whatever the true origin of the term, it has remained a part of dance vocabulary in theatres across the world.

N Notation The process of documenting the choreography for a dance. There are two main methods for notation: Labanotation and Benesh notation.

P Pas de deux In ballet, the pas de deux refers to a dance for two. The French word pas, meaning “step,” is combined with a number of other words to describe numerous ballet terms. Since most of these other terms are never shortened, the pas de deux is sometimes simply referred to by dancers as the pas, for short. All classical ballets have at least one pas de deux, so it might be necessary

Modern dance

to indicate which specific pas de deux is being referenced

In many circles, the terms modern dance and

(i.e. the Giselle Act 1 pas de deux).

contemporary dance are used interchangeably. When referring to specific dance movements, however, modern dance typically refers to the type of dance that emerged in the late nineteenth century and continued on until the late 1950s. Modern dance

Phrase A phrase is a series of dance movements that create a sense of choreographic pattern, typically with the distinct feeling of having a beginning and end.

was a direct response to classical ballet, leaving

Pirouette

behind the strict forms, tight corsets, and pointe

French for “spinning,” this term describes a dancer

shoes and embracing a freer sense of movement and

spinning on one leg with the other off the ground.

expression. Martha Graham, Mary Wigman, and Lester Horton are three pioneers of modern dance. As the movement progressed, artists such as Paul Taylor, Twyla Tharp, and Alvin Ailey continued in the modern tradition.

Plié This is a key position in ballet that allows the dancer to execute a number of different moves. Derived from the French word meaning “to bend,” a plié is the bending of the legs outward at the knees with the heels positioned

Motif

on the floor. The grand plié is a deeper version of this

A theme or idea that makes up a pattern in a work

bend, in which the heels lift slightly off the floor when

of art. In dance, a motif is most often a movement or

the dancer reaches the lowest part of the bend.

gesture that becomes the framework for repetition and variation, creating a pattern that appears within the work.

En pointe See also pointe shoes.

267 DANCE TERMINOLOGY

To support the weight of the body on the tips of the toes,

Post-modernism

while wearing pointe shoes.

In dance, post-modernism refers to the twentieh-

Pointe shoes See also en pointe. Pointe shoes are special ballet shoes devised for dancers (typically female) to perform en pointe. These shoes are typically covered in satin with no heel and a reinforced toe called the box that helps support the weight of the dancer. Pointe shoes are secured onto the ankle through the use of ribbon and/or elastic straps (Figure 15.4).

century dance movement whose work reacted to the compositional and presentational forms of modern dance. Post-modern dance championed the notion that all movement is dance and supported novel new methods of dance composition. Though short-lived (mostly in the 1960s and 1970s), post-modernism formed the bridge between modern and contemporary dance. Famous post-modern choreographers include Trisha Brown, Yvonne Rainer, and Judson Church. Principal See also character artist, corps de ballet, coryphée, and soloist. The term principal dancer, or simply principal for short, describes the highest rank of dancer within a professional dance company, particularly in ballet. In short, the principal dancers are the marquee performers who have earned a position of prominence in the company and play the lead roles. Principal dancers are typically hired by the company or promoted from within the company ranks to take on both solo and pas de deux pieces. Principals may also occasionally take on a guest performer position at a separate dance company.

Q Qualities of movement The qualities of movement, sometimes referred to as dynamics, are a group of six terms used to describe the nature of physical movement. These terms are particularly useful when describing choreography and should be a working part of every dance artist’s vocabulary. 1. 

Swing: A type of movement that appears the most natural in performance. It begins with a slight

F I G UR E 15. 4

impulse and allows the movement of the dancer to

Pointe shoes. Photo courtesy of Jim Lamberson.

268 QUICK REFERENCE

2. 

3. 

follow the natural flow of gravity along the natural

Release

path of an arc. A free sense of movement.

See also contraction.

Sustained (see also legato): Sustained movement

A common term used in a number of different

is smooth and even, without the perception

dance techniques (including Graham, Cunningham,

of accent or abrupt starts/stops. This type of

Horton, Laban, etc.). Release refers to a relaxing or

movement uses a continual release of energy and

arching movement of the body. In Graham’s technique, for

requires a heightened amount of physical control.

instance, all movement was based around the opposite

Compared to musical terms, sustained movement

movement concepts of “contraction and release.” In

is comparable to the term legato (some artists

addition to a movement, release can refer to “release

might use the terms interchangeably).

technique,” a movement practice that focuses on

Percussive: A type of movement that is short,

breathing, relaxation, and the use of gravity and

choppy, and has a broken, disconnected sense to it.

momentum to create efficient movement.

In musical terms, this type of movement might be referred to as staccato. This is in direct opposition to sustained movement. 4. 

Suspending: The moment when all opposing forces reach equilibrium—the moment, for instance,

performed by an individual or a dance company. Repertory concert A concert featuring several shorter dances.

dancer is suspended at the peak of a jump. This is

Retrograde

moment before the body succumbs to gravity and falls to the floor. Vibratory: Quick, repetitive, and percussive movements that produce the visual effect of vibration. In vibratory movement, energy is exerted in brief, intermittent spurts. 6. 

The collection of choreographic works commonly

when after exerting a great amount of energy, the the moment when kinetic energy has run out, the

5. 

Repertoire

Collapse: Collapse is a movement in which gravity takes over and the movement takes the dancer towards the floor. It can occur in a gradual or sudden fashion. Often collapse is followed by a recovery movement upwards.

R Re-staging

This term is often used by choreographers in reference to the performance of choreography in reverse—from end to beginning. Run To execute the performance of a dance from beginning to end without stopping.

S Site specific The term site specific refers to any dance piece created for performance in a specific location, most often not a traditional performance space. Site specific works include locations such as art galleries, elevators, shopping malls, or even rock quarries.

A new interpretation of a pre-existing work of

Soloist

choreography.

See also character artist, corps de ballet, coryphée, and principal.

269 DANCE TERMINOLOGY

In ballet, there are typically three tiers of performers in

The German term, meaning “dance theatre.” This

the company: principals, soloists, and the corps de ballet.

style of German Expressionist dance emerged during

The soloist is a performer who has earned the rank

Weimar Germany. Rudolf Laban was the most famous

above the corps, but not yet attained principal status.

artist working in this style. He believed that Tanztheater

In many dance companies, the soloists perform dance

represented a new interdisciplinary total art form.

solos and understudy the principal roles, occasionally

Tanztheater combines dance, speaking, chanting, and

performing them.

song with traditional theatrical devices to create a

Spotting A technique used during pirouettes and other turning

performance with no narrative plot, focusing instead on a train of thought or central theme.

movements to keep the dancer from getting dizzy. The

Tempo

dancer focuses on one spot (often a light in the back of

In dance, as in music, tempo refers to the speed at which

the auditorium called a “spotting light”) as the turn is

something is performed, measured in number of beats

made, keeping his/her eyes on that spot until the head

per minute (bpm).

has no choice but to whip around.

Turnout

Sprung

Turnout refers to a dancer turning his/her feet or legs at

A term referring to the process of creating a floor surface

a 90-degree angle away from the hips. Also referred to

with the ability to flex and move under the dancer. A sprung

as rotation.

floor is typically made using a special wooden framework or foam blocks beneath the performance surface, allowing for flexibility of the floor. This type of floor absorbs shock and is easier on the dancers’ knees and joints.

Tutu The traditional costume for a ballerina, composed of multiple layers of net. The tutu comes in a number of different styles, often associated with specific ballet

Supporting leg

styles (i.e. the Romantic tutu for Romantic ballet). The

See also working leg.

tutu is often worn accompanied with a bodice.

The supporting leg refers to the leg that holds up the weight of the body during a dance move, in contrast to the working leg, which does the movement.

U Unison

T

See also canon.

Tableau

number of dancers performing identical choreography at

Tableau is a French term meaning “picture.” In dance

the same time.

terms, this refers to the dancers freezing in one position to create a stage picture. Tanztheater See also dance theatre.

As the name implies, unison is a term referring to a

Up beat See also beat and down beat. The up beat refers to the last beat in a bar of music. When looking at a sequence of musical bars, the up beat is the beat that anticipates the first beat (or down beat) of a bar.

270 QUICK REFERENCE

V

W

Variation

Working leg

In ballet terms, a variation is a solo dance performed in

See also supporting leg.

a classical ballet.

The working leg refers to the leg performing the movement, in contrast to the supporting leg, which holds up the weight of the body.

271 DANCE TERMINOLOGY

CHAPTER 16 THEATRE/STAGECRAFT TERMINOLOGY The limits of my language mean the limits of my world. Ludwig Wittgenstein

A photo from the studio collection “Lighting Drama” by Richard Calmes. Photography by Richard Calmes.

A Amplifier An amplifier, or amp for short, is an electrical device used to take low-power audio signals and amplify them to a level powerful enough to activate a loudspeaker. Apron See also proscenium line. The area of the stage, downstage of the proscenium line, that extends out towards the audience. Arena stage Arena staging, or theatre in the round, is a type of stage featuring audience on all four sides of the stage. Typically, the seating is raked so that the audience is looking down on the stage.

B

F IG UR E 16. 1

A batten, in the foreground. Photo by Jeromy Hopgood.

Back light See also front light, side light, top light, up-light. An angle of light in which the lighting instrument is

Batten

positioned to project light from the upstage to the

See also fly.

downstage, illuminating the back of the figure. This type

A long metal pipe suspended above the stage from which

of lighting accentuates the head and shoulders of a figure and visually separates the form from the background. Barn door

lighting and scenic elements are hung (Figure 16.1). In a theatre with a fly system, the batten can be lowered to stage level or raised out of sight high above the stage

See also Fresnel.

deck.

A lighting accessory attached to the color slot of a

Black box

lighting instrument (often a Fresnel) with four hinged

A small, simple performance space—frequently with four

panels used to shape the beam of light.

walls and black masking curtains along the sides (ergo

Bastard amber A color of lighting medium frequently used for dance lighting. The resulting colored lighting is a slightly

black box). Black box spaces often feature adjustable seating so the audience orientation can be reconfigured for different styles of performance.

warmer “white light” with a pinkish hue. Bastard amber

Blackout

is a popular color for dance lighting as it naturally

To turn out all of the stage lighting and leave a

enhances a wide variety of skin tones.

completely darkened stage.

274 QUICK REFERENCE

Blacks

Circuit

Black velour curtains used for masking purposes on the

See also dimmer, stage-pin connector.

stage—legs, borders, and full-stage blackout curtains.

The plug into which a lighting instrument is connected

Boom

to provide electricity. In most theatres, the circuit is

A vertical lighting position, typically in the wings of the

connected directly to a dimmer that provides variable

theatre, used as a side lighting position. Booms feature

electrical flow. Most theatrical circuits utilize the stage-

a steel boom base on the floor into which a tall vertical

pin connector.

pipe is threaded. Since booms are frequently top heavy,

Color drop

it is also common to use sand or shot bags placed on the boom base to keep them from tipping over.

Color drop, or dropping color, is a term that refers to dropping of gels into the lighting instruments. For dance

Border

concerts, it is common to have stagehands drop color

A border is a masking curtain that hangs horizontally

in the side lights between the different dance pieces,

from a batten above the stage. Its primary purpose is for

enabling the lighting designer to achieve a wider variety

masking lighting instruments and scenery that might

of looks.

be flown overhead. Some people might refer to a border

Crescent wrench

as a teaser, but technically speaking the teaser is the furthest downstage border used to frame out the top of

A type of wrench commonly used for hanging and

the proscenium opening.

focusing lighting instruments and other types of

Boundary mic

an adjustable spanner whose opening is opened or

A specific type of microphone designed for being placed on the perimeter of the stage, typically placed on the stage floor. This microphone is commonly used in dance performances to reinforce the sounds made by a dancer. Common models are the PCC (Phase Coherent Cardiod), which picks up sound from one direction, and PZM (Pressure Zone Microphone) that picks up sound in all directions.

equipment (Figure 16.2). The crescent wrench features closed by turning a threaded spindle. The proper name for a crescent wrench is the adjustable wrench (US) or adjustable spanner (UK). In the US and Canada, the most popular manufacturer of the wrench was the Crescent Tool Company, leading to the common term “crescent wrench.” Some people refer to the crescent wrench as a “c-wrench” for short. Cross

C

To move from one part of the stage to another (i.e. to

Catwalk

Cross-fade

A series of elevated walkways above the stage floor, often where lighting positions are located.

cross down, to cross right, etc…).

Cross-fade is a term that refers to shifting from one cue into another over a period of time. As the first cue

Centerline

is fading out, the second cue begins to fade up, creating

The imaginary reference point running down the center

a seamless transition between the two cues. This term

of the stage from the upstage to the downstage, dividing the stage at the center.

can be used to refer to transitions in lighting, sound, or projections.

275 THEATRE/STAGECRAFT TERMINOLOGY

particular event, such as a dancer entering or a scenic change. Cyclorama The cyclorama, or cyc for short, is a large grey or light blue stretched drop positioned upstage as a backdrop. The cyc is commonly used for lighting effects to create a colorful background for dance.

D Dark 1. 

Dark is a term used to refer to a day on which there is no show at the theatre, i.e. The theatre is dark on Mondays.

2. 

Going dark is a phrase used to describe turning off lights, either on the stage or in the auditorium. Before turning off stage lights during a rehearsal, it is common etiquette to announce “going dark” so that no one is caught by surprise.

Dead hung A term that refers to rigging an object overhead without FI GU RE 16.2

A crescent wrench.

Crossover See also cyclorama.

the intention of it ever flying. Deck The stage floor—particularly in instances where a stage floor is laid atop of the main stage floor.

A crossover is the space used to cross from one

Diffusion

side of the stage to the other without being visible to

Diffusion is a specific type of gel made of a thicker,

the audience. For dance, it is important for dancers

partially opaque material. The purpose of a diffusion gel

to have access to a crossover for quick movements

is to soften the resulting light and eliminate “hot spots”

from one side to the other. This is often upstage of the

or harsh shadows in the lighting.

cyclorama, or a hallway located behind the back wall of the stage.

Dimmer See also circuit.

Cue light

An electrical device that regulates the flow of voltage to

A cue light is a type of light positioned at key locations

a circuit, thereby dimming or brightening the lighting

backstage and operated by the stage manager to cue a

instrument plugged into it.

276 QUICK REFERENCE

Dimmer check

first ERS unit, introduced in 1933, was named the Leko,

The process of going through the list of all dimmers

after the last names of its creators. The name stuck and

and turning them on to see if the lighting instruments

remains a common nickname for all varieties of ERS

plugged into that dimmer work. This is typically done

lighting instruments to this day.

during the call period before a performance. Down light See also back light, front light, side light, up-light. Down lighting is a direction of stage lighting, in which the light is focused on a figure from above, shining down at a steep angle. This type of lighting creates strong slightly unnatural shadows on the figure. Down light is sometimes referred to as top light, as well. Downstage See stage directions.

F Flat A vertical panel of scenery, typically framed in wood with either wooden or muslin fabric covering. Flats framed with wooden facing are often referred to as Hollywood flats, whereas those covered in muslin are called soft flats. Fly To raise or lower an item overhead by means of a rigging

Dress parade

system in the theatre.

A specific event in which all of the dancers come onstage

Fly house

in costume, giving the choreographer and designers a chance to see the dancers all in costume under stage lighting.

See also fly, fly system. A theatre with a dedicated fly system. Fly loft

E

See also fly, grid.

Electric

grid, blocks, and battens necessary to fly elements out

See also batten.

The area over the stage in a fly house that contains the of the audience’s overhead line of sight. The fly loft is

An electric is a type of batten with electrical

typically two and one-half times taller than the height of

circuits dedicated to powering lighting instruments

the proscenium arch.

(Figure 16.3).

Fly system

Electrician

A theatrical rigging system that utilizes battens,

An electrician is the name given to a stagehand working

cables, pulleys, and counterweights in order to

in lighting.

fly components such as lighting, scenery, soft

ERS

goods, etc. overhead.

The Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlight, or ERS for short,

Follow spot

is a type of stage lighting instrument that creates a

A moveable spotlight lighting instrument that can pan

defined pool of light. ERS instruments have the ability to

(move in a horizontal plane) and tilt (move in a vertical

shape the beam of light, color slots for using gels, and

plane) allowing a follow spot operator to “follow” a

accessory slots for items like gobos and/or irises. The

performer across the stage with a pool of light.

277 THEATRE/STAGECRAFT TERMINOLOGY

F I G UR E 16. 3

An electric.

Footlights

shape their beams of light without using barn doors.

See also up-light.

The Fresnel is a popular choice of lighting instrument

A row of lights positioned along the front edge of the

for back and top lighting because of its ability to wash

apron, pointing upstage to illuminate the performers in

wide areas of the stage with an even distribution of

low-angle up-light.

lighting. Another interesting characteristic of the

Fresnel

changed from flood (a wider beam of lighting) to spot (a

See also barn door. A Fresnel is a type of wash-lighting instrument, named for its use of the Fresnel lens, a lens that utilizes a series of stepped glass rings on the outside, giving it the characteristic appearance of concentric circles on the lens. Fresnel instruments do not have the ability to

278 QUICK REFERENCE

Fresnel is the focus knob that allows the light to be narrower beam). Front light An angle of lighting in which the figure is illuminated from a light source shining from downstage to upstage, particularly used to light the faces of the performers.

F IG UR E 16. 4

Three separate gels cut to size and a gel frame, resting on a paper cutter.

The light enables someone to walk onstage in the dark and avoid accidents like colliding with scenery or falling into the orchestra pit. The superstition holds that all theatres have at least one ghost. Keeping a ghost light running allows the ghost an opportunity to perform onstage, thereby appeasing the ghost and preventing them from cursing the theatre or sabotaging a production. Gobo A template inserted into a lighting instrument that creates a pattern of light. Gobos are made of metal or glass for conventional instruments, and sometimes plastic for LED lighting fixtures.

G

Grand drape

Gaffer’s tape

the proscenium arch. The grand drape is typically made

A type of paintable fabric tape used for taping down

from a heavyweight velour fabric with fullness sewn into

electrical cables and in a wide variety of stagecraft

the curtain. The grand drape is sometimes referred to as

applications.

the main rag, as well.

Gel

Grid

A gel is another name for a thin sheet of plastic color

The grid is the framework of steel beams at the top of

medium, used to shift the color output of a lighting

the fly loft. The grid supports the blocks and cabling

instrument. The gel is placed into a metal gel frame and

necessary for operating the fly system.

inserted into the color slot of the lighting instrument. Gel is purchased in large sheets and then cut to fit individual instruments, often with a large paper-cutter (Figure 16.4). Ghost light

The theatre’s main curtain, flown directly upstage of

Ground row In lighting terms, a ground row is a row of strip lights positioned at the bottom of the cyclorama pointing upward. In scenic terms, a ground row is a low-profile scenic element, typically positioned in the upstage area

A ghost light is a portable light left onstage during times

near the cyclorama. For dance productions, it is common

when the other lighting instruments would be turned off.

to have a lighting ground row with a scenic ground

It is typically rolled onto the center stage position and

row positioned to mask the appearance of the lighting

left turned on for reasons of both safety and superstition.

instruments.

279 THEATRE/STAGECRAFT TERMINOLOGY

H

L

Head high

Leg

A side lighting position from side booms with the lighting

A vertical masking curtain used to mask off the

instrument positioned approximately head high from

audience’s view of the theatre’s wing space.

stage level. Hollywood flat

Leko See ERS.

See flat. House A term indicating the auditorium of the theatre (i.e. sitting in the house). House lights The lighting system used for illuminating the auditorium.

I In-between The area of the stage located between the masking legs, where the side booms are positioned. These positions are named according to stage directions, moving from downstage to upstage (i.e. stage right in-1, stage right in-2, etc…).

M Main rag See grand drape. Mid high A side lighting position from booms with the lighting instrument positioned approximately waist high from stage level.

O Offstage See stage directions. Onstage See stage directions.

J Jack A triangular-shaped brace affixed to the back of a flat to hold it vertically in place.

Orchestra pit A sunken area located downstage of the apron, intended to house the orchestra performers. In many theatres, the orchestra pit is built with an elevator that allows for it to be raised or lowered.

Jumper A short electrical cable (typically 5–10´ in length) with stage-pin connectors used to span the distance to connect a lighting instrument and a circuit.

P PARcan A PARcan is a simple and cost-effective

K

flood-type lighting instrument. The name is

Kill

Aluminized Reflector) housed in a simple metal

To turn off a light or sound immediately.

housing (the can).

280 QUICK REFERENCE

derived from its use of a PAR lamp (Parabolic

Proscenium

Sightlines

The portal that separates the audience from the stage

The area of the stage and backstage visible to the

and frames the action of the performance.

audience.

Proscenium line

Soft flat

Also referred to as the plaster line, the proscenium line

See flat.

is an imaginary reference point running across the stage from the upstage edges of the legs of the proscenium arch. Combined with the centerline, these two reference points divide the stage into quadrants.

R Raked stage

Soft goods The stage draperies, masking, scrims, etc. used in a theatre for performance purposes. This includes, but is not limited to, legs, borders, cycloramas, blackout curtains, scrims, etc. Soft goods typically have a jute webbing attached to the top, with grommets for reinforcement, and tie line used to tie it off to a batten.

A stage floor built so that the surface inclines as it

Special

moves upstage.

A light hung for a specific purpose, i.e. the downstage center special used for the final lift in the Act II pas de

S Scrim A type of stage fabric with an open weave, similar to gauze. When lit from the front, the fabric appears opaque. When lit from behind, it will appear translucent. Due to this “scrim effect” the fabric is often used for magical theatrical reveals. Scroller A mechanical device that scrolls a loop of gels in front of a lighting instrument, allowing the designer to transmit multiple colors from one lighting instrument.

deux. Spike A spike is a mark on the stage floor to signify the placement of an object, set piece, or location of significance. Spike marks are typically made with spike tape or, in some theatres, paint pens. Stage directions The directions used by performers on a stage. Stage directions, in contrast to house directions, use the dancer as the frame of reference—the right of the performer (when facing the audience) is stage right, and the left is stage left. To move away from the audience is

Shin busters

upstage, whereas to move towards them is downstage.

The lowest side lighting position from booms with the

Moving towards the centerline is referred to as onstage,

lighting instrument positioned approximately shin-high

and to move away from the centerline is called offstage.

from stage level.

Stage-pin connector

Side light

The standard connector type used in entertainment

A lighting position, typically in the wings, that

lighting in North America and many countries around

creates a sculptural look, accentuating the dancer’s

the world. The stage-pin connector has two separate

form.

types of connector ends: male and female. The male

281 THEATRE/STAGECRAFT TERMINOLOGY

connector has three cylindrical pins, whereas the female

Lighting a figure from a lighting instrument placed

has three circular openings (see Figure 4.10).

low (typically on or beneath the stage floor) pointing

Strike

upwards. One example of this is the use of footlights.

To remove all of the production elements of the show

Upstage

from a space.

See stage directions.

T

V

Teaser

Visual

See border.

A visual is a cue that is called based off of physical action

Thrust

on the stage.

A performance space with the audience positioned on

Vomitorium

three sides of the stage. Also called a ¾ round space.

A vomitorium, or vom for short, is a passageway

Top light The lighting position with the lighting instrument positioned above and pointing down at the stage. Tormentor

positioned beneath the seating in a theatre space with raised seating, such as a thrust.

W

A tormentor is a vertical curtain or framed structure

Wagon

acting as a leg, typically placed in line with the teaser.

A wagon is a mobile platform that can be used to

The placement of the tormentor is directly upstage of the

transport three-dimensional scenery on a stage. In most

proscenium.

instances, the scenery is built onto the wagon and can be

Two-fer

moved as a single unit.

A theatrical lighting plug used to connect two lighting

Wings

instruments to one circuit.

The area of the stage deck located offstage right and left, typically masked by the legs.

U Up-light See also footlights.

282 QUICK REFERENCE

Index Note: Page numbers in bold are for terms that appear in the quick reference section. Page numbers in italics are for illustrations. ⁄2” scale models 150 ⁄4” scale models 150 1 ⁄8” scale models 148 3 ⁄4 round theatre 47 3D models 82, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150–1, 151, 232 3D printing 150 3D rendering 235 3DS Max 151, 235 1 1

A abstract dance 262 academic dance work 33 accompaniment, music/sound as 98 accompanists 10 accumulation (of movements/ gestures) 262 Accumulation (Trisha Brown) 262 Actors Equity Association (AEA) 248 additive color mixing 74 administrative personnel 8–9 Adobe After Effects 234 Adobe Illustrator 145, 234, 235 Adobe Photoshop 145, 232, 234 Adobe Premiere 234 AGMA see American Guild of Musical Artists alternates 262 Alvin Alley Dance Theater 13 ambient light 221 American Federation of Musicians (AMF) 116

American Guild of Musical Artists (AGMA) 247–8 American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers (ASCAP) 106 amplifiers 103, 274 analogous colors 75 and (half-beat) 262 Andrew, Jason 21 angles of lighting 59, 59–60 animation 235 Apollo gels 75 apron stages 38, 274 arabesque 262, 263 arbors, counterweight systems 44 arena theatres/stages 49, 274 arrangement of concert 26–7 artistic directors (AD) 8, 10, 13 assembling a team 14 assistant stage managers (ASM) 12, 245 Atlas, Charles 17 atmospherics see mood/atmosphere attitude 62; derrière 262; devant 262, 263 Audacity program 113, 114 audibility 98 audience(s) 24; expectations 24; seating 45–7; sightlines 39–40, 40, 152, 281 audio equipment 100–4; amplifiers 103; equalizers (EQ) 102–3; input source 100–1; loudspeakers 103–4;

microphones 101, 275; mixers 102, 102 auditions 28 auditorium, divisions of 46, 46–7 AutoCAD 82, 151 en avant 262

B back lighting 58, 59, 66–7, 67, 71, 274 backdrops: scenic 135, 136; see also curtains and backdrops Baird, Campbell 160–3 balance (costume design) 173 Balanchine, George 90, 179 balcony seats 46 Ballard, Julie 257–8 ballet 262; classical 130, 263; romantic 263 ballet blanc 263 ballet pointe shoes 180, 181, 267–8, 268 ballet slippers 180, 181 bar (measure) 263 barn doors (lighting) 72, 274 barre 263, 264 basket weave sprung floors 133, 133 bastard amber 75, 274 battement 264 battens 44, 45, 274, 274 beam spread of lighting 70 beat 264; down beat 265; up beat 270

283 INDEX

Beira, João 239–41 biketards 175, 175 Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane Dance Company 13 black box theatres 49, 274 blackout 274 blacks/blackout curtains 41–2, 275 Blender program 235 block diagrams see sound diagrams BMI (Broadcast Music, Inc.) 106 Boards of Directors 8 bodices 179, 179 boom lighting 40, 63, 63–4, 275 borders (curtains) 41, 275 bottoms (costumes) 175–7 boundary microphones 101, 275; pickup patterns 101, 101 box office managers 9 box seats 46 Brecht, Bertolt 218 brightness 57 The Brodmann Areas (Norte Maar) 21 Brown, Trisha 262 budget 27, 31–2; props 140 build lists (costumes) 196 business managers 8

C cables: intelligent lighting instruments 73; jumper 280; projection systems 220, 233 CAD (Computer Aided Drafting) 82, 150–1 Cage, John 17 call times 255 callbacks 249 callboards 245, 246, 253 calling the show (calling cues) 11, 29, 88, 244, 247, 253, 254 canon 264 Capezio (dance shoe manufacturer) 182 Caplan, Elliot 17 capri pants 176 Category 5/6 networking cables 220

284 INDEX

catwalks 275 c-clamps 69–70, 70 ceiling slots 65, 65 center stage 37 centerline sections 153, 153–4 centerlines (CL) 38, 38, 152, 275 chance, as choreographic device 17 channel hookup sheets 85–6, 86 character, and costume 167 character artists 264 character relations, and costume 168 character shoes 182 check-in sheets 255 choreographers 12–13, 27, 264 choreographers: and costumer designer collaboration 190–2; and cueing process 90; freelance 16; and lighting designer collaboration 80–1; perspective: Julia Gleich 19–21; and projection designer collaboration 230–1; resident 10; and scenic designer collaboration 144–5; and sound designer collaboration 110–11, 116; and stage managers 249 choreography 10 choreologists 10 circuit 275 coda 264, 266 collaboration 2, 7–21; choreographer—costume designer 190–2; choreographer—lighting designer 80–1; choreographer— projection designer 230–1; choreographer—scenic designer 144–5; choreographer—sound designer 110–11 collaborative models: collective method 16–17; company model 15–16; freelance model 16; independent model 17 collage concerts 25, 126 collapse movement 269 collective method of collaboration 16–17 color drop 275

color filters (gels) 57–8, 75–6; color cut lists 86–7; swatch books 75; transmission 75 color filters (glass) 75 color mixing 74–5 color saturation 73–4, 75–6 color scrollers 70, 281 color values 74 color(s): analogous 75; complementary 75; costume 90, 171, 172; in lighting 73–6; primary 74; secondary 74 Come, and Back Again (David Dorfman Dance) 93, 120 communication, stage manager’s role in 245, 252–3, 254–5, 256 communication protocol 255 company managers 8–9 company model of collaboration 15–16 compensation 32 complementary colors 74 composers 10, 96 composition in dance 55–6 computer aided drafting (CAD) 82, 150–1 computer software: 3D renderings 146, 235; audio/video editing 113–14, 234, 235; lighting design 85; pre-visualization 82, 232; projection systems 222–5; raster graphics 234; scenic models 150–1; sketches 145; slide-based presentation 223; sound playback 114, 117, 223, 223–4; vector graphics 235 computers, and projection design 220 concert breakdown charts 195, 195 concessions 26 conductors 10–11 Coniglio, Mark 224–5 connectors: projection equipment 220; stage-pin 281–2 contact sheets 249 contemporary dance 265 content workflow diagrams (projection design) 233

contraction 265 contracts: letters of agreement (LOA) 14–15, 32; technical rider 12 copyright 96, 105–6, 210, 235, 236 CorelDRAW 235 corner blocks, soft flats 136 corps de ballet 265 coryphée 265 costume bibles 196 costume design 190–204; communicating the (paperwork 193–6; renderings 193, 194; sketches 192, 193; visual research 192); and dress rehearsals 199–200; execution 196–9 (costume rentals 198; costume shopping 197–8; fabric selection 197; fittings 198–9; patterns 198, 198; taking measurements 197; working from stock 198); and performance run 200–1 costume designers 11, 21, 166; and choreographer collaboration 190–2; perspective: Liz Prince 202–4; and rehearsals 191–2 costume lists 195–6 costume plots 193, 194 costume roughs 192 costume shopping 197–8 costumes 148, 162–3, 166–83; changes of 247; components 173–83 (base layer 173–5, 174; bodices 179, 179; bottoms 175, 175–7, 176, 177; dresses 180; footwear 180–3, 181, 182, 267–8, 268; organization of 199–200; skirts/tutus 177–9, 179; tops 180); functions of (character 167; character relations 168; costume as a prop 167–8; movement 166–7; style 169–70; theme/mood 169; time/place 168–9); projection of virtual costumes 214–15; properties of (color 90; fabric 170; line 170–1; scale 173; shape/form 171; texture 172–3); see also fabrics (costumes)

counterweight systems 43–5 coves 65, 66 Crawford, Sam 119–22 crescent wrenches 90, 275, 276 cross 276 cross-fade 275 crossover 275 cue lights 11, 276 cue sheets 258; lighting 88, 89; projections 233–4, 236–7; sound/ music 113 cue-to-cue rehearsals 30 cueing process 28; and choreographers 90; lighting 28, 88–91; and paper tech 91; projections 233–4, 236–8; referencing rehearsal videos during 90; representing the figure during 90; sound/music 28, 90, 112, 114, 116–17; tech tables 89–90, 116–17 cues: calling 11, 29, 88, 244, 247, 253, 254; fade time 89; linear playback 223; placement of 29 Cunningham, Merce 2, 17, 80, 265 curtains and backdrops 40–2; blacks/ blackout 41–2, 275; borders 41, 275; cyclorama (sky drop) 40, 42, 67–8; grand drapes (main rag) 40–1, 279; guillotine 40; legs 41, 280; lighting 67–9; scrim 42, 42, 68–9, 281; traveller 40–1 cyc lights 67–8, 72 cyclorama (cyc) 40, 276; lighting 42, 67–8, 72 Cymbeline 132

D D3 program 232 daily schedules (dailies) 254–5 dance artists 9–10 dance captains 265 dance education 13 dance terminology 261–71 dance theatre 265

dancers 10; and communication protocol 255; principal 10, 268; soloists 269–70; tech packets 254; and tech week 30 dark 276 dark time 88, 237 David Dorfman Dance, Come, and Back Again 93, 120 dead hung 276 Dead Man’s Cell Phone (Eastern Michigan University) 215 decibels (dB) 99 deck 276 design staff 11, 28 designer runs 28 development directors 9 en diagonale 265 diffusion gel 276 Digital Audio Workstations (DAW) 113 digital projectors 220–1, 221; brightness (lumens) 221; operating distance (throw ratio) 221 digital video cameras 220, 234 dimmer checks 255, 882, 277 dimmers 61, 62, 276 direction (lighting) 58–9; see also lighting positions and angles direction (sound) 100 dissonance 99 documenting the dance 31 Dorfman, David 93, 120; see also David Dorfman Dance down beat 265 down lighting 67, 277 downstage 37, 277 Dr Faustus (Eastern Michigan University) 129, 217 draftings (lighting design) 82–5 draftings (projection design) 232 draftings (scenic design) 151–5; centerline section 153, 153–4; ground plan 152, 152–3; painter’s elevations 155, 155; USITT recommended practices for 151–2 drapes see curtains and backdrops draping a costume 198

285 INDEX

dress parade 277 dress rehearsals 15, 31, 199–200 dressers 12, 200 dresses 180 dressing rooms 27 Dropbox 111 drops: scenic 135, 136; see also curtains and backdrops DVI (Digital Video Interface) connectors 220

E Eastern Michigan University: Dead Man’s Cell Phone 215; Dr Faustus 129, 217; Red as Blood, White as Snow 131; Ritual Series One 175; The Shape of Things 213; Urinetown: The Musical 218 educational dance 13 electricians 277; see also master electricians (ME) electrics (batten for lighting instruments) 65–6, 67, 277, 278 Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlights (ERS) 69–70, 277; barrel 70; c-clamp and yoke 69–70, 70; color filters 76; gobo slot 70; shutters 70, 70 emotion, as inspiration 14 entrée 266 equalizers (EQ) 102–3 ERS see Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlights (ERS) ESP Vision 82 evening length dance 265 executive directors 8 extension 266 extreme sightlines 39–40, 40 EyeSpace (Merce Cunningham Dance Company) 174

F fabrics (costumes): dyeing 170; fibers and quality of 170; and lighting 171, 172; pattern 172–3; selection 197;

286 INDEX

swatches 193; textural properties 172–3 en face 266 fall 266 far-throw cyc fixtures 72 fibers 170 Final Cut pro 234 final dance 26–7 first aid supplies 252 first dress rehearsal 199 flat panel displays 221–2 flats 135–7, 277 flooring 132–5; dance surface 134–5; sprung 132–4, 133, 270 fly 277 fly house 277 fly lofts 44, 277 fly systems 43–5, 152, 277 flymen 12, 45 focus, in lighting 60, 87–8 focus charts 87–8 fog 26, 73; as projection surface 212 fog juice 73 foldback systems 105 follow spots 70–1, 277 followspot operators 12 foot blocks 44 footlights 65, 65, 278 footwear 180–3; ballet pointe shoes 180, 181, 267–8, 268; ballet slippers 180, 181; jazz shoes 181, 182; modern dance 182–3; musical theatre 182; nude shoes 182–3; tap dance 181–2, 182 form (costumes) 171 formal concerts 24 Fosse, Bob 170 freelance model of collaboration 16 freeze 266 frequency (sound) 99 Fresnel, Augustin-Jean 71 Fresnel lighting instrument 71–2, 278 front elevation 156, 156 front-of-house arrangements 27 front lighting 58, 59, 64–6, 278

front lighting: balcony front 65, 65; ceiling slots 65, 65; coves 65, 66; footlights 65, 65; front low-angle side lighting 66; high-angle 65–6; low-angle 65 front projection 211 full out 266 funding 27, 31–2

G Gaffer’s tape 134, 135, 279 GAM gels 75 Garage Band program 114 gel frame holders 70 gels 279; see also color filters (gels) general managers 8 ghost lights 279 Gimp software 234 Gleich, Julia 19–21 gobo slots 70 gobos 60, 60, 72, 279; glass 76 going dark 276 Gonzales, Tamara 21 Google Drive 111 Google Presentation 192 Graham, Martha 20, 80, 267, 269; Lamentations 167 grand adage 266 grand drapes 40–1, 279 grand pas 264, 266 grand rights performances 106 grandMA 3D 82 graphics cards 219 green rooms 27 grids, proscenium theatres 44, 279 ground plans 152, 152–3 ground row 68, 279; masking of 42–3 guillotine curtain 140

H hair 183 hairpieces 183 hanging schedule 33 hard flats see Hollywood flats

Harlequin Liberty sprung floors 133, 133 harmony 99 hats 83 haze 26, 73; as projection surface 212 HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) connectors 220 head high lighting 64, 64, 280 headpieces 183 headset checks 255 holding the curtain 256 Hollywood flats 135, 136–7, 137, 277 Homasote sheets 139 Horton, Lester 267 house 280 house lights 280 house managers 9, 256 house technicians 9, 27 Hubbard Street Dance Chicago 87 hue 73

I iMovie program 234 in-betweens 43, 43, 280 independent model of collaboration 17 input source (sound) 100–1 inspiration 14 intelligent lighting instruments 62, 72–3; cabling 73 intensity of light 57 interactive dance 226, 240 interactivity: and projection design 214–15, 215, 224–5; with scenic elements 128–9 intermissions 26 Internet, and costume shopping 197 Isadora program 224–5

J jacks 280 jazz dance 130 jazz pants 176 jazz shoes 180–1, 181, 182

jeté 266 Johns, Jasper 17 Johnson, Bernard 21 jumpers (electrical cables) 280

K Karinska, Barbara 179 Keynote software 223 keystone correction (keystoning) 212 keystone effect 212, 212 keystones, soft flats 136 kill 280b Kin, Peter 240 KinectTM sensor 214–15 Kook, Edward 69

L La Scala Ballet, Opera 217 Laban, Rudolf 270 Lamentations (Martha Graham) 167 LCD (Liquid Crystaline Display) technology 221 lecture-demonstrations 24 LED (Light Emitting Diode) lighting 58, 72, 75, 76 LED (Light Emitting Diode) panels 222, 222 Lee gels 75 legal concerns: music 96, 105–6; projection design 210, 235–6 legato 266 leggings 177 legs (curtains) 41, 280 Lekos 69, 69–70; see also Ellipsoidal Reflector Spotlights (ERS) length of dance presentation 25 Léotard, Jules 173 leotards 173–4, 174 letters of agreement (LOA) 14–15, 32 Levy, Joseph 69 licensing 106, 236 lift (dance movement) 266 light board operators 12 Light Emitting Diode see LED

light plots 11, 82, 83, 84, 152; USITT notation 84 lighting: arena stage 49; background elements (cyclorama (cyc) 42, 67–8, 72; painted backdrops 68); beam spread 70; color in 73–6; and costume colors 171, 172; direction of see lighting positions and angles; functions of (composition 55–6; mood/atmosphere 56; reinforcement/punctuation 56; rhythm 56; sculpting/modeling 55, 55; visibility 54–5); gobos 60, 60, 72, 76, 279; house lights 280; masking 42–3; and mood/atmosphere 56, 73; properties of (angle 59, 59–60; brightness/intensity 57; color 57–8; direction 58–9; movement 60; visual quality 60); specials 67, 281; tech tables 89–90; thrust space 8 lighting booms 40, 63, 63–4, 275 lighting consoles 62, 62, 89; channel hookup sheets 85–6, 86 lighting design 80–93; communicating the 81–7 (draftings 82–5; paperwork 84–7; pre-visualization 82, 232); cueing process 28, 88–91; and projection design 209; and technical rehearsals 88–91 lighting designers (LD) 11, 28, 54, 80; and choreographer collaboration 80–1; perspective: Seth Reiser 92–3 lighting ground row see ground row lighting instruments 62, 69–73; conventional 62, 69–72; cyc lights 67–8, 72; electrics 65–6, 67, 277, 278; focus 87–8; footlights 65, 65, 278; hanging 87–8; instrument key 82, 83; intelligent 62, 72–3; LED 58, 72, 75, 76; PAR-type 71, 72, 280; schedule 86; spotlights 69–71, 277; wash lighting 71–2 lighting positions and angles: down 67, 277; front 58, 59, 64–6, 278; see also back lighting; side lighting

287 INDEX

lighting sections 84, 85 lighting systems 60–2; control 62; lighting instruments see lighting instruments; power 61 lighting towers 63 LightWright software 85 line (costumes) 170 linear playback (projection design) 223 linesets 44 list-making (costumes) 195–6; spreadsheets 196 load-in 28 load-out/strike 31, 201, 282 loading gallery 45, 45 lock rails, counterweight systems 45, 45 loft blocks 44 loge seats 46 Logic Pro 114, 235 loudspeaker plots 112 loudspeakers 103–4 Luhrmann, Baz 163

M McKernon, John 85 magic effects, using projections 216 magic sheets (cheat sheats) 87, 87 main rag see grand drapes make-up 184–6 make-up crew 12 Marine, Stacey-Jo 32–3 mark (mark it) 266 marketing directors 9 marking 30 Marley flooring 134–5, 139 Marley tape 134, 135, 251 Martha Graham Dance Company 13 masking 40–3 masks 183 Masonite 139 master electricians (ME) 12, 87 Media Composer 234 media servers 220 Merce Cunningham Dance Company, EyeSpace 174

288 INDEX

merde 266–7 Merrily We Roll Along (Stephen Sondheim) 222 mezzanine seats 46 microphones 101; see also boundary microphones mid-high lighting 64, 64, 280 MIDI (Musical Instrument Digital Interface) 113 mix (sound) 100 model boxes 148 modeling with light 55 models see scenic models modern dance 267 mood/atmosphere: and costumes 169; and lighting 56, 73; and scenery 129; and sound 98 motif 267 motion capture technology 214–16, 226 movement: and costumes 166–7; and lighting 60; qualities of 268–9; and sound/music 100 Movie Maker program 234 multidisciplinary collaborations 17 music 17, 28, 96; as accompaniment 98; arrangements of 106; composers 10, 96; and cueing process 28, 90, 112, 114, 116–17; as inspiration 14; legal concerns 96, 105–6; live performance 106, 115; and movement 100; pre-recorded 96, 106, 116; and projection design 237–8; and prompt book compilation 254; rehearsal 113; and rhythm 98; samples 111 music creation/editing programs 114 music rehearsals 115–16 Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI) 113 musical staff 10–11 musical styles 14 musicians 96–7, 115 muslin 135

N Nashville Ballet 161 New York City Ballet 80 Nikolai, Alwin 167 non-proscenium theatres 47–9 notation 267 nude shoes 182–3 number of dance pieces 25 The Nutcracker 126, 130, 167, 184, 194

O offstage 38 onstage 37 opening nights 31 Opera (La Scala Ballet) 217 orchestra pits 39, 280 orchestra seats 46

P paint shops 156–7 painted backdrops (drops), lighting 68 painter’s elevations 155, 155 panning 100 pants 175–6, 176 paper tech 29, 88–9, 91, 254 PAR-type lighting fixture 71, 72, 280 pas de deux 267 patrons 31 pattern (costume fabrics) 172–3 patterns (costumes) 198, 199 PCC boundary microphones 101 percussive movement 269 performance 15; sound as element in 98 performance reports 245 performance spaces 28, 35–50; arena theatres 49; black box/studio theatres 49; general concerns 27; non-traditional spaces 49; and projection design 211–12; proscenium theatres 36–46, 127, 281; seating 45–7, 46, 48, 49, 127;

and staging techniques 126–7; thrust theatres 47–8, 127, 282 Performing Rights Organizations (PROs) 106, 127 permissions 210, 235–6 Peter Pan 161, 184 philosophical concepts, as inspiration 14 photo calls 31 phrase 267 Pinterest 192 pipe pockets 135 pirouette 267 pitch (sound) 99 pixelation 220 pixels 220, 234 place, sense of: and costumes 168–9; and scenery 129 plan views 82 plasma display panels 221 plaster lines 38 platforms 137, 138, 139 playback systems 101, 104, 105, 114, 117 plié 267 en pointe 267 pointe shoes 180, 181, 267–8, 268 post-modernism 268 postmortems 15, 31 Powell, Michael, Red Shoes 163 PowerPoint 223 premiere piece 13 premium seats 47 pre-production planning 23–33; budget considerations 31–2; performance space concerns 27; personnel considerations 32; production calendar 27–31; program concerns 24–7; stage managers and 248–50 presentation models 150 presenters 9 Pressburger, Emeric, Red Shoes 163 pre-visualization: lighting design 82, 232; projection design 232 primary colors 74

Prince, Liz 191, 202–4 principal dancers 10, 268 Pro Tools 114, 235 production calendar 27–8, 30–1, 249–50 production managers 9, 245–6; perspective: Stacey-Jo Marine 32–3 production meetings 16, 28, 33, 250 production process 13–15 production stage managers (PSM) 245, 254 program concerns 24–7 projection design 229–41; communicating the (draftings 232; paperwork and informational graphics 232–4; pre-visualization 232; visual communication 231–2); content creation 234–6 (3D rendering and animation 235; audio content 235; legal concerns 235–6; stills 234–5; stock footage 235, 236; video 234); and technical rehearsals 236–8 projection designers 11, 208, 230; and choreographer collaboration 230–1; perspective: João Beira 239–41 projection equipment 213, 219–22, 237; cables 220, 233; computers 220; connectors 220; digital video cameras 220; display devices (digital projectors (video projectors) 220–1; flat panel displays 221–2; LED panels 222, 222); projection plot 232 projection mapping 212, 213 projection plots 232 projection surfaces 212 projection systems 218–19; video playback systems 219; video reinforcement systems 219; video workstations 219 projections 208–26; appropriateness of 213–14; content of 210–11, 214; cueing process 233–4, 236–8;

functions of 230 (as a commentary 216–18; creation of dynamic environment 214; interactivity 214–15, 215; magic/special effects 216; presenting/representing the dancer(s) 215–16, 216; visual reinforcement 216); interactive content 214–15, 215, 224–5; keystone effect 212, 212; legal concerns 210; and lighting design 209; linear content 214; methods (front projection 211; rear projection 211); and motion capture technology 214–16, 226;and music 237–8; and performance space 211–12; software (interactive visual programming 224–5; linear playback 223–4; slide-based presentation 222–3; timelinebased playback 224); tech tables 237; timeline for designs 213; video walls 221–2; of virtual costumes on to dancers 215–15 projections check 255 prompt books 247, 253–4 props 126, 130, 139–40, 144; costumes acting as 167–8; rehearsals with 140, 157–8; tracking 246 props designers 11 props tables 159, 246–7 proscenium arch 36, 36 proscenium lines 38, 38, 152, 281 proscenium theatres 36–47, 127, 281;  audience seating 45–7; masking 40–3; scenery fly systems 43–5; sightlines 39–40; stage 37–40 public domain 105–6, 236 publicity 28 pull lists (costumes) 196 punctuation of dance, lighting and 56 purchase lines, counterweight systems 44, 45 purpose of production 24 PZM boundary microphones 101

289 INDEX

Q QLab 114, 117, 223, 223–4 qualities of movement 268–9 quiet time 115 Quixotic Fusion 239–40

R rails: soft flats 136; stock platforms 137 raked seating 48, 48, 49 rakes/raked platforms 139, 281 raster graphics 234–5 Rauschenberg, Robert 17 re-staging 269 realism 169 rear elevation 156, 156 rear projection 211 recording systems 104 Red as Blood, White as Snow (Eastern Michigan University) 131 The Red Shoes (film) 163 rehearsal announcements 252–3 rehearsal directors 10 rehearsal music 113 rehearsal notes 253 rehearsal pianists 10 rehearsal reports 245 rehearsal space 28; rules for use of 251; size of 250–1; sound systems 251 rehearsal videos 15, 28, 90, 238 rehearsals 15, 28; costume designers and 191–2; cue-to-cue/spacing 30; designer runs 28; dress 15, 31, 199–200; music 115–16; with scenery and props 140, 157–8; special needs 251; stage managers and 245–6, 250–3; see also technical rehearsals reinforcement function: of lighting 56; of projection design 216; of sound 99 reinforcement systems 104 Reiser, Seth 92–3

290 INDEX

release 269 release times 255 renderings: costume design 193, 194; projection design 235; scenic design 146, 148 rentals (costumes) 198; rental lists 196 repertoire 269 repertory companies 13 repertory concerts 269 resident choreographers 10 resources, availability of 97, 127 rhythm: and lighting 56; and sound/ music 98 rights-managed licensing 236 Ritual Series One (Eastern Michigan University) 175 Rosco gels 75 roundels 76 royalty-free licensing 236 run 269 running crew 12

S scale (costumes) 173 scene shops 156 scenery 125–39; assessing needs for 126–7; changes of 26, 126; fly systems for handling 43–5, 152; functions of 127–130, 132 (defining space 128; interactivity 128–9; mood 129; problem solving 130, 132; style 130; time/place 129); preconceived expectations about 127; and re-mounted productions 127; re-using 127; and seating arrangements 127; and touring productions 127 scenic charge artists 156 scenic construction and painting 155–7 scenic design 126–7, 143–63; communicating the (design specifications 151–5; renderings 145–6, 148; scenic models see

scenic models; sketches 145–6, 147; visual research 145) scenic designers 11; and choreographer collaboration 144–5; perspective: Campbell Baird 160–3 scenic elements: dimensions of 152; drops 135, 136; flats 135–7; flooring 132–5; platforms 137–8; stairs 139; trap doors 39, 139 scenic ground row 68 scenic models 82, 145, 146, 148, 149, 150–1, 151; 1⁄2” scale 150; 1 ⁄4” scale 150; 1⁄8” scale 148; computer-generated 150–1; presentation models 150; white 150 schedules/scheduling: 14; stage manager’s role in 245 scrim 42, 42, 68–9, 281; black 69 scrollers 70, 281 sculpting with light 55, 55 seating 45–7, 46, 48, 49, 127 secondary colors 74 self-examination 15 self-powered speakers 103–4 SESAC (Society of European Stage Authors and Composers) 106 SFX program 114, 117 shape (costumes) 171 The Shape of Things (Eastern Michigan University) 213 shin busters 64, 64, 281 shopping lists (costumes) 196 shorts (costumes) 177, 177 show bibles 196 shutters (lighting) 70, 70 side lighting 58, 59, 62–4, 63, 281 side lighting: head-highs 64, 64, 280; highs 64, 64; mid-highs 64, 64, 280; shin busters 64, 64, 281 sightlines 39–40, 152, 281; extreme 39–40, 40 signal flow charts 232–3, 233 silence 96 site specific 269

sketches: costume design 192, 193; scenic design 145–6, 147 SketchUp 145, 151 skirts 177–9 sky drop curtain see cyclorama sleds 71 slide-based projection 223 slopers 198, 199 Society of European Stage Authors and Composers (SESAC) 106 soft flats 135, 136, 137, 277 soft goods 281 software see computer software soloists 269–70 Sondheim, Stephen, Merrily We Roll Along 222 sound board operators 12 sound checks 116, 255 sound design 97, 97–107, 109–22; communicating the (music/ sound samples 111; paperwork 112–13); cueing process 28, 112, 114, 116–17; functions of (accompaniment 98; audibility 98; mood/atmosphere 98; performance 98; reinforcement 99; rhythm 98); and projection design 235; properties of (mix 100; direction 100; movement 100; pitch 99; sound quality 99–100; volume 99); sound editing and composition tools 113–14; and technical rehearsals 114–18; see also audio equipment sound designers 11, 28, 97; and choreographer collaboration 110–11, 116; perspective: Sam Crawford 119–22 sound diagrams 112, 113 Sound Forge program 113–14 sound mixers (sound boards) 102, 102 sound mixing cue sheets 113 sound plots 112, 112 sound quality 99–100 sound reinforcement 99

sound samples 111 sound systems 104–5; playback systems 101, 104, 105, 114, 117; recording systems 104, 104; rehearsal space 251; reinforcement systems 104 sound tech tables 116–17 sound technicians 97 SoundCloud 111 soundscape 98 spacing rehearsals 30 speakers see loudspeakers special effects, using projections 216 specials (lighting) 67, 281 spike marks 281 spike tape 251 sponsors 31 spotlight operators 12 spotlights 69–71; follow spots 70–1, 277 spotting 270 spreadsheets: for costume list making 196; for organizing cue sheets 88, 234 sprung floors 132–4, 270; basket weave 133, 133; Harlequin 133, 133 stage coordinate system 38 stage directions 37, 37–8, 281 stage left 37 stage managers 11–12, 29, 152, 243–58; common responsibilities (calling cues in the show 11, 29, 88, 244, 247, 253, 254; communication 245, 252–3, 254–5, 256; during the run 255–6; giving calls until curtain up 256; maintaining the artistic integrity of the work 247; prompt book compilation 247, 253–4; recording information 146–7; rehearsals, preparation for and running 245–6, 250–3; scheduling 245; technical rehearsals 247, 253–6; timekeeping 247); kit 251–2; perspective: Julie Ballard 257–8; and pre-production planning (assisting the choreographer 249;

auditions 248–9; contact sheet assembly 249; production calendar assembly 249–50; production meetings 250); as production managers 244–5, 254; and union structures 247–8 stage monitor systems 105 stage pin connectors 61, 281–2 stage right 37 stage weights 44, 45 stagehands 12 stairs 139; rise and run 139 stiles: soft flats 136; stock platforms 137 stock footage 235, 236 stock platforms 137, 138, 139 Strictly Ballroom (film) 163 strike 31, 201, 282 strip lights 67, 72, 76 strobe effects 72 studio theatres 49 studio time 15 style(s): choice of 14; and costume 169–70; musical 14; and scenic choices 130; theatrical 14 stylized approaches 169 subwoofers (sub) 103 supporting leg 270, 271 suspending movement 269 sustained movement 269 swing 268–9

T tableau 270 Tagliabue, Benedetta 17 Tanzheater 270 tap dance 130 tap shoes 181–2, 182 tech packets for dancers 254 tech schedule 28, 33 tech tables: lighting 89–90; projections 237; sound 116–17 tech week 28, 30–1, 91; role of dancer in 30 technical checks 255–6

291 INDEX

technical directors (TD) 12, 156 technical drawings 156 technical rehearsals 15, 30; first dress 199; and lighting design 88–91; and projection design 236–8; and sound design 114–18; and stage managers 247, 253–6 technical rider contract 12 technical staff 11–12, 27 tempo 60, 270 tension blocks 44 texture, in lighting 60 theatre in the round 47, 49 theatre staff 9 theatrical styles 14 theme 14, 169; and variation 169 thrift stores 198 thrust theatres 47, 47–8, 127, 282 ticket sales 28 tie lines 135 tights 176–7 timbre 99 time, sense of: and costumes 168–9; and scenery 129 timekeeping 247 timeline-based playback (projection design) 224 timelines, projection designs 213 toggles: soft flats 136; stock platforms 137 tour managers 9 touring productions 127 trap doors 39, 139 trap rooms 39 traveller curtains 40–1 Travieso, Yara 158 Troika Ranch 225 Troike Tronix 225 Tudor, David 17

292 INDEX

turnout (rotation) 270 tutus 177–9, 270 tutus: Balanchine/Karinska (powderpuff ) 179, 179; bell 178, 179; classical 178, 179; pancake style 178, 179; platter 178–9, 179; romantic 178, 179

U unions 27, 33, 116, 246, 247–8 unitards 174, 174–5 United Scenic Artists-Local 829 (USA–829) 208, 247 up beat 270 upstage 37 Urinetown: The Musical (Eastern Michigan University) 218 USITT (United States Institute for Theatre Technology) 84, 151–2

V variation 271 Vasterling, Paul 161 vector graphics 235 Vectorworks 82, 151, 232 Vegas Pro 234 VGA (Video Graphics Array) connectors 220 vibratory movements 269 video editing 219, 234 video monitor systems 115–16 video playback systems 219 video projectors see digital projectors video recorded rehearsals 15, 28, 90, 238 video reinforcement systems 219 video walls 221–2

video workstations 219 visibility 54–5 visual elements, as inspiration 14 visual quality of light 60 visual research 145; costume design 192; projection design 231–2; scenic design 145 visuals (cues) 282 volume (sound) 99 vomitories 48, 48, 282

W wagon platform 282 wardrobe crew 12, 200 wardrobe supervisors 200 Warhol, Andy 17 Watchout program 224 water: effects 26; as projection surface 212 white light 74, 75 white models 150 Wigman, Mary 267 wigs 12, 183 wigs/make-up 12 wings 40, 282 wireless microphones 101 word clocks 238 workflow, projection design 233 working leg 271 works in progress 24 WYSIWYG 82, 232

Y yokes 69, 70 Your Heart & Your Belly & Your Whole Insides Felt Empty & Wanting & Hollow (Yara Travieso) 158, 158