Dance Production: Design and Technology [2 ed.] 1032272074, 9781032272078

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Dance Production Dance Production: Design and Technology, Second Edition is an introduction to the skills needed to plan, design, and execute the technical aspects of a dance production. Covering a broad range of topics, author Jeromy Hopgood takes the reader through the process of producing dance from start to fnish. Part I addresses the collaborative process, business and organizational concerns for dance companies, planning the production, and the relationship between dance and performance spaces/staging methods. In Part II, each unique production area is examined, including production and stage management, sound, costume and makeup, scenery and props, lighting, and projection/video design. Each design area is divided into two chapters – the frst introducing key concepts, and the second focusing on the process of creating the design. Part III brings back the popular quick reference guides from the frst edition, providing an expanded and revised tool to bridge the language gap between the worlds of theatrical production and dance, and ensure productive communication across the different felds. This second edition features updated information on technology and processes, two new chapters on touring and non-traditional productions, more information on arts management within dance production, a comprehensive look at dance and video (including remote/streaming performances, as well as dance flm), and additional chapter projects throughout the book.

This unique book approaches the process of staging a dance production from a balanced perspective, making it an essential resource for choreographers, theatre designers, dancers, and management personnel alike, including for use in Dance and Dance Production courses. Jeromy Hopgood is a designer, author, and educator whose work in scenery, projection, and lighting design has been seen in professional theatres and dance companies across the United States. His projection design work was included as part of the US National Exhibit at the 2023 Prague Quadrennial. In addition to his freelance work, Jeromy is one of the creators of the multidisciplinary Entertainment Design & Technology program at Eastern Michigan University, where he serves as a tenured Professor. He is a regular instructor at Live Design International in Las Vegas, as well as a long-time member of the United States Institute for Theatre Technology, where he served as a Vice Commissioner for the Digital Media Commission. Jeromy is a proud member of United Scenic Artists, Local USA 829 in the Projection Design category. He is also the author of QLab 4: Projects in Video, Audio, and Lighting Control (Routledge 2018) and The Projection Designer’s Toolkit (Routledge 2022).

Dance Production Design and Technology

Second Edition

Jeromy Hopgood

Designed cover image: Student dancers from the Eastern Michigan University Dance collage concert. Hope That Lines Don’t Cross. Choreography by Erik Abbott-Main. Lighting Design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo by Jeromy Hopgood. Second edition published 2024 by Routledge 605 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10158 and by Routledge 4 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2024 Jeromy Hopgood The right of Jeromy Hopgood to be identifed as author of this work has been asserted in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilized in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks and are used only for identifcation and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published by Focal Press 2016 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Hopgood, Jeromy, author. Title: Dance production : design and technology / Jeromy Hopgood. Description: Second edition. | New York : Routledge, 2024. | “First edition published by Focal Press 2016”—t.p. verso. Identifers: LCCN 2023040184 (print) | LCCN 2023040185 (ebook) | ISBN 9781032272061 (hbk) | ISBN 9781032272078 (pbk) | ISBN 9781003291794 (ebk) Subjects: LCSH: Dance—Production and direction. Classifcation: LCC GV1782 .H66 2024 (print) | LCC GV1782 (ebook) | DDC 792.8/4—dc23/eng/20230920 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023040184 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2023040185 ISBN: 978-1-032-27206-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-032-27207-8 (pbk) ISBN: 978-1-003-29179-4 (ebk) DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794 Typeset in ITC Offcina Sans by Apex CoVantage, LLC

Contents

Acknowledgements Introduction

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PART I THINKING AHEAD 3 CHAPTER 1 Collaboration 4 1.1 – Collaboration with Intent 4 1.2 – Collaborative Models – How We Work Together 1.3 – Team Members and Responsibilities 7 1.4 – The Creative and Production Process 11 1.5 – Establishing a Collaborative Process 12 1.6 – Chapter Review 15

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CHAPTER 2 The Business of Dance 17 2.1 – Organizational Identity 17 2.2 – Proft Models 18 2.3 – The Board of Directors 18 2.4 – Your Business Identity and Culture 20 2.5 – Fundraising and Development 21 2.6 – Contracts 24 2.7 – Unions 25 2.8 – Booking 27 2.9 – Chapter Review 27 CHAPTER 3 Planning the Production 29 3.1 – Purpose 29 3.2 – Programming Concerns 30 3.3 – Marketing and Promotion 32 3.4 – Public Relations 32 3.5 – Production Budget 34 3.6 – The Production Calendar 35 3.7 – Personnel 38 3.8 – Chapter Review 38 CHAPTER 4 Performance Spaces 41 4.1 – Proscenium Theatres 41 4.2 – Non-Proscenium Theatres 50 4.3 – Non-Traditional Spaces 52

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Contents

4.4 – Performance Space Concerns 4.5 – The Technical Rider 54 4.6 – Chapter Review 54

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CHAPTER 5 Touring, and Non-Traditional Performances 55 5.1 – Tour-Specifc Personnel Concerns 55 5.2 – Travel Concerns 57 5.3 – Working with Local Stagehands 58 5.4 – Non-Traditional Productions 58 5.5 – Non-Traditional Performance Spaces 60 5.6 – Cultivating Relationships 61 5.7 – Dance-Specifc Safety Concerns 62 5.8 – Chapter Review 62 CHAPTER 6 Dance and Video 65 6.1 – Streaming/Live-Distanced Performances 6.2 – Benefts of Remote Performances 66 6.3 – Live Streaming 67 6.4 – On-Demand Video 67 6.5 – Live-Distanced Performances 67 6.6 – Dance Film 67 6.7 – Tips for Making a Dance Film 68 6.8 – Chapter Review 74

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PART II PRODUCTION AREAS 75 CHAPTER 7 Foundations in Design and Production 76 7.1 – The Elements of Dance and Design 76 7.2 – Assessing Design and Technical Needs 82 7.3 – Using Research 84 7.4 – Presenting Ideas 87 7.5 – Chapter Review 88 CHAPTER 8 Production and Stage Management 90 8.1 – What Is Production Management? 90 8.2 – What Is Stage Management? 93 8.3 – Stage Management: Pre-Production 96 8.4 – Stage Management: Rehearsals 97 8.5 – Technical Rehearsals 100 8.6 – Stage Management: During the Run 101 8.7 – Chapter Review 102 CHAPTER 9 Sound 107 9.1 – Thinking Ahead for Sound 107 9.2 – Sound Design for Dance 108 9.3 – Functions of Sound Design (What Sound Design Can Accomplish) 109 9.4 – The Properties of Sound Design (The Controllable Qualities of Sound) 110 9.5 – Audio Equipment 111 9.6 – Understanding Basic Signal Flow: Input/Output 115 9.7 – Sound Systems 115 9.8 – Music for Dance 116

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Contents

9.9 – Legal Concerns 120 9.10 – Chapter Review 121 CHAPTER 10 Creating the Sound Design 122 10.1 – Working with the Choreographer 122 10.2 – Communicating the Design 123 10.3 – Sound Editing and Composition Tools 126 10.4 – Preparing for Technical Rehearsals 129 10.5 – Chapter Review 131 CHAPTER 11 Costumes, Hair, and Makeup 136 11.1 – The Costume Designer 136 11.2 – Functions of Dance Costumes (What Costumes Can Accomplish) 136 11.3 – Properties of Dance Costumes (Controllable Qualities of Dance Costumes) 11.4 – Dance Costume Components 141 11.5 – Hair and Wigs 148 11.6 – Makeup Considerations 150 11.7 – Chapter Review 152

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CHAPTER 12 Creating the Costume Design 153 12.1 – Working with the Choreographer 153 12.2 – Communicating the Design 154 12.3 – Executing the Design 158 12.4 – Dress Rehearsals and Beyond 160 12.5 – Chapter Review 161 CHAPTER 13 Scenery and Props 166 13.1 – Scenic Design 166 13.2 – Functions of Dance Scenery 13.3 – Scenic Elements 170 13.4 – Dance Props 175 13.5 – Chapter Review 176

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CHAPTER 14 Creating the Scenic Design 177 14.1 – Working with the Choreographer 177 14.2 – Communicating the Design 178 14.3 – Design Specifcations 181 14.4 – Scenic Construction and Painting 184 14.5 – Props Design 185 14.6 – Chapter Review 187 CHAPTER 15 Lighting 191 15.1 – The Lighting Designer 191 15.2 – Functions of Dance Lighting (What Lighting Can Accomplish) 191 15.3 – Properties of Dance Lighting (Controllable Qualities of Dance Lighting) 15.4 – Lighting Systems 196 15.5 – Lighting Positions and Angles 198 15.6 – Lighting Instruments 204 15.7 – Atmospherics 207 15.8 – Color in Lighting 207 15.9 – Chapter Review 211

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Contents

CHAPTER 16 Creating the Lighting Design 212 16.1 – Working with the Choreographer 212 16.2 – Communicating the Design 213 16.3 – Hang and Focus 217 16.4 – Preparing for Technical Rehearsals 218 16.5 – Chapter Review 221 CHAPTER 17 Projection and Video 225 17.1 – The Projection Designer 225 17.2 – Assessing Projection Needs 226 17.3 – Functions of Dance Projection Design (What Projection Design Can Accomplish) 17.4 – Projection Systems 234 17.5 – Projection Equipment 235 17.6 – Types of Media Servers 238 17.7 – Chapter Review 240 CHAPTER 18 Creating the Projection Design 241 18.1 – Working with the Choreographer 241 18.2 – Communicating the Design 242 18.3 – Content 244 18.4 – Preparing for Technical Rehearsals 246 18.5 – Technical Rehearsals 247 18.6 – Chapter Review 248

PART III QUICK REFERENCE 253 CHAPTER 19 Dance Terminology

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CHAPTER 20 Theatre/Stagecraft Terminology Index

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275

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Acknowledgements

This book was envisioned as a bridge between the worlds of dance and design/production, enabling folks from dance, design, management, and production to better communicate and collaborate with one another. Along the way, I was lucky enough to be able to surround myself with some excellent artists and scholars who made this process so very enjoyable and led to a much more comprehensive book than I could have ever hoped for on my own.

I couldn’t have created this book without all of the wonderful photographers who so generously contributed their work. Special thanks to Richard Calmes for the use of his amazing dance photography. He is an amazing guy and a very talented photographer whose work you should defnitely check out (www.pbase.com/rcalmes). Thanks also to Randy Mascharka, the exceptional photographer for Eastern Michigan University Theatre who has documented so much of my work over the years. Zac Whittenberg and the wonderful folks at Hubbard Street Dance Chicago truly delivered a treasure trove of production and behind-the-scenes photos. Thanks, as well, to Lynn Wichern and the Merce Cunningham Trust for assistance in including some of Merce’s amazing work in photo form.

My heartfelt thanks to Campbell Baird, Julie Ballard, Emily Clarkson, Alex Gay, Cheryl Mintz, João Biera, Sam Crawford, Liz Prince, and Seth Reiser for being so gracious with their time and providing some insight into the world of professional dance. I am grateful for the support of Eastern Michigan University, in particular the Entertainment Design & Technology program and the School of Communication, Media, and Theatre Arts. Thanks to the College of Arts and Sciences, Kathy Stacey, Brian Scruggs, Melanie Bond, Madeleine Huggins, John Charles, Steve Martin, and Dustin D. Miller for supporting my continued research and creative activities. In particular, thanks to my students for encouraging me to continue this work and providing me with inspiration and hope for the future. I can’t say how proud it makes me to see the work of my students and colleagues represented in this book alongside the work of some of the giants in the dance world. Keep up the good work!

None of this would have been possible without the help of Stacey Walker and the editorial team at Routledge. Thanks for your support on this and all of my other books along the way. It remains a pleasure. As always, I have to acknowledge the unfappable support of my wife and creative partner Kate Hopgood, an amazing sound designer, composer, and collaborator. You have been by my side every step along the way on all of our journeys together and I remain amazed at all that you do. Finally, thanks to Kira, Isabella, and Baxter for being so supportive of me through everything and always believing in me. It means the world!

ix

Introduction

My goal in writing this textbook is to bridge the gap between theatrical and dance production and establish a common vocabulary for productive communication across the two disciplines. The text covers a wide range of design and technology components necessary to stage a dance production. In researching this book, I spoke to a number of academics and professionals to identify the specifc needs in teaching the process of dance production. I contacted individuals from both the dance world and the theatre world, since it is most often these two disciplines that converge to create a dance production. It is my hope that this book will fnd a home in both dance and theatre bookshelves, studied by both designers and dancers alike.

Format of This Book The book is structured in a way to give an introduction to a number of production areas as well as provide valuable insight from professionals in the feld. There are three different parts to the book. • Part I: Thinking Ahead addresses the early stages of the production process, covering basic concepts such as the collaborative process, the business side of dance, production planning, performance spaces, and touring/non-traditional productions. • Part II: Production Areas is the largest section of the book. This section covers all of the different design/tech areas of dance production. Typically, the frst chapter will

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-1

introduce you to the production area while the subsequent chapter delves into the specifcs of the creative process for that area. Scattered throughout the book are interviews with professionals from each of these areas, giving insight into the world of the professional artist and his/her own unique process. • Part III: Quick Reference offers up a collection of terms, photos, and illustrations to communicate commonly used terms or ideas from both dance and theatre. This goes a long way towards bridging that gap between the theatre and dance practitioners by establishing a common lexicon. The better acquainted we become with the terminology used in a different feld, the better prepared we are to understand and communicate our needs through collaboration. Finally, I think it is worth stating that the content in this book is based on my personal experiences as a teacher and designer and informed by my collaborations with hundreds of different artists throughout my career. I have worked with a number of different choreographers and artists over the years. This has helped form my approach to dance production. It is the nature of a textbook to take a stand on certain issues as preferred practice. For all of that, it is important to recognize that the artistic process is one that depends on personal trial and error. Just because something is a preferred practice doesn’t necessarily mean that it will work in every given situation. Artists should always be willing to take chances and experiment. If this book has given you enough information to spark your imagination towards trying out new and different approaches to dance production, it will have served its purpose.

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PART I

Thinking Ahead

CHAPTER 1

Collaboration

Dance and theatre are both collaborative art forms. In order to create a dance production, even a solo performance, a number of people are typically involved with the process of staging the event: the choreographer and dancers; a production manager who schedules, budgets, and keeps things running smoothly; the design team who create the visual and auditory world of the performance; the technicians and stagehands who facilitate the designs and run the show backstage; the theatre personnel who control the day-to-day operations of the space; the marketing personnel who get the word out about your performance; the box offce/front of house personnel who interact with the public; and there might even be a producer, artistic director, or board of directors for your dance company who inform the vision for the entire organization. In many situations, you might work with some or all of these positions to produce a dance performance. Working with this many people makes collaboration a necessary skill for all of us. Unfortunately, many artists fall into the trap of focusing their energy on the technical skills of their particular craft without frst putting in the work to become a better collaborator. This chapter examines possible collaborative models and processes specifc to creating a dance production, as well as addressing specifc team members and responsibilities.

1.1 – Collaboration with Intent Many of us grew up in a world where individual drive and personal achievement were highly desirable attributes, taught in our classrooms and reinforced in the business practices of “the real world” once we hit the workplace. Using that same logic, many might assume that it is an artist’s singular vision, drive, and hours of work performed in solitude that lead them to that rare and elevated status of artistic genius. In some cases, this may well be true. In the performing arts, however (particularly within the realms of dance and theatre), those who achieve the greatest measure of success tend to

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be artists who have mastered the practice of collaboration. On a practical level this is because, unlike other disciplines, it is virtually impossible to create a dance or theatre piece on your own. After all, it is the rare artist who can master all of the skills necessary to pull off a live performance completely on their own. Beyond this, it is worth considering that by bringing multiple people together to create a work of art we naturally engage multiple points of views and perspectives in the creative process, thereby increasing the chances of making a fnished product that speaks to a wider cross-section of audience than something created by a single artist. Understanding these factors, it seems obvious that collaboration is a skill worth developing and practicing with intent.

What Is Collaboration? Before moving too quickly into discussions on collaboration and process, we might do well to defne the word. For our purposes, collaboration is when more than one person works together on a project towards a shared goal or objective. What separates collaboration from mere cooperation is the shared vision used as a guiding principle for everyone’s work. Cooperation, on the other hand, might involve the same group of people working towards a similar goal but those individuals in the group are working to assist another’s goals – not necessarily their own. The key distinction lies in the point that, in order for collaboration to be achieved, each person in the group must share the ownership of working towards a common goal. It is no longer any one person’s goal, but the collective goal of the group. Though this may seem to be an insignifcant difference, consider what a difference-maker it can be to have a sense of shared purpose when working on an arduous process. Collaboration communicates to your team members that their efforts are an important part of achieving the collective goal and bestows a greater sense of meaning to the work. While this may not always lead to an ideal end product, it certainly goes a long

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-3

Collaboration

way towards establishing a sense of investment amongst the whole team and enabling a willingness to go the extra mile in support of the project.

revolves around the choreographer and their vision, we begin with an examination of the choreographer’s role within the collaborative model.

Defning Roles

The Choreographer

It bears mentioning that many people approach their individual role as a choreographer, dancer, designer, technician, or administrator in different ways. It is unhelpful to assume an understanding of other people’s process, particularly as it relates to collaboration. We all approach collaboration from the context of what has or has not worked for us in past collaborations. Just because something has worked in the past with another group of people is not an indication of future success with a different group. For that reason, it is a good idea to start off a new collaborative process by defning roles and examining expectations.

The roots of the word choreographer can be traced back to a combination of two Greek words, khoreia (meaning dance) and graphein (meaning to write). Therefore, the literal meaning of choreographer is “dance writer.” This phrase aptly describes the role of the choreographer. In basic terms, the choreographer composes a dance piece, working with dancers to assemble a series of movements and patterns into a cohesive performance. Beyond this, though, the choreographer must consider the overall artistic vision and message and collaborate with designers and technicians to facilitate the visual world of the dance outside of the choreography alone.

Unlike theatre, where the script is the preconceived unifying source for the collaboration, dance productions often begin collaboration before the dance truly exists. This creates the frst important question – where do the ideas come from? Will the choreographer give everyone a presentation with guiding concepts that start the process, or does the team search together to create the concept? In most instances, the person hiring the team is the logical choice to begin this conversation. The producer, artistic director, or choreographer who assembles the team would do well to lay out some basic thoughts on how they hope to proceed with the collaboration, while leaving room for the collaborators to explain how they typically work within their production role. Once everyone understands the ground rules for how the group expects to collaborate, the process will be much easier to undertake.

In the professional context, there are a number of different ways in which choreographers work. The choreographer could work solely on a given project, hiring dancers and designers to create the dance. Similarly, the choreographer could be brought in as a guest artist by a dance company to compose a piece as a premiere, or dance work seen for the frst time. Some choreographers create their own dance company to support their artistic vision. Notable examples are companies like The Alvin Ailey Dance Theater, the Martha Graham Dance Company, or the Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane Dance Company. Frequently these are repertory companies, a dance company who has a number of dances in their repertoire that are presented multiple times (rather than a single event). These companies present multiple dances in one season, re-mounting pieces from their repertoire. In this case, a choreographer may be brought in to re-mount the work as originally set by another choreographer, particularly if the original choreographer is deceased. Frequently a choreographer functions as the artistic director for a dance company – the individual who sets the overarching artistic vision of the dance organization. In many ballet companies, the position of artistic director is frequently a retired dancer who choreographs some of the company’s productions and shares some of the responsibility for training dancers.

1.2 – Collaborative Models – How We Work Together As previously mentioned, defning roles is an important early step in defning the identity of your company or project. Without having had the experience of trial and error within different environments, however, it might be diffcult to determine exactly which path is best to undertake for a particular project. There are a number of different models for how these people work together to accomplish their goals. These approaches are as unique as the differing types of organizations presenting the dance. Listed below are some common collaborative models that might be a good ft for your undertaking. Since so much of the collaborative process

One additional area to consider for the choreographer is educational dance. Dance education can begin at a very young age and is present in many educational environments from preschool, to K-12, and higher education. Choreographers might function as dance educators in a private studio scenario or as part of a physical education program through public schools. Likewise, there are a number of university professors who specialize in dance. Since the purpose of educational

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Thinking Ahead

dance is to train, most often the dance and design/tech roles are flled from a group of students and faculty/staff.

note that a freelancer might work within the company model listed above on a project and not be a member of the dance company. Likewise, someone might be a company member for one dance company and work as a freelancer on a different project.

Though there are a number of ways in which a choreographer can work, the consistent truth is that all dance centers on the choreographer and their vision for storytelling. As such, the creative process of the choreographer affects all of the collaborators involved in staging a dance.

The nature of the freelance business is that the freelancer tends to work for a number of different companies. Since there is no assurance of a next job, the freelance artist must always be looking down the road for the next opportunity. As such, it is not uncommon to fnd freelance artists engaged to multiple productions at the same time. This is particularly true of designers, who might be in various stages of the design process on different shows simultaneously. This setup makes for a different sort of collaboration than that of the dance company model. Since freelance artists might frequently come in from out of town, they tend to not be involved in as many of the production meetings or, alternatively, join via phone or video conferencing. This type of relationship means less time for concept development and more of a focus on the tech process for the production.

The Company Model The dance company model is a common approach to producing dance. The idea is to bring together a group of like-minded artists to create dance. Companies tend to function as a group of artists, centered on the artistic vision of a specifc choreographer or artistic director. An important concept to understand is that the dance company model is often distinctly tied to the style of dance being produced. Ballet companies are different in their management and operation than a hip-hop company. No matter the style, though, some aspects remain the same. Unlike a single dance concert, the dance company model tends to produce works as part of an overarching season of performances in one or more different performance venues. The company model can be a more rigidly structured, business-minded approach to collaboration than some others. Producing an entire season of dances requires a great amount of planning. Planning for individual productions occur in production meetings. These meetings are where all of the production and administrative staff come together to plan for the dance performance. Since the company has the responsibility of producing more than one singular concert, the decision making for one show might be affected by the concerns for a previous or future production within the season. It is not uncommon to fnd many of the same artists working on multiple shows within the dance company season. In addition, the creative process likely involves the artistic director (and other key administrative personnel) in addition to the choreographer and designers. Given the number of collaborators, the company model requires perhaps a greater amount of collaborative fexibility than some of the other models.

Choreographers can also be freelancers. Depending on the nature of the contract, the choreographer might be in town for an extended time or only long enough to set the dance. In these shorter engagements, the choreographer will frequently set the dance and have a rehearsal director for subsequent rehearsals. Most often, the choreographer is required to return for the tech process of the dance to give fnal notes and communicate with the designers, though this is not always the case. In this type of situation, it is important for the designers and choreographer to be in communication about the choreographer’s concepts and design preferences for the dance piece, since the tech rehearsals might be too late to make substantive changes to the designs.

The Collective Model Another collaborative method is working in a collective, a group of like-minded artists with common artistic goals who choose to work together. Like the dance company, a collective tends to be a long-term arrangement featuring a similar group of artists working together to create performances. One of the interesting aspects of how a collective can work is the tendency to blur lines between the creative roles. The dance tends to be created in a more communal sense, with choreographers, dancers, musicians, and designers contributing to the artistic creation. In this sense, there is a greater sense of collective artistic ownership of the dance. Though this model may be hard to achieve in practical terms, many artists fnd this to be a rewarding creative method in which to work.

The Freelance Model The freelance model is a common approach to creating a production team for dance. This term freelance refers to a worker who is not attached to any one specifc employer and, instead, is brought in by different companies to work on a project for a fxed period of time. It is important to

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Collaboration

The Independent Model

of art to create multidisciplinary collaborations. This multidisciplinary method combined the work of composers like John Cage and David Tudor, visual artists Robert Rauschenberg, Jasper Johns, and Andy Warhol, flm-makers Charles Atlas, and Elliot Caplan, and architect Benedetta Tagliabue (Figure 1.1). One of the most radical notions introduced in these collaborations concerned that relationship between music and dance. Cage and Cunningham embraced the notion that music and dance may well exist in the same time and space for the performance, but should always be created separate of one another. Because of this, the music and dance in their collaborations stood alone as independent components of the performance. This unique process occurred in the visual elements of the dance production as well, featuring artists creating different aspects of the production separate from one another, only bringing their work together for the production.

Though collaboration is one of the benchmarks of dance production, some modern dance artists have blurred the lines between traditional collaboration and chance artistic creation. The father of this modern dance philosophy was Merce Cunningham who, in 1953, created the Merce Cunningham Dance Company (MCDC). One of his defning qualities as a choreographer was a belief in the use of chance as a choreographic device. He would collaborate with the dancers to develop movement sequences focused on time, space, and weight. Once developing a basic movement vocabulary, the dancers would roll a dice or use instruction manuals to determine which moves would be used, in what order, and combination. This method created an element of surprise and lacked traditional compositional principles such as a clear beginning, middle, and end. In addition to chance in his own choreography, though, Cunningham often combined his dance with other works

Though Cunningham is the most famous practitioner of this method, his process had a profound impact on modern dance and the avant-garde art world in general. Many modern dancers and choreographers have embraced this method and collaborate in this fashion.

1.3 – Team Members and Responsibilities Though later chapters focus on many of these production areas in detail, a quick look at the production team members and their responsibilities is useful in understanding how we might collaborate. The list below includes an array of production personnel and their job descriptions. Though by no means exhaustive, this list includes a number of people who are frequently engaged in the process of producing dance.

Administration Though the audience tends to focus on the dancers onstage, there are a number of people behind the scenes who work tirelessly to ensure the dance organization runs smoothly. Listed below are a number of these individuals and a brief description of their jobs. • Artistic director: The artistic director, or AD, establishes the overarching artistic vision for the dance company. The AD is frequently the bridge between artistic and administrative personnel (for this reason, I have listed the AD in both administrative and artistic personnel below).

Figure 1.1 Fabrications (2004). Merce Cunningham Dance Company. Photo © Tony Dougherty. Décor and Costumes by Dove Bradshaw. Photo courtesy: The Merce Cunningham Trust.

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Thinking Ahead

•

•

•

•

•

•

•

The AD hires all artistic staff and is in charge of planning the season(s) based on her artistic vision for the dance organization. Board of directors: The board of directors is the governing group of the dance company whose primary interest lies in supervising the funding and business practices of the organization. As the board assumes the ultimate legal and fnancial responsibility for the company, it is frequently composed of professionals from the fnance, legal, and business sectors as well as individuals well positioned in the community to generate and maintain a donor base. Current trends have seen the addition of more artists and entertainment professionals on boards, though they still tend to be in the minority. General manager: The general manager (or executive director, in some organizations) is an individual with experience in arts management who works closely with the AD to realize the vision for the dance company. The general manager hires and manages administrative personnel and reports to the board of directors regarding the general state of organizational stability and operations. Business manager: The business manager is in charge of bookkeeping and payroll for the organization. The business manager meticulously tracks all incoming and outgoing funds. If the organization is not-for-proft, this individual is instrumental in working with an auditor to ensure the fnancials are properly reported each year. Company manager: The job description for company manager varies, based on the organizational structure and mission of the dance company in question. The company manager oversees activities in booking performances, communication with performance venues, the logistics of company touring, and outreach opportunities. Tour manager: The tour manager’s sole job is the planning and organization of a tour. They book travel and lodgings, coordinate with the presenter or performance venue, ensure the signing of performance contracts and technical riders, and coordinate a tour itinerary. In many instances, the role of company manager and tour manager are held by the same person, or they have overlapping duties. Development director: Development directors oversee fundraising for the dance company – working to establish a donor base, organizing fundraising events, and spearheading grant writing. Marketing director: The marketing director is responsible for promoting the dance company in the community. Marketing involves a number of areas: print media, broadcast media, internet mailings, the company website,

and more. Increasingly, social media plays an important role in the process of branding a dance organization. • Production manager: The production manager oversees all of the production elements of the dance company from the production schedule, to production budget tracking, and hiring technicians to run the performance. In short, the production manager is the person who keeps the production on schedule and on budget. • Presenter: In dance, the presenter is an individual who represents a performance venue, festival, or presenting group. They invite artists or companies to present their work as part of the presenting group’s season or festival. The presenter might sometimes be referred to as a producer as well.

Theatre Staff It is important to recognize that many dance companies do not own a home theatre of their own used exclusively for presenting their dance works. Although this is a possibility, it is a much more common model to fnd a dance company that presents their works in rental space or in various different spaces. In this case, there are personnel who work with the dance company, but are employees of the theatre space. Some of these positions are listed below. • Box offce manager: A box offce manager manages the employees working in the theatre’s box offce and tracks ticket sales and box offce earnings. Since the box offce worker is the frst face your patrons see, this position is instrumental in setting the tone for a good audience experience and returning patrons. • House manager: The house manager works closely with the performance venue to ensure positive audience experience and safety. The house manager typically trains and supervises ushers and helps in seating patrons/facilitating the entry of those on the waiting list. In addition, the house manager has the important responsibility of ensuring compliance with fre codes and dealing with emergency situations that arise before, during, or following a performance. • House tech: Many performance spaces have their own technicians assigned to the space to supervise guests in the space. This position is typically referred to as the house tech, an individual hired by the space but not necessarily affliated with the dance company. In a union setting, there are certain jobs that can only be performed by the house technicians. Depending on the size of the performance space, this might be as few as one or two people, or a large number of personnel performing

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• Choreologist/dance archivist: A choreologist is the person responsible for documenting and preserving a choreographer’s vision and intention. The choreologist is trained in special forms of notation to document the dance for future remounts or archival purposes.

numerous roles. Examples of these duties are fully defned in this chapter.

Dance Artists Within the dance company, there are a number of artists who collaborate to produce a dance performance. Though perhaps never seen onstage, these individuals work to ensure a product of high artistic quality. Listed below are these artists and their job descriptions.

Musical Staff Dance and music have been interconnected throughout history. It is common to fnd one or more musicians associated with the production of a dance performance. These roles are listed below.

• Artistic director: As listed in the administrative group, the artistic director is the bridge between the artistic and administrative personnel. They create the vision for the dance company, planning for the entire season and, in many cases, for many years ahead. As such, the AD must be frmly rooted in all aspects of production. In some instances, the AD acts as the primary choreographer for the company. • Resident choreographer: A resident choreographer is an individual serving in residence with a specifc dance company for a predetermined period of time, during which he/she will set new dance works to be premiered through the dance company. • Choreographer: The choreographer works with dancers to set movement for the stage. This collective set of movements is referred to as choreography. These dances are sometimes based on an idea, story, poem, visual image, or piece of music, though many modern choreographers create dances meant to function independently of external constructs. Choreographers tend to be dancers themselves. • Dancer: The dancer is anyone who interprets and performs the choreography. The dancer may also be involved in the development of choreography in conjunction with the choreographer. • Principal dancer: Many companies feature a principal dancer, one who has reached a high level of technical profciency and artistic interpretation. The principal dancer performs starring roles in the dance company’s repertoire and might receive billing (having one’s name listed prominently) in marketing for the dance. • Rehearsal director: The rehearsal director co-ordinates and supervises rehearsals on behalf of the choreographer, to ensure the dancers interpret the choreography once set by the choreographer. This individual is frequently someone intimately familiar with either the dance company or the choreographer, though not necessarily both. Commonly, a former principal dancer for the company takes on this role, and is responsible for maintaining and rehearsing the choreography.

• Composer: The composer writes the music for the dance. Some composers collaborate with choreographers to craft the music specifcally for a dance piece, whereas some modern collaborations feature dance and music creation as separate entities that only come together for the performance. Sometimes a choreographer may simply select music previously written by a composer. • Accompanist: The accompanist is a musician who plays music for classes or rehearsal. Most frequently accompanists play piano or percussion instruments. When playing piano, the accompanist is sometimes referred to as a rehearsal pianist. • Conductor: The conductor is responsible for directing the orchestra and arranging music as necessary for performance. In some cases, the conductor also hires musicians to play in the orchestra.

Design Team The designers are the production team members responsible for creating the visual and auditory aspects of a dance performance. Frequently, these individuals have training in the theatre, live performance or other entertainment industries. The list below includes a wide range of personnel and job descriptions. While some dance companies may employ resident designers, most typically designers are hired on a show-by-show basis and not as salaried members of the permanent staff (in the United States). • Costume designer: The costume designer works closely with the choreographer to determine the clothing needs of the dancers and the specifc requirements of costume as it relates to fabric and movement. The duties of the costume designer may include hair and makeup as well, or there might be a specifc wigs or makeup designer hired for the production.

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• Scenic designer: The scenic designer (or set designer) designs the visual world of the scenery based on the storyline, theme, or setting of the dance. They commonly design or specify masking, soft goods, projection screens/ surfaces, platforming, and/or fooring. The scenic designer must work closely with the choreographer, as movement paths can be either created or inhibited by the placement of scenic elements. • Lighting designer: The lighting designer, or LD, chooses an inventory of lighting instruments and determines their placement, colors, and intensity to accentuate the dancer’s movement on stage. As dance programs frequently feature a number of differing dances, the LD must often create a light plot that works for more than one type of dance as well. • Props designer: A props designer is responsible for creating any types of props with which the dancers might interact. Sometimes, the scenic designer manages properties as well. • Projection/media designer: Projection design is a catchall phrase for the use of imagery; either projected or displayed on monitors or display panels. This feld, while relatively young, is one of the fastest-growing design areas in dance. The projection designer generates content to be displayed and assembles or specifes the necessary equipment for the design. • Sound designer: The sound designer is the individual responsible for facilitating the sound needs of the production. These needs can vary depending on the production, from audio reinforcement for dancers and musicians, to recording and editing of original music, and setting up a sound system for audio playback and mixing. In some instances, a sound designer might function as the composer and write original music for a dance. It is a less common occurrence to see the composer serve as sound designer, though it certainly is not unheard of.

for the show (a contract that stipulates what facilities and equipment are required for staging a show at a touring venue). The TD is typically a permanent staff member of the dance company. • Stage manager: The stage manager’s biggest responsibility is “calling the show.” This phrase refers to the act of calling cues for the show over the intercom system during the performance. The stage manager controls every aspect of the timing for the show (lighting, sound, scenery movement, projections, and dancer entrances) through calling the cues or triggering of cue lights. In addition, the stage manager is responsible for the safety of the performers and crew while in the theatre. In some settings, the stage manager works closely with the choreographer during the rehearsal period, while in others he/she only comes in for the technical rehearsals and production run. • Assistant stage manager: The assistant stage manager, or ASM, assists the stage manager in their rehearsal duties and in the running of the show from backstage. • Master electrician: The master electrician, or ME, coordinates the lighting for the dance space – interpreting the lighting designer’s light plot; wiring, hanging, circuiting and focusing lighting instruments; and also purchasing, maintaining, and upgrading the lighting inventory. In some instances, (typically on tour) the ME might act as a lighting designer for some dances as well.

Running Crew The term “running crew” refers to those people working backstage who run the various components of a production during the performance. All of the running crew take direction from the stage manager during the run of the show. Common running crew positions are listed below. Some of these positions might be provided by the performance space, but it is most likely that each person will need to be hired as needed by the dance company for the duration of the performances.

Technical Staff Technicians are the group of artists who execute the designs and facilitate the designer’s vision for the production. Some of these roles are staff positions with the dance company, though others are frequently freelance positions that are hired in for a specifc production.

• Light board operator: The light board operator controls the lighting board, typically pressing the GO button to proceed through the lighting cues. • Spotlight operator: The spotlight operator (sometimes referred to as the followspot operator) operates a special lighting instrument called the followspot – a light mounted on a swivel turret that can follow a dancer across the stage, ensuring that he/she will always be lit. • Sound board operator: A sound board operator controls the sound system – typically comprised of a sound mixer and/or audio control system. The sound board operator may control a number of different components, from audio

• Technical director: The technical director, or TD, is the individual responsible for overseeing all of the technical elements of the production. The TD typically has experience in a number of different production areas that enable him/her to supervise the setup, facilities, equipment, and technical concerns related to touring. For many dance companies the TD is responsible for the technical rider

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• •

•

•

playback, to headsets, and microphones for the orchestra and dancers. Stagehand: A stagehand is a technician responsible for moving scenery or properties for a production. Flyman: A fyman is a specifc type of stagehand who moves scenery attached to the theatre’s counterweight system. Such items are said to be “fown,” meaning that they can be stored overhead, out of the audience’s line of sight, until they are needed for the show. At this time, the fyman pulls on a rope that brings the scenery in. Wardrobe: The wardrobe crew is responsible for the maintenance and placing of costumes. A dresser is a member of the wardrobe crew specifcally responsible for assisting the dancer in getting into and out of costume during the show. Wigs/makeup: Wigs and makeup crewmembers are responsible for the application or assisting in the application of makeup, face and/or body paints, wigs, hairpieces, or prosthetics.

a movement style or action. One of the most common forms of inspiration for a dance, particularly in the context of modern and contemporary dance, is the exploration of thought, emotion, or philosophical concepts. Ultimately, this inspiration might be unknown to the audience, but it is invaluable information for the choreographer, dancers, and design team. Any or multiple of these elements will combine to create a thematic approach to the dance – what are we trying to say/communicate? • Style: The choice of style is an important consideration. Style can be defned as a method or approach to presenting a work of art. Style is typically tied to the historical period in which it was frst created and, as such, one sees similarities between styles across the differing art forms. In music, style is frequently substituted with the word genre. Jazz, blues, dubstep, and folk are all examples of musical styles. Dance includes styles like jazz, hip hop, ballet, and Latin/rhythm. One important consideration to working in a multidisciplinary art form such as dance is that one style can have different connotations across the differing art forms. In music and dance, style tends to be linked to the historical period and/or cultural origin of the performance style. Theatrical styles, on the other and, tend to be associated with literary or artistic movements such as Classicism, Realism, Naturalism, Absurdism, Epic Theatre, and more. • Setting a schedule: Planning and deadlines are the backbone of any successful live performance. There are many components that must be considered when producing a dance: budget; contracts; rehearsal space; securing a performance space; design/technical aspects; marketing and promotion; technical rehearsals and performance dates. Each of these elements should be combined into one master schedule that creates deadlines for all elements of the production. Depending on the role of the choreographer in the dance company, he or she may be responsible for some or all of these details. Additionally, there might be an artistic director, production manager, or technical director involved in this step. Whether the choreographer dictates the schedule or not, the creative process must ft within the confnes of the production schedule. • Assembling a team: The process of assembling a team varies wildly depending on the specifcs of your dance project. When I say team, I am referring to the entire group of performers, designers, and technicians necessary to stage the dance. In an academic environment, chances are good that you will have a pool of student dancers auditioning for your dance piece. It is common in this situation to be one of a number of choreographers combining to mount a dance concert featuring multiple

1.4 – The Creative and Production Process The creative process that goes into creating dance tends to be unique to the choreographer and their team. While it is true that each choreographer and production team has a unique approach, there are also some common themes that appear in the process of taking a dance from idea to public presentation. The steps below describe one such approach to the production process. Obviously, there are a number of artists who do not ft so neatly into this box, but it is a good place to start our exploration of the dance production process. The following list is created from the perspective of a choreographer self-producing a dance, so as to see the full spectrum of considerations. Keep in mind that, even though these are presented in a specifc order, the arrangement of these individual steps may change based on the needs of a particular project. Always remain fexible in your creative process! • Inspiration/theme: Like any work of art, the effective dance piece will have a central idea at its core that inspired the artist to create the work. Since dance is most frequently paired with music, it only makes sense that music or sound often sparks the creative impulse for a dance. This is far from the only element that might inspire a dance, though. Visual elements like sculpture, natural landscapes, or other physical objects often serve as artistic stimuli. Likewise, the impulse could be more kinesthetic – a desire to explore

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•

•

•

•

and dance companies refer to this as a post-mortem, a meeting in which the entire production team comes together to discuss the process, what worked, what did not, and what could be learned from the process to improve for subsequent productions.

pieces. In these cases, a design team might simply be assigned to your project. Depending on your specifc project, you may fnd yourself in need of securing a number of artists for the job. If hiring production members, the contract or letter of agreement (LOA) is an essential element. The LOA should include the specifc responsibilities, deadlines, rate of pay, and guidelines specifc to working for this unique production. This contract ensures that all participants have been made aware of their duties before the project begins and agree to the predetermined conditions. Studio time: At some point after the dancers are selected, the rehearsal process begins in full. Depending on the choreographer’s approach, this process can vary greatly. It might involve arriving in the studio with the movement ready to teach the dancers; working from a rough idea; asking dancers to create their own individual stories and accompanying movement; or working from props to determine the material for the dance piece. One should never assume that this process would be similar from choreographer to choreographer. At some point after the choreography is complete, it is benefcial to invite the designers in to see a run of the dance piece. In these instances, I tend to create a video recording for future reference. This simple step can make the tech process run much more smoothly. Technical rehearsals: Once the dance pieces are fully choreographed, it is time to move from the studio into the performance space. This time period of rehearsing dance pieces with the technical aspects is referred to as a technical rehearsal. Depending on the time and budget allowed, technical rehearsals can last anywhere from a week to a few hours before opening. Each dance company follows different rules for the process, but it is common for the dancers to space through the dance piece at a reduced tempo while the choreographer and designers look at the piece under stage lighting with props and other technical elements. This rehearsal is often referred to as a cue-to-cue, since the tech process is to gradually proceed from cue to cue and watch the progression. A tech run is a rehearsal in which the dances are run at full speed with technical elements. Frequently, cue-to-cue and tech runs are combined into the same tech rehearsal. The dress rehearsal is the last step of technical rehearsals, in which costumes are incorporated. Performance: Once the technical rehearsals have ended, we reach the fnal stage of the creative process – bringing an audience in to watch the performance. This is the step for which everyone has been working so hard. Self-examination: In many dance companies, there is the inclusion of a period of self-examination. Many theatre

1.5 – Establishing a Collaborative Process After gaining a better understanding of all of the various team members and their responsibilities and examining some different collaborative models, you would be well served by establishing your own expectations for how a collaborative process might work for your project or company. The following section breaks down some thoughts on potential steps in the collaborative process that can be used as a starting point for determining the best approach for your own process.

Envisioning Collaboration The frst step in establishing your collaborative process is examining what kind of a project or company you want to be. This might entail creating a mission statement for your dance company or project, so you can understand exactly what your overarching goals are for your organization or a singular project. Is the goal to showcase your work as a choreographer? Perhaps you want to bring together a close group of friends to make your own dance collective. Do you want to create an evening of dance wherein all of the pieces refect on a common theme or question? Do you want to develop a dance company that addresses the unique needs of a specifc community? Are you trying to create a new dance to enter into a festival that has a predetermined set of rules? The answers to these questions establish the foundation upon which your collaborations will be built. Don’t get so excited about the end goal that you overlook the important work of envisioning what type of a collaboration you want to be part of. In addition to your own desires, keep in mind that the choices made for a collaborative model will affect the types of collaborators you can get on a project. I recommend having a clear and frank discussion with all the potential team members at the beginning of the process that lays out your collaborative style and expectations. That way, collaborators can decide from the beginning whether they would be a good ft for the project before getting too far into the process. Also, keep in mind that collaboration is a two-way street. Have an open mind to changing your own preconceptions should you be presented with an alternate method that might ft your end goals better than the one you envisioned.

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Pre-Production Collaboration

set the piece, and work it until their expectations are met. Others might come into the rehearsal with a loose idea of their goals and collaborate with the dancers and team members to discover the fnal piece. While both methods have their place, it is important to consider that collaboration must be an ongoing process even with those who are not in the rehearsal room. For this reason, some rehearsals might have a stage manager in the room to take notes and facilitate communication with the team. The addition of a stage manager to the rehearsal process is advantageous, since it allows them to better understand the dances and ensure that they can serve as a singular access point for the production.

In the pre-production phase, one of the most important considerations is establishing a method and expectations for communication. Before jumping into the rehearsal process, consider reaching out to all of the team members in some way to establish expectations. The choreographer would do well to communicate any needs they anticipate from designers, management, and dancers. This might occur in the form of a company meeting, an email, or various telephone or videoconferences. When communicating with production members separately, keep in mind that information should be shared with all parties within a cohort. For instance, a discussion of color scheme in costumes directly affects the color choices a lighting designer might make and vice versa. While some items may seem inconsequential, it is better to err on the side of sending out too much information than not enough. Poor communication is one of the biggest obstacles to a successful collaboration. One of the best ways to achieve this is through taking detailed notes that get disseminated to the production team. This might entail having a stage manager attend various meetings and send out notes, or simply coordinating meetings so that all of the team members can be present.

No matter the personnel present in the rehearsal room, some common expectations should be a dissemination of information learned during the rehearsal process (typically done through rehearsal reports or notes sent out to the team), and the eventual creation of a video that captures the dance. This documentation is invaluable to the lighting designer or other team members whose work will be based on the specifcs of timing and dancer placement. It should go without saying that this establishes an expectation that the choreographer fnalizes the dance while in rehearsal. If this is not a reality, or if the documented choreography changes in some way, it is important that the choreographer communicate this information in advance of technical rehearsals.

Another important consideration in pre-production is communicating what needs must be met before rehearsals can begin. Certainly, a rehearsal space is necessary but make certain to communicate any specifc needs that might go along with that, such as audio/video equipment, specifc rehearsal props or set pieces, costume needs, or expectations of the dancers before attending the frst rehearsal. Some choreographers like to rehearse alone with their dancers, whereas others want to involve other team members in the process – particularly true of sound designers, composers, and projection designers. Bringing in a designer or composer to the rehearsal process is often considered “above and beyond” that of the typical expectations of meetings and technical rehearsals. As such, this should be discussed with both the designers and management, as this would often involve a larger design fee or paying a daily rate, a billing cost for a team member’s services for a single day. This is especially true when working with union members. Even if their participation does not require paying extra fees, their expected presence in rehearsals is something that must be spelled out in their contract as a duty.

Collaboration in Tech The next step of the collaborative process is technical rehearsals. This is the point in which the production team come together in the performance space to put their work together onstage. Compared to the theatre world, dance technical rehearsals are commonly an abbreviated process, particularly for the world of recitals, competitive dance, and small companies. Since the designers might come from different backgrounds (many designers work in theatre, dance, opera, corporate, TV/flm, etc.) it is always a good idea to clearly communicate both timeline and expectations in advance. Some choreographers prefer to have a hand in the timing of lighting cues, for instance, whereas others simply leave this to the designer alone. While no one model is superior to the other, it is important to allow the designer to prepare for the process. In addition to the design team, communicate to the dancers the expectations of technical rehearsals and how you intend to approach the process. This is often best achieved by having a company meeting at the beginning of the technical rehearsals that addresses the desired process. One common method

Collaboration Through Rehearsal Collaboration is an important aspect of the rehearsal process. Some choreographers may prefer to dictate expectations,

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involves having the dancers mark through the dance on a frst run with frequent stops (called a hold), thus allowing the choreographer to communicate important information about the piece to the design team as they work. In other instances, there may only be enough time in the schedule to simply run through the dance and see if the designs work for the dance and quickly take notes as to any necessary changes that might need to happen.

observe and listen, Chances are, they might be already working on the very note you are about to give. That said, if an artistic decision clearly does not ft within the world of the dance, consider addressing what you hoped to communicate in that moment and how their work could better reinforce the goal. Avoid criticizing their work itself, but rather frame the conversation as a discussion of how all the parts can best work together to accomplish the intended storytelling.

No matter the process, care should be taken when communicating with other members of the team. Technical rehearsals can be frustrating experiences, even under the best of conditions. As such, try to succinctly communicate your needs and desires while avoiding criticizing others’ work and remaining open to feedback throughout the process. Don’t forget to compliment people on their work! A little validation can go a long way to letting people know that their hard work is appreciated and they are a valued member of the team. Likewise, if something isn’t working, don’t be afraid to honestly convey your reservations about it. Timing is key, however. Keep in mind that technical rehearsals are often the designers’ frst look at their work. If they are obviously working to make changes, perhaps take a few moments to

Assessment: Looking Back/Looking Forward In addition to the aforementioned steps, don’t overlook the need for assessment in your collaborative process. Realistically speaking, no project is ever 100% successful in achieving every goal. Much can be learned by the process of looking back over the project steps and analyzing what worked, what didn’t, and what could be improved upon. Some companies might formalize this process by having a post-mortem, or simply sending out a survey for team members to take. Others might have individual conversations with different team members to best assess the process. No matter what method you choose, assessment is an important step of the collaborative process that should not be overlooked.

FYI: Pointers for a Successful Collaboration • Approach each project as a unique endeavor. While there are certain aspects of creating a performance that will be similar from project to project, keep in mind that your preconceived notions might get in the way of success. Take the time to determine exactly what rules apply to this project. • Prioritize the dance. While it seems an obvious statement, the dance is the reason for the collaboration. Ultimately, the audience will take in all of the aspects of the performance – choreography, dancers, and design elements, as a singular product. Ask yourself, do my choices serve the dance? If every member of the team comes back to this question as a guiding principle, collaboration will become less about you and more about the product. • Embrace questions. Questions provide clarity and direction. This is a good thing. Try not to view questions as a challenge, but as an opportunity for someone else to better understand your vision. Likewise, embrace the notion that you don’t always have to know the answer

to every question. Some questions are meant to be answered as a group through your process. • Be structured in your approach. Try to create a calendar that establishes a collaborative schedule, including timeframes, goals, and deadlines. Don’t be afraid to make adjustments, as needed, but it’s incredibly freeing to know that the whole team is working from a common set of expectations. • Communicate expectations and operate from a place of trust. Once everyone is on the same page as to the expectations of their individual roles, make sure to trust them to do their jobs. They were hired for a reason. If you have done a good job of creating goals and deadlines along the way, you should have a good understanding of the progress they are making without constantly looking over their shoulder (i.e. daily inquiries as to their progress). • Respect for roles. Everyone should be treated as an equal within the process, but this must also be tempered with an understanding that certain roles

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might carry more weight within the collaborative and decision-making process. There comes a time when the choreographer will have to be the sole decisionmaker and other members of the team must recognize that this is their role within the process. Likewise, the choreographer should be willing to defer to the decisions of team members who have specialized training and experiences in their own felds. • Acknowledge contributions and accomplishments. Everyone likes to be acknowledged for their hard work

and contributions to the team. Recognizing individual members throughout the process reminds everyone of their stake in the game and gives a sense of ownership. • Learn from your past. While it is true that each project will be unique, it is also important to look back at the history of your team or company and identify strategies and processes that have been effective in past endeavors. This allows frequent collaborators in particular to develop a sort of “short-hand” for what collaborative practices are most effective.

1.6 – Chapter Review

the vision of the choreographer with all of the team members contributing to the storytelling through their individual craft. There are many different approaches to the ways in which all of these people work together – as a dance company, freelance model, dance collective, or independent model – or various approaches that might be an amalgam of multiple methods. Understanding all of the information presented in this chapter gives you the tools necessary to begin an earnest examination of the process of dance production. Subsequent chapters will elaborate on these concepts and break down the production process in greater detail.

There are a number of people who collaborate to produce a dance performance. For most productions, artists from a number of different disciplines unite to bring their unique skills to the project. A true collaborator appreciates the contributions of each member of the production team and has a basic understanding of everyone’s responsibilities. It is common to fnd administration, dance artists, musical staff, design/tech personnel, and running crew collaborating on a dance performance. The successful dance piece will center on

Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What is the difference between collaboration and cooperation? What type of collaborative model appeals to you the most as an artist, and why? What are the key responsibilities of the artistic director? What does a choreologist do? What is the difference (if any) between a composer and a sound designer? What is the stage manager’s main responsibility? What is a post-mortem and why are they important? What is the role of a house tech? What is an LOA? Describe some common sources of inspiration for creating a dance piece.

Project 1–1: Communicating an Idea People communicate in so many different ways. Sometimes the best method for communicating an artistic concept is through combining differing methods into one presentation. For this project, you will be asked to put yourself into the choreographer’s shoes and create a multimedia presentation to discuss your vision for a new dance piece. Using your preferred type of presentation software (PowerPoint, Keynote, etc.) create a presentation that showcases your vision for a new dance piece. It should include:

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Thinking Ahead

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

The title of your dance piece. Visual inspiration for the concept. This could be photography, video, poetry, or anything that moves you. Your concept: A brief (one paragraph) description of what your dance should communicate. Three adjectives that best describe how you want your dance to feel. A brief statement on how/if music will be integrated with your dance. A brief statement on your thoughts related to design and how you envision it integrating with the dance.

This project should be a fun opportunity for you to start thinking about different methods of communication. Be bold in your choices and have fun with it, especially if you are a non-dancer doing this project. One of the most useful tools we have as artists is the ability to look at the world through someone else’s eyes, even for a moment. You might fnd that you learn something about yourself along the way. A note for teachers: This project is an excellent tool for teaching collaboration. As subsequent production areas are introduced, students can create design presentations using another classmate’s Project 1–1 as the basis of their work. This allows each student to function as a choreographer establishing vision for a dance, and a designer whose work must adhere to a different choreographer’s vision.

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CHAPTER 2

The Business of Dance

Though it is safe to say that most dancers probably don’t start out their careers thinking about running a business, it is important to acknowledge that arts management and administration are essential for arts organizations. The importance of business is right there in the phrase “show business.” There will be no show for audiences to watch without someone focusing on the administration and management of an arts organization.

organizations, most fall into the category of a performance company or a dance school/studio, though some might have crossover between the two categories. A performance company is specifcally geared towards presenting dance performances for the public, whereas a dance school or studio’s primary goal is teaching dance. This organizational identity will affect a number of different choices about how the business is run and the number and types of personnel necessary for success.

Beyond that, the business side of dance is an important focus for those who hope for a life-long career in dance. The reality for a number of dancers is that their performance career ends somewhere in their mid-thirties to early-forties. Though it can seem unfair, this is the current norm within an industry whose performers typically begin training not long after they started walking and continue their work in a discipline that is incredibly taxing on the body and does not always leave room for things like a personal life or building a family. As a result, most dancers are faced with the eventual decision to either transition away from the dance world or to carve out a space for themselves related to dance, but outside of performance. For many, this transition moves them into the world of administration or management – the business side of dance. For these reasons and many more, those interested in dance production would do well to understand the nature of running a dance business. This chapter focuses on many of these administrative aspects and examines many of the processes involved with running a dance business.

Since the primary goal of a performance company is to present public performances, the product is the performance itself. In the United States this type of business is typically funded through ticket sales, though this often generates only about 50% of the necessary revenue needed for business operations. Beyond this point, most organizations are funded through a combination of fundraising efforts, grants, charitable donations, municipal budgets, and partnerships. As a result, most performance companies have one or more administrative employees whose duties involve fundraising, charitable giving, and/or fnancial development. In addition, the performance company’s administrative cohort will often include many of those roles introduced in Chapter 1, such as: the artistic director, a board of directors, general manager, business manager, company manager, developing director, marketing director, production manager, tour manager, and more.

2.1 – Organizational Identity Every organization has its own sense of identity, connected to both the product being sold and the people creating the product. This organizational identity defnes not only the type of work done by the organization, but also the process undertaken to arrive at the end product. In the world of dance

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-4

The dance studio or school is undoubtedly the largest group of dance businesses, though each studio’s approach might be incredibly different from its peers. Unlike performance companies, the product offered by a dance studio is education. Though there is typically some variety of public performance associated with the dancers’ learning process, this business is primarily funded by tuition dollars rather than ticket sales. With a dance school, the operator owns or rents a venue specifcally designed to meet the needs of teaching and rehearsing dance, called a dance studio. A dance studio typically has one or more rehearsal rooms equipped with dance fooring, mirrors, a barre, and a dedicated sound

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Thinking Ahead

system. Some studios may also be equipped with theatrical drapery, lighting, and seating to accommodate for small performances. The term studio is also often used to refer to the collection of students who work at a particular school, as well as the space. Commonly, the studio generates revenue on multiple fronts such as student tuition for classes taught by the owner, renting the studio space out for events, and renting the space to other dance instructors who want to use it. In addition, the owner or manager might also operate a performance company, which has the added beneft of attracting new students to their studio and giving current students motivation to continue their training and showcase their work.

endeavors, separated into different divisions of proft models, both commercial and not-for-proft. In the commercial model, shows are produced by a group of investors brought together for the specifc purpose of producing a performance. In the theatre world, commercial performance runs are often open-ended, and can run for decades on end, provided that ticket sales hold up. These long-running performances are less common in the dance world, though examples like The Rockettes come to mind. Commercial producers typically rent the performance space and equipment for the show, rather than owning it outright. Additionally, stagehands and support personnel are hired in for running the show. In this model, investors pay money into a common fund used for covering production expenses until ticket sales offset the operation costs. If ticket sales do well, then the company is said to recoup its investment. Beyond this point, additional revenue is counted towards the production’s profts and redistributed to the original investors. All profts are taxable as income, whereas any losses are considered tax deductions. Most Broadway shows, touring productions, and legitimate theatre in Las Vegas operate as commercial theatre ventures.

For those interested in running a dance studio, there are often a number of different roles taken on by the owner, depending on the size of the studio and funding available to support other personnel. For one, the owner will often serve as the studio manager, creating schedules for where and when others use the space, communicating with teachers and staff, and maintaining the facilities. Frequently, the owner will also offer tech support for any equipment in the spaces, and work closely with other teachers in the space to ensure a positive experience for all students. Particularly relevant in the post-COVID pandemic world is the development and support of online dance lessons, offering fexibility for students and staff alike. From an entrepreneurship standpoint, the owner is also typically involved in billing, purchasing, marketing, outreach, and customer service. Additionally, the owner has to deal with a number of legal concerns such as obtaining necessary permits or licenses for operating the business, as well as licensing the use of music through performance rights organizations, and obtaining the appropriate insurance policies for the space, such as general liability insurance and worker’s compensation insurance, if necessary. With all of these concerns, it is easy to see why so many dance instructors choose to offer their classes through a dance studio and avoid the added labor of running a business themselves. For those interested in pursuing studio ownership, the experience can prove quite rewarding provided you understand the expectations of running a business.

Not-for-proft (NFP) companies, on the other hand, operate quite differently. For starters, in the US the rules for NFP’s are dictated by the federal and state government, due to their tax-exempt status. This means there are legal requirements associated with this status, such as incorporating your business and having a board of directors, amongst other things. Most NFP dance companies produce a series of performances in a season and present closed runs on productions. In the theatre world, most not-for-profts own and maintain their own theatre space (or sometimes multiple spaces). As such, they employ a staff of management, technical, and artistic personnel. This is less common for NFP dance companies, though certainly not unheard of. Since most government and grant-based funding for the arts in the US is contingent on NFP status, it is quite common to see dance companies categorized in this way. As NFP funding may come from a variety of sources, they also do not depend on ticket sales to the same degree as commercial dance. Unlike commercial ventures, where profts go to the producers, surplus funds in NFP ventures are re-invested in the organization itself.

2.2 – Proft Models One of the most important distinctions between the performing arts in the United States and those found in other countries is that, unlike most other countries, the US does not have a National Theatre. Unlike many other countries, where the performing arts are funded to some degree by the state, American professional performing arts are largely private

2.3 – The Board of Directors An NFP organization is considered a corporation and, as such, operates under many of the same rules that govern traditional

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The Business of Dance

Offcers

corporations. One of these rules is the requirement to have a board of directors. The process of becoming an NFP removes some of the administrative duty from the founder and places it into the board’s jurisdiction. As mentioned in Chapter 1, the board of directors is the governing group of the dance company whose primary interest lies in supervising the funding and business practices of the organization. According to US tax code, all NFP businesses must have a board of directors which meets regularly, records minutes of said meetings, and keeps detailed records related to all fnancial matters. Unlike a commercial venture, all profts generated by an NFP must be used towards advancing the organization’s work and cannot be distributed back to members for any reason. The board assumes the ultimate legal and fnancial responsibility for the company, so it is commonly made up of lawyers, fnance workers, accountants, and those from the business sector as well as those with strong community ties and the ability to generate and maintain a donor base. When creating a board for an arts organization, it is important to create a blend of board members who have a passion for the arts in addition to those who have a record of success in business endeavors. Board memberships are not intended to be permanent and, as such, most organizations have rules in place that dictate term limits.

The board of directors should elect offcers, board members who are given a higher level of responsibility and specifc tasks, such as supervising meetings, recording minutes, or keeping the fnancial accounting in order. Offcers are elected by the board and typically have term limits. Most commonly, an NFP board has a minimum of three offcers serving the duties of president, secretary, and treasurer, though there could be other offcer positions such as vice president, or diversity, equity, and inclusion offcer. In terms of duties, the president heads up the board and supervises all governance matters. The secretary records and archives all meeting minutes and keeps track of the organization’s activities and board members’ contact information. The treasurer keeps accurate accounting records for fnances, including keeping receipts, tracking expenses, and serving as a signatory for all banking. They also assemble and present fnancial reports at board meetings. This individual does not legally have to be an accountant, but exists as the offcer who keeps the organization and board fnancially accountable.

Governance vs. Management Though a board of directors is responsible for the governance of the NFP, this should not be confused with the management of the organization. The board is responsible for organizational oversight, long-term planning, and the general direction of the not-for-proft. Management responsibilities fall to the dance company’s management team, the paid staff members who cover the day-to-day operations of the organization with an eye to the vision established by the board. For this reason, it is advantageous to seek out visionaries for your board – those with the ability to see the big picture, establish a vision for the organization, and identify the key steps towards getting there. Though it may seem appealing to have staff serve the dual role of board membership, this should ideally be kept to a minimum, as the skillsets and goals of the two groups are subtly different.

Bylaws When creating a not-for-proft, one of the primary tasks is creating bylaws, or the rules that govern your organization. Though the rules for bylaws vary from state to state and are not always required, it is a good idea to have them even when not mandated as bylaws help your board run the organization effectively, and ensure that the day-today operations align with and further the goals of your organization. Bylaws tend to include basic information and governing policies, such as: • The name, address, and contact information of the NFP organization • The purpose of your organization • The makeup of the board (minimum/maximum number of directors, list of offcers, description of offcer duties, etc.) • Policies for adding or removing board members • Term limits • Schedule for meetings (both regular and annual meetings) • Rules regarding quorum (the number of board members required to be present for meetings in order to vote) • Rules regarding board committees • The fscal year calendar • Rules for amending the bylaws • Rules for how and when the board can dissolve the organization

Board Meetings At a minimum, there must be an annual board meeting with a quorum of board members present, though many organizations meet quarterly or even monthly. Board meetings should include an agenda distributed with suffcient lead time before the meeting (many bylaws establish rules for when these notices and agendas must go out) prepared in consultation with the president or board chair, the company artistic director, and the managing director. Meetings typically begin with a brief discussion of the previous meeting’s minutes and a vote to add the minutes into the board records. Financial reports, offering

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Thinking Ahead

budgetary summaries, year-to-date information, and projected fgures are typically distributed in advance of meetings, giving board members the opportunity to look over the reports and prepare any questions. Beyond this, meetings commonly include various reports from board members discussing current and future plans with regards to items such as advocacy, fundraising, and community outreach. There might also be any number of ad-hoc committee reports, artistic reports, action items, and staff updates. Meetings should be well organized and documented, keeping to the schedule and allowing for effcient communication.

• What is the organization trying to accomplish? • What is the impact of the organization on its community?

Vision If the mission statement deals mostly with origins and what your organization does, the vision statement describes the aspirational future of the organization, mapping out where you are headed and what outcomes your organization hopes to achieve. The vision statement should be concise, inspirational, and realistic in setting achievable goals for the organization. It should serve as a reminder of where you want to be as a company. When creating a vision statement, keep the following thoughts in mind:

2.4 – Your Business Identity and Culture

• • • •

Where do you see your business in fve to ten years? What does success look like for your organization? Does the vision align with your mission? Is the vision ambitious enough to be exciting, while remaining an achievable goal? • Does the vision statement align with your organizational strengths?

Running a business of any kind or size is a complicated undertaking that requires careful planning, establishing goals, and regularly assessing your progress along the path. In order to assist in this process, most businesses create specifc statements that identify the mission, vision, and values to guide the organization’s path. While this may seem to fall in the domain of corporations and larger organizations, the truth is these statements are an effective tool for businesses of all sizes and can help ensure growth and maintaining a focus on what is important to the organization. These statements help guide the organization by defning and communicating why the organization exists (mission), where it wants to be (vision), and what it stands for (values). The following section briefy addresses the creation and use of mission, vision, and values statements for a dance business.

Most multinational corporations have a vision statement that can be summed up in one to two sentences. While one sentence seems simple, it can be a diffcult undertaking to distill your thoughts about the future of your entire organization into such a short number of words. One suggestion is to start by listing keywords that are central to your business, then using these to craft a short paragraph of three to fve sentences outlining your vision. From there, go back and highlight the essential elements from those sentences, distilling it down to non-negotiable, specifc, actionable elements. Ideally, the resulting vision statement should be roughly 30–40 words that connect with your mission and can inspire your organizational path for several years down the road.

Mission To begin with, a mission statement is a brief statement that succinctly identifes the reason for the organization’s existence, answering the key questions of what the organization does, for whom, and to what beneft. A mission statement should use powerful and memorable language that inspires people to support your organization and its work. It might explain the origins of the company and connect this to what is being done today. When creating a mission statement, remember to focus only on what is important to your specifc organization, emphasize outcomes and their impact on the community the organization serves. Keep the following questions in mind:

Values If a business is thought of as a person, then the values statement might be considered a description of the “soul” of the business – what is important to the company, what does it stand for, what are its ethics, and how will it conduct itself in business? The value statement should describe what is important to the company and how those thoughts guide the business-making decisions. A company’s values shape its daily culture and help formulate standards of conduct within the organization while signaling to potential stakeholders outside of the organization what is important to the company. In today’s society (particularly in the arts), many people are

• Why was the organization created? • What does the organization do? • Who does it serve?

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The Business of Dance

becoming more aware of the guiding principles and ethics of businesses and choosing to support those that align with their own beliefs. When crafting a vision statement, ask yourself:

DEI statements have long been common practice in educational circles, but have become more commonplace in the corporate and arts world over time. In creating your own DEI statement, thoughtfully consider the following questions, keeping in mind to take ample time to truly refect on the questions, investigate any bias that might exist, and focus on how current and new practices might align with your DEI outcomes:

• What does this organization stand for? • How will we conduct our business activities to achieve our mission and vision? • What kinds of behaviors are valued and what is unacceptable? • How do we want to treat members of our organization and community? • How, specifcally, will our actions make the world a better place? • In what ways, if any, does this organization seek to reduce harm?

• Are there practices in place to eliminate bias? • Are there barriers to recruiting, hiring, retaining, or promoting a diverse community? • What does equity look like in your business? • Are there any practices that need to change to enable equity? • Does your business have suffcient training in equity practices for staff? • Is anti-racism fostered? • Does the organization have equity assessment tools or processes in place? • Do your policies and practices prioritize positive physical, emotional, and mental health? • Is the division of labor equitable? • Does your organization align itself with those who share similar DEI values?

Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion In addition to a values statement, many businesses and organizations also craft a diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) statement, a document detailing their commitment to furthering diversity, equity, and inclusion in the workplace and how it will intentionally go about demonstrating these values. When crafting a statement, it is important to identify the ways in which your organization defnes these three terms before determining how to go about implementing its approach to supporting them.

Keep in mind that mission, vision, values, and DEI statements are tools commonly used in marketing, public relations, and fundraising and development campaigns. They allow people outside of your organization to quickly assess how your company might align with their own interests, from potential students, to presenters, funding organizations, or government entities. These statements might fnd their way into a number of different places, from your organization’s website, to press releases, grant applications, brochures, programs, employee handbooks, or project proposals. They are an essential tool for organizational planning and ensuring your business remains guided by what is most important to you, informing both current and future strategies. They should be personal and developed/implemented in a thoughtful, deliberate, and intentional manner. Take the time to carefully craft your statements with consideration and input from a wide range of stakeholders in your community.

In loose terms, diversity refers to the representation of different identities, approaches, perspectives, and associations that can fall within a wide range of categories such as race, gender, sexual orientation, nationality, ethnicity, creed, socio-economic status, language, (dis)ability, political perspective, and more. Equity is an intentional approach to promoting fairness and impartiality within the processes of your organization in order to address structural inequalities that advantage some while disadvantaging others. Equity is different than equality (where everyone is given the same resources and opportunities), acknowledging that each person comes from a different set of circumstances and, in order to reach an equal outcome, some might require different resources or opportunities. Tackling equity issues requires understanding the roots of disparity within your organization, the local community, and society at large. Inclusion refers to a culture in which all community members are respected, welcomed, valued, and given an opportunity to fully participate and reach their individual potential. Inclusion should be viewed as a desirable outcome that ensures the diverse membership of your organization truly feel/are welcomed as a part of the community.

2.5 – Fundraising and Development Whether your dance company is a commercial or not-for-proft endeavor, money is essential to getting your productions off the ground. This is why fundraising and development are

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Thinking Ahead

essential to the survival of arts organizations. In fact, most professional companies employ one or more workers whose duties lie in the areas of fundraising, donor relations, grant writing, and development. When starting your own company, however, it is likely that you may be relegated to doing much of this work on your own. For this reason, it is prudent to familiarize yourself with common practices in fundraising for the arts. To those ends, this section examines some common fundraising processes and identifes basic goals and skills connected to successful development strategies.

2.

Fundraising Plans

3.

In the world of not-for-profts, a fundraising plan is a document that lays out specifc fundraising goals and the strategies used to reach them. Many smaller companies may operate without a clear fundraising plan, particularly in their early years. Unfortunately, this sets up the organization to operate under a “feast or famine” model where operations are dependent on the bank account, and when funds begin to run low, it forces the staff to drop everything and begin a rushed process of looking for cash to keep their doors open. Running a business in this way is a recipe for frustration, at best, and in many cases one that ends in failure. The best way to avoid this path is to create a comprehensive written plan for fundraising that identifes goals, develops strategies, and initiates a clear timetable with quantifable outcomes. In short, a personalized roadmap to acquiring and developing the funds necessary for the business to survive and (hopefully) thrive.

4.

The frst step to creating a fundraising plan is identifying the person or people responsible for crafting the document. If you have a development director or staff, then this will logically fall to them, though it should be created in careful consultation with the artistic director and board. If you don’t have development personnel, then this duty will likely be best performed by the artistic director herself, or perhaps by the treasurer. After identifying the author, consider the essential components of a fundraising plan. At minimum, most successful plans should include:

5.

6.

1. The organizational annual budget: In order to plan for needs or make fnancial asks you need a clear view of your current fnancial landscape in the form of a budget. Budgets must take into account revenue sources (income) and expenses necessary for operation, such as rent, personnel, equipment, transportation, marketing, offce expenses, and more. If you are just setting out in your frst dance production, it is a good idea to confer with colleagues in your area who have been in business for a longer time

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period. A budget is essential for both estimating your fnancial needs and putting together asks from potential donors. It also allows your organization to enter the fundraising process with a realistic view of the necessary goals. Fundraising goals and priorities: While the budget establishes a macro goal, it is important to break down this large number into smaller goals with specifc outcomes. Before establishing specifc goals, it is advisable to do a needs assessment that looks at your organizational wants and needs, allowing you to prioritize goals and establish a realistic timetable. Case for support: One of the best indicators of success in fundraising is the ability to clearly articulate why your organization is a good investment. In fundraising terms, this is referred to as a case for support. This document explains what your business does, why this is important, and why a donor or investor should support the organization. This document will be used for most fundraising communications and is essential to selling your product to potential investors and donors. While this document should be unique to each organization, some common elements include defning who you are and why you do your work, explaining your vision for the future, communicating how you currently use your funds, and identifying how donor support will beneft your organization (i.e. what you can do with the money). Use of funds: Donors and granting organizations want to see specifc examples of how their funds will be put to use. Include concrete examples of how funds will be used, including a range of goals from low cost to higher ticket items. Fundraising strategies: Once you determine fundraising goals, the next step is to create specifc strategies for how to raise the money. This should include both short-term and long-term plans with goals attached and the potential methods for generating funds. Common sources include individual giving, special events, mailing campaigns, grants, annual giving campaigns, crowd funding, and numerous others. Timetable: One of the most important components of a fundraising plan is a timetable with clear goals and measurable outcomes. A successful timetable should include both big picture benchmarks (a fundraising gala in May), as well as smaller deadlines along the way that make the benchmark a reality (i.e. when to book the venue, deadline for fnalizing guest list, date to send out invitations, etc.). This step is essential when planning for grant applications which can have numerous deadlines, such as fling an intent to apply, deadline for application, feedback dates, and more.

The Business of Dance

Types of Fundraising

• Direct mail/email: Mailings are a good way to get out the news about your organization and remind people of why they should be contributing to your success. Whether through a direct mail campaign (sending a mailing out through the postal service) or through email, the key is to include information from your case for support and clearly spell out how their donation will be used to further your mission. • Telemarketing: Some organizations might engage in telemarketing strategies of calling up potential donors to make an ask. This can be done by your own staff, though in many instances it is a third party that calls on your behalf for a fee. • Fundraising campaigns: A fundraising campaign is an undertaking devoted to gathering funds for specifc needs. These might include annual campaigns (for general operating expenses), capital campaigns (for funding large capital undertakings like a new building), or a specifc campaign to fundraise for the installation of theatre seats or a lighting system. When running a campaign, it is common to offer a series of member benefts associated with different tiers of donation. These might include specifc perks like discounts, a backstage tour, merchandise like shirts or pins, or complementary tickets to events. • Crowdfunding: Crowdfunding is a method of soliciting smaller donations on a larger scale in order to reach a funding goal. Crowdfunding websites allow the user to publicize their ask through social media, email lists, blogs, or mailings and incentivizes the donor and friends of your organization to advertise for you through their own networks. This method is a practical and simple way to raise money and connect with your audience, while generating enthusiasm for your organization. • Participatory fundraising: Participatory fundraising is a strategy of involving people participating in an event or campaign to raise money for an organization. Events like walk-a-thons, cook offs, dine-to-donate nights at local restaurants, or retail fundraising where a store donates a percentage of their profts are all examples. • In-kind donations: In addition to money, many organizations receive in-kind donations, a donation in the form of goods or services instead of cash. This type of giving allows donors to contribute even if they cannot offer cash. Examples might include use of offce space, donation of accounting services, a line of credit in a store, building materials, equipment, food, or more. • Advertisement space: Another common method of generating revenue is selling advertising space through your organization. This might come in the form of including ads for sponsors in the theatre lobby, on your website, printed in the program, or on a video played in the lobby.

As mentioned under fundraising strategies, there are numerous types of fundraising sources for both commercial and NFP ventures. When seeking funds, it is important to pursue a number of different methods since some will prove more appealing to certain groups and having a diverse group of options will improve your chances. Some common types of fundraising sources include: • Individual giving: Asking donors for monetary donations to your organization. This could include any individual from new donors of small amounts up to major donors who make substantial donations to the organization. • Foundations: Many foundations exist for the purpose of providing charitable funding. These foundations are not-for-profts themselves and commonly come from communities, families, or corporations. These foundations generally advertise what types of organizations or ventures they support in given cycles, and provide funding in the form of grants to other NFPs. • Employer volunteer grants: Many companies offer their fnancial gifts to organizations where their employees volunteer. In this case, the worker typically flls out paperwork through their employer that logs volunteer hours or a service position (like serving on the board) for which the employer pays to match their time. These are typically smaller dollar amounts, but can be a valuable step in creating a relationship that might result in larger donations down the road. • Corporate giving programs: Many corporations offer giving programs to support causes they care about. This has the added beneft of being a strong public relations move on the corporation’s part. Typical funding comes in the form of grants, event or program sponsorship, or in-kind donations of goods and services. • Grants: Grants are specifc funding awards typically established by foundations, corporations, and government entities awarded for the purpose of meeting a specifc goal or incentivizing performance. Grants are gifts that do not have to be paid back, in most circumstances. Most grants are time specifc with rules attached related to the application process, stipulations on when the funds must be used and for what types of expenses. • Event-based fundraising: Events like fundraising parties, luncheons, or performances can be a great way to identify potential donors and cultivate relationships with current donors. It offers the donor a chance to establish a relationship with your organization and see up close what you do. Keep in mind that these types of events often require a decent amount of funding to pull off, giving rise to that well-known phrase “it takes money to make money.”

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Thinking Ahead

Identifying, Getting, and Keeping Donors

certain to be clear in correspondence that you want to talk to the potential donor about their potential support. Do not blindside them with an ask. These meetings should be kept relatively brief, with a few minutes at the opening for social amenities without taking up too much of their valuable time. Make your case for supporting the organization and be ready to answer any questions or objections that might arise. During this phase, you will likely get a feel for their support. The ask should be based on information that arises in conversation. Be specifc in laying out exactly how you hope they can support the company. Depending on their response, you can either thank them for their support, arrange for a future meeting to discuss other options, or simply thank them for their time and move along. Should they agree to become a donor, make certain to establish payment details and determine a method of recognizing and acknowledging their donation.

No matter the size of your organization, the fundraising process shares the similar steps of identifying potential donors, cultivating interest, and solicitation (aka “the ask”). This process can take months to years and require a number of steps along the way. The process of identifying potential donors likely begins with those who have already attended one of your events or performances. These are your active supporters who require little persuasion to support your mission, including board members, current and past ticket holders or subscribers, current vendors, and your staff. While these are logical choices to support your mission, they are also already invested in the form of time and money. As such, asks from this group should be performed carefully to avoid your strongest supporters feeling overextended. That said, this group can be some of your strongest advocates in identifying prospective donors in the form of their own friends and family, and business or community connections. When looking at prospects, consider local businesses, professionals (lawyers, doctors, dentists, accountants), teachers, clergy, or those with strong community connections. This process involves identifying groups and individuals who are interested in your mission, but have not stepped forward yet to identify themselves.

The fnal step (or frst step in the next step of your continued relationship) is stewardship and thanks. Every donor wants to know that your organization is a good steward of the gifts given. Make sure to reach out to the donor through a phone call, email, or letter to thank them for their support and update them on your company and the impact of their donation on its continued success. This can go a long way towards assuring them of your status as a quality investment and creating a longstanding relationship.

Once potential donors have been identifed, it is important to establish and cultivate a relationship with your organization. The goal is to develop a reason for these people to care about your organization and what it does. This process is multifaceted, involving personal contact through formal and informal means (luncheons, receptions, events, meetings), informational contacts (mailings, newsletters, email blasts, post-cards, social media, etc.), and indirect contact (advertisements, news stories, “word of mouth”). The goal of this process should be to ensure that potential donors have a deep understanding of your organization and a vested interest in its success. During this phase, it is also important that you learn more about the interests of potential donors – Why do they donate? What’s their connection to your organization? What is their capacity to give? Do they have any personal connections that might lead to a possible donation (i.e. is their daughter a dancer? Are they a musician? Have they funded other local arts organizations?). Understanding these connections can be the key to unlocking their interest in funding your company.

2.6 – Contracts Whether you are a professional dance company, independent contractor, or an educational entity it is important to have all personnel sign a contract that makes clear the expectations of their position, the time period of their employment, and what will be provided to them as compensation for their hard work. These contracts are often created by the general manager or business manager and should include the essential information, such as the employee’s name and job title, the dance organization, the duties/expectations, compensation, specifc dates of employment, and specifc employee policies/ workplace procedures, as necessary. It is a good idea to provide the contract to a lawyer for review to ensure you are complying with labor laws in your state and that you are not accidentally making yourself legally liable. This is another good reason for having at least one lawyer as a board member. The following list includes individuals and organizations with whom you might require contracts:

The process of making an ask, particularly for substantial gifts, can be a bit daunting for some. Keep in mind that the person making the ask must be congenial and convey a sense of understanding in the value of your organization. Make

• Performance spaces/venues: The contract with a performance space should include details like a

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The Business of Dance

•

•

•

•

•

technical rider (the document that dictates the technical requirements of the dance performance), dates of the engagement, length of technical schedule, personnel included, the fee paid for use of the space, and what is included with this fee. Presenters: Working with a presenter is similar to a performance space, with the key difference that a presenter pays your company instead of you paying to use the space. As a result, contracts with presenters will include information about the performance space, but should also include information like the fee paid to the dance company for their performance, travel and lodging, per diem provided for personnel, penalties for cancellation, and more. Choreographers: The choreographer contract should include information such as the title of the work, performance rights and duration (how long is the right to perform the piece granted?), exclusivity (is this an exclusive performance right and for how long?), compensation (how much is the fee to create the work and when will it be paid?), royalties (will the choreographer be paid a certain royalty for each performance?), travel and lodging expenses, per diem, and expenses/reimbursement procedures. In addition, there might be numerous clauses about duties, schedule, program credits, ownership, tax status, liability, and much more. Dancers: Dancer contracts should include information such as the contract period, compensation, schedule information, exclusivity (can they perform with other companies?), responsibilities, and fnancial responsibilities. Designers: Designers are typically considered freelance employees, though this is not always the case. In terms of contracts, the designer contract should always include design fee, budget, length of contract, deadlines/important dates, travel/mileage, and support. Generally speaking, designers always maintain ownership of the copyright of their work. This means that the contract should spell out expectations of how their work might be used in future performances. If the designer maintains copyright, then they should be compensated for future performances using their work. In some cases, a company might buy the intellectual property for a large design fee, guaranteeing their ability to use the design in perpetuity. Composers: Composers, like designers and choreographers, are typically hired to create their work for a specifc performance. Any music created for the dance is owned by the composer and contracted for use in the dance. As a result, their contract should specify how and when the work will be used, exclusivity, and expected royalties for any future performances. In addition, be sure to indicate

specifcally what the composer is expected to create. Is a score suffcient, or are they expected to generate a recording of the music? If so, who pays the musicians to perform and for studio time? Also, is there a specifc format required for the recording (digital audio fle, CD recording, etc.)? • Musicians: Musicians are primarily engaged for performances, though there will likely need to be information included in the contract that addresses the number of rehearsals expected (including technical rehearsals), the length of each performance, call time, hourly rates, and contract duration. Keep in mind that musicians in some metropolitan areas might be members of a union, which creates specifc requirements for employment. • Stagehands: Stagehands are an important part of running any show and should not be overlooked in planning. Consider whether your stagehands will be provided by the venue or if you will have to employ them yourself. Similar to musicians, stagehand contract language should include the number of rehearsals and performances expected, call time, call duration, hourly rates, and information regarding working conditions. Professional stagehands are often part of a union or employed by a specifc venue. • Unions: Unions are another entity with which you might need to negotiate and create contracts. Depending on the size of your company, its professional classifcation, who you employ, or what venues are used, there might be one or more unions involved with the contract process. Most unions engage in a collective bargaining process in which the union negotiates with a larger group of theatres, producers, or other entities to create a collective bargaining agreement (CBA), a written contract that regulates the terms and conditions of employees in the workplace. When a CBA is in place, there are certain terms that must be adhered to for anyone working in the space, sometimes including the use of union labor.

2.7 – Unions Working in the performing arts often means being a part of or working within the structure of a labor union. For example, in all but the rarest cases, all designers and technicians working on a Broadway show will be members of one or more unions. When working in a union house, there are a number of rules that must be followed, particularly as related to the daily schedule, breaks, and job assignments. As such, it is important that you familiarize yourself with the different unions, their jurisdiction, and structure.

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Thinking Ahead

Dancers

of the Broadway League CBA, this occurs every four years) and offer guidance to what the producing entity must offer to union designers. This is not intended to function as a cap, rather a baseline for negotiations. While there are numerous details included in the various different agreements, some items commonly included address minimum rates, assistant designers, mandatory contribution to health insurance and benefts, travel/housing/expenses, billing, and property rights.

Depending on the type of performance, venue, and role, dancers might be represented by more than one different union. The most common union is The American Guild of Musical Artists (AGMA), the labor union that represents singers and dancers in opera, dance, and concert performances. This is the union representing concert dancers. If the show is a musical theatre performance, then the dancer would likely be covered by Actors’ Equity Association, sometimes referred to as AEA, or just Equity. Equity represents performers and stage managers, and is one of the largest and strongest trade unions in our industry. Dancers who work in flm or television typically fall under the Screen Actors Guild – American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (SAG/AFTRA) the union that represents performers on TV, flm, and radio. These unions negotiate with employers on behalf of their membership to create contracts that address guaranteed wages, overtime pay, health and safety rules, regulated work hours, and protection against discrimination and abuse. Finally, the American Guild of Variety Artists (AGVA) represents performers in settings like theme parks, circuses, variety shows, reviews, cabarets, and special events.

Stagehands Stagehands are typically represented by IATSE (The International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees, Moving Picture Technicians, Artists and Allied Crafts of the United States, Its Territories and Canada), sometimes simply referred to as IA, or the Stagehand’s Union. IATSE represents virtually every category of behind-the-scenes worker in the entertainment industry. The structure of the union is broken down into 13 geographical districts in the US and Canada, each district made up of a number of local unions, called a Local. For instance, Local One refers to the IATSE local located in New York City. There are currently more than 375 IATSE local unions, each of which functions independently with their own constitutions and by-laws. Each of these Locals negotiates labor contracts with local employers to determine the specifc work rules, procedures, and wages for IA members.

Choreographers The Stage Directors and Choreographers Society (SDC) is the theatrical union that represents and protects professional stage directors and choreographers throughout the United States. SDC has jurisdiction over the employment of directors and choreographers working on Broadway and national tours, Off-Broadway, regional theatres, dinner theatres, regional musical theatre, and outdoor musical stock companies.

Schedules are another area greatly affected by IATSE. For example, IATSE has a strict break schedule that guarantees a 15-minute break every two hours (most Locals call this “coffee”), and a one-hour meal break for every four hours of work. There are also specifc rules regarding pay, like having a four-hour minimum pay for any work calls lasting less than four hours, receiving time-and-a-half pay for anything over a ten-hour work day, and double-time (frequently called “golden time”) for holidays and time over 14 hours. IATSE also regulates a minimum eight-hour turnaround, or the time from when you leave at the end of the day until returning to work the next morning. In the rare instance that this is broken, stagehands will receive golden time pay until an eight-hour turnaround happens. Since so many of these rules have a potential for affecting a theatre’s expenses, it is essential that you keep these rules in mind when requesting work calls.

Designers United Scenic Artists, Local 829 (USA 829) is the labor union representing designers, scenic artists, craftspeople, and department coordinators working in flm, theatre, opera, ballet, television, industrial shows, commercials, and exhibitions. There are currently approximately 5000 active members in the union. The primary goal of the union is to negotiate and administer the CBAs that create the ground rules for how employers must treat union members. These CBAs determine minimum wages/design fees, working conditions, employer contributions to insurance and benefts, and health and safety concerns. The union has CBAs covering employment with a wide range of employers, including Broadway, Off Broadway, LORT, Network Television, Metropolitan & Regional Operas, Feature Films and Television, Major Ballet, and certain Scenic Shops.

Another union of note for stagehands is the Teamsters, North America’s strongest and most diverse labor union, representing a wide range of occupations in the public and private sector. While it is not one of the most common theatrical unions, the Motion Picture and Theatrical Trade Division of Teamsters represents workers in the motion picture industry including frms that produce feature flms, television programs, commercials, and live theatrical productions. It is also common to fnd that the tour truck driver or those unloading trucks are Teamster members.

When operating under a CBA, the theatre or producer is bound to offer at least the minimum provisions guaranteed in the agreement. These CBAs are negotiated regularly (in the case 26

The Business of Dance

Musicians

opt for hiring a booking agent. These booking agents work for multiple artists and make their money by keeping a pre-negotiated percentage of the booking fee. The process of booking typically begins with creating and managing a database of potential presenting organizations or clients. This can be a time-consuming process, but it is an important tool for securing bookings. This database should contain important information such as the name of the presenter, contact information, mailing/email addresses, website, deadlines, and notes on who was contacted and when. Make sure to keep your information up to date and keep looking for potential organizations to add to the list.

The American Federation of Musicians, or AFM, is the union that represents musicians in the orchestra. While you might not often interact directly with the orchestra, it is important to understand that the orchestra represents one of the biggest costs in producing live theatrical events. Like IATSE and Equity, AFM musicians operate under a very specifc contract that stipulates how long they can work, the amount and length of breaks required, and how pay is affected when going over on time. For instance, a typical rehearsal call is for three hours, with doubletime applied for every half hour following. For this reason, any time the orchestra is involved in a rehearsal, it becomes important to keep an eye on the clock, take notes on the fy, and try to avoid stopping rehearsal unless absolutely necessary.

Before reaching out to a presenter, make sure that you have something to show them about your work. A website, performance video, or brochures are all a good way to highlight your company’s mission, work, and services provided. Make sure to use high-quality photos and video in all marketing as it presents you in the most professional light. Brochures should always include the company name, contact information, a company bio, list of services, and some photos of your work. They might also include press clippings, reviews, or testimonials. These brochures might also serve the dual purpose of being included in marketing or donor materials.

2.8 – Booking Some professional dance companies do not present their own work, but rather secure contracts with other presenters or venues to show their work. Whether this is done through a tour, a festival, or local engagements, the process begins with booking the show. In order to book a performance, you need to communicate what your company has to offer to a presenter. In the dance world, a presenter is an organization that schedules other dance companies to perform in their space. This could be an arts festival, a road house (a theatre that only presents works, rather than producing its own), a university, or even a municipal space. Dance companies might book many types of programs, such as a full dance performance, a lecture, demonstrations, or master classes. Choreographers might offer a teaching residency (a series of classes over a period of time), or choreographic residencies that involve creating a new work or setting one. No matter what types of programs are being offered, the booking process typically begins about a year out from the engagement.

2.9 – Chapter Review As we have seen, there are numerous models for both commercial and not-for-proft ventures and the process of running a successful arts organization cannot be separated from good business practices. The successful dance company must identify and articulate its mission, vision, and values in order to secure a quality board of directors and undertake fundraising and development. In addition, the process of working with employees requires an understanding of contracts and, often, labor unions. For those who want to successfully navigate this aspect of the live performance industry, a solid foundation in business practices is a must.

Many dance companies have a booking agent on staff who is the point of contact for bookings, whereas some might

Review Questions 1. What type of production model is open-ended, and can run for decades on end, provided that ticket sales hold up? 2. True or false: a not-for-proft organization distributes profts back to its investors? 3. The _________ is the governing group of the dance company whose primary interest lies in supervising the funding and business practices of the organization. 4. The ________ describes the aspirational future of the organization, mapping out where you are headed and what outcomes your organization hopes to achieve. 27

Thinking Ahead

5. __________ refers to a culture in which all community members are respected, welcomed, valued, and given an opportunity to fully participate and reach their individual potential. 6. This organization is a type of not-for-proft that exists for the purpose of providing charitable funding. 7. Most unions engage in a process in which the union negotiates with a larger group of theatres, producers, or other entities to create a __________, a written contract that regulates the terms and conditions of employees in the workplace. 8. Dancers who work in flm or television typically are represented by which union that represents performers on TV, flm, and radio. 9. _________ is the labor union representing designers, scenic artists, craftspeople, and department coordinators working in flm, theatre, opera, ballet, television, industrial shows, commercials, and exhibitions. 10. In the dance world, a _________ is an organization that schedules other dance companies to perform in their space.

Project 2–1: Defning your Dance Company The process of running a dance company begins with establishing the company’s identity. For this project, you will be asked to envision a theoretical dance company that you will be running. Using your preferred type of presentation software create a presentation that showcases your vision for a new dance company. It should include: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

The name of your company Its base of operations (what community does it serve?) A mission statement for your company A vision statement for your company A values statement for your company

In addition to this presentation, research potential presenters for your theoretical dance company and create a database including the name of the presenter, contact information, presenter website, and notes.

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CHAPTER 3

Planning the Production

Most artists want their work to be seen by the public. With any public performance, though, comes an added responsibility to the audience. Unless there is the understanding of your performance being a work-in-progress or an informal event, patrons will have an expectation of professional production elements to accompany their dance concert (especially if they are paying). No matter the size or scope of the concert, you can be assured that the presentation will be the result of many people collaborating to create the performance. Planning is essential to the ultimate success of any live performance. This chapter touches on some of the important questions that must be addressed in order to successfully produce a dance performance.

3.1 – Purpose An often-overlooked yet important question is why are you producing a show in the frst place? Far too many artists get

caught up in the desire to present their work to the public before asking the hard question – why should someone come see my show? Like anything else, a dance concert should serve a purpose. In determining your purpose, there are some questions that you should ask of yourself to help clarify your goals.

Who Is My Audience? This may seem like a simple question, but the answer to this one question will shape your approach to all of the other concerns to follow. Who is coming to see your show? Is it primarily the family and friends of your dance company? Perhaps you are presenting in an educational venue, so the majority of your audience are students. Maybe your dance piece will be presented at a dance conference and the audience will be comprised of colleagues. All of these scenarios listed above could affect the choices you make about the nature of your presentation and what production elements are necessary for a successful performance. For better or worse,

Figure 3.1 The Lecture-demonstration is performance that is part presentation, part workshop, often seen in academic circles. Photo: Randy Mascharka.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-5

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Thinking Ahead

Length of Concert?

the expectations of an audience will dictate the success of a production and this should be considered as part of your planning.

While there are no frm rules as to how long a concert should be, there are some obvious factors to consider related to the length of the presentation. The number of individual pieces in the concert will affect the overall length and structure. If there are multiple dances, then there must be suffcient time between each number to allow for things like costume changes, manually changing the color of the gels for side lighting, and adjusting scenery and props. One cannot simply add up the length of each dance piece and get an accurate representation of the length of the concert.

What Are You Trying to Accomplish? Not every concert should have the same outcomes in mind. The nature of the performance should be dictated by the goals, though. This means that it is very important to consider the desired outcomes from the beginning of the planning process in order to stay on track. There are a number of different types of concerts that one could produce, each with different goals in mind. The formal concert is a presentation of dance with accompanying production elements of costumes, lighting, scenery, and sound. Audiences are sometimes invited to see a work-in-progress or an invited showcase. Perhaps your concert is meant to be part of a larger artistic offering, like a dance festival or a summer arts program? Likewise, it could be a special event celebrating a specifc occasion or theme. In academic circles, it is not uncommon to see an audience educated and even participating through the presentation of a lecturedemonstration performance. All of these goals are legitimate reasons for producing a dance concert and each one presents its own unique challenges to address.

Intermission? Another important consideration is the inclusion of an intermission in your dance concert. Most audiences expect an intermission for anything longer than 1 hour and 15 minutes. Though it makes the overall time of the concert longer, there are a number of benefts to adding an intermission such as giving your audience a break to talk about what they have seen and allowing for more pieces to be included in the offering. One important consideration that should not be overlooked is the revenue potential of concessions. Most theatres make a sizable amount of their earnings from concessions. Particularly if your dance company owns a performance space, offering concessions at intermission is an excellent way to increase earnings without higher ticket prices.

3.2 – Programming Concerns

Arrangement of Concert?

Once the decision is made to produce a dance concert, there are a number of questions to address regarding the nature of the program itself. Many of these questions will be directly related to the purpose of the dance concert addressed earlier.

One of the most important considerations for assembling a dance concert is the variety and arrangement of programming for the evening. There are a number of considerations, both artistic and practical, that go into deciding the concert arrangement. Ideally, your audience will be in attendance for the entirety of the concert. It is your responsibility to create for them an evening that takes the audience on a satisfying artistic journey. The selection and arrangement of pieces for the concert requires a familiarity with all of the dances presented and some thought about where each dance would best ft. One common approach to arranging a concert is to think of it like a story or an album, creating a presentation with a logical beginning, middle, and end. On the practical side, one must make sure to check cast lists and the technical requirements for each dance. The goal should be facilitating a quick and effective transition between each dance, eliminating long waits between each dance number and organizing the dances in such a way as to best keep the audience’s interest. With that in mind, consider these basic rules of thumb for programming:

What Type of Program? One of the important questions to address is the nature of your dance presentation. Is it a single dance or a “collage concert,” presenting multiple dances by different choreographers? Is there a unifying theme behind the works presented? Once you know this, it will affect all of the following program concerns listed below.

Number of Dance Pieces? If you go with a collage concert, how many different dances are to be included? Is there a time limit on the individual dances? Should there be a certain predetermined composition (i.e. half of the pieces by professional choreographers and the other half from student work)?

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Planning the Production

1. Start with a light, enjoyable opener that engages the audience’s attention. This both serves as a “warm up” for the audience and allows for latecomers to be seated within a relatively short period of time (should your theatre allow for late seating). 2. Whenever possible, try not to place dances back-to-back that feature the same dancers. This will make for a longer transition. 3. Longer, esoteric dances should be placed early in the show order, so the audience is not mentally and/or physically tired. 4. Try to include something upbeat and exciting directly before intermission to encourage your audience to come back for your second half. 5. Always consider the technical requirements of a dance piece and how they affect the subsequent dance. Dances with water require a cleaning/drying of the foor before another dance can safely occur. In this case, placing it at the end of the concert is wise. Fog and haze tend to fll up the space and linger. Make sure that the following dance will not be adversely affected by lingering fog effects before fnalizing the show order. Dances with elaborate scenic changes might do well directly before or after intermission, or as the fnal piece of the concert. 6. If you have one intermission, your second half should be shorter in length. Likewise, try to program the second act of your concert in keeping with the rules discussed above. 7. Consider that the fnal dance of the concert is in a position most likely to hold onto the audience’s memory and, as such, you want it to be one of the most memorable. Fastpaced, high-energy, visually stimulating dances are a good choice for the fnal dance. 8. Consider how the use of live vs. “canned” (pre-recorded) music and the placement of musicians, whether on stage or in an orchestra pit, affects a logical programming placement of the pieces. If playing onstage, there will be additional time required to set up the musicians. In these cases, it might be logical to place the piece at the top of the show, or directly following intermission.

information, and spell-check and edit the document. Simple programs are created in a landscape orientation on letter paper (8.5” x 11”) as a book-fold document. Keep in mind that the fonts used should be easy to read, no smaller than 10 point size, and consistent in formatting with no more than two or three font types. No matter the size or orientation, there are some common elements to include in a printed program. • Cover: The cover can include similar art as that found on the poster, or could simply be text. Make sure to include the title of the concert at the top of the page and in a largesized font. Include information like the name of your dance company and the dates of the performances as this will assist in archival work and in marketing as well. Sometimes, the cover might be printed in glossy color, with interior elements printed in black/grayscale on less expensive paper. • Greetings and information: Though this is optional, it is common to include a welcome message or note from the artistic director or choreographer. This note commonly includes a welcome to the show or season, an acknowledgement of the production team and dancers, and might include information about future performances or events sponsored by the dance company. • Dance information: Include a listing for each dance piece with the title, choreographer, musical accompaniment/ composer, and dancers. If each piece in the concert has different designers or unique elements, make sure to include this information here. • Intermission: Will there be an intermission? If so, list where it falls in the program as well as its duration. • Production credits: Include the names of all production staff for the concert, including the artistic director, designers, technical director, stage management, technicians, house management, or other specialty positions. • Artistic staff: Some companies include biographical statements for the choreographers and performers as well as headshots (more commonly for performers). Make sure to request bios and special thanks from everyone well in advance of your print deadline. • Sponsors: As mentioned in Chapter 2, many dance companies solicit sponsorship through a donor base, or partnerships with other businesses. In addition, there might be specifc granting organizations or foundations who have supported your work. Make sure to include information, including logos where appropriate, for any sponsors in your program. • Special thanks: This is a list of people who need to be thanked for their contributions – volunteers, specifc donors, parents and friends, etc.

Making the Printed Program Most public performances have a printed program handed out to audience members upon entering the theatre. This program lets the audience members know what to anticipate and keep track of the performances. In addition, it can be an excellent marketing tool and an opportunity for generating revenue through program advertising. Whether you will be printing the programs in-house, or sending them out to be printed by an outside company, someone will need to create the layout and formatting, input all of the necessary

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Thinking Ahead

• Marketing: Don’t forget to include information about upcoming events for your dance company or for your artistic partners. This is an excellent opportunity to market to people who are already interested in the arts. • Company information: Include information for your company or studio including name, location, phone number, website, and social media. Ideally, this would be included on the front or back of the program for increased visibility.

option, it is also a great tool to remind people close to the time of your event. • Website: Your own company website is an excellent location for keeping up-to-date information marketing your events. • Billboards/bus ads/media spots: Taking out advertising on buses, park benches, and billboards are all great tools for broadening your potential audience. Television and radio spots are another possibility, though all of these options can be expensive undertakings. Considering the high cost, perhaps work with a sponsor to underwrite this expense. • Newspaper/periodical ads: Consider the possibility of including advertising for your event in a local or regional newspaper, or publication. This can also be a large expense, but typically opens your marketing to a much larger audience.

3.3 – Marketing and Promotion Every performance needs an audience. In order to fll the seats, however, a dance company needs to get the attention of its potential audience members and give them information about the product. This is where marketing comes into play. Basic marketing concerns in the production planning period tend to include posters, radio or television spots, social media, and press releases, though there are many different methods you might pursue. Included below is a list of some common marketing tools.

3.4 – Public Relations In the simplest of terms, public relations (PR) is the ways in which an organization manages its communication with the public. This work is connected to getting the right messages out to the right people at the right time in order to positively infuence public perception of your company. This involves getting the specifc information out to the public you want to share and painting your organization in the best possible light. There are a number of different processes involved with public relations and, in all likelihood, many different people might be connected in different ways to PR.

Marketing Tools • Posters: Most dance companies make posters to advertise their shows, including a fashy image and information about the dance company, performance venue, dates, times, and box offce information. You might also include a QR code that allows people to scan the code on their smartphone and go directly to the company website or ticketing site. • Brochures: Dance studios, festivals, or touring companies might beneft from informational brochures that advertise specifc services or events offered by your company. These tend to be printed on glossy paper and are folded or bound with multiple sides featuring different information. • Social media: Social media is an excellent tool for marketing, allowing your company to promote both its existence and services or events. In addition to advertising specifc events, you might include some behind-the-scenes interviews or photos to let your audience get to know more about your company or members. • Postcards: A postcard is a time tested and affordable method for getting the word out about your show. In addition to their low cost for mailing, they are also small enough to carry around in a binder or bag and can be handed out in person. • Email lists: Make use of your patron and donors list to generate an email blast. Not only is this an affordable

What Is Publicity? Publicity refers to the public attention given to your organization, membership, or event that contributes to the overall visibility or awareness of your product. For the purposes of a dance company or public performance, this primarily revolves around the media (print, broadcast, social media, blogs, podcasts, etc.). Publicity is achieved through the execution of a good PR strategy where your organization succeeds in providing positive information about your product or endeavors to the media and other outlets, thereby giving people something to talk about and generate interest for your brand.

Who Does It? Depending on the size and budget of your dance company or production, PR is typically either done in-house through a staff position (like a PR manager) or sourced out to a

32

Planning the Production

professional PR agent or a public relations frm. Individual artists might self-promote through websites, blogs, or social media accounts, though this does take some effort to present professional content while maintaining a freelance career and continuing to engage with fans/followers. No matter who does the work, it is essential to identify a target audience and regularly communicate with them to establish and maintain a positive relationship.

audience can fnd news, post reviews, see media related to performances/events, and engage with other fans. In addition to your audience, these platforms are a great tool to strengthen relationships with other businesses and stakeholders in the community. • Newsletters/email campaigns: Monthly newsletters and email blasts are a great, relatively low-cost method for maintaining a connection with your audience and building PR. For those running a studio, keep in mind that your PR begins with the students who take the classes and those who rent your space. Newsletters are a great way to help create a sense of community and keep people informed of news and events. This can be particularly important for parents of students. • Renting your facilities: If you own a space and have the time and staff available for doing so, renting your spaces to outside users is a useful, but commonly overlooked, PR tool. Not only does this generate extra revenue for your business, but it strengthens community relations and makes people aware of your company presence. It might also be a good opportunity to network with other dance enthusiasts in your area. • The public performance as PR: Don’t forget that every performance is a PR event. Whether at a county fair, a dance competition, a public event, or at a fundraiser, good public relations always involve the public. While the benefts may not always be apparent, you might be surprised to fnd how effective a public performance can be in generating PR.

PR Methods Depending on the nature of your organization, its size, and budget there are many different methods for getting people talking about your work. Keep in mind that a dance studio needs positive PR just as much as a professional dance company. The approaches might be different, but the end goal remains the same – community building and publicity. The following list includes some of the many ways that your organization might engage in PR. • Media: Traditional print and broadcast media are an excellent place to start with PR. From large metropolitan markets to smaller communities, the press is actively engaged in the process of getting news about organizations, events, and performances out to the public. Get to know reviewers in your area and make certain they are invited to performances and given complementary tickets. Beyond that, make sure to get press releases out about any newsworthy events. You never know when your event or information might connect to another area of interest in your community, making it worth covering for a journalist. While the time-tested media sources are an important PR resource, don’t forget to create and maintain connections with people on social media and other networks that can spread information about your event or organization to the community. • Public events: Public events can be used as PR opportunities unto themselves. Keep in mind that this could be an event sponsored by your organization, or another related event in the community where you have the chance to get out the word about who you are and what you do. Performances at gatherings like art fairs or other community-based events are an excellent opportunity for exposure to community members with related interests who might not have heard of you otherwise. Public events hosted by your organization include the added beneft of exposing people to your base of operations. • Organizational websites/social media: Your company website or social media platforms are great ways to generate positive PR and create a brand where your

The Press Release In order for the press to cover your organization or event they need to know something about what make you newsworthy. That is where the press release comes into play. A press release is a specifcally formatted document provided to media outlets who then use it as a template for crafting news releases. A well-written press release is an invaluable tool for free publicity, but there is an art form to crafting an effective press release. When writing a press release, keep in mind that the basic rules of newswriting apply such as streamlined titles, writing in the third person, pointing out quotes and sources, and avoiding misleading information. As for formatting, professional press releases should all follow the same basic structure. Figure 3.2 includes a sample press release for reference. The top of the press release is often formatted like a traditional business letter, with contact information for the company’s PR manager or agency as well as a date for when the information can be released to the

33

Thinking Ahead

Figure 3.2 A template for crafting a press release including A) contact information, B) release date, C) headline, D) sub-heading, E) lead, F) body, G) quotes, and H) company information.

public. If there is no specifc date in mind, make sure to include the phrase “for immediate release.” Next, include a headline that is a taste of what information will be included, and possibly a sub-heading that adds a bit more detail. The opening sentences of your press release are referred to as the lede (sometimes spelled “lead”), which should be written as a brief overview of your entire story including answers to those all-important questions: Who? What? Where? When? Why? To what effect? The lede should give enough information to interest the reader while still leaving them interested in fnishing the article. The body of the press release should include a more detailed explanation of the information presented in the lead, including more background information and details. Every good press release should also include quotes from someone connected to the event. This might be from the artistic director, a dancer in the performance, or a member of the staff. Quotes are an indispensable component of the press release in part because they make the reporter’s job a bit more manageable and can be the difference-maker when deciding between stories to cover. Finally, the press

release should include some boilerplate information about your arts organization. The goal of a press release is to give information about the event that makes the reviewer or media outlet’s work easier in covering it, while ensuring that any publications about the event feature important and accurate information. Many PR agents will send a press release to potential reviewers months in advance to get them interested in reviewing the show. It is a good practice to send out press releases for all events or activities, even those you think might not be of interest. Sometimes your event might have a direct connection to other events or stories that would lead reporters to write about your work.

3.5 – Production Budget Another important element of production planning is determining your budget. No matter the complexity of your

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that some components need to be tweaked in order to match your expectations.

performance, there will always be some level of expenses incurred. It is essential to plan for these up-front and create a realistic budget that accounts for both sources of revenue and expenses. If you are a professional dance company, everyone who contributes to your production will need some sort of compensation. In addition, there are many other areas to consider, such as accompaniment costs, equipment rental fees, expendables (i.e. gels, lamps for lighting instruments, etc.), space rental, transportation costs, publicity, printing costs, and more.

6 Months–1 Year Prior to Opening • Create production budget and begin securing funds. • Determine the choreographer(s) and number of pieces in your performance. • Secure the performance space and rehearsal space. • Determine needs for publicity, ticket sales, and house staff (this may change for each different performance space, based on what resources are available to you). • Hire designers and agree on a timetable of mutually agreed upon benchmarks (date for designer runs, date for design drawings, design presentations, etc.).

Before you can contract designers or dancers, you need to have a good idea of the amount of funds available for your performance. Consider anticipated ticket sales, funding reserves, external grants, funds provided by student activity fees (if you are in an academic environment), or donations provided by patrons. All of these funds make up your available revenue for the performance, or season. While it should go without saying, there is a danger in estimating funds before they actually are in hand. Just because you have traditionally sold tickets doesn’t mean you won’t have a bad year. Just because you have applied for a grant does not mean you will receive it. Many an arts organization has had the nasty realization that they have incurred more debt than available funds. Always try to be realistic in creating your budget.

3–4 Months Prior to Opening • Begin production meetings with designers, choreographers, and other production staff. A production meeting is an opportunity for all of the production team to meet and discuss pertinent elements to the production. Ideally everyone should participate in these meetings (artistic director, choreographer, designers, stage manager, production manager), since decisions made in one area might affect another production area. In professional settings, it is not uncommon to fnd production members “calling in” via a computer videoconference application. The frequency of production meetings is determined by the needs of the dance company. • Schedule auditions and rehearsals. • Determine the number of technicians needed for technical aspects of the performance and hire as necessary. • Determine the tech schedule for the production, including all pertinent information such as: load-in; lighting hang and focus; laying the dance foor; cueing sessions; sound checks; tech runs for each dance piece, etc.

After you have a good idea of your available production funds, now you can determine how best to allocate the funds to various expenses. If you have produced dance performances in the past, you are likely to have a good idea of resources and artists in your area and their typical costs. If this is your frst time, try to make contact with arts organizations of a similar size and mission to see how they approach the task.

3.6 – The Production Calendar One of the most important considerations for any type of show is the production calendar. The calendar will affect every other aspect of the production, from personnel, to budget, and even casting. In all likelihood, the production calendar and performance space will be determined concurrently as the selection of one affects the other. You should have a good idea of your ideal performance dates in mind when negotiating with a performance space. Once you have secured the actual dates, though, the process of creating a production calendar is a relatively simple process of counting back from the date and establishing important deadlines. Listed below are some basic guidelines for a production timetable, though you may fnd

2 Weeks–1 Month Prior to Opening • Schedule designer runs. These are rehearsals for designers to attend and watch a run of the dance as it will appear in the performance. Should designers not get the opportunity to personally attend a designer run, it is a good idea for choreographers to video the performance for the designer to watch. For that matter, the savvy designer may well want to video the design run as a personal reference. This ensures that he/she will have an opportunity to observe the dance multiple times before going into tech.

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1 Week Prior to Opening

lights, assembling any scenery, setting up sound, and bringing in costumes. • Cueing sessions: Designers must have suffcient time alone in the space to write and test their cues. Sound designers need to hear the music in the space in order to set the appropriate levels for a performance. Lighting designers will also beneft from cueing in the performance space. This is when a video from the designer run comes in handy. By using the video, a lighting designer can write cues that match the specifc timing of the dance piece before the tech period. This process may involve only the designers, or choreographers might be invited as well. There are benefts and disadvantages to both methods.

The period leading up to opening is frequently referred to as Tech Week, even if it is not necessarily a full week in duration. During this period, a number of events occur in preparation for the opening night of your dance performance. • Load-in: At some point before opening, you will need to move all of your equipment and supplies into the performance space to prepare for the show. Your schedule will vary from company to company, but it is fairly common to load-in a week prior to opening. This process typically involves laying the dance foor, hanging and focusing

Figure 3.3 Dancers laying Masonite sub-fooring in preparation to set up the dance foor. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

Figure 3.4 A lighting designer writing cues. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

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afford, but it is useful to help familiarize the stage manager with the process of calling the cues. If a paper tech is not possible it is always advantageous to set some time apart at the beginning of the frst technical rehearsal for the designers and stage manager to meet and discuss cues.

• Paper tech: Some dance companies incorporate a time for the designers and stage manager to meet before going into tech and discussing the placement of cues within the context of the individual dances. This process, called a paper tech, is a luxury that many companies cannot

FYI: To the Dancer in Tech For many dancers, tech week will be the only time in which they will be involved with the designers and technicians of the production. While the rehearsal and performance process is essential to the ultimate success of the show, it is important to recognize the crucial role played by the designers and technicians and to respect their process. During tech week, it is helpful to understand that there will be a lot of “hurry up and wait.” Dancers should arrive at least 15 minutes before their call time and be ready to go at the start of the time slot, but understand that there may be a lot of start and stop during the initial technical rehearsals. Keep conversation with other dancers onstage to a bare minimum and always be aware of what’s happening onstage while waiting in the wings. Likewise, this is the frst time for designers and choreographer to

see the dance in show conditions, so dancers should try to keep conversation and questions with the choreographer limited to things that strictly affect the performance. This is not a rehearsal slot, rather a very small window of time in which numerous production elements have to come together. Many young dancers may not understand the importance of this process and inadvertently bog down the tech rehearsal period. Keep in mind to always listen to the stage manager, as she is in control of the stage and when things should occur. The role of the dancer in tech is to perform the role and choreography as accurately as possible. If everyone respects these rules of thumb, tech rehearsals can be an enjoyable process.

• Spacing rehearsal/cue-to-cue: Once the dancers arrive in the space, it is a good idea to start off with a rehearsal that allows them the opportunity to familiarize themselves with the stage at a slower pace or with less energy than a full-out run. In theatre, these frst rehearsals are referred to as a cue-to-cue (sometimes abbreviated as Q2Q). This type of rehearsal moves from one cue to the next, allowing the choreographer and designers to see and hear how the individual cues work with a moment onstage. Once the cue has been worked out, the stage manager calls “hold” and everyone moves forward in the script to the next location of a cue. For dance, this process is diffcult to reproduce, since it is harder to hold dancers and have them move forward to a point in the dance with all of the music and movement aligning seamlessly. Dance frequently employs a spacing rehearsal in which the dancers “mark” the performance. Marking is a dance term that refers to running through the dance at the appropriate timing, but with less energy than running “full-out.” When marking, it is common to avoid complicated lifts or certain movement sections that may be physically taxing on the dancers. During the spacing run, the designers and choreographers get the opportunity to watch how the dancers interact with the design elements and make adjustments, as necessary. It is also common in the spacing rehearsal for designers to

work closely with the stage manager so he/she better understands when to call cues. • Technical rehearsal: The subsequent rehearsals following spacing are typically referred to as technical rehearsals. These rehearsals have the dancers running full-out with all of the technical elements incorporated. It is not uncommon during these rehearsals to stop in order to tweak a moment, but the goal is to give the stage manager and dancers ample time to run the show with the dance and technical elements combined. • Dress rehearsal: Dress rehearsals are the rehearsals in which everything is run under show conditions, with all technical elements in place. In addition, it is useful to consider the impact of all elements such as costume changes, pre-show music, changing over gels on the lights between dance pieces, etc. Only when considering all of these elements can you truly know the running time of your show. It is also common to fnd that dress rehearsals are used for documenting the dance, either through photography or video. In the theatre world, it is common to have a photo call, a separate time assigned specifcally for getting posed photographs (where the actors freeze in place for the photo). This process is less common for dance, since the nature of dance is movement and frozen poses tend to eliminate the kinetic nature desired in dance photography. Whether there is a separate photo call or not, it is

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stage. One of the important pre-production considerations is securing all of the individuals necessary for accomplishing your project. Depending on the scope of your performance, you may fnd that the list is small or incredibly large. Whether you are a professional dance company, independent contractor, or an educational entity it is important to have all personnel sign an agreement that makes clear the expectations of their position and what will be provided to them as compensation for their hard work. These letters of agreement should always cover the essential information, such as the individual’s name and job title, the dance organization, the duties/expectations, compensation (if provided), specifc dates of employment, and specifc employee policies/ workplace procedures, as necessary. It is a good idea to provide the contract to a lawyer for review to ensure you are complying with labor laws in your state and that you are not accidentally making yourself legally liable.

important to schedule a time specifcally for documenting the dance. For designers and choreographers alike, the documentation of the work is an essential component for portfolios. Likewise, the dance company will often use photos and video for marketing/publicity purposes. • Opening night: Opening night is the frst performance of your dance. Frequently, there might be a reception to accompany the opening in which the dancers mingle with the patrons or sponsors. Events such as this are particularly useful in establishing a donor base. • Strike: The fnal performance of the dance is typically followed by strike, sometimes referred to as load-out. Though this event is often reserved for the design/tech production members, it is not uncommon to have dancers assisting (especially in an academic environment). Strike is when all of the design elements are returned to their original state before load-in. Always make sure to check with the performance space to guarantee you are leaving the space in the expected condition. • Post-mortem (assessment): Assessment is an important aspect of any production process. Many dance companies and academic programs include a meeting following the completion of the production referred to as a post mortem in which the production team members and staff discuss the entire process and honestly comment on what things were successful and how it could be improved for future productions. While this is a luxury for many professional organizations, it is an important aspect for improvement.

3.8 – Chapter Review No matter the scope of a dance performance, it is obvious that there is a great deal of planning that must go into any successful endeavor. A successful dance company understands its own mission in the context of its target audience. Once the decision has been made to produce a dance performance, the task of planning deals with both the artistic side and the management aspects. One must consider the performance space in addition to budgeting, schedule, and hiring personnel. Though the prospect of taking on so many details may seem daunting at frst, the rewards far outweigh the initial frustrations.

3.7 – Personnel As mentioned in Chapter 1, there are a number of different people involved in the process of bringing a dance to the

Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.

What are the benefts of including an intermission in your dance concert? What is PR? Who normally handles PR in a dance company? What is a press release? If there is no specifc date listed on the press release, make sure to include the phrase _______________. At what point in the calendar should designers ideally be hired? What tasks normally occur during a load-in? What is a paper tech? _____________ is when all of the design elements are returned to their original state before load-in, following the last performance. 10. What is a post-mortem?

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Project 3–1: Writing a Press Release The press release is a common tool used for arts organizations of all sizes and professional levels. For this project, use the dance company you created for Project 2–1 and create a press release for a press-worthy event. This could be anything, from an upcoming performance, to being awarded a new grant, having a guest artist come in for a project, winning an award, or something completely silly (Local dancer saves President from alien invaders at Swan Lake opening!). Follow the recommended guidelines and formatting from Figure 3.2 and make certain to include all of the pertinent information: Who? What? Where? When? Why? To what effect?

The Presenter’s Perspective: An Interview with Alex Gay Alex Gay is a performing arts production professional with over a decade of experience in production management, technical direction, and theatrical lighting design. He worked as the Production Coordinator, Production Assistant Manager, and most recently as the Interim Production Director at UMS (University Musical Society), a presenting organization housed on the campus of the University of Michigan and recipient of the National Medal of the Arts, the nation’s highest public artistic honor, awarded annually by the President of the United States at the White House. UMS is one of the oldest presenters in the United States, with a mission of connecting audiences in Southeast Michigan with performing artists from around the world in uncommon and engaging experiences. Before working at UMS, Alex was an assistant technical director/assistant lighting designer for Michigan Opera at the Detroit Opera House in Detroit, MI as well as a freelance lighting designer. Though he has since moved on from UMS to pursue other opportunities, the following interview was given while he was still at UMS.

Can you tell us a bit about UMS and the work you do there? UMS is a nonproft arts presenter affliated with the University of Michigan. We present a wide range of performing arts, from theatre and dance pieces, to orchestral, jazz, chamber, choral and many other musical forms, as well as performance styles that defy easy categorization. We primarily present shows in the performance venues on the campus of the University of Michigan, mainly the Power Center for the Performing Arts, Hill Auditorium and Rackham Auditorium, although we also present on occasion in the Arthur Miller Theatre on UM’s North Campus, as well as off-campus in venues such as The Michigan Theatre, the Detroit Opera House, and other site-specifc locations. I am currently the Interim Production Director, but for most of my seven years here, regardless of title, I have worked as a production manager. Mainly my responsibilities center around looking through the technical requirements for any given presentation UMS is putting onstage and making sure we have the gear and the labor at the right place and at the right time. This includes things like fguring out a lighting rental package for a theatre show at Power Center, generating a crew call to send to IATSE Local 395 here in Ann Arbor, creating a backline order for a jazz band, and setting the piano tuning schedule for a soloist at Hill Auditorium, to name a few examples.

As a presenter, what kinds of challenges do you see that might be different from those present in producing your own work? One of our challenges (which can also be a beneft), is that we do not have a home venue. We are renters in any space we present work. This means we are very limited in what we can store long-term onsite (usually little to nothing) and requires us to move a lot of gear around during any given season. It also means we don’t have the burden of maintaining the venues, thus the beneft. As a presenter without a home venue, we rent a lot of lighting, sound, projection, backline, etc. throughout our season and it requires a lot planning to think through the logistics of what needs to be where and when. We also have limited say in how a production we are presenting should be set up, and work very hard to meet the needs of any group coming. It’s less of building the work together and more “this is what we need, please make it happen.”

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How do artists go about having their work presented through UMS? We have a Programming department whose job it is to scout artists and works UMS might be interested in, as well as drawing on an extensive network of artist managers and tour operators. Like all show business, it’s about who you know and getting seen by the right people. Our programmers attend festivals, such as Edinburgh Fringe and the Montreal Jazz Festival, as well as presentations at other arts orgs, such as BAM and Cal Arts, to see new works and artists.

What kinds of information do you need to get from the artist or their team to successfully present the work? Nothing beats a thorough, detailed, and ACCURATE technical rider. This is the industry standard for any show going out on the road, even if it’s just a runout or one-off. It is a critically important document and is the best starting point for any technical advance. They all generally have a similar format: overview of the work, generic work schedule and crew needs, and then a list of what you need and what you are bringing broken out by department. It’s a vital part of the contracting phase and informs how we approach the technical advance as well as answering all of the basic questions we need to answer in order to put on the show. The details can certainly change, but it gives us a solid starting point so we know the scale of what we are dealing with. The rider is the best chance of a show getting what they want. It also allows us to fag things upfront that we won’t be able to provide and fgure out solutions ahead of time.

Who is your typical point of contact with a production? We typically deal with some version of a production manager (PM). They might have a different title, or have multiple responsibilities. On smaller musical presentations such as chamber music, which do not have big technical needs, we may just deal with an artist’s management with no technical person onsite from the artist’s side, as there isn’t a need. Anything theatrical, dance, or of similar scale will have a PM or technical director (TD) that’s advancing the show. The hope is always that the same person advancing the show is going to be the one onsite, but that isn’t how it always goes.

Do the performances bring in their own personnel, or is it primarily local support (or some blend of the two)? For a presenter like UMS that programs a wide variety of presentations, it all depends. Smaller musical presentations like a string quartet will likely not have any staff with them. Larger musical shows like a jazz band or other amplifed music might travel with a tour manager and/or a front-of-house audio engineer. Theatre and dance shows typically have a production person and then usually someone in every department, although you may have people wearing multiple hats. Lighting supervisors/stage managers are pretty common. An assistant stage manager who is also the wardrobe supervisor is another classic combo. It depends on what’s in the show, as well. Generally, if there’s complexity in the setup and/or the show is travelling with its own gear, someone who knows how to set it up is also travelling with it.

What suggestions would you offer to an artist whose work is being presented? Know what you want and how critically important it is. If you can’t live without it, bring it. Do not assume you will get more time in the venue if you haven’t already asked for it during the advance. Be fexible; every space is different, but all are bound by the laws of physics (unless you are Robert Wilson). Treat the people working very hard on your show with respect and kindness (i.e. don’t be a dick).

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CHAPTER 4

Performance Spaces

Performers, choreographers, and designers use an empty space to bring their ideas to life in the same way a painter uses a canvas. To borrow a bit more from the metaphor of the painter, different types of paper affect the style of painting that can be created on them. The same is true of performance spaces. The performance space and, in particular, the relationship of the audience to the stage drastically affects how the audience can participate in the performance. The same dance seen in two different theatres (especially when seen from different vantage points) can feel completely different to your audience. Likewise, each theatre is different and comes with its own unique variety of equipment and features. For these reasons, it is essential that dance artists have a working understanding of a wide variety of performance spaces, their features, and the inherent strengths and challenges associated with each type.

4.1 – Proscenium Theatres The most popular type of theatre for dance performances is the proscenium stage. The proscenium is a theatre in

which the audience sits in front of the stage and watches the show through a picture frame opening, referred to as the proscenium arch (Figure 4.1). Though the proscenium arch is typically rectangular in shape, it can be square, as well. One reason for the popularity of this type of theatre space is that it places the audience in a good position to watch the dancers’ bodies in a silhouette form, highlighted against the theatre’s backdrop. In addition, the proscenium staging allows the audience to enjoy the performance without having to see the backstage trappings, such as the lighting instruments.

The Stage No matter the type of theatre, one element remains constant – there is an area of the theatre separated from the audience upon which the performance takes place. This is referred to as the stage. Though stages come in a variety of sizes and shapes, they share a number of similar attributes. One important concept to understanding how dancers must interact with their space is called stage directions.

Figure 4.1 The proscenium arch is the “picture frame” through which the audience watches the action. This particular proscenium arch is quite ornate, with many decorative features. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-6

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Stage Directions

stage. When the dancer moves from the perimeter towards the center of the stage, this is referred to as moving Onstage. Likewise, moving from an area away from the center of the stage is referred to as moving Offstage.

Things can get a little confusing when referring to a person or object’s placement on the stage. Since the onstage dancer faces the opposite direction of the choreographer in the auditorium, their directions are all reversed. To address this problem, those in the theatre refer to movements in terms of stage directions. In stage directions, all directions are relative to the person standing on stage. When looking at the stage from a bird’s eye view, the stage is split into nine separate areas (Figure 4.2). Everything to the right third of the stage (from the dancer’s perspective) is referred to as Stage Right. Everything to the left third of the stage is referred to as Stage Left, and the center third of the stage is called Center Stage. Adding to basic right and left, the stage is also divided into three areas that describe the dancer’s proximity to the audience. The third of the stage closest to the audience is referred to as Downstage. The center third is once more called Center Stage, while the area furthest away from the audience is referred to as Upstage. Looking at Figure 4.2, you can see how the combination of these terms creates the division of the stage into nine areas commonly referred to as: Down Right, Down Center, Down Left, Center Right, Center Center, Center Left, Up Right, Up Center, Up Left.

Stage Coordinate System When looking at a proscenium stage, we use two imaginary lines known as the centerline and the proscenium line to establish a system of coordinates used for measuring the placement of objects on the stage (see Figure 4.3). The centerline is an imaginary line that runs upstage to downstage from the back wall of the stage through the back wall of the auditorium, bisecting the space in half. In a ground plan (a drafting of the theatre from a bird’s eye view), this reference line is indicated by a specifc dashed line; long, short, long. The proscenium line (sometimes referred to as the plaster line), is an imaginary line that runs from right to left, aligned with the upstage edge of the proscenium arch. This reference line is indicated as a consistent dashed line on a ground plan. The point at which the centerline is bisected by the proscenium line is the 0,0 coordinate for measuring object placement on the stage. When looking at proscenium stages, the stage might protrude out far past the proscenium line towards the audience, or it

In addition to these basic directions, there are a few other terms that are handy in communicating movement on the

Figure 4.2 The breakdown of stage directions, as seen from above. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Figure 4.3 The proscenium line and centerline are imaginary points used to establish stage coordinates. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

Sightlines

might end close to the proscenium arch. If there is an area of the stage that extends downstage of the proscenium line, this is referred to as the apron. Sometimes, the apron is also built on an elevator or has a removable stage deck to reveal an area beneath the stage level. This area of the stage is frequently reserved for the orchestra, when a musical ensemble accompanies the dance (Figure 4.4). In this situation, this area of the stage is referred to as the orchestra pit or sometimes just “the pit.”

The term sightline refers to the unobstructed view of the stage from an audience member’s perspective. The sightline for each seat in the audience is slightly different from those around them. It is important for the choreographer and designer alike to have a good understanding of how much of the stage is visible to the majority of the audience and which locations are ideal for staging pivotal moments of the performance. In order to determine just how much of the stage can be seen from the audience, designers use the audience seats located on the outside aisles and closest to the stage. These positions are referred to as the extreme sightlines, because they are the audience seats that see into the backstage area more than any other and are looking at the stage from an extreme side angle. When staging a dance, it is important to walk through the audience and watch the performance from these locations to ensure your audience is not missing out on an important aspect of the dance.

Traps One of the many ways in which scenery or even dancers can make a “magical” appearance on the stage is through the use of trap doors in the stage foor. Many stages are equipped with panels in the stage foor that can be removed to create a trap door for special entry of effects. The area beneath the stage into which the trap doors open is referred to as the trap room.

Figure 4.4 The former New York State Theater (now the David H. Koch Theater) at Lincoln Center. The orchestra pit is located between the stage and auditorium. Photo: David Shankbone.

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The Grand Drape

Figure 4.5 shows a ground plan view of a theatre that indicates the stage and audience placement. In addition, it includes the symbol for extreme sightlines (the circle with a cross bisecting it). In looking at this illustration, the dotted lines extending from the extreme sightlines indicate the amount of the stage and backstage that can be seen from the vantage point of that theatre seat.

The grand drape, sometimes referred to as the main rag, is the main curtain that masks off the stage from the audience (Figure 4.6). This curtain runs the entire space of the proscenium and far enough into the wings so that even the extreme sightlines cannot see around it. There are a number of different types of grand drapes, but they all have some elements in common. The grand drape is typically made of a heavy weight plush fabric called velour. In addition, the curtain typically has fullness sewn into it – meaning the fabric has pleats sewn into it, giving the curtain a rippled look which gives it more surface area and visual depth to catch light and create shadows.

Masking When creating a space for performance, there are undoubtedly aspects of the location that are best hidden away from the audience’s view. For instance, the backstage area of a theatre is frequently a location for scenic storage or lighting instruments. In dance, the area to either side of the stage, called the wings, is where lighting instruments are placed on tall poles called booms in order to get side lighting for the dancers’ bodies. While it can create an interesting visual effect to see into the stage trappings, the audience should not always have to see what is located in these areas. For this reason, it is common to use curtains to hide the areas of the stage you do not want the audience to see. This process (as well as the curtains themselves) is referred to as masking. When masking off the stage, there are some specifc types of draperies used for the stage.

Since the grand drape flls the entire proscenium opening, it must move in some way for the audience to see the show. There are a number of different methods of rigging a curtain to open, but the two most common methods are for the curtain to move up or to open from the center. A curtain that raises or closes in the vertical plane is called a guillotine, whereas a traveller is a curtain with a split down the center in which the two sides slide horizontally away from one another. For dance concerts, it is a common practice to close the grand drape between each separate dance piece in the show.

Figure 4.5 The dotted lines indicate the line of sight from the extreme sightlines. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Figure 4.6 The grand drape is a common drapery element used for dance productions. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

Legs

part of their inventory. The scrim is used to create interesting visual effects. Because of its screen-like nature, when a light is shone on the front of a scrim, it looks solid. When the lights on the front side of a scrim are lowered, though, and it is lit from behind, the material becomes semi-transparent giving a hazy, ghost-like appearance to anything seen through it. This means that a scrim could be used in a dance to create a special effect in which dancers behind the scrim could “magically” appear.

As you move upstage of the grand drape, there are a series of curtains used to mask off the audience’s view into the wings. These curtains, called legs, are tall and typically made of a black or neutral dark-colored fabric (Figure 4.7).

Borders A border is a fabric curtain hung overhead of the stage to mask off the audience’s view of lighting instruments or scenery that might be fown overhead. Typically, a border and set of two legs will be used in conjunction with the border slightly downstage of the two legs (Figure 4.7).

Cyclorama/Sky Drop The last element of masking for a stage is a covering of the upstage wall of the theatre. Most theatres use a large, light blue or light grey fabric drop called a sky drop. In older theatres, the back wall of the theatre was a concave, wraparound wall with a plaster covering called a cyclorama. Over the years, most people began referring to the sky drop as a cyclorama, or “cyc” for short. The cyclorama is used as a neutral backdrop that can be lit by lighting fxtures to create a colored wash of a background. These lighting fxtures are typically hung above the cyc and positioned on the foor pointing up, as well. This gives the opportunity for the lighting designer to mix multiple colors of light on the cyc (Figure 4.9).

Blackout Curtain Sometimes, a dance calls for a black backdrop to create a stark contrast to the dancers on stage. In these instances, a blackout curtain is an ideal choice. A blackout curtain is typically a full stage black masking curtain with no fullness made of black velour. Since it is black and a smooth surface, there is nothing to bounce light and the background is a smooth neutral black.

Scrim Scrim is a type of gauze-like fabric with an open weave (Figure 4.8). Many theatres have a full stage scrim curtain as

Figure 4.7 A view of the theatre from the side, including masking elements. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Thinking Ahead

Figure 4.8 A close-up view of the open weave of the scrim which allows for interesting lighting effects. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

Ground Row The ground row is an additional element of masking used for covering up the lighting fxtures positioned on the foor for lighting the cyc. Typically, the ground row is a simple series of small boards (around 1’ in height) attached to the foor, just downstage of the lighting instruments. These boards are painted black or another neutral color matching the foor to hide the lighting instruments and cabling at the base of the cyclorama.

In-Betweens One important concept related to the dance stage is the “in” or “in-between.” An in-between is the offstage space in the wings between the theatre’s legs. When looking at the stage in a plan view, in-betweens are labeled as either stage right or stage left and numbered from downstage to upstage (Figure 4.10). Sometimes, in-betweens are referred to simply as “ins” (as in Stage Right In-1, Stage Right In-2). In dance design, the in-betweens are also the location of lighting booms, used for side-lighting the dancers.

Counterweight Systems Many theatres are equipped with a method for handling scenery in the air, “fying” it overhead to be hidden out of sight until it needs to be seen. This counterweight system

Figure 4.9 The blue background for this image is a cyclorama illuminated with blue lighting. Photo: Richard Calmes.

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Figure 4.10 A plan view of the stage showing in-betweens. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

The Fly Loft

utilizes a steel grid placed over the stage upon which is placed a system of pulleys. Beneath the grid is a collection of overhead pipes hung parallel to the proscenium. These pipes are suspended from wire cables that go up through the pulleys on the grid, allowing for scenic elements (or sometimes even people) to be “fown” overhead of the stage. Not every theatre has a counterweight system, but it is such a common element that it is important to familiarize yourself with their function. Figure 4.11 illustrates a counterweight system in the theatre.

Flying scenery requires a large amount of space above the stage. This area, referred to as the fy loft, should typically be two and a half times taller than the proscenium opening in order to fy the scenery above the vertical sightlines of the frst row of the audience.

Grid A grid is a series of steel pipes suspended in the upper portion of the fy loft, used for securing pulleys for the counterweight

Figure 4.11 The primary components of a theatrical fy system. A) Batten, B) Aircraft cables, C) Loft blocks, D) Head block, E) Arbor and stage weights, F) Tension block, G) Rope lock, H) Purchase line. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

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system. The grid includes a series of I-beams running parallel to the proscenium. These I-beams are used to support another series of steel bars running perpendicular to the proscenium, thus creating the grid. At key locations across the grid, there are a collection of pulleys called the loft blocks, used to guide the cables that help in fying scenery.

Batten The batten is a steel pipe that is hung horizontally and used to lift the load of scenery. Attached to the batten are sections of wire cables called lift lines that travel vertically up through the wells and into a loft block to be redirected to a head block on one side of the stage. As seen in Figure 4.12, the blocks in a counterweight system are used to change the direction of the lift line from vertical, to horizontal, and then back to vertical.

Linesets The collection of lift lines attached to a batten is referred to as a lineset. The number of lift lines on a lineset is related to the size of a proscenium opening. Wider stages might have fve to six lift lines, whereas smaller ones might only have three to four.

Arbor An arbor is a specially designed rack upon which stage weights can be added to balance out the load of scenery added to the batten (Figure 4.12). The purpose of the arbor is to allow for “counter-weighting” with an identical weight to balance out the load, thereby making the task of lifting hundreds of pounds of scenery a simple matter of pulling on one rope. The lift line is connected to the top of the arbor, with another rope tied to the bottom called the purchase line. The purchase line loops down through a block at the bottom of the system called a tension block (sometimes called the foot block) and is redirected back up through the head block to once more attach to the top of the arbor. In this way, the purchase line is one big loop attached to the arbor so that pulling down on the rope makes the arbor go up (and the batten go down) and vice versa.

Figure 4.12 Arbors with stage weights. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

where the weight is added. Since scenery is always added when the batten is at stage level, the arbor will be positioned at the top of the fy loft, just below the head blocks. Because of this, most counterweight systems have a balcony level positioned near the top of the fy loft, called the loading gallery. This area is used for loading stage weights onto the arbors to counterweight the amount added to a batten. As a result, stage weights are also stored at this level for easy access.

Lock Rail The lock rail is a level of the counterweight system that features a line lock, a simple lever for locking down movement of the purchase line and, in conjunction, the batten (Figure 4.13). These locks might be located at the foor level, or at a position above foor level. This is the location from which the fymen operate the counterweight system, unlocking the line lock, fying the scenery, and then locking it back into place for safety.

Audience Seating

Loading Gallery

In basic terms, the area of a theatre where the audience sits is referred to as the auditorium. In a proscenium theatre, the auditorium is placed directly in front of the proscenium arch.

There are a number of different components that affect the audience’s performance experience, but one of the most signifcant is seating. This directly relates to how much of the stage an audience member can see and from what angle, in addition to their proximity to other audience members around them. When discussing a theatre space, there are some common terms with which one should be familiar.

One fnal point of interest for the counterweight system is how stage weights are added to the arbor, or more to the point

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Figure 4.13 A lock rail located at the foor level of the stage. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

Some theatres may have only one large seating area of the auditorium, while others may have different sections of the auditorium with audience seating. The following list indicates some common divisions of the auditorium, while Figure 4.14 includes visual examples:

this will mean looking down on a production that was meant to be seen at eye-level. • Mezzanine: Mezzanine is a term derived from the Italian mezzano meaning “middle.” In theatrical terminology, this refers to the lowest balcony of the theatre (if there are more than one), or sometimes the front rows of the theatre’s balcony. • Box seats: In some theatres, particularly those built before the 20th century, balconies may wrap around the sides of the auditorium and extend all the way to the sides of the proscenium. These seats are referred to as box seats (also known as loge). While they may seem glamorous seats to some, the box seats are often the worst vantage point for a dance show, as it gives a direct line of sight into the backstage and makes for a distorted view of the action.

• Orchestra: The part of the auditorium on the main foor and closest to the stage. Sitting roughly halfway back in the middle of the orchestra guarantees an excellent view of the stage and dancers. • Balcony: A balcony is an upper foor of seating in a theatre that protrudes out above the main foor. This level is often at a steep incline, so as to allow the audience members to look down on the stage. While the audience can get relatively close to the action from a balcony, keep in mind

Figure 4.14 Divisions of the auditorium. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Typically, it is those seats closest to the stage and on the main level that cost the most, whereas those further away or in the balcony areas of the auditorium are less expensive. This is why some theatres feature an area of the orchestra referred to as premium seats, the frst few rows of the orchestra closest to the stage, for a higher ticket cost. Interestingly enough, though, most avid theatregoers prefer to sit a bit further back, as the front seats mean looking up at the stage and possibly missing some of the action as dancers move upstage.

One of the other identifying features of a thrust space is that the audience seating is frequently raked, meaning that each row of seating is raised higher than the row in front of it, thereby guaranteeing a better view of the stage. In most thrust spaces, the rake is extremely high, meaning that more than half of the audience will be looking down on dancers onstage. As a choreographer, this is a challenge to keep in mind while setting the dance. Thrust spaces typically have tunnels that lead beneath the raked seating called vomitories or “voms,” for short (Figure 4.16). These voms make for interesting points of entrance for dancers, adding a unique staging opportunity over the proscenium space.

4.2 – Non-Proscenium Theatres While the proscenium theatre is one of the most popular types of theatre spaces for dance, it is by no means the only type of theatre in which a dance can be staged. There are a number of different theatre types that make for interesting dance spaces, though each one presents its own unique set of challenges for dance.

Another important consideration when staging a dance in a thrust space is the lighting. When lighting dance productions, it is a common practice to use side lighting on booms positioned in the wings. While these booms remain hidden away from the audience’s line of sight in a proscenium space, this is not always the case for lighting dance in a thrust space. Booms, if used, might have to be placed in the audience. If so, this process must carefully be executed in order to avoid blinding some of your audience. The normal rules of dance lighting do not necessarily apply when lighting for the thrust. Talk early with the lighting designer and make sure to let them know it will be staged for a thrust space.

Thrust Theatres The thrust is another type of stage confguration. A thrust stage (sometimes called ¾ round, or theatre in the round) is primarily defned by its relationship to the audience. In a thrust space, the stage is thrust forth into the audience, with seating positioned on three sides of the stage (Figure 4.15). While the thrust stage can have many different shapes, one of the most common resembles an octagon cut in half. Since the audience is incredibly close to the stage, this type of theatre makes for an intimate dance environment.

Arena Theatres Like the thrust, the arena stage (sometimes called theatre in the round) features seating at a raked angle looking down onto the stage, but instead of seating on three sides, the

Figure 4.15 A thrust stage, with seating on three sides of the stage. Photo courtesy: Wharton Center for Performing Arts.

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Figure 4.16 A view from the thrust stage, looking out towards the audience. Note the raked audience seating and vomitories (indicated by the arrows). Photo courtesy: Wharton Center for Performing Arts.

Black Box/Studio Theatre Spaces

audience is located on all sides of the stage (Figure 4.17). The main challenge of staging dance in the round is sightlines. Since the entirety of the stage is exposed to the audience, there is no opportunity to hide dancers, props, etc. Likewise, traditional dance lighting is problematic for an arena stage, since any booms for side lighting would be visible and shining into some of the audience’s eyes.

The term black box or studio theatre refers to a small theatre space with fexible seating that can be confgured in multiple arrangements. This type of space is ideal for student performances, showcases, and master classes, as the audience is in close proximity to the action. The black box space does

Figure 4.17 The arena stage, viewed from above, with seating surrounding the stage. Often, there will be vomitories in the four corners of the stage for entrances. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

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not lend itself to complex production elements, but there is an inherent value to working in a space that can be adjusted to meet the needs of the particular performance.

about expectations: both yours and theirs. The following list is a collection of some useful initial questions regarding technical concerns for the space to get the ball rolling. 1. What is the rental fee? No one likes to focus on money when making art, but the process of producing a performance will always come down to questions involving money. It’s best to get these details out in the open ASAP, since the answer could very well determine whether you need to ask any other questions. 2. What is included in the rental fee? This is always different from space to space. Often rent might include use of the theatre, green room, dressing rooms, lighting and sound equipment, projectors and projection screens, tables and chairs, and any necessary cabling. Other locations may include these items on an as-needed basis and charge for each line item. Does use of the space include personnel, such as house technicians or board operators? If not, can you use your own personnel, or are you required to pay for theirs? Are there additional fees for rehearsal time or technical rehearsals? What are the front-of-house arrangements (box offce, house management, ushers, ticket profts, publicity support, etc.)? 3. Are there standard confgurations to the space, and how do they affect the seating capacity and traffc patterns? Some theatres might offer three to four different stage confgurations, such as a standard proscenium, creating a thrust, or bringing the audience onto the stage. In these cases, the different confgurations will decidedly affect the seating capacity. Should you decide to go with a thrust confguration, for instance, most often this might involve removing a certain number of seats from the auditorium to accommodate the added stage components. Every seat lost can be viewed as a loss of potential revenue for your performance, so always keep in mind how that might affect your ability to generate a proft from the performance. In addition to seating, traffc patterns (the ability for dancers to move around inside of the space) can be changed and limited due to changing the confgurations of the space. Try to have a conversation with the representative to determine some key traffc concerns, such as: can dancers enter/exit on both sides of the stage; is there a crossover space upstage of the cyclorama or back wall (can the dancers exit on one side of the stage and enter on another without setting foot onstage?); is the foor level; are there any raised or lowered areas to be aware of; is the theatre accessible for those with disabilities (backstage and performance areas); is there an orchestra pit and, if so, is there a safety covering for the pit?

4.3 – Non-Traditional Spaces These days, it is not uncommon to see dance pieces performed in spaces outside of the traditional theatre. From warehouses, to churches, gymnasiums, swimming pools, or even rock quarries, there are a number of locations that can make for an interesting dance performance space. One of the key benefts of using a non-traditional space is that your imagination is the limit for the production. There are no predetermined ways in which the space is best suited for a dance performance. Though there are a number of technical challenges to be met such as power supply, dance fooring, seating, and public amenities, the performance experience in a non-traditional space can be particularly rewarding. The following chapter addresses some of the concerns in producing dance in nontraditional spaces.

4.4 – Performance Space Concerns As we have seen, the choice of a performance space affects many aspects of the dance performance. Depending on the type of space, certain varieties of staging might be required or limited. In addition, there are a number of practical concerns related to your choice of space that will affect other areas (i.e. budget, schedule, personnel, etc.). For those working in academic settings, your performance space may be a given. Even if you have a space assigned to you, though, it is important to consider the same types of questions. Unless you are lucky enough to have a dedicated dance theatre, a dance program will often fnd itself performing in a space primarily used by and for the theatre program. In these instances, misunderstandings frequently arise regarding the appropriate use of a space – sometimes rules about which the visiting dance company is completely unaware. One way to address this is to make sure to ask the right questions regarding space usage before going into the performance space. Included below is a list of questions that should be addressed in order to make sure you are making an informed decision regarding your performance space.

Basic Space Questions When talking to a facility manager or representative for a performance space, it is important to have a conversation

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4. What are the technical capabilities of the space? Standard technical capabilities can vary wildly between different spaces. Important considerations might include: the number, type, and placement of lighting positions (catwalks vs. overhead pipes), the number and placement of lighting circuits (where you can plug in your lights), the ceiling height of the stage and auditorium, the presence or lack of a fy system, possible traps in the stage foor, and the amount of wing space available. In addition, this might include information like the availability of a full stage scrim, blackout curtains, a cyclorama, ground rows, etc. 5. What kind of equipment is in your space? This should include a detailed list of lighting inventory (the number, make, and variety of lighting fxtures), lighting console for control, accessories, gels (are they included, or do you need to provide your own), and cabling. In addition, what are the components of their sound system (speakers, microphones, sound mixer, connection points) and how is playback accomplished (a computer running playback software, a CD player, a line-in on the sound board). What about a communication system (do they provide headsets and belt packs, or are you expected to secure your own)? Do they provide a projector and/or projection screen? Do they offer a fogger or hazer for use? Perhaps you have some gear that you would like to bring into the space. Is this acceptable, or forbidden? 6. Are house technicians included with the rental fee? Some contracts might include house technicians as part of the rental fee. Others might expect that you bring in your own technical staff. If technicians are not provided, are your company members allowed to use the equipment in the space? In addition, you need to determine if the space is a Union house? If so, how does this affect your choices: staffng, schedules, union contracts, live vs. pre-recorded music, etc. 7. Are there any special rules about the use of atmospherics (fog and haze, or other special effects)? In many cases the city/state/municipality might have specifc rules that accompany the use of production elements such as fog, haze, or pyrotechnics. It’s always a good idea to confrm what these rules might be, if any exist. 8. What is the stage foor? Flooring is a major consideration for dance. Does the theatre have a sprung foor? If not, do they have a dance fooring system that can be installed? Do they have Marley or some type of a dance surface that is typically used for dance performances? If so, are there additional costs associated with using it? 9. Will I be sharing the space with others? Do not just assume that your rental fee guarantees you exclusive use

of the space. Sometimes a theatre might rent their space to different groups over the same time period. If this is the case, be sure to determine if this is acceptable for your needs. How might this affect things like storage, equipment, and security? 10. Is there secure storage space? Will there be a secure location where any equipment, personal possessions, costumes, props, etc. can be stored when not in use? This is particularly important if you will be expected to share the performance space with other groups. Once you have addressed these questions, undoubtedly other information will arise from these conversations. Never be afraid to ask questions. It is always best to go into a project with answers, rather than assume that your expectations are the norm.

The Tech Packet and Paperwork Most theatres that rent out their stage for performances have a document called the tech packet, a collection of drawings and paperwork that gives a complete picture of the facility, stages and backstage areas, available equipment and inventories, amenities, and more. If a space does not have a tech packet available, it might be worth considering if they are used to the process of accommodating a touring production. Tech packets commonly include a wealth of information in one fle (often saved as a PDF and emailed or placed on the company website). Typical information might include: • Draftings (with dimensions) of the theatre: ground plan and centerline section, ideally • A hang schedule explaining the theatre’s rigging and what is hung in which locations, including electrics, soft goods, projection screens, etc. • Inventory of all available soft goods (masking drapes, cyclorama, scrims, curtains, etc.) • Lighting inventory and equipment • Sound hookup and equipment • Green room/dressing room information • Local information, including directions, transportation and lodging, dining, grocery stores, and local production resources An honest assessment of the tech packet and information about the performance space is the frst step in planning for the tour performance. Many spaces have limitations that require changes to certain aspects of the production before the dance will work in that space. The key is in being fexible enough to allow for a performance that remains true to the original artistic vision of the dance. If this cannot be achieved in the space, it is

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essential to decide in advance and not waste time and money on a venue that cannot meet the needs of the production.

• • • •

4.5 – The Technical Rider

Remember that the technical rider is your one opportunity to ensure your needs get voiced. If you simply assume that something will be provided, you cannot later demand that the venue produce it should the item not be available. Generally, technical riders are anywhere from two to ten pages in length, depending on the needs of the dance company or specifc performances. If a performance space does not require a technical rider, always be proactive and communicate your production needs in writing to the presenter and the venue’s technical director to minimize the element of surprise.

Should you decide on a particular performance venue, it is always a good idea to provide in writing a list of your expectations and needs. Whereas the tech packet is the information supplied by the venue regarding their performance space, the technical rider is the document that dictates to the presenter/venue the technical requirements of the dance performance. Most touring companies have a standard technical rider that covers all of their shows, with variable sections within that contain specifcs about individual dances. The technical rider serves as an agreement between the presenter and the dance company that is typically signed by both parties, serving as a binding contract for the performance needs. The following information is commonly included in a technical rider for dance: • • • • • • • • •

Dressing rooms/green room Technical requirements (lighting, sound, scenic) Hospitality Live music information (performers, rehearsal time, etc.)

4.6 – Chapter Review The type of performance space can greatly affect the type of dance performance that can be staged in its halls. All too frequently, choreographers and designers do not consider the ways in which the theatre space affects the dance until far too late in the process. In particular, the placement of the audience and their proximity to the stage can affect a great number of the artistic decisions that go into producing a dance. The dancer or choreographer who enters into the process of creating a dance with a working understanding of theatre spaces and terminology is at a decided advantage when working with designers and technicians.

Amount of time required to set up Amount of tech time required Personnel requirements Stage requirements (size, crossover space) Stage foor/dance foor Climate control Rigging requirements Soft goods Wardrobe/laundry

Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What is the name of the “picture frame” through which the audience watches the performance? What is the area of the stage that extends downstage of the proscenium line? With regards to stage directions, what is the area called furthest away from the audience? What is the name of the imaginary line that extends from one edge of the proscenium arch to another? What is the name of audience seats located in the outside aisles and closest to the stage? What are the vertical masking curtains called that are placed to mask the wings? This type of system is used to fy scenery overhead in the theatre. What is the steel pipe called that is used to lift the load of scenery? This type of stage features the audience sitting on three sides of the stage. This type of stage is sometimes referred to as theatre in the round.

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CHAPTER 5

Touring, and Non-Traditional Performances Much of the content from our previous chapters has focused on a somewhat narrow view of dance production, mostly related to the more theatrical styles of dance presentation like ballet or modern dance in one venue. While these areas tend to comprise a large percentage of “traditional” dance performances, it would be a disservice to assume that all dance productions ft neatly into this area. In addition to the concerns inherent in presenting a dance performance in a traditional theatre space, there are a number of concerns that arise when considering taking a performance on tour, or performing in a non-traditional space. This chapter explores some of these concerns and the unique challenges that may arise in producing such works.

5.1 – Tour-Specifc Personnel Concerns Touring a dance production is a diffcult balancing act under the best of conditions. Consider the various concerns that arise when producing a dance in one space. Now multiply that by a dozen times over for each separate performing venue hosting your dance tour. Even if your tour is a simple one, going to one or two spaces, the number of considerations increases seemingly exponentially when compared to having only one performance space. The following sections assess some of these concerns and address how best to plan ahead for your dance tour. One of the frst concerns for assembling a successful tour is personnel. Even with a small tour, it is important to consider how many additional hands are required to pull off the project. Before you can decide exactly how many people are needed, it might be a good idea to look at a touring model used by established touring companies. After all, if this is their primary focus, then you can assume they have spent some time determining what kind of a personnel structure works for taking a show on the road. While your production may not

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-7

require as many people as a major tour, understanding the nature of how a large touring organization functions might be a good starting point for assessing your own needs. The following sections lists some positions commonly found in such touring companies.

Company Manager/Tour Manager Depending on the nature and mission of the dance company, there might be a company manager, tour manager, or both. In general terms, the company manager is often concerned with the overall logistics of the planning of the tour, whereas the tour manager is the person responsible for the day-to-day activities of the company while on the road. In instances where these are separate roles, many of the duties might be similar and/or overlapping. Many dance companies combine both roles into the duties of the company manager. Since there are so many models for touring companies, it is prudent to list some common duties of the two roles, understanding that it will vary from company to company. Typical company manager duties: • Serve as a contact person for the performance venues • Create booking materials • Oversee administrative operations of the company (often reporting to the artistic director) • Work with booking agents/presenters to schedule the tour • Make travel arrangements (housing, air/ground travel, hospitality/catering) • Prepare detailed itineraries for touring personnel/ presenters/venues • Develop a company budget and track expenses • Maintain lists of passport details, travel preferences, etc. for the company • Arrange for foreign entry visas and work permits with foreign presenters

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• Serve as a common point of communication between touring personnel and offce staff

• Serve as the on-site production decision-maker • Providing oversight to ensure the production needs in each space honor the aesthetic needs of the production while adapting to ft the requirements of each unique space • Ensure a safe working environment • Maintain positive relations between the presenters, local crew, and the company

Typical tour manager duties: • Travel with the touring company • Monitor company morale and general welfare, providing support to maintain a healthy tour environment • Serve as a point of contact for all members of the tour company regarding all touring matters • Oversee all tour travel and lodging in and between tour locations • Handle petty cash, reimburse for receipts, etc. • Serve as a contact between the company and local presenters/press • Coordinate medical and health needs • Supervise sales of merchandise at performance venues • Solve all problems that arise while on tour

Stage Manager Every dance tour will have a stage manager (or SM). In the case of small to mid-level companies, the SM may take on many of the duties listed above in addition to the primary responsibility of calling the show. In the case of a tour with limited personnel, the SM often takes on the responsibilities of lighting supervisor and sound supervisor. In this case, the SM oversees the hang and focus of lighting instruments and setting audio levels for sound. This is quite common these days, since many SMs will also be the one controlling the sound playback. Since the timing of lighting cues is so specifc to movement or music in dance, many SMs also prefer to run the lighting console, rather than take the time to train a local stagehand (provided this is allowed in the contract with the space). Another common confguration is combining company manager/SM into one role. In all but the largest touring companies, it is uncommon to see a touring assistant stage manager.

Production Manager The production manager is an integral component of the success of any touring company. Whereas the company manager and touring manager are primarily concerned with the artistic personnel, the production manager oversees all technical aspects for the dance company, creates and maintains the production budget, and supervises (in many cases also hiring) the production staff. A list of typical duties is included below:

Lighting Supervisor

Typical production manager duties:

The lighting supervisor for a tour serves as part master electrician, part lighting designer. This position works closely with lighting designers to understand the nature of their work and how best to tour it. He/she will help generate and update lighting plots, hookup sheets, and all necessary paperwork for the tour. In addition, this person is responsible for securing and maintaining the touring lighting rig and/or working to ensure the lighting in the production venue meets the specifcations of the design. The supervisor will work closely with local crews to ensure the proper hang and focus of lighting equipment and sometimes serve as a lighting programmer or operator, as needed. The main function of the lighting supervisor is to ensure the design is consistent from venue to venue, an important task when each space offers unique challenges of equipment and facilities.

• Review all prospective performance venues to determine viability • Create and maintain technical riders (the list of requirements of performance spaces, equipment, and business arrangements) • Maintain technical specs, plans, and paperwork for all performance venues • Determine, in consultation with the designers, how the production will be installed in each venue • Assist in the creation of tour paperwork for individual performance venues (lighting, sound, ground plans, projections, etc.) • Arrange for all necessary rental equipment • Develop the production timetable, tracking deadlines and communicating with all tour personnel • Supervise the stage manager and all production area supervisors with tour preparation and planning • Supervise loading and unloading of company equipment at all locations • Supervise the load-in of all production elements

Audio Supervisor An audio supervisor (sometimes called a sound supervisor) works with the production team to implement and supervise

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Touring, and Non-Traditional Performances

5.2 – Travel Concerns

all audio elements of the tour. Depending on the nature of the audio used with the tour and the size of the company, this position is sometimes lumped in with the duties of a stage manager or lighting supervisor. It is common to fnd a dedicated audio supervisor with tours that use live music. Typically, the audio supervisor does the advance planning and preparation for working with the local crews and audio systems at the tour venue. She works with local crews and supervises the setup of all audio equipment, running sound checks, and mixing any live or pre-recorded sound during rehearsals and performances. In some instances, the audio supervisor might also function as a sound designer for the tour. If there is a separate sound designer, the audio supervisor works to maintain the integrity of the original designs and musical ideas across a wide range of venues.

There is not enough room in one chapter of a book to cover all the subtleties of planning for travel with a touring company. The rule of thumb when going on the road is “expect the unexpected.” Though the company manager should see to the countless concerns that arise in dealing with company travel (such as air/ground travel, accommodations, etc.) there are some technical concerns related to travel, most often addressed by the production manager, technical supervisors, or stage management. The following section mentions some of these concerns.

Transporting Equipment If your dance takes any equipment on the road, arrangements must be made for a vehicle for transporting your equipment. Whether it is a personal vehicle, a rental truck, or a feet vehicle, there are unique concerns that must be considered (such as fuel costs, insurance, hiring a certifed driver, etc.).

Wardrobe Supervisor The wardrobe supervisor is responsible for all aspects of costumes related to the tour. Primary responsibilities include the fttings, alterations, and prepping costumes for the tour. In addition, one of the main concerns on the road is the care and maintenance of all costume pieces. The wardrobe supervisor travels to all tour venues and oversees the packing/unpacking of wardrobe before and after each performance, setting up wardrobe in dressing rooms and changing areas, and the laundering of all costume pieces. In addition, this individual trains and supervises any dressers working on the production. The wardrobe supervisor works as a liaison between dancers, costume designers, and stage management. In a company with a costume stock, the wardrobe supervisor will also supervise pulling costumes from stock and returning costume pieces to the inventory at the end of the run.

Packing In addition to the vehicle itself, consider the needs for packing and transporting the equipment. Many items will require the use of a road case, a rugged shipping container specifcally designed for transporting items such as musical instruments, lighting and sound equipment, properties, or other sensitive items. Road cases, sometimes also referred to as a road box or “roadie case,” are often constructed of rigid material such as plastic or metal with reinforced sections and foam padding inside (Figure 5.1). In addition, they often come equipped with wheels to make the process of loading in or out quicker.

Figure 5.1 A typical road case. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Securing Your Load

If the theatre is not a union house, it is important to discover the number of workers, their level of experience, and what restrictions (if any) the venue places on the technicians. In some theatres, the house tech is simply there to open the locks, answer questions, and supply requested equipment/supplies from the theatre’s inventory. In others, the technicians can serve in almost any capacity, from running crew, to sound engineers, or follow spot operators. Still other spaces might allow for this type of work, but require an additional hourly fee be paid for the house techs to perform said services. It is essential to fnd out the rules and regulations in advance and make the most of the local crew provided.

One often-overlooked concern for touring is planning for safely securing the load. When packing a load of any size into a vehicle, always consider that objects will shift during transport and, as a result, must be safely secured using appropriate methods. Large items such as platforming or scenic units can easily present a deadly hazard if improperly stored for transit. Knowledgeable professionals should always secure equipment, using rated hardware and durable straps that can safely hold the weight of the equipment in place. Overlooking these safety concerns can lead to injury, or even death!

Inventory Lists and Checklists

Finally, make sure to plan ahead for how the equipment available in the performance venue might affect your personnel needs. Just because a space has certain equipment does not necessarily entitle you to use it. Many spaces have separate rental packages for the use of certain items, such as projectors, moving lights, headsets, star drops, etc. Always inquire as to what equipment is available and, of equal importance, who is allowed to operate it. Some equipment requires specialized knowledge on the part of the user. A local venue might require one of their technicians to use certain equipment, which almost always comes with the additional hourly fee of paying that employee. Plan ahead and take nothing for granted!

One fnal consideration is the need for inventory checklists. Most large touring companies operate like a well-oiled machine, mostly due to the fact that all details are planned out well in advance and the crew follows an order of operations put in place before ever leaving home. Creating lists that detail the appropriate order for packing and unpacking, setting up gear, testing the equipment, and more will ensure that important steps are not missed along the way. In addition, it allows supervisors to hand off a checklist to local technicians for some aspects of the work, without having to oversee every moment. Another helpful item is an inventory checklist. Using such a checklist allows the crew to check out and check in each important component of equipment, making sure nothing is left behind. This could apply for wardrobe, lighting and sound equipment, scenery, etc. When touring a show, one can never be too prepared.

5.4 – Non-Traditional Productions To this point, the content has focused on a rather narrow view of dance, mostly related to the more theatrical styles of dance presentation like ballet or modern dance. While these areas tend to comprise a large percentage of “traditional” dance performances, there is obviously a wide range of dance and performance styles that ft under the umbrella of dance, yet remain diffcult to neatly lump together with other styles. The following sections explore some of these non-traditional performances and their production concerns. By the eclectic nature of these works, no one chapter could ever do justice to the full range of possibilities. Instead, the goal is to focus on the unique challenges that arise in producing such works.

5.3 – Working with Local Stagehands Another consideration is the question of technicians provided by the local venue, referred to as house technicians. Most theatres have a dedicated staff of technicians who are hourly workers dedicated to running the shows for touring companies that come through. In addition to these house techs, there might also be over hire workers who are brought in as additional support. When working with local technicians, there are some questions that should be addressed. The primary point of concern should be if the theatre operates under a union contract. If this is the case, there are certain rules in place negotiated by the union (typically IATSE) that dictate who can do what. If it is a “union house” for example, only union stagehands or those hired by the union are allowed to perform certain tasks. In such a setting, expect to be able to offer up guidance to the stagehands without ever touching the equipment.

What Makes It a Dance Performance? Dance can be a hard term to defne. In simple terms, it is the movement of the body. Beyond that, there are a number of variations on the concept: it can be done in either a rhythmic or sporadic fashion; with or without music; improvisational or

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choreographed, as a method of storytelling or without a sense of clear communication. Confused yet? Many art forms fall back on the old standby of “I can’t defne it, but I know what it is when I see it,” and dance might ft the defnition better than many. Often, today’s dance companies employ a production style that blurs the boundaries between multiple genres and disciplines.

of this method is called devised dance – the process blurring the line between choreographer and performers. Devised dance is a collaborative creation method in which the work originates not from the work of a singular choreographer, but from the combined work of a collection of artists working together to create the dance. This process is commonly improvisational in nature and often centered around a central theme or idea.

One excellent example of this is Kiss & Cry, an interesting choreographic performance from prizewinning flmmaker Jaco Van Dormael and choreographer Michèle Anne De Mey. Produced by Charleroi Danse, Kiss & Cry features a pair of dancing hands as the stars of a flm created live on stage. This performance is both flmed and projected live onto a panoramic screen while the audience watches. The “dancers” perform on a set composed of dollhouses and toy furniture, bringing together the worlds of dance, theatre, flm, poetry, and prose into one multidisciplinary performance (Figure 5.2).

The world of non-traditional dance is a varied and eclectic collection of performance styles and groups who engage in the creation of unique and impassioned art. Approaching the process with an open mind and a willingness to bend/ break the rules can lead to incredibly rewarding artistic endeavors. Since the process is, by its very nature, different from mainstream dance, it is important to understand the differences in approach and processes. Though one might assume that the non-traditional performance styles might have a loose organizational approach (due to their often-improvisational approach) many of these companies have their own unique group dynamics and organizational structure that rival or surpass those of their more traditional counterparts. The key to successful collaboration in any environment lies in understanding the ground rules. Who is doing what? What are the expectations of individuals in given roles? What is the timetable? What are our resources? Even though the end product is different from most traditional dance, the underlying rules for successful collaboration remain the same.

In traditional dance performance, the dancer often synchronizes his/her movement to pre-recorded media, leaving little to no room for improvisation. In contrast, many forms of non-traditional dance allow for spontaneity between the dancer and media. Interactive dance, for instance, allows media such as music and projections to interact with the performer in real time. This unique approach takes the dancer from the role of “marionette” to something more closely akin to an orchestra conductor. Likewise, traditional dance typically employs a choreographer to stage a dance to be executed by the dancers. The inverse

Figure 5.2 A production photo from Kiss & Cry featuring projected imagery and the dancing hand. Kiss & Cry by Michèle Anne De Mey, Jaco Van Dormael & collective. Photo: Maarten Vanden Abeele. Charleroi Danse.

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5.5 – Non-Traditional Performance Spaces

Most often City Hall is the best place to fnd out about your local regulations. Typically, there will be some type of fee associated with the paperwork to be fled. Some other considerations are restrictions your city may place on certain types of performances or music. There may also be noise ordinances in place that keep you from performing at a certain time or day of the week. If your performance uses special effects like fog or pyrotechnics, keep in mind that the municipality may require an on-site safety inspection.

There is no doubt that theatres, concert halls, and dedicated performance spaces are ideal for many types of live performance. It is, after all, their reason for existence. There is also a great measure of truth, however, in that old Shakespearean line “all the world’s a stage.” Today, a great number of artists in all types of disciplines are moving outside of the traditional performance space and into locations like libraries, barges, abandoned factories, subway platforms, or even elevators. This is in line with our society’s growing fascination with “pop-up” spaces/site-specifc works and shows no signs of stopping in the near future. Indeed, a growing number of artists seem to be stifed by the confnes of the traditional theatre and hope to fnd new and exciting ways to engage audiences on their own terms. Of course, this embrace of the non-traditional performance space comes with a number of concerns unique to these performances. The following sections detail some of the concerns when considering a non-traditional performance space for dance.

Another common concern is the use of minors as performers in the company. Dancers under the age of 18 could be required to secure a child performer permit in some locations. In most cities, the parents of a child performer must create a trust account in his/her name. In this case, the producing company is required by law to deposit 15% of the child performer’s earnings into the trust. Likewise, consider the legality of alcohol in the public performance. Many companies generate a considerable portion of their revenue through concessions. Alcohol sales require a license for each day of the performance. Some companies have taken the BYOB approach, allowing patrons to bring their own alcohol to the performance. In some locales, this eliminates the need for a license whereas others may still require one. It is always necessary to investigate the rules and regulations for alcohol in entertainment venues.

The Question of Cost The costs associated with a performance space can seem daunting to some dance companies. Renting or owning your own performance space is a costly endeavor. A nontraditional/site-specifc performance may seem a tempting alternative to a traditional theatre, but this is not necessarily a cheaper fnancial alternative. When producing a dance in a non-traditional space, much consideration must be given to the requirements of the space. In terms of technical requirements, the non-traditional space will not have the built-in technology that comes with a theatre such as lighting equipment, sound support, a rigging system, or a headset communication system. There are also no personnel working as stagehands, ushers, box offce, etc. It is essential that the production manager or producer determine the basic requirements for such a performance and honestly consider the rental or purchase costs. These expenses, combined with the standard overhead costs (performers, musicians, rental fees, etc.) must be fully assessed before entering into the production period.

Audience Expectations Just because your audience is attending a dance performance in a non-traditional space doesn’t mean that they won’t come with a set of expectations regarding amenities and their entertainment experience. It is worth considering what amenities are necessary for your performance. Some elements, such as concessions, may not be necessary to the success of your event. Other amenities, such as restrooms, are a must. If your location does not include public restrooms, rent portable toilets. Ushers are another important consideration that can be “make or break.” Especially in unconventional spaces, the usher serves the important role of directing your audience to the physical location or directing the patrons to restrooms. For this reason, it might be wise to use more ushers for site-specifc performances than the traditional performance space. Another choice might be the use or lack of programs for the performance. Physical programs can be useful in certain non-traditional performances, especially if there is an expectation of audience involvement. It gives the audience a physical roadmap that can alleviate discomfort on their part if they are unaccustomed to the nature of a non-traditional performance.

Legal Restrictions There are a number of legal restrictions involved in producing a performance for a non-traditional space. Most municipalities require the producer to hold a permit for live performance in any public space whose primary purpose is not entertainment.

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Consider Your Audience

cutting edge to low-tech. The important aspect is to consider in advance the unique needs of the production and how best to address them.

In a non-traditional performance, the lines between audience and performers can become somewhat blurred. For this reason, it is of the utmost importance to consider your audience when planning the performance. Sound is one production element that can easily overpower the experience and lead to discomfort, if the levels are too loud. When compounded with a close proximity to the stage, one creates a perfect formula for heightened discomfort. Consider how uncomfortable it could be for an audience member when confronted with an overly loud sound design in close proximity to the performer. In this case, they are trapped between the need to cover their ears or shrink away while at the same time making eye contact with the performer. Unless the goal of the performance is to alienate the audience and create an uncomfortable feeling, it might be best to keep the levels to a more moderate volume.

5.6 – Cultivating Relationships When you don’t have the built-in infrastructure of a theatre, you may fnd it necessary to be creative in providing resources for the production. One of the best ways in which to do this is to develop relationships with the community, other artistic organizations, and local businesses. Consider the beneft of partnering with a local business like a restaurant or bar as either the performance space or for providing food and/or beverages for the performance. Another consideration is scheduling the performance as part of a local arts festival or even getting the local arts or visitors’ bureau to list your performance on their calendar of events.

Unique sightlines are another aspect of non-traditional spaces. Audiences are used to having a larger distance separating them from the performers. While there is a great beneft to sitting in close proximity (seeing the facial expressions, breath, and physical effort of the dancer), the trade-off is in the possible distractions. Audience members might look across the room and fnd themselves watching other audience members rather than the dance. Likewise, physical movements like kicks and jumps might feel “too close for comfort” for those in the front rows. When working in these types of non-traditional spaces, it is not always possible to have previews or even rehearsals in the space. For this reason, it makes it even more essential to plan ahead in detail.

Too often, theatres and dance companies can view other arts organizations as their competitors and not reach out to create partnerships. Though each situation is unique, it is often a mistake to avoid partnering with another group. Consider the thought that a healthy arts scene can beneft more than just one group. Consider advertising for other dance companies, or perhaps offering discounts for patrons who bring a ticket stub from a partner group. This encourages the patrons to attend more than just one performance and creates a sense of buy-in for your success with the other producing companies in your region. This sets your group up as a giver, not just a taker.

Backstage Concerns

Finally, consider the importance of marketing to the success of a non-traditional dance performance. Since your performance will not have a home theatre displaying posters and billboards, you must be creative in how to promote the event. Oldfashioned methods such as posters can be a great way to generate interest and direct would-be patrons to a site-specifc location. Social media is great because it not only allows you to advertise your own work, but for your patrons to spread the word. Consider handing out postcards or small playbills at the performance that lead your audience to your website and social media presence. This allows you a free platform for advertising with the ability to include information like maps, videos, publicity photos, and more. This type of marketing is a necessity for “pop-up” performances, giving your fan base a heads up on unique performances. An added beneft to social media is the ability to show a potential performance space to your following. If you have a proven audience base and can

Even though your performance is not taking place in a theatre, there are a number of concerns that must be addressed in order to create a suffcient production environment. The rule of thumb for these types of performance spaces is often “simpler is better.” That said, there are some basic concerns that must be addressed for shows that allow for a backstage. When planning for producing in a non-traditional performance space, the primary concerns are “offstage” dancer spaces and communication systems. For the offstage considerations, ask yourself if there is a need for dressing spaces, a makeshift green room, makeup spaces, etc.? Regarding communication, are headsets/walkie-talkies necessary for production crew to communicate with one another? Likewise, if dancers are located offstage, is it prudent to provide some type of live video feed of the stage so that they don’t miss an entrance? There are a number of solutions for these needs from the

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• Temperature: One of the factors often overlooked is the temperature of the performance space. More than considering the basic comfort of your audience members, temperature can be a contributing factor to dancer injury. Common safety practices dictate an ideal temperature in the performance space as 64–70°F (18–21°C). In extreme conditions, the producer should consider the need for portable heaters or cooling units. In addition, care should be given to the selection of costumes as this can contribute to situations such as overheating. • Dancer care: One fnal consideration for safety is simply allowing for, or in some cases insisting upon, dancer care. Make sure to allow time and space for dancer warm-ups to prevent dancer injuries. Likewise, provide a location for dancers to relax offstage and encourage hydration by providing water. Another less-considered aspect is encouraging nutrition by providing healthy, high-protein snacks. In the event of a mishap, it is important to have access to frst aid kits backstage that include the basics of bandages, wraps, ice packs, etc. Finally, the company must insist upon professional standards for breaks during rehearsals, including a onehour lunch/dinner break and short breaks for every two hours of rehearsal.

show a proven track record of patrons, a space owner will be more likely to take a risk on offering up their space for your performance. This is especially true of locations such as bars and coffee shops, where the owners look to make revenue off the performances without charging a rental fee for your use of the space.

5.7 – Dance-Specifc Safety Concerns There are a number of safety concerns unique to dance. When mounting a dance production in a non-traditional performance space, it is important to consider the dance-specifc safety concerns. While there are numerous safety practices instituted by the choreographer and dancers, there are also many production-based concerns that the designers and producers must pay attention to. This section details some of these basic concerns. • Floors: One of the biggest concerns for any dance production or classroom space is the nature of the dance foor. When performing outside of a conventional theatre space, it can be diffcult to guarantee working on a wooden foor, much less a sprung one. In these cases, it is important to assess the needs of the choreography. If possible, it is ideal to bring in a modular dance foor with performance surface. If this is not possible, it is essential to communicate the nature of the foor to the choreographer so that he/she can plan accordingly for choreography, costumes, and footwear. • Ceilings: Another important consideration is the ceiling or overhead obstructions in a performance space. At minimum, there must be enough clearance for a dancer to safely jump or perform lifts safely. In addition to the ceiling, one must also consider the addition of lighting instruments or speakers overhead. This is especially important if the dancers rehearse in the space before this equipment is added. • Obstructions: In addition to overhead clearance, it is essential to provide an obstruction-free performance space so that dancer’s limbs do not come into contact with architecture, walls, beams, or audience members. • Ventilation: A well-ventilated space is a must for a dance performance. Consider the amount of physical exertion that occurs in executing a dance and compound that with the heat of lighting equipment and an audience crowding the space. This can easily become a recipe for an uncomfortable or even unsafe performance space without proper ventilation.

5.8 – Chapter Review As we have seen, the world of dance production does not begin and end with traditional performances in a home theatre space. There are a wide range of opportunities to produce dance performances through touring and non-traditional productions. All of these types of productions present their own unique challenges and require the production team to assess the specifc concerns presented by the medium. No matter the production type, though, it is imperative that we examine the unique needs of the performance space, particularly as it relates to personnel and health and safety concerns. When considering a tour, the production team must consider unique personnel that might not be required for a “residential” dance performance, assess each space for how it fts the needs of the performance, address travel concerns, and consider how to work with local technicians and stagehands to pull off the tour. Non-traditional performances present even more varied concerns and can challenge even the most seasoned practitioners. Through a thorough consideration of all these issues, however, the production can make the process of presenting a tour or non-traditional performance a manageable and enjoyable experience.

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Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What role is often combined with company manager? Who determines, in consultation with the designers, how the production will be installed in each venue? What production team member serves as part master electrician, part lighting designer? What do we call the collection of drawings and paperwork that gives a complete picture of the facility, stages and backstage areas, available equipment and inventories, amenities, and more? What do we call the document that dictates to the presenter/venue the technical requirements of the dance performance? What do we call a rugged shipping container specifcally designed for transporting items such as musical instruments, lighting and sound equipment, etc.? How does the process of working with local stagehands change if the theatre is a union house? What do we call the collaborative creation method in which the work originates not from the work of a singular choreographer, but from the combined work of a collection of artists working together to create the dance? What do most municipalities require for a live performance in any public space whose primary purpose is not entertainment? Common safety practices dictate an ideal temperature in the performance space being?

The Touring Perspective: An Interview with Julie Ballard Julie Ballard is a USA 829 Lighting Designer, an ETCP-certifed electrician and theatrical technician. She is affliated with IATSE Local 2 and the Actors’ Equity Association and was previously the Stage Manager and Properties Master for Hubbard Street Dance Chicago. Additionally, Ms. Ballard is the owner/operator of OverlapLighting, a freelance production company specializing in production/stage management, lighting design, and photography. She has designed for the Charlotte Ballet, Ballet West, and Hubbard Street Dance Chicago. She has freelanced for two decades in and around the Midwest, touring regionally, nationally, and internationally with Hubbard Street, Pilobolus, Deeply Rooted Dance Theater and David Dorfman Dance, among others. Her designs have been seen by theatre audiences in the US, Germany, Italy, Siberia, and South Africa. Ms. Ballard holds degrees in Theater (BA, 1999) and Lighting Design (MFA, 2004) from Kent State University and the University of Florida, respectively. Visit her portfolio at overlaplighting.com

What tips do you have for taking care of yourself on the road, both mentally and physically? Find a hobby, something outside of the day-to-day. I trained for a marathon while on the road, and by the end of the tour, I had run in four countries and seven states. I would get up early to do my training run, but it was also time for me and time for me to sightsee. It’s my time to get my head on for the day and be one with my thoughts. I would also, if luggage allowed, bring a PlayStation on tour. The most crucial thing is to have time for yourself and be able to shake off the day or turn on the day.

I’m sure there are interesting aspects of touring for both performers and the production team that are very different from working out of your home town. In what ways is touring a different beast, and how can you best prepare for it? Do your homework both for work and pleasure. Read the itinerary and have copies of your paperwork. TRIPLE CHECK. There is nothing worse than showing up to a venue without the correct information. It slows the whole load-in down and makes you look unprofessional. Know where you will get the most out of your time there. I often check out Atlas Obscura and Road Trippers.com to plan ahead.

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What does a “typical” process look like for you on a tour from load-in to load-out? How much time do you get, and how does this affect your workfow? I would usually get a day to load in and then a show the next day. It usually is an eight-hour day on load-in. The show day is usually about 15 hours. It always comes down faster than it goes up. You really have to be ready and make decisions in the moment if something isn’t going to plan.

In terms of personnel, it seems that a dance tour might frequently combine together some different production roles for a tour in a way that is different from, say, a Broadway national tour (stage manager/company manager, lighting and sound supervisor, etc.). How does the staffng work on most dance tours you’ve seen? It depends on the size of the company you are working with. In some cases, I will be the lighting designer, technical director, and stage manager, and the audio programmer of QLab. Working with Hubbard Street Dance Chicago, they are an IATSE crew out of Chicago, Local 2, and we work within the roles that we were hired to do. I was the Stage Manager and Head of Props, and that was it.

What are some tips you might offer for working with local stagehands while out on tour? Listen to the house, acknowledge that they may know shortcuts to make your work be and look better. Be confdent in knowing your show and don’t be afraid to ask what works best in their house. Working together on in makes it so much easier for the out. It’s ok to need to change things, be upfront. Use please and thank you, it goes A LONG WAY.

If I were a young stagehand starting out my touring career, what are some “must-have” items to include in my personal kit? Good shoes, good personality, sense of adventure, and a cool saying, mine tends to be “I’m a palm tree.” For those that don’t know, palm trees bend in the wind. Also, having the right tools for the job you are doing that day. If you are an electrician, have a wrench etc.

I know you have worked as a stage manager and lighting designer on touring shows. In many ways, this combines together both the performance and production aspects. What are some things that the production side could learn from dancers and vice versa? Dancers are some of the most superhuman athletes in the world. They push their bodies to the brink. If you think about it, so is the production team. Truss walking, rigging, handling incredible amounts of power, high stress situations with very little time – it always must be right. Something that we don’t often do as the production team is stretch before a long day! We also need to make sure that we are drinking plenty of water and electrolytes.

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CHAPTER 6

Dance and Video

There are very few people working in dance that don’t use video as a tool in their workfow. From a choreographer who uses the camera to develop their movement ideas or document the rehearsal process, to using video for marketing your work, teachers in the classroom, dancers submitting samples of their work, streaming performances, or even creating dance flms, video has become ubiquitous in the dance world. As such, it is essential that we consider the realm of dance production as it relates to creating and disseminating dance through the medium of video. This chapter examines the unique and eclectic challenges of presenting a dance piece through the means of a screen, rather than the stage, including streaming or live-distanced performance and dance flm. While it is not intended to be a comprehensive dive into the myriad subtleties of these forms, it should provide a solid foundation from which you can plan ahead for producing dance in these different mediums.

6.1 – Streaming/Live-Distanced Performances Digital media and streaming technologies have advanced considerably in the frst two decades of the 21st century, enabling a new generation of dance artists to present their work in ways previously unavailable. In the years leading up to 2020, this included a handful of professional companies and choreographers whose work was specifcally geared towards the inclusion of digital media and focusing on the creation on non-traditional performance spaces. In March of 2020, however, like so many other aspects of our lives, the dance world came face to face with the reality of traditional performance spaces and methods being indefnitely postponed due to the global COVID-19 pandemic. While this was a trying time for so many in our society, those in the live performance industry were hit particularly hard due to the unsafe nature of gathering people together to experience a show. As is so often

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-8

the case, though, this obstacle became the impetus for the development of new modes of performance and presentation. With the assistance of streaming and live-distanced performances, dance performances were not only available for people to experience in their own homes but the medium itself was broadened and audiences came to expect some element of streamed shows as a possibility moving forward. While we are still in the midst of defning the ways in which this new technology will be utilized for our works going forward, it is undeniable that streaming performances and live-distanced shows will have a place in the industry moving forward and we as dance artists should consider the ways that this technology will affect our individual workfows. One of the challenges of working in any kind of a new medium is ensuring everyone is using a similar vocabulary. When dealing with a streamed performance, two phrases commonly pop up: live streaming and on-demand. Live streaming should refer to a video presentation of a live performance being streamed across the internet at a specifc time, whereas on-demand video tends to refer to a previously recorded performance that can be watched at the viewer’s convenience, depending on the nature of the agreement between the patron and the producers. I use the qualifers “should” and “tends to” in reference to these terms because sometimes a producer might stream a previously recorded production and, because they are only presenting it at very specifc times, still refer to this as a “live stream.” Sometimes, a producer might decide to go with both approaches and offer an initial live stream with on-demand options in the future. In my discussions as a digital media artist working with producers to offer remote viewing options for their performances, I use another term, live-distanced performances, to indicate a live performance in which the performers, production team, and audience are all engaging in the process of creating, producing, and participating in a performance in their own distanced locations (i.e. outside of the theatre) in real time. All three of these methods offer their own unique benefts and challenges for the

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audience and artists involved. The following section introduces some of the factors that must be considered before presenting a streamed or live-distanced dance performance. Keep in mind that this is in no way a simple undertaking and should require the dance company or presenter to engage the service of trained professionals with experience in the creation and distribution of live performance through digital media. •

6.2 – Benefts of Remote Performances As mentioned, there are many complications that arise if you should decide to present a dance performance in a remote format. For all that, the perks can be varied and it bears considering the ways in which your company might beneft from this offering. The following is a short list of some of the benefts of offering a dance performance as a remote option, whether live streaming or video on-demand.

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• Accessibility. From those with health issues, to those without the means for childcare, or those living in remote areas without access to cultural organizations, a night at the theatre is an accessibility issue that keeps many from attending. Remote performances are one way to offer an accessible experience. • Health and safety. The COVID-19 pandemic brought to light many health and safety issues associated with sitting in a room with hundreds or thousands of people to participate in a performance. Remote performances allow for a safer way for artists and audiences to interact, even in the midst of a global shutdown. • Dress code. Remote performances allow your patrons to avoid the act of having to dress up for the occasion. • Chatting during the show. For some patrons (particularly younger ones), it can be diffcult to sit through a performance without having the opportunity to talk about what they are seeing. Since a remote performance can be watched from the comfort of your own home, it allows for talking during the show and might even offer options like a comments section for viewers to chime in with their thoughts on the show. • New revenue streams. Producing live performances is many things, but cheap typically isn’t at the top of the list. As a result, many dance companies are looking for new ways to provide revenue for their organization. While a traditional performance can only bring in revenue in a limited window of time, streaming performances is one way to expand the possibilities of generating revenue. • Publicity and audience development. Since remote performances occur in the digital domain, this opens the

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doors to unique publicity and promotional opportunities connected to social media and digital media platforms. It also allows your audience to do some of the work in promoting your performance and audience development. Hashtag tracking is just one of many methods that allow producers to see who is talking about their work, and use this data for audience development. Affordability. Depending on the nature of your project, it is possible that a remote performance could be achieved with less expense than an in-person one. This should not be the single determining factor, however, considering the price for a remote performance can easily exceed that of in-person. No commute. There’s no need to hold the curtain for lateseating when the audience is already at home and don’t need to commute! Best seats in the house. Depending on your approach to staging your remote performance, it is possible to give every patron the best “seat” in the house – something not physically possible in a real theatre. In addition, it might even be possible to give the audience members a chance to pick their preferred vantage point from which they watch. Want the option to see the choreography from above? Simply hang another camera and allow the audience member to choose their preferred view. They could even switch seats mid-show, something frowned upon in most any physical theatre. Natural platform for information and interactivity. Does your company print programs for the show, include concept statements, or offer post-performance talks? What about special events like lectures, classes, Q&A sessions, etc.? If so, consider how these elements might be a natural extension of a remote performance. Make break-out rooms for small group discussions following the show, or create a Q&A based on questions submitted in the chat while watching the show. Allow for live comments by the audience during the show. For that matter, in certain instances your audience could literally provide prompts used by dancers to generate improvisational movement. Take a poll on what your audience wants to see next, or what service you might provide. All of these elements are relatively simple to incorporate into your audience experience for a remote performance.

When considering the benefts of producing a remote performance, don’t overlook the downsides of the venture, as well. While you remove the cost of renting a venue, in all likelihood you will increase personnel expenses, as it frequently takes more people to produce a show in the digital realm than the physical. Some dance companies are used to a tech process that can involve as little as a few hours in the theatre space before an audience come in. This model is

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not a realistic goal for presenting a remote performance, as it typically requires weeks to months of planning and work in order to get the show off the ground. In addition, every choreographer may not have the ability or interest to conceive of their work through such a vastly different lens and every dance may not lend itself to being viewed on a screen. These decisions are always specifc to your dancers, choreographer, and individual work and each performance presents its own unique challenges and benefts.

standpoint, video on-demand also enables them to watch the show at any point in time without worrying about when the curtain rises. Bathroom and snack breaks are not an issue when they can pause and return to the action at their leisure. During the early days of the COVID-19 pandemic, organizations like Trisha Brown Dance Company, the Merce Cunningham Trust, Martha Graham Dance Company, and Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre offered on-demand access to some of their archival dance content. Moving forward, it seems to be more of a question of what on-demand content will be made available, rather than if it will be.

6.3 – Live Streaming 6.5 – Live-Distanced Performances

As mentioned previously, live streaming can mean different things to different people. In the typical use of the word, the audio and video content are generated and broadcast live to an audience that watches the action unfold in real time. This is essentially what we do when sitting in the theatre, but experienced on a screen. The complication comes in when considering that some “live streams” are either a playback of a previously live-streamed event, or a streaming of prerecorded content at a predetermined time. While the audience experiences this in real time, the performers are not executing it live. When discussing creating a live streamed performance, make sure to have thoughtful conversations about which method you prefer and the implications of one type over another.

Live-distanced performances combine many of the aspects of a traditional live performance, but presented through digital means. The audience, performers, and production team all come together over a physical distance to create and observe the performance in real time. In many ways, the experience is intertwined with other mediums such as online gaming, virtual reality (VR), social media platforms, and the growing realm of online-based simulated environments that mimic the real world (which we currently refer to as the metaverse). As such, it should be understood that the realm of live-distanced performances is similarly growing, evolving, and establishing its own rules for operation. In some instances, it might involve getting performers together in a common space like a theatre and setting up some cameras to capture the action while an editor switches between different camera views at predetermined points (like a live TV broadcast). In other cases, each performer could be dancing in front of a green screen in their own home while using a web camera to send their video feed to a workstation that combines multiple video feeds together and composites them into a single screen with a digital background. Still other approaches might use motion capture of individual dancers to create digital avatars who perform on a virtual stage experienced by audience members through a VR headset. As you can see, there are several different approaches to creating a live-distanced performance and these opportunities will only continue to expand alongside new technological developments.

True live streaming requires that all participants have access to high-speed internet, including network devices that allow for inputting and outputting data without encountering a data bottleneck. It will also require an investment in cameras, microphones, cabling, and the necessary computers and software to mix various audio/video signals into one feed. In addition, most companies opt for subscribing to a professional video hosting platform such as YouTube, Vimeo, or one of the other numerous options available. These platforms offer high-end professional services, such as streaming, on-demand hosting, recording of live streams, cloud storage, transcoding/ encoding video formats, security and privacy features, and more.

6.4 – On-Demand Video 6.6 – Dance Film

On-demand video requires most of the same resources as live streaming, while removing the stress that comes along with staging live performances. Creating an on-demand dance allows for multiple takes, editing audio and video after the fact, and the ability to fx things “in post.” From the consumer

Dance and flm have been interconnected since the earliest days of cinema. Some of the earliest practitioners of the art form, Thomas Edison in the US and the Lumière brothers

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in France, recorded the movements of dancers in their experiments and public showcases. In addition to early cinematographers representing dance on flm, we can also see a cross-pollination in which dancers mimicked the slow-motion effects seen on flm of their time in movement. Famously, the 1924 one-act ballet Le Train Bleu (with choreography by Bronislava Nijinska for The Ballet Russes featuring Cubist design elements by Henri Laurens and Pablo Picasso, and costume elements by Coco Chanel) included a choreographic language of slow-motion movements, freezes, and reproductions of silent flm character styles.

traditional linear storytelling to more conceptual approaches, but the goal remains the same – to produce a unique work of art that presents a choreographic visual narrative using the tools of both dance and cinema. In the early days of dance experimentation with flm, the art form was a novelty. By the 1970s, numerous dance flm festivals began appearing around the globe and, rather than being seen as an offshoot of traditional dance, it grew into being a widely respected art form of its own. As with many things connected to cinema, the work of dance flm is strongly tied to advances in technology. For instance, though I use the term flm to refer to the form, most dance flms these days are recorded, edited, and presented using digital technology and not traditional flm. There are now even dance flm festivals such as the Mobile Dance Film Festival that require flms to be shot on a mobile device, such as a smartphone or tablet. In addition to festivals, there are also websites and video platforms dedicated to sharing dance flms to a worldwide audience. Similar to streaming video and live-distanced performances, dance flm saw a marked increase fueled by the COVID-19 pandemic. With the prevalence of so many different options, it seems unlikely that dance flm is going away any time soon.

When considering the similar approaches in both dance and flm to capture and replay the essence of movement, it seems a foregone conclusion that the two art forms would eventually merge to create a hybrid form that combines many aspects from both into a unique new medium. This medium is called by many different monikers: screendance, dance for camera, videodance, cine-dance, and dance flm. For our purposes, I use the term dance flm to indicate a genre of art that represents choreographic movement or dance on a screen by combining the visual languages of both choreography and flmmaking. There are myriad approaches to dance flm, from

FYI: Licensing and Rights Similar to any public performance, a video that makes use of copyrighted materials (music, photography, video, etc.) cannot be shown without the express permission of the copyright owner. Permission to use the copyrighted work is granted by the owner of the copyright through a license (an agreement that grants the permission of the copyright owner to present the work). The type of licenses needed change from in-person to recorded, however. For instance, grand rights is the type of license for music that covers the right to perform musical compositions inside of another dramatic work. For a typical dance company, this means securing grand rights permission to perform a piece of music as accompaniment for a live dance. If the same

dance were recorded or streamed, however, the required licenses would be different. Typical licenses required would be synchronization (sync) license(s), giving permission to use audio along with video in an audio/visual work; master use license(s) giving the right to use an original sound recording made popular by an artist; and public performance license(s) granting permission to play a song in public, whether live or online. Make sure to check on any necessary permissions well in advance of the performance or recording, as it can prove to be a lengthy process. Consider engaging a lawyer to help in managing the licensing process, as it can prove incredibly costly to be caught in willful infringement of copyright laws.

6.7 – Tips for Making a Dance Film

of making their own dance flms, but it is by no means an exhaustive study. In addition to this, future chapters include some basic information on related skills such as projection design, and flmmaking/camera terminology and techniques. For those interested in a deeper dive I recommend many of the other fne books dedicated specifcally to dance flm.

While the topic of dance flm is loosely connected to the study of dance production, it is important to recognize that the scope of this feld is far too broad to do it justice in this text. As such, the following section offers some tips for those interested in learning more about the process

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1. Making a Plan Developing a plan is one of the most important steps in creating a new work of art, no matter what form it takes. This is particularly important for beginners. I recommend starting with trying to get your ideas down on the page. Are you attempting to create a dance flm based on a pre-existing dance? If so, then you can use this as your framework to start developing visual ideas for your dance flm. Starting with what you already know about the dance, you can determine things like the overall length of the piece, pacing, and which moments might be best reinforced with certain flmmaking techniques. For many, a storyboard is a logical frst choice to put your ideas down on the page. A storyboard is a planning tool commonly used in cinema and animation that presents a series of images to convey the main plot elements of the story and how they progress. This helps to determine the camera angles and shot composition before heading into production. The idea is to illustrate how the screen will look from moment to moment over the course of the dance flm. Unlike flm and animation, which have historically worked with illustrators to hand draw each frame, your storyboard can utilize alternate methods like magazine clippings, photos, or even short videos to communicate your ideas. If you are a choreographer, you might even include choreographic notation, as well. Depending on your approach, the storyboard might be hand drawn in a sketch book, created in a tablet computer, or assembled in a presentation software like PowerPoint. No matter the tools used, the goal is to break it down into smaller, more manageable parts used to formulate a plan.

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After making your storyboard, you will eventually need to create a shot list. A shot list is a detailed list used by flm directors and cinematographers to organize all of the information related to each camera shot in a flm, including specifcs on equipment, shot type, movement, location details, performers, and more. Depending on your approach to flming the piece and what equipment you have at your disposal, the shot list may contain quite a bit of detail. Common items included are:

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determined by the type of shot taken, i.e. where is the camera in relation to the subject? Generally speaking, shots fall into the categories of long, medium, or close. See section 4. Framing/Composition for more details. Angle: What is the angle of the camera relative to the subject? Since the camera is a substitute for the viewers’ eyes, the placement of the camera can signifcantly change the dramatic intent of a particular shot. See section 4. Framing/Composition for more details. Movement: How does the camera move within the shot (if at all). Terms included here might include pan, tilt, pedestal, dolly, crane, or boom. Specifc details for these terms are included in section 5. Camera Movement. Camera: Which type of camera are you using for this shot? If you only use one, then this information remains static. More information on cameras is included in section 2. Basic Equipment. Lens: What kind of lens is on the camera. For point and shoot camera and mobile devices, this may be unnecessary. More information on lenses is included in section 2. Basic Equipment. Frame rate: The number of frames per second captured by your device. Check your camera’s manual and settings to determine the specifcs. Sound: Information about how sound is captured (external or built-in microphone, microphone type, etc.). More information on microphones is included in section 2. Basic Equipment. Location info: Specifcs about the shoot location, interior vs. exterior, time of day, etc. Scenery and props: In addition to the location, you might have specifc set pieces or prop needs. This is where you would list them. Performers: A list of which performers are required for the shoot. Notes: Any additional information that is important to keep track of.

A spreadsheet program is the easiest tool for creating a shot list. Simply create a format with all of the categories listed as individual columns. Each shot will get its own row on the spreadsheet and its own unique number. If there are multiple shots within a common scene, you can also create a grouping of all shots used in a particular scene and group them together or even color code them. Once all of this information is generated, you will have a much better idea of how to plan your approach to shooting the flm.

• Shot number: A reference number assigned to each shot, which allows you to keep track of details. This is particularly important since most flm shoots do not flm in sequential order. • Description: A short description of the shot’s action. • Subject: What is the focus of your shot? A particular dancer? A group? A prop? The setting? This will likely change from shot to shot. • Framing/type of shot: In the flm world, framing refers to the placement of the subject on the screen, in relation to everything else visible within the shot. Framing is

2. Basic Equipment When starting out, it can seem overwhelming to look at all of the options on the market for video equipment. Keep in

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mind that the equipment you need is completely dependent on the kind of flm you want to make. You can get by with a smartphone, some lights, and basic video editing software provided your dance flm doesn’t require more complex options. In terms of a start-up list, you will need:

of timing. Keep in mind that lighting changes quickly and drastically outside, so make sure to plan ahead as best as you can to shoot scenes with a similar look under the same conditions. If you need lighting equipment, there are a number of professional options. For the beginner, it might be a good idea to start off with some industrial work lights, like those seen on construction sites. The quality is often brighter and harsher than professional gear, but it is much more affordable. The most important consideration is seeing your subject clearly, so take time to focus the lighting appropriately on the dancer from the front and/or sides. Try to avoid backlighting alone (unless for an artistic purpose), as it obscures the details of the subject and can create unwanted results. • Stabilizers: What kind of gear you need to stabilize the camera depends on the type of shots you intend to take. In most instances a tripod will suffce, though you might need to consider some additional equipment for camera movement or bird’s eye shots, as mentioned in section 5. Camera Movement. If doing a handheld shot, you might not need anything to stabilize. • Microphones: Though not technically a video device, if you want to capture audio you will have to decide what kind of microphone to use. Your camera may have a built-in microphone, but often the quality is less than desirable. When selecting a camera, check to see if it allows for inputting an audio signal from an external microphone. High-end setups involve using a stand-alone portable audio recorder into which audio is recorded, then combining the separate video and audio feeds for editing inside your video editing software. • Editing software: A fnal consideration is deciding on the various audio and video editing applications needed. There are a number of professional and free options on the market, depending on your needs. More information on software is included in section 6. Editing.

• A camera: As mentioned, there are many options. If you can afford it, going with a DSLR (digital single-lens refex) camera will probably serve you best over a longer period of time. A DSLR is a digital version of the classic professional camera that allows you to combine the camera body with a lens and attachments of your choice. They tend to work very well in low-lighting settings, have better autofocus settings than a basic video camera, and shoot in highquality video formats. • Lens(es): Lenses are one of the more confusing elements of cinematography for the novice. That is because there are a number of details to keep straight. First is the concept of focal length, the length in millimeters from the focal point of the lens to the camera’s sensor that captures light. Film lenses are named after this measurement (i.e. a 35mm lens). In cinematography, lenses come in two varieties – zoom lenses and prime lenses. A zoom lens has a variable focal length, allowing the user to zoom in or out and create different looks by manually adjusting the focal length. A prime lens, on the other hand, has a fxed focal length. This means that it cannot zoom in or out, and the user must physically move the camera either closer or farther away from the subject to change the size. If you do go with a camera that allows for interchangeable lenses, an affordable option is using the 18–55mm “kit lens” that comes bundled with many DSLRs. This allows you to choose between a wide angle (18mm) and standard (55mm) shot. Without getting too deep into the specifcs, a wide angle makes the subject appear a bit closer to the camera, while letting the background appear further away. A standard focal length is a closer approximation of what the human eye sees, giving a bit more of an “intimate” look. Some lenses offer image stabilization, which makes it easier to flm subjects in motion or do handheld shots. Another thing to consider is the F-stop, or measurement of how wide a lens’s aperture is. The aperture is the opening that allows light through the lens into the camera’s sensor. The smaller the F-stop number, the faster the lens. Those with a lower number (anything at 2.0 or smaller) are considered “fast glass,” which allows a lot of light and detail in. This can be an especially important consideration when flming dance in low-light settings. • Lighting: Lighting is an essential component to flming anything. The lower the lighting, the less details that are seen and, often, the grainier the resulting video appears. If you are shooting outside, then this is simply a matter

3. Location Location is one of the biggest factors in the fnal look of your dance flm. One of the frst considerations is whether the location is interior or exterior. Shooting outside offers the benefts of quality lighting without necessarily having to set up lighting equipment, but it also adds in the downside of inclement weather and accessibility issues. In addition, noise can become an issue if your microphones pick up unwanted ambient sounds. Before deciding on a location, it’s a good idea to do a scouting trip. If possible, try to visit at various times of day to observe the quality of light and noise levels. Make sure to bring a camera along to take shots from different perspectives or possibly create a panoramic shot. A quick video from your smartphone could also prove useful.

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Medium Shot: ¾ Shot

Another important consideration is access to nearby facilities for things like storage, restrooms, food, or hospitals. Interior locations will almost always require some level of lighting, but it tends to remain more consistent over time. Keep in mind an interior location needs to offer enough space to get a clean shot while allowing for storage and placement of your equipment and room for everyone involved. Make sure that you have adequate space for the shot and designated locations for each necessary department working on the shoot. Another factor is gaining permission to use the location, as well as any necessary permits with the local municipality. Chances are good that you won’t need a permit for a quick shoot with lightweight equipment. Should your shoot begin to block traffc, limit access to businesses, or create other types of distractions, you might need to secure one.

The ¾ shot is more of an intermediate between a long and medium shot. This shot (typically of a person) shows the subject from the knees up, often allowing the subject and the setting to take up equal weight on the screen.

Medium Shot: Medium Shot The medium shot is intended to show the subject in better detail. If the subject is a person, that means framing the shot from the waist up. This is one of the most common shots used in flms, as it draws attention to the characters while still allowing the viewer to take in the surroundings.

Close Shot: Bust/Medium Close-Up As the title implies, this shot frames the subject from the chest or shoulders up (like a bust). This focuses more on the features of the subject and tends to blur out background details.

4. Framing/Composition As previously mentioned, framing refers to the placement of your subject within the overall shot and is primarily determined by the placement of the camera in relation to the subject matter and surroundings. In short, you should always ask yourself “what is the subject of this shot and how do I need to place the camera in order to achieve the intended storytelling?” Is the subject small or large within the screen? Far away or close up? Am I looking up at them or down? Asking these kinds of questions will lead to meaningful framing choices, and is not dissimilar from how the choreographer considers the placement and movement of dancers on stage. When approaching framing decisions, the two biggest factors are shot types, and camera angles.

Close Shot: Close-Up A close-up flls the screen with the subject’s head/face. The purpose of this tightly framed shot is communicating emotions or reactions of a character.

Close Shot: Extreme Close-Up The extreme close-up emphasizes a smaller section or detail of the subject, as in an extreme close-up of the character’s eye movement, or a facial expression. This is sometimes also referred to as an Italian Shot, referring to the technique popularized in Sergio Leone’s cowboy flms.

Camera Angles As mentioned earlier, shots generally fall into three categories: long, medium, and close. Within these categories, however, there are some specifc shots used to communicate specifc effects. The list below breaks down shots into these three categories.

As previously mentioned, the camera angle, or angle of the camera in relation to the subject, also affects the framing of a shot. Since the camera placement determines the point-ofview for the audience, these angles dramatically affect the storytelling of a shot. Typical angles are compared to the human eye and fall into such generic categories as: high, eye-level, low, or tilted.

Long Shot: Extreme-Wide A long shot showing the subject from a distance, or simply the area in which the shot takes place. From a storytelling perspective, this shot is useful for establishing the scene and emphasizing the subject’s surroundings. It also sets time and place, and can comment on the character’s relationship to the environment, both physically and emotionally.

High Angle (Looking Down) A high angle shot places the viewer in the position of looking down on the subject. This makes the subject appear small when compared to the surroundings. It can also make the subject appear weak, powerless, vulnerable, or frightened.

Long Shot: Wide Shot Eye Level (Looking Straight On)

A wide shot shows the subject fully within the screen, from top to bottom. For a human, this would be head to toes, though it doesn’t have to completely fll the screen. This shot is similar to the extreme-wide, with a focus on the setting, but adds more emphasis to the character.

The eye level shot is a natural and neutral look, as it is a common point of view for your audience. This tends to indicate that the subject has a sense of balance when compared to other characters or surroundings.

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Low Angle (Looking Up)

movement is often used to follow a subject or show distance between two points.

This angle positions the camera below eye-level, looking up at the subject. In contrast to a high angle shot, this shot empowers the subject, making them feel big, powerful, heroic, or even dangerous.

Tilt Tilting is moving the camera up or down without changing its position. Tilt is the vertical equivalent of pan, as the camera again moves from a fxed pivot point. A tilt can be used to show the relative height of an object.

Dutch/Tilted (Tilted Angle) In the Dutch angle, the camera is tilted to the right or left away from the horizontal plane. This creates a horizon line that is not level, and establishes a sense of imbalance in the shot. From a storytelling standpoint, this can communicate tension, disorientation, or uneasiness.

Pedestal Unlike tilt, a pedestal entails physically moving the camera up or down without tilting, typically on a tripod. When done from a boom or a jib, this is sometimes referred to as “boom up/ down” or “jib up/down.”

Bird’s-Eye View (Top Shot) The bird’s-eye view angle is a shot taken from directly overhead of the subject and from a distance. This shot gives a wider view of the surroundings and is useful to show movement from a different perspective. On flm sets, it is often flmed from a crane, or even a helicopter.

Dolly The term dolly is used as both a noun and a verb. The noun refers to a tool called a dolly, a device on a train track used to dolly, meaning moving the camera towards or away from the subject. A dolly shot allows us to zoom in or out from the subject without actually zooming the lens. In lower-budget settings, a wheelchair is a great substitute for a dolly, since it has large wheels and rolls smoothly (though a skateboard or furniture dolly could work in a pinch).

As you can see, there are many factors to consider when framing a shot. The most important consideration must always be how framing the shot contributes to the storytelling of the moment. A few fnal tips for thinking of framing in a dance flm:

Truck • Always start with the storytelling. This will lead you to choices about framing and composition. • Pay attention to the relation of the dancers to one another and their surroundings. • It is often best to keep as much of the dancer’s body in frame as possible (i.e. don’t go overboard with the closeups). • Utilize close-up shots for emphasizing specifc smaller movements or emotions. • Low angles can make your dancers look powerful! • Leave room for experimentation. Try the shot from different angles, if you have time.

Similar to dollying, trucking involves moving the camera in one direction from a fxed point, but the motion goes side to side instead of in or out. This can be accomplished by using a dolly with tracks set in parallel to the subject, rather than facing towards it.

Crane/Boom Similar to a construction crane, a flm crane or boom is used to take high sweeping shots. This is ideal for a bird’s-eye view, particularly of street or traffc scenes.

Handheld

After framing, movement is one of the most powerful tools for establishing the viewer’s perspective. Specifcally, camera movement refers to the ways in which a camera moves during shooting a shot. Common camera moves are included in the following list.

Handheld movement refers to operating the camera without a stabilizer. Since professional cameras are heavy and designed to rest on an operator’s shoulder, there is minimum shakiness in this method. Consumer grade cameras tend to be much smaller and, as a result, feel shakier when used for handheld shots. Whenever possible, avoid using handheld shots for scenery, or stationary objects. It tends to work much better for objects in motion.

Pan

Camera Lens Movement

Panning refers to moving the camera horizontally, either left or right. The camera stays placed on a central pivot point (like a tripod) and movement should be smooth and controlled. This

In addition to camera movement, the camera’s lens movement is another important tool. Lens zoom is manually changing the optics of a lens to make the subject appear either closer

5. Camera Movement

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and musicians. In terms of video, pace refers to the timing of and between different shots and how we cut between those different shots. Pacing can give a scene a stable feel by having a long time period of holding on one shot and gradual transitions between, or give it a disjointed and “jerky” feel by using multiple short shots back-to-back and quickly cutting from one shot to another. Slow pacing gives the audience time to take in the action, whereas fast pacing tends to convey a sense of urgency or intensity.

or farther away, and often affecting the level of focus between the foreground and background. A zoom lens allows the user to zoom in (to make objects appear closer), zoom out (to make objects appear farther away), and rack focus (change the focus of the lens so the current subject goes out of focus while another comes into focus). Each of these lens movements provides excellent tools for drawing the audience’s eye and composing the shot.

6. Editing

Cuts

Once you have taken all of your shots, you still need to edit the content together to create the actual dance flm. Editing is another tool that allows the flmmaker to tell their story, but it can just as easily become a distraction to the storytelling when executed poorly. In general terms, editing refers to the process of cutting and assembling the audio, video, and graphic content into the fnished dance flm. The editor cuts, splices, and arranges/re-arranges footage to create the ultimate look and feel of the flm. They also make decisions that affect pacing and mood. When editing your dance flm, organization is key. That’s where things like your shot numbers and fle naming allow you to keep track of what you are looking for and how best to use it. While editing is a skill that is often perfected over a lifetime, the following section includes some basic terminology and skills that can help you get started.

In flm terms, a cut is when a flm jumps from one shot to another, creating a change in the overall look. This term comes from the original analog flm practice of physically cutting celluloid flm and splicing it together with another section of flm, an act performed in the “cutting room.” This required a large team of editors to do the work over weeks or months of time. These days, cuts are done inside digital video editing software and can be accomplished with much greater ease. One important thing to keep in mind is that a cut is a transition from one shot to another without any visual effect applied. If a special visual effect is applied to a cut, then these are typically referred to as transitions. While there are many unique types of cuts and transitions, the following list should establish a good starting point for understanding the fundamentals. • Cut-in. A cut-in starts with a shot of the subject, then cuts to a shot of something that is visible in the frst shot. An example might include someone sleeping in bed in the frst shot, then cutting in to a second shot of the alarm clock going off beside the bed. • Cutaway. A cutaway is a type of cut that “cuts away” from a shot of the primary subject to show some type of supporting information and then returns to the main shot to reinforce the given information. Consider using a cutaway to transport the viewer to a different time or place in order to confrm or comment on the action of our subject. • Match cut. A match cut is one where the flm uses audio or video elements from the frst shot and carries them over into the second shot. These could be a matching visual element (cutting from a basketball in shot 1 to the close-up round shape of someone’s eye), the action of one shot to another (two separate shots with different people working out), or bridging the sound between two shots (crowd noises in one shot cutting to a different scene with similar crowd noises). • Cross cut. A cross cut is a cut that compares two or more actions across different shots. Imagine two people talking on the phone together. If the frst shot establishes one

Software When setting out to edit your dance flm, you must decide on the required type(s) of editing software. At a bare minimum, you should have a quality audio editing program and one for video, though you might also need other graphics or animation software depending on the needs of your flm. Programs like Audacity, Pro Tools, or Logic are used for mixing and editing digital audio fles. This is often a requirement for cutting and cross-fading music and audio fles. On the video side of things, applications like Adobe Premier or Apple’s iMovie are used for video editing such as cutting, creating transitions, adjusting levels, and synchronizing audio with video. Should you need to edit or create graphics or special effects you might consider Adobe Photoshop, Illustrator, or After Effects. There are a lot of different options out there and you will need to do some experimentation to determine what works best for you and your workfow.

Pacing Pace is one of the most important considerations that changes how the audience views your flm. Since it is so connected with timing and movement, it is no wonder that this skill often comes naturally to dancers, choreographers,

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• Dissolve. A dissolve, sometimes referred to as a cross-fade, is the gradual transition from one shot to another. In other words, as the frst shot fades in opacity the second shot is overlapped on the screen and fades in, gradually becoming opaque. • Fade. The fade is a simple transition wherein the shot either dissolves from or into black. A fade-in starts black and transitions to the shot, whereas a fade-out starts with the shot and transitions to black. • Wash. A wash is the same concept as a fade, but it uses any solid color other than black.

person doing certain actions while holding the phone, then we might cross cut to a second shot with a different person doing a different action while also holding a phone. Through this cutting, we assume the action, though different, is happening at the same time or that there are important parallels between the two shots. • Jump cut. A jump cut is when there is no continuity between transitioning shots. They call attention to themselves for their contrast, and can be used to show the passage of time, or “jumping ahead.”

Transitions While both cuts and transitions involve moving from one shot to another, a transition differs in its use of a visual effect to transition from one shot to the next, rather than directly jumping from one shot to another. It is important to note that transitions should be used with care, otherwise they can draw attention to themselves, appear cliché, or even comically out of place. The following list includes some of the most commonly used transitions.

6.8 – Chapter Review Dance has been linked with moving imagery since the earliest experimentations in moving pictures and continues to be an important tool and medium for dance artists, designers, technicians, and those in management areas. Certainly, since the COVID-19 lockdown video has taken on a new powerful place in the world of all performing arts. As the world moved towards more distanced activities, it was only natural that live performance would follow in suit. In addition to using video as a tool for recording and presenting performances, we must also recognize the ability of video to merge with dance and create a unique medium of its own. Understanding that these trends are unlikely to reverse, it would be wise for those working in dance production to recognize video as a highly desirable skillset.

• Wipe. A wipe is when one shot replaces another from a specifc linear direction or through the use of a shape. Linear examples include a wipe up, wipe down, wipe left, wipe right, or diagonal wipe. Shape wipes include circles, stars, triangles, or diamonds. • Defocus. A defocus transition is when the focus of the shot is adjusted until the image becomes blurry. This was originally done using the lens of the camera, though it can now be achieved through editing in software.

Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What is a live-distanced performance? What is on-demand video? What is another name for dance flm? What kind of license gives permission to use audio along with video in an audio/visual work? What do we call the detailed list used by flm directors and cinematographers to organize all of the information related to each camera shot in a flm? What does framing mean? What tool might be used for shooting a bird’s-eye shot? What camera angle empowers the subject, making them feel big, powerful, heroic, or even dangerous? Doing what with a lens makes objects appear closer or farther away? What is another word for a dissolve?

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PART II

Production Areas

CHAPTER 7

Foundations in Design and Production

One of the biggest challenges in creating a dance production is the foundational differences often present by bringing artists together from different backgrounds. Most often, dancers and choreographers have little to no training in theatrical design and production, and the inverse is commonly true for designers and technicians in regards to dance. This puts these collaborators at a distinct disadvantage, since there is often a need to determine how best to communicate with one another and what vocabulary is present vs. what needs to be introduced. This chapter is intended to function as a primer for dancers and designers alike, introducing foundational concepts in both dance and design/production for the purpose of developing a functional baseline for collaborators. For those interested in a deeper dive into theatrical design, there are a myriad of books on the topic. For our purposes, this chapter focuses specifcally on design and production within the unique context of designing for dance.

7.1 – The Elements of Dance and Design The process of learning a new art form can be daunting for those approaching it for the frst time. For this reason, many arts educators begin the process with breaking down a particular art form into a collection of concepts that form the foundation of the work. In both science and art, we refer to these “building blocks” as elements. The following section addresses these elements of dance and design and how they apply to the creation of a dance production.

The Elements of Dance Though every dance is a unique artistic creation that has a life of its own, there are some elements shared across all forms, styles, and interpretations. In the following section we address each of these fve elements of dance, the fundamental

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concepts used in all dance forms as a method of storytelling or conveying meaning. Understanding these concepts is an essential skill for anyone working in dance, whether on the dance or design/production side of the table. • Body: The human body is the primary tool used in dance. It is what the audience watches, whether it is in motion or still. In addition to the individual, sometimes the body could refer to a collection of dancers onstage. We have the ability to take in both the individual movement of dancers and the overall sense of movement of the group. The dancer’s body communicates ideas, emotions, even establishes connections and themes. Body is an interesting element, in that it is both felt by the dancer and seen by the audience. In this way, the body can be seen as a connection between the inner world of ideas and emotions and the other world of expressive communication. Since the audience all have a personal understanding of this duality, the very act of watching a body in motion allows the audience to engage in both the inner and outer worlds simultaneously. When discussing body, keep in mind that it is useful to observe both the separate parts of the body, as well as the entire body as a whole. Pay particular attention to shapes made by the body (rounded, twisted, angular, etc.) and the connection between these outer forms and the inner meaning that might be conveyed (emotions, thoughts, symbols, etc.). Often these observations create an excellent starting point for discussions between designers and choreographers. • Action: Action refers to any movement (or lack of movement) created by a body in the dance. This could include dance moves, simple hand gestures, facial movement, vocalizations, walking, running, or the lack of movement. Since dance is a collection of movements and pauses, action can certainly refer to any pause in movement as well as the movements themselves. In addition to individual action, there is also the shared

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-10

Foundations in Design and Production

actions of dancers as a collective that contributes to the understanding of relationships in the piece. Most dance terminology connected to action is a description of the action. Axial actions (meaning those done in place, around a fxed location) might include such terms as open/close, rise/fall, stretch/bend, twist/turn. Locomotor actions, meaning the way that a body moves from one place to another, might be described using terms like walk, run, jump, crawl, slide, skip, gallop, etc. Keep in mind that there are many different terms used across specifc styles and techniques that hold specifc meaning within the context of that form. If you don’t have a working knowledge of the names of specifc techniques, don’t be afraid to use descriptive phrases to communicate what you saw. • Space: Space refers to the location in which the body performs actions. Just as there are numerous different spaces in which a dance could occur, there are multiple ways that dance artists must think about space. First is the concept of level, or the placement of space in relation to the foor. Is this movement on the foor? Is the dancer reaching to the heavens? Are they literally on an elevated platform? Each of these levels affect the storytelling and meaning. Next, think about place, meaning where within the space does the action occur. Is it done in-place (the dancer’s personal space), or does it involve moving throughout the space? When moving throughout space, the next consideration is direction, the description of where the movement goes (forward/backward, left/right, diagonal, upstage/downstage) and pathway, the path made through space by the body (often described using terms like straight, curved, zig-zagged, or random). Another important special consideration is orientation, or which way the dancers face. Changing a dancer’s orientation to the audience can drastically alter the meaning of the action. Size is another important concept related to both space and action (does the movement take up a small, confned space, or perhaps a large, wide one?). Finally, what are the relationships established through space, meaning how are the bodies positioned within the space in relation to one another? Are the dancers side-by-side, or disconnected? Are they close to one another or far apart? Over, or under? In front of, or behind? Each of these relationships can be used to convey a sense of meaning, or might inadvertently confuse the intended meaning. All of these concepts allow us to better think about and describe the nature of movement through a space. • Time: This element of dance refers to how and when the body moves during the duration of the dance, as well as ways that actions connect to one another. Invariably, discussions of time and timing connect back to rhythm or

the placement of elements such as sounds, movements, or visual elements in time typically resulting in some sense of pattern (whether ordered or free). Rhythm typically falls somewhere on a scale from patterned, in which the elements are organized in an organized and predictable manner, to free rhythm, a less predictable and open rhythmic organization that often depends on dancers cueing their movement and pacing off of one another. Common descriptors used in discussions of time and timing are duration (the overall length of a piece), speed (how fast or slow an action is performed), beat (the division of musical time, similar to a body’s pulse or heartbeat), and tempo (the overall pace of successive beats in relation to clock time, i.e., 72 beats per minute). Keep in mind that time is multifaceted in that we often think of separate aspects of time such as clock time (how many hours/minutes/seconds something runs), metered time (how movement responds to beat and tempo of musical accompaniment), and timing relationships (how dancers’ timing compares to one another within the group – faster or slower, before or after, sooner than or later than, etc.). • Energy: The fnal element of dance is energy, or the description of how the dancers move and with what variety of effort. When using adjectives like sharp, smooth, light, terse, or free you are describing the energy of a dance or moment within the dance. The energy used by dancers in their actions is one of the best tools used to convey the inner emotional world and communicate meaning to the audience. When describing energy, we often categorize certain aspects such as attack (the way a movement is initiated, abrupt/sharp or smooth/sustained), tension (the relative state of the body from relaxed to tense), fow (the method of releasing energy through movement from bound/ controlled to a free and easy fow), weight (the perception of gravity on the dancer from a grounded heaviness to an upward-pulling lightness), and quality (an overall descriptive characteristics or “favor” of the energy, often communicated through adjectives such as loose, timid, proud, vigorous, smooth, tenuous, etc.). Each of these fve elements are interconnected concepts used by the choreographer to convey meaning to the dance and specifc moments throughout. Using the elements as a framework for discussion enables designers, technicians, dancers, and choreographers to have a meaningful conversation about the work with a similar vocabulary.

The Elements of Design Similar to dance, design is one of those concepts that has varied meanings depending on who you ask. For the purposes

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of live performance, design is the process of planning for the creation of objects, forms, processes, and experiences for the purpose of communication and storytelling. If the purpose of design is communication, then it can be viewed as a type of language. In any language, one of the frst steps in learning how to communicate is developing a standard vocabulary so others can understand you. As with learning most languages, the path to mastery begins with learning the elementary and building upon that foundation. In standard terminology, an element is defned as a fundamental component, something that cannot be broken down into smaller parts. In the language of design, we refer to these fundamental components as the elements of design, the smallest identifable “building blocks” used to create a composition. These are the tools with which one creates designs, and are an excellent starting point for establishing a common vocabulary between dancers and designers. The following section identifes these seven elements and how they are used within various design disciplines.

implied line is the path traced by a moving object. When considering how choreography creates a series of paths created by moving objects (i.e. dancers), we see how closely this element of design connects to our earlier discussions of pathway in the elements of dance. Line can be used to draw focus to certain areas of the stage, or indicate a sense of direction, or even tension. It can be used to divide up spaces, create connections, or convey a sense of contrast between differing elements onstage. • Shape: A shape is any line, or the combination of lines, that merge to create an outline or a contour. They are twodimensional in nature and can be geometric (circle, square, rectangle, triangle) or more free-form, organic shapes. Since shape is created by the use of line, the quality of line used to create a shape will affect the meaning conveyed by a shape. For instance, a crisp, rigid line used to make up a square might feel much more stable and precise than the same shape made up of a series of shakier lines (Figure 7.2). Shape is used in every design discipline, from the shape of set walls, to the silhouette of a particular costume, projected imagery on a backdrop, or even in the implied shape of a musical sequence that repeats a motive over and over again, creating a “circular” feel to the auditory elements. Like line, shapes can be implied as well. For instance, the use of a series of pools of light on the foor arranged in a circle. Though these individual pools of light do not actually touch one another, the eye moves from one area to the other, taking in the pattern made in the space and understanding the implication of a circle. • Mass/form: Mass (sometimes also referred to as form) is the term used to describe the three-dimensional space an object occupies, whether real or implied. In true 3D objects, this is a literal measure of the amount of space taken up (width, depth, and height) whereas with 2D objects like drawings the sense of mass is typically conveyed through the use of highlight and shadow and comparing the object to others in its vicinity. Discussions of mass are often relative, understanding that our perception changes when comparing one object

• Line: Line is the most basic element of design, but can have more than one meaning. At its core, a line is the continuous movement of a point along a surface. Lines have qualities such as length, thickness, direction, and path that convey a sense of visual character to them. We see line used in drawings, paintings, patterns on fabric, makeup drawn on a face, shafts of light projected onto the stage, and more. Line, as with all of the elements of design, can be used as a tool to convey meaning. A jagged line, for instance, can feel dangerous and scary, where a curvilinear line might feel safe and nurturing. In addition to this more concrete defnition of line, we also can defne line as a real or imaginary point, in relation to fxed points of reference. This is an example of what one might call “implied line.” For example, Figure 7.1 includes a series of circles each with a slightly lower height from a baseline drawn beneath. Though there is no actual line that connects these shapes, their placement creates an implied diagonal line that descends from the upper left to the lower right. Another form of

Figure 7.1 The use of circles in this image is an example of an implied line created by drawing the eye across the page from upper left to bottom right. Though it is not a continuous path of a drawn line, we understand the visual implication of movement and “connecting the dots.”

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Figure 7.2 Though both shapes are square, note how the quality of lines used to make up the shape can affect the feeling of stability within the shape.

to another. For this reason, we often use the terms scale and proportion in reference to mass. Scale is a reference to the relative size of one object or element in comparison to another. For performance purposes, the human body is often used as a point of comparison, since performers are typically present onstage. Therefore, the scale of imagery in any design area is relative to the actors onstage. Certain elements might be considered miniature, life-size, or gigantic by comparison. Proportion, on the other hand, refers to the relative size of parts within the overall object (for instance, looking at a human face and feeling that the eyes are too small, or the ears are too large). Scale and proportion are tools used by designers to communicate signifcance, meaning, and make connections between different elements. Keep in mind the need for assessing proportion across all of the design areas, considering how the proportion of one design element visually relates to others such as the actors, costumes, scenery, and the performance space itself. • Light: Light is an element of design that greatly affects the way we perceive many of the other elements. After all, without light we cannot see any of the others. Light is a tool for revelation (or concealment) of form, as highlight and shadow are the primary indications of the apparent form of any object that cannot be touched. When discussing light, we tend to primarily focus on intensity (the relative brightness/dimness of light), and quality (the visual description of an area of lighting, such as soft, crisp, diffuse, etc.) though there are many other attributes we will discuss in the chapters on lighting. • Color: Color is one of the most recognizable aspects of any work of art. When asked to identify what moments people remember about a performance, there is often a mention of some aspect of color – whether the vibrant costumes, or a moment when the entire stage is washed in red lighting. This is likely the case because color is directly tied to

emotional and psychological responses in humans, to the point that there are entire felds of study related to color psychology. Since color has such signifcance to all areas of design, it is addressed in detail in future chapters on lighting and costumes in particular. • Texture: Texture is connected to the tactile feel of an object, indicating whether an object is rough, smooth, glossy, jagged, scratchy, or many others. It is one of the elements of design that is most noticeable to the audience, whether they consciously realize it or not. For instance, when people refer to something as looking “fake” on the stage, they are often referring to a lack of believable texture. Texture can be either “true” texture or simulated. True texture is using legitimately textured materials or applying a texture to a surface, whereas simulated texture involves creating the illusion of texture through processes like painting, projection, or using printed materials to recreate a textured look on a nontextured surface. In traditional performances, it is a somewhat rare occurrence for the audience to actually touch objects on the stage. This means that texture is most often perceived through seeing light on an object. The texture of a surface creates shadows and refections, reminding the viewer of textures they have experienced before and allowing them to process the sense memory. For this reason, it is important that lighting work closely with other areas to reinforce or disguise textures. For example, if a true texture were lit directly from the front, much of the texture is washed out by the lighting. To accentuate the texture, the angle and direction of lighting could be changed to coming from a high side angle (Figure 7.3). From the opposite end of the spectrum, simulated texture often looks best when lit from the front, so the simulated highlight and shadow don’t compete with the real thing. For this reason, it is essential to always discuss texturing methods with the whole team.

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Figure 7.3 Notice the difference in the apparent texture of this surface when lit from the front vs. the light coming from a side angle.

• Space: In design terms, space is defned as the area or depth of a work of art – for instance the perimeter of a canvas, or the footprint taken up by a sculpture. In live performance, the term space can also mean a blank or empty area, or a location reserved for a particular purpose. In fact, we often see a theatre referred to as a “space” or “performance space.” Space is fundamental to all designers and their approach to storytelling. In discussing space, there are two types: positive and negative. Positive space refers to the space occupied by two-dimensional or three-dimensional shapes or forms. In contrast, negative space refers to the empty spaces between the positive space, framing the positive and drawing attention to it. When discussing space as it relates to a physical stage, we tend to divide locations into such distinctions as foreground (closer), background (further away) and middle ground (those in between). The careful placement of mass and other elements of design within the space allows designers to take a theatre space that is only 30’ deep and transform it into a visual landscape that appears to encompass miles of outdoor space. As an example, consider the ways in which a designer might manipulate the elements of design in order to create this illusion of depth often seen in elaborate scenic designs for ballet. Line – Establishing the idea of a vanishing point off in the distance, for example along the center of a painted drop. Implied lines for scenic elements on the wings all point to that central imaginary point. Shape – Closer shapes might be crisper and more discernable. As things gets further away, they tend to “fatten” out.

Mass – The “heavier” elements should be placed in a closer proximity to the audience, with objects further away having less mass. Light – The foreground might be lit in a brighter fashion, with the lighting in the background being slightly dimmer and with a slightly different color or quality. Color and value – Color could be desaturated and show a value shift with darker shades of colors for objects that appear further away. Texture – Objects in the foreground might have more discernable texture than those in the background. Space – There should be less and less space between objects as they get further away from you.

The Principles of Composition After examining the elements of design, you should have a good grasp of the various foundational aspects of communication through design. When returning to the metaphor of design as a language, these elements make up the basic vocabulary of design. Like any language, though, vocabulary is only one aspect of learning to be an effective communicator. There are also rules of grammar that instruct users on the expectations of how to assemble the vocabulary in a logical and coherent fashion. In the design world, these are referred to as the principles of composition, the basic rules that describe how designers assemble and utilize artistic elements to create an effective design. In artistic terms, composition refers to the way in which an artist places or arranges various elements of design within the work. Good composition rarely happens by accident, so it is essential that designers and choreographers alike have an excellent command

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of the principles of composition in order to anticipate the most effective uses of the elements of design within the overall composition of the dance. This section looks at each of the principles of composition and examines how they connect to dance production. Keep in mind that each principle can be applied to any and every element of design. If the elements are the “building blocks,” then the principles are the “glue” that holds the work together.

might communicate a heightened sense of emotional or psychological stress. For this reason, you might see greater levels of high contrasting elements in a tragic piece than a comedic one. Likewise, high contrast clothing worn by a dancer might indicate a playful or famboyant sense of character, whereas low contrast might indicate more stability or even a sense of boredom. • Balance: Balance describes the manner in which a design distributes the “visual weight” of the elements of design to either create a balanced sense of stability and equilibrium, or leaving the composition feeling unbalanced and ready to topple. In the principles of composition, balance is a desirable outcome if the goal is to make a composition feel stable and centered. There are different varieties of balance, such as: symmetrical balance, where elements on one side are similar to those on the other side; asymmetrical balance, where elements on both sides are different, yet still feel visually balanced (one large boulder on one side, and 1,000 stones on the other side that have the same visual weight); and radial balance, where elements are arranged radiating out in a circular fashion, extending from a central point. Though the tendency is often to focus on the mass of objects, keep in mind that balance relates to all of the other elements of design like line, color, texture, shape, etc. • Movement: Movement is one of the more complex principles, since it can have so many different implications in a performance setting. In two-dimensional art forms, movement almost always refers to the way in which the viewer’s eye moves across the composition. This eye movement can be controlled through the choice of lines, shapes, textures, etc. that draw focus to certain aspects of the work. For live performances, the design occurs in a four-dimensional sense, taking into consideration the three dimensions of the performance space as well as the passage of time during which the audience watches the performance. Movement can refer to both true kinetic movement (such as a scenic element that moves across the stage) as well as the way in which the audience’s eye moves across the space, or the overall understanding of how certain moments and patterns in the show relate to others over the duration of the dance. As with the discussion of time in the elements of dance, movement is often associated with rhythm. In design terms, rhythm relates to the suggestion of movement or action typically brought on by the repetition and variation of lines, colors, textures, shapes, etc. The viewer’s eye movement across a composition is infuenced by the rhythm of the work. For instance, the use of a few large compositional items around the

• Unity: Unity is adhering to an overall stylistic approach or central concept. In dance productions, each production area should work together using the vision of the choreographer as the foundation of their individual work. While each designer will establish their own individual approach to their design area, unity can only be achieved in a production if every collaborator roots their work in the overall production concept. For this reason, it is essential that the entire production team receive a similar concept from the choreographer so that everyone is working from the same core ideas. • Harmony: Harmony is similar to unity, but refers to the way in which the different elements of a composition relate to one another to create an orderly and compatible whole. In a harmonious composition, the differing elements blend together naturally, avoiding a feeling of discord or incompatibility. Sometimes, harmony may not be a desirable outcome, as seen in compositions intended to communicate discord, or discomfort. A composition with excessive harmony runs the risk of being monotonous and visually boring. The designer should always refer back to the production concept as a guidepost for the degree of harmony needed in their work. • Variation: Variation can be defned as the use of varying or different elements in a composition and is commonly used in conjunction with harmony. If harmony holds a composition together, then variation makes it interesting to look at. Variation creates a sense of visual interest and can establish patterns and rhythms in design elements. For instance, a series of six circles followed by six squares repeated numerous times might feel monotonous. By varying the placement and repetition of the circle and square, however, you can create a composition that is much more visually interesting without changing the basic shapes used. • Contrast: In compositional terms, contrast refers to the arrangement and juxtaposition of opposite elements (light vs. dark, contrasting color choices, smooth vs. rough textures, large vs. small objects, etc.). Not only does contrast make for a visually interesting composition, but it is also an effective tool for communicating thematic or psychological concepts. For instance, high contrast designs

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stage might make for a slow and orderly eye movement from one side of the stage to the other whereas the arrangement of numerous varying sized items arranged in a random manner might lead the eye to quickly jump from one element to another. • Timing: In most artistic disciplines, timing is not considered a principle of composition. Since we work in a temporal art form, however, timing is one of the most important considerations for creating designs that work together to reinforce another time-based art form. There are many ways to describe the notion of timing. For the purposes of this discussion, let us defne timing in two parts: (1) the designer’s choice of when a particular design element appears or changes, as well as (2) the amount of time it takes an action to occur. If one design element arrives at its big fnish before the climax of the dance or other design areas it will seem out of sync within the storytelling. Keep in mind that timing is relative, since what seems slow in one moment might be fast for a different moment within the show. Successfully timed moments are typically perfected in tech rehearsals by collaborating with multiple members of the design team, but it is essential that every designer considers how their work coexists with other design areas in the context of a singular unifed dance piece. • Emphasis: This principle of composition deals with the way in which the composition catches the audience’s attention and pulls the viewer’s eye to a specifc location. In dance, this is often accomplished through the use of lighting and color. For instance, if the lighting designer creates a cold, blue color wash of the stage but creates a small, isolated area surrounding one dancer lit in bright yellows and orange tones, that dancer will naturally be emphasized and draw focus in the moment. In costume design, the Firebird might be a clothed in bright reds and yellows and set against a cooler backdrop, which makes that character stand out from the surroundings. While this is an excellent tool, keep in mind the danger of inadvertently emphasizing a performer or design element by not communicating with the team. Make certain that what you are drawing attention to advances the storytelling, or it simply becomes a distraction.

unintended consequence of design choices. With the careful consideration of each of the elements of design and principles of composition, the design team and choreographer can approach their collaboration with a better understanding of the other team members’ considerations.

7.2 – Assessing Design and Technical Needs Often, choreographers fnd the process of talking about design and technical needs to be a daunting undertaking. I have heard from many choreographers over the years, “I don’t really know how to talk about that. I’m just going to have to trust you.” While trust is certainly a key component of any collaboration, it is important that the choreographer have the ability to articulate particular needs connected to their dance and, ideally, early enough in the process so the designers can help actualize these needs in their own work. The following section begins a discussion of how designers and choreographers can work together to assess the design and technical needs of a dance production and includes some prompts to get the ball rolling in these discussions.

Asking the Right Questions The preliminary stages of the collaborative process are an exciting period for everyone, as the entire creative team focuses on the ways in which their respective areas can work together to tell the story. As the choreographer envisions the world of the dance, it is essential that they also consider the ways that design elements affect (and hopefully enhance) the storytelling of the dance. Depending on the nature of the dance production, there may be more than one choreographer involved, as well as other personnel like a production manager, or artistic director, whose opinions also factor into the decision making. With so many people involved, it is important for the choreographer to begin by asking the right questions about their work and its function within the overall structure of the production. Listed below are some prompts for talking about a dance piece that the choreographer should ideally be able to answer before talking to designers about their piece.

With all of these principles, keep in mind that they are not only present in the individual moments of the show, but can be tracked across the entirety of the performance as a tool for meaning making. A particular look used for one moment within the dance can be repurposed later to draw connections between certain elements. Since this is such a powerful tool, it is also important to keep an eye on the full arc of the dance to avoid inadvertently assigning meaning to a moment as an

Prompts for Talking About the Dance 1. Describe in two to three sentences what your dance should communicate. In short, what is the theme of your dance? What should the audience take away from the performance? If this is clearly articulated, these few

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2.

3.

4.

5.

6.

sentences can become the hub of all design elements and ensure that everyone is working towards a common goal. How many dancers do you plan on using? Sometimes you may not know the answer to this, particularly at the beginning of a project. It is important to quickly determine the answer, though, as it greatly affects your design team from the number of costumes needed, to understanding space requirements, down to the practical considerations of dressing rooms and backstage traffc patterns. What kind of a performance space is being used and does this create any unique design/tech needs for the production? Often, the performance space is one of the biggest determinations of what designers can achieve. For instance, if the space does not have the capabilities of fying scenery, this should be known from the beginning of discussions. From a choreographic standpoint, practical concerns include the type of stage (proscenium, thrust, arena, etc.) and how the audience seating interacts with the stage. Don’t get bogged down with the details like how many lighting positions are available, unless you are also functioning as a production manager for your production. Instead, spend some time thinking about the kind of space and any limitations or advantages that may come along with it. Is the dance one continuous piece, or are there distinct “movements” or sections within the dance? This is an important consideration for understanding the overall structure of the dance. If there are multiple sections, give some consideration for how you envision transitioning from one to another. Will there be some type of lighting or sound change to indicate moving from one to another? Often, a simple discussion of the structure of the piece will give your cue-based designers (lighting, projection, sound, and sometimes scenery) the ability to start thinking ahead about their cueing. Likewise, do these different sections involve costume changes? Thinking ahead allows you to have a substantive conversation about how your structure affects design/tech elements. If there are different sections, how do these areas differ from one another? This can be either a question of the practical needs of each section, or a discussion of how the thematic elements vary from one section to another. Give a few adjectives or short descriptive phrases to describe how your dance (or individual sections) should feel. Unlike question 1 that asked you to explore thematic questions, this should be an exercise in determining how things should feel. Avoid the temptation to explain your concept – it tends to be more effective to focus, instead, on the mood of the dance or what specifc moments should feel like. Designers are excellent

at creating visuals based on these types of responses and often an adjective or two can be much more useful than multiple paragraphs. 7. Do you have any concrete thoughts on color scheme and how this might be seen in design areas? Color might not be in the forefront of the choreographer’s mind, but it is an important aspect that affects each design area. Start with thinking about the givens of color – things like the color of the performance space, the dance foor, and any types of background. Depending on the type of performance space, some of these things can be changed with relative ease whereas others will remain fxed. Don’t forget to consider the skin tones of your dancers in conversations about costumes and lighting in particular. Certain colors of lights simply do not work well across a wide range of skin tones and it is important that the designer know the skin tones in order to make informed decisions on their color selection. Discussions of color in dance frequently begin with thoughts on costume colors. This is likely due to the fact that many smaller budget productions might have the choreographer doubling as a costume designer, so this is one of the frst decisions made. If you know the color scheme of costumes, by all means share this information as it will affect other areas’ decision making. 8. Is there musical accompaniment for the dance? If so, does this music already exist or will it be created for this project? This question can seriously shape many aspects of other design areas. If there is music or sound already selected, it is a good idea to share this with other members of the team so they can work with it as source materials to help shape their own approach to the dance. There are a number of stylistic, emotional, and historic implications associated with music, so it is important that everyone start from the same material. Beyond that, music can be used to understand elements like pacing, rhythm, timing, and logical cue placement. If the music is being created specifcally for this project, it might be a good idea to bring the composer into discussions, if available. At the minimum, it will be important for the sound designer to know when to expect the recordings and any specifc needs that might affect their workfow. 9. If budget and resources were unlimited, what would your ideal production of this dance include in terms of design and technology? Rarely do we get the chance to work in a setting where money is no issue. That doesn’t mean that imagining your idealized production is a waste of time. Thinking about what you might do with unlimited resources allows you to focus on possibilities without being bogged down with practical considerations. Often, this process allows you to envision an exciting new way

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of thinking about the dance. Using this as a framework, a designer might be able to better understand your idealized vision for the piece and offer up a solution that accomplishes the same end goal, even if through different methods. 10. If you had to do a “bare bones” production of this dance, which design/tech elements are absolutely essential to the success of the dance? This question asks the choreographer to imagine the opposite scenario from our previous question – what are the elements viewed as essential for success? By understanding both ends of the spectrum, the choreographer and other members of the production team can identify a realistic framework for their production, understanding both the ideal and the essential.

from show to show. Some design concepts seem to emerge fully formed for the designer after the frst conversation with the choreographer, whereas other times it might feel as if the concept just doesn’t want to be found for a particular design. Luckily, there are some exercises that can be employed to help the designer dial down their thoughts a bit and focus on the dance as the primary source of conceptualization. As an educator, I have found a series of questions geared towards the designer’s response to the dance can be useful in focusing their approach on the design concept. Listed below are a few questions geared towards getting the designer thinking about the dance and how their work might illuminate the dance. While each question might not be necessary for every project, they all can be useful tools for helping the designer identify what elements of the dance are signifcant to them and narrow down their focus on the piece.

Developing a Design Concept

Dance Response Questions

The process of designing for dance can be very different from designing for other performing arts such as theatre or opera, primarily due to the lack of a script or libretto to work from. Unlike these other forms, the storytelling in a dance is primarily visual, rather than one based on words or sounds. While some might view this as a handicap to the process, this does not have to be the case. After all, most designers are already accustomed to working in a primarily visual storytelling language. With a little planning and a focus on clear communication with the choreographer and the rest of the creative team, the process of designing for dance can be equally (if not more) rewarding and lead to fruitful collaborations.

1. What is exciting to you about the dance itself? 2. How does it make you feel? 3. What is the basic story of the dance, told in your own words? 4. What images come to mind when watching the dance? 5. What are three important things that you think the dance is trying to tell you? 6. How can the design amplify your answers from the previous question? 7. What problems are presented by the dance (technical, practical, spacing, timing, etc.)? 8. How can the design address the problems from the previous question? 9. Are there certain patterns that appear in the dance? 10. How do tempo and pacing factor into the dance’s storytelling (discuss the overall structure, as well as key moments within the dance where it may vary)?

One of the frst steps of creating any type of design is to formulate a design concept. In the context of a dance design, a design concept is the designer’s individual approach to how their work fts within the overall experience of the dance performance, with a particular focus on how their design conveys a sense of meaning to the audience and reinforces other production elements. Once established, a good design concept should become the underlying framework that informs every design decision and leads the designer towards a coherent and successful design. Many designers fall into the unfortunate trap of using a design element “because it looks cool” without considering what that choice does to further the dramatic intent of the moment, or the overall meaning of the performance. One of the best ways to avoid this pitfall is focusing on the design concept before jumping headfrst into creating the design.

7.3 – Using Research While research may not be the frst thing that comes to mind when thinking about the creative process, it is an important tool that can be used by both choreographers and designers in the collaborative “toolkit.” Whether it be used as a source of creative inspiration, as a method to fnd aspects of individual designs, a communication tool, or simply as a means of learning about a new technology or process, research is a key component to the design process. This section examines some of the ways to incorporate research into your workfow.

There are many different approaches to formulating a design concept, and sometimes one designer’s approach might differ

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As a choreographer or dancer, research can focus on many different aspects of dance such as dance history, theory, anthropological/ethnographic studies (sometimes referred to as ethnochoreology), dance science, or research into specifc styles or practitioners. In the 1960s, the Committee on Research in Dance was founded and based at New York University, later to incorporate as a not-for-proft organization and change its name to the Congress on Research in Dance (CORD). Since that time, it established a peer-reviewed academic journal called The Dance Research Journal that publishes a wide range of scholarly articles related to dance research, primarily focused on history and critical theory. In addition to academic research modes, a choreographer might research in many less formalized methods as a form of fnding inspiration or defning stylistic intent. Common approaches might include:

a unique roadmap to guide the designer to their research questions. When beginning the research process, it is a common practice to look at the givens that arise from the production concept. The following list of questions can serve as a logical starting point for research. Keep in mind that research is a process that begins in the preliminary design stages and something to which the designer will return again and again. • What is the time period(s) of the dance? Time periods are always signifcant to the creation of works of art. If the choreographer wants to establish a clear sense of time period through their dance, it is essential for designers to know this from the beginning of the process. Some dances might not have a clear time setting. In that instance, it is important to ensure that all of the design elements work together and are not sending conficting messages, unless that is part of the choreographer’s concept. Always consider what the design is saying when certain elements do not visually match. Without careful planning and consideration, this can create a dissonant feel for the audience and lead to confusion. • Are there any artistic/literary/cultural/societal movements associated with the choreographer’s concept, the time period of the dance, or when the dance was originally created? No work of art is created in a vacuum. Quite often, we see that artists of a particular time and place fnd themselves wrestling with similar questions and themes through different lenses. For this reason, it is often useful to examine not only the time period of the work itself, but also the time period in which the choreographer originated the work (in the instance of re-mounting works). One example might be using the Fauvist painting style of Matisse and his contemporaries as a starting point for a re-envisioning of the classical ballet The Firebird, since the artistic style and the ballet were both created in the same time period. This might give an opportunity to illuminate the time period or way of thinking that was prevalent when the work was originally envisioned. • Are there specifc styles/movements associated with the choreographer, the source material, characters in the dance, or the dance itself? In addition to looking at the time period, it is important to consider the creator and their body of work, especially for those who might be associated with specifc artistic movements or styles. Consider the work of American choreographer Alvin Ailey, whose works are deeply rooted in the experience of Black Americans and infuenced by the traditions of the AfricanAmerican spiritual and gospel art, in particular. Revelations is likely one of Ailey’s most performed works, inspired by African-American spirituals, gospel songs, Ailey’s own

• Listening to a range of music from a particular time period or artistic style • Watching video recordings of other choreographers’ work • Researching choreographic notation of a particular dance piece • Reading particular books or writings to fnd a thematic approach • Examining forms of visual art (paintings, sculpture, architecture, etc.) • Looking through news, media, current events • Reading books, plays, or listening to albums that might be used as a narrative framework for a dance • Immersive cultural research (experiencing the culture of a particular people or place through travel, cultural events, interviews, classes, etc.) As we can see, dance research comes in many different forms. Choreographers might pursue any number of different research methods in the process of developing a dance. Since the majority of design disciplines are visually based, designers often use visual research (the process of gathering information through looking to other visual art forms and graphics such as cinema, drawings and paintings, architecture, advertising, television, etc.) as a method of fnding inspiration or problem solving. The purpose of compiling research is twofold: as a source of inspiration for the designer herself, and as a tool for communicating the design idea to other members of the creative team. The goal of any type of research, even research rooted in the visual image, is to gain new knowledge through some type of investigation. Most scientifc researchers enter a research project looking to answer specifc questions. This is no less true for the designer engaging in visual research than for the research scientist in the laboratory. Each dance, when combined with the choreographer’s concept, serves as

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background in the rural Texas Baptist church of his youth, and his own highly personal experiences in grief and joy. Anyone hoping to stage a new performance of Revelations or choreograph a new piece in reference to this work would beneft from a deep dive into Ailey’s life, the history of the dance itself, and of the numerous cultural references made by Ailey in the work. • What symbolism and imagery emerges from the work? Are there particular symbols used within the dance, or recurring imagery? If so, there was likely intent on the part of the choreographer to draw attention to these elements as a storytelling device. Though each designer may not choose to emphasize every symbol or use of imagery, this can be an important conversation starter in discussions about the dance and potential research avenues. • How does the dance (or specifc moments within) make me feel? Emotional or psychological response is an excellent basis for research, though easily overlooked. In some dances, there might not be a concrete reference to the time period or the styles and movements mentioned in previous questions. Even in such instances, the piece should elicit an emotional response, or give a sense of mood. Once you have identifed the emotional qualities of the dance or moments within, ask yourself questions like what does this emotion look like and how can my design visually communicate this feeling? • What aspects of the other design areas infuence my work? As with most areas of live performance, design is a collaborative endeavor that builds on and complements the work of the other designers on the creative team. In many ways, the choices that one designer can make will be infuenced by the choices of other designers. For instance, the choice of color scheme in costumes might infuence which colors can work in the lighting. Make sure to talk to the other designers and pay attention to the ways in which their research and design choices might affect your own.

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Finding Your Research Conducting research is an important skill for designers. Luckily, we live in a time with more tools and information available to us than ever before. Visual research can be conducted in a number of different ways, whether in person or over a distance. The frst stop for many designers is likely performing an image search on a search engine, though it is important to consider how many other options are available. In addition to a basic web browser search, consider the following sources:

a library is access to librarians, who are trained in research methodologies. Though they may not be specialists in your subject area, they can be of great assistance in learning how best to utilize the tools available to you through your library. In addition, some libraries have specialized collections with librarians and archivists who can be invaluable in your research process. Museums: Whether by taking photographs of pieces on display, or accessing digitized versions of the collections, museums are an excellent resource for visual research. In addition, many of the top museums around the world are now offering high-defnition images of their collection free of charge under public domain licensing. Stock footage services: Many designers may utilize stock footage services as a research and content creation tool. Stock footage is a catchall term referring to any type of pre-existing imagery, either stills or video. There are numerous companies that provide stock footage for a fee. Of late, there are also many websites that offer free stock footage, though this can lead to some legal complications in tracking down the rights to use the imagery as part of the design. Archives/special collections: Many libraries may have specifc collections dedicated to a particular subject area, for instance a Presidential Library. In researching for dance, there are a number of archives and special collections of which the New York Public Library’s Jerome Robbins Dance Division Audio and Moving Image Archive, the Deutsches Tanzarchiv Köln (German Dance Archive Cologne), the Dance Archive at the University of Denver, or the American Dance Festival Moving Images Collection are just a few of note. The archivists at these special collections can be a great asset to your research process, when looking for hard-to-locate items. Personal research: Though there are many different resources for gathering research, sometimes the best method for fnding the appropriate imagery or content is to collect it yourself. For instance, the designer might travel to a specifc location to take photos or get video footage onsite. In other cases, the designer might hire a freelance photographer or videographer to gather the research on their behalf. In some cases, the imagery might be so specifc that this is literally the only option to gather research. Keep in mind that many dance companies will not have a budget line to cover these types of costs, and any negotiations should be handled up front.

Documenting Your Research

• Library holdings: Though most libraries offer access to their holdings online, there may still be certain resources that have to be accessed in person. One beneft to going to

As you go about the research process, make sure to document each piece of research. This is a practical concern related

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to referencing research materials and keeping up with permissions. To the frst point, there might be an image that works for a particular moment, but you would like to fnd more content that fts within the same aesthetic. Without documenting where the content came from in the frst place, you would have no easy means of fnding the work again. In addition, there would be no way of determining who holds the copyright and if it can legally be used in your design. In order to protect against these events, create a spreadsheet or database that includes information for every asset in your collection such as fle name, original source for the asset, license information, copyright holder, and any pertinent notes. If possible, it is also a good idea to include a snapshot of the image within the spreadsheet for quick reference.

and is rarer still in dance circles. For this reason, many designers may not work from a written concept statement. That said, articulating the key concepts to your design will be a necessary step, even if only done verbally at a production meeting or design presentation. Personally, I fnd the process of creating a concept statement a useful exercise in distilling my thoughts down to the most important concepts I want to communicate, even if no one else ever reads it. In general, a concept statement should involve the following: Thoughts on the dance: • What is the dance about (themes, symbolism, messaging)? • What is the overall vision for this production (choreographic concept)? • What are we trying to say with this production? • How does style factor into this particular production?

7.4 – Presenting Ideas

Thoughts on your specifc design area: After having met with the choreographer to discuss ideas, conducting research, and working your way through the preliminary steps of creating your design, you will arrive at a point in the process where you must present your ideas to the rest of the creative team. The following section discusses some considerations for how to go about this process.

• What does the design need to communicate? • How will the design function within the visual world of the production? • In what way does the design address the ideas presented in the script?

The Concept Statement

Implementation:

As a designer, communication is a top priority. Throughout the design process, designers must communicate their ideas; frst with other members of the creative team, then to their respective departments, and fnally to the audience. To achieve these goals, we must rely on a number of different methods, from visual communication, to the spoken or written word. One such tool for written communication is called the concept statement. The concept statement is a short piece of writing detailing your interpretation of the dance, what you hope to accomplish through your design, and how you hope to implement the design in order to accomplish your goals. The concept statement serves the dual purpose of functioning as a “pitch” to the choreographer and team to see if they like your ideas, as well as an outline to clarify your thoughts and determine the appropriate steps needed to complete the work. Not only does this process help the other members of the production team better understand your design, but it aids you in putting your ideas to the test. If your ideas don’t make sense in the written word, they are unlikely to be effectively communicated through a visual medium.

• What specifc choices will you make as a designer to execute the design?

Presentation Tools As you move forward from the realm of concept and into presenting your design ideas, imagery is your best friend. The goal should be to communicate the most information about the design with the greatest accuracy possible in the shortest period of time while remaining fexible to implement changes that may arise. While each designer may differ in their approach, there are several common tools used by designers to present their ideas. One useful tool used to communicate the general feel of a design is called a mood board. Commonly used in the marketing and advertising world, a mood board is a graphic representation intended to evoke the overall style for a project and quickly communicate key elements of the design, such as visual style, color palette, movement, and layout. Mood boards often use a collage approach to presenting ideas and, despite the term “board,” these are not typically physical boards, but rather a composition made in an application such

It bears mentioning that a written concept statement is not a contractual requirement for most design jobs in theatre,

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as Photoshop. Depending on the needs of the design, the mood board can include still imagery or motion graphics. The purpose of the mood board is to function as a spring board for conversation, giving the team a visual representation of your intended stylistic choices. If the choreographer and producers buy into the concept, then the mood boards can be used as a basis for how the overall design will function throughout the show, becoming a roadmap of sorts. While mood boards are a great tool for communicating your ideas, it is important to keep these ground rules in mind:

likely not be completed, yet. The meeting structure differs between companies, but the primary goal is to ensure everyone knows what to expect from every department. Typically, each designer will be given around 15–20 minutes to present their work. By this point, research will have been shared with the team, so the design presentation tends to focus on the design concept, any goals for the design, and how they will be executed. Make sure to have discussed your thoughts with the choreographer before this meeting so they don’t have to take it all in at once, and there are no big surprises. For the rest of the team, however, this will probably be their frst time seeing your work. Try to make time for questions, instead of monopolizing the entire time. Present your ideas and then leave the foor open for questions and comments. It may be that your colleagues see a complication or opportunity that you had not anticipated. Be willing to accept differing viewpoints, take the note, and move forward. Always keep in mind how your choices affect the other members of the team. This is the moment to give everyone else an opportunity to see into your process and determine the ways in which the different design and technical areas can interact. Remember that what is discussed in the design presentation will become the basis of everyone’s understanding of your work. As such, think of the information you give out as a contract of sorts between you and your collaborators. Should changes arise along the way, make sure to confrm with everyone the change in course so that there are no surprises.

• Consider how you will present the mood board – will every image be present from the beginning, or will you add imagery into the composition over the course of your presentation (i.e. a PowerPoint collage, where images compile)? • Pay attention to the layout to ensure it communicates the intended ideas and gives the appropriate emphasis to specifc aspects you want communicated. • A greater number of images used in the composition allows for nuance in serving as inspiration, whereas fewer images enable the team to focus on specifcs. • Make sure the choreographer understands that the images are just stylistic representations as a guide and may not actually appear in the design (particularly when using content that you didn’t create, or don’t have permission to use). • Keep in mind the room that will be used for presentations. Will there be a projector or display available for showing the work? If designing for a small screen, your approach may need to be augmented to better communicate the information.

If changes come about due to any feedback received, this will occur in the days or weeks following the initial design presentation. The producers or choreographer might invite designers to a presentation for the dancers or invited guests at some point. Depending on the structure of the company, this might involve all designers attending in person, or only those who are local, with those out-of-town video conferencing in. This design presentation is tailored to giving people like performers and board members information about all of the design elements, and leaving time for questions and answers. By this point, all design decisions should be frmed up with visual examples of the design intent.

In addition to creating your own mood boards, many designers make use of websites such as Pinterest to share their inspiration in a similar fashion. Though it does lack the same designed feel, it can be quickly assembled and allow for sharing all varieties of content with commenting enabled for feedback.

The Design Presentation The design presentation is a meeting where all the members of the design team present their concepts to the group, and discuss their approach to the design and ways in which these decisions might affect other members of the creative team. This formal meeting is more common in theatre circles than in dance productions, but if possible, it is always a good idea to bring all of the members of the team together for a design presentation so everyone best understands the overall trajectory of the production’s design. By this point, all members of the design team should be at the “fnal design” stage, meaning that the design intent should be set even though all of the work will

7.5 – Chapter Review This chapter begins the process of establishing a common collaborative vocabulary for those from the dance and design worlds. By looking at the foundational concepts of both dance and design, we can demystify the process of working with artists trained in other disciplines. Through examining the elements of dance, the elements of design, and the principles of composition, we see how both dance and design can be

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distilled down to fundamental elements used to convey a sense of meaning to the audience. As the choreographer moves into the process of determining a production concept, they must assess the specifc design and technical needs for their piece and clearly communicate their needs to the rest of the production team. For designers, the work of creating a design must be rooted in the production concept with a particular focus on how their individual design area conveys

meaning to the audience while reinforcing the dance and other production elements. The process of arriving at these concepts for choreographers and designers alike involves fnding and documenting research, creating and presenting concepts, and maintaining clear and open channels of communication for all members of the team. With a bit of practice, this process will become second nature and lead to a more rewarding collaborative process and, ideally, a stronger production.

Review Questions 1. What element of dance refers to any movement (or lack of movement) created by a body in the dance? 2. What term refers to or the placement of space in relation to the foor? 3. What term refers to the placement of elements such as sounds, movements, or visual elements in time, typically resulting in some sense of pattern (whether ordered or free)? 4. Sometimes also referred to as form, what element of design is the term used to describe the three-dimensional space an object occupies, whether real or implied? 5. What type of texture creates the illusion of texture through processes like painting, projection, or using printed materials to recreate a textured look on a non-textured surface? 6. In addition to the area or depth of a work of art, what element of design can also refer to a blank or empty area, or a location reserved for a particular purpose? 7. What principle of composition refers to adhering to an overall stylistic approach or central concept? 8. What is the type of balance when elements on both sides are different, yet still feel visually balanced? 9. What short written statement is used to detail your interpretation of the dance, what you hope to accomplish through your design, and how you hope to implement the design in order to accomplish your goals? 10. What tool is a graphic representation intended to evoke the overall style for a project and quickly communicate key elements of the design, such as visual style, color palette, movement, and layout?

Project 7–1: Translating Your Ideas The process of collaboration with artists from another discipline can sometimes lead to intended meaning being “lost in translation.” This is the understandable side-effect of being steeped in the jargon of one particular discipline without a complete understanding of how it might connect to another’s. For this project, you will be asked to revisit the work you did for Project 1–1: Communicating an Idea, but this time to use the principles of composition as a lens to refne your thoughts related to design areas and how you envision them integrating with your concept. Once again, create a multimedia presentation that discusses your thoughts for the new dance piece you envisioned in Project 1–1 (or a classmate’s project). For this project, you are specifcally revisiting Question 6 from the previous project (what are your thoughts on design and how it integrates with your dance). Using your answer from this question as a starting point, create a new presentation that uses at least four of the eight principles of composition as a talking point to address your thoughts on how the different design areas might help reinforce your production concept. For example, perhaps your concept involves examining the ways in which people belong to or are excluded from certain groups. Consider how contrast might be used to draw attention to an outsider. Perhaps all of the costumes for a particular group are bright, colorful, and fowing. How does it make us feel, then, when a single dancer enters wearing a skin-tight leotard matching their own fesh tone? Likewise, perhaps this dancer is isolated in a tight pool of light with different color, texture, and quality of lighting than the group. By starting with your concept and then examining some of the ways in which the elements of design and principles of composition can reinforce your ideas, you will begin to develop an appreciation for the designer’s role in the process and hone your own skills in your collaborative toolkit.

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CHAPTER 8

Production and Stage Management

For all of the emphasis placed on the choreography, dance, and design elements of a performance, it would be an oversight not to acknowledge the signifcant impact of those working behind the scenes to manage the process of mounting a dance production. In this chapter, we will examine the vital roles and responsibilities of those working in production and stage management within the dance world. Unlike other members of the team whose responsibilities lie in creating new artistic ideas and products, these individuals’ roles revolve around managing the creative process, enabling the artistic ideas of others, and coordinating technical and logistical aspects of the production. In short, these people tackle many of the “nonartistic” and logistical concerns of the production in order to allow the artistic elements to fourish within the real-world constraints of time, budget, and resources.

The fundamental job description can be summed up as: managing all production-related aspects so that they are done on time, on budget, as envisioned by the production team, all the while fostering a positive work environment for everyone involved with the production.

8.1 – What Is Production Management?

What does a PM do? The basic description is contained in the job title: someone who manages a production from initial planning all the way through what happens after closing the show. Depending on the production or the producing organization, though, the nature of who and what they manage can vary substantially. In basic terms, the PM uses their skills in communication, organization, management, and planning to facilitate a structured and supported environment that nurtures ideas from concept to reality. They are typically hired by the producer or the dance company, itself, and work closely with the design and production staff to realize the artistic vision of the production. For a stand-alone event, this means the vision of one performance. For those production managing for a dance company, however, this typically means balancing the needs of one performance within the context of an overall season composed of many different events.

As seen in previous chapters, there are a number of people working behind the scenes in administrative and management roles within the typical dance company. Amongst these various individuals, the production manager (or PM) is likely the position with the greatest amount of overlap between artistic, management, and leadership roles. As previously addressed, the PM is primarily concerned with coordinating the technical and logistical concerns of the production within the structure of the producing entity. The ideal candidate is someone who can balance the job of facilitating the creative vision of others within the context of constraints (technical capabilities, performance spaces, budgets, timelines, personnel). Production managers often have some level of experience in the design or production world themselves. At minimum, it is necessary for the PM to have a working knowledge of all areas they coordinate, from design disciplines, to technicians, stagehands, facilities, even choreographers and performers.

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The Production Manager’s Job Production management is a multifaceted role and tends to vary somewhat from company to company. It is far too expansive of a role to be covered comprehensively within this text, though we will examine some of the fundamentals of this position. For those interested in further research on this important position, I recommend reading the excellent text The Production Manager’s Toolkit by Cary Gillett and Jay Sheehan.

Looking at the basic job description listed earlier, the components of the PM’s job revolve around ensuring the production is on time, on budget, as envisioned by the various creative stakeholders, and a positive work environment for

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-11

Production and Stage Management

all parties. The following sections cover some of the basic expectations of a production manager’s work in these four areas.

companies add a performance to their repertoire and rent it out to other companies with production elements included. In this case, there is typically a licensing/rental fee arranged and managed by the PM. Finally, one of the biggest ways that production managers ensure everything is on time is through the creation and maintenance of calendars, schedules, and deadlines. Since opening night is almost always a given, there is no guesswork about the ultimate deadline. Working backwards from that, the PM balances the important questions of how much time do we need and how much time do we actually have? In most instances, the answers to these two questions do not match and it is then the task of the PM to determine how best to make sure the team can realistically accomplish all of their goals within the given timeframe. For that to occur, there must be concrete deadlines. One of the essential roles of the PM in the pre-production stages is creating a schedule with specifc deadlines for the production team and staff that are realistic and frm, but leaving enough fexibility for developing contingency plans along the way, should the unforeseen occur. • Production: The production phase is the point in the process when the production team begins their work on the project. It is understood there will be differing timelines for the various members of the team, but generally speaking this process begins with production meetings. In many companies, the PM is responsible for scheduling and arranging production meetings. These meetings might be in-person, over a video conferencing platform, or a hybrid approach with some in-person and others “Zooming in.” The frst meeting tends to be more conceptual in nature to get everyone talking about the project and brainstorming ideas. Subsequent production meetings are commonly used as an opportunity to check in with all departments, assess their progress, and ensure everyone is working satisfactorily towards achieving their deadlines. In most cases, the PM is not actively involved in rehearsals, but their input might be required for creating a rehearsal schedule, determining needs for rehearsal spaces, securing accompanists, and, in the case of union productions, ensuring the organization is adhering to any necessary union rules and practices. Of particular note is the number of hours per day dedicated to rehearsal, and the necessary turnaround time between calls. Keep in mind the rehearsal and performance venues’ schedules can affect these schedules as well. Back to schedules, there must be a concrete build schedule for each of the departments and their separate shops. While this is not necessarily created by the PM, it is an important consideration for how all of the production pieces ft together and something they must be aware of. In addition, the PM typically creates the schedule for

On Time A production can be thought of like a living organism, with a number of different yet interconnected organs and systems working together to function. Though the ultimate goal of a successful opening night and run are shared by all departments, each of the individuals and departments have their own timetables, deadlines, needs, and concerns to be managed. As such, there are a lot of different ways in which the PM works to keep everyone on time. The following list breaks down some of the many duties of the PM into the categories of pre-production, production, and post-production. Keep in mind that, at times, there will be overlap between these areas, especially for those working on multiple projects simultaneously. • Pre-production: For many production managers, the work of managing a production begins in the preliminary phases of planning, such as season selection. Every organization deals with this process in a slightly different fashion, but ideally the PM should have some level of involvement on this phase, rather than simply being told what shows they are expected to manage. Those involved in these steps will have a better understanding of the overall needs of each individual element of the season and, in turn, are better prepared to do their job. During the pre-production phase, the PM will likely begin to communicate with performance venues and determine how the venue affects production decisions. Once the performances and projects have been fnalized, each component of the production/ season should be carefully assessed to understand all of the project requirements, from personnel, to equipment, design elements, effects, space needs, and more. Each of these elements must be explored in order to have a realistic view of timetable and budget. Production managers are often responsible for some elements of hiring production personnel. In some instances, they might be responsible for hiring the staff for production departments and the crew. In other cases, they might also hire designers or even some performers. There is no right or wrong way to handle hiring, but it is essential to defne the expectations for the PM’s role in respect to hiring. Another common expectation is the handling of rights, permissions, and royalties. Re-staging a dance typically requires securing the choreographer’s permission, or that of their estate. Music might need to be licensed for use in a live performance, or royalties be paid to artists involved in the original staging of the work. Likewise, many dance

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load-in and technical rehearsals. The load-in schedule needs to factor in enough time for each department to get their separate components of the show into the performance venue, set up, and tested to know they are safely functional. This process can take anywhere from a few hours to multiple days. For both load-in and technical rehearsals, each day must be individually broken down to account for who is called at what time, how the work day and resources are divided up, when breaks must occur, when the day ends, and when the team is back in the space. All of this is planned long before arriving at frst tech, so it is typical to see the production manager regularly checking in with the creative team and department heads over the course of the day making sure things are on track and determining how best to facilitate a smooth tech. Often the PM holds a production meeting at the end of each tech rehearsal to discuss progress and goals. The information gained at this meeting allows them to assess the daily schedule for the following day of technical rehearsals and adjust plans as necessary. • Post-production: For many members of the production team, their job ends on opening night. For the production manager, however, there may well still be many aspects of the job remaining. At minimum, the PM should plan for the strike (taking the show down) or load-out of the production. This involves planning and scheduling to determine the number of stagehands required, the strike schedule, and what happens with everything once it leaves the performance venue. Before making these plans, it must be determined what, if any, elements of the production might become part of the company repertoire. Many professional companies have one or more shows or dances in their repertoire, meaning they have the original choreography documented and someone on staff who can set the choreography on new dancers, along with some production elements like costumes, props, or scenery kept in storage for re-use by the company or to rent out to another company. This is one method of generating revenue commonly found in classical dance and opera companies. The PM is expected to facilitate this rental through setting up contracts, fee negotiations, shipping, and coordinating details with the staff of the company renting the work (typically, another production manager). Creating and maintaining a database of repertoire, stock, and resources is an essential task for most production managers.

various departments. The PM is typically responsible for making, managing, and maintaining the portion of the overall budget dedicated to production costs. While the numbers vary between different organizations, the production budget typically entails the following items: fees for the creative team (including any union fees like pension, healthcare, etc.), royalties and rights, supplies and materials for each production department, labor (both staff and over-hire), rentals, copying/ printing, and a “just in case” contingency fund (usually around 5–10% of the overall budget) to cover the random items that invariably fall through the cracks. Managing the budget involves creating spreadsheets for tracking expenses, meeting with the production team to make sure their plans can work within the determined budget and, if necessary, planning for if and how a budget increase might affect the overall production or season. Set expectations with supervisors and keep in touch to see their over/under budget forecast. Managing a production sometimes means re-allocating resources from one department to enable success in another. If costumes are going to be 20% under budget and scenery unexpectedly anticipates going 10% over budget, the net forecast is still under budget. Along the way, the production manager will have a hand in a number of processes that keep them connected to the budget. The frst of these is creating and negotiating artist contracts and technical riders. This allows them to have a big-picture understanding of contractual obligations and expenses connected to these areas. For many companies, contracts and riders require an understanding of union rules and common practices. For instance, when working with union stagehands careful attention must be paid to call times, the number of crew, and turnaround time or there might be instances of overtime that quickly start cutting into the budget. In addition to contracts, the PM is often responsible for running bid sessions, meetings where designers and technical staff look at the designs in a line-item cost analysis, determining the exact cost of each element seen onstage. In some companies, the production manager may also be responsible for facilitating the purchase or rental of production-related equipment or services. This process requires a familiarity with local production supply companies, rental houses, vendors, and service providers.

As Envisioned Though the PM is not personally responsible for creating the production elements of the performance, their work greatly affects the fnal look of the production and how well it adheres to the artistic concepts as envisioned by the creative team. This work is achieved through various points of the production process, but is rooted in communicating with all parties. The artistic director (AD) is the artistic head of the

On Budget Whether hired by the producer, an arts organization, or an individual client, budget is one of the most important aspects of the production manager’s job. For most organizations, there will be a number of different budgets allocated to

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arts organization and has the most input on the overall vision of the dance company. This means that they often establish the artistic standard or expectations for the company. These expectations create the framework for how individual works ft within the bigger picture of a season or company history. The choreographer’s job is to envision the world of the dance or production. The PM is tasked with the diffcult job of achieving these goals within the available resources. While it can be easy to assume that the choreographer always gets what they want, in many cases it is the production manager’s job to have diffcult conversations with the choreographer about how their vision cannot be achieved with the given resources. A good PM does this without negativity, but explaining the contributing factors that led to the situation and having a frank discussion about options. These same conversations regularly happen with designers as well. It is essential that any changes to the overall vision be discussed as early as possible to allow the creative team to decide how best to proceed.

In addition to management, the PM is often responsible for ensuring that all production and technical departments operate in accordance with current health and safety regulations and best practices to maintain a safe and healthy workplace. These practices will be connected to applicable local, state, federal, or international guidelines as well as those practices required by the various unions and guilds affliated with the production. This typically begins with establishing health and safety policies for all departments, initiating necessary training systems, and creating and maintaining up-to-date documentation of these practices. The process of developing, assessing, and adjusting health and safety practices is ongoing and requires an agile response. For instance, when the global COVID-19 pandemic forced most performing arts companies around the world to close, it was the production managers at most of these institutions tasked with working with various unions and stakeholders to develop safe return-to-work COVID policies that eventually became standard operating procedure for these organizations. Universal health and safety policies are complicated by the fact that aspects like fre codes, active shooter response, and public gathering rules must adhere to any local codes or ordinances that often vary between differing locations. For this reason, the production manager is often on a frst-name basis with the local fre marshal who is commonly required to sign off on aspects like fre code, egress, and traffc fow before a performance can be legally approved. Though this may not be the case for your particular venue, it is always a good idea to familiarize yourself with these important individuals in your area.

Outside of the AD and choreographer, the PM must also work to ensure the fnished design products align with the various designers’ visions for their work. This means maintaining regular and ongoing communication between the various designers, their respective shops and teams, and rental houses/vendors to guarantee that the work onstage well represents the designer and their work. In some instances, this extends to communicating with crews and other production personnel to identify the ways that design and production need to work together to best achieve the production goals.

Positive Work Environment One of the biggest impacts of the production manager is their ability to infuence the overall work environment of the production. From personnel management, to health and safety, training, and dealing with differing personalities, the PM’s job description positions them to truly affect workplace dynamics and establish a positive working environment for the members of the production team. One of the primary duties of the PM is personnel management. Many PMs are directly responsible for personnel concerns like hiring, performance evaluations, training, or dismissing employees. Even if this is not the case for your workplace, the PM will still be involved in basic management tasks like scheduling, communications, budgeting, and approval for many elements connected to the production. Emotional intelligence and diplomacy are necessary skills for anyone interested in the job. As in any workplace, the dynamic established by those in management tends to set expectations for the entire team and truly infuences the team’s overall perception of the work environment. A good PM will keep this in mind at all times and ideally use their position to positively infuence the work environment.

8.2 – What Is Stage Management? Stage management is similar to production management in many ways, but primarily serves as a support for choreographers, dancers, designers, and technical staff throughout the rehearsal and production process. In the rehearsal period, the stage manager’s job revolves around documenting and communicating information across all creative and technical departments. As the process transitions into the performance venue, their work focuses more on the task of supervising the work done both onstage and backstage to make sure the performance goes off without a hitch. Their work begins during the rehearsal period and ends when the show closes. The stage manager is undoubtedly the linchpin of live performance. This is true for dance as well as theatre. From the initial discussions with designers, to the rehearsal period, to running the show, and interacting with the company, the stage manager is the position whose job affects the greatest number of individuals in the production process.

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As a dance stage manager, one must be fuent in many different languages – dance, theatre, music, and management being four of the most important. The stage manager is the source through which all information is disseminated and the individual responsible for keeping all production members on schedule. In addition to documenting rehearsal elements and disseminating information, the stage manager also runs the technical rehearsals and is the single individual coordinating cues that occur during the performance and calling them out over the headset during performances (referred to as “calling the show”). Finally, once the production is up and running, it is the duty of the stage manager to continually watch performances and ensure consistency with the original vision of the choreographer and designers, so that the artistic integrity of all of the artists is maintained. It is a huge responsibility. Many dance stage managers come from the dance world and have never worked as a theatrical stage manager (the same is true in reverse for many theatrical stage managers). Though many of the duties are similar, the dance stage manager tends to take on many specialized roles within the dance company that would not typically fall under the domain of a theatrical stage manager.

smaller productions, there will likely be one stage manager for the entire process. For larger productions, there might be a stage manager and one or more assistant stage managers working to fulfll stage management duties. Sometimes the supervising stage manager is referred to as the production stage manager (PSM), head stage manager, or frst stage manager. The assistant stage manager (ASM) is quite common in theatrical settings, where the stage manager typically calls the show from a booth in the auditorium and the ASM(s) are situated backstage during the production run. The ASM often organizes backstage traffc, calling performers for places, and working with properties and/ or wardrobe crews to facilitate prop tracking and quick changes. In the dance world, it is much more common to fnd the stage manager calling the show from the wings. As such, ASMs are often viewed as unnecessary for some dance companies and the stage manager is a one-person team. During the pre-production process, it is common to only have the stage manager working with the choreographer and production staff and to bring in ASMs during technical rehearsals.

Common Responsibilities

The following sections detail many of the aspects of serving as a dance stage manager. This is by no means meant to be an exhaustive study of stage management. Instead, it serves as an introduction to the world of stage management for dance and hopefully fosters a sense of appreciation for all of the ways in which stage managers assist in the creative process. Likewise, for the theatre artist, this chapter should be a useful primer in considering the differences between theatrical and dance stage management.

No matter the nature of the organization, there are some duties that will commonly fall into the domain of stage management. Listed below are a collection of these responsibilities and a brief description of expectations. • Scheduling: Stage managers frequently create rehearsal schedules, production meeting schedules (if not handled by the PM), technical rehearsal schedules, and schedule tech times in the space for production members (again, if not handled by the PM). In addition to creating the schedule, the stage manager is ultimately responsible for disseminating it to the team. • Communication: One of the primary roles of any stage manager is communication. Most information should be shared through the stage manager to ensure that it is properly documented in writing and that all parties have access to the information (since one area’s choices might inadvertently affect another). As a result, the stage manager documents many meetings, rehearsals, and correspondence to and from production team members. During the rehearsal period, the stage manager disseminates information to all production members through regular emails of notes and reminders. These are referred to as rehearsal reports. In addition, the stage manager typically compiles notes for dancers to be posted on the callboard of the rehearsal space, or through email. A callboard is a location in the rehearsal and/or performance space dedicated to posting information for

The Stage Manager In both professional and academic circles, the role of stage management is often linked to the individual dance company or academic department and their specifc needs. Since the role is often so specifc to the individual workplace, there will never be a “one-size-fts-all” job description for a dance stage manager. The term stage management refers to the collective group of personnel responsible for the job of managing the production. In most dance companies, the main management roles fall under the categories of production management and/or stage management. While, technically speaking, a production manager’s duties do not ft neatly into the job description of stage manager, many companies combine different aspects of each of these roles into one job with a production manager who also stage manages productions. Depending on the size of a production, there might be more than one stage manager involved in running the show. For 94

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performers. It will include call times for the following day’s rehearsal, notes, and pertinent information for the company. Once the show is up and running, correspondence continues in the form of performance reports, a record of the performance including running time, accidents, technical problems that arose (and how they were addressed), technical problems that must be addressed before the next performance, and information about upcoming performances and events (such as photo calls, etc.). In addition, the performance report frequently includes front-of-house information such as attendance, when the house opened, when the performance began, intermission times, and patron issues. In this way, the performance report is a way a wide range of people can stay informed about the performance. • Rehearsals: Typically, the SM is a freelance worker, rather than a full-time staff member of the dance company. That means that expectations often vary on if and when the SM joins the rehearsal process. If the dance company expects a stage manager to be involved in rehearsals, the frst step is determining the length of the stage manager’s contract and specifc expectations. The stage manager often comes into rehearsals after the work has been choreographed, which is quite different than in the theatre world. Unlike in theatre, the SM is not always responsible for “running rehearsals.” For many companies, this means the stage manager is only in the room for 1–2 weeks leading up to technical rehearsals with ASMs added a few days leading up to tech, or even at tech, itself. In larger companies, this most often falls to the rehearsal director or even a choreographer. For those coming from theatrical stage management, you might be surprised to fnd that the rehearsal director covers many of the rehearsal duties traditionally done by a theatre SM. For instance, blocking and choreography notes are kept by the rehearsal director. Likewise, a rehearsal director runs brush-up rehearsals or those with second or third casts, something commonly covered by a theatre or opera SM. • Recording information: One of the more important tasks of the SM is recording and documenting information. In meetings, stage management will take minutes of what is said. In rehearsals, stage management typically creates rehearsal videos that are used by many members of the production team to determine cue placement and timing. Additionally, they begin the work of tracking props used during the show (what is the prop, where does it enter, where does it exit, etc.). This information is useful in determining the placement of props tables and presets. Likewise, the SM should keep track of costume changes and the amount of time available for quick changes. This information will be necessary for the costume designer,

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since there is normally a rigid and fxed amount of time for quick changes in a dance. Compiling the prompt book: Another stage management task is assembling the prompt book. A prompt book is a special annotated script used by stage managers to call cues for the dance production. Section 8.4 details the specifcs of assembling the prompt book and its use. Running technical rehearsals: Once the production process enters technical rehearsals, the stage manager’s job becomes much more involved. The SM’s role during tech is ensuring all personnel are present and ready to run the technical rehearsal. To those ends they regularly check in with all production staff to ensure everyone is familiar with the schedule and ready to go. Once the tech process begins, the stage manager often calls instructions out from the house for dancers and production teams alike (typically from a microphone connected to the theatre sound system, called the God Mic). During this period, it is important that the SM be intimately familiar with the dance and its structure. This is one situation in which it is benefcial for the stage manager to have a command of dance terminology. Since the technical rehearsal tends to be stop and go, it is important to understand exactly what the choreographer means when he says “take it from the pas de deux.” Another of the important roles of the stage manager in technical rehearsals is that of timekeeper. The SM must keep a watchful eye on the clock and be aware of the time remaining in the allocated timeslot. This is especially important in a concert setting with multiple dances, understanding that any amount of additional time in one slot will take time away from the next dance slot. Calling the show: No matter what other duties are assigned to the stage manager, the calling of cues in the performance remains the primary responsibility. This job requires patience, organization, and a calm demeanor. During the run of a performance, the stage manager might call hundreds of different cues, many happening simultaneously. The job is complicated by the fact that one must keep one eye on the prompt book and another on the stage, while communicating with the board operators on headset. This role can be compared to that of an air traffc controller, controlling the operation and timing of numerous simultaneous tasks on a daily basis. Maintaining the artistic integrity of the work: Once the production opens, most often the choreographer and other members of the production team will have left to go on to other productions. This leaves the stage manager responsible for the day-to-day operations of the dance and the only remaining member of the production team who has the insight of having worked on the entire creative process. For

Production Areas

this reason, the stage manager is charged with maintaining the intent of the choreographer and designers. During the course of a longer run it is sometimes necessary for the SM to give some notes related to the continuity of the performance.

8.3 – Stage Management: Pre-Production One of the many ways that a stage manager assists the dance production is in pre-production planning and organization. One of the important considerations is the stage manager’s contract. If operating under a union contract, the SM may not be available until rehearsals begin. In other instances, they might be considered more of a staff position, with the SM executing some of the day-to-day operations of preproduction. The following section lists some ways in which the stage manager might assist during pre-production.

Stage Management and Union Structures There are a number of different unions who represent artists and performers in the arts. The United Scenic Artists- Local 829 (USA-829) represents designers working in all areas of the entertainment industry, including dance. The American Guild of Musical Artists (AGMA) is the union that represents opera singers, dancers, opera directors, and backstage production personnel at opera and dance companies. Most artists working at a principal opera or dance company operate under an AGMA contract. Unlike stage managers working in a theatrical production, dance stage managers are represented by AGMA and not the sister-union of Actors Equity Association. The union structure is an important consideration for those stage managing in dance. If the production is operating under a union contract, then union rules must be followed judiciously. Common rules relate to length of working days, duration and frequency of breaks, mandatory days off, amenities in the performance space, and many more details. The stage manager is ultimately responsible for maintaining the rules and reporting infractions to the union, a role that must be taken seriously.

Auditions The audition is an important event that allows choreographers the opportunity to see a wide range of dancers and cast available roles for their dance performance. The stage manager can play a pivotal role in the organizational process of auditions, especially if the auditions are for multiple dance pieces. When arranging the audition, it is common to have the stage manager(s) compile audition information that might be included in the audition listing such as audition location, time, number of roles being auditioned, performances dates, etc. In addition, stage managers might be involved in the process of scheduling and booking an audition space. In this

FYI: Realistic Expectations The material presented above is tailored for a professional dance company structure with a relatively large number of personnel. Unfortunately, small companies with limited budgets and academic dance programs often cannot mirror this professional model. While it would be ideal to always have a stage manager involved in the creative process, the fact remains that many companies simply cannot afford to enlist a stage manager for anything other than calling the show. In an academic environment, the stage manager is often a student with little to no experience. It is a common situation for the SM to come into the job late in the creative process, not be involved with rehearsals, working with designers on a short timeline, and have a lack of assistants or backstage crew. It is not uncommon, in fact, for the stage manager to be the only backstage personnel and to be brought into the process for tech rehearsals only (sometimes as late as the day of the performance).

If you fnd yourself in this situation, there are some things that can be done to help make the task more manageable. For one, the choreographer should make every attempt to take on some of the normal stage management responsibilities such as scheduling, notes, etc. If at all possible, the choreographer should help get the SM up to speed on the dance – shoot videos of the dance, write a synopsis of the piece with key moments, etc. The stage manager should try to get in touch with the choreographer and the design team to establish communication. Attempt to determine what the needs might be before heading into tech rehearsals. Even a cursory understanding will go a long way towards making the process more manageable. Everyone can’t be employed in an elite professional company, but it should not stop you from performing to the highest professional standards of your position.

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case, the SM should be intimately familiar with the rules of the space, procedure for opening and locking up, and any special requirements such as piano or sound system.

work with a number of different choreographers as well. In this case, the SM should be aware of all of the ways in which the dances interact such as rehearsal times, use of similar dancers, etc. In some ways this setup is preferable, since the stage manager can enter into production meetings with a wider understanding of the needs of the production.

If involved with auditions, the stage management team might set up an audition table with registration forms. It is common for dancers to arrive with résumés and headshots. The stage management team will collect these and have the dancer fll out an audition form that includes contact information, physical information (height, weight, hair color) education and specialized training, scheduling information, and any important information about the production that the company would like the dancers to know. An important question to ask of the choreographer before auditions begin is how he/ she wants to handle cuts. Some choreographers prefer to wait until the entire audition is complete to let dancers know they will not be cast. Others will make dancer cuts during the audition process in order to better study the dancers in which they are most interested. Either method is acceptable, but the stage manager should know the preferred method before auditions begin. Some choreographers also prefer to have an audition with callbacks. Callbacks are the second round of auditions that bring in the short list of dancers to be seen a second time. This approach might offer the choreographer an opportunity to focus a bit more on basic skills in the frst rounds of auditions and work a bit closely on the dancers’ interpretation of choreography in the callback.

The Production Calendar Depending on the structure of your academic department or dance company, the stage manager might be handed a completed calendar, or given a loose set of guidelines and asked to generate the calendar for the team. When assembling the calendar, it is important to consider for whom it is intended. For designers and other members of the production team, it is suffcient to create a standard calendar with the days of the week and month. For performers, it is likely that this type of graphic-based calendar will not be suffcient for containing all of the necessary information. Often, rehearsals will include dozens of indications of individual performers, their call time, and when they are excused. For this type of rehearsal calendar, it is often better to simply go with a text-based approach.

Meeting with the Production Team If not handled by the production manager, the SM might organize production meetings and take meeting notes to send out to the team. In some instances, a formalized production meeting with all members of the production staff is not a possibility (due to scheduling conficts, non-local participants, or the dance company choosing to not have regularly scheduled meetings). By all accounts, the best-case scenario is having regularly scheduled production meetings with all production team members participating, whether in person or via teleconferencing. If this is not a possibility, though, the wise stage manager will reach out to the production team members to communicate information about the project and determine their needs and expectations.

Contact Sheets Since there are so many individuals involved in producing a dance, it is important to have one centralized location for contact information. This is the contact sheet. The stage manager assembles the contact sheets for the production. It is common to have two separate contact sheets for cast and production staff. This information is collected from audition sheets and contact information from designers and technicians. The stage manager must keep this information up to date and disseminate it to all of the members of the production team.

Assisting the Choreographer

8.4 – Stage Management: Rehearsals

Much of the role of the stage manager is the pre-production period is determined by the needs of the choreographer. Since every dance is different, even when working with the same choreographer, it is always important to ask his/her needs. Perhaps it is coordinating the arrangement of rehearsal props for the rehearsal space. Whenever possible, the SM or another member of the stage management team will assist the choreographer in tasks required to prepare for the rehearsal period. Sometimes the stage manager might be assigned to

Once the dance enters the rehearsal period, the stage manager’s role expands to include assisting the dancers in addition to the rest of the production team. The SM is a daily contact point for many members of the company and, as such, has a number of responsibilities linked to the rehearsal process. Many dance companies do not utilize a stage manager during the rehearsal period, or at least not for the entirety of it. This is often due to the fact that budgets do not include

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enough funds to bring in the SM until closer to the technical rehearsals. For this reason, it is important for the SM to determine the expectations of her role before entering into the process. The following section includes a number of concerns for the stage manager during the rehearsal period.

equipment, and more. Each space has its own unique rules and limitations for use and it is important to know these beforehand so this information can be communicated to the choreographer. If, for instance, there are rules for the rehearsal space that keep music from being played during certain times of day, this information would affect the rehearsal schedule. Some spaces may not allow for the use of tape on the dance fooring. This can be a complication if there are scenic elements that must be represented for rehearsal purposes. A good stage manager will always try to foresee any complications that may arise before going into rehearsal. • Is there a sound system? Since music is so important to the rehearsal process, it is always a good idea to know the details of the sound system for the performance space. Most dedicated dance rehearsal spaces will have a system in place for playing back CDs or inputting from a portable music player. Quite often, this equipment might be locked up and require a key or combination to access though. Also, if the space does not include a sound system, then arrangements must be made for bringing in a portable system for rehearsals. Likewise, it is important to discuss the sound needs with the choreographer and sound designer. Some dances might require an accompanist for rehearsals. Does the space have a piano? Has the accompanist been contracted for the rehearsal period? Even though these factors may not be the responsibility of the stage manager to arrange, it is always an important role of the SM to ask the right questions. • Are special rehearsal elements required? Always ask the choreographer if there are special rehearsal elements required for the dance, such as props, rehearsal costumes, video, etc. Since these elements are not a common requirement for the rehearsal process, the only person who can speak to their need is the choreographer. If there are special needs, the stage manager can then contact the necessary parties to inform them of the needs and timeline.

Preparing the Rehearsal Space One of the duties of any stage manager is the preparation of the rehearsal space before rehearsals begin. Listed below are some important questions to consider before the dancers enter the rehearsal space. • Is the rehearsal space the correct size? This is an important question to address before rehearsals begin. If the dancers get accustomed to a certain amount of space, it is diffcult to leave this muscle memory behind once they get into a different size performance space. This is particularly important for the choreographer, as well. Sometimes, there simply is not enough room to ft the entire cast of performers onstage at the same time. If this is the case, it must be understood from the beginning of rehearsals. The best practice is to determine the size of the performance space and tape out the constrictions of the performance space on the foor of the rehearsal space. In addition to the basic size and shape, if the dance incorporates scenic elements that affect where the dancers can be positioned, it is important to spike out the placement of the set before rehearsals begin. This process requires a scale ground plan from the scenic designer and a good understanding of how to interpret a drafting. The stage manager uses a scale ruler to measure the ground plan and multiple tape measures to precisely measure out the placement of the scenery on the stage and spike it in the rehearsal space. There are a few options for marking the foor. Spike tape is a special variety of thin cotton tape made in a wide variety of colors. Spike tape typically comes in ½” wide rolls and is used for “spiking” important marks on the stage foor, such as set placement or key locations for dancer placement to be appropriately placed in areas of lighting. Spike tape can sometimes leave a residue or discolor Marley fooring, so it is important to know if the rehearsal space has rules about what can be used as spike on the fooring. Sometimes, it is preferable to use Marley tape, a vinyl tape intended for use on dance foors. It typically comes in wider rolls (2–4”) and can be cut down to the smaller strips used for spike marks. • What are the rules of use for the space? Another important consideration is the rules of use for the rehearsal space, including basic policies of unlocking and locking the space, acceptable footwear, time limits, checking out

During the Rehearsal Once the rehearsal actually begins, the stage manager’s job is to assist the choreographer in the rehearsal process, prepare for the tech process, and serve as the primary method of communication between the choreographer and other members of the cast and production team. The stage manager might create a cast list before rehearsals begin that includes a sign-in for each rehearsal. When the dancers arrive, they will initial the sheet indicating that they are present. The stage management team will immediately contact any late arrivals, unless prior arrangements have been made. This process guards against a room full of people waiting on one person to show up.

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FYI: The Stage Manager’s Kit • First aid supplies: Ace bandages, triangular bandages, Band-Aids of all sized, gauze, blister plasters, instant heat/cold packs, nail clippers/fle, antibiotic ointment, sterile medical gloves, throat lozenges, scissors for cutting bandages, tweezers, splinter removal kit, and Q-Tips. • Basic medicines: Aspirin or other pain relievers, ibuprofen or other anti-infammatories, cough drops, saline solution, antacid, and vitamin C supplements. • Offce supplies: Brads, stapler, paper clips, binder clips, hole punch, pens/pencils/markers/highlighters, pencil sharpener, scotch tape, Post-It notes, ruler, scale rule, scissors, whiteout pen, three-ring binder, blank paper, and reinforcement rings. • Backstage supplies: Tape (gaffe tape/spike tape/glow tape/clear packing tape), measuring tape, batteries, fashlight, clip light, multi-tool, sewing kit, stopwatch, extension cord, and electrical plugging strip. • Dancer supplies: Hand sanitizer, breath mints, hairpins, tissue, tampons, baby wipes, dental foss, and highprotein individual snacks.

All professional stage managers have a collection of essential supplies on hand for rehearsals and productions. This kit is normally held in some sort of tackle box, duffe bag, or rolling suitcase – depending on the stage manager’s preference. The contents of the stage manager’s kit are typically an amalgam of frst aid and offce supplies. Sometimes the dance company will provide some of these items, though it is often a good idea for the professional stage manager to have their own supplies on hand just in case. The following list is by no means exhaustive, but it would be a good starting point for the dance stage manager. Keep in mind that the distribution of medicine is sometimes acceptable but at other times it can create a legal dilemma. Over the counter anti-infammatory medicines are benefcial in the event of an injury, but one should always ask about allergies before distributing the medicine. Likewise, if the dancer is a minor, the decision is best left up to the parents unless there are specifc signed waivers.

Once everyone has arrived and the rehearsal begins, the stage manager’s role is to assist the choreographer in a number of different ways. The stage manager and choreographer should communicate beforehand to determine what services will be most useful. Whatever tasks the stage manager performs, this period is remarkably useful in that she will see the evolution of the dance and have a deeper understanding of the subtleties in the dance. This will be invaluable when it comes to calling the show, as the SM will understand all of the various parts of the dance completely.

to check the callboard for notes. Speaking of the callboard, it is important to make sure everyone is aware of its placement and reminded to check it on a daily basis. It is also important to remember that the callboard is not the appropriate method for disseminating sensitive or private information. The stage manager must always be aware of the necessary balance between communication and privacy. During the rehearsal process there are many different types of notes that the stage manager takes for different purposes. Since some of the design team may not be able to attend rehearsals, the SM is expected to provide answers to them regarding timing, tracking, and details. They are responsible for sending out regular rehearsal reports to all members of the production team to inform them of any information or questions that may have arisen during rehearsal. In addition to notes for the rehearsal report, stage management often tracks important information such as movement of props or set pieces (where items enter and exit), costume changes, and timing of certain sequences that might relate to precise cueing of lights, sound, or effects. No two dances will require the exact same type of notes, so it is important to discuss with all of the production team what their needs might be.

Communication During the Rehearsal Period Communication is one of the most important aspects of the stage manager’s job. During the rehearsal period, this is performed in many different ways. Often, the SM might make rehearsal announcements, routine announcements to those present in rehearsals often regarding the upcoming performance or specifc notes from the choreographer. Typically, rehearsal announcements are best placed at the end of rehearsal when the dancers aren’t preparing for the rehearsal and are free to take notes, as necessary. Sometimes, the announcement might be as simple as reminding the dancers

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8.5 – Technical Rehearsals

choreographer on-hand, but rather a rehearsal director or repetiteur who is an expert on the dance repertoire. In these cases, the stage manager is often well-served by studying the company archives of the dance. Ideally, there will be an archival video of the dance that can be used to practice calling the show since repertoire pieces often have abbreviated rehearsal and tech processes.

Once the dance heads into technical rehearsals, the stage manager’s role shifts focus to integrating all of the design, technical, and performance aspects into one seamless package. The effective stage manager makes this task look easy, even though it is without a doubt one of the most challenging roles in any type of production. Planning and experience are essential to the success of the stage manager. Listed below are some thoughts for how the SM can make the diffcult task of managing technical rehearsals a bit more manageable.

The Paper Tech As mentioned in previous chapters, some dance companies have a special meeting called the paper tech, in which all designers, the choreographer, and the stage manager meet to talk through the cues and cue placement in the production. In truth, this is much more common in academic environments and for resident companies with in-house production support. When the production team is made up of freelance artists, it is often too diffcult to carve out a time for everyone to meet. In this case, it is essential that the stage manager receive cue sheets from the designers in advance so they can incorporate the separate cues into the prompt book.

Assembling the Prompt Book As mentioned earlier in the chapter, the prompt book is a tool specifcally used by the stage manager for calling cues in the show. As the stage manager approaches the technical rehearsals, it is important to assemble a clean and legible prompt book that will be used for the production. For theatrical productions, this is typically a three-ring binder with the script on one side (often the left side) and the notes on the opposite side (the right). Cues will be marked on one side with a line drawn to indicate the location in the script for calling the cue.

Communicating with Cast and Crew

For dance productions, however, it is less common to have a true script. The dance SM must create their own version of a script, whether that be a musical score, choreographic charts, stopwatch or timestamp times, lyrics, or some hybrid approach. Dance stage managers often work with the choreographer to write out a shorthand script for calling the show; with descriptions of movements or music, the point in the running time when it would be called, and the cue name/ description. For something of this nature, it is common for the stage manager to meet with the respective designers and assemble the cue script by combining information from the various designers’ cue sheets.

One of the main roles of the stage manager is to ensure communication fows between all parties and that the information remains both timely and consistent. This is the reason that all information should be vetted through the stage manager. As the company nears tech rehearsals, the SM should reach out to both cast and crew to ensure all parties have all the necessary information.

Check in with Crewmembers Since the stage manager supervises many elements of backstage operations, it is essential to develop a good working relationship with the stagehands working on various crews. Typically, an SM is responsible for creating and maintaining running sheets, detailed paperwork that accounts all of the duties of backstage personnel from the moment they arrive until leaving the building. These sheets help eliminate any confusion about required tasks for personnel and also allow someone to fll in should a team member be unable to attend a performance.

When working with ballet, opera, or longer story-driven pieces, a piano score is commonly used for the prompt book with timing and basic blocking notes included, as well as the cues. Since the orchestra typically plays for the duration of the performance, this is a natural method for marking and calling cues. That makes the ability to read music is a must for those interested in stage managing for opera, dance, and orchestral productions. In truth, all dancers and those working in dance production should have a passing familiarity with musical notation and music terminology.

The stage manager should make an effort to reach out to all crewmembers, communicate duties, and answer any questions that might arise. All crews should have a designated crew lead that supervises their department and reports to the stage manager. Each crew lead should

Another element to consider is pieces performed from a company repertoire. In this case, there is often no

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Assemble a Tech Packet for Dancers

have a detailed schedule and checklist of duties for each performance as well as receiving any training necessary to performing their role in the performance space. In an academic environment, it is not uncommon to fnd crews comprised of dancers who have little to no technical experience. In this case, it is doubly important to ensure the crew is properly trained in expectations and safe operation of any stage equipment. While this responsibility may fall to the technical director or house technician, the stage manager should make an effort to reach out to all crewmembers and identify these needs.

Another useful tool that the stage manager often generates is an informational packet to give to the dance company before heading into tech. This packet might contain useful information such as schedules, house rules for the performance space, maps (should the dancers need directions to the performance space), and any other information that might be of use to the company. This is particularly useful when taking a dance on tour, as each individual performance might offer up its own unique challenges.

Daily Schedules

Moving Into the Space for Tech

Since the stage manager will be sending out daily reports to both cast and production staff, it is important to include with these messages a detailed schedule for the following day. These schedules, sometimes called dailies, must be sent out as soon as possible to ensure the performers are suffciently prepared for call times. The schedule should include call times (the time at which individuals are required to report to the theatre), release times (when people are free to go), and the evening schedule for things like sweeping and mopping the foor, lighting/sound/projections check, company warm-ups, curtain time, and anything else of specifc importance.

Moving into the theatre requires a bit of planning to make sure everything is in order. This might involve spiking the stage, setting up the backstage/wings area and dancer care stations. In addition, there might be a production offce to set up, as well as any preparations needed for bringing dancers into their dressing rooms (placing name cards at their individual stations, welcome gifts/packets, etc.), and ensuring all of the necessary communications are set up and functional. Typically, there will be some type of a welcome session bringing performers into the space before doing a spacing rehearsal.

FYI: A Word for the Dancers Throughout the rehearsal and performance process, the choreographer and stage manager will be your constant points of contact. Keep in mind that, once tech begins, you will be interacting with a wide range of designers and technicians whose jobs are multifaceted and demanding. Remember the rule of thumb for communication protocol is to always go to your choreographer frst. The input of the dancer is always welcome from designers, but it can be diffcult during the process of tech to address the concern

of every dancer who brings up an idea. If you have a question or comment about a production element, bring it up with the choreographer, who will in turn talk to the stage manager and designers or address the concern with the appropriate designer and/or crew member. This type of professionalism will make you look like a seasoned pro and get you hired back again. Everyone likes working with a team player.

Early Arrival

8.6 – Stage Management: During the Run

The stage manager is often one of the frst people in the building. In some spaces, he/she would arrive early and unlock doors, turn on lights, and prepare for crew arrival. In other spaces, there might be a house tech crew that takes care of these responsibilities. Either way, it is always a good idea for the stage manager to be in the space from the moment it is available so he/she can begin the process of prepping for the performance.

Once the show is up and running, the SM transitions to a dual role of calling the show and supervising the run to ensure that the production remains true to the vision of the choreographer and designers. Listed below are some common responsibilities that occur during the run.

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Check-In

that the house is open and gives a 30-minute warning. After this, there will be a 15-minute warning for dancers to be in places, followed by a 5-minute warning, and fnally a call for places. The specifc times may change according to different companies, but the process remains similar.

Before going into technical rehearsals, the stage management team should create a check-in sheet that lists each cast and crewmember. Beside each name there should be a box for checking in. When the performer or crewmember arrives, he/she should initial in the box. The stage management team will then check the list to ensure all participants are present and on time. Should there be a late arrival, the SM or ASM will call this person to determine their location and estimated arrival time. While this may seem a bit tedious or excessive, this system ensures that stage management will have suffcient time to locate and put in an understudy or replacement dancer, should this be necessary.

Working with House Management In addition to communicating with the cast and crew backstage, the SM is also in communication with house management for the performance space. The house manager is the individual who interacts with the box offce and patrons and determines if the show will start on time, or if there is to be a delay in order to get all of the patrons seated (called “holding the curtain”). The house manager will communicate to the stage manager once the house has been closed, and only then will the SM communicate with the cast and crew that the show can begin.

Technical Checks Typically, the crew arrives a bit earlier than the performers so there is time for running through various technical checks. Common checks during this time period are dimmer checks (making sure all of the lights are functioning properly), sound check, projection check, and headset check (to ensure all of the headsets are properly functioning). During this time period, it is important that the stage manager check in with each crew lead to determine if their pre-show checks have been done and if there was anything amiss. If so, this would need to be addressed before opening, or marked in the production notes to be fxed before the following performance.

8.7 – Chapter Review Management is an essential component to the creative process whose importance cannot be overstated. Production and stage managers have some of the most diffcult jobs in all of the performing arts. They must be master communicators with the ability to juggle multiple tasks and manage various personality types. Above all else, they are dedicated to working behind the scenes to uplift the work of others, facilitate collaboration, and deliver on the artistic visions of multiple stakeholders. From the initial discussions with designers, to the rehearsal period, to running the show, and interacting with the company, management interacts with the greatest number of individuals in the production process. Their job descriptions are fuid by nature, with duties and expectations changing during the production process from pre-production planning, to auditions, rehearsals, technical rehearsals, and running the show. It is not a job for everyone, but no doubt those who can successfully navigate the demands of the job will be an invaluable member of the production team whose work is always in demand.

Giving Calls Once dancers arrive in the performance space, the stage manager is responsible for keeping everyone aware of the time remaining until the curtain goes up. There are a number of different events that must occur at specifc times, such as sweeping and mopping the stage, technical checks, dancers getting into costumes, stretching/warm-ups, etc. Typically, the SM will make an announcement on the theatre’s intercom system at the top of the call, letting everyone backstage know what time it is and how long remains until the house is open (when the audience enters the auditorium). Most theatre spaces open the house 30 minutes before the curtain goes up. At this point, the SM announces to the backstage

Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

What is a production manager? What is a bid session? What is the role of the SM? Explain the purpose of a callboard. What type of information is included in a rehearsal report?

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6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What is spike tape and how is it used? Explain the use of a stage manager’s prompt book. What is a paper tech? What is a run sheet? Describe the activities a stage manager undertakes during the performance run.

The Stage Manager’s Perspective: An Interview with Cheryl Mintz Cheryl Mintz is currently the Production Stage Manager for American Repertory Ballet under the artistic direction of Ethan Stiefel, and an Adjunct Professor at Montclair State University. Cheryl continues her career-long 37 production collaboration with director/playwright Emily Mann with the world premiere stage adaptation of Wladek Szpilman’s memoirs, The Pianist. Cheryl celebrated 30 seasons (1991–2021) at McCarter Theatre Center, 25 as McCarter Theatre’s Resident Production Stage Manager, has production stage managed 106 productions, 100+ workshops, and has collaborated with America’s fnest directors, playwrights, designers, actors, and theatre-makers. Highlights include being Production Stage Manager for the McCarter and Broadway run of Nilo Cruz’s Anna in the Tropics, the McCarter and Kennedy Center world premiere run of Ms. Mann’s Mrs. Packard, the world premiere of The Brother/Sister Plays by Tarell Alvin McCraney, and the world premiere of Christopher Durang’s Tony Award Winning Best Play Vanya and Sonia and Masha and Spike. With over 60 operas and a dozen major dance and music events to her credit, Cheryl has enjoyed 13 collaborations with Maestro Gian Carlo Menotti and the Spoleto Festivals in the US and Italy. Cheryl spent fve seasons at Lincoln Center with the New York City Opera where she has stage managed 40 operas and musicals, three tours and three PBS telecasts. Other companies include Opera New Jersey, Baltimore Opera, Brooklyn Academy of Music, Intar, Williamstown Theatre Festival, The Kitchen, New York Theatre Workshop, La Jolla Playhouse, George Street Playhouse, Passage Theatre, La Femme Theatre, Yale Rep, Warner Brothers Productions, Propaganda Films, and Sands Films. From 2017–2021, Cheryl served as the Event Coordinator for the Princeton University International Poetry Festival. Cheryl has mentored hundreds of emerging theatre-makers through her teaching and supervising assistantships. She has written for The New York Times, Yale School of Drama Alumni Magazine, and is a contributor to the 4th edition of Sound and Music for the Theatre: The Art & Technique of Design. Publications include acting editions of Athol Fugard’s The Road to Mecca and A Place with the Pigs. Cheryl has six Broadway/Production Contract shows to her credit. She received her MFA from Yale School of Drama, Management Development Certifcate from Princeton University, BA from SUNY Stony Brook, SUNY Scholarship from the University of Loughborough, England, and was named a SUNY Notable Alumni in the Arts. For the Stage Managers’ Association, she has been an executive board member for 19 years. Cheryl is a recipient of the Award of Excellence at the 2020 New Jersey Theatre Alliance Curtain Call, and 2010 Applause Award. Cheryl is proud to be featured in Performance of the Century, 100 Years of Actors’ Equity Association and the Rise of Professional American Theater. Cheryl is a founder and partner of princetonVIRTUAL, which through creative virtual and live events brought communities together during the pandemic. With the onset of COVID-19 and the resulting suspension of production activity, Cheryl pivoted to independent virtual theatrical projects which spanned Broadway, Off-Broadway, and regional companies. Cheryl lives in Princeton, New Jersey with her husband Harris Richter and son Jake.

Do you have any background in dance? As a child and teenager, I had 13 years of ballet, tap and modern lessons. During my theatrical career I have done numerous musicals on Broadway and LORT that had dance, three dance events for Brooklyn Academy of Music (BAM) and one for the Spoleto Festival, but they felt more like theatre happenings. I did two pivotal dance mega-events at Lincoln Center – benefts

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that raised $3.2 million for AIDS Education, Research & Care in 1987 and 1993. I was Production Manager for DIFFA Presents a Demand Performance featuring 17 American Dance Companies (Robert LaFosse, Artistic Director; Bill Darnell, Executive Producer), and Production Associate for Dancing For Life featuring 13 New York City Dance Companies (Jerome Robbins, Artistic Director; Ellen Sorrin, Executive Producer). Interestingly enough, Ellen Sorrin was my early-career mentor and has remained a guiding light throughout my whole career. That’s a huge other story that I share with my students when I do my networking lecture. Almost every position I have had is one or two degrees of separation from her. ARB’s Artistic Director Ethan Stiefel knew of my mentee relationship with Ellen, someone who he thinks very highly of, which I know really made him want me to join the ARB company as their PSM even though I had no experience as a ballet company PSM. With me, Ethan got an extremely experienced and accomplished PSM who was new to dance, thus was able to be shaped and had room to grow.

How did you get into stage management for dance? Post-COVID I had an enormous shift in my career. Emily Mann, McCarter Theatre Artistic Director Emeritus stepped down after 30 years in June 2020. I have done 37 productions with Emily and have worked with her for over 30 seasons as the Resident Production Stage Manager at McCarter Theatre, on Broadway and at the Kennedy Center. I have continued working with Emily throughout the last three years. I moved on in a new direction striving for artistic fulfillment, pulling back in my career to enjoy my son’s last years at home before college, and have travel time with my retired husband. I reached out to American Repertory Ballet’s new Artistic Director, Ethan Stiefel, to let him know about me. That one bold email opened the door for our collaboration. Ethan had a superstar career as a dancer at NYCB and ABT from the late 1980s through the early 2000s when he transitioned to a choreographer and artistic director. I was inspired by his mission and vision, something I have always gravitated to in my career. (Examples being my work with Emily Mann and my 13 productions with Maestro Gian Carlo Menotti and the Spoleto Festivals. I have learned I am most fulfilled when I commit to an artistic mission or institution. I am often quoted as saying “Production Stage Managers don’t pick their season, but they can choose to work with artists and institutions that align with their mission, and through that they are artistically fulfilled.”) I also knew ARB needed stage management continuity, which I was able to give them. Last season I did ARB’s story ballet (A Midsummer Night’s Dream) and new works mixed rep. This season I committed to the entire 2022–2023 season. So, at age 60 I have a new exciting “Act Three” to my career! After having a deep 39-year theatrical career, (mainly in LORT and Broadway), a fabulous opera career (intertwined with my theatre career at New York City Opera, Spoleto and other companies), and doing a major pandemic pivot creating princetonVIRTUAL.com, I now was starting a new chapter as a dance PSM. Post-pandemic I became an Adjunct Professor in Theatre at Montclair State University (and a semester at NYU). My ARB schedule balances perfectly with my teaching schedule, plus giving me the time for family I desire, so it has been wonderful.

Can you tell us about your typical process as a stage manager for a ballet company? (Are there things that you do in this capacity that might be different from a freelance/one-show only SM gig?) Based on the project I determine my work weeks, which I recommend to the company to create my contracting. ARB does not need a PSM to be a part of the entire rehearsal process, which might begin months prior. I join the process during the last two weeks of rehearsal leading into tech week. My contract allows for my engagement prior to my full-time weeks where I make myself available for meetings, perhaps pop in to watch a rehearsal, and do certain prep work. I have tackled each project in different ways. My first production was a story ballet, A Midsummer Night’s Dream, with a live orchestra, choir, and Maestro. I chose to approach the project in the way I do opera, which worked fabulously for me. I called the production from the piano score, writing timings and basic dance blocking into the music. I was able to talk the Maestro’s language during our orchestra rehearsals. I love being inside the music, using it as my roadmap and calling the cues almost always on the upbeats. During the ARB mixed rep projects in the spring and fall I have applied varying methods. One dance was performed to world premiere music with the composer and another musician performing live, so I called off the piano score (like an opera). One

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dance piece was done to seven recorded songs by Fleetwood Mac, so I created a script of the lyrics with descriptions of the dance moves under each line of lyrics and laid in time stamps for reference. Some cues were called off the lyrics and some off the visual movement. It felt like I was calling a theatrical musical. Another piece was to recorded abstract music that was challenging to follow and even count, so I wrote a staging script which described all the visual moments and laid in time stamps. On this dance most of my cues were taken visually, using the time stamps as benchmarks. For The Nutcracker I studied the archival videos and created more of a chart to call from which incorporated two sets of time stamps (for when we performed to a recording vs. a full orchestra), visual descriptions with detailed staging in a smaller font, my calls, warns, follow-spot cues, and what was happening backstage and onstage when a cue was called. The assistant stage manager usually joins me three days prior to load-in. I create the run sheets for the crew and once we are in tech hand the run sheets off to the ASM to make updates and the final version. The move into the theatre has a specific to-do list: spiking the stage and laying quarter marks, setting up the wings with the dancer care stations and any scenic or prop items needed, setting up the production office in the assigned dressing room or green room, dressing room setup for the dancers (my signature is a small bud vase with a rose at each dancer’s station, or during The Nutcracker we hung holiday decorations at each station), and then joining the lighting designer as they write cues so we are ready for when the dancers join us. The assistant stage manager runs the preset and sees that the crew sweeps and mops to our standards. Rehearsal videos are constantly used during the process. The lighting designer uses one of the rehearsal hall run-throughs to figure out his cue placements and sends me a cue list with time stamps based on the video. I then transfer the cue placements to my calling book based on this. I basically “paper tech” with myself to make sure my book is ready so I can call the first onstage run cold and smoothly. I make sure tech is never about me or holding for me. Time is extremely tight with dancers onstage and we must run things lean and efficiently. I find it exciting and exhilarating. This process is similar to my experiences with the rep operas at NYCO, when I joined a big Broadway musical, and the first time I took over McCarter Theatre’s A Christmas Carol (a production I did for 26 years and three versions as the Supervising Stage Manager). I call it “Archeological Stage Management,” which basically means doing your homework. Once dancers join us there is a spacing session, which usually does not even use the music. The lighting designer will work over this session, and I will call cues based on what is being spaced. When dancers are ready to run with music, be it recorded or live, I have found it is more often a non-stop run of the piece, so I must be ready to call it perfectly. The rehearsals are not about me or the lighting designer, we keep up with the dancers and the choreographer’s priorities. I move from the tech table to backstage for Final Dress. In theatre, 95% of the time I have called the show from the booth – I have only called from the wing if I was dealing with an older actor who needed my support to be close or on the Broadway productions I have done. In theatre, once a production opens the PSM is maintaining the show so calling from the booth facilitates that. Every opera I have done (75+), I have called from backstage. I enjoy calling dance from the deck; I love being right there for the dancers and crew at the transitions between pieces, pre-show and post-show. In dance the PSM does not maintain the dancers’ performances, the rehearsal director does, so that allows me to call from backstage. This past year was my first Nutcracker experience, and as it was a rep production I literally had one dress rehearsal – one chance to call the ballet before our first performance. I had to be prepared, confident, and perfect (aka “Archeological Stage Management”). To accomplish this, I practiced calling the production with the archival video numerous times in the comfort of my office.

Are there specific skills that a young stage manager should cultivate if they want to break into stage managing for dance? • • • •

Learn to feel the music and find your way inside the music. Take music theory and learn to read music. Attend dance performances, soak it in. Strong pro-active paperwork skills. Initiative. You will not be handed a “script.” You will need to create your calling book from scratch using whatever suits the project: music, choreography charts, lyrics, time stamps, etc. • Be ready for a tighter process during staging/tech/dress days leading up to opening. There are no preview performances.

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• Understand the needs of dancers – they are very different from actors and opera singers. If you are working with live musicians and a Maestro, they need the same care. • I have found I have softened my style in the dance world. • Collaborate with your crew vs. supervise. • Don’t wear your street shoes in the rehearsal hall, bring rehearsal hall slippers or footies! • Stage manage with class and polish!

How does your “typical” collaborative process look like in working with a choreographer? I don’t yet have a typical process. If I work with Ethan Stiefel, we are more interactive and I want to understand all of his artistic goals. In the rehearsal hall, I tend to sit against the mirror on the side I will be calling from. Often, Ethan wants me to sit center next to him. I think he enjoys playing off me. If the Maestro or lighting designer joins rehearsal, I will sit center next to them against the mirror. When we have had a guest choreographer doing a piece for the mixed rep, it is mostly about observing rehearsal. Any questions I have I usually ask the rehearsal director frst. Interestingly, I have found numerous things that fall onto the rehearsal director’s plate are things I would do as a theatre or opera PSM. With guest choreographers it is about listening to their artistic goals so you can apply them to what you are calling, whether it is light cues or scenic moves. No one is turning to me for my dance blocking notes like what happens in theatre and opera. I am not the one rehearsing in the second and third casts, the rehearsal director does that. I am very into neat and clean curtain calls, which has been a fun thing between Ethan and me. I ask him to confrm bow order, fower presentations, and logistics much earlier than he is used to.

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CHAPTER 9

Sound

Sound is a fundamental concern in dance. All dances are performed with some type of sound, even if it is only the sound of the dancers moving their bodies across the stage, breathing and interacting with their environment. This is why I prefer the use of the word sound as compared to accompaniment, as I believe it covers a wider array of possibilities for music, sound, or effects that accompany the dance performance. Whether the dance is performed to music, with an accompanying “soundscape” of sound effects, or performed in silence, sound creates a dramatic impact on how the audience perceives the dance piece. The following chapter examines the use of sound in dance performances and begins the conversation of how sound is created, reinforced, and reproduced for each performance.

9.1 – Thinking Ahead for Sound For most dancers, rhythm and music are a day-to-day part of life. That said, many dancers and choreographers might not be as familiar with the technique and craft that goes into creating and reproducing sound and music for live performance. There are a number of considerations that go into thinking about sound for the stage.

Music, Sound, or Silence? The process for how a choreographer chooses sound is as unique as each choreographer. Sometimes they pick a piece of music on which a dance will be set. Other times the dance is completely choreographed before considering the appropriate music or sound. In other situations, the choreographer might work in conjunction with a composer to create a new piece of music composed specifcally for the dance. Ultimately, the question that must be asked of each piece is should there be music, sound, or silence accompanying the dance (or some

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-12

combination thereof). The answer to this question tells you what kind of support your production will require.

Pre-Recorded Music The easiest method for many choreographers is to select a piece of pre-recorded music as accompaniment for a dance. The only requirement of pre-recorded sound is a sound system and an operator to run it. This is one of the most common choices for dance companies as it eliminates the need for live performers and will always be a precise reproduction of the music. In addition, in touring companies very little setup is required. While this is an excellent choice in terms of time and money, it can lead to the question of copyright laws. The end of this chapter addresses some legal concerns for using music in a dance performance.

The Composer If a dance requires original music, a composer must be secured to work on the project. Depending on the needs of the project and the choreographer/composer relationship, there could be a number of different approaches to this collaboration. In one approach, the choreographer might discuss such elements as the dance concept, their storytelling intent, the dramatic arc of the dance piece, and any time constraints with the composer who then writes a piece of music used for the dance. Another method might involve showing the composer the choreography and letting them compose music based on the pre-existing choreography. Yet another approach might involve creating the music and choreography separately from one another and allowing them to co-exist in the performance as separate entities whose interactions are based on chance. The composer may write the music to be performed live by musicians, create a recording of musicians performing the piece live, or use digital instruments on their own computer to create a digital audio fle of the music. The method of

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delivering the music affects the number of additional people required to either perform or record it.

the use of wireless microphones, backstage monitors, and the communication system, amongst other things. Due to their work focusing on microphones, you might sometimes hear them referred to as a mic wrangler. The A2 reports to the A1 and often acts as their understudy, in case of a need to step in and serve as the A1 in an emergency.

The Musicians Unless the composer alone will record the music, musicians will be required for some portion of the process. It could be that the music will be recorded live for playback during the dance. In this case, studio musicians would be hired to perform for the recording. If this is not the case, musicians must perform the live accompaniment. In this case, there are a number of concerns such as: placement of the musicians onstage, the use of microphones to reinforce their sound, what the musicians will wear, securing music stands and providing light suitable for reading, and of course, paying the musicians. While the process of planning for more performers can seem daunting, it is a rewarding experience to perform in a live environment with dancers and musicians working in sync.

In some cases, the dance company may not employ a sound designer but depend on the work of the performance space’s sound technician. It is important to recognize that, while the position of a sound technician is essential to the overall production, a technician would normally be involved in only running sound – not the creation of design elements. Likewise, a sound technician would not have insight into the dances themselves beyond the limited time of having seen them in the performance space.

Reality Check: What Resources Are Available? I have seen many dance performances suffer over the years due to a choreographer or designer taking for granted that resources were available when, in truth, they were not and simply did not ft within the production budget. This is most often a case of making assumptions and not asking the right questions. Always approach a project by fnding out what resources are available to you: equipment, personnel, budget, and space. These four resources will affect what choices can be made and should allow you to proceed into the project with realistic expectations of what can be accomplished. The practical person will keep these factors in mind while solving the artistic challenges of the production.

The Sound Designer As mentioned in Chapter 1, the sound designer is responsible for facilitating all of the sound needs of the production. A sound designer might function as a composer and create original music for a production, but she is also involved in the selection of audio equipment, recording and editing of sound, and creating the cues for sound playback – something a composer would rarely, if ever, be involved with. It is a lucky dance company that has a resident sound designer who can facilitate all of these needs.

Audio Engineers and Technicians In most instances, the sound designer will not actually run the sound for performances. This duty falls to a stagehand with specialized experience in audio equipment, called a sound engineer or sound technician. These stagehands set up speakers, microphones, and communication headsets in addition to running the sound system during a performance. Depending on the size of the performance space and its staff, there may be one or more people assigned to these duties. These stagehands use a number of different titles to explain their work. Most commonly, the stagehand who runs the sound board and mixes the sound in the space is called the production audio engineer or, more commonly, the A1. This person’s job is listening to live sound in the space and mixing the audio to achieve an ideal sound inside of the performance space. For dances that use wireless microphones, there is commonly a production audio technician (also called an A2), the audio engineer working backstage who is responsible for

9.2 – Sound Design for Dance Sound design combines artistry with technical craft. Sound designers must be familiar with composition, music history, sound recording/editing techniques, and remain up to date in the constantly changing world of sound equipment. In addition to creating sound and music, dance sound design requires an understanding of dance practices and how varying performance styles connect with sound. Considering all of these tasks, a competent sound designer is an invaluable member of the dance company. Since so many aspects of dance are interconnected with sound, the choreographer and sound designer often work together closely on a dance piece. For this reason, it is helpful for the choreographer to have a common understanding of some basic sound and music concepts when collaborating.

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sound, mood is evoked through what is heard, and is often infuenced by the listener’s past experiences. Since sound is only one element of the production, it is important to consult with the choreographer and other members of the production team to make sure everyone is aiming for the common response.

9.3 – Functions of Sound Design (What Sound Design Can Accomplish) In any work of art, all of the elements should be chosen carefully to fulfll a specifc purpose within the overall composition. Sound is one of the most important elements within a dance production and performs some very specifc functions. Listed below are ways of looking at the functions of sound design, or the purposes of sound within the context of a dance production.

Atmosphere is a term commonly associated with sound. In sound, the atmosphere is a collection of the types of sounds that make up a certain environment or moment. In this context, the term soundscape is commonly used to indicate the combination of various sounds and effects to create an immersive acoustical environment.

Audibility Audibility, or the ability to hear a sound, is the primary function of sound design. Pre-recorded music, sound effects, voiceovers, and live accompaniment must all be set to an audible level so that the audience can appreciate the sound without struggling to hear. The challenge of having multiple sounds is that they can compete with one another, so this may lead to the need to use microphones to reinforce the sound of certain aspects to be heard over others.

Rhythm Rhythm is one of those terms that naturally applies to both music and dance. In dance, it can be used to refer to a measured movement, typically with some sense of repetition. In music, rhythm refers to the combination of strong and weak pulses in the music to create a beat. This sense of pattern is what leads to a waltz being in three, since the strong beat comes on the one, followed by two more weak beats (onetwo-three, two, two, three . . .). Since sound and music are frequently used as accompaniment, the rhythm directly refects on the choreography. Movement can work in sync or against the rhythm of the sound design, creating a sense of harmony or confict.

Performance Sometimes sound functions as a performance element within a dance. In tap dance, hip-hop, or modern music/dance performance pieces, the dancer often doubles as musical performer. As such, the sound designer must work closely with dancers to reinforce the sound of their movements. In a modern context, it is common to see dancers interact with props or musical instruments to create sound. In such a performance, the lines between musical and dance performance are blurred.

When considering rhythm, it is important to look at the entirety of the dance performance. While one section may have one type of rhythm it is possible that others will have a different type. This can lead to an overall rhythmic arc within the piece that is worth acknowledging.

Accompaniment

Reinforcement

Accompaniment is the function of sound design that refers to the use of music or sound to complement the dance performance – supporting, or partnering with, the dancer. Though accompaniment is most often thought of as live musicians playing onstage, it can come in many different forms (live music, pre-recorded music, sound effects, etc.).

The fnal function of sound design on my list is reinforcement. Reinforcement simply means to strengthen or increase something. Sound can reinforce a number of different aspects of the production. It can be a certain sound effect that works in conjunction with a dancer’s movement. Likewise, it could refer to how a piece of music reinforces the dramatic action or overall theme of the dance. Finally, the term sound reinforcement refers to the act of amplifying sound through the use of microphones and speakers. In dance this could be used for musical instruments, the spoken word, or used to amplify the physical sounds produced by the dancers’ bodies.

Mood/Atmosphere In most art forms, mood is one of the easiest things to identify, yet one of the hardest to put into words. Mood is an emotional response to something experienced. In the case of

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terms, it is what makes one instrument sound different from another, even if they are both playing the same note. There are a number of different factors that affect sound quality of a musical instrument, like the materials that make the instrument, the humidity or temperature of the environment, or any imperfections to the instrument itself. When creating music or sound effects, sound quality can be affected in a number of different ways. The most common method is the use of sound processing equipment like an equalizer or other devices to change the tonal quality of the audio signal. There is no doubt that sound quality can directly affect the mood of a given moment in a performance.

9.4 – The Properties of Sound Design (The Controllable Qualities of Sound) The properties of sound design can be described as the controllable qualities of sound, or things that you can change about sound within the context of a dance production. The following list details all of the properties. Keep in mind that the properties of sound design also affect all of the functions listed above.

Volume Volume is a term that most of us use on a regular basis. Like brightness in lighting, volume is a relative term. For some people, certain volumes can seem very loud whereas they may not affect the person sitting next to them. Volume is measured in decibels (dB). If a sound is amplifed through a sound system, you have the ability to increase or decrease the amount of output through the speakers, thus manipulating how much the audience can hear.

When discussing sound quality on an audio recording, one of the biggest concerns is the fle format of the recording. Today, most theatres are equipped with computers for audio playback. This means that the sound fles used will be in a digital format. When dealing with digital audio, there are a number of different fle types for different uses. Compressed audio fles like MP3 were designed to be smaller data packets so they could be downloaded quicker through the internet. There is always a trade-off between the size of the fle and the sound quality of the recording. Smaller fles tend to include sounds that were not present in the original recording and have a smaller dynamic range than the original, as well. Whenever possible, always use the uncompressed audio formats such as WAV or AIFF for playback and you will be much happier with the audio quality.

Pitch Another property of sound is pitch, or how high or low a note sounds. Pitch is directly related to frequency, the speed at which a sound wave vibrates. The faster the frequency, the higher the pitch, and vice versa (Figure 9.1). Pitch is important in creating harmony or dissonance in sound. When hearing two or more tones played together, the notes will either work together to create a harmonious or dissonant blend. Adjusting the pitch of a sound can go a long way towards creating a soothing or discomforting sound design.

Direction Direction refers to where a sound is perceived to originate. In lighting, direction was related to the placement of the lighting instrument. For sound, direction is directly infuenced by the placement of speakers in the sound system. When creating a sound design, it is important to consider the direction from which sound should come in relation to the audience and the stage. The change of direction can assist in creating immersive sound environments if done well or cause the audience to become disoriented if executed too quickly.

Sound Quality Sound quality is a term that has many synonyms. In musical terms, it is often referred to as timbre, or tonal quality. Timbre (pronounced Tam-burr) is the quality of a musical note or sound that distinguishes it from others. In the simplest

Figure 9.1 A low frequency pitch (top) and a higher frequency pitch (bottom). Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

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Movement

portable music player; even a television. Though these are all possibilities, computers are the input source of choice for most playback systems for their ability to run playback software, which far surpasses the function of other methods.

In musical terms, movement can have different meanings. A movement within a piece of music refers to different sections within the composition – each frequently written in a different key and with a different mood. In another connotation, movement can refer to the way that music rhythmically varies within a composition, creating a sensation of physical movement. It is easy to see how music and dance are so easily paired together since movement is such an essential component of music itself.

Microphones In mechanical terms, a microphone (often called mic, for short) is a device known as a transducer, something that converts energy from one form (acoustic/kinetic energy in the form of sound waves) into a different form (electrical impulses sent as an audio signal). This electrical signal is not powerful enough to activate a speaker on its own, though, so it must be sent through other hardware components to boost the signal. While there are many different types of microphones, the three most common for dance purposes are the wired mics, wireless mics, and the boundary mics.

In audio terms, movement can have a more technical meaning. For a modern sound system, any amplifed sound has the ability to pan, or to be moved from one speaker to another within the system. Therefore, movement is the ability to mechanically manipulate an audio signal to give it the appearance of a changing direction.

Wired microphones: A wired microphone is so-named because its signal (and sometimes power supply) is sent along an audio cable physically plugged into the microphone. The cable runs back to the sound mixer to provide an audio input source that can be added into the overall mix. There are two types of microphones most commonly used in live performance situations: a dynamic microphone, and a condenser microphone. These two microphones accomplish the same goal of turning sound waves into an electrical signal, but are built and function in different ways.

Mix In audio terms, a mix is the combination of different audio signals into one cohesive output. For live productions, this might be a combination of live music, pre-recorded sound effects, and reinforcement of the dancers onstage. The mix is how all of these signals are balanced to create the resulting sound that the audience hears through the speakers. If everything is heard at equal levels, there is a potential for “muddiness” in the mix, as one sound drowns out another. Instead, it is important to identify the sounds that are most essential to the dance and make those prominent.

• A dynamic microphone is a microphone that uses a small moveable coil of wire attached to a diaphragm. The coil, positioned in the magnetic feld of a stationary magnet, moves when sound waves strike the diaphragm. This movement creates small electrical impulses. These impulses are the audio signal that will later be translated through a speaker into sound. Dynamic microphones are sturdy, resistant to moisture, and require no external power source to operate. These attributes make the dynamic microphone a common choice for live performances, particularly in the club environment. • A condenser microphone uses two charged metal plates. The front one functions as a diaphragm and the second one is called a back plate. When sound waves strike the diaphragm, it vibrates and changes the distance between the two plates. This change in proximity affects the voltage of the electrical signal being sent out of the mic, thereby creating an electrical analog of the sound waves. Unlike the dynamic microphone, a condenser mic requires external power in order to power the microphone. This is because it uses a small electrical component inside called a capacitor. Since the capacitor does not work without electricity, this is typically supplied from the audio mixer in the form of phantom

9.5 – Audio Equipment When discussing sound with a designer or technician, the conversation can quickly move towards the realm of a foreign language for many. Though it may seem intimidating at frst, it is important for dancers and choreographers to have a basic understanding of audio equipment and terminology. There are entire books devoted to the discussion of audio equipment. This section includes only the essential pieces of equipment within a sound system and describes their function.

Audio Input (Source) When discussing sound systems, the term audio input, or source, refers to any type of device that provides an audio signal to be distributed through the system. For a recording and/or reinforcement system, this is commonly the microphone. For playback, the input source can be any of a variety of different devices; CD or mini disc players; a computer; a 111

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power, a 48-volt power supply sent from the mixer to the mic along the microphone cable. Condensers are typically much more expensive than dynamic mics, but also have a wider frequency response range – meaning they can capture a wider range of sounds and tend to be more sensitive to volume.

Boundary microphones: A boundary microphone is a special type of microphone that is designed to have a low profle and be placed on a hard, fat surface (like the foor, walls, or a tabletop). The design of a boundary mic places a microphone in a small metal housing mounted onto a fat plate. Though there are multiple types of boundary mics, two of the most popular models come from Crown® audio: the PZM and the PCC. Without going into too much detail, the PZM picks up sound in all directions around it. Since it sits on a plate, this is 180° of sound around the mic (called a hemispherical pickup pattern). The PCC, on the other hand, has a halfunidirectional pickup pattern, picking up sound from the front while rejecting any sound from the rear. Figure 6.2 illustrates the pickup patterns of the two types of boundary mics. One common reason to use these mics in dance is to pick up the sound of dancers’ feet on the stage. This is ideal for tap or stomp-style dances.

Wireless microphones: A wireless microphone is a mic that transmits its audio signal wirelessly, through the use of radio signals. The obvious beneft of a wireless microphone is the lack of a cable to get in the way of movement. Wireless microphones are typically either handheld or headset models, with a miniature microphone that is attached to the performer or attached to a headset. For the miniature variety, the microphone is connected to a belt-pack wireless transmitter that sends a radio signal to a wireless receiver connected to the sound mixer. This audio signal is then sent through the reinforcement system. For handheld wireless mics, the microphone itself functions as the wireless transmitter.

Figure 9.2 The PZM and PCC, viewed from the side. Notice the difference in pickup patterns for the two microphones. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

FYI: Pick-Up Patterns Each microphone is designed to use one (or sometimes multiple) pick-up patterns or the specialized settings and engineering that determine what area around the mic will be “picked up” by the microphone. Another way to think of this is where the mic will be “listening.” Each pick-up pattern has a use inside of a live performance setting, but it is important to understand how they work in order to select the right tool for the job. Figure 9.3 illustrates some common pick-up patterns and their use.

Figure 9.3 Common pick-up patterns used by microphones. The curvilinear shapes surrounding the microphones illustrate the areas around the mic where it “listens” for sound. A) Omnidirectional, B) Cardiod, C) Subcardiod, D) Supercardiod, E) Bidirectional, F) Shotgun. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

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Omnidirectional The omnidirectional pick-up, like its name implies, listens for sound equally in a circular region around the microphone. This has the beneft of capturing a wide sampling of sound in a given space, but the downside of not allowing you to isolate any unwanted background noise.

Cardioid A cardioid pick-up pattern is so-named because of its heart shaped pickup area. It primarily listens to sound in front of the microphone with a smaller area to either side. This pattern allows the user to pick up sound from in from of the mic, while minimizing any sound from behind it. In addition to the basic cardioid pick-up, there are also variations on the cardioid design called supercardioid and hypercardioid, which both slightly narrow the angle of the front pick-up region from that of the cardioid, while adding a back pick-up region behind the mic. The main difference between the two is a larger back pick-up pattern for the hypercardiod.

Subcardioid The subcardioid looks like a combination of the omnidirectional and cardioid pick-up patterns. It is a wide, near-circular angle in the front with a wide, yet short pick-up area behind the mic. This type of pick-up is good for reinforcing a sound that might be located in front of the mic, but moving around quite a bit.

Bidirectional As its name implies, the bidirectional pick-up pattern picks up sound from two directions with side sounds being completely rejected. This is commonly used for interviews with two people sitting across from one another, but can certainly be used for other types of recording as well.

Shotgun Shotgun pick-up patterns are the most directional, found in a “shotgun mic,” a long, thin microphone designed to be pointed at a sound source from a distance. Though these mics are more commonly found in TV and flm, they can come in useful for some live performance work.

microphones on the stage; and more. The mixer also serves an important function of boosting the microphone-level signal from mics to what is called line-level. This allows the signal to be powerful enough to travel through the system. The mixer is operated by the A1.

Mixer The mixer (sometimes called the mixing console, sound board, audio mixer, or sound console) receives multiple audio signals, processes their individual signals, and creates a “mix” of the different signals to be outputted in different ways (Figure 9.4). It routes signals, sets volume levels, and affects the qualities of the audio signal. Most mixers receive a variety of different signals in a live performance: audio signals from the playback computer; multiple channels of audio from different instruments in the band; boundary

Equalizer An equalizer, or EQ, is a device used to affect the frequencies of a sound (Figure 9.5). This device can either boost or limit the types of sound frequencies in an audio signal, thereby

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Figure 9.4 A sound mixer with several different channels of control. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

Figure 9.5 A digital equalizer program, used on a computer to manipulate frequencies of sound.

changing the timbre. The control in your car that features “bass” and “treble” is a form of equalizer, allowing you to adjust the sound to be either lower or brighter. The EQ in a sound system does the same thing, but breaks down the audio signal on a much more complex level, allowing the adjustment of a wider range of frequencies. In today’s sound systems, the EQ might be a physical device or a computer program that digitally emulates the process of a traditional equalizer.

order to amplify the audio signal. Without an amplifer, the audio signal is not powerful enough to power a speaker and produce sound.

Speakers A speaker works in the opposite fashion of a microphone – taking an electrical signal and turning it into sound waves we can hear. Speakers come in many different varieties related to what frequency of sound they best produce. In general terms, speakers are categorized as either active or passive. In the simplest terms, passive speakers are speakers that require an external amplifer or powered mixer to work. In contrast, active speakers (sometimes referred to as “self-powered”) have built in amplifers in their speaker cabinet, so you can plug line-level signals directly into the back of the speaker and create sound. These speakers work well for on-location

Amplifier The amplifer is type of equipment used to increase the audio signals from the input sources from line-level to speakerlevel, an electrical signal powerful enough to drive a speaker. It is the last stop before the speaker and a requirement for any “passive” speaker (one without a built-in supply) to work. Amplifers must be plugged in to an external power source in 114

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events and have slightly bulkier cabinets, due to the additional hardware enclosed. One disadvantage to these speakers is the need to be plugged in to a power source near where the speaker will be positioned.

basic sound system would include a microphone and an audio playback device as inputs, a mixer to combine the signals into an output mix, an amplifer to boost the output signal, and a speaker to translate the audio signals into sound in the space. Figure 9.6 illustrates how such a system might work.

9.6 – Understanding Basic Signal Flow: Input/Output

9.7 – Sound Systems

Sound systems have a reputation for being confusing. Part of this is due to the fact that often no two systems are designed in exactly the same way. No matter the number of components added to a sound system, though, the same basic concepts apply. Audio signals start from an input source and proceed along the path until they reach the destination of the output (often speakers). This concept is known as signal fow, or how the audio gets from its source to the speakers and what happens to it along the way. Think of audio as a fow of water that travels along a series of pipes (audio cables) and through several different faucets (mixers, amps, etc.) along the way to its fnal destination of the speaker.

Sound systems are a combination of different pieces of audio equipment into a system used for a specifc purpose. When looking at sound systems, there are three distinct categories of use: recording systems, playback systems, and reinforcement systems. One or more of these systems might be present in a performance space. For our purposes, we will focus on computerized systems, as most sound recording, editing, and playback is now done on computers. A recording system is set up for the purpose of recording audio for playback at a later time. The main components of the system are a microphone, a computer running some type of sound editing software, and speakers or headphones for listening to the recording (Figure 9.7). There are hundreds of variations on a recording system, but these are the basic requirements to record audio.

For most audio devices, there is both an input that allows the audio signal in and an output that allows for the signal to be passed on to another device down the chain. An example of a

Figure 9.6 A simple signal fow diagram illustrating how different devices connect via inputs and outputs to pass the audio signal from its source to the fnal output of sound through speakers. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

Figure 9.7 A simple computer-driven recording system. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

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A playback system is a collection of audio equipment used to play back pre-recorded sound fles during a live performance. In the past, these sound recordings were saved on everything from reel-to-reel, to CDs, to mini-discs. Today, almost all live performance venues use some type of computer running a software system to play back audio fles. The audio signal is sent out from the computer and sometimes through additional audio equipment before ultimately outputting through the speakers. A common setup might have the audio going through the house mixer, into an EQ, and then out to the amplifers and speakers (Figure 9.8). Of course, each setup has its own specifc needs and rarely are any two systems exactly alike.

emotional responses, personal memories, imaginative storytelling, mood, and atmosphere for the listener, amongst other responses. For this reason, it is essential that the choreographer carefully consider the use of music when setting a piece, and the dancers and designers have the skills to effectively translate the musical language they experience into a visual form of movement and design. This section establishes a foundational vocabulary of musical properties used in discussing music and how it relates to dance, and discusses how these fundamentals affect the selection of music for dance.

The Fundamentals of Musical Sounds

A reinforcement system takes live sound and amplifes it in real time. A microphone picks up live audio and sends an audio signal to the mixer. This signal is combined with others into the mix, which is ultimately distributed to the house speakers. In addition to the house speakers, most dance setups include a foldback system, sometimes called a stage monitor system. The foldback system is a collection of speakers pointed onstage so that the dancers can hear the music and/or other aspects of the sound design.

Any substantive discussion of music and dance requires an understanding of some fundamental musical concepts, as each is directly connected to the ways in which listeners experience musical storytelling. The following list includes six fundamentals of music, as well as some key terminology associated with each concept. Before delving into these, it might be useful to begin with a brief discussion of sound as a phenomenon. Sound is the perception of an object vibrating that is transmitted through a medium (typically, the air around us). These vibrations travel through the air as a sound wave and strike our ears which causes a vibration in the eardrum that is then translated by our brains into what we know as sound. Sounds might be perceived as pleasant or unpleasant to the listener, based on their own personal and cultural experiences, preferences, and expectations. Over time, various cultures have created their own systems for explaining how sound best relates to music in their own cultural context. Though different groups may have differing expectations related to what sounds good or bad, the same properties of music can

It is important to recognize that in most theatres the playback system and reinforcement system are interconnected so that both pre-recorded and live sound can be played back from the same house speakers.

9.8 – Music for Dance The use of music for dance is so common that a dance performed without musical accompaniment often comes as a surprise to the audience. Music has the ability to evoke

Figure 9.8 A playback system outputting to six speakers. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

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be used to discuss these musical sounds and explore their meanings.

(the one) is strong, and the second is weaker. This creates a sensation of STRONG, weak, STRONG, weak . . . like a march. Other meters exist, like the triple meter with measures grouped into three beats (STRONG, weak, weak, STRONG, weak, weak . . .) which we associate with dance styles like the waltz. As you might guess, quadruple meter refers to a measure with groupings of four beats. As seen in other meters, the downbeat is typically the strongest, but there is often an additional stress on the third beat that is stronger than the second and fourth beats, but weaker than the downbeat. These are the most commonly used meters, but keep in mind that there are also compound meters that sub-divide the meter into smaller sections of beats as in (ONE, two, three, TWO, two, three, THREE, two, three, FOUR, two, three . . .).

1. Rhythm As mentioned previously, rhythm is one of the functions of sound design. In addition, it is the frst of the controllable qualities of music. Rhythm refers to the way that musical sounds are organized over a period of time, creating a pattern of strong and weak recurring beats, or pulses. When discussing rhythm, it is essential that we understand a few other key terms. The frst related term is beat, the regular and recurring pulse created by the musical notes or sounds. When someone claps their hands or stomps their feet in time with music, they are directly responding to the beat. Tempo is the term used to describe the speed of the music’s beat, from slow to fast. In musical terms, tempo is written at the beginning of a musical score and at key places where the tempo might change. Tempo is measured in beats per minute (bpm) and details precisely how many times one might tap their foot to the beat of the music in a one-minute timeframe. As a frame of reference, 60 bpm is considered slow, with 120 bpm being medium, and 240 bpm being quite fast. Often, musical scores might also include words to indicate the tempo. These words are in Italian, such as largo (very slow and broad), grave (very slow and solemn), adagio (slow), andante (a moderately slow walking pace), moderato (moderate, or medium pace), allegretto (moderately fast), allegro (fast), vivace (fast and lively), presto (very fast), or prestissimo (as fast as possible). Since tempo does not always remain consistent, there are also terms such as accelerando, the gradual quickening of tempo (getting faster over time), and ritardando, the gradual slowing of the tempo (slowing down over time).

In musical notation, meter is indicated by a time signature, two numbers written like a fraction to indicate how many beats are grouped per measure (this is the top number), and which note is counted as one beat (the bottom number). For instance, the most common time signature is 4/4, indicating that there are four beats in each bar (the top number) and the quarter note is counted as one beat. In other words, in 4/4 time, there are four quarter-note beats that make up each measure.

2. Pitch The second property, pitch, refers to the relative “highness” or “lowness” of a sound. As seen in Figure 9.1, pitch is connected to the frequency at which a sound vibrates, measured in hertz (Hz). Faster frequencies result in higher pitch sounds, whereas lower ones create lower pitches. In musical terms, pitch is communicated through a process called musical notation, the use of precise symbols called notes that have the ability to communicate pitch, duration, and relative intensity (loudness) of a musical tone. In the Western tradition, the various pitches are names by the frst seven letters in the alphabet (A B C D E F G).

Another important concept related to rhythm is meter, or the organization of beats into regular groups. In the Western music tradition, this refers to the grouping of sounds into a fxed number of beats called a measure. Measures can have any number of beats in them, but in the Western tradition they are most commonly groupings of 2, 3, or 4 beats. When a measure has 2 beats, it is referred to as duple meter. This means that we would count the measures as by saying “one, two, one, two, one, two . . .” Often, the frst beat of a bar of music is heard with an emphasis or “stress.” This is referred to as the downbeat. When counting duple meter, the frst beat

3. Melody Composers create musical statements by combining together a series of varying pitches arranged in succession referred to as melody. The distance between any two pitches is known as an interval. One simple way to understand melody and intervals is to envision a piano. The keys on the left of piano create lower pitches than those on the right. By playing

Figure 9.9 Some examples of musical time signatures – the top number indicating how many beats are grouped together per measure, and the bottom number indicating which note is counted as one beat.

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across a series of keys, you create a melody. The distance that your fngers pass from one key to another is the interval. A scale is a grouping of pitches arranged into ascending or descending patterns with specifc rules for selecting pitches and intervals. Western scales typically arrange seven discrete pitches in a specifc pattern of intervals called whole steps or half steps. By changing the pattern of intervals between notes the melody can communicate different emotional responses. Many musical scales in the West are grouped as major, a scale type that sounds happy, triumphant, and balanced, or minor, a scale type that sounds sad, scary, restless, or possibly angry.

is sometimes also referred to as “tone color.” Timbre is often affected by the material of the instrument making up the sound (i.e. is it made from wood, metal, plastic, fabric, etc.) and the object used to strike or play the instrument. This can explain how two similar instruments from different makers often have differences in timbre. Human voices also have dramatically different timbres when compared to one another. This is an important consideration when analyzing why one particular recording can sound so different from another. Often the timbre of a musical instrument can communicate emotions or human characteristics when used with dance. For instance, in the famous Dance of the Sugar Plum Fairies from The Nutcracker Suite, Tchaikovsky showcased a musical instrument called the celesta, a percussion instrument that resembles a piano but uses small hammers striking orchestra bells to make a sound like a music box. At the time this was a new instrument that had not been widely used, so the timbre of the celesta was a surprise for the audiences of the time. This unique sound was a perfect timbre to create the magical world of The Nutcracker and is still associated with feelings of child-like wonder to this day. Since timbre is so often associated with emotional responses, it is a good idea to take some time to consider what kinds of responses you have to sounds based on their timbre. You can use adjectives to describe these responses in the same way that you might discuss colors, temperature, appearances, or patterns. Words like sharp, abrasive, hollow, guttural, shimmery, tinny, piercing, warm, smooth, heavy, or delicate are just a few of the possible choices that can be used to describe the timbre of a musical sound.

When discussing melody, we often focus on the linear motion of the notes within the melody up and down the scale. This is referred to as melodic contour. When looking at melodic contour, we ask questions like: are the notes played in ascending (going up the scale) or descending (going down) order? Are the notes repetitive? Does the melody start and end on the same note? Are there small or large intervals between the notes in the melody? By examining the nature of melody within a musical selection, it allows us to better understand the music and decide how/if it affects our choices as dance artists and designers.

4. Harmony Whereas melody refers to the nature of pitches played in sequence, harmony deals with pitches played simultaneously and how we respond to them. Looked at in another way, melody can be viewed as a horizontal representation of pitch, whereas harmony is a vertical, stacked view. The combination of three or more pitches played together is called a chord, one of the basic units of harmony. Like scales, the arrangement of pitches in a chord can create different emotional responses. Some harmonies may feel stable, balanced, and pleasing to the ear. These are referred to as consonant. Other harmonies feature pitches that, when played together, feel unstable, grating, or tense. These are called dissonant. Understanding the basics of harmony is fundamental to viewing music as a type of language and understanding how to use it as a storytelling tool. Consider, for instance, how many composers and sound designers have used dissonant musical and sound choices for horror or suspense movies vs. the consonant harmonies favored in a love story. This is not an accidental occurrence, but rather a purposeful decision to use harmony to affect the mood of the viewer.

6. Dynamics The last fundamental, called dynamics, relates to the varying degrees of loudness of musical sounds. Similar to the discussion of rhythm, dynamics are notated on a musical score through the use of Italian words indicating the volume of a certain section or phrase of music. The most common indications are pianissimo (very soft), piano (soft), mezzo piano (medium soft), mezzo forte (medium loud), forte (loud), fortissimo (very loud). Though these are the most common terms for indicating dynamics, there are also some others occasionally used to indicate dynamics outside the range of pianissimo or fortissimo, such as pianississimo (ppp – very, very soft) or fortississimo (fff – very, very loud). Some composers have been known to even include their own extreme dynamic markings by adding on additional letters (i.e. pppp = very, very, very soft). In addition to these dynamic markings, there are a range of notations used to indicate changes in dynamics over time, such as crescendo (meaning gradually getting louder), decrescendo (gradually getting softer), fortepiano (loud, then softer),

5. Timbre As mentioned previously in this chapter, timbre is defned as the quality of a musical note or sound (distinct from its pitch, duration, or intensity) that distinguishes it from others. This 118

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syncopated rhythms of techno club music. In some instances, this juxtaposition may well work to communicate a particular intent from the choreographer, but it is not the expected choice given the differences in rhythm and tone. One question that informs how a choreographer works with music is “which comes frst?” In cases where the choreographer sets a dance to previously composed music, the music will likely affect many of the choreographic decisions like length of the dance, overall structure, and phrasing. A choreographer might decide to create a piece that directly corresponds with the musical style, for instance setting a waltz to a piece in 3/4 time, or they might dig deeper and envision a dance in which each dancer represents a specifc instrument or musical section. Balanchine’s choreography is often described as being deeply “musical,” allowing his work to function as a spatial representation of the musical accompaniment, with dance elements often emphasizing musical patterns, rhythms, harmony, and melody. Though there are no frm rules for what music must be used with dance, there have been obvious trends over time. Traditionally, ballet was performed with classical music composed specifcally for the ballet. It was not until the 20th century that we saw this tradition bucked by choreographers like Isadora Duncan. Still, classical Western music remains the most common choice for ballet accompaniment. For many dance styles, the name of the dance corresponds with the particular style of music since they were created to work together (i.e. jazz, mambo, bolero, famenco, swing, polka, etc.). Jazz, in particular, was a social dance style created by African American dancers and intrinsically linked to jazz music at the time of its creation. Like jazz music, jazz dance involved many similar foundations such as improvisation and call and response. Over time, the use of jazz music as accompaniment has been mostly replaced with pop, funk, and hip-hop music. Much of the modern dance of the 20th century was performed to the accompaniment of contemporary music, though it was equally common to see the use of silence, spoken word, electronic sound, or natural sounds. Cultural dances are almost always associated with a specifc musical style connected to the particular culture. It is highly uncommon to set a cultural dance to a different style of music than the one it was created for, as this will likely be received as cultural insensitivity and a refection of colonial practices (particularly if you are not a member of the culture in question).

Figure 9.10 Some common dynamics markings and their meanings.

or sforzando (a sudden accented note). Each of these terms also has a symbol used in the musical notation to indicate the dynamics, as seen in Figure 9.10. Dynamics are an important aspect of how music can convey emotional meaning and movement and should be closely observed by the choreographer and designers.

Connecting Music and Dance The selection of music to accompany a dance is a process unique to each choreographer. One could make the argument that any style of music could be set on any style of dance, but we must acknowledge a history of audience expectations for certain characteristics of music aligning with similar characteristics of dance. For instance, a lyrical dance piece with slow, graceful movements by the dancers might understandably seem out of placed when paired with the rapid,

When considering what style of music to pair with dance or vice versa, there are no frm rules. If you are trying to decide if a particular piece might work, however, looking at the fundamentals of music is a good starting place. Get a feel for the rhythm and tempo of the song. Is it fast or slow? Jumpy 119

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Blanket Licenses

or smooth? Also, what is the meter? As mentioned before, many dance styles were created to work in a particular meter, so this will likely help you decide. Consider the use of melody and harmony within the piece and take note of places where noticeable changes occur. When considering the “character” of a song or particular musical selection, don’t forget to pay particular attention to timbre (of the instruments, the particular recording, or different sound effects applied to the recording) and how it affects your response. Write down some adjectives that defne how the music makes you feel. These simple tips are a useful exercise for choreographers, composers, and sound designers alike. Keep in mind that the ultimate goal is storytelling and we must all work together to reinforce the choreographer’s intent.

Over the years, I have encountered a number of groups who mistakenly believe they are covered by a blanket license between their organization and one or more of the three performing rights organizations – ASCAP (The American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers), BMI (Broadcast Music, Inc.), or SESAC. While it is true that all three of these organizations license public performances of music in places like restaurants, gyms, and coffee shops, none of these organizations cover dramatic or “grand rights” performances. Grand rights performances are dramatic performances that involve the use of music to tell a story, or as part of the story plot. Since music is directly connected to the storytelling in dance, musical accompaniment always falls under grand rights. Regardless of a blanket license that your producing theatre or school may hold, dramatic/grand rights licenses can only be granted by the composer or publisher of the work.

9.9 – Legal Concerns Since dance is frequently set to music, one important area to consider is the legality of using music in your dance piece. Both compositions and recordings of music are generally covered by copyright, making it complicated to know if a piece of music is legal to use in your dance concert. Copyright law can be very confusing and is, in some ways, purposefully vague. This section will cover some basic considerations, but it is essential to always check on your own for copyright considerations. When in doubt, check with the publisher of the music in question to determine if its use is legal.

Live Performance It is illegal to perform a piece of music in a dramatic work without frst obtaining permission from the publisher who holds the rights to the song. The publisher’s name should be listed on any sheet music. If you cannot determine who holds the publishing rights, each of the three performing rights organizations has searchable databases of all music in their repertory. These can be found online at ASCAP (www.ascap. com), BMI (www.bmi.com.), or SESAC (www.sesac.com).

The Public Domain and Copyright

Use of Recordings

Works of art whose copyright is expired, forfeited, or inapplicable are said to be in the public domain. Those works are generally free for use. The problem can be in determining if a work of art is indeed in the public domain. Adding to the confusion is the fact that copyright laws vary from country to country, so a work might be considered in the public domain for one country and not for another. Most music written in the 20th and 21st centuries is not in the public domain and, therefore, must be licensed for performance.

The publisher only holds the rights to license a live performance of their work, not the use of an audio recording. To use a recording, you must receive permission from the recording company and, at times, the original artist. It is important to consider that, even though a particular song can be in the public domain, the recording of that song is still held under copyright by the recording company. As with a live performance, use of audio recordings in a dance production is considered grand rights.

Music is intellectual property in the same way as choreography. As such, copyright law protects it for a defned period of time. For a public performance of a dance work that uses music under copyright, the dance company needs to get a license from the publisher. To fnd out about licensing, contact the publisher and inquire about securing a contract to use the music. The cost of using music varies depending on the size of the theatre, the amount of the song used, the number of performances, and other special considerations.

Arrangements of Music Musical arrangement is the re-working of a piece of music so it can be performed in a different orchestration than originally written. Sometimes a company might be tempted to hire a musician to simply create a new arrangement and/or recording of a song, believing this circumvents copyright issues. Legally, the arrangement of a copyrighted song is considered duplication. As such, permission must be obtained from the copyright owner

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for writing an arrangement of the song. For works in the public domain, though, arrangements can be made and recorded, since the original artists hold no copyright protection.

any necessary permissions well in advance of the performance or recording, as it can prove to be a lengthy process.

Synchronization (Sync) Licensing

9.10 – Chapter Review

As mentioned in Chapter 6, there are specifc rules regarding the use of copyrighted materials used in video. The use of music for a streamed dance performance, dance flm, or live-distanced performance can require a number of difference licenses. Typical licenses required might include synchronization (sync) license(s), giving permission to use audio along with video in an audio/visual work; master use license(s) giving the right to use an original sound recording made popular by an artist; and public performance license(s) granting permission to play a song in public, whether live or online. Make sure to check on

In dance, perhaps more so than other felds, it is essential that the participants have an awareness of the process and technique that goes into creating sound for the stage. The choreographer makes decisions that affect the selection of music, musicians, composers, and sound designers. In understanding how sound contributes to the overall production and the use of equipment to create an immersive sound environment, the collaborative process can be both refreshing and productive.

Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What is the role of the composer? What is the role of the sound designer? Describe the different meanings of the term reinforcement. What term is used to describe the movement of sound from one speaker to another? What types of microphones are commonly used in dance? What does an EQ do? Describe the setup of a playback system, describing components and their function. What is a foldback system? What are grand rights? Describe some of the legal challenges in using music with dance.

Project 9–1: Learning to Listen While most people have strong feelings about music, it is commonly the case that we go through our day-to-day lives without paying attention to the sounds occurring around us in any given moment. Sound designers are often required to create “soundscapes” or collections of sounds to create an environmental feel to a dance or a given moment within. Before setting out on this type of an undertaking, it is a good idea to spend some time acclimating yourself to the process of actively listening to the world around you. This process of learning to listen is an important undertaking for those working in or with sound and music. For the following project, situate yourself in an environment where you can give your full attention to the world around you. Sit and listen for at least a ten-minute period and take note of any sounds that occur around you, dividing them into the following three categories. You will likely be surprised by the amount of different sounds that combine to create the soundscape around you. 1. Natural sounds – wind, rain, snow falling, creaking trees, leaves 2. Living sounds – people moving, speaking, bird sounds, crickets, dogs barking, movement in the underbrush 3. Mechanical sounds – those made by or relating to machines or tools (fans, compressors, doors (locks, doorknobs, hinges), air conditioners/heating, alarms, music, keys clacking . . .

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CHAPTER 10

Creating the Sound Design

For many years, sound was the domain of the choreographer and technicians. Unless the dance was to be performed in a ballet setting with a resident orchestra, it was (and in many cases, still is) taken for granted the choreographer would either make arrangements for live accompaniment or provide the pre-recorded music. Typically, a house technician would take this music and load it into the playback system for the tech process. While this method is certainly one possibility, it does remove collaboration from the process and adds one more responsibility onto the choreographer’s plate. Whenever possible, it makes sense to hire a sound designer to create and implement sound for the dance production. Understanding that every production does not always have the means to employ a professional designer, it is common in smaller dance companies for the choreographer to work on some aspects of sound. The following chapter details many of the steps common to creating a sound design and should serve as a useful primer for both those serving as or collaborating with a sound designer.

10.1 – Working with the Choreographer Sound designers work closely with the choreographer to ensure the sound integrates seamlessly with the dance. Unlike some of the other production areas, it is likely that the choreographer will not be used to working with a sound designer or, if they are, that their previous experience was a unique one, developed through personal interaction with another sound designer. One of the most important steps in a new collaborative partnership is to determine the nature of the working relationship and individual expectations.

Setting Goals As previously mentioned, it is useful to approach any new collaboration with an open mind and an expectation of determining the goals of the partnership. The following list is

Talking About Your Dance 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

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Describe in two to three sentences what you want your dance to communicate. Is your dance in one piece, or are there distinctly different “movements” or sections within the dance? If there are different sections of the dance, how do they differ from one another? Is music used in your dance? If so, is it pre-existing, or do you need original music composed for the dance? Do you need to secure rights for using music in the performance? Will the music be performed live, from a recording, or a mix of both? In what way do you see sound used for this production (live sound made by dancers, soundscape, interactive sound effects, etc.)? Is there a need for microphones to reinforce the sound? Are there specifc technical needs of your dance related to sound?

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-13

Creating the Sound Design

useful in framing your discussions about the dance and sound elements. Whether working with a collaborator or doing the work on your own, you will fnd that these questions are useful in thinking about and discussing how sound works with the dance.

• Will projection be involved as a design element? If so, do sound and moving images need to be synced? • Does the theatre have a dedicated headset system for communications, or will one need to be provided? • Does the conductor need to have a clear view of the stage/ do the dancers need to see the conductor for cueing purposes? • How many people will require headsets and where will they be located?

Practical Concerns The following section includes a number of questions that address practical concerns. Without asking the right questions, an important issue can be overlooked during the pre-production period. Most often it is a simple case of assumptions leading to misunderstandings. These instances commonly arise in the theatre during the tech period when, by this point, it is often too late to accommodate changes without affecting other members of the team. By thinking ahead and asking the right questions, you can save both time and money. The choreographer may not initially have the answers to all of these questions, but it is essential to start the discussion early.

10.2 – Communicating the Design One of the challenges in sound design is the diffculty in describing sound. For most people, hearing is the best communication method for ideas related to sound. This can lead to a challenging collaborative model, as it is diffcult to play the sound that will be heard in the performance space without actually being in the space itself. For this reason, it is essential that the sound designer employ methods to assure that the choreographer truly understands the intent of their sound design. The following section details some of the many approaches to communicating the sound design idea for other members of the production team.

• Is this a new piece or a remount? • If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that are important to reproduce? • Who will be providing the music? • If music is performed live, when will the musicians set up? • Will a conductor/music director be used? • Are the live musicians/conductor union members? • Will the musicians require sound reinforcement (i.e. microphones)? • Do you need original music composed for the dance? If so, will it be written before or following choreography? • Do you have a composer to write the music or will the sound designer be composing? • Will there be a need for recording any audio? • Is there a budget for recording and editing the sound? • At what point will the dance be fully choreographed?

Music/Sound Samples The best method for communicating the sound design is to provide samples for the choreographer. It is a good idea to share these ideas with the choreographer as soon as possible. The process of creating a sample is a balancing act between providing enough quality recorded music/sound to be representative of the design, without having created so much of the fnal product that it becomes counterproductive to start over should it not meet the needs of the production. These days, there are a number of different digital methods for sharing the sound fles. Email is always an option, but keep in mind that audio fles can be quite large and certain forms of fle compression will decrease the audio quality.

FYI: All Speakers Are Not Equal One pitfall to be aware of is the use of smartphones or laptops in listening to music. These types of devices have lower-quality speakers with a small dynamic range that will sound very “fat” and heavy on the middle range. I always send along a note when distributing audio fles to remind

the listener to use external speakers or, ideally, higher quality earmuff-style headphones for listening to music. It makes a huge difference in the overall sound quality and, as a result, helps eliminate any confusing questions about “is it going to sound that way?”

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Online fle storage platforms like Dropbox or Google Drive are useful as the fle can remain private unless a link is shared with a collaborator. Another service, SoundCloud, is an online audio distribution platform that allows sound creators to upload and share streaming sound fles. This eliminates the need for download time and ensures that digital fles will never be taken without permission. Likewise, if the designer hosts a website, the fle could simply be placed on their personal website with a link shared to the choreographer.

and paperwork that clearly communicates each component of the sound system and all of the information necessary for setting it up correctly. This collection of drawings and paperwork is assembled into one document complete with numbered pages and labeling referred to as the design package (or sometimes the document package). The design package should have a cover sheet, or title page, including a title block with all necessary show information (production name, producers, choreographer/director, designers, draftsperson, venue, disclaimers, contact information, date), a table of contents, and a legend, or “key,” to identify any symbols or layout conventions used inside of the design package.

Design Paperwork: The Sound Plot When planning for a sound design it is helpful to create an outline of how the designer envisions the sound design working. This outline, called the sound plot, gives the basic ideas, like number of sound cues, description of the sound cue, and placement within the context of the dance (Figure 10.1). The sound plot is intended to function as a living document that changes over time. In the initial stages, it serves as a communication tool as well as the roadmap for what is required of the design. As the sound design gets closer to production, the designer will often distill some of the information from the sound plot into a new document called the cue sheet, which is more specifcally concerned with the information used for programming and troubleshooting sound cues: such as cue length, audio device routing, speaker assignment and levels, fades, notes, and any specialty programming information used in conjunction with the playback software.

It is important to recognize that every sound system is unique and, as such, each design package will vary in size and number of required graphics and paperwork. At minimum, every sound package should include a sound block diagram, plan and elevation draftings showing the placement of all loudspeakers, and necessary paperwork to indicate routing for any digital signal paths. The following section includes detailed information about common design graphics, draftings, and paperwork that might be included in a design package.

Design Graphics: System Block Diagrams The system block diagram (sometimes called an SBD, “one-line,” or “schematic”) is a design drawing created to communicate all of the components in a sound system, how they are physically (and digitally) interconnected, and any specifc information necessary for implementing the system design. A system block diagram uses geometric blocks and symbols to represent pieces of equipment with lines drawn between representing any cables interconnecting these separate components. Unlike many other types of theatrical draftings, it is not drafted in scale. The block diagram is an essential tool for communicating the layout of a sound system for those setting it up. Traditionally speaking, the

The Design Package In an ideal working scenario, the designer should not be expected to set up the sound system, but rather have one or more technicians working to set up the system and all necessary equipment so the designer can focus on the business of designing. In order to facilitate this, the designer must generate a collection of drawings, diagrams,

Figure 10.1 A preliminary sound plot. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Figure 10.2 A simple sound diagram, featuring multiple inputs and outputs. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

system block diagram reads from left to right with sound sources and inputs shown on the left and audio destinations/ outputs on the right, though this is not always the case with some digital connections that communicate bi-directionally. The SBD does not indicate the exact amount of cabling, but instead is a simple-to-follow diagram any sound technician should be able to use when setting up the sound system, showing placement of equipment and how elements interconnect. Figure 10.2 is a sample sound diagram for a simple sound system.

respective design packages. Before delving into these drafting types, though, there are three terms that are essential to understanding draftings; plan view, section view, and elevation. Each of these terms indicates the perspective from which the drafting is drawn: • Plan view: Drafted from an overhead view of an object • Section view: Drafted from a side view • Elevation: Drafted from a front or rear view For sound design, the most common drafting is the loudspeaker plot, a plan view including the theatre (both stage and auditorium) and all other design elements of the show (scenery, lighting, projection, architecture, etc.) as well as the placement of all speakers, hardware, cable paths, and power components needed to execute the sound system. Everything should be drafted to scale in order to determine if your equipment will ft within the confnes of the space and other design elements. Most audio manufacturers provide free CAD symbols for their equipment that can be inserted into drafting applications. Loudspeaker plots often include a representation of the angles of sound emitted from each speaker, useful in determining the number and placement of necessary speakers in a system design.

Design Draftings: Plan, Section, and Elevation Views Most designers working in live events must create draftings, highly specifc and detailed technical drawings executed as two- or three-dimensional views, and created through the use of mechanical tools. Historically, these were hand-drafted with the use of tools like T-squares, triangles, compasses, and templates. These days, most designers and draftspersons use computer aided drafting (CAD) software like AutoCAD or Vectorworks to generate draftings on the computer before printing them out. Each design department has a collection of drafting types that are expected to be included in their

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sheet is a spreadsheet-style chart that lists all performers onstage and when they need microphones. This document is often color-coded and is a useful tool for determining how many microphones are required at what times.

In addition to the loudspeaker plan, other design draftings might include: a sound section view, a scale drawing of the performance space from the side view showing speaker placement and sound equipment in the vertical plane; and an elevation, or front-view of the performance space including any pertinent audio equipment. Most sound draftings require getting draftings from other areas, like the scenic design ground plans and the lighting plot, since everyone has to share the same space and work together. A loudspeaker plot, for instance, is often drafted directly on top of a scenic design ground plan to better understand how the different areas can work together. Subsequent chapters on scenery and lighting have detailed descriptions of drafting types that can be referenced for more information. Keep in mind that sound draftings are important information to share with the entire production team, as the placement of speakers can affect a number of elements, such as dance traffc patterns, scenery and lighting placement, and more.

Another essential element of sound design paperwork is the microphone tracking sheet, another chart that lists important information about each wireless microphone including: mic number, mic frequency, dancer name, character name, mic type, transmitter type, receiver type, cable/ microphone color, specifc notes about how each microphone is rigged for the dancer (i.e. over the ear, forehead mount, in a crown, etc.). Since this document is often used to track the individual frequencies of the wireless microphones, it is sometimes referred to as an RF (radio frequency) tracking sheet.

Rehearsal Music One fnal element to consider when communicating the design is rehearsal music. If the dancers will be using music created or arranged by the sound designer, it is important to get accurate rehearsal music early in the rehearsal process. Since choreography can heavily depend on the music, it is vitally important that this rehearsal music be as close as possible to the accompaniment used for the dance performance. Should the choreographer use an arrangement that differs, it can be diffcult to adjust once in the space. Check with the choreographer to see what type of playback system is in the rehearsal studio so that the appropriate media can be provided and always be certain to give suffcient lead time for the choreographer to listen to the music before heading into rehearsals.

Design Paperwork: Cue Sheets A cue is any element of the sound design that needs to be triggered by an operator, like music or sound effects. As the design process moves closer to technical rehearsals, the sound designer needs to begin determining the number and types of cues needed for their design. A cue sheet (sometimes called a cue list) is a form that breaks down the design into a chronological listing of all of the cues that will be called by the stage manager. The cue sheet can be organized in different ways, but the most common approach is a spreadsheet layout using columns and rows to track the information. Important considerations are cue number, description/prompt (what happens onstage that motivates calling a cue), timing (how long it takes for the action to occur), and routing (which speakers play the sound), though there may well be a number of other areas included. A cue sheet is an essential tool for the designer, programmers, the stage manager, and board operators.

10.3 – Sound Editing and Composition Tools There are a number of different computer applications that aid in the process of creating and editing sound and music. Sound designers use one or more specialized music production applications called a digital audio workstation or DAW, for short. A DAW is used in combination with other musical and audio tools for recording and editing audio, using virtual instruments (digital plug-ins that replicate the sound of traditional instruments), creating effects, processing to audio fles, or mixing and mastering audio tracks. A typical setup might be a computer running a DAW connected to a sound mixer with microphones and instruments for live recording, and some type of external device (like a MIDI keyboard) for inputting musical note data to virtual instruments.

In addition to playback cue sheets, there might also be mixing cue sheets provided to the sound engineer running the sound mixer during the performance. These cue sheets are specially designed to include information about preset levels and effects on the audio mixer that change during the live performance.

Design Paperwork: Performer/Microphone Tracking If a sound design includes wireless microphones, then sound documentation will likely be required in the form of performer and microphone tracking schedules. A performer tracking

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FYI: MIDI MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) is a digital language that allows musical instruments to communicate with each other, thereby allowing one instrument to control another. Instead of being a musical recording, the MIDI signal is a numeric set of code arranged to send

instructions from one device to another. Within a short time of its introduction to the market in the 1980s, digital musicians quickly branched out to using MIDI with other types of digital devices like personal computers. Today, the MIDI keyboard is a staple in every studio.

There are a number of different DAWs on the market, each with its own strengths and weaknesses. One of the great dividers of such software is whether it can be used on a Mac or PC. Many can only work on one particular operating system. In addition to operating systems, some software is better suited to recording and editing sound, whereas others excel as digital recording applications for use with MIDI instruments for creating music. When assessing which application is best for your needs, frst determine how you need to use a DAW for your project. The most common uses for a DAW fall into four basic categories: • • • •

on both Windows and macOS operating systems and is widely used for sound recording, editing, and mastering processes. Pro Tools made a name for itself in the early days of DAWs as an application provided for “free” with the purchase of specialized audio interfaces and devices. Today, the application is available in a number of different licensing models from a perpetual license to a subscription model, as well as a streamlined free version. Since Pro Tools is developed by Avid, a huge audio/video company, you can be assured that there is an entire array of audio/video applications, hardware, interfaces, and control surfaces, and musical notation products designed to seamlessly work together. That said, the cost of these products might price out those on a smaller budget.

Sound recording/editing Music creation/editing (virtual instruments) Music creation/editing (loops/sequencing) Mixing/mastering

For those in need of a more affordable option, consider Audacity, a free, open source, multichannel audio recording/ editing application for Windows, macOS, GNU/Linux, and other operating systems. The software was started as a project in 2000 and has gone on to be downloaded hundreds of millions of times. As a free and open-source program, it is incredibly popular in educational settings and a serviceable tool for most standard audio editing, though it is not as robust a tool as other paid applications, especially where virtual instruments and loops are involved.

Sound Recording/Editing One of the more common uses for a DAW is for recording and editing of sound fles. Every DAW has the ability to record audio, with the limitation being the number and type of inputs available on your computer or connected audio devices. Most computers have a microphone port, though most sound designers use external digital audio devices connected to their computer, like a sound mixer or audio interface. One common attribute of most DAWs is multichannel audio, meaning the ability to record and/or combine multiple individual audio fles (called tracks) playing simultaneously into a mix-down, each with the ability to be discretely edited. This means that the DAW can record or play back multiple audio fles simultaneously, each with separate effects, routing, volume, etc. applied to it. Some of the most common tools used in producing sound for dance are: splitting/shortening an audio track, adding fade-ins/fade-outs, speeding up or slowing down audio fles, and adding audio effects.

Music Creation/Editing (Virtual Instruments) If you make music with a computer, chances are good that you will do so through the help of a virtual instrument. Sometimes called a software instrument, a virtual instrument is a type of software or plug-in that emulates the performance of other types of musical sounds – from an analog or digital synthesizer, to an acoustic instrument, or even a human voice. Most virtual instruments work as a plug-in controlled within the DAW, though there are some designed to be used for standalone live performance. A MIDI device (like a keyboard or drum pad) captures the musical information created by a performer such as note value, velocity (how hard the key is struck), duration (how long the key is held down), sustain, and more. This information is converted into numerical data inputted

One of the most common DAWs used for recording and editing high-fdelity audio is Avid’s Pro Tools, long a staple of professional recording studios. This application is available

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into the DAW which the virtual instrument then translates into musical sound outputted through speakers or headphones.

for recordings with multiple different audio sources. In most cases, a fnished recording uses multiple tracks and takes of different audio recordings and composites them together into a fnal recording with each track mixed to the appropriate levels, routing, and effects. The process of editing and combining all of these different tracks together is referred to as mixing. The goal of mixing is to polish the recording and make certain each individual component sounds good when played together, taking into consideration elements like volume, pan, timbre, dynamics, and harmony. Keep in mind that different mixes might need to be created for different sound systems, taking into account considerations like number and type of speakers or other components. Mixing can be accomplished using any multichannel DAW.

There are a few programs considered industry standards in digital music creation. Two of the more popular are Steinberg’s Cubase, and Apple’s Logic Pro. Cubase is the DAW that frst created the VST (virtual studio technology) in the form of virtual studio instrument (VSTi) and virtual studio effects (VSTfx) plug-ins used to emulate well-known synthesizers, instruments, and audio effects. This technology was soon adopted by most DAWs, which opened the door to third-party manufacturing of virtual instruments. Apple’s Logic Pro is a DAW originally developed in Germany and later purchased by Apple. Unlike most other DAWs, Logic is designed to only work with macOS. Both Cubase and Logic have the ability to record and edit audio fles, but also offer extended functions for recording and editing with virtual instruments. Both come with a pre-installed library of virtual instruments and support the use of third-party ones, allowing the user to play hundreds of different instruments all from the touch of the same MIDI interface.

Sound Playback Software As mentioned in the previous chapter, most modern performance spaces use a computer for sound playback purposes. While there are a number of different applications that can play music, the majority of professional playback systems use one of two programs for playback: QLab or SFX.

Music Creation/Editing (Sequencing/Loops)

QLab, made by Figure 53, is a complete show control software package for macOS that can be used for sound, projection, lighting, and controlling other devices in your system. The software allows users to save media fles into a cue list for playback. Once the show is programmed, an operator simply presses the GO button to progress from one cue to another in the cue list. At the time of writing this book, QLab is all but ubiquitous for sound playback in theatrical settings. One of the primary complaints of QLab is the lack of support for the Windows OS, as the software is Mac-exclusive.

One of the more common functions of a DAW is sequencing, or looping. A sequencer is a digital tool used to arrange notes or sounds together to make a sequence that can be repeated. In the original sequencers, musical data was played on a MIDI keyboard which was saved onto the device’s internal memory for playback. Over time, live audio was added so sounds from the world around you could be recorded and blended together with the MIDI sounds. Today, most sequencing is done inside of the DAW itself, using a plug-in or toolset. The idea behind a sequencer is creating a sequence of notes and sounds that can be looped, or repeatedly played over a fxed duration (e.g. an eight-bar drum loop). Most modern music producers use loops as a component of their recordings, particularly those working in electronic dance music (EDM), hip-hop, and club music. In addition to recording sequences of your own, many DAWs come with a built-in library of loops. Ableton Live is one of the most popular DAWs for sequencing/looping and has an intuitive interface for creating loops and adjusting them on the fy. Apple’s Logic Pro and GarageBand (an entry-level program that comes free with all Mac computers, featuring similar yet streamlined functions to Logic) also both come with an extensive library of royalty-free loops called Apple Loops.

SFX is a Windows-based solution for live entertainment sound playback. It operates in a cue list fashion, similar to QLab. Within the cue list, the programmer can insert sound or MIDI cues, create groups, set the volume of the audio, and more. In the early days of computerized sound playback, SFX was the undisputed application of choice for live theatrical events. Today, QLab is much more commonly used. One of the main benefts of sound playback software over older systems is the ability to play multiple cues concurrently. With enough processing power on your computer, there is the potential for playing back dozens of cues at the same time from the touch of a button. In addition, a computerized system can eliminate the need for more costly analog audio equipment, making quality playback a possibility for even the smallest of dance companies.

Mixing Audio A sound designer does not simply press record and get the perfect take that you hear in the theatre, especially

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work. Always take the time to test the equipment before going into the theatre to cue. It is a waste of valuable cueing time to have to troubleshoot equipment malfunctions.

10.4 – Preparing for Technical Rehearsals

Quiet Time

Since so many people depend on sound for the tech process, it is essential that the sound designer and anyone else involved in music and sound aspects be prepared before going into tech. The following section details some of the many steps involved in planning for the tech period and preparing the design.

Another consideration when going into the theatre is the need for quiet time. Frequently this is overlooked and leads to frustrations on the part of the sound designer and others sharing the space. Often, lighting and sound will be in the space setting up at the same time. This is fne for installing equipment and running tests. Once the process of cueing begins, however, the theatre needs to be free of distracting sounds in order to properly set levels. If the sound designer has not previously arranged for quiet time, it will lead to a day of frustrations as he/she will constantly be yelling for others to keep it down. If a true quiet time cannot be scheduled, then make sure to communicate with any others in the space before your time slot that cueing will be going on and there will be requests for “quiet in the house.” Likewise, this calls for understanding on your part when others must make noise in order to achieve their goals.

Preparing to Cue Heading into tech, there should be time set aside for the sound designer to write cues, set levels, and experiment with the sound system. One of the mistakes made by many young designers is failing to properly prepare for this process. If you are not ready to work when coming into the theatre space, it is a waste of time and money and can lead to many frustrations along the way. Though each project has a different set of parameters, there are some basic questions you can ask yourself before heading into the theatre to make sure you are ready.

Music Rehearsals If the dance will have live musical accompaniment, scheduling a time slot for a musical rehearsal is a good idea. This is especially important if using microphones for reinforcement. Once musicians are brought in, they become a regular part of the company, including the payroll. For this reason, many producers prefer to hold off as long as possible before bringing in the musicians. This often means waiting until the day before or even until dress rehearsals to incorporate live accompaniment. The musicians will arrive having rehearsed the music on their own and ready to play. This means that musical rehearsals must be meticulously planned with every element in place for the musicians’ arrival.

Is Everything Set Up? This may seem like a loaded question, but it is essential information as you prepare for working in the space. Since the sound designer may not be the one to set up all of the equipment, it is a good idea to make a checklist of all the necessary equipment. This should include all speakers, mixers, computers and playback equipment, and signal processing equipment (EQ, digital delay, etc.). One of the things most frequently overlooked is the communication system. In many theatres these headsets are the responsibility of the sound department. Make sure of the correct number and placement for the system. In addition, make sure that there are a few replacements available and quickly accessible should anything go wrong during the tech period. Alongside audio communication, sometimes video components fall into the purview of the sound designer. When the conductor cannot see the stage or cannot be seen clearly from the stage, closed circuit video feeds might become necessary. Though this is not audio, most union settings have included video monitors as an expectation of the sound system since it is most often connected to the orchestra.

When preparing for a musical rehearsal, always speak with the conductor or musicians beforehand to determine their needs. Common requirements are a conductor’s podium, music stands, clip lights for the stands, chairs, electrical supply for powered equipment, and enough cabling to meet any confguration of players. This typically means working in conjunction with the lighting department to determine power distribution and cabling. Another important consideration is the placement of the musicians for the performance. In an ideal confguration, the conductor will have a clear line of sight to the stage. If this is impossible, it is the responsibility of the sound department to set up a video monitor system with a live feed of the stage sent to a video monitor for the conductor. If the conductor will be giving cues to the dancers, a video monitor would be set up with a feed of the conductor sent to a video

It seems that it should go without saying, but one of the most common mistakes is in setting up equipment without properly testing its use. Simply setting up the equipment to the designer’s specifcations does not guarantee that it will

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monitor for the dancers. This type of system is much more common for musical theatre or interactive dance in which the musicians and dancers work in conjunction.

used. In many circumstances, this means adding some time at the beginning of the call to have the musicians playing while the sound technicians adjust levels. Many things can change from day to day with audio equipment and live performance, so it is important to regularly factor these checks into your schedule.

Another important consideration is the need for scheduling a sound check and for the performance if live musicians will be

FYI: American Federation of Musicians The American Federation of Musicians (AFM) is the largest organization in the world dedicated to representing the interests of professional musicians. One of the roles of AFM is in collective bargaining, creating performance contracts between performance spaces and union members. Some theatres, particularly those in larger metropolitan areas, have contractual agreements with the union that establishes rules regarding issues such as pay rates, workweek, number of musicians, and more. One of the

most common issues concerns the use of pre-recorded music for live performance. A theatre with a contract with AFM cannot use pre-recorded music, as is eliminates the need for live musicians at the performance. Likewise, performances featuring AFM musicians cannot be recorded, reproduced, or transmitted in any way without specifc written agreement from the union. Special care should be taken by all parties to ensure that the dance production operates within the bounds of the union agreement.

set up an additional time for her to listen to the sound and music, once programmed. Speaking of practical concerns, time constraints often lead to the choreographer hearing the sound for the frst time during tech. 3. The tech table. It is a common practice for all members of the creative team to have their own specifc work areas in the auditorium, called a tech table. A tech table is a position set up in the auditorium from which the creative team can work. The tech table allows the designers to see and hear their work from the vantage point of the audience, rather than from the control booth, which is often far away from the stage and at an awkward viewing angle. Typically, there will be multiple tech tables set up for different departments. The position of the table is important to the sound designer so that she can hear the sound from the audience’s perspective. Unlike some other departments, the sound tech table rarely includes the sound equipment since audio mixers and playback systems tend to require much more cabling to reposition. Commonly, the sound designer will create a network connection between the sound designer’s laptop at the tech table and the playback system. Once connected, the computer can screen share allowing the designer to see and control the screen of the playback computer from the comfort of the tech table. This setup allows the designer to hear the show from the house while viewing and controlling the system as necessary. The tech table should be equipped with a headset for communication

Cueing the Show Cueing the show is one of the most important steps in creating sound design. It is also one of the last steps in the design process. Like many other steps in the design process, cueing is a personal approach arrived at by years of experience on the part of the designer. The sound designer should enter into this process being fully familiar with the dance piece and with a plan of attack for creating cues. Listed below are a few considerations that apply to most cueing sessions. 1. Pre-programming. Depending on the type of equipment available to the designer, much of the work can be done outside of the theatre space. For instance, it is common to pre-program cues into the playback software before heading into the theatre so that once in the space the designer has to only load up the cues and set levels for the space. This process is strongly encouraged, as it allows for time in the space to be dedicated to fne-tuning, rather than starting from scratch. 2. Working with the choreographer. The sound designer should determine in advance the expectations for working with the choreographer in the theatre. Do they want to hear the sound in the theatre before bringing dancers into the space? If so, it might be useful to spend time in the theatre programming without the choreographer and then

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purposes, though it is common that the sound designer will only wear the headset when they need to talk to someone, as the headset inhibits their ability to hear the performance. 4. What to bring? When moving into the theatre, it is important to consider what things you will want on-hand at the tech table. It is always wise to think ahead so that you don’t fnd yourself having to leave to get something from home. A well-equipped tech table should include: • • • • • •

In addition, it is important to set levels in conjunction with any live music that will be playing during the dance. Some levels, like boundary mics for the stage, can only be roughly set before tech rehearsals. It will be important to take time to get a good mix once everything is combined together for the frst time.

Technical Rehearsals The structure of technical rehearsals varies from company to company. The purpose of the technical rehearsal is for all of the technical elements to be combined together with the dance. If the designer has done a good job of preparing to this point and spent time in the space before tech rehearsals, the process should mostly involve working with stage management to ensure proper calling of cues and making minor adjustments, as necessary. Of course, live performance is unpredictable and it is possible that unexpected problems may arise during the tech period. It is essential to remain fexible and willing to make changes as necessary for the good of the production. All of the design elements must work together to create a cohesive whole. The designer must be prepared to cut elements that do not work within the context of the production. With open communication throughout the pre-production process, though, these surprises should be kept to a minimum.

•

Your cue sheet Pencils and scrap paper All design paperwork A fashlight A stopwatch A laptop including your DAW and all sound fles used in the show Earmuff-style headphones (should you need to create/ edit sound in the space) Microphone/feld recorder with a built-in microphone Varying cables A portable hard drive and thumb drives for backup and fle transport Surge-protected power strips Snacks Water

• • • • • •

5. Programming the playback computer. Though some of the programming will likely be done outside of the theatre, there are certain elements that will have to be done in the space. When programming the playback software, the designer will frst add audio fles into the cue list. The audio fle will then be assigned to output to certain speakers within the sound system. For simple playback of an audio fle, this will suffce. If playback control is needed (fading a fle, stopping, pausing, etc.) a cue must be added to effect that change. Because of the nature of this programming, a seemingly simple sound design can still employ hundreds of cues. Keep this in mind when scheduling time in the space. 6. Setting levels. When setting volume levels for a dance production, always keep in mind that an audience will absorb some of the sound, so levels should be set a little higher than what is intended for the performance.

10.5 – Chapter Review The role of the sound designer requires a diverse skillset and an ability to collaborate well with a wide range of people. The job requires a person to be part musician, part composer, part designer, and technician. Since sound is such an essential part of the dance process, the sound designer’s role is highly infuential related to movement and choreography. Through research, paperwork, planning, composing/editing, and reinforcement, the sound designer combines together various auditory elements to create a cohesive sound design. Through a study of the sound design process, we gain an increased appreciation for the job of the designer and his/her role within the production.

Review Questions 1. How does a sound plot differ from a sound score? 2. What information is included on a sound diagram?

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What is a mixing cue sheet used for? What does DAW stand for? What does MIDI stand for? What two playback programs are commonly used for dance? Why is quiet time essential for writing cues? Why would the sound department need to set up a video monitor system? What is AFM and why does it sometimes affect music in dance? What is normally at the sound tech table?

Project 10–1: Thinking Like a Sound Designer As a dancer or choreographer, the preferred method of communication is the visual. For sound designers, the only communication method available is what is heard. In order to get into the mindset of a sound designer, this project will ask you to tell a story through the use of music and sound. Listed below is a collection of storytelling elements. For your project, combine together three of the elements into one story sequence. For each of the three sequences in your story, pick a sound or musical selection that communicates the feeling of the sequence and reinforces the storytelling. Keep in mind the properties of sound design (volume, pitch, sound quality, direction, movement, and mix) when making your selection.

Storytelling Elements • • • • • • • • • • • • • • •

Awaking in the morning Meeting an old friend Sleeping under the stars Being caught out in a storm Losing a loved one Remembering a childhood memory Getting lost Laughing at yourself Being chased Discovering a new place Taking a risk Making a new friend Learning a secret Falling in love Feeling trapped

The Sound Designer’s Perspective: An Interview with Sam Crawford Sam Crawford is a professional sound designer and musician located in New York City who works in a number of different areas of the entertainment industry. He completed degrees in English and Audio Technology at Indiana University in 2003. A move to New York City led him to Looking Glass Studios where he worked on flm projects with Philip Glass and Björk. His recent sound designs and compositions have included works for the Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane Dance Company, Kyle Abraham/ Abraham.In.Motion, and David Dorfman Dance. He currently holds positions as both Sound Supervisor for the Bill T. Jones/

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Arnie Zane Dance Company and Music Director for David Dorfman Dance. In addition, he also plays lap steel and banjo in various groups, including Bowery Boy Blue (Brooklyn) and Corpus Christi (Rome). I contacted Sam to answer a few questions related to designing sound for dance productions.

To a lot of people, the job of a sound designer is probably a bit enigmatic. Can you tell us your personal job description of a dance sound designer? To me, a dance sound designer is an individual possessing the technical and artistic skill-sets to help a choreographer realize the sonic and/or musical vision they have in mind for a piece. This can mean a lot of things in a wide variety of contexts. It’s a job that often involves creating or manipulating sounds and music to serve a dramaturgical function. Other times, the work leans more heavily towards curation of pre-existing music, and placing music for scenes. And in many other cases, the focus of the sound designer leans more towards amplifcation and reinforcement – i.e. how to hear dancer text or footwork, or how to best hear a classical quartet in a large venue.

What was your training in sound design? My undergraduate degrees are a BA in English and an AS in Audio Technology (primarily focused on recording) from Indiana University; I think both felds of study have proven very helpful to me over the years in understanding sound design. Having a strong background in literature has helped me fnd a lot of thematic reference points with choreographers, and utilizing a solid technical foundation has saved me a lot of hours of problem solving in the use of different gear in various states of working order in a lot of different venues and countries. Throughout college and my frst years in New York, I also worked as a front-of-house engineer at several rock and jazz clubs, which I think was invaluable in developing the skills to work quickly with amplifcation in a live setting. Finally, I have played with a lot of different groups over the years in a wide variety of styles (punk, folk, klezmer, experimental, etc.), which I think has really helped to give me a wide breadth of direct musical experiences to draw from in making different dance pieces in pretty wildly different styles.

Do you have a dance background/any formalized training in dance? No, I came to dance pretty late in the game, and the bulk of my early training was much more heavily focused on music. But at this point, I’ve seen and worked on a lot of dance pieces – a few shows a week for the past ten years – and those hours pay off. By the time you see a few hundred or few thousand hours of performances, you start to see a lot of patterns and develop an inner feel for pacing. It’s gotten to the point that I can be a fairly good objective eye as work develops. I think putting in that time signifcantly increases what you bring to the table as a collaborator. I also think that for musicians, playing dance classes on any instrument or computer rig is an invaluable way to learn how to watch dance. Learning how to read choreography and understand how dancers are phrasing material helps a lot when creating musical material to pre-existing choreography and understanding how to cue sections live with dancers. I haven’t been as involved with dance classes as a lot of my colleagues, but the handful of classes I have played have gone a long way towards helping me understand the choreographic process as a whole.

I know that you are a member of two exciting dance companies (Music Director for David Dorfman Dance and the Sound Supervisor for the Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane Dance Company). Could you tell us a bit about what those two positions entail and how sound supervisor differs from music director? The primary difference between the two positions is a question of focus. In my work with the Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane Dance Company, I’ve always felt my role as a Sound Supervisor is to be ready for any challenge the piece at hand presents. Over the years, this has included reconstructing old works from scratchy VHS archive tapes, composing and mixing material very quickly during tech rehearsals, using shotgun mics to sample sounds live, and getting the sound of whispering dancers over a death metal band – a wide range of skill sets! Oftentimes, my task has been to bridge the gap between Bill and guest composers and sound designers, allowing him to work with a wide array of

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people without slowing down his own process and allowing the guest artists to be able to have the tools they need to create work that complements the dance. This associate design work has had the secondary beneft of allowing me to work with a lot of really wonderful composers and sound artists: Ted Coffey, John Oswald, Darron West, Chris Lancaster, and Jerome Begin, just to name a few. But primarily, the focus of my role as Sound Supervisor has been to work both individually and alongside others to realize and maintain the integrity of the sound designs and musical ideas in a wide array of venues. In David Dorfman’s work, my role is a little different. As Music Director, my role has been both more performative and compositional than my role as Sound Supervisor with Bill’s company. Generally, David and I start with a lot of dinners and discussions as we try to fgure out what we’re interested in exploring in a new work. Come, and Back Again (which premiered at BAM’s Next Wave Festival in 2014) is a pretty good example of what I take the Music Director role to be, so I’ll use it as an example. Our initial concept was to use the music of Patti Smith as a backdrop for a study on mortality. We talked about what songs we enjoyed and what material we thought might be fun to explore choreographically, and I wrote out some very basic charts and put together a rock band to try the idea out. The combination of elements was pretty satisfying, but when we could only get the rights to one Patti Smith tune for the evening, we had to shift our concept for the show fairly dramatically. I proposed arranging an evening to the music of Smoke, a favorite band of mine from Atlanta in the late 90s. They were a really wild and beautiful punk chamber group, which meant that we needed a new band with drums, guitar, cello, and trumpet. I made new charts, swapped some musicians, and worked on developing a set of songs into a score, as David worked with the dancers to create movement for the evening. I was able to work with and to learn from a lot of really wonderful musicians in the process, including Liz de Lise, Zeb Gould, Timothy Quigley, Aaron Diskin, Anthony Mascorro, and Neel Murgai. So, to me, being a Music Director has a lot more to do with directly working on the live music needed for a piece, and being able to organize both the right material and the right ensemble to bring a work to life.

Is it more common for you to provide live accompaniment for dance or to create recordings? My preference is always for live music and live sound elements for dance. I feel like it creates a beautiful dialogue on stage between music and dance. Nobody can fall into old habits: musicians have to watch the dancers, and dancers have to listen to the music. The slight variations and tension of this dialogue create a feedback loop of actions and reactions that never ceases to fascinate me. That being said, it’s also important to recognize when live music is not an option due to budget or touring limitations. There’s a phrase that I’ve always heard attributed to lighting designer Jennifer Tipton that I think is pretty essential for dance: “Design responsibly.” Designing large things is easy and fun, but if implementing the sound design or compositional intent of a piece is going to ring a fnancial death knell for a company or limit the work’s touring potential dramatically, then it is the wrong idea for the piece and is doing the work more harm than good. I think it’s important to assess what’s practical for a piece early on, and fnd where your interest lies within the restrictions at hand. With QLab, MaxMSP, and Ableton, the possibilities for playback pieces can be endlessly interesting, and the possibility of live variation still exists. One of my favorite pieces I ever made was SHOW STOPPERS, a duet for Paul Matteson and Raja Feather Kelly that involved deconstructing an old pop song with computer processing to the point that the music seemed to melt on stage. It was always satisfying to watch the motion and the way Paul and Raja reacted to the sounds as they slowed to 60 times their original speed. With all this in mind, considering the choreographer’s practical needs is essential. If someone’s working on a solo piece and you can’t be in attendance for many rehearsals or performances, sometimes it just makes more sense to make a single timed track for the psychological well-being of your collaborator!

Can you describe your ideal process for working with choreographers? My ideal process with any choreographer is always to be in residency with them and to be completely immersed together in the piece as we make it. Even if some of the days are slower than others, I feel that being in an environment together and talking every day allows a designer and choreographer to fnd a common language for a piece as it’s being created.

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An ideal example was Your Heart & Your Belly & Your Whole Insides Felt Empty & Wanting & Hollow, a 2014 work with Yara Travieso. The piece is a duet in counter-balance between Yara and a military-grade 30’ parachute. Due to my touring and scheduling for the venue, we had a fairly truncated creation schedule – just a couple weeks to make a 15-minute piece. Part of the complication in making the work was that we had a lot of theoretical ideas about what would be interesting in the motion, but there are many variables to account for when working with a volume of air as one partner in a duet. Luckily, Yara got a residency to work at Elizabeth Streb’s warehouse space after class hours ended there every day. For a week, we set up the fans and parachutes every night at 10pm and just played with the motion for a couple hours. Though it was too late for me to make sound in a residential neighborhood, the experience was still completely elucidating in many ways, as we learned together what really captivated us about the motion of the parachute, and I was able to fgure out over headphones what sounds could cut through an industrial fan in interesting ways (turns out the answer is a lot of cluster tones and some variants on old Italian pop tunes!).

What advice would you have for a young artist interested in sound/music for dance? I would always recommend the ten rules for artists and students, which were originally written by Sister Corita Kent, and which were popularized by John Cage when he posted them at the Cunningham studio. They’re all pretty solid points of advice, but the one I think is most applicable to the discussion at hand is: “The only rule is work. If you work it will lead to something. It’s the people who do all the work all of the time who eventually catch on to things.” I would encourage anyone interested in sound and music for dance to fnd choreographers and to start making work. It’s the only real way to understand and learn the process, and it’s a constant education. I would say another thing to keep in mind as well is that you will make a lot of material that won’t be used, and the earlier you understand that and the less it bruises your ego, the healthier the process will be for you. For some choreographers, if I get 30% of the material I generate into a piece, it’s a banner day! And that’s okay – making work should be objective, and sometimes you need to try an idea just to know that it doesn’t work. Choreographers tend to throw out a lot of their own movement ideas as well. It’s all part of what makes group art challenging and ultimately very satisfying: the whole of the work is ultimately very different than the shape the work might have taken on as a solo project. I would also suggest, in keeping with Cage’s principles, that it’s important to see and read everything you can get your hands on: flms, art exhibitions, plays, graphic novels, music, journalistic pieces, documentaries . . . the list is endless. Working in dance is an exercise in thought, and you can delve a lot deeper with a plethora of reference points. Some of my go-to books for the creative process have always been cinematic interviews – Herzog on Herzog and Lynch on Lynch are two books I’ve always gone back to when I’m in need of inspiration. Even if a direct corollary to the work at hand isn’t clear at the time, your brain will make the connections it needs if you open yourself to the information.

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CHAPTER 11

Costumes, Hair, and Makeup

Costumes are an essential component of any dance production. Whereas a dance can technically function without many of the previously mentioned production elements, it is a rare dance that works without costumes, hair styling, and makeup. Like all other design areas, costumes serve the dual purpose of creating a visually interesting artistic element as well as communicating the concepts and themes central to the dance. Costumes affect the ability of the dancer to move in the space and can infuence the choices available to the choreographer. For this reason, it is essential that the dancers and designers alike have at least a passing familiarity with dance costuming and the processes required to produce costumes for the stage. This chapter addresses the role of costumes, hair, and makeup in the dance production.

11.1 – The Costume Designer While some dance companies view costuming as an extension of the choreographer duties, it is important to recognize that a costume designer brings a very specifc skillset to the collaboration that cannot be approximated by the choreographer, unless he/she has some previous training in costuming. The designer holds a unique role that blends together a number of different skillsets: visual artist; fashion designer; craftsperson; tailor/seamstress; historian; and movement consultant. In addition to all of these things, the successful costume designer should be adept at working with individuals. It could be argued that the costume designer has to collaborate with more individuals during the production process than many of the other designers on the production team. Since a costume is intrinsically linked to the performer who wears it, the costume designer is often in the position of working closely with a dancer who is understandably concerned with his/her physical appearance and, more so, the ways in which the costume affects movement. Though the dance costume designer’s primary concern must be the

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needs of choreographer and dancers as related to movement, the end product has to live on stage with all of the other design elements, seamlessly integrating to create a cohesive visual package. Looking at all of these different aspects of the costume designer, we begin to understand the multifaceted role of the costume designer and how the job is much more than just picking out clothes for a dancer to wear. The following sections detail the function of dance costumes and their controllable properties. By examining these details, we can begin to better understand what goes into making an effective dance costume.

11.2 – Functions of Dance Costumes (What Costumes Can Accomplish) Like the other design areas, it is useful to discuss the purposes of costume design within the dance production. The immediate purpose of costuming is obviously to clothe the dancer. Beyond this, though, there are specifc outcomes that can be accomplished through the use of costume design. These are referred to as the functions of dance costume design. Listed below are seven functions that costuming can accomplish.

Movement Costume design for dance is linked closely to movement. A dance costume should clarify the movement of the dancer and not inhibit movement possibilities (unless it is the choreographer’s vision to actually force the dancers into working with the movement restrictions of a costume). There are a number of aspects of the costume that can affect movement needs, such as the fabric type, the cut of the costume, the ft of the costume (whether tight or loose), the size and shape of the costume, and even less obvious considerations like the way a fabric reacts to sweat

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-14

Costumes, Hair, and Makeup

Figure 11.1 Consider the ways in which the larger costume would affect the dancer’s ability to move compared to the other dancers onstage. The Nutcracker. Photo: Campbell Baird.

dress of a character. The costume designer can use these associations to his/her beneft in the storytelling told through the dance costumes. Particularly when considering dance forms like ballet, which might occur in a larger theatre space, it is important that the costume be able to effectively communicate information about the character from a distance. This is why the costume and makeup often work hand in hand to accentuate the character traits of a dance role.

(Figure 11.1). For this reason, it is imperative that the costume designer meet early and often with the choreographer to determine the specifc movement needs of the piece. Equally important to the decision-making process is attending rehearsals to observe how the dancers move and interact with one another. These discussions and observations inform the decisions of the costume designer as related to movement needs.

Character

Costume as a Prop

Another function of dance costume is the communication of character information, such as gender, age, social standing, personality, etc. (Figure 11.2). Since clothing is such an important aspect of everyone’s day-to-day life, there are a number of associations the audience makes related to the

In some dances, such as Martha Graham’s Lamentations or many of the works of Alwin Nikolai, costume functions as a prop of sorts. A costume that envelops the dancer, made of a stretchy fabric, might be an element to explore through the choreography.

Figure 11.2 The wedding gown is a prime example of how roles can be communicated through the use of costume. Choreography by Holly Hobbs. Lighting design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo: Randy Mascharka.

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In another dance, the physical act of putting on and taking off clothing onstage could be the actual choreography. It is always important to recognize the ability for costume to act as a prop within the dance and consider the possibilities for its use.

subsequent times with minor variations developed in each repetition. Both of these defnitions can be used to discuss dance, as a choreographer will often establish a unifying concept for the entire dance piece and create variations on this theme throughout the entire dance. In either instance, it is the designer’s responsibility to help reinforce these ideas in whatever way seems appropriate.

Character Relations In addition to costumes serving as a comment on individual characters, they can also establish a sense of relationships between characters on the stage. This can be accomplished through similarity in costume styles, color palettes, fabric types, or textures. It is particularly important in theatres where the audience sits at a larger distance from the stage to establish character relations through the costumes for clarity’s sake. The use of similar color palettes or unifying themes can help keep the audience focused on which characters are dancing and with whom.

As with other design elements, costuming can communicate a great deal about the choreographer’s overall theme for the dance or the mood of a given moment. Consider a dance in which the choreographer wants to emphasize the isolation of a particular character and her inability to function in her world. In this instance, the costumer might create a costume for this dancer that differs from all of the other dancers onstage. Perhaps she would be costumed in a muted color palette with a cut that restricts movement, as compared to the other dancers in bright, colorful fowing dresses. This approach would create a sense of visual isolation and would be particularly effective in communicating the choreographer’s theme mentioned above.

Time/Place Unlike a play that features dialogue and detailed scenery to indicate the location and time period, dance often excludes these elements. In many cases, costumes are the frst and only indicators that an audience gets regarding the time and/or place of a dance. By using the lines, colors, and textures of the fashion associated with a particular time period, the costumer has the ability to instantly place the dance in a specifc time or place from the moment a dancer enters in costume. For this reason, it is important that the costume designer be adept in historical research to fnd images of period dress throughout history.

Mood is the suggestion of a feeling or emotional quality at a given time. This is most often summed up with adjectives like “somber, joyful, tentative, or jubilant.” Costuming is one element of the overall production design that contributes to the establishment of mood. The selection of colors, textures, pattern, and cut in the costumes combine with other design elements onstage to create the mood of the dance.

Style In performance, style can be referred to as a distinct visual appearance purposefully chosen to aid the storytelling process. In art terminology, the term style is often associated with different artistic movements. Words like realistic or stylized are frequently used to describe the opposite ends of the style spectrum. Realism mirrors the actual dress of a time period and location without having the appearance of being a stage costume. Realism is closely tied to historical accuracy, so research is an important element to realistic design. Stylized costumes, on the other hand, exaggerate or simplify some aspect of the costume, whether it is the line, the color, texture, or silhouette. A stylized costume might feature a dress with an enormously long train trailing behind it, or a dancer performing on stilts to appear larger than life. Within both realistic and stylized approaches, there are numerous variations and possibilities.

In addition to references to historic time periods, costuming can comment on other temporal elements such as the season or even time of day. These kinds of details are important to the storytelling of a larger piece of work like a ballet, in which the audience follows a sequential storyline. In this setting, the costume can communicate the passage of time on a small scale (from morning to night) or even on a large scale (from one century to the next).

Theme/Mood Theme is a word often used in the discussion of works of art. There are two main defnitions of theme related to dance. One meaning of the word refers to the dominant idea or unifying concept to a work of art. There is a second important meaning to consider, as well. In musical terminology, a theme refers to the principle melodic subject within a musical composition. Frequently, music uses a form called theme and variation, in which the melodic theme is introduced and then repeated

One factor to consider is the way in which choreographers often affect the style of all design elements within the

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dance. Certain choreographers have become synonymous with certain stylistic approaches in costumes, lighting, and scenery. For instance, one cannot think of Bob Fosse without conjuring images of a black-clad dancer with forward thrust hips, turned in feet, and a bowler hat on top. It is important to always communicate with the choreographer and have a full understanding of his/her vision before making costuming decisions that might clash with the overall production style.

whereas others can hold up to the heavy abuse necessary for performance. One of the most important considerations is whether a fabric stretches or not, and in which directions. Also, how does the fabric move? Is it smooth, stiff, clingy, or crunchy? The costume designer must take all of these factors into consideration when deciding on fabric choices for the costume. When selecting fabrics for dance costumes, it is always important to consider color, print (and the scale of the pattern), how the fabric moves, its durability, and texture. All of these factors infuence the way that a costume can be used on the stage and may affect other design areas.

11.3 – Properties of Dance Costumes (Controllable Qualities of Dance Costumes)

Line

While the previous section addressed what can be accomplished through costume design, we have not yet discussed how the costume designer goes about accomplishing those functions. For this discussion, we return to the idea of the properties of costumes – the aspects that can be changed or controlled. Each of these properties affects one or more of the functions of dance costumes listed above.

In costuming, line can refer to the cut of clothing, or the way in which fabric sections are assembled to create the costume. This property affects the silhouette of the costume, which in turn defnes the form of the dancer wearing the costume. Throughout history there have been a number of popular silhouettes that defned the style of the time. In this way, the line of a costume places a costume within a specifc historical context. Likewise, it controls the way in which a dancer can move in a costume. Consider the movement restrictions of a long, form-ftting evening gown vs. those of a short, fowing, summer dress. These types of considerations are always important when assessing how the line of the costume affects movement possibilities.

Fabric Fabric is the medium in which a costume designer creates the costume. As such, it is important for costume designers to have a deep understanding of fabric types and what factors control the overall qualities of the fabric itself. The frst factor that contributes to the quality of a fabric is the fber from which it is made. Fibers are the tiny, hair-like components combined together to create a fabric. They come in two categories: natural or synthetic. Natural fbers are those that come from plant or animal products, whereas synthetics are created from man-made materials. All fbers have different attributes, from their strength, to absorbency, how well they hold dyes, or the type of care required in cleaning. Generally speaking, silk, Rayon, Lycra, and cotton are excellent fabric choices for dance. When considering dyeing fabrics, keep in mind that synthetics tend to not dye as easily as natural fbers. It is important that the costume designer have a full understanding of all of these attributes in order to make the best decision as to which fabric to use in constructing a costume.

Shape/Form Where line creates the silhouette of a costume, shape or form is the three-dimensional consideration of the costume. Another way of looking at this is the amount of space taken up by the costume. Again, this property is often tied to certain historic contexts. When looking at historic research, it is apparent that the form of clothing changes in conjunction with the lines, as well. Consider the difference between a dancer moving onstage in a formftting body suit as compared to the movement restrictions of a costume from the Victorian period with a tight corset, hoop skirt, petticoats, long sleeves, and high neckline. Such considerations are not only important for the singular dancer, but also in instances of partnering. Depending on the shape of the costume, certain types of movements would be impossible between two dancers, due to the inability to get within close proximity. Likewise, if a costume were too bulky, moves like lifts would be impossible because the partner could never have access to the legs or core of the body.

The second important factor related to a fabric is its construction method. There are a number of different techniques for combining fbers together to create a fabric (weaving, knitting, crocheting, felting, netting, etc.). Each one creates a different quality of fabric. Some are rough, where others are smooth in appearance. Some are delicate,

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Color

expected to provide examples of their color choices before starting the build or purchasing costumes. When considering color choices, the costumer should have a good understanding of the other colors used onstage and how they might affect his/her resulting costume colors. This can be a diffcult process, considering stage lighting often uses multiple different types of colored lighting in conjunction with one another during the course of the dance. As a reference, Figure 11.3 includes a chart of colors of fabric and their likely appearance under colored lighting. I use the term likely because there are always a number of factors, such as the pigment of the dye, the sheen of the fabric, the type of lighting instrument, and more. When in doubt, try to provide a fabric swatch to the lighting designer to see if you can experiment with its appearance under stage lighting. This is especially important when you are using various different fabrics that all look the same color under regular indoor lighting. Black fabric, in particular, is notorious for turning slightly green, red, brown, or purple under stage light.

Color is one of the most important properties of costuming. The color of the costume can easily communicate a sense of mood or even aspects about the dancer’s character. Color in costuming comes from two main factors: the color of the fabric, and the color of the lighting. When discussing color in costuming, one cannot separate the color of the costume from the lighting. Light will always affect the perception of a costume’s color. The following section gives an example of how this works. If red light were used to light a white piece of fabric, the fabric would look red. This is because the white fabric refects back the red wavelengths of light without altering the appearance. However, if the same red lighting were cast on a piece of fabric dyed green, the resulting color would not be red, but gray. This occurs because a pigmented fabric can only refect back the colors of light present in the light. In this example, the green pigment absorbs the red wavelengths of light emitting a resulting color of gray.

Texture

For these reasons it is important for the costume designer to always have an open channel of communication with the scenic designer, lighting designer, and projection designer regarding the use of color onstage. Costume designers are

Texture is defned as the visual appearance of an object, especially related to its tactile qualities. In short, texture refers to how an object feels to the touch. We often assume

Figure 11.3 Fabric colors are listed in the left column, with their appearance under colored light to the right. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

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texture only refers to the rougher textures of the world, however smooth objects obviously have a specifc textural quality to them as well. When discussing texture in costumes, the frst consideration is often the natural texture of the fabric itself. Going back to the discussion of what types of fbers and construction methods are used to make a fabric, we can understand that there are various textural properties unique to a specifc fabric. For instance, satin tends to be smooth and refective, whereas burlap has a rough and porous surface quality. Though the audience will likely never step foot onstage to touch the fabric, we understand they will interpret the true texture of a fabric based on their lifetime of experience. As with some of the other properties of costuming, texture can be a safety issue for dance costuming. It is always important to consider what actions will be performed in the costuming before deciding on the fabric’s texture. Fabrics that are too slick can be dangerous when partnering with another dancer, whereas something too rough can increase friction and make moves like sliding across the foor diffcult to accomplish.

fow of the costumes. Yet another way of considering scale is the comparison of a costume or dancer to the overall stage environment. All of these different comparisons each represent a different method of assessing scale within a design. One major consideration in the use of scale is the sense of balance in a costume. Balance is a perception of an equal distribution of visual weight within a design. A balanced design should appear visually stable between the horizontal and vertical planes of an object. Costumes typically feature a strong sense of balance, unless the designer is purposefully trying to make a comment through creating imbalance. For instance, a well-balanced, symmetrical design tends to communicate a sense of stability and formality, whereas an imbalanced, asymmetrical costume might appear a bit more wild, youthful, or natural. Striking balance within a design is one of the many challenges of the costume designer.

11.4 – Dance Costume Components

In costuming, texture can be either true or implied texture. True texture comes from the weave of a pattern or the type of material. Implied texture can be accomplished through pattern, a visual texture accomplished by repetition of visual elements to create a design. Pattern can be created through the varying use of colored fbers, through paint or dye used to literally “draw” a pattern, or through the variation of differing textures of fabric allowing the surface quality of the fabric to refect light in differing ways. Small patterns seen from a distance lose detail and create a textured look to the fabric, whereas larger patterns are perceived as purposeful symbolic statements. In this way, texture is largely tied to our next property.

When considering a costume design, there are a number of different approaches towards assembling a costume. The designer can build a costume from scratch, pull it from a stock of costume components already owned, borrow or rent from another company, or purchase costume elements. It is important to note that although there are a great many companies who build dancewear, any piece of clothing can be used as a costume, given the right circumstances. For both the choreographer and designer, a working knowledge of standard dance costume components is essential to deciding on the appropriate costume for a dance. Listed below are a number of different types of dance apparel and their functions. The vast majority of the costume pieces listed below are for femalepresenting dancers, though there are a few specialty items listed for those presenting as male.

Scale Scale is the property of dance costumes that compares the proportion of one object or element to another. In the case of costuming, there are a number of elements that could be compared to one another. When discussing an individual costume, certain elements of the costume might differ in some way; like having a large pattern of stripes, next to a small pattern of dots. Though they might appear to clash when viewed up close, the small scale of the dot pattern is only perceived as a textural variation of the fabric. Likewise, scale could be used to compare aspects of one costume to another. Different costumes might be designed in a similar approach, but one having a small skirt and the second featuring a larger variation on the same skirt. Though these two costumes share many similarities in design, the difference in scale will affect the dancers’ movement and the visual

Base Layer Dancewear typically features a number of layers of different types of clothing. After the undergarments, the base layer of most dance costumes is a form-ftting garment that allows for ease in movement without obscuring the shape of the dancer’s body. The apparel listed in the following sections is commonly worn for both rehearsal and performance.

Leotard The leotard is the foundation of almost every dance costume. The French acrobat Jules Léotard popularized this unisex formftting garment in the 1800s. The leotard resembles a woman’s 141

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Figure 11.4 The dancer in this image is wearing a camisole style leotard. Photography by: Richard Calmes.

Since the unitard is incredibly sleek and snug ftting, it gives the dancer the appearance of uninterrupted lines and a contoured ft to the dancer’s form.

one-piece bathing suit (Figure 11.4). As it is a one-piece garment without snaps or zippers, it must be put on by stepping through the neck. Many dance costumes feature the leotard as a core component upon which other elements are added. The leotard comes in many different styles, such as long sleeve, short sleeve, camisole, halter top, tank top, or even turtleneck.

Biketard The biketard takes its name from the combination of a leotard with biking shorts. The design of the biketard features legs that end at mid-thigh – somewhere between the length of a leotard and a unitard (Figure 11.6). It is made of the same form-ftting materials as the leotard and unitard and comes in a wide array of colors and prints.

Unitard A unitard is similar to the leotard, but includes long legs and often sleeves (Figure 11.5). It is essentially a one-piece garment that replaces the combination of leotard and tights.

Figure 11.5 Unitards worn in performance for Merce Cunninggam’s EyeSpace (2007). Emma Desjardins, Andrea Weber, Rashaun Mitchell (dancers featured). Merce Cunningham Dance Company at Carnival Center; Photography by Ben Thacker, Décor and Costumes by Daniel Arsham.

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Figure 11.6 The dancers in this piece wear long-sleeved biketards with a mock turtleneck. Ritual Series One. Choreography by Jillian Hopper. Lighting by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo: Randy Mascharka.

Figure 11.7 This photo showcases a wide range of pants worn in dances. Lighting Design by David Koltunchik and Jeromy Hopgood. Photos: Randy Mascharka.

When choosing the costume components, there are a number of choices of what elements can be worn as bottoms. Like all of the costume elements discussed in this section, there will be variations in names and styles between different manufacturers. Listed below are some of the common generic varieties of bottoms.

for women than men. There are a number of different fabrics to choose from as well, such as polyester, cotton, spandex, Lycra, nylon, or blends. Each fabric responds a bit differently to factors such as breathability, wicking moisture away from the skin, and how slick the fabric is (slippery fabrics can make for dangerous movements in some types of choreography). It is always best to experiment with a certain fabric type before purchasing a large number of costumes.

Pants

Tights and Leggings

When discussing dance pants, there are a number of varieties to choose from. One of the main concerns for pants in a classroom/rehearsal setting is that they should be short enough so that the instructor can see your ankles. This is extremely important in ballet, considering the instructor cannot see your positioning to make corrections if the pant goes down longer than the ankle. Likewise in a tap situation, a longer pant leg can interfere with the shoes making a clean tap sound. Pants should be light and form ftting for dance. Jazz pants are typically made of a lightweight, stretchy knit fabric. Capri pants feature a shorter cut of the leg, around calf-length. Most varieties of pants have different designs for males and females though, as in most dance apparel, there are many more choices

There can be some confusion when referring to tights and leggings, as a number of manufacturers tend to use the terms almost interchangeably. Technically speaking, tights are thin, semi-transparent clothing worn on the legs that start at the waist and tend to cover the feet (though there are both footless and convertible tights). Since tights are semi-transparent, they are not normally worn without some other covering, like a leotard. Due to the sheer, refective nature of tights, they do a great job of accentuating the natural contour of the dancer’s body. Leggings are similar to tights, but made of a thicker material and normally stop at the ankle. Leggings can have a bit of a looser ft than tights, as well.

Bottoms

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Figure 11.8 Tights are a common component of many ballet costumes for men and women. Photo: Richard Calmes.

Shorts

Skirts/Tutus

Like pants, shorts come in a multitude of styles and cuts (Figure 11.9). Like most dance clothing, dance shorts all tend to be a bit tighter of a ft than street clothes and made of materials that work well to wick moisture away from the body. The defning features of shorts tend to be the waist and the inseam length. Waist placement commonly falls into high waist (with the waist near the bottom of the ribs), and low-rise (with the waist near the top of the hip bones).

Skirts are an important component of any dancer’s wardrobe. They add a fourish to the dancer’s movement and allow the audience to still see the movement of the feet. Dance skirts come in a number of different varieties and lengths. The most common types are wrap skirts and pull-on skirts. Beyond this distinction, the defning features are the skirt length and fullness.

Figure 11.9 Shorts of different lengths. Photo: Randy Mascharka.

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The classical tutu was born from the interest of seeing even more of the dancers’ legs in ballet movements. It features a stiffer variety of netting jutting out horizontally from the dancer’s hips. There are two distinct looks of the classical tutu – the “pancake” style and the “bell” tutu. The pancake style is a tutu long favored by Russian ballet companies, featuring a crinoline, or steel wire, in one of the layers. This creates a rigid structure to keep the pancake fat and hold up the longest layers of netting. It is the crinoline that gives the pancake tutu its distinct fat shape. The bell tutu is slightly longer than the classical pancake style and does not include the hoop. This gives it a length somewhere in between the romantic and classical tutu. Both variations on the classical tutu tend to feature intricate ruffed panties combined with the tutu in matching fabric.

For most people, the mention of dance, and in particular ballet, brings to mind the tutu. It is probably the singular most iconic element of a dancer’s wardrobe that communicates the visual essence of a dancer to most people. The history of the tutu seems to be a point of argument between dance historians, some dating it back to the 18th century, while others contend it was earlier. The one point that everyone seems to agree on is the reason for the tutu’s creation. Early ballet featured dancers wearing long, elegant dresses that fell below the ankle. As the legwork began to grow in complexity, there was a desire to raise the length of the skirt to showcase the legs and feet. Since then, there have been many variations on the design of the tutu. The romantic tutu was the earliest version, featuring a long and foating skirt that begins at the waist and is cut somewhere around the calf to just above the ankles. This would be considered a ¾ length skirt. The romantic tutu is composed of three to fve layers of soft tulle, assembled to create a bell shape, with a long fowing skirt. The romantic tutu comes in two variations, one with soft tulle falling from the waist, the second with the tulle starting at the high hip, called the romantic tutu with basque.

Another type of tutu is the platter. The platter tutu is similar in style to the pancake tutu, with a fat top that sticks straight out from the waistline. It differs from the pancake tutu in that, where the pancake is a bit fuller at the waistline, the platter is almost completely fat across the entire top surface. One fnal variation on the tutu is the Balanchine/Karinska, or “powderpuff” tutu. This tutu is named after the famous Russian choreographer George Balanchine and his longtime collaborator in costumes, Barbara Karinska. Balanchine loved to put a large ensemble of dancers together onstage. The stiff nature of the classical tutu meant that the dancers’ tutus would frequently collide and create a bobbing effect, due to the metal hoops. Karinska devised a new type of tutu that used shorter, self-supporting layers of netting that gave a looser,

A basque is section of the skirt that sits on the dancer’s hips and is sometimes used to connect the skirt to a bodice. The basque is separated into two separate sections: the upper basque, which is visible and covers the area from the waist to the hips; and the lower basque, which resembles a pair of panties under the skirt. In some types of tutus a decorative set of panties are sewn to the basque. Figure 11.10 shows a tutu with basque.

Figure 11.10 The tutu, with upper basque visible. Photo: Campbell Baird.

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Figure 11.11 Tutu styles (from left to right): Romantic, classical tutu – pancake style, classical tutu – bell style, platter tutu, Balanchine “powderpuff” tutu. Photo: Richard Calmes.

bodices and a quality bodice can cost hundreds to thousands of dollars.

fuffy appearance (i.e. powderpuff) without the need for hoops. Each of the tutu types is compared in Figure 11.11.

Tops

The Bodice Though not technically part of the tutu, the bodice is a frequent companion to a tutu for classical ballet. A bodice is a form-ftting top sewn from several panels of fabric (Figure 11.12). Some of these sections are cut on the bias, meaning that the fabric is cut along the diagonal plane, which allows the fabric to stretch more. The bodice cinches up tightly in the back and features boning to help shape the dancer’s form. Bodices are attached to the tutu at the waistline or high on the hip. There are literally hundreds of different designs for

Dance tops come in a wide array of styles, colors, and prints. Unlike some of the other varieties of dance garments, tops use the same names as most types of street clothes, so they are easier for the novice to understand. A camisole is a sleeveless top with thin “spaghetti” straps holding up the top. A tank top is similar, but with wider straps. A halter-top resembles a tank top when viewed from the front, but on examination from the back you can see that there is only one strap holding up the top. This strap runs from the front of the garment behind the dancer’s neck. Other varieties of tops are wraparounds, turtlenecks, crop tops (with a raised bottom, showing the stomach), bra tops, and jackets. For men, there are a wide variety of t-shirt style shirts as well.

Dresses Like tops, there are a multitude of dress types that can be worn for dance. Dresses should accentuate the movement of the dancer and serve the style of the dance piece. When discussing the common types of dresses made specifcally for dance by dancewear manufacturers, defning factors are the length of the dress and the placement of the waistline. The primary question for a dress should be how it serves the movement of the dance.

Footwear Footwear (or lack thereof) is an essential consideration of any dance costume. The dancer’s foot is the point at which the body meets the stage and receives more stress than almost any other part of the body. For this reason, there is a wide array of footwear choices on the market, specifcally geared towards the individual needs of the dance performance.

Ballet For ballet performances, ballet slippers or ballet pointe shoes are the norm. The ballet slipper is commonly made

Figure 11.12 A bodice on a dress form. Photo: Campbell Baird.

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of leather, canvas, or satin. It has a fexible sole with an excellent grip but no heel. The slipper has either a single elastic strap or a double crisscross band that goes across the top of the foot.

Ballet slippers are unisex and typically come in three colors, pink (the most common color for women), black, or white (commonly worn by men). Pointe shoes are intended for females, but can be worn by men in certain situations such as a female character commonly played by a man, like the wicked stepsisters in Cinderella.

Ballet pointe shoes are a specifc type of ballet shoe used for dancers en pointe, or dancing on the tips of the toes. Pointe shoes include a component called the box, a rigid reinforced toe of the shoe that encases and supports the dancer’s toes. The box features a fat toe called the platform that makes it easier for the dancer to balance. The top of the shoe is called the vamp and may sometimes include a drawstring that is used to help adjust the ft of the shoe. The sole of the shoe is made of a thin strip of leather stitched to the bottom of the shoe. Inside of the pointe shoe is a rigid reinforcement insert called the shank. The shank gives support to the dancer’s arch and can come in various different lengths of full, half, or ¾ length. The pointe shoe is kept in place by a combination of an elastic strap that goes across the top of the foot from the ankles and two ribbons that crisscross around the ankles and tie together in a knot. Figure 11.13 includes images of both types of ballet shoes.

Jazz Jazz shoes are similar to ballet slippers, but feature a slight heel and raised arch to accentuate the dancer’s foot. Jazz shoes come in both the slip-on and lace-up variety and feature a split sole for greater fexibility of the foot. Shoes are normally made of either leather or canvas. The soles are made of leather or rubber for maximum shock absorption and grip. Another variation might include a reinforced toe for the ability to briefy rise en pointe. Common colors are either black or tan. Jazz shoes can be worn by men or women and come in a number of variations such as the jazz sandal, jazz boot, jazz sneaker, etc. Each shoe behaves similarly but has a different sort of look that is preferable for different dances and costumes (Figure 11.14).

Figure 11.13 Ballet slippers (left) and ballet pointe shoes (right). Photo: Jim Lamberson.

Figure 11.14 These slip-on jazz shoes feature a small heel and raised arch. Photo: Jim Lamberson.

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Tap Dance

Commonly dancers will go barefoot for modern dance pieces, though it is not uncommon to see dancers wear dance sneakers, slippers, boots, or other varieties of shoes. Even if the choreographer wants a unique look, it is always a good idea to select footwear from a dance manufacturer. There are a number of modern options for footwear created with the dancer in mind. Using street shoes can lead to a dangerous situation for the dancer and damage the dance fooring in the performance space.

Tap is a specifc dance style for which the shoe is essential. The tap shoe has evolved quite a bit over the years since its introduction. Tap dance can be linked to the dance style of African slaves brought to America. Their dance style involved a dancer pounding out a rhythmic beat with bare feet on wooden planking. As time advanced, the use of a specialized shoe with wooden soles replaced bare feet. It was not until the early 1900s that we saw the addition of metal “taps” on the bottom of tap shoes. Today, there are a number of specialized types of tap shoes featuring specifc tap sizes, thickness, and materials for creating a unique sound. Though there are many variations on the design, the common factor remains that tap shoes feature metal taps applied to the underside of the heel and toes that are used to produce the signature tap sound (Figure 11.15).

When getting a barefoot look may be desirable for the choreographer, there are certain options for the dancer to give foot protection while still giving the appearance of being barefoot from the audience. Capezio, one of the oldest dance shoe manufacturers in the US, makes multiple varieties of their foot Undeez™ – a nude shoe that covers either the ball of the foot, or the ball and heel. There are many different options on the market for the foot thong-style shoe, though many dancers simply prefer the feel and lack of restriction that comes from being barefoot. Always make sure to take special care in setting up the dance foor and backstage for sweeping and mopping, since it is a given that there will be dancers walking around in bare feet.

Musical Theatre Since dance is such an essential component of most musical theatre productions, it is a good idea to address the character shoe. These shoes were originally named character shoes for the fact that they were worn by actors either auditioning for roles or acting on stage. The character shoe is very similar to the jazz shoe, but some make the argument that character shoes are slightly sturdier than traditional “dance” jazz shoes. Like the jazz shoe, character shoes feature a heel. Unlike jazz shoes, though, the heel of character shoes comes in a number of high heel varieties. One of the defning features of the character shoe is the leather sole, which makes for a more comfortable use onstage. Men’s character shoes look like a standard oxford shoe with laces and no decoration. For both men’s and women’s varieties, the character shoe can be equipped with taps to make them function as a tap shoe as well.

11.5 – Hair and Wigs When considering hairstyles for dance, the two basic choices are natural hair or the use of wigs. Overall, the rules of hairstyles for dance are straightforward; keep it out of your eyes, don’t let it interfere with movement, and don’t let it clash with your costume. Some styles of dance come with expectations of how a dancer’s hair will be styled. Ballet, for instance, mostly assumes that a ballerina will have naturally long hair. The hair is normally placed up in a bun high on the back of the head. The fnal step is to use a shellac-style hairspray to affx the hair in place so that it stays up under

Modern Dance Unlike ballet or tap, modern dance tends to hold an “anything goes” philosophy when it comes to footwear.

Figure 11.15 A pair of tap shoes.

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Hats, Masks, and Headpieces

the most rigorous of conditions. Though it is not necessarily a rule that all female ballet dancers must have long hair, it is something of a convention that many classical dancers follow.

In addition to hairstyling, another common approach to drawing attention to the dancer’s head is the use of hats, masks, and headpieces. Each element has its own unique challenges. All three must be properly secured into place, else they can move around and possibly even fall off.

Wigs and Hairpieces Sometimes a dancer may need to use a wig or hairpiece in order to achieve the desired look for a role. This could be because of the length of the dancer’s hair, his/her hair color, or for a specifc look desirable for a certain character in the dance. A wig is a head covering with hair that covers the entirety of the head, whereas a hairpiece supplements a wig or natural hair. Both wigs and hairpieces are normally made of human or synthetic hair. Those made of human hair can be colored, curled, and styled in a similar fashion to the hair on your head. Those made of synthetic fbers will often melt under heat and cannot be colored as easily.

Hats, while visually interesting, can create large shadows making it diffcult to see the dancer’s face. Masks present the unique challenge of possibly creating “blind spots” for the dancer, should they move to obscure the line of sight. It is important that a mask always be properly secured, have large openings around the eyes, and not protrude too far in any direction so as to block the dancer’s vision. For all of these reasons, it is important to make sure the dancer can rehearse with the mask as soon as possible. This is important not only for the dancer wearing the mask, but for anyone who might be partnering with the dancer, as it could create a hazard for the dance partner as well.

It is essential to recognize that a wig is a complex tool that must be provided to the dancer in enough time to rehearse while wearing it. This will give both the dancer and designer an opportunity to see the wig in action and determine what specialty needs there might be to secure the wig in place for the production. The style needs to be secure enough to withstand the movement of the dance, and the wig must be fastened to the head securely enough not to move around or come off. This point cannot be overstressed!

Headpieces come in a number of varieties, from crowns, to headbands, decorative hair combs, or strings of jewels. Headpieces must be pinned securely into place to avoid jarring loose during performance. Figure 11.16 shows a few examples of the use of masks, and headpieces for dance.

Figure 11.16 Four images featuring the creative use of headpieces and masks in dance. Photo: Richard Calmes (top row). Photos: Campbell Baird (bottom row), Peter Pan and The Nutcracker.

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11.6 – Makeup Considerations Although makeup is not technically a part of the costume, most dancers consider makeup an essential component to taking on the character. Dance makeup is purposefully bold to help communicate the facial expressions of the character far into the back rows of the auditorium. Although some of the techniques and tools are similar to street makeup or even theatrical makeup, there are some aspects of dance makeup that are unique to the art form.

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The Makeup Kit There are a number of different manufacturers of stage makeup. The types of makeup used for stage applications tend to be a bit thicker and are used to create a higher contrast on the face than for basic cosmetic applications. The basic dance makeup kit should include cleanser, moisturizer, foundation, powder, eye shadow and eyeliner, eyebrow pencil, mascara, blush, lip liner/lipstick, and a setting spray. In addition to these varieties of makeup, it is useful to have items such as sponges, cotton balls, brushes, false eyelashes (and glue), and baby wipes. Manufacturers such as Mehron and Ben Nye sell specialty stage makeup kits for a reasonable price.

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Applying Dance Makeup When applying makeup, there are some basic steps to follow in order to achieve an appropriate look for the stage while protecting your skin. The list below includes a step-by-step approach to applying dance makeup. • • Cleanse, tone, and moisturize your face and neck. This process is important for the health of your skin, as well as for creating a smooth palette on which to apply the makeup. After cleansing your face, immediately apply moisturizer. This step flls in the tiny cracks on the surface of your face and makes for a smooth application surface. For those with acne problems, use an oil-free moisturizer. If you have dry skin, choose something a bit thicker. • Apply a foundation. Directly after moisturizing, apply your foundation over the face, neck, and upper chest (not forgetting the ears). This makes for an even transition from makeup to bare skin. For those with darker skin tones, choose a foundation that closely matches your skin tone. Those with lighter skin tones should select a foundation that is a bit darker than the natural skin color. Highlights and shadows are achieved by using a slightly lighter or darker foundation color, respectively. Those with darker skin tones might choose a slightly blue-toned foundation for shadows and one with lighter tones of red

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or gold for creating highlights. Those with lighter skin tones can choose foundations that harmonize with their natural skin tone. Many people use a fnishing powder at this point to set the foundation and prevent an overly oily appearance. Select one that matches the base tone of the foundation. Add eye shadow. Next apply the eye shadow. Many dancers use multiple colors of eye shadow to create a gradation of color from the eyebrow to the eye. As a rule of thumb, start with the lightest color just beneath the eyebrow and work your way to the darkest color above the eyelashes. Use a clean brush to blend the colors together smoothly. This creates a sculpted look that really accentuates the eyes. Accentuate the shape of your eyebrows with an eyebrow pencil. One of the most important elements to making the dancer’s expressions visible from a distance is the eyebrow. An eyebrow pencil can be used to fll in the eyebrow and elongate the shape. The chosen shape of the eyebrow can go a long way towards portraying your character onstage. Apply eyeliner to eyelids. The purpose of the eyeliner is to darken the lines of the eyelashes and draw attention to the eye. Many dancers use liquid liner for the top lashes and an eyeliner pencil for the bottom. Others still opt for no lining on the bottom lashes at all. The liquid liner on the top should be bold in appearance and as close to the natural eyelashes as you can manage. Lining on the bottom lashes should be subtle. Using heavy eyeliner on both top and bottom can lead to the appearance of eyes being less open on stage – the opposite of our goal. Apply mascara to the eyelashes. Mascara is also applied more heavily to the top lashes and very little to the bottoms. If using mascara on the bottom, start with the bottom lashes and give a few minutes for the bottoms to dry before applying mascara on the top. Mascara should always be a darker color, often black. Affx false eyelashes, if desired. False eyelashes are often used for the stage. When using them, mascara is not required. In fact, using mascara can make it diffcult to re-use a false eyelash after application. To apply false eyelashes, hold them in place with tweezers and apply glue to the strip that holds the eyelashes together. Let the glue dry for a few moments so that it becomes tacky. The false eyelashes are placed as close to the root line of your real eyelashes as possible and then pressed into place from the center outward. Apply blush. Blush is used to accentuate the cheekbones and add defnition to the dancer’s face. Powder varieties should be applied with a large brush for blending. Cream varieties can be blended with a sponge. For both methods,

Costumes, Hair, and Makeup

two shades of blush are often used to create contouring. Use the darker tone below the cheekbone, with the lighter one applied above. Then, from the center of the cheekbone (the “apples”) work your way out, blending evenly. For colors that work well with darker skin tones, select a purple or reddish blush with blue undertones for the darker tone and red or orange blush with red/gold undertones for the lighter tone. • Color the lips and defne the shape. Most dancers use either a combination of a lip liner and lipstick, or simply use a colored lip cream. For ladies, bold red lips are the norm in dance. This may seem excessive from close up, but the bold color is necessary to allow the dancer’s facial

expressions to be read from the audience. Those with darker skin tones may fnd purples, reds, or corral tones work well. When using lip liner, frst draw in the shape of the lips, following the natural line of your lips. Next apply a color stay variety of lipstick to the interior areas of the lips and blot. The color stay is important for keeping the lipstick on the lips and off of costumes. When using a color cream, the lip color is applied using a lining brush for details. • Finish the makeup application with a barrier spray. After all of your makeup is applied, spray a fnishing coat of barrier spray onto the face to set the makeup. This will help prevent the makeup running with perspiration and color rubbing off onto your costume or others’.

FYI: Diversity and Design Decisions Dance is an art form built on tradition. Many of the conventions present in staging dance go back hundreds of years and are rooted in trends and fashions of the times in which they were frst created. In the Western canon, many of our dance traditions can be traced back to classical ballet. This can become problematic when considering that the ballet dancers and choreographers who established these foundations were primarily white Europeans making art for a primarily white audience. As a result, many Western dance forms have traditions connected to what clothing, hair, and makeup is “appropriate” based on an expectation that the dancer be white or fair-skinned. Examples of these traditions include:

and “tangle-free” approach, something that does not always lend itself to BIPOC hair. Those with naturally textured hair who repeatedly use methods of detangling and straightening can fnd themselves with weakened or damaged hair and headaches. Further complicating the issue, some studios and dance companies request that dancers not wear their hair in braids, even though braided hair can be placed in a bun and pulled up. These expectations and restrictions can leave a person of color feeling purposefully ostracized within the dance community. • Using a universal approach to makeup created for those with lighter skin tones, or expecting dancers of color to use a “whiteface” approach to applying makeup in order to blend in with the ensemble. • Accepting and promoting the use of racial caricatures and stereotyping portrayed through costume and makeup such as blackface, yellowface, and racist tropes used in the original staging.

• Expecting dancers to wear “fesh colored” (i.e. pink) leggings, rather than matching their own natural skin tone. Dance Theatre of Harlem was the frst major professional ballet company to allow dancers of color to wear brown colored tights back in the 1970s, but most companies still honor the tradition of pink tights to this day. • Expecting dancers to wear pink/peach pointe shoes and accessories. It was not until as recently as 2017 that pointe shoe manufacturers released colors refective of diverse skin tones. Even so, non-pink pointe shoes are still harder to come by and many dancers have been forced to dye/alter their own shoes, which can be both expensive and time-consuming. • Expecting the dancer to wear a traditional ballerina bun or other hairstyles that favor those with straight hair. Most traditional dance hairstyles call for a straight

These expectations are, at best, micro-aggressions that can otherize dancers of color, create barriers to their success, and discourage further involvement. As dance artists, it is essential that we examine our art form and expend energy towards creating safe spaces that foster an equitable and diverse dance community. Keep in mind that inclusion should be addressed at all levels of the creative process and will likely require that you consider the ways in which your culture might exclude people, both purposefully and inadvertently.

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11.7 – Chapter Review

than any other designer in dance, the costume designer must blend together a wide array of skillsets and expertise in order to create the fnished product viewed on stage. Whether it is the historian, the fashion designer, the archivist, the craftsperson, or movement consultant, the costume designer is an integral part of the creative process for producing dance and one whose expertise affects many of the other production areas.

As this chapter illustrates, the world of dance costumes, hair and wigs, and makeup is an exhaustive area covering a number of different considerations. In addition to the individual considerations for a production, there are also the traditional expectations of dance styles to keep in mind. Perhaps more so

Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

In what way is a costume linked to movement? What color would be the most likely result of shining a red light onto a green fabric? What is the key difference between a classical tutu and the powderpuff tutu? What is the fat toe of a pointe shoe called? How do jazz shoes differ from ballet slippers? Which dance style most commonly features dancers in bare feet? What is the difference between a wig and a hairpiece? What are some concerns when working with hats or masks onstage? Why is dance makeup so bold in appearance? What is the purpose of a barrier spray in makeup?

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CHAPTER 12

Creating the Costume Design

Since costume designs are so eclectic and involve a number of different components, it only stands to reason that the process of creating the costume design would also be a multifaceted one requiring many specialized skills. The costume designer must work closely with the choreographer and dancers to create a costume that both fts within the conceptual framework of the dance and assists the dancer in creating the role. The following chapter details the process for creating the design from concept to opening night.

12.1 – Working with the Choreographer Other than the dancers themselves, no other aspect does so much to communicate the essence of the characters than costuming. Unlike the process of designing costumes for theatre, television, or flm, when working on dance costumes the primary source of character information will most often be the choreographer. For this reason, the costume designer and choreographer often have a close relationship. When working in the theatre, the script dictates much of the story-arc. As a result, the costume designer can enter production meetings with a fairly solid concept of where the costume design is heading. Since there is rarely a script for a dance, the process of creating the story happens in rehearsals. This means that designers typically do not have a notion of the story arc, pertinent themes, or concepts until well into the rehearsal process. For the costume designer that comes from a strictly

theatrical background, this can be a foreign concept and take some time to adjust. For these reasons, it is important that the costume designer establishes an early dialogue with the choreographer and makes time to attend rehearsals. Be aware that some choreographers may not like to bring a designer in until the piece is a bit closer to completion. The bottom line is that the choreographer and designers have to determine a method that will work best for their individual project and stick with it. The following section offers up some suggestions for initiating a conversation about the dance and how the costume design can assist in the storytelling process.

Setting Goals As mentioned above, the role of the dance costume designer is a bit different from its counterpart in theatre. Though the ultimate goal of creating costumes for a performer remains the same, the path to getting there is a bit more circuitous. Since the choreographer will often not have a defnite concept for the costumes in the early stages of discussions, it is useful to create a dialogue about the dance that gets the conversation started about the ultimate goals for what should be communicated through the dance. Listed below are some questions that can spark this conversation and drive the discussion to reveal pertinent information about the dance. Even if the choreographer has not begun the process of discovering these things about the dance, it is important to put the questions out there. In many cases, this helps them frame their approach to the dance, especially as it relates to characterization.

Talking About Your Dance 1. Is your dance based on or infuenced by any particular work of art? (If so, feel free to include images/links/references with this response.) 2. Describe in two or three sentences what you want your dance to communicate. 3. Is it important to distinguish different characters within the dance, or should the dancers all be a bit more uniformed?

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-15

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4. If there are specifc characters, do you have a sense of who they are and what they should be saying to the audience? 5. Give a few adjectives or short descriptive phrases to describe how your dance (or individual sections) should feel. Try to avoid the temptation to explain your concept – it tends to be more effective to focus, instead, on what the dance or moments should feel like. 6. Are there specifc movement-related needs for the costuming? 7. Will movement create specifc demands of the costume (i.e. will knee pads be necessary)? 8. Is there any other design element that might affect the way in which costumes have to be used (i.e. scenery: the use of stairs; props: dancers all must hold umbrellas, etc.)? 9. What kind of footwear is needed for the dance? 10. If the dance is done in a repertory setting, is there a requirement for quick changes – either within this dance or to/from the previous/subsequent dances?

Practical Concerns

a number of things one can take from watching a rehearsal, the most important of which is how the dancers move and what types of movement the costumes must accommodate. Rehearsal gives the designer an opportunity to consider not only the needs of the choreographer, but also those of the dancer. Liz Prince, a Bessie-Award-winning costume designer for such dance companies as Bill T. Jones and Pilobolus, mentions that her rehearsal process is often informed by the dancers’ clothing: “Sometimes I sneak a peek at what the dancer wore to rehearsal – their street clothes. It can give me a clue into who they are and how they like to present themselves. Sometimes their style shows me something about how garments will best ft their body.”

In a perfect world, the costume designer would be able to provide any type of costume for the dance in any number required. For all but the biggest budgets, however, what can be offered must be considered as part of a sliding scale. The important factors are the budget, the number of dancers to costume, the number of workers to help build the costumes, the skill level of available workers, timetable for construction, access to a costume stock to pull from, and more. For each production these factors must be considered as part of the design planning. Make sure to ask the right questions early in the collaborative process to identify potential challenges along the way, before getting too far into your creative process and discovering that your choices cannot be accomplished within the given parameters of the production resources. Some questions might include:

The rehearsal process is useful in planning the costumes for the dance and especially their construction. Watching rehearsals can greatly inform the choices a costume designer makes. Perhaps more important, though, is the ability to let a dancer try out the costume in a rehearsal setting. If at all possible, it is of great beneft for the dancer to rehearse in the actual performance costume. This will let both the choreographer and costume designer see the costume in action and determine if changes are necessary before going into tech. Of course, this is only possible if there is suffcient time in the rehearsal process to view the piece. Some choreographers might be hesitant to open up their rehearsal time for others to see the work before it is complete. In these instances, it is important to have an honest conversation with the choreographer about the pros and cons of an open rehearsal process and how it can beneft the overall process.

• Is this a new piece or a remount? • If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that are important to reproduce? • What is the rehearsal schedule? • Is it ok for me to attend rehearsals and see how the dancers will be moving? • At what point will the dance be fully choreographed? • What is the tech schedule? • At what point do the dancers need to be working in costume? • Are there specifc props needed for this production? If so, how will the dancers use the props? • Are there specifc colors selected for the lighting yet? • Are there any special effects needs that might affect the costuming (fying a dancer, etc.)? • Does the dance company have a costume stock from which I can pull or a reciprocal arrangement with another company’s stock?

12.2 – Communicating the Design The job of communicating the design is multifaceted. Not only must the costume designer generate information for the choreographer and other designers, but also work with those building the costumes, shopping, etc. Specifcity in the design

Attending Rehearsals As mentioned earlier, attending rehearsals is one of the important aspects of the costume designer’s job. There are 154

Creating the Costume Design

materials is a necessity. The following section breaks down the many steps that go into communicating the costume design to other members of the production team.

Visual Research One of the most useful tools of the costume designer is visual research. Finding suitable images that represent possible choices in the costume design can save a lot of time and energy. Particularly in instances of historical dress, it is benefcial to fnd pictorial references of period costumes to show to the choreographer as a starting point. In this phase of the design process, it is often a stack of photocopied images (or the digital equivalent) that the choreographer can fip through and respond to. Ideally, share these in person and chat about the choices. If this is not a possibility, however, it is a good idea to assemble a presentation that walks the choreographer through the research. Online tools such as Google Presentation, Prezi, or Pinterest offer unique possibilities for virtual interaction. Research can take many different forms. Primary research like photographs, paintings, or etchings of period costumes is useful for realistic dress. When considering costumes that are a bit more stylized, though, it might be benefcial to draw from alternate resources like works of art or textures found in nature, etc. Another more practical form of visual research might be looking through dancewear or apparel catalogs to see what pre-fabricated costume pieces might be suitable for the dance. Finally, it is not uncommon for the choreographer to provide research images of his/her vision for the costumes. Every collaboration is a bit different. Try to fnd the right process to work for the given project instead of attempting to make the project ft a preconceived notion of how it should work.

Figure 12.1 Rough sketch for the Mice in The Nutcracker. Design by Campbell Baird.

design that features precise details, patterns, color, and any additional notes that might be necessary to communicate the design to those building it (Figure 12.2). In addition, the costume rendering normally includes fabric swatches, small pieces of fabric attached to the rendering that illustrate the type of fabric used for the costume. Sometimes, swatches will be included after the actual fabric is purchased. In the instance of a costume design that is mostly purchased or rental elements, the designer may decline the use of sketches and renderings in favor of including photos of the actual costumes to be used.

Costume Sketches The process of determining design choices frequently begins with the costume sketch. The frst sketches created by the designer are referred to as costume roughs, sketches that include the basic form of the costume design on a human fgure, but typically without color or specifc details (Figure 12.1). The purpose of the rough is to present a quick representation of the design idea to the choreographer without spending too much time on the execution. If the idea does not work, then the designer creates another rough, gradually eliminating the undesired details and arriving at the essence of the desired costume. The next step is the creation of the costume rendering.

Costume Design Paperwork A big part of the costume designer’s job is assessing the costume needs for all of the dancers in a performance and planning for how all of the costume pieces will be provided. In larger dances, or when costuming a dance concert featuring multiple dances, there can be hundreds of different costume pieces to keep track of. The most effcient method of planning for costume needs is costume paperwork. There are a number of different methods used by different designers to plan for and execute a design. The following sections outline a few different lists that come in handy when assessing the costume needs of a dance production.

Renderings After discussions and design roughs, the costume designer will create costume renderings, a color illustration of the costume 155

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Figure 12.2 A costume rendering with fabric swatches included. The Summit, the University of Michigan, 2011. Choreography by Dianne McIntyre. Costume Design by Christianne Myers.

The Costume Plot

information will be invaluable to the wardrobe crew when planning for the performance.

The costume plot is a type of form used to track the action of a performance and list the costume elements worn by each character over the progression of the performance (Figure 12.3). This is most useful in dances where there are costume changes during the performance. It is more common in story-based dance forms like ballet, though it certainly is a possibility for any dance style. A costume plot is generally created in a spreadsheet layout with columns and rows customized to ft the needs of the production. In Figure 12.3, dancers are listed in the left column, with the breakdown of scenes progressing from left to right in the subsequent columns. Each cell lists the necessary information regarding the dancer’s costume. The costume plot is useful for tracking the progression of a dancer’s costume changes throughout the entire performance, listing the changes that occur and allowing the designer to see when quick changes occur. This

The Concert Breakdown Unlike theatrical performances, dance is frequently presented in the concert format: an evening of dances that often feature dancers in multiple pieces intended to stand alone as independent works. The concert breakdown, a chart that breaks down each dance and the dancers that appear in them (Figure 12.4), is a form used to assess the number of dancers that appear in each dance and how their assignments might correspond. This is similar to the French scene breakdown for plays, a chart that shows each scene of the play and who appears in it. The concert breakdown is a useful tool for both the costume designer and those arranging the order of performances for the concert. By considering which dancers appear in which pieces, one

Figure 12.3 A mock costume plot for The Nutcracker.

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Figure 12.4 A concert breakdown, illustrating which dancers perform in each piece of a dance concert.

can plan for a show order that does not require multiple quick changes and allows for the dancers to rest between individual pieces, if possible.

forms, such as the shopping list, pull list, rental list, or the to-build form. The format for these simple lists and forms varies from designer to designer. The common theme is that this paperwork is used to communicate information to the costume construction personnel who might be working on the project, as well as to simply help organize the approach to different tasks necessary for the design implementation. The shopping list, pull list, and rental list are all three variations on the same type of list, including costume items, the dancer/character who wears them, the appropriate size needed, and additional notes. Once generated, these lists can be given to shoppers, costume shop personnel, or sent to rental houses to indicate the items needed.

Lists Assembling the wardrobe for a production can be a daunting task when you consider the hundreds of articles of clothing that can go into even one dance. One time-tested method for keeping track of all of the costume needs is the list. There are multiple types of lists used for tracking specifc needs. The costume list breaks down the costume needs of each individual dancer, with separate lists for each particular character they dance. By creating a separate costume list for each character in the dance, the costume designer has a quick reference to see all of the wardrobe items required to create the costume. In the frst column, the costume designer lists the wardrobe piece, such as camisole, tights, tutu, pointe shoes, etc. In the columns to the right of the wardrobe piece, there is a check sheet that lists the procurement method for each piece (build, pull, buy, rent) and a space for additional notes, as necessary. This simple list is essential in communicating information between the costume designer, costume shop manager, wardrobe crew, and others. In addition, this list can lead to other types of useful lists and

The build list is a specifc form used to indicate all of the steps necessary to building a costume piece. Most often, the costume shop manager creates this form in consultation with the designer. It lists all of the different costume pieces for a given dancer and all of the steps necessary to complete said pieces. Common steps include: purchase fabric, pre-wash fabric, dye fabric, iron fabric, cut fabric, attach trim, paint/decorate fabric, ft costume to dancer, etc. The build list becomes a to-do list for costume shop personnel and helps keep track of where each project is in the construction timeline.

FYI: Spreadsheets for List Making When considering the amount of paperwork that a costume designer might need to generate for a given design, you might ask yourself if the time spent making these lists might be better spent on actually building the design? While it can be a time-consuming endeavor, the more organized the plan for creating the design, the better chances the costume designer has to fnish on time

without accidentally leaving something out. Perhaps more important is the fact that, without a detailed list, no one can provide assistance without the costume designer taking time from his/her schedule to explain everything needed for a project. One tool that can speed up the process of creating and maintaining lists is the spreadsheet. Programs like Microsoft Excel or online versions like Google Sheets

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can make the task of creating lists much more manageable. I recommend creating a spreadsheet template that can be used for all of your costume designs. The frst sheet you make should be the costume list, and then you can then add other sheets for shopping lists, pull lists, rental lists, etc. Since most spreadsheet programs allow you to link

information from one sheet to another, you can set up the shopping list to copy all of the costume items from your costume list that have been checked as “buy” directly into the shopping list. This eliminates the redundancy of re-writing a list of items already listed on your costume list.

The Show/Shop Bible

designer. In a repertory company, it is common to have the company members’ measurements on fle, but it is a good idea to update the measurements on fle as fuctuations in weight can occur over a relatively short period of time. Whoever performs the task of taking measurements, the process should be professional and effcient (on average, most measurements should take 30 minutes or less) making use of a fabric tape measure that can conform to the size and shape of the dancer. The dancer should arrive in a leotard or some tight-ftting apparel for the most accurate measurements and be prepared to provide basic information such as shoe size and weight. All information taken in a measurement session should be documented on a measurement form that can be easily accessed by different members of the costume department. Common measurements for custom-designed costumes might include: chest, waist, hips, neck, shoulder to nipple, insleeve, outsleeve, inseam, outseam, thigh, calf, head, and more. In addition to common measurements, there should be space for uncommon measurements that apply to specialty items. Beyond measurements, these sheets might contain other information about the dancer, such as hair color, length, eye color, complexion, allergies, piercings, and any item of importance that might inform the design process.

During the process of preparing for a production, most costume shops will create a book referred to as the bible, a collection of all of the information necessary to plan for and execute the design. Often, there will be a show bible made for one show in particular, as well as a shop bible which includes information needed for all of the shows being built in the shop. This includes basic information such as calendars, costume plot, measurement sheets, costume renderings, costume lists (build, buy, pull, rent), research, budgets and receipts, etc. In addition, it is common to have a separate section for each dancer including costume renderings, build lists, ftting schedules and notes, and additional notes pertinent to the build. While it may seem like a lot of time and effort go into the creation of the show bible, the payoff is huge considering it provides a centralized location for all of the information related to the costume design. Frequently, costume shop personnel can get the answers they need by referencing the bible instead of waiting for an answer from the costume designer. This alone makes the effort well worth it.

12.3 – Executing the Design

When purchasing factory-made dancewear, measurements are broken down into fve categories: girth, bust, waist, hips, and inseam. The following list breaks down the ideal method for getting these measurements:

Once the designs have been approved and the build process begins, there are a number of steps that go into the design execution. The process of assembling all of the necessary components for a costume design requires that the designer multitask and keep track of a vast amount of information. The following section details the process and personnel for executing the costume design.

• Girth is the most important measurement for selecting the appropriate size of pre-made costume. This measurement is achieved by taking a measure from the center of one shoulder, diagonally down the front of the body and through the crotch, then travelling up the back of the body to the same shoulder. Think of this as a loop of rope running over one shoulder and through the crotch. • Bust is the measure around the chest, over the fullest part of the breasts and straight across the back. For women, one might also take measurements above and below the breasts. • Waist is the measurement around the natural waist, level with the small of the back.

Taking Measurements One of the most important steps to ensuring the correct ft and movement of a dance costume is taking measurements. Who is responsible for taking measurements varies according to the type of production. In a larger professional company or some academic environments, it is often the costume shop staff that will take measurements. For smaller professional companies, it would be the responsibility of the costume

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• Hips is the measurement of the fullest part of the hips and buttocks. Depending on body type, the placement of this measurement will vary somewhat between dancers. • Inseam is the measurement from the crotch to the inside ankle.

that most websites do not feature an up-to-date inventory and, even if it says an item is in stock, it may not always be available when you arrive. When you do head out, try to line up shopping trips to visit vendors in similar parts of town, so that you don’t fnd yourself wasting time and money by making multiple trips.

Other measurements might be necessary, depending on the design approach. As such, consider the need for obtaining the following information: shoe size, suit jacket size, pants size, shirt/blouse size, dress size, tights size, bra size, hat size, or other pertinent information connected to the design.

Thrift stores are an excellent resource in shopping for costumes, but defnitely more hit-or-miss than a retail store. In addition, this type of shopping requires fexibility on the part of the designer to make use of available pieces that ft within the design intent but are not exact matches. For the lower budget production, the thrift store is defnitely a must.

Fabric Selection The internet has drastically changed the way in which costume designers can shop for pre-made items, but the process of buying fabric still remains a mostly hands-on endeavor. Since the quality, color, and attributes of fabric can vary immensely, it is essential for the costume designer to touch and see the fabric in person. For fabric shopping, the fabric shop is the primary location for purchasing. Depending on your location, you might have to make special trips out of town to visit a suitable fabric store, as the selection of fabric is so important to designing the costume. Arrive at the store with the appropriate lists of fabric needs, types, and yardage. Remember that when purchasing fabric, you often get a discount when purchasing in bulk, so it is better to buy everything you need at once rather than making multiple trips. Likewise, keep in mind that fabric from different bolts can have an incredibly different appearance, so always try to purchase the amount needed from the same bolt rather than having to purchase from separate sections.

Rentals Rentals are a common part of the costume design process that enables the designer to pick pieces that might be impossible to build or buy. Typically, the costume designer should go to the rental house to peruse their stock, as this allows for changes in design on the fy based on availability. Come to the rental house with measurements and a rental list in hand in order to facilitate the selection process. When renting a costume, there is normally a fat fee per costume. The rental agreement should be made with careful attention to allowances for modifcations. Typically, modifcations are allowed, so long as it is something that can be undone before returning the costume. Obviously, this means no cutting or dyeing of the fabric. Always keep in mind the arrangements that must be made for delivery time and shipping costs when dealing with a rental house outside of your area. These fees must be included as part of your overall budget.

Shopping Some things are easier and more affordable to purchase than to build. This leads to one of the fundamental roles of the costume designer – shopping. Since shopping is only one component of the costume design process and it takes the designer away from the costume shop, shopping trips must be meticulously planned to make the most of time and resources. When heading out on a shopping trip, try to plan ahead so as to make the most of your time. Is the item you are looking for available online? If so, how quickly can it be delivered and for what cost? This will require some cost comparison up front, but it is defnitely possible to save time and money through ordering in costume items from the internet.

Working from Stock One of the benefts of working with an established dance company is the use of a costume stock. Most companies that have been producing for some period of time have developed a modest stock of costumes from which to pull. The primary advantage of working from stock is that, since the company owns the pieces, designers are allowed to alter stock in a much greater fashion than when working with rentals. In addition, the use of stock items is free of charge, which opens up your budget for other expenses.

Patterns

Along those lines, before heading out to a store for shopping, it is often useful to visit the store’s website to check their inventory and pricing. Spending a little time researching stores online can save you an unnecessary trip. Keep in mind, though,

When considering making a costume from scratch, there are a few different methods that can be used for construction. A pattern is a template that can be used to construct

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Fittings A ftting is a meeting in which the dancer tries on different aspects of the costume to see how well they ft and move. If the costume is being built, the frst ftting is often done with a muslin mock-up of the costume. This allows the costume designer to check the pattern and make necessary adjustments according to the ft and movement. Once this ftting has occurred, the designer should mark changes as necessary and then use the corrected mock-up as a template for the fnal product. Once the actual costume has been assembled, the dancer should be rescheduled for a second ftting, to try on the show costume. This ftting should be a thorough meeting in which the costume designer and dancer address the ft of the costume. The dancer should be given the opportunity to work through any movements that may be affected by the costume. If necessary, there may be a fnal ftting, in which the dancer comes back in to try on the costume once fnal adjustments have been made. It is not uncommon to have only two fttings, but it should not be an expectation. In all ftting sessions, the costume designer and shop personnel should be prepared to take detailed notes as to what changes must be made to the costume. Fittings are a necessary component to the costume design process that should always be factored into the production schedule.

12.4 – Dress Rehearsals and Beyond

Figure 12.5 Some basic sloper shapes. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

Unlike the other design elements, costume designs are not always present from the beginning of technical rehearsals. First dress is the frst technical rehearsal in which costumes are integrated into the process. As the time draws near for dress rehearsals, the pace begins to quicken and it is more important than ever to remain effcient and organized in the approach.

apparel according to the specifcations of a design and the measurements of the dancer. There are commercial patterns available in a number of different styles. The beneft of using a commercial pattern is the low cost, lack of skilled labor necessary to create the pattern, and relative ease in locating the desired look. When the goal is a period costume, commercial patterns can look a bit modern in their approach. Another option is the creation of a pattern from scratch, drafting the pattern off of the measurements of the dancer. A well-equipped costume shop will also have slopers that can be used to make patterns quickly. A sloper is a pre-made pattern custom-ftted to match a dress form or individual. It is sewn in muslin or a cotton fabric and can be used as a template for creating other patterns (Figure 12.5). Still another option is draping a costume, in which muslin is hung on a dress form, pulled and pinned into the appropriate shape to create the desired style. After this is done, the seams are marked and the muslin taken apart to be used in the creation of a pattern for the actual costume piece. Whatever process is used, patterning and working from patterns is a time-consuming process that requires a great deal of experience.

Though frst dress is technically the frst time costumes are required to be used, many choreographers and lighting designers will request at least one costume to be present for setting lights during a cueing session or cue-to-cue. Likewise, if the costumes are used in unique ways by the dancers, the choreographer may request to have the costumes in rehearsal before going into tech rehearsals. Always plan ahead to determine if there will be special needs for the costumes before frst dress.

Organizing Costume Elements The fnal steps of preparing the costume design for going into dress rehearsals is an organization of the costumes into logical

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groupings and preparing for moving into the theatre space. As pieces are completed in the shop, they should be labeled for the character or dancer wearing them and combined together with other wardrobe elements for the performance. Wardrobe racks, rubber bins, and banker’s boxes are some of the storage devices commonly utilized for organizing costumes. Small items such as jewelry, tights, etc. can be organized into bags labeled with contents. It is important to keep the fnished wardrobe elements separated from those to be completed in the shop.

attend these rehearsals in order to see how the costumes work, specifcally under the stage lighting and in the context of scenic and property elements. Detailed notes should be made regarding the look of costumes and any changes that might need to occur, such as toning down the color of a costume or adjusting the ft of a piece. Dress rehearsals should operate under show conditions whenever possible in order to assess the amount of time needed for quick changes or costume demands. It is important to communicate openly and honestly with the choreographer regarding costumes. If a wardrobe element is incomplete or not present, make sure to mention it. Find out what is working and what he/she does not like. Always communicate when changes are coming and try to make sure nothing is coming as a surprise. There are typically a limited number of dress rehearsals in which to make adjustments. Make the most of your time and keep calm under pressure.

Working with the Wardrobe Crew The wardrobe crew is the group of people responsible for the running of the show and maintenance of costume elements once the show opens. As you get close to frst dress, it is important to bring the wardrobe crew into the shop and begin the process of preparing for dress rehearsals. The wardrobe supervisor is the head of the wardrobe crew and supervises the crew once dress rehearsals begin. The supervisor is familiar with the production and all of the costume elements so that he/she can fully appreciate the requirements of the wardrobe crew throughout the performance.

Performance Run Once the dance is up and running, the designer will typically move on to his/her next project. If the designer is part of a repertory company, this may mean the next show of the season. As a freelancer, he/she may be heading across the country. Once the show is in performance runs, it is up to stage management to ensure that the dancers maintain a sense of continuity as related to the costume design; always wearing the costume in the appropriate manner, reporting any damage, and contacting the designer should there be a need for a replacement costume. As dances become part of a company’s repertory, it is important that detailed documentation be maintained in order to ensure future productions remain consistent with the original concept.

The wardrobe supervisor and designer should coordinate with other design areas to allow for quick-change locations backstage. These areas often require running lights, a mirror, and sometimes masking for privacy’s sake. This means consulting with scenery and lighting in order to provide the appropriate backstage accommodations. During the course of the production, there may be members of the wardrobe crew who function specifcally as dressers, wardrobe crewmembers whose responsibility is specifcally working with the dancers during costume changes to ensure a quick and safe costume change.

Strike

Another role of the wardrobe crew is setting up dressing rooms and organizing costumes into their appropriate locations before frst dress. The wardrobe crew will communicate with the costume designer and shop supervisor before this point, as well, to determine the specifc maintenance and costume care needs of the wardrobe elements. Once the show is up and running, the wardrobe crew will be responsible for cleaning, pressing, and repairing costumes, if necessary. To facilitate this, the wardrobe crew often posts a sheet backstage for dancers to note any repairs that need to be undertaken before the next performance. This is particularly important given the wear and tear that most dance costumes endure.

The fnal step of the production process is strike, the closing and putting away of the show. In most cases, designers are not required to attend strike, though this may not be the case in academic environments or repertory companies. All rental and borrowed items must be cleaned and promptly returned. In addition, all pulled costume pieces must be returned to stock and new purchases added to the costume stock. Finding clean, safe, and dry storage for costumes can be a task, but it will save time and money in the long run to not short change this process.

12.5 – Chapter Review

Dress Rehearsals Dress rehearsals are the designer’s frst chance to see the costumes integrated into the production beside all of the other design elements. It is essential for the costume designer to

As this chapter showed, the role of a costume designer is a wildly eclectic combination of skillsets. From the initial planning stages, to attending rehearsals, working with the

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choreographer and dancers, facilitating the build, and making adjustments along the way, the costume designer is expected to juggle numerous responsibilities to pull off the design. Communicating the design occurs through visual research, costume sketches, and color renderings. After this, the process becomes a bit more hands-on by taking measurements, selecting fabric, pulling and/or renting costume pieces,

shopping, and building new costume pieces. Throughout it all, the costume designer must maintain an open channel of communication with the choreographer, construction personnel, wardrobe crew, and the other members of the production team. It is certainly not a job for which everyone is well-suited, but the costume designer is undeniably a major role on the dance production team.

Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What is a costume rough? What is the difference between a costume sketch and a rendering? What is the purpose of a costume plot? What information is on the build list? What is the costume bible? Explain the draping process. What is the purpose of a muslin mock-up used in the frst ftting? At what rehearsal are costumes frst incorporated with the other design elements? What is the role of the wardrobe supervisor? What happens at strike?

Project 12–1: Thinking Like a Costume Designer What a dancer wears communicates a lot about their character. The costume designer’s job is to use the wardrobe to help reinforce character traits without “spoon-feeding” the audience or coming off as overly stereotypical. Included below is a list of character descriptions, short phrases that might be used by a choreographer to describe the dancer’s presence. Pick two descriptions from the list below and create a research collage that visually illustrates the type of clothing choices that communicate the character for each description. For your collage, try to arrange the images in an aesthetically pleasing composition that shows both attention to detail and clear choices. Think about how color, fabric, textures, fow, and cut make statements. If presenting these in a classroom setting, make sure to take time for discussion and Q&A. Talking about design choices is an important aspect of the designer’s role to the production process. • • • • • • • • • •

Calm and reserved Hot-tempered Magical Mesmerizing Looking for attention A broken soul Noble Unremarkable Gracefully elegant Self-assured

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The Costume Designer’s Perspective: An Interview with Liz Prince Liz Prince is one of the more prolifc dance costume designers in the feld today, having designed costumes for some of the most reputable companies for over 25 years. She has worked extensively with Bill T. Jones designing for his works on his company, Boston Ballet, Berlin Opera Ballet and Alvin Ailey American Dance. Other work includes designing for: Doug Varone (Doug Varone and Dancers, Jose Limon Dance Company, Dayton Contemporary Dance), Mark Dendy (Dendy Dance, Pacifc Northwest Ballet, Dortmund Theater Ballet), Trey McIntyre (Washington Ballet, PHILADANCO, Pennsylvania Ballet, Houston Ballet), Mikhail Baryshnikov’s White Oak Dance Project, Pilobolus Dance Theatre, Bill Irwin, Neil Greenberg, Ralph Lemon, Jane Comfort, Lenora Champagne, Bebe Miller, Sarah East Johnson, Gerard Alessandrini (MOBIL Masterpiece Theater Celebrates 20 Years on PBS), David Dorfman, Patricia Hoffbauer, Jennifer Monson, Lawrence Goldhuber, and Keely Garfeld. She designed costumes for Nancy Savoca’s flm Union Square (2011) starring Mira Sorvino and Tammy Blanchard. Her costumes have been exhibited at The New York Public Library for the Performing Arts, Cleveland Center for Contemporary Art, Snug Harbor Cultural Center, and Rockland Center for the Arts. In 1990 Ms. Prince received the New York Dance and Performance “Bessie” Award for costume design as well as a 2008 Charles Flint Kellogg Arts and Letters Award from Bard College for achievement in her feld. In addition to her professional work, she also teaches costume design at SUNY Purchase and Manhattanville College.

Do you have a dance background/any formalized training in dance? Yes – I was a Dance and Theater Major at Bard College. When I moved to NYC after I graduated, it was to be a performer in dance and theatre.

How did you frst start working in dance design? My work-study job while I was attending Bard was to design the costumes for the four dance concerts each year. It was very basic stuff that I came up with, but I remember well the struggle of trying to fnd something appropriate for each dance and tried very hard to understand what the choreographer wanted – not always an easy endeavor! Aileen Passloff was one of my teachers there and she had worked closely with James Waring and showed me some costumes he had created. They were very beautiful and odd and had a lot of handwork and detail. The pieces were like animals; so lively and intense. I remember trying to create pieces like his work because they so impressed me! Upon graduating from Bard I moved to NYC started creating costumes for friends’ work as well as my own. It snowballed into a career.

How do you fnd dance costume design differs for theatrical costume design? Theatrical design generally starts with a script and that script is the design team’s map for their work. It’s all about realizing the director’s vision for the script. Designers are trying to realize the choreographer’s vision for a dance but at the end of the day in theatre, the arc of the piece pretty much is mapped out in the script from day one in the creative process. This allows the entire team to play around with ideas months in advance of rehearsals. Dance is very different because, for the most part (unless it’s a classical ballet with a story that everyone knows . . .) the creation of the piece happens mostly in rehearsals and designers have no advance clues as to the arc of the piece. Often, where the piece lands isn’t even fully clear until very close to the technical rehearsals and premiere of the work. This can make the timeline for designing for dance somewhat hair-raising especially for costume designers because sewing a costume from scratch takes a HUGE amount of time. On top of that, very often there are technical issues – like how a costume moves and what to do if it gets hung up on the body when the dancer fips upside down or how does it take sweat. There’s a lot of that stuff you don’t fnd out until the costume is fully made and on the dancer in technical rehearsals. Also, many times there aren’t any costume changes in a dance as there are in theatrical productions. In a play a character moves through different times of day or a year etc. and will encounter other characters as the story progresses, so there are

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all these psychological changes and mood changes on stage that designers try to enhance or express (in my case through costume changes). This is very different from dance costuming, where often there is no costume change. Most often when I design for dance I am trying to come up with one phenomenal costume that will address a number of ideas in the dance and I endeavor to get that one costume to express those ideas as fuidly as the dance itself. This is a very important aspect of dance costuming, because these various ideas and concepts in the dance are often perceived on stage concurrently – there is no time for a costume change to express all these ideas at once. They must all be embodied in one costume. It’s a very nuanced way of having to work. If you create a costume that is too heavy on one idea, it may squelch other ideas that are being expressed in the dance as it progresses and then the whole piece – the costume and the dance – will start to look very static.

Can you describe your ideal process for working with choreographers? The more time a choreographer can give me the better. I like to come in early in the process and hear their ideas – even if they change. It gives me more time to mull over/sleep on it and discover without feeling terrifed that there’s not enough time. Sometimes choreographers don’t like to bring people in to design their piece until the piece is practically fnished and often that leaves a designer with a tiny amount of time to work because the piece is about to premiere.

In many ways, costumes are very personally linked to the individual dancer. Do you consult with dancers during your design process? I always consider the dancer. The two-dimensional piece of fabric a costume designer works with to create a threedimensional costume (you could even think of that costume as a sculpture) lives in space and works with the dancer’s body like one, so there is always some sort of dialogue going on with the dancer. Sometimes I sneak a peek at what the dancer wore to rehearsal; their street clothes. It can give me a clue into who they are and how they like to present themselves. Sometimes their style shows me something about how garments will best ft their body. Even rehearsal clothes can sometimes be inspiring and useful to observe. I always consult performers during fttings and listen to their comments. This is very important. Sometimes they are a little skeptical about what I am putting on them, and I have to explain my intention. At other times, it’s the other way around and they will come up with a great solution if there’s a ft issue.

I know you have a lot of experience working with companies like Pilobolus, where the dancers can be very interactively involved with their costumes. Can you describe the process for working with a company like this? If it’s a complex costume that needs to function in a particular way, you really need to respond to the dancer’s needs and make sure they feel like they can move freely and also not somehow hurt themselves if it’s a really complex costume. Getting a rehearsal costume into rehearsal as soon as possible is of utmost importance. Rehearsal costume pieces also can help the performer play with the costume so it is truly integrated into the dance. There are many approaches when beginning to work with a choreographer. Sometimes they know what they want exactly and other times they just have a sense of a color or quality of fabric that interests them and other times I’m completely on my own as to what will happen with the costumes. Sometimes I build a look with the choreographer and dancers by bringing in a selection of clothes to rehearsal and come up with everyone’s costume together at the same time. Jonathan Wolken loved to work this way. I have done this often with other choreographers but this ended up being Jonathan’s only way of creating costumes when I worked with him. I think choreographers like it because it allows them to express their vision for the work in a similar way to how they build a dance with the dancers and so it feels well integrated into their work and not a foreign imposed element tagged on at the end of the process. When working with Jonathan in this way we would chat a bit about the piece and then I would go off and hunt and gather a huge amount of garments for a couple of weeks. I would then come in and cover the rehearsal room foor with my fnds and the dancers would start to put things on and come up with great combinations. Jonathan would approve the looks or suggest other things to try and I, of course, would be suggesting things like mad throughout the ftting time. Clothes are

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fying through the air and there’s a lot of joking of course because it’s half dress up time and half work. It’s a little intense because so much is happening at once, but you can get great results. It’s important to have a good sense of humor in those situations. Sometimes we would use the actual set of garments we put together and other times I would have them rebuilt so they ft better or also so they could ultimately withstand the rigors of touring (lots of wear and tear and washing with dance costumes)!

What advice would you have for a young artist interested in costume design for dance? I think it is useful to understand dance as a dancer and as a choreographer. If you are in school and have the opportunity, take dance classes and make some dances as well! It’s a great artistic endeavor and will feed you creatively, and also give you insight into what works when costuming dance and what doesn’t. It also really helps to understand how a choreographer works and appreciate what it means to be working and creating something with a large group of people in the room. It’s a tremendous feat to have all those personalities present and be directing them and creating at the same time! If you try to design for dance, be prepared to go to a lot of dance rehearsals. Go see dance! All kinds of dance! If you see something you like, fgure out what it is you like about it, why you think it works, and if you don’t like it so much fgure what exactly it is that isn’t working for you. Of course, go and see art. Lots of art! There is so much there that can give you a new perspective and also there are many visual artists that have designed for dance – great to see what they came up with and how they came at dance from their world.

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CHAPTER 13

Scenery and Props

Dance productions tend to utilize scenery and props less frequently than those covered in previous chapters. This does not mean that they are unimportant or to be disregarded. In fact, few areas have the potential to affect a greater change in a dance than scenery and props. Scenery literally creates the dancers’ world and has the ability to enhance or inhibit movement. Likewise, props are something with which the dancer physically interacts. They must always work in conjunction with the dancer, rather than pulling attention away from the choreography. As such, both scenery and props should be an important consideration for anyone interested in dance production.

13.1 – Scenic Design As mentioned previously, scenery is often not utilized in dance productions. There are many reasons for this, some of the most common being a desire to use maximum stage space, to avoid distracting from the physical form of the dancer, and a lack of funds/time/personnel. Ballet is the most common dance form to feature scenery. A major ballet company’s scenic design might rival that of theatre or even opera. Consider the perennial favorite, The Nutcracker, produced by countless ballet companies across the world. The requirements for this production are typically quite large, with numerous painted drops, dimensional scenery (platforms, stairs, doors), dancer props, and a Christmas tree that magically grows up from the stage foor. That is not to say that other dance styles don’t sometimes use scenery. There are numerous instances in which the use of scenery would enhance the dance production. Before taking this step, though, it is often best to start with a discussion about the production needs and available resources.

Assessing Scenic Needs The scenic needs for a dance production vary according to the nature of each performance. The frst question is how many

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dances are in the show and which require scenery? Is the production a collage concert featuring multiple dances, an evening of pieces by one choreographer, or a presentation of a single story (i.e. a ballet)? The type of performance will greatly affect the choices made to stage the dance. The following list includes some questions to address before making scenic decisions. • Does one set work for all? If there is more than one dance piece in the performance, will one scenic design work for all of the dances? Things to consider include number of dancers in each piece, traffc patterns of the dancers, and specifc needs of one dance. If there is more than one choreographer for the concert, make sure to consult with each choreographer before designing and to provide the designs to each one before going into rehearsals. If the scenery does need to change for multiple pieces, consider the next question. • If more than one set is required, how do changes occur? If the scenery needs to adjust for different dances in the concert, it is important to consider how the changes will occur. Will scenery fy? Perhaps there are scenic units on wheels to move around? Each of these different options bring their own variables into the production equation: the number of stagehands required to change the scenery; the budget for personnel and equipment; the amount of time needed for changeover from one dance to another; the safety mechanisms needed to keep dancers safe, etc. • What staging techniques can the performance space support? One of the more important questions is what the performance space can support in terms of staging. Does the physical theatre include a counterweight system, stage traps, wing space for scenic storage, etc.? These variables greatly affect what decisions can be made for the scenic design. • What is the seating arrangement? As seen in Chapter 3, there are a number of different seating options for performance spaces. Many scenery approaches are best

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-16

Scenery and Props

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13.2 – Functions of Dance Scenery

suited for proscenium style theatres, but do not work as well for thrust or stadium approaches. In these instances, it is best to avoid vertical scenic elements altogether, since it can create obstructed views. Is there a preconceived expectation of production elements for the dance? For some dance productions, the audience will have an expectation of certain production elements before even seeing the dance. Particularly for dances that are part of the popular repertoire, there might be a preconceived notion of how the dance is supposed to be presented. Likewise, the artistic director or choreographer might have an idea of how they would like the production designed based off of previous productions. Particularly in ballet companies, it is common to present the same dance as part of the annual repertoire for numerous years. If this is the case, the next two questions are particularly important. Are there scenic elements to be re-used? If this dance is part of the company’s repertoire, is there a collection of scenery to be re-used? Often a company may have a collection of painted drops, stairs, platforms, and scenic fats that are used over and over again for a particular production. If creating a new design, are there elements of the old scenic design that could be used as stock scenery (modular set pieces like platforms, fats, and stair units that can be used in multiple applications) in the new design? Is it the intention to use the design for re-mounted productions? Another important question is if the scenic design will be used as part of the company’s repertoire. If being used multiple times over the years, this will affect certain design choices such as building materials and how scenery is assembled/disassembled. Is the dance going to tour? With the prevalence of touring dance productions, it is always a good idea to explore if this dance will become part of the company’s touring repertoire in the future. If so, efforts should be made up front to create a versatile scenic design that works for a number of different spaces, rather than customizing it for one particular performance space.

Like the other design areas examined thus far, scenic design functions in a particular way for dance. When comparing dance to theatre, these functions differ somewhat, since in dance the storytelling is primarily accomplished through physical communication without the beneft of a spoken script. Listed below are some of the ways in which scenery can be used for a dance production to aid in the storytelling process. As always, discussion amongst the various production members dictates if, and to what degree, scenery should be utilized.

Defning Space More than any other design area (with the exception of lighting), scenery serves to defne the space for the dance. The use of scenery can tell the audience where to look. Particularly in non-traditional performance spaces, like an outdoor venue, the use of scenery to identify the playing space is a useful tool. Likewise, scenery could be used to divide the stage into multiple spaces. Consider the use of platforms to create various levels across the stage – each functioning as an individual area, separated from the others onstage.

Interactivity Though many people may assume that scenery is merely a backdrop for the action, some of the most effective uses of scenery for dance occur when the dancer can interact with the scenic elements. Platforms, stairs, and ramps are obvious examples of scenic elements dancers interact with. In many cases, though, the list might include a dancer climbing a truss like a ladder, a rope that someone swings on, or a trap door through which someone enters or exits. Since this is such an important function of dance scenery, it is essential to always ask: “How will the scenery be used?”

Establishing Time/Place In addition to creating a physical area on the stage, scenery can be used to indicate a sense of time and place for the audience. Time period can easily be communicated through the use of period architectural motifs. In addition, the use of scenery can help place a specifc location for the audience. Consider the difference in scenery between a rural mountain town and Times Square. These elements can be quickly and effciently communicated through scenic elements.

Reality Check: What Resources Are Available? Like other production areas, scenery is dependent on production resources. While most designers like to start off the discussion with artistic and thematic concerns, it is foolish to not take the equipment, budget, personnel, and performance space into account when making design decisions. By asking the right questions and keeping the answers in mind during pre-production planning, we reduce the potential for unwanted surprises down the road.

Mood In contrast to concrete ideas such as time and place, mood is the emotional quality, feeling, or tone of a given

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Figure 13.1 This design utilizes platforms to divide the stage into multiple playing spaces. The Summit at The University of Michigan. Choreography by Dianne McIntyre. Scenery by Kasia Mrozewska. Costumes by Christianne Myers. Lighting by Mary Cole. Photo: Peter Smith.

Figure 13.2 In this production of Dr. Faustus, the supernatural beings enter through trap doors in the stage foor. Eastern Michigan University Theatre. Scenery by Jeromy Hopgood. Lighting by John Charles. Projections by David Koltunchik. Costumes by Melanie Schuessler. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

Figure 13.3 This scenery clearly depicts a magical winter landscape for this ballet. Photo: Campbell Baird.

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moment on stage. Scenery can contribute to the sense of mood through a number of methods like the use of color, line, texture, or shape. Since mood is intrinsically tied to emotional or psychological aspects, it is important to recognize that the response will be slightly different for each person viewing it.

dancers, and audience may come with an expectation of seeing certain elements.

Problem Solving Another important function of scenic design is problem solving. As mentioned earlier, some dances are written with certain scenic elements in mind. The famous example of this would be The Nutcracker, in which a giant Christmas tree magically grows up from the foor to fll the stage space. One simply cannot stage this production without addressing this scenic challenge. While the end result is dictated, the method of execution is the realm of the scenic designer. The same might be true of magical appearances of dancers. Does the dancer enter through a trap door, behind a scrim panel, or perhaps he is fown in? All of these examples can create a magical stage moment. It is up to the designer and choreographer to determine which solution works best within the constraints of their production.

Style Another important consideration for the function of scenery is style. There are a number of different dance styles and each has its own set of traditions and sometimes even specialized equipment necessary for its execution. The style of a dance may sometimes dictate what choices must be made scenically: classical ballet is frequently presented with painted drops, fown elements, and three-dimensional scenery; tap dance requires specialty fooring; jazz often utilizes dancer props, such as chairs. While there is no ironclad rule dictating what scenic elements a dance style must have, the choreographers,

Figure 13.4 The combination of visual elements in this scene contributes to a dark mood. Red as Blood, White as Snow. Eastern Michigan University. Scenery and Projections by Jeromy Hopgood. Lighting by John Charles. Costumes by Melanie Schuessler. Photo: Randy Mascharka.

Figure 13.5 Large, colorful backdrops are common stylistic expectations for ballet. Photo: Campbell Baird.

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Figure 13.6 This production utilized large sections of fabric as scenic backdrops to enable rapid scenic changes and a variety of different organic looks. Cymbeline. The Michigan Shakespeare Festival. Scenery and projections by Jeromy Hopgood. Lighting by Diane D. Fairchild. Costumes by Aly Renee Amidei. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

13.3 – Scenic Elements

Sprung Flooring A sprung foor is a specially designed foor that absorbs the shock of dancers jumping on it. This is particularly important in locations where the subfoor of the performance space is concrete. There are a number of companies on the market that make sprung fooring solutions. Sprung fooring can either be temporary or permanent installations.

Unlike lighting and sound, scenery deals with more tangible design elements to create the design. When discussing scenery for a dance, it is important that the choreographer and dancer have a working understanding of different scenic elements and their purpose. The following section covers a variety of these different scenic elements used for dance applications.

Temporary installations tend to be made up of modular blocks that can be locked together and reconfgured in different ways to match varying performance spaces. This method is ideal for a touring production. There are a number of different types of foor systems with both vinyl and wooden dance surfaces. Harlequin Floors, one of the world’s largest dance foor suppliers, has a wide range of options. Harlequin Liberty™ sprung foor panels are an easy-to-install foating dance foor system featuring interlocking panels of wood with elastomer

Dance Flooring Though it rarely has a noticeable design aesthetic, the fooring is one of the most important elements to any dance performance space. Dance fooring is the combination of foor and dance surface under the dancers’ feet. The frst consideration for a performance space is if it offers a sprung foor.

Figure 13.7 The Harlequin Liberty™ sprung foor panel system. Photo courtesy: Harlequin Floors.

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foam pads affxed at regular intervals on the underside of each panel. These panels lock together easily and can be installed by the user to make a temporary or permanent sprung sub-foor surface.

purchased as double-sided with different colors on each side. Common colors are black and grey. The process of laying the dance surface involves laying out the rolls and taping them together along their seams using either Marley tape or gaffer’s tape. These two types of tape are commonly used for many stagecraft applications. Marley tape, sometimes called vinyl dance foor tape, is a variety of tape with a smooth vinyl fnish to match the surface of dance foors. It comes in black, white, and clear colors for matching the colors of various dance surfaces. Gaffer’s tape is a type of fabric tape used for all types of electrical work in theatre and television/flm. Most theatres have a stock of gaffer’s tape on hand and may prefer to use this rather than Marley tape. Both types of tape work well for securing the dance surface into place and it is largely a matter of personal preference as to which type one uses.

For a permanent installation, there are also many different methods. The classic sprung foor, dating back to the 19th century, uses a series of interlocking wooden planks (called battens) layered atop one another in a “basket weave” pattern (Figure 13.8). Wooden sheet goods are attached atop the battens to complete the sprung foor deck. Due to the placement of the battens at 90-degree angles on regular intervals, the wood has a natural fex and spring-like recovery that absorbs the shock of a dancer jumping on the surface. In addition to the battens, a series of rubber-like shock absorbent pads add to the fexibility of the installation. This type of sprung foor typically requires professional installation.

Dance Surface

Laying a Dance Surface

The dance surface is the fnal layer of fooring applied over the sprung foor (or sometimes a fnished part of modular stage foor systems). The most popular variety is PVC vinyl sheeting that comes on a large roll, commonly called Marley. Many years back, the original manufacturer of this type of fooring was Marley Floors Ltd. This led to the use of the generic term Marley or Marley foor. Even though Marley Floors is long out of business, the term stuck and most dancers still refer to this type of fooring as Marley. Every manufacturer of dance fooring has a proprietary name for their dance surface. Many dance theatres have more than one type of dance surface in stock for use in different dance applications. Frequently, it can be

Laying a dance surface is something that will be done as part of almost every load-in. The process can be a time-consuming and frustrating one if you have not done it before. If the process is rushed the foor can develop bumps or bubbles over time and create an uneven and unsafe dance surface. Listed below are some basic steps to install the dance foor and avoid complications. This process assumes that you have already measured out the stage foor and pre-cut the appropriate lengths of Marley to match your performance space. This process works best with three to fve people helping out.

Figure 13.8 A basket weave sprung foor.

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1. Examine the stage foor to make sure it is smooth and free of any loose fooring. Remove any debris by thoroughly sweeping the foor and removing any staples, screws, nails, etc. from the foor. 2. Sweep and mop the stage to remove any oil, debris, or residue that might stick to the back of your Marley foor. Be thorough on this step as anything left on the foor can create a hazardous condition for dancers! 3. Use a chalk line to create a reference point for the downstage edge of the Marley. In some theatres, this is the proscenium line. The important thing is to make sure it (the chalk line) is parallel to the theatre’s proscenium line so the Marley will all be squarely placed. 4. Roll out the fooring and lay it in place on the stage foor in a stage right to stage left orientation (not upstage/ downstage). The frst section should be aligned to the chalk line. Leave ⅛” gaps between the subsequent rolls of Marley (approximately the width of a nickel). If you have the luxury of time, let the Marley rest on the foor overnight. The longer it can adjust to the temperature of the performance space the better, as the material will expand and contract due to temperature changes. 5. Starting with the downstage roll of Marley, tape down the offstage corner to the foor. I prefer to use gaffer’s tape, rather than Marley tape. First apply four pieces of tape equally spaced along the edge going stage right/ stage left. After this, run a strip of gaffer’s tape along the entire edge of the Marley (upstage/downstage). This will guarantee the roll is secured in place and prepare you for stretching. 6. To eliminate bubbles and inconsistencies in the Marley, you must stretch out the roll. Starting from the opposite end that was just taped, have someone gently pull the Marley towards them. Get two other people to “jump out” the Marley. This is the process of two people jumping in unison, moving from the taped side to the non-taped side (one upstage and one downstage). The inertia of the jumps stretches the Marley out and helps it lay fat. Keep in mind that stretching is a delicate balance. Attempt to stretch just enough to get the Marley in place without bubbles or wrinkling. Overstretching should be avoided, as this results in an hourglass shape in your Marley and makes it continuously more diffcult to lay fat without gaps in adjacent rolls. 7. Once the two jumpers reach the end, repeat the taping process to secure the end in place. This roll should now be stretched fat to the stage foor without any bubbles. 8. Tape down the downstage edge of the roll with gaffer’s tape or Marley tape. The process uses two people. One person should pull off a small amount and affx it to the downstage edge (half on the Marley, half on the stage

foor). The second person should pull out around 10’ of tape and allow the tape to relax for a moment. Do not overstretch the tape, as this can lead to it pulling up later! Repeat this process until the entire front edge has been taped down with one continuous strip of tape. 9. Repeat the same process of taping and stretching the next roll of Marley in the same direction as the frst one. After the sides are taped down, tape down the downstage edge, thereby attaching the frst Marley roll to the second one. Repeat this process for each subsequent roll of Marley fooring. 10. Sweep and mop the Marley foor. Use a soft bristle push broom and a water-based cleaner with the mop. Most manufacturers also sell a cleaner specially formulated for their dance surface. Always allow the foor to completely dry before dancers arrive.

Scenic Drops A scenic drop, or drop for short, is a large piece of fabric with scenic imagery painted onto it. The drop hangs vertically from a batten and is used as a backdrop for the stage. Drops are commonly used in ballet performances in particular. They tend to be quite large and require a good amount of time, expertise, and money to create. A scenic drop is typically made of heavyweight muslin, a type of cotton fabric that works well for painting. The top of the drop utilizes metal grommets and jute webbing for reinforcement, through which is strung a thin cord called a tie line. The tie line is used to tie off the drop to the batten. The bottom of the drop has a pocket sewn into it called the pipe pocket. By inserting a thin gauge pipe into the pipe pocket, the drop will be weighted down to stretch out all of the wrinkles. Figure 13.9 illustrates the makeup of a stage drop.

Flats In theatrical terms, a fat is any type of a two-dimensional fabric or wooden covered panel, typically fown or resting vertically from the stage foor. Flats have been used in theatrical scenery since the 15th century. They are typically painted in such a way to resemble three-dimensional scenery, or they might have three-dimensional elements applied to them. There are two basic types of fats: soft fats, and Hollywood fats.

Soft Flats A soft fat is the classic theatrical fat with thin wooden framing and a muslin covering. The overall thickness of a soft fat is approximately 1”. Because of this, the soft fat is incredibly lightweight and easy to store, but it can be a

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Figure 13.9 The common components of a stage drop. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

Hollywood Flats

bit delicate because of the fabric covering. The soft fat has framing referred to as rails, stiles, and toggles. The rail is the section of wood running from side to side along the top and bottom of the fat. The stile is located between the rails, placed vertically on the outside edges. Finally, the toggle is placed in the center of the span between the rails to keep the frame from bowing inwards in an hourglass shape. All of these pieces are attached together by thin strips of wood called keystones and corner blocks. The corner block is a triangular piece of plywood used to connect the rails and stiles. The keystone is a trapezoidal shaped piece of plywood used to connect the stiles to the toggle. After framing the fat, muslin fabric is stretched across the face.

A Hollywood fat, sometimes called a hard fat, is a type of fat framed with lumber on edge (with the wide edge of the lumber perpendicular to the facing) and ¼” luan plywood for the facing. Since it is covered in wood and framed on edge, the fat is much more rigid and stable. Like the soft fat, the Hollywood fat uses the same naming convention for its framing (rails, stiles, and toggles). Unlike the soft fat, however, there is no need for corner blocks or keystones, since there is enough room on the framing to simply use screws or staples to attach the frames together. Figure 13.10 illustrates the common layout of a soft fat and Hollywood fat for comparison.

Figure 13.10 Two types of fats: soft and Hollywood construction. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

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Figure 13.11 The components of a stock platform. Drawing by Jeromy Hopgood.

Platforms

called Masonite) as a paintable surface. Masonite can be a particularly slick surface for dance, though, so platforms will sometimes be covered in a layer of Marley for dance applications, though this is much more expensive.

Any area of the scenery that is raised off of stage level is accomplished by using platforms. A platform is a structure framed from wood or steel that is intended to be a raised playing surface on the stage. In traditional stock scenery, it is common that a single platform be 4’ wide × 8’ long, since this is the size of a sheet of plywood. A traditional stock platform is typically constructed with 2 × 4 lumber framing. The naming system of the platform is similar to the stock fat, with rails running the full length of the 4’-sides, stiles between the rails, and toggles placed between the stiles (Figure 13.11). The top, or lid, of the platform is a ¾” plywood sheet. Unlike a fat, toggles on a platform must be placed a maximum of 2’0” apart for stability. Without this spacing, a dancer could jump on the platform and damage it or, worse still, have their foot break through the plywood.

Sometimes a platform will be used to create an angled surface on the stage, like a ramp. In theatrical terminology, any platform that is not level to the stage foor is called a rake or raked platform. While raked platforms are common for theatrical applications and musical theatre, they are much less common for dance due to the increased stress placed on the dancer’s body and an increased potential for injury. If using a raked platform, the incline should be no greater than a ¾” rise per foot.

Stairs One common element in many scenic designs is the use of stairs. Stairs are obviously used to get from one level of the stage to another. One important thing to consider with stairs for dance are the rise and run of the stairs. Rise is the height difference between each step and the stage foor. Stairs for dance should always have a consistent rise, since any variation

Typically, platforms will have a layer of Homasote; a sheet good made from compressed recycled paper bits held together with glue. The Homasote dampens the sound of foot traffc on the platforming and offers an added layer of softness over the wooden lid of the platform. For theatrical purposes, most platforms will be covered in hardboard (sometimes 174

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in rise could easily lead to a dancer falling and being injured. The most common rises are 6” and 8”. One should never exceed a 10” rise for dance as it is can be diffcult for dancers to maneuver. Run is a term used to defne the size of a stair’s tread (the place where the foot falls on a stair). 1’0” is a common size for stair treads, but for dance applications it is wise to go with a deeper tread of 16”–18”. This allows plenty of room for the dancer’s foot when quickly going up or down the stairs.

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Traps

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One common device for theatrical performances is the trap door. As mentioned in Chapter 3, many theatres are equipped with a trapped foor that allows for the inclusion of special trap doors for scenic elements or even dancers to enter from below the stage foor. Trap doors are less common in dance applications than theatre, since there is the added complication of sprung foors and Marley used on the dance stage, but they are still a defnite possibility.

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13.4 – Dance Props What is a prop and who is responsible for providing it? The answer to this simple question seems to change from company to company. Larger companies may have a props department with a designer and props artists to build the properties. For most smaller dance companies, props seem to be the domain of the choreographer or, in some cases, the dancers themselves. This is understandable considering how intimate the relationship between dancer and prop must be. Understanding the nature of props for the given dance company and who is responsible for their design is an important step to the process.

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Props Considerations Props design is a production element that must live in harmony with the scenery and costumes while remaining functional for the dancers. This is why props design frequently falls into the domain of the scenic designer for dance. Whether your production has a props designer or not, though, it is important to consider the need for properties, how they will be used in the dance, and who will be responsible for making or procuring the props. The following list includes some important questions to ask regarding the use of props in a dance piece.

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• Is it a prop, set piece, or a costume? The line between prop, set piece, and costume is often a blurry one. Consider an item like a hat. It can be worn, certainly, but 175

choreographers like Bob Fosse made a career of utilizing costume pieces as props. During initial production meetings try to determine who will be providing these items. Don’t assume that just because you think it’s a prop someone else will too! Is there a props budget? The question of a props budget is important to consider. Is there a separate line of funds available for props, or do the props need to come from the scenery budget (or some other general fund)? The answer to this question will affect a number of the design choices for props. How will it be used? One of the most important questions for any dance prop is how it will be used. Does the prop take abuse during the dance? A chair can easily become a stepladder or a ramp in the context of a dance. Chances are it would have to be reinforced for safety, though. Make sure to know exactly how the prop will be used before purchasing or building. How many are needed? In addition to how the props will be used, you must also consider how many props are required for the full run of the show. Some props can be used for every performance. Other props are considerable consumables, because it is used in such a way that makes it unusable for future performances. These are commonly referred to as wet props, like food, drink, props that get destroyed onstage, or need replenishing before the next show. Make a detailed props list before going into tech that includes the number needed for the entire process (technical rehearsals and every performance). Does it need to be weight bearing? One of the most common requests of a dance prop is to be weight bearing. This is an important consideration that requires lots of research on the props designer’s part. What kind of weight does it bear? If it is a dancer, you need to know how much he/she weighs. Does it only need to hold up a dancer standing on it, or will they be jumping? Where will the prop sit on the stage (a fat level surface, or on a raked platform)? All of these questions will help in the design process to create a safe, weight-bearing prop. When do your rehearsals begin? Since it is dancers who use dance props, it is important for the designer to see the rehearsal to understand the prop within the context of the dance and see how the dancers use it. One important consideration is the date at which the choreographer needs props for rehearsal. It could be important to try out some rehearsal props before committing to building the show prop. Likewise, in some devised dances, the choreographer might want to bring in a large collection of props and see how the dancers work with them in rehearsal. This will ultimately inform the nature of the choreography.

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13.5 – Chapter Review

In addition to defning the performance space, the scenery creates interactive elements, sets the time, place, and mood while contributing to the overall style of the dance production. In addition to scenery, properties can be used to assist the dancers in their storytelling and amplify the moment onstage. Certainly, scenery and props are an important consideration for every aspect of dance production.

Scenery and properties design are important production elements to dance. Though they are not necessarily used in all dance productions, when used properly they can enhance the overall quality of the production and aid in storytelling. Through the use of various scenic elements, the scenic designer creates an environment in which the dance unfolds.

Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What is stock scenery? Describe a basket weave sprung foor. What is the more common name for PVC vinyl sheeting? What is gaffer’s tape? How do gaffer’s tape and Marley tape differ? What fabric are most scenic drops made from? Describe a soft fat. What are the main differences between a soft fat and a Hollywood fat? What is a rake? What is a good size for stair treads?

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CHAPTER 14

Creating the Scenic Design

Like any design area for dance, the scenic design process is a series of steps in which the designer collaborates with the choreographer and other team members to create a visual image that enhances the storytelling of the dance. The scenic designer utilizes a number of different skills during the design process, from research, to drawing and painting, model making, creating draftings, or creating renderings. Though the process for each design is unique to the dance and collaborators involved, there are some steps common to most designs. The following chapter discusses the process of working from concept to fnalizing the design onstage. For the purposes of the chapter, scenery and props are addressed separately, though it is common to fnd one designer executing both scenery and props for the same dance.

14.1 – Working with the Choreographer Like all of the areas of dance design discussed thus far, scenery and props should function as a storytelling device to help communicate the choreographer’s vision for the dance. Unlike sound, scenery and props are tangible physical items

the dancer interacts with. If created without consideration for how they will be used, these design elements can inhibit the storytelling and, in some situations, create an unsafe environment for the dancers. For these reasons, it is essential that the designers working on scenery and props work with the choreographer to establish how the design elements will be utilized in the dance and their overall purpose to the storytelling.

Setting Goals Going into the process it is important to start discussing goals for the design. As with the other design areas we have discussed thus far, starting off with a series of questions related to the dance, scenery, and props can spark a conversation that gets to the heart of the choreographer’s vision for the production. Some of these questions mirror those asked in other sections of the book, while others are customized to scenery and props in particular. It should be expected that the choreographer may not have answers to these questions in your initial conversations. The important part is to offer up the right questions to start a dialogue. In this way, you can arrive at the solutions together, which is always the goal of a successful collaboration.

Talking About Your Dance 1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

Describe in two to three sentences what you want your dance to communicate. Is your dance based on a specifc story or work of art? If so, are there any specifcations for how scenery/props should be used related to the script or your vision? Give a few adjectives or short descriptive phrases to describe how your dance (or individual sections) should feel. Try to avoid the temptation to explain your concept – it tends to be more effective to focus, instead, on what the dance or moments should feel like. In what way do you see the dancers using the space for movement? Are there ways in which the scenery could facilitate this movement style mentioned above? Are there specifc technical needs of your dance related to scenery/props (i.e. fying a dancer, climbing a wall, etc.)?

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-17

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14.2 – Communicating the Design

Practical Concerns Like the other design areas on which we have focused, there are some practical concerns related to scenery that can affect the decision making of the scenic designer. Make sure to ask these questions early in the collaborative process to identify potential challenges along the way before getting too far into your creative process and discovering that your choices cannot be accomplished within the given parameters of the production.

Unlike other areas like projection, lighting, or sound, scenic design results in a tangible physical product in the form of scenery. Since the scenery physically takes up stage space and affects movement possibilities, it is essential that the scenic designer and choreographer have a clear understanding of the design and how it will affect the choreography. Since scenery is so much harder to change once in the theatre than the other areas we have discussed to this point, it is essential that the scenic designer effectively communicate the reality of the scenic design to the choreographer before the build begins. The following section details some of the methods used by a scenic designer to communicate the design. While they may not all be used in every collaborative process, it is useful to understand these techniques as all have their own unique purpose.

• Does the work stand alone, or is it part of a repertory concert? • Is this a new piece or a remount? • If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that are important to reproduce? • What is the rehearsal schedule? • At what point will the dance be fully choreographed? • What are the specifcs/limitations of the performance space? • Will there be a need for raised levels (platforming) on the stage? • Is there a need for including musicians onstage? • Will projection be involved as a design element? If so, is there a projection designer or is the expectation that projections will be covered by another design area? • Are there specifc props needed for this production? If so, how will the dancers use the props? • What types of costumes are being used and will they be available to view before tech? • Who is building the scenery? • Who is painting the scenery? • Is there a particular type of fooring/dance surface that is expected to be used?

Visual Research One technique common to most designers is the use of visual research as a springboard for conversation with the choreographer. This is particularly useful in instances of creating a design to invoke a particular time period. Each designer takes a different personalized approach to presenting research. Some prefer to print out dozens of images and lay them out on a table to see what the choreographer gravitates towards. Another method is to cut and paste images together to create a research collage (Figure 14.1). In this way, the designer can begin to communicate basic ideas about shape, line, texture, color, or other design elements without going through the entire process of creating a design. This allows the choreographer to respond to the “feel” of the imagery

Figure 14.1 A research collage with a number of images combined to create a composite. Image by Jeromy Hopgood.

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Sketches Sketches are often the next step in a scenic designer’s process. A sketch is any type of drawing used to communicate the design idea. Typically, this means a freehand drawing executed quickly to get across the design idea. This can be done on paper, or digitally through the use of a graphics tablet, or tablet computer. Other designers might prefer to use 3D drafting or rendering applications to create a quick 3D model that communicates the size and shape of the design without having all of the details included. Figure 14.2 includes an example of a hand-drawn design sketch.

Renderings A rendering is a type of detailed design drawing done in scale with an accurate representation of color, lighting, texture, scenic details, and human fgures as a scale reference (Figure 14.3). Historically, renderings were created in pencil and watercolor paint, though the process has changed over the years to include a number of different types of media including markers, colored pencils, or acrylic paints. Other designers may choose to avoid these approaches altogether and opt for completely digital methods or a hybrid approach that combines analog and digital methods. Figure 14.2 A rough sketch to indicate design details. Drawing: Campbell Baird.

Scenic Models One of the traditional communication tools of the scenic designer is the model. A model is a three-dimensional representation of the scenery created in scale (meaning that all of the elements are proportionately scaled down from the real-world dimensions). The model includes a representation

without getting bogged down on the details. Provided that the choreographer responds favorably, this then becomes the basis for creating the scenic design. Depending on the process and time restrictions, this might be a step that is revisited multiple times in the process of envisioning the scenic design.

Figure 14.3 A digital rendering, indicating scenery, props, and characters. Image by Jeromy Hopgood.

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A second type of model used to communicate more specifc design ideas is the ¼” scale model. As the name implies, it is twice the size of the 1/8 ” scale model. This increase in scale allows the designer to includes many of the details regarding size, shape, and depth of scenic units, but it still is likely not completely accurate in its representation of smaller elements. ¼” scale models can be either painted to represent the color choices in the design or painted in all white. This type of model is referred to as a white model. A white model can be created in any scale and is typically made of heavy white paper, illustration board, and/or foam materials. Frequently, a white model might be made of different materials that are all painted white to create a uniformed look. Of course, the white model should always be accompanied with color renderings of the scenery so as to communicate the complete design idea. The most detailed and accurate type of scenic model is the presentation model. It is crated in ½” scale, the largest scale typically used for creating scenic models. As such, it is much more accurate regarding the specifc details of scenic elements. Likewise, a presentation model is painted in detail to communicate all of the elements of color and texture. Models made for commercial productions may have working scenic representations, immaculately detailed components, and even miniature working lights included in the model. It is important to note, though, that a presentation model is an expensive and time-consuming aspect of the scenic design process and seen with much less frequency in dance productions than those in theatre.

Figure 14.4 Two different scenes represented through the use of a color scenic model. Photo and design by Andy Broomell.

of the theatre space called a model box with the scenery inside. They must also include a small fgure representing a human, for scale purposes. Models are quite useful in discussing the design with choreographers, since it is a more accurate representation of the spatial relations between the dancers and scenery. Figure 14.4 includes examples of a scenic model.

Computers and Models Though the term model has historically referred to a threedimensional object hand-built by the designer, computers have changed the way designers create their models. Many designers now have access to tools unheard of in the past, such as 3D printers or CNC cutting devices. Both of these tools refer to the process of using a CAD (computer aided drafting) or 3D object fle to send information to a tool that can fabricate detailed pieces. One type of CNC cutting process uses a laser to burn a pattern into a material until it cuts out the pattern. 3D printing works like a traditional inkjet printer, but uses an additive process to lay down layers of successive material on top of one another to create a 3D object from a 3D fle (Figure 14.5). Both of these tools have become affordable enough that many designers use them as a typical tool in their workfow.

There are many types of models that serve different purposes. A 1/8” scale model is typically the smallest scale used for creating scenic models (meaning that every 1/8” measured on the model is equal to 1’0” in the real world). This type of model is made of simple thin materials, such as card stock or heavy stationary paper. Because of its small size, it is easy to transport and store. Likewise, the materials are cost effective. Most often this type of model does not include color and is executed in a monochromatic color scale based on the color of the materials used (most often white). The 1/8” scale model serves as a three-dimensional sketch, communicating the basic design ideas and giving the choreographer an understanding of the stage space. It does not include complex details, however, so it is understood that the designer would need to create a larger color model or color renderings to communicate the full scope of the design.

In addition to using computerized tools to fabricate scenic models, advances in 3D modeling applications have opened up a new world of possibilities for the creation of computer-

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Figure 14.5 Two miniature scenic units printed via 3D printer. Photo: Michael J. Riha.

Figure 14.6 A 3D model, featuring scenery, lighting, and human fgures. Design by Jeromy Hopgood.

generated scenic models. Most all varieties of CAD software now include the ability to craft in both 2D and 3D, meaning the ability to create a scale model, adding textures, color, and lighting without ever making a physical model. Programs such as SketchUp, AutoCAD, Vectorworks, or Cinema 4D give designers the ability to quickly create 3D representations of the scenery without the time and cost associated with the creation of a physical model.

designer must also create a number of detailed documents to communicate the specifcs of the design to those who will build the scenery. These design specifcations make up the agreement between the designer and those fabricating the scenery. The most common type of document created is the drafting, a mechanically produced graphic, created in scale to communicate the minute details of a design. A drafting can be created by hand (with tools like a mechanical pencil, drafting board, T-square, and triangle) or by computer (using CAD programs such as AutoCAD or Vectorworks) that is then printed. For both methods, the end goal is to produce a legible, precise drafting that uses industry-approved drafting standards to communicate the design idea.

14.3 – Design Specifcations In addition to creating drawings, renderings, and models to communicate the design idea to the choreographer, the scenic

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FYI: Recommended Practices for Draftings the accepted practices by those working in the industry to best communicate information through graphic practices. To see information on the recommended practices, visit the USITT website at usitt.org

The United States Institute for Theatre Technology (USITT) has created a series of recommended practices for generating draftings for the entertainment industry, such as light plots, ground plans, and construction drawings. Though these are not offcial “standards” per se, they are

The ground plan is used by a number of people. The lighting designer uses it as a basis for the light plot. The choreographer uses the ground plan to determine the amount of space available for dance. The stage manager will need a copy of the ground plan in order to facilitate rehearsals. In addition, if the dance tours to multiple locations, the ground plan will be an important element used to make sure the load-in is accomplished at each location. As such, it is essential that the ground plan be precise and understandable to all parties.

The Ground Plan A ground plan is the principal tool of the scenic designer to communicate placement of scenic elements on the stage (Figure 14.7). It is a drafting of the stage drawn from a bird’s eye view – above the stage looking down. The ground plan cuts away all of the architecture above 3’ off of the stage foor and removes any details above this point, called the cutting plane. Anything above this 3’ elevation is represented as a dotted line on the drafting. The theatrical ground plan includes a number of details. At minimum, the ground plan must include:

The Centerline Section

• The architecture of the theatre space • The location of the proscenium line and centerline of the theatre (if a proscenium space) • The location of all scenic elements, both onstage, offstage, and fown • Dimensions of principal scenic elements, including the height of scenery above or below the stage foor • A notation of the theatre’s fy system and all fown scenic elements • An indication of the theatre’s sightlines

The centerline section is another type of drafting that cuts the theatre along a vertical cutting plane – down the centerline of the theatre. The centerline section removes all architecture information from one side of the centerline and allows the viewer to see the theatre from a side view, including both the theatre architecture and scenery in the drafting (Figure 14.8). The centerline section is useful for seeing the stage depth and height of elements and for determining how much of the stage and theatre loft is visible to the audience. The centerline section includes:

Figure 14.7 A design ground plan, featuring the theatre space and scenery. Drafting: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Figure 14.8 A centerline section of the theatre space, illustrating scenic placement, trim height, and hanging positions. Drafting: Jeromy Hopgood.

the scenery. Once created by the scenic designer, it should be made available to other designers for use in their design process. The centerline section allows the lighting designer to determine where electrics battens can be placed and at what trim height. Likewise, it allows the projection designer to determine the ideal placement for projectors in order to project imagery on the set and stage.

• The architecture of the theatre space • An indication of the theatre’s sightlines • The location of all scenic elements, both onstage, offstage, and fown • Dimensions of principal scenic elements, including the height above the stage foor (known as trim height) • A notation of the theatre’s fy system, all battens, and fown scenic elements

Design Elevations Another important drafting generated by the scenic designer is the design elevation. A design elevation, or front

The centerline section is principally used by the scenic, lighting, and projection designers, as well as those building

Figure 14.9 A front elevation drafted above a plan view of the same scene, for detail. Photo: Campbell Baird.

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Figure 14.10 A painter’s elevation for a scenic drop used in The Nutcracker. Painting: Campbell Baird.

elevation, is a drafting that shows an object depicted from the front view, including all of the object’s details in scale (Figure 14.9). The scenic designer provides this drafting to communicate how the scenic element should look from the audience’s perspective. This drafting includes a number of notations to include information about construction materials, texture, and more. Though the design elevations are front views only, the page of drafting will likely include other views of the object, as necessary, to communicate the design, such as section views, plan views, side views, enlarged details, etc.

scene shop, or even the scenic designer himself. Ultimately, the scenic designer should approach the construction process as though he/she will not be present to answer day-to-day questions about the construction process. This means the designer should include all of the details necessary for someone else to build the scenery directly from the design draftings and paperwork. For the purpose of this chapter, we will assume that there will be an additional team building the scenery that is not the scenic designer.

The Scene Shop In scenery terms, the scene shop refers to the group of technicians responsible for the construction of all of the scenic elements. In academic circles, this is frequently done in-house with either student or staff workers assisting in the process. The scene shop is normally composed of a number of different technicians with specialized expertise. The technical director is the overall supervisor of most scene shops, supervising the process of interpreting the design draftings and creating technical drawings necessary to build the show. Depending on the nature of the shop, there may be one or more assistanttechnical directors, master carpenters, carpenters, welders, riggers, automation experts, and more.

Painter’s Elevations One additional graphic element created by the scenic designer is the painter’s elevation. A painter’s elevation is an elevation created in scale, but painted or rendered in color to the exact specifcations of the designer’s intent for the stage picture (Figure 14.10). Painter’s elevations can be created using paint, colored pencils, photo collage, or using computer software. It should be understood that the painter’s elevation is essentially a contract between the scenic designer and the scenic artists as to how the fnal product should look. As such, attention to detail is an absolute necessity.

Technical Drawings

14.4 – Scenic Construction and Painting

As mentioned above, the technical director is responsible for determining the appropriate materials and methods necessary for constructing the scenery so the appearance is in keeping with the scenic designer’s vision. One of the primary tools for communicating the method of construction

Depending on the nature of the producing organization, scenic construction may be done by a staff member, a professional

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Figure 14.11 A front elevation (left) and the rear elevation (right). Drafting: Jeromy Hopgood.

the world of the design. The following section details some considerations of the props design process for dance.

for scenery is a technical drawing. Technical drawings are the draftings created by the technical staff used for construction of all scenic elements. Technical drawings for three-dimensional objects typically show them from multiple viewpoints, at minimum including a top, front, and side view. In addition, technical drawings use a specifc type of elevation called a rear elevation, a drafting from the rear view of the object showing how the framework of scenery is to be constructed, with what materials, and how it all fts together (Figure 14.11).

The Props List The props list is a form that combines together all of the necessary props for a production and includes pertinent information about their use. Though there is no standard format for a props list, it should include important information such as: • • • • • •

The Paint Shop The term paint shop is used to refer to both the physical location of the paints and all painting tools necessary to paint scenery, and the group of personnel who work to paint the scenery. The paint shop is supervised by a scenic charge artist, the lead painter in charge of stocking the shop, interpreting the painter’s elevations and renderings, and supervising a crew of painters in fnishing and painting the scenery. Painters are typically referred to as either scenic artists or scenic painters. The scenic charge artist is also in charge of budgeting for the paint shop necessary to create the fnished designs. In the world of technical theatre, the paint shop is responsible for the preparation, texturing, and fnishing of all scenic surfaces to an exacting standard that precisely reproduces the scenic designer’s research images, drawings, renderings, swatches, and paintings.

Prop description Where it appears in the dance Who uses it? How is it used? How is it procured (build, buy, borrow, pull, rent)? Additional notes

The props list is frequently a collaborative effort between the designer, choreographer, and stage management. Since it serves as a makeshift to-do list for the designer, it is sometimes useful to include a column on the props list to be checked off when the prop is completed.

Build, Buy, Borrow, Pull, or Rent? The role of props design varies for every organization. Often the person in charge of props has accumulated a set of props over the years of doing the job, whether this is actually housed as part of the company stock or a personal collection of the designer. Ultimately, the question arises of how to procure the prop. Some items can be purchased; however, it is important to consider if there are alternate sources for a prop. Often it is wise to look into borrowing from or bartering with another local arts organization to get a prop for your production. There will be instances of properties that must be constructed. In these cases, it is important to consider the specifc needs of the prop to the dance – how it will be used, who uses it, how much it weighs, and what types of stress it must endure are important considerations when constructing a prop for a dance.

14.5 – Props Design Since the scenic designer is responsible for the overall stage look, it is common to fnd props included in her set of responsibilities. Most often in the dance world, props are considered the domain of the scenic designer. In cases where there is a separate props designer, the conversation of props should always include a consideration of the scenery and costumes to be sure that the properties visually ft in

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Remember, safety should always be the primary concern in creating any element to be used in a dance. This is especially true for anything a dancer interacts with.

instance such as this, it would be impossible to choreograph the piece without working with the parachute in rehearsal. The choreographer had a number of interesting ideas as to what to try, but without the process of actually interacting with the parachute they could not be explored.

When renting or borrowing a prop, it is essential to keep precise records of the transactions. Always note who the prop belongs to, the agreed upon rental fee, when payment is due, when the prop is to be returned, and the replacement value of the prop should it not be returned. Too often, people do not consider this aspect of props when making arrangements.

During the rehearsal process it is important for the designer to be available for questions. In addition, do not underestimate the importance of talking to the dancers in addition to the choreographer. Since it is the dancer who will ultimately be working with the prop onstage, theirs is an important perspective.

Rehearsing with Set and Props Rehearsing with the scenery and props is an important aspect for dance. In most instances, the dancers will never rehearse with the actual scenery, but it is important to ensure that the rehearsal space has a representation of the set. This often entails the stage manager taping out the physical boundaries of the set on the foor of the rehearsal space. In some instances, it might be important to incorporate a sense of levels in the space. This can be accomplished in a number of ways – with the use of risers, tumbling mats, etc. The important consideration is making certain the dancers get accustomed to the physical constraints of the set.

Tracking Props Use Since props are used by dancers, it is important to keep track of who uses them, as well as where they enter or exit the stage. Traditionally, this is done through the use of a props tracking sheet typically created and maintained by the stage manager during the rehearsal period. This document is a spreadsheet that breaks down the dance into different sections and lists any props used, where they enter (i.e. from upstage right wings), what dancer enters with them, where they exit, and any necessary notes. The props tracking sheet allows the props designer or stage manager to anticipate how props are used, where they should be stored, and how many copies of one prop might be necessary. For instance, sometimes one dancer might enter upstage right with a prop and quickly exit downstage left. This process is then repeated with an identical prop held by a different dancer. If there is not enough time for the frst dancer to travel backstage to hand off the prop to the second dancer, then there must be two identical copies of the prop. The props tracking sheet also allows the props designer or stage manager to determine where props must be present and where to fnd them at the end of the dance.

Likewise, since the dancers will be interacting with the props onstage, it is necessary to start working with the prop as soon as possible. One excellent example is the 2014 performance of Your Heart & Your Belly & Your Whole Insides Felt Empty & Wanting & Hollow by multimedia director, choreographer, and performer Yara Travieso. In this performance, Travieso created a “dance for two” between herself and a 30’ militarygrade parachute under 45mph winds (Figure 14.12). For this performance, the artist had a residency in a warehouse to work with the parachute and a large industrial fan. In an

Figure 14.12 Your Heart & Your Belly & Your Whole Insides Felt Empty & Wanting & Hollow, 2014. Created and performed by Yara Travieso. Sound design by Sam Crawford. Photo: Boofa Hobbs. Presented by Streb Lab For Action Mechanics.

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Figure 14.13 A small props table prepared for production. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

This ensures that the prop will always be set in the correct location and be returned there as well. Likewise, it is easy to determine which prop is missing in the event of one being misplaced.

Props Tables Another important role of the props designer is facilitating the props table. A props table is a table located backstage with all of the props necessary for a dance piece or concert. There is often more than one props table set up backstage, depending on from which side of the stage the prop enters. Unlike most theatrical productions, it is important to keep the props tables far into the offstage wing space, since dancers so frequently congregate in the wings anticipating their entrance. In addition, it is important to keep any kind of a trip or fall hazard out of the wing space, since dancers often exit into the wings with lights blinding them.

14.6 – Chapter Review As we have seen over the last two chapters, scenery and props are expansive design areas that require a broad set of skills on the part of the designers and a number of persons for construction and fnishing aspects. Scenery serves the dual role of creating a visual surrounding for the dance, as well as dictating the useable space for the dancers and choreographer. Properties enhance the storytelling tools available to the dancers and expand on the visual world of the design.

It is common practice to cover a props table in brown craft paper or a similar white paper so it is easy to see in the dark. Props are placed on the tabletop with their outlines drawn in marker and the prop name labeled (Figure 14.13).

Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

How does a rendering differ from a sketch? What does a scenic designer create as a three-dimensional scale representation of the theatre and scenery? What is a white model? Which type of drafting shows a section view of the theatre from above? Which type of drafting shows a section view of the theatre from the side? What does trim height refer to? What organization publishes the recommended practices for draftings? What is the role of the scenic charge artist? What is a rear elevation primarily used for? What is used to track props and their use?

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Project 14–1: Thinking Like a Scenic Designer The primary responsibility of the scenic designer is to create a three-dimensional world that visually communicates the ideas of the dance and reinforces the emotional and psychological subtext of the choreography. This can be a challenging undertaking for any designer. This project asks you to embrace the design process in order to better appreciate the steps necessary in creating a scenic design for dance. The steps are listed below: 1. Find a piece of instrumental music that you fnd evocative of an emotion or idea. 2. Create a three-dimensional composition that visually communicates the ideas of the music. Use any medium that you feel best communicates your piece – paint, sculpture, collage, etc. 3. Write a short statement that explains the choices you have made and describes the rationale behind your artistic composition.

The Scenic Designer’s Perspective: An Interview with Campbell Baird Campbell Baird has been active in the dance and theatre world for over 30 years, designing for some of the biggest names in the business. As a student, he studied stage design at the North Carolina School of the Arts (BFA) and NYU-Tisch School of the Arts (MFA). One interesting aspect about his work is his frequent double billing as both scenic designer and costume designer. He was principal assistant to the legendary Oliver Smith for 11 years on productions for American Ballet Theatre, Royal Ballet at Covent Garden, La Scala, San Francisco Ballet, and Joffrey Ballet. An eclectic artist, he worked as a scenic artist for the Metropolitan Opera House for 15 seasons, working on such productions as War and Peace, Il Trovatore, The Gambler, Samson et Dalila, La Traviata, Le Nozze di Figaro, Carmen, Lucia di Lammermoor, and Tosca; and for the flms Malcolm X and Three Sovereigns for Sarah (with Vanessa Redgrave). In addition, Mr. Baird was resident designer/scenic supervisor for the Joffrey Ballet for eight seasons, including such works as Billboards, Cotillon, Billy the Kid, and Empyrean Dances. In addition to his professional work, Mr. Baird teaches graduate studies in Advanced Rendering, Scenic Painting, and theatre history (“Connections”) at NYU-Tisch School of the Arts. He is listed in the Bristol Who’s Who as well as with the 2012 Marquis Who’s Who in America.

At what point did you begin costuming? My educational background was in professional design and execution for scenery and costumes – from high school on through undergraduate degree (high school diploma and BFA, both from the North Carolina School of the Arts, 1969–1974) and then my graduate degree in scenic and costume design (MFA) at NYU-Tisch School of the Arts, Design for Stage & Film. Before that, I was exposed to a lot of dance at home in NC. My mother was a professional dancer and teacher, and my maternal grandparents taught ballroom dancing back in the 1920s and 30s. So I grew up seeing and knowing a good bit about dance and theatre. I also danced a lot and choreographed when I was a teenager, doing parts in musicals in summer stock – in addition to designing scenery and costumes for them. (I wasn’t great, but it certainly taught me to respect performers and choreographers.)

How did you frst start working in dance design? My frst forays into serious dance design were at NCSA, where I worked a lot in the dance costume shop for the fve years I studied there. Christina Giannini was my design mentor and teacher for all things to do with dance, and she took me with her as her assistant on projects she designed for companies around the United States – including the Joffrey Ballet, American Ballet Theatre, and Ohio Ballet. I was also fortunate enough to go to the Spoleto Festival in Italy in 1974 to work with her, in both the scenic and costume shops for the summer, on productions directed by Roman Polanski and Robert Wilson. I assisted her on the Agnes DeMille Heritage Dance Theatre after working on the world premiere of De Mille’s ballet A Rose for Miss Emily, which later went into the repertory of American Ballet Theatre. Most of what I know about dance costume is directly

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due to her patient work with me over my most formative period – my late teens and early twenties, when I really had to make a lot of costumes myself.

Do you frequently design both scenery and costumes for dance, or work in one area in particular? I actually prefer to design both scenery and costumes for story ballet, but I am also very happy to collaborate with another designer. Sometimes you really beneft from the different voice and eye on a project, and that can be a lot of fun. Usually my biggest concern is color palette, but so far I have been very fortunate to work with other designers who have a sympathetic approach to color, which is very important to me. I am known as a “colorist,” and I guess that means I relish the use of color onstage. I have done my fair share of monochromatic and tight palettes, but I do fnd that in dance – particularly story ballet in a large 2000–3000 seat house – color blocking is extremely important for clarity, to know who is dancing, and who they are dancing with. I also care deeply about the lighting design, because that affects every other design element onstage.

How do you fnd scenery and costume design differ between dance and theatre? Dance and theatre are certainly related. Dance often allows a freer expression of conceptual thinking – an open door to selfexpression and getting at the heart of the material. I love design in all forms; dance, theatre, opera, flm, musical theatre, and ballet – all of them need different viewpoints, but at heart they are always about storytelling. This past year I designed the world premiere of a new ballet version of Peter Pan for Nashville Ballet, choreographed by their Artistic Director, Paul Vasterling. This was our third collaboration and our most ambitious to date. I had designed two different musicals based on the Peter Pan stories before, but suddenly seeing the piece without dialogue or singing made me re-evaluate all of the storytelling options available to me, and to the choreographer. Paul is a very sharp dancemaker, and an extremely knowledgeable choreographer regarding music choices. Once he had started to assemble the score (mostly early 20th century French composers) I was able to grasp the weight of the piece that he envisioned. We had a nice long period to resolve the design ideas which was of great use to us both. (I once, many years ago, had to design a Nutcracker in about three very short weeks – scenery AND costumes! – and I was a nervous wreck.) Scenery in dance is often about open space and simplifed imagery, whereas in theatre – plays and musicals and some operas – there are more specifc requirements as to spatial demands and props, furniture, levels, and stairs. AND doors and windows. Wow . . . Doors and windows in dance are usually quite a complicated matter. Costumes in dance are about ft and movement, intelligent use of fabrics and trims and particularly cut, so as to clarify movement and make life for the dancer easier. Also, dance costumes take a beating, so you learn a lot about upkeep and maintenance so that your design will survive for as long as possible. Another issue in dance is that since the costume will probably be worn by four or fve – or six! – different dancers, you design the character into the costume, the hair and the makeup. This differs somewhat from plays and musicals, where you usually deal more one on one with a performer to create a singular costume or group of costumes for their character. Of course you always strive to make the costume suit each performer as well as you can, given time and budget constraints.

I know you do a lot of work in ballet. How does the process differ in designing for a ballet company vs. modern dance? I did more modern dance much earlier in my career, and would love to do it again. Designers get typecast just like performers, however. Modern dance can also include a lot of ballet technique, and nowadays the reverse is true as well, so I always feel you design for the choreography and the music and the performers. There is often a great deal of pleasure in doing more asymmetrical design work in modern dance, where off-center focus is often easier to manage. It’s extremely diffcult to make an off-center tutu and have the dancer feel at ease in motion. Hats and headpieces have similar issues – of course a great choreographer will ask for something specifc because he or she wants to challenge to dancer and the storytelling aspects of the work. And this is really challenging and exciting to solve.

Can you describe your ideal process for working with choreographers? Ideal process with a choreographer – or director for that matter – is for them to come to me with a strong idea or “concept” – a scary word in some quarters, but simply put, a way of seeing the whole work. Some creative people work best from the

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music, others respond to research or colors or textures. Personally, I don’t like to have a lot of rules – I want to know what is going on in the director’s or choreographer’s mind, and what they want their work to do to the audience. Tom Skelton, the incredible resident lighting designer when I was with the Joffrey Ballet, was with me in a studio rehearsal once, and he gave the best explanation of a design process, one that I still hang onto with both hands and my mind and heart: “The piece that we see in the studio is often more complete for us as designers than anything we can possibly do onstage with lighting, or scenery, or costumes. Our real task is to have the audience feel the same feelings in the theatre that we were able to imagine in the studio – with work lights and old tights and practice skirts and bentwood chairs. Then we will really do something that will illuminate the material in a true sense. We will make it alive for the audience, as we saw it alive in our minds eye.” And that is what I really believe in, heart and soul.

In many ways, costumes are very personally linked to the individual dancer. Do you consult with dancers during your design process? I certainly do consult with a dancer as much as the choreographer wishes me to while designing for them. The ftting is the time where this is most important – not in the initial design stages where the choreographer is the voice you must hear. But the dancer will have opinions and issues that must be heard and addressed. I fnd that dancers are often nervous taking on a big classical role the frst time, and if they are wearing a costume that already exists and is being reftted to them, they will have a lot to consider and talk about. I much prefer solving problems in the ftting room and shop, and not in the theatre. In dance and ballet, there are unbelievable issues about safety that seem strange for a designer to consider – the length of a skirt, a sleeve, or a cape or train, the slippery quality of a fabric, the peculiar nature of certain materials as they absorb sweat . . . the shoes, oh gosh . . . so much about shoes and boots and slippers. And then add something technically challenging, like fying harnesses in Peter Pan? You really do have an awful lot to consider for these performers.

What advice would you have for a young designer setting out to design his/her frst dance? Best advice for a young designer interested in dance? See a lot of dance. Go to rehearsals, see performances, buy or rent DVDs – so much wonderful material is out there now that was not readily available when I was a student – and read about it. Try to see past the snobbism that can sometimes lie on the surface, and stick with it. I show two flms to my classes, Powell and Pressburger’s The Red Shoes, and Baz Luhrmann’s Strictly Ballroom. These are commenting on life in dance and ballet, and how it affects people. Go to theatre museums where they have collections of dance design – the Bibliotheque of the Paris Opera is certainly a major resource, and Lincoln Center Library has a good deal of material. Learn what dancers do; watch them practice. Learn to admire their incredible devotion to an art form that at the best can only give them 15 to 20 years of a performing career. Every day they start over in class, take corrections, and try to improve. And then, when they get onstage, you will appreciate why your work can be so very important to them.

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CHAPTER 15

Lighting

Lighting is one of the essential production elements for any live performance. Since most shows are performed indoors or outdoors at night, some level of lighting is required for both seeing the performers and to provide for their safety. More than just these basic concerns, though, lighting is a design element that contributes to the storytelling of the performance and enhances the audience’s experience. It is a tool for revealing what needs to be seen while concealing those elements that distract from the storytelling. Though the tools and process for a dance lighting design are similar to that of theatrical lighting, the technique employed for creating dance lighting varies considerably from theatre. Likewise, you may fnd that some of the terminology differs slightly between the two genres. The following chapter details many of the considerations for dance lighting and examines the role of the lighting designer in dance.

15.1 – The Lighting Designer The lighting designer must have a command of both design aesthetics and technological know-how – an impeccable artistic eye with the understanding of the equipment necessary to execute the desired look onstage. In addition, lighting designers must be excellent collaborators, since their work affects every other visual aspect of the production. Perhaps most importantly, the lighting designer should be skilled at describing the use of lighting and how it will emotionally, psychologically, and artistically affect the production and given moments of the show. While this may seem like a simple task, consider for a moment the ephemeral nature of light and how most of us take for granted the way in which light interacts with the world around us on a daily basis. Try to describe a sunset or the glow of light after a thunderstorm. Most people take the lighting around them for granted. Lighting designers have spent years developing the ability to assess a visual moment and understand all of the component

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-18

parts that made up the feeling of that moment – the angle of the light, its brightness, quality, colors, shadows, and texture. When collaborating with a lighting designer, it is useful to have a common language for discussing light. To those ends, the following sections cover some basic lighting concepts, discussing why we use light and how it can be manipulated for the stage.

15.2 – Functions of Dance Lighting (What Lighting Can Accomplish) In any work of art, all of the elements should be chosen carefully to fulfll a specifc purpose within the overall composition. Lighting is one of the most important elements within a dance production and performs some very specifc functions. Listed below are ways of looking at the functions of dance lighting, or the purposes of lighting design within the context of a dance production.

Selective Visibility The frst and most fundamental function of dance lighting is selective visibility. The audience cannot see something that is in the dark. This basic concept is one of the greatest tools of the dance lighting designer. Sometimes what is not seen is much more useful to the storytelling of the dance than what is seen. This is where the idea of selective visibility comes into play. Consider the possibility of dancers emerging from the darkness onto lit areas of the stage only to disappear once more into the darkness. For dance, visibility is more of a relative term than in theatre. For theatrical performances, the old adage “you can’t hear what you can’t see” is a time-tested mantra for explaining how audiences have a diffcult time understanding actor dialogue if they cannot see the actor’s face. In dance, the spoken word is secondary to the dancer’s movement. Likewise, dance tends to be less of a realistic

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art form than theatre. For these reasons, dance lighting is sometimes dimmer than stage lighting, with a higher contrast between lights and darks.

and the space they inhabit. Figure 15.2 illustrates how the composition of a moment can be changed drastically through changes in lighting. In the frst image, the entire stage is darkened, save the small pool of light isolating the dancer. The second image shows more of a full-stage illumination, with a much more open stage composition.

Sculpting When discussing dance lighting, the term sculpting refers to the combination of light and shadow on a person or object to reveal or obscure its true form. Also sometimes referred to as modeling, this function is important to the overall purpose of dance – to communicate a story or feeling through the movement of a dancer. This is why side lighting is so common for dance lighting. The intense lighting coming from the sides emphasizes the human form and allows the audience to see even the subtlest of motions performed by the dancers (Figure 15.1). Sculpting is directly tied to the placement of lighting instruments and the direction and angle of light illuminating the stage.

Rhythm While rhythm is an obvious component of any dance, many do not consider the way in which lighting contributes to the overall rhythm of a dance piece. Many people use the term rhythm in dance to discuss how a person or a piece of music moves. The same is true in lighting terms with rhythm used to describe both how lighting moves within a given moment and in the overarching structure of the entire dance. Obviously, music is an important aspect of many dances (though certainly not all). Like the dancer, lighting can work in harmony or in contrast to the music, or combinations of both within one dance piece. As the lighting “looks” change throughout the dance, it creates a defnite sense of rhythm that either works in conjunction with or against the choreography and music.

Composition Composition is a descriptive term used in a number of different art forms. For the purposes of most visual art forms, it refers to the combination of multiple elements and their placement or arrangement to create a cohesive work of art. Lighting, more so than any of the other design areas, infuences where the audience members look and what elements are seen or hidden. Since lighting has the ability to change in a matter of seconds, it can also change the composition of a piece numerous times throughout the performance. The primary use of composition in dance is to create a sense of relationship between the dancers

Mood Mood is often one of the easiest functions for choreographers to identify about a dance. Mood (sometimes referred to as atmosphere) is the feeling associated with a certain visual moment, often invoked through the use of color, texture, and direction. It is important to discuss what type of feeling the choreographer wants the dance piece to evoke before

Figure 15.1 The use of side lighting in this photo accentuates the dancer’s physical features and is an excellent example of sculpting with light. Photo: Jared Sayeg.

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Figure 15.2 Lighting can be used to affect the overall stage composition. Lighting design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo: Randy Mascharka.

Figure 15.3 The lighting for this dance utilizes warm tones on the dancers with a cooler wash of colors in the perimeter, portraying a calm and serene mood. Lighting design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo: Randy Mascharka.

determining the mood of the lighting design. Figure 15.3 illustrates how lighting can affect mood within a dance.

to black, or a drastic shift in the color scheme or lighting texture at a key moment within the choreography or musical accompaniment.

Reinforcement/Punctuation

15.3 – Properties of Dance Lighting (Controllable Qualities of Dance Lighting)

The fnal function of dance lighting is related to how lighting reinforces or comments on what is being done onstage by the dancers. Lighting should reinforce the storytelling of the choreography and support other design elements such as scenery, projections, and costumes. Likewise, lighting frequently functions as punctuation of a dance or moment within a dance. This can be something as basic as the length of time it takes for the lights to fade

The properties of dance lighting refers to the defnable attributes of lighting. Another way to think of this is the aspects of lighting that can be changed. Each of these

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Direction

properties affects one or more of the functions of dance lighting listed above.

Direction in lighting refers to the placement of the light source in relation to the object being lit. The main directions of lighting are front, back, and side. Each of these directions has distinctly different feels to them and evokes different responses. Looking at Figure 15.6, the dancer is lit from multiple directions. Front lighting illuminates the form well, but “fattens” out the dancer a bit. Side lighting accentuates the three-dimensional form of the dancer, but tends to decrease some of the specifcity of the facial features. Back lighting eliminates the frontal details altogether, while adding a halo glow around the fgure, making her stand out from the background. When considering the placement of a lighting instrument, the lighting designer should always examine the available lighting positions in relation to the desired stage locations and understand how this choice affects the appearance of lighting.

Brightness Brightness is the property of lighting that refers to the amount of light present (sometimes referred to as intensity). This aspect of lighting can be both relative and absolute. Typically, brightness is a relative term referring to the overall stage picture. Perhaps the whole stage is dimly lit with one dancer standing in a pool of light (Figure 15.4). Even if this pool of light was only moderately bright, it would appear much more intense compared to the dim areas of lighting surrounding it.

Color Of all of the properties of light, color is arguably the most powerful tool used to communicate with your audience. Long after seeing a show, the strongest visual memories tend to be of the color used in a dramatic moment (Figure 15.5). In stage lighting, color was traditionally created through the use of color flters (often called gels). A gel is a thin sheet of plastic impregnated with pigment. Due to the nature of the particular gel, only certain wavelengths of light are allowed to pass through, leaving the resulting light colored. In recent years, though, the use of LED (light emitting diode) lighting instruments has enabled lighting designers to create and mix color through the lighting instrument itself without using gels.

Angle Like direction, angle is a property of light that relates to the placement of the light source. In fact, direction is rarely discussed without a discussion of the light’s angle. The key difference is direction corresponds to the object’s placement on the horizontal plane, whereas angle correlates to the vertical placement of the light. In general, lighting angles are referred to as low, medium, or high angle with a few specifc terms like up light or down lighting. The names are related to the placement of the instrument and are mostly selfdescriptive (i.e. shins, mids, head highs, etc.). Similar to

Figure 15.4 Brightness is most often relative, when compared to the entire stage picture. Lighting design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo: Randy Mascharka.

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Visual Quality The visual quality of light is a term that describes how an area of lighting looks. Two terms used frequently to discuss visual quality are focus and texture. These two terms are interconnected in that focus will always affect texture. When referring to a given light, focus indicates the relative sharpness or softness of the pool of light. In most lighting instruments, the light source allows for adjusting the focus of the beam of light from soft to sharp. Texture in lighting is the visual appearance of the pool of light. Certain lighting fxtures may have an inherent texture to their output. Likewise, texture can be created in stage lighting through the use of a special template called a gobo. A gobo is a thin sheet of steel with patterns cut into it (Figure 15.8). When light strikes the gobo, it is blocked by the steel and passes through the openings thereby creating a pattern in the light. Some gobos are made of glass and can contain complex colored images, so the gobo creates both texture and color. Changing the focus of the lighting instrument will affect how crisp or diffuse the resulting texture appears onstage.

Movement

Figure 15.5 Dramatic lighting created through strong contrasting colors. Photo: Jared Sayeg.

The fnal property of dance lighting is movement. Movement can refer to the physical movement of a beam of light as seen in a follow spot or moving light, or it can refer to the perceived sense of movement created by turning lights on or off within the overall design. For instance, a lighting designer

our discussion of direction, the angle of light greatly affects the mood and is a powerful tool for the lighting designer. Figure 15.7 shows examples of some common lighting angles.

Figure 15.6 The three common directions of light. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Figure 15.7 Some common angles of lighting. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

Figure 15.8 Steel and glass gobos with a gobo holder. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

15.4 – Lighting Systems

might create special areas of focus on the stage for one particular moment of the dance and then move the pool of light to another area of the stage as the dancers change their positions. Since movement is such a key component of dance, it stands to reason that this is also an important property of dance lighting. When considering movement, tempo (the speed or pace of a given movement) is an important consideration, since the same movement can have different interpretations when performed at different tempos.

A lighting system refers to the collection of equipment necessary to generate and control the lighting for a production. When working in a theatre setting, most of these elements will be included as part of the physical plant. In the most basic terms, a lighting system must include power, control, and lighting instruments. The following sections detail common components of a lighting system. Refer to Figure 15.9 for specifc details.

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Figure 15.9 An illustrated view of a simple lighting system. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

electricity to specifc outlets in the theatre called a circuit. In lighting systems, a circuit refers to each individual electrical outlet in the theatre that receives electricity from dimmers. Stage lighting equipment is typically connected to a circuit by means of a heavyweight electrical cable with a stage pin connector, a specialized connector plug that is rectangular in shape with three cylindrical prongs on the “plug” end and three openings on the “socket” end (Figure 15.10).

Power For a theatre with a dedicated power system, high voltage electrical service will be sent into the building and through a transformer to step the power down to a lower voltage. This electrical service is distributed into the lighting system through a device called a dimmer rack. The dimmer rack houses several dimmers, electrical devices used to regulate the fow of

Figure 15.10 The stage pin connector, featuring both the plug and socket connector ends. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Figure 15.11 A lighting console in use. Hubbard Street tech table with magic sheet for reference in the Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago’s Edlis Neeson Theater. Photo courtesy: Hubbard Street Dance Chicago.

Control

Lighting System Summary

For every lighting system, there must be a controller used to manipulate the dimmers and lighting equipment. This controller is called a lighting console, or sometimes referred to as the lighting desk, or lighting board (Figure 15.11). A lighting console is an electronic device used to send control signals to equipment in the lighting system, or even to other control systems like sound or video. In the most basic of systems, the lighting console sends signals to the dimmer rack that communicate which dimmer should turn on, to what intensity, and over what duration of time. In addition, the console can send signals to other lighting equipment such as intelligent lighting, color scrollers, gobo rotators, and environmental effects like fogger/hazers.

In summary, a lighting system contains a collection of equipment necessary to illuminate the stage. A lighting console is used to send control signals to the dimmer rack and additional lighting equipment in the lighting system. The dimmers receive the control signal, telling them how much power (voltage) to provide to circuits. Lighting instruments are connected to these circuits to receive their power supply from the dimmers. For conventional instruments, increasing the voltage increases the brightness of the lighting instrument.

15.5 – Lighting Positions and Angles

Lighting Instruments

As seen in the earlier discussion of direction and angle, the placement of a light greatly affects the resulting lighting look. For this reason, it is useful for choreographer and designer alike to understand the possibilities for lighting placement within the performance space and how each unique position can be utilized. The following sections detail common lighting angles, their qualities, and how best to achieve them in a performance space.

Lighting instruments (sometimes called fxtures, or units) are the fnal component of the basic lighting system. Conventional lighting instruments are lights that remain in a fxed position and whose intensity can be changed by the amount of electrical power supplied to them. Aspects such as focus, beam shape, color, and texture must be manually manipulated. Intelligent lighting instruments, by contrast, are a variety of lighting fxtures whose controllable properties such as focus position, intensity, color, texture, beam quality, and special effects (strobe, bouncing effects, prisms, etc.) can be remotely controlled. For conventional lighting equipment, it need only be connected to a dimmer to be controlled. For intelligent lighting, the instrument must be connected to a constant power supply and receive a control signal from the lighting console directly to the lighting fxture. These signals can be sent over cables or sometimes through wireless methods.

Side Lighting Side lighting is the principal lighting angle used in dance lighting design. From an artistic perspective, it focuses on the physical form of the dancer, giving high contrast and allowing the audience to truly pay attention to the subtleties of the dancer’s physicality. From a practical standpoint, side lighting is relatively quick and easy to set up. It also allows for a variety of looks with the least amount of lighting instruments.

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Figure 15.12 Side lighting reveals the physical form of the dancer, while creating interesting shadows. Lighting design and photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

Figure 15.13 A boom, featuring four side lighting positions. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

All of this makes it an ideal choice for touring repertory in dance. By itself, side lighting can create a somewhat mysterious look that focuses on the edges of the dancer, while creating a heavily sculpted look (Figure 15.12).

spotlights with the ability to be tightly focused. Listed below are the descriptions of dance boom lighting placement. Figure 15.14 illustrates the differing looks of the four common instrument positions on a boom. 1. Shin busters/kickers: Low side lighting is a fundamental lighting angle for dance. These lights are hung approximately shin high (12–18” from the stage deck) and pointed up to head height, with the light focused off of the stage foor. This angle of light creates an interesting effect of having the dancer suspended in space, magically hovering above the foor (Figure 15.14a). 2. Mid-highs: Mid side lighting is hung approximately waist-high on the boom and pointing directly out towards the centerline of the theatre (Figure 15.14 b). Some of the light will spill onto the stage foor. This lighting illuminates the dancer’s body and does an excellent job of revealing the three-dimensional form. When dealing with dancers in a row, though, this might not be the best choice of instrument, as the dancer closest to the wings is brightly illuminated and casts shadows on the subsequent dancers. 3. Head-highs: Head-high side lighting is placed 6–8’ off of the stage foor (Figure 15.14c). Heads are not focused

Side lighting can come from booms or lighting towers placed in the wings, from the overhead battens, or even from the box boom positions. Since the boom/tower is the most common position used in creating side lighting for dance, it is important to have a good understanding of its attributes.

Booms The primary position for side lighting is the boom, a vertical lighting pipe with heavy weighted base, placed in the wings (Figure 15.13). Booms are frequently bolted to the foor or weighed down with sand/shot bags to counterbalance the weight of the lighting instruments hung on them. In addition, since many booms are 10–16’ in height, some have a safety line attached to the top of the boom that extends to the theatre’s grid. It is common to hang anywhere from three to six lighting instruments from each boom, typically ellipsoidal refector

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Front Lighting

off the stage foor, so there is an amount of light spilling onto the foor, but not so much as to distract from the dancer. This position, together with the shins, makes up the two essential lighting angles for side lighting in dance. 4. Highs: High side lighting uses a lighting instrument hung 10–14’ off of the stage foor pointed diagonally down onto the stage (Figure 15.14d). This angle creates interesting shadows from the dancer onto the stage foor and creates a great sense of space.

Front lighting is any lighting source that points directly towards the stage. It can be positioned overhead in the auditorium or on stage. For theatrical lighting, front lighting is a primary source of illumination. In dance lighting, however, the most important lighting direction will always be side lighting. As such, front lighting for dance is mostly used as a “fll light” to wash across the stage and help the audience better see the dancers’ faces. Dance lighting typically avoids lots of front light, since this direction tends to fatten out an object, eliminate the sculptural look desired for dance, and cast odd shadows from the costumes onto the dancers’ bodies. The notable exception to this rule is in ballet, where the traditional approach is to use front lighting to eliminate the shadow in the center of the dancer’s body that results from side light alone.

Pipe Ends Side lighting placed on the far ends of overhead electrics are referred to as pipe ends. These are a higher angle of side lighting than what can be achieved from booms. The trim height of these instruments are typically somewhere between 20’ and 25’ from the stage deck. These positions are particularly good for creating a naturalistic light source used for mimicking the appearance of realistic outdoor lighting.

Front lighting is categorized by the different angles. Figure 15.15 includes examples of various angles of front lighting.

Figure 15.14 The four primary side lighting positions from a boom. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

Figure 15.15 Four common front lighting positions. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Foot Lighting

numerically from downstage to upstage (i.e. frst electric, second electric, etc.).

Footlights are a row of lights places at foor level, typically at the front edge or back edge of the stage. Older theatres may even still have a “trough” at the front edge of the stage, sunken beneath the foor surface so that they are out of the audience’s line of sight. Footlights point upstage at the dancers, casting long shadows onto the upstage area and backdrop. It is a rather unnatural look, since low front lighting rarely appears in nature. The effect makes the dancer seem quite tall, but has a somewhat limited use, since the projected shadow of the dancer on the backdrop can prove to be distracting from the actual dancer (Figure 15.15a).

Front Low-Angle Side Lighting Coves are lighting positions in the side walls of the auditorium. Like the ceiling slots, they are often disguised by the building’s architecture so the audience cannot see them. Not every theatre has coves, but some come equipped with multiple cove positions in the house. These positions make for good low-angle front side lighting across the downstage areas from the auditorium sides. Figure 15.15d includes an example of a dancer lit from a cove position.

Low-Angle Front Lighting

Back Lighting

Low-angle front lighting in most theatres comes from the balcony level or from catwalk positions on the back wall of the auditorium. These positions are ideal to get light onto the dancers’ faces, but would “fatten out” the dancers and cast shadows on the backdrop if used on their own. As a result, they are often used at lower intensities for fll light.

Back lighting also plays an important role in dance lighting. The main beneft of back lighting the dancer is differentiating the dancer from the background to make the fgure truly stand out. From the audience’s perspective, back lighting reads most strongly on the stage foor (Figure 15.16). Since so much of the other lighting angles are focused off of the stage foor, back lighting offers a unique opportunity to add color and textures to the stage foor. If back lighting is in a complementary color to the front lighting, a halo effect will be seen surrounding the dancer, particularly around the head and shoulders. Back lighting is most often achieved by hanging instruments on the overhead electrics, pointed downstage.

High-Angle Front Lighting In most theatres, the majority of front lighting comes at a high angle from either lighting positions in the auditorium (called ceiling slots) or from an overhead electric onstage. A ceiling slot, sometimes called a port, is a lighting position over the audience’s head, hidden out of sight by the architecture of the theatre. An electric is a batten from which lighting instruments are intended to hang. If it is a dedicated electric, the batten will have permanent circuits attached to it and clearly labeled. Electrics can be used for a number of different lighting angles from front, to side, back, or down lighting. For naming purposes, electrics are labeled

Low-Angle Back Lighting In addition to high-angle back lighting, low-angle back lighting can create an interesting effect. Low-angle back lighting is achieved from lighting instruments placed at the

Figure 15.16 This image combines high angle blue back lighting with a dim wash of front lighting. The back lighting creates a blue wash on the stage foor. Lighting design and photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

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the danger of blinding your audience. Though this can create an interesting effect, using this angle too frequently can lead to fatiguing your audience’s eyes.

Down Lighting Down lighting is the use of a lighting instrument hung overhead to point straight down onto the stage. An electric is the obvious choice for down light instruments, as it is placed directly above the stage. Down lighting is very common in dance lighting, particularly when used as a special. A special is a light that is hung for a specifc purpose, like a particular moment within the dance where you want to highlight a dancer of movement. Down light specials are commonly hung in each of the nine main areas of the stage pointed down with a crisp focus. In this way, the designer can isolate a location on the stage and draw focus to that area. Keep in mind that the angle of down light makes for odd shadows on the dancer, though, so it is wise to use it sparingly. Figure 15.18 illustrates the creative use of down lighting in a dance production. Figure 15.17 A dancer lit from behind, using a foor-mounted instrument. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

Lighting the Background One fnal element to consider is the lighting of background elements. For most dances staged in a theatre the background is a cyclorama, a painted drop, a scrim, or a combination of more than one.

foor level and pointing downstage towards the audience. These are typically in the form of footlights, or foor mounts, a lighting instrument attached to a base on the foor. This lighting angle creates a strong silhouette, but eliminates all sense of form for the dancer. The body will be perceived as a dark silhouette surrounded by a bright background (Figure 15.17). One thing to be wary of with this lighting is

Cyclorama A cyclorama, called a cyc for short, is a large fabric backdrop hung upstage. Originally, the term cyclorama referred

Figure 15.18 Strong down lights create an interesting high-contrast visual. Photo: Jared Sayeg.

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specifcally to a curved backdrop, and fat drops were called a sky drop. Today, most people simply refer to all sky drops as a cyclorama. The cyc is typically gray or light blue in color and used for lighting effects to create a large colored backdrop. It is lit by special lighting instruments referred to as cyc lights or strip lights. These lights are specially designed to evenly spread their light across a wide surface area. In addition, cyc lights tend to have three to four lights in a cluster, each one having an individual color, such as red, green, blue, and amber. Through the use of these colors, the lighting designer can mix colors and create a wide variety of colors for the backdrop.

Achieving an even wash of lighting on a cyclorama or drop can be a challenge and might be helped by the use of a bounce drop, a second upstage drop used for backlighting the cyc/ drop. The bounce drop is typically a white drop hung upstage spaced with enough room to hang lighting instruments between the two drops. These lighting instruments are focused to give an even wash of bright lighting on the bounce drop, which literally “bounces” the light off its surface to backlight the downstage drop, giving it a smooth, even backlighting to illuminate it. This can only be used on seamless cycloramas or drops, since the back lighting would expose the invisible seam on a drop made of multiple pieces of fabric sewn together.

Cyc lights are typically hung overhead on a batten close to the cyclorama and sometimes placed on the foor pointing up at the cyc. These lights on the foor are referred to as a lighting ground row. This type of lighting from both above and below the cyclorama makes for the ability to create a split lighting effect with color control for both top and bottom. When lighting the cyclorama from below, it is important to use a scenic ground row, a short vertical row of fat scenery on the stage foor used for masking the lighting ground row.

Scrim A scrim is a type of fabric with an open weave, similar to gauze, used for creating a full-stage backdrop (see Figure 4.8). Scrim can either be a solid color or have scenic elements painted on it. This fabric is advantageous for theatrical applications because of the nature of scrim to appear either opaque or translucent, depending on the type of lighting cast upon it. When light from the front, the color or painting on the scrim is visible. When the front lighting is taken away and lighting behind the scrim left up, the scrim becomes translucent, creating a magical “hazy” look to objects behind it. Scrim is frequently used in dance as a backdrop near the cyclorama (Figure 15.19). When a black scrim is used downstage of the cyclorama, the lighting effects on the cyc can still be viewed, or the black of the scrim can create a neutral black backdrop when cyc light is removed. This makes for a versatile dance background. In Figure 15.19, a black scrim was used as a backdrop with the back wall of the theatre space exposed upstage of the scrim. This made for an interesting contrast when lighting the wall.

Painted Backdrops A painted backdrop, sometimes simply called a drop, is a large fabric backdrop upon which scenery is painted. Drops are typically painted on muslin fabric. Lighting a drop is a complicated process to get even coverage. Typically, it requires the use of high front light from a batten downstage of the drop, similar to lighting a cyclorama. Avoid using angled front lighting, as this will reveal and wrinkles or puckering in the drop.

Figure 15.19 In these images, a black scrim is used as a backdrop. When unlit (left), the background appears to be fat black. When the back walls of the theatre are lit (right), they magically appear behind the scrim, creating an ethereal look to the backdrop. Choreography by: Erik Abbott-Main. Lighting Design by: Jeromy Hopgood. Photo: Randy Mascharka.

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15.6 – Lighting Instruments

C-clamp and yoke: The lighting instrument is attached to a batten by means of a c-clamp. The c-clamp is bolted to a u-shaped steel piece called the yoke. It is tightened down to the batten to secure the light. In addition, there is a setscrew attached to the c-clamp that can be loosened to allow the instrument to pan from side to side for focusing purposes.

The selection of a lighting instrument is one of the most important duties of the lighting designer. The lighting designer must understand the technical specifcations of many different types of lighting instruments and how best to utilize them to achieve the desired artistic outcome. Though lighting equipment rapidly changes with advances in design and engineering, there are some common types of instruments that consistently appear in dance lighting. It is useful for choreographers and designers alike to familiarize themselves with some of these basic types of instruments and their attributes.

Shutters: One of the identifying features of the ERS is the ability to shape its beam of light through the use of shutters. A shutter is a moveable metal plate that blocks the beam of light in order to shape the output. There are four shutters than can be slid into different confgurations. Due to the shutter placement and the nature of refected light inside the ERS, the physical action of shuttering the light will be reversed in the resulting pool of light. This means that pushing in the top shutter will affect the bottom portion of the pool of light, and the right shutter will affect the left side of the light.

Instrument Types: Spotlight (Precision Lighting) When discussing lighting instruments, the instrument types are commonly grouped together based on their lighting output attributes. The spotlight fxture is a type of precise lighting instrument that can create a tight pool of lighting, has the ability for beam shaping, and can affect changes to the beam’s focus from crisp to soft. There are many different types of spotlight fxtures, though the most common type used in dance applications is the ellipsoidal refector spotlight or ERS, for short. An ERS is a type of lighting instrument that uses an ellipsoidal-shaped refector in conjunction with its lamp to create a high-intensity beam of light. Introduced in the 1930s, the frst ERS was called a Leko, named for the two developers Joseph Levy and Edward Kook. Some people today may still use this term to refer to any ERS instrument, though they are long out of production. Though differing manufacturers offer a slightly different approach to the ERS, there are some common features (Figure 15.20).

Gobo slot: The ERS comes equipped with a slot in the top of the lighting body made for the use of a gobo. This slot can accept either steel or glass gobos. Similar to the shutter, gobo patterns will be reversed on the lighting surface. It is important to remember this fact when working with templates that feature writing or recognizable symbols. In order to be correctly projected, the gobo must be placed upside down and reversed into the gobo slot. Barrel: The barrel is the component of the lighting instrument that contains the lenses for adjusting the focus of the beam of light. By adjusting the distance of the barrel from the light source, the resulting pool of light will be either crisp or fuzzy in focus. Modern lighting instruments feature removable barrels that are interchangeable. This allows for one lighting fxture to be used in different situations. Barrels are named

Figure 15.20 The ERS lighting fxture. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

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for the beam spread of lighting they produce. Common beam spreads are 5-, 10-, 19-, 26-, 36-, and 50-degrees. The smaller the beam spread, the further away the light is intended to be hung from the focus point and vice versa.

typically located in the theatre’s control booth, or in special positions in the balcony so as to be hidden away from the audience. Follow spots are often used in ballet productions. A typical follow spot (Figure 15.21) has a douser to “dim” the beam of light, and iris to change the size of the circular pool of light, a horizontal shutter control, and a “color boomerang” at the end of the barrel to change the color of light. The light is mounted on a moveable base that can be locked down into place. The follow spot’s yoke is attached to a central pedestal that enables panning and tilting the instrument with minimal effort.

Color slot (gel frame holder): At the end of the barrel is a slot for a gel frame holder. Gels are placed in a metal frame called a gel frame. The gel frame, complete with gel, is then inserted in the gel frame holder at the end of the barrel. Most barrels also have a locking clip so as to secure the gel frame and keep it from falling out. In addition to the standard gel, a color scroller can be used in the color slot. A color scroller is a box-shaped lighting accessory with a string of gels fused together on a loop. This string of gels is attached to a motor that can move the loop along until the chosen color appears in the gate. Color scrollers have an external power supply and are controlled by a control signal from the lighting console.

Instrument Types: Wash Lighting (General Lighting) Whereas the spotlight is used for precision lighting, sometimes the lighting designer needs an instrument that can create a large wash of even lighting across a wide area. Wash fxtures, sometimes called general lighting fxtures, are best used for this purpose. Though there are many types of general lighting instruments, there are two conventional lighting instruments commonly used for wash lighting: the Fresnel, and the PAR-type fxture. The following section discusses these two instruments and some of their attributes.

The Follow Spot A follow spot is a particular type of spotlight lighting fxture controlled by a human operator and designed to create an intensely bright pool of light with a long throw distance. It is

The Fresnel The Fresnel is named for Augustin-Jean Fresnel, the French scientist who invented its interesting lens. Fresnel took the basic plano convex lens and cut away sections of the glass in concentric rings, thereby making a lens with the same refractive properties as the plano convex but with much less material. The Fresnel is an excellent choice for back lighting since it can create an even wash of the stage for large color flls. Unlike the ERS, a Fresnel has fewer internal tools for adjusting the overall appearance of light output. Inside the Fresnel are a spherical refector and lamp mounted on a moveable carriage (sometimes called a sled), and a Fresnel lens (Figure 15.22). The quality of the light can be changed from spot (sharper) to food (diffused) by moving the sled closer to or further away from the lens. Sliding further away achieves a spot focus, whereas moving closer creates a food focus. There are no shutters in the Fresnel for beam shaping, though there is a device called a barn door that can be attached to the end of the Fresnel to shape the light output. Though you can never achieve a crisp shutter cut like the ERS, the barn door is an effective tool for basic beam shaping.

The PAR-Type Fixture For years, the PAR fxture was the go-to lighting instrument for dance and concert lighting because of its lightweight,

Figure 15.21 A small follow spot. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Figure 15.22 A Fresnel lighting instrument. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

cost-effective design and ability to create wide colorful washes of light. The PAR is named for its unique lamp (the parabolic aluminized refector) that combines together light source, refector, and lens into one component (Figure 15.23). The PAR lighting fxture is simply a metal housing to hold the PAR lamp with a gel slot on the end of the barrel. The simple design of this lighting instrument led to the term “PAR-can” since it is essentially a PAR in a can. Like the Fresnel, the PAR must use barn doors for beam shaping (though you can change out the lamps for very narrow, narrow, medium, or wide food). In recent years, most traditional PAR and Fresnel fxtures have been discontinued, though you may still fnd many still in use for lighting inventories. More commonly, you might fnd a modern fxture with different designs that mimic the output of these classic lighting instruments.

Instrument Types: Cyc Lights As mentioned earlier in the chapter, there are a variety of lighting instruments used for lighting the cyclorama or stage drops. These lights are intended to hang near the cyclorama from a batten above or placed as a ground row on the foor. Cyc lights tend to fall into three main categories of strip lights, quartz “far-throw” cyc lights, or LED cyc fxtures. Strip lights are a variety of cyc lights that feature a long rectangular lighting fxture with multiple paired cells of lights in sequence. They tend to feature three or four different

Figure 15.23 A PAR64 lighting instrument. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

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cells for maximum color mixing capabilities. The far-throw cyc fxture is a type of cyc light made up of one to four large rectangular quartz lamps per section and can be hung further away from the cyc or drop than a typical strip light. They cover a large area with a smooth, even wash of lighting but require around a 4’ distance from the cyclorama for effective coverage. LED cyc fxtures feature LED cells instead of conventional lamps. This allows for exceptionally bright light with color mixing capabilities without using a gel.

unperceivable unless the air contains particles (i.e. water, dust, fog, etc.) For this reason, there are a number of devices that can be used to create atmospheric effects.

Fog Machines The use of fog is a time-tested effect for theatre and dance. There are different types of machines that can produce both low-lying fog that clings to the stage surface or a more smoke-like airborne variety. Most types of fog machines use a water-based liquid called fog juice. Low-lying fog machines work through either the use of dry ice, a chiller unit to cool smoke, or by creating fog directly from liquid CO2.

Instrument Types: Intelligent Lighting Intelligent lighting is a blanket term referring to a wide array of lighting instruments that have controllable attributes to make them more versatile than conventional fxtures. One of the most appealing attributes of an intelligent light is the ability to remotely adjust the light’s focus. This is why some people simply refer to them as “moving lights.” Many intelligent lighting fxtures have a wide array of controllable features such as color change, gobos, gobo rotation, prism effects, strobe effects, and built-in effects engines to simply create interesting visual effects. Intelligent lighting has become a mainstay of concert lighting and audiences have come to expect this dynamic look in concert settings.

Hazers Another type of atmospheric effect is called haze. Haze is a long-lasting mist that hangs in the air for an extended period of time without dissipating. Haze is popular for concert lighting and outdoor events as it can easily fll a large area even in locations with inconsistent air circulation. It is the haze effect that creates the iconic rock and roll lighting appearance of visible shafts of colored light in the air. Hazers use either water-based hazer fuid or liquid nitrogen to create haze. Many models of smoke machines, foggers, and hazers are DMX-controllable and can be connected to a lighting console for remote control.

Like conventional lighting fxtures, intelligent lighting tends to be split into different varieties of wash and spot fxtures. Though intelligent lighting has a high initial cost, a small number of intelligent lights in a dance light plot can help the designer limit the number of instruments necessary to creating a versatile design. One important consideration in using intelligent lighting is cabling. Unlike a conventional lighting instrument that is controlled by the power supply only, intelligent lighting needs both a power supply and a control signal. This means the use of data cabling running from the lighting console to the intelligent lighting fxture for the control signal, or some type of wireless system to send the signals. If using cabling, it is common to “daisy chain” the instruments together rather than run a separate cable for each instrument.

15.8 – Color in Lighting Color is one of the most powerful tools of the lighting designer. It can communicate mood and atmosphere more effectively than most any other attribute of lighting. There are entire books dedicated to color theory and how lighting affects color. For the purposes of this text, we will examine a few of the key characteristics of color in lighting and how to implement color in a lighting design.

Talking About Color It can be diffcult to discuss something so technical as lighting and color without having a basic understanding of vocabulary. It is important to have a common vocabulary between designers and collaborators, though, to ensure that everyone is on the same page. When discussing the name of the color, we commonly use the word hue. In basic terms, this can be interpreted as the color’s name or its placement in the visible color spectrum. When discussing the purity of the color, we tend to use the term saturation, which refers to the amount of a hue present in the colored lighting.

15.7 – Atmospherics In addition to selecting the appropriate lighting instrument, there are a number of decisions to be made that affect how lighting is perceived onstage. One of the most important factors to how lighting is perceived is atmospherics, typically in the form of haze and fog. Since lighting is intangible, it can only be seen when it touches an object. When a beam of light passes through a darkened space, the beam itself is

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Figure 15.24 This value scale shows the gradation of a red hue from pure saturation to white. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

Another word used in relation to a color’s saturation is value. In discussing pigment, value relates to the relative amount of black or white in a color. This value scale can be illustrated as a chart with black on one end, white on the other, and the pure hue located in the center. Since there is no black lighting, a color’s value in lighting is relative to the amount of white light present. Therefore, the value scale for a hue in lighting is illustrated with the saturated hue on one end of the scale and pure white on the other end (Figure 15.24). We will discuss these terms a bit more as we address the use of color media later.

can be mixed to create interesting colors known as secondary colors. In pigment, we know that all colors are made up of three primary colors: red, yellow, and blue. Many people are surprised to discover that the primary colors in lighting are different than those in pigment. For lighting, the three primary colors are red, green, and blue. By mixing pure versions of these three colors together, one can create any color in the visible lighting spectrum. Figure 15.25 illustrates the colors of light and how color-mixing works in lighting. The three primary colors (red, green, and blue) are on the outside circles. Where these areas overlap, the result is secondary colors. The illustration shows that red and green combine to create yellow, green and blue combine to create cyan, and blue and red combine together to create magenta.

Color Mixing Another fundamental aspect of lighting is color mixing. Color in lighting behaves in a unique fashion, quite differently than colored pigment in paint or inks. In examining what we call “white light,” all of the visible colors of the spectrum are present. The reason for this difference lies in the fact that, unlike paint, when different hues of colored lighting are added together, the resulting hue is closer towards white light. This phenomenon is referred to as additive color mixing.

Another important concept in colored lighting is how colors interact with one another. Looking at Figure 15.25, you will notice the arrows connecting certain hues. These hues, opposite of one another on the chart, are referred to as complementary colors. In lighting, complementary colors are those that produce white light when combined together. When looking at these colors side by side, both colors appear brighter and more vibrant than when viewed on their own. This is an interesting effect, but can lead to visual overstimulation if used for too long on the stage. Colors closer together on the chart, called analogous colors, look good together with less visual contrast (i.e. cyan and blue).

Primary and Secondary Colors A primary color is a pure color that cannot be created by mixing together other colors. These primary colors, though,

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Figure 15.25 Color mixing in lighting. Drawing by: Jeromy Hopgood.

Producing Color in Light

depleted, GAM will effectively cease to exist. Each manufacturer makes swatch books with a small sample of each their gels. When working with gels from different manufacturers, it is important to remember that some colors will have similar names, but produce a differing hue. For example, most manufacturers create a color called “bastard amber” but each one is slightly different in color. For this reason, manufacturers have a numbering system to differentiate the different colors between brands. Designers use the letters of the manufacturer to distinguish between makers. For instance, the color bastard amber could be listed as R02 (Rosco), L162 (Lee), G325 (GAM), or AP7050 (Apollo). Keep in mind that lighting shops may well have old, discontinued gels so it is important to track the number and availability of any sourced from the inventory. It is important that a lighting designer be familiar with colors from different manufacturers and maintain current swatch books. To obtain a swatch book, contact your local theatrical supplier or the manufacturers directly.

There are a number of different ways to create colored lighting for the stage. For most dance applications, though, there are three main devices used to produce color in lighting: color flters (gels), glass color flters, and LED lighting instruments. It is important to understand these different tools, how each of them is used, and the difference in the quality of colors produced onstage.

Color Filters There are a number of ways to produce color in light. One method is the use of a color flter, often referred to as a gel. As mentioned earlier in the text, a gel is a thin polycarbonate or polyester sheet infused with pigment placed in the path of the beam of light to affect a colored beam of light. In the early days, they were made of gelatin, leading to the use of the term gel, which has continued in use over the years. Gels work by absorbing unwanted wavelengths of lights and only allowing the desired wavelength to pass though, thereby producing the resulting color.

There is some important information included in all swatch books related to gel selection. The frst item to look at is the gel’s transmission. Transmission refers to the amount of light transmitted through the gel. A low percentage of transmission means that a small percentage of the visible spectrum passes through the gel, thus producing high color saturation. A high transmission means the opposite. Since a greater amount of white light passes through the gel, the resulting color will be unsaturated – closer to white light.

In the past, there were a number of different theatrical gel manufacturers. These days, there are primarily two main brands: Rosco, and Lee. In recent years, Rosco purchased the manufacturer GAM, but left the GAM line of gels available for purchase as a division of Rosco. As of 2023, GAM colors are no longer being produced by Rosco and once the stock has been

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lighting was mostly found in wash fxtures and strip lighting. More recently, LED lighting has made its way into the lineup for all of the larger theatrical lighting companies in the form of moving lights, wash fxtures, and even ERS spotlights. At this point, most theatres and designers have not made a move to LED-only lighting installations. For a number of reasons, it is wise to use LED lighting in conjunction with conventional fxtures.

In practical terms, it is important to remember that those gels with the least transmission have a shorter lifespan than high transmission gels. Since saturated colors convert a greater amount of light into heat energy, they often develop a hole burnt into the center of the gel over time. Some manufacturers make long-life gels to counteract this effect, but for longer show runs gels will have to be regularly replaced. All plastic color medium used in a conventional lighting fxture will eventually burn out.

One thing to keep in mind with LED fxtures is that the instruments themselves, not separate dimmers, control the dimming of lights. As the LED lights dim, there are rapid pulses of the LED that happen too quickly for the human eye to take in under normal circumstances. This pulsing can often be seen under the camera, especially if the shutter rate of the camera is set in sync with the refresh rate of the LED lighting instruments. Make sure to research the settings available on your LED lighting if you intend to capture the dance on video. Likewise, in some instances a dance that is presented in low lighting with only LED lighting can create an effect similar to strobe lighting. Again, adjusting the refresh rate on the instruments can be useful in solving this problem. Finally, the quality of some LED fxtures’ color production can be described as electric, vivid, or extreme. While this is appropriate for some dances, it may seem off-putting in other situations. This is often the case in “DJ fxtures” designed for the club market. It is important to keep in mind the old adage “you get what you pay for.” Often, low-cost lighting instruments, though able to create interesting lighting effects onstage, will not have the ability to make the necessary adjustments for the challenges mentioned above. High-quality fxtures (typically higher in cost) will have a number of features built into their control structure to address these issues.

Glass Color Filters Another possibility for producing colored lighting is a glass color flter, a flter made from glass instead of plastics. In ERS fxtures and moving lights, glass color flters are used to create a vivid colored beam of light. In addition to a plain colored glass flter, there are also glass gobos with textures and color built in and variegated glass flters that create interesting color blended textural effects, such as fre or water. All of these glass color flters can be used in addition to a conventional steel gobo for creating varied effects. Glass flters will never lose their color or burn out. The only danger in a glass flter is the possibility of dropping and breaking the flter. Though glass is much more expensive, the extended life may make it appealing for longer productions.

LED Lighting The fnal common method for producing colored lighting is LED lighting. As mentioned earlier, one of the greatest benefts of LED lighting is their ability to create vivid, brightly saturated colored lighting without the heat present in conventional lighting fxtures. LED lighting is still relatively young, but widely present in the industry. Initially, LED stage

FYI: Color Selection and Skin Tones Since dance lighting is all about showcasing the human form, the performers’ skin tones factor greatly into the selection of color for lighting. Keep in mind that the same type of color mixing mentioned previously occurs when light refects off of human skin. As with all refective surfaces, colored lighting behaves differently when refected from various skin tones. While we often simplify discussions of skin color to one-word descriptions such as “white,” “black,” or “brown,” the truth of the matter is that there are far too many variations on human skin tone to generalize in such a basic way. For every skin tone, there

are also certain “undertones” that affect the way in which light is refected or absorbed. This sometimes means that one dancer might appear to be glowing under one light, while the dancer next to them can literally appear to be absorbing the light. Likewise, a color that looks good on fair skin tones can look downright ghastly on those with darker skin pigments. As seen in costuming chapters, it is important to acknowledge that many of the longstanding norms of classical ballet (like the “natural” color of pointe shoes, or “fesh-colored” tights) were established in a time

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wherein the vast majority of dancers were white, of primarily European descent. This was also the case in lighting where color selection would have been made based on their appearance on a lighter skin tone, rather than those more commonly found in BIPOC performers. For this reason, it is important to not fall into a pattern of assumption, but rather to determine any color selection after assessing the various skin tones of the dancers, as well as the colors of their costumes, and any hair or makeup considerations that might affect the refectivity and appearance of colored light. The end goal is most often making certain that you can see each dancer equally and that no one dancer visually stands out from the others (unless this is a purposeful choice that stems from the storytelling). When possible, make certain to experiment with various color types or have some options available for a potential color swap (this is obviously easier to achieve from the booms than overhead lighting positions). Included below are some rules of thumb, but keep in mind each situation will be unique and there are no universal rules.

• Generally speaking, front lighting should be paler colors with higher transmission. • Deeper, saturated colors tend to work better as back or side lighting, or used for some types of special effects. • Lavender is a neutral color that can appear as either “warm” or “cool” depending on other colors used. • Lavenders and pinks tend to work well on both light and dark skin tones. • Keep in mind that theatrical lighting fxtures can be used with no color. For incandescent fxtures, the resulting color appears “warm” due to the color temperature of the lamp. • Amber drift is a phenomenon with incandescent fxtures where the resulting light appears “warmer” and moves towards an amber color as the lamp is dimmed. This is common across all incandescent fxtures and leads to different color looks at changing intensities. This phenomenon is also not present in LED lighting, so keep it in mind when working with a mixture of incandescent and LED lighting. • Always experiment and be willing to adapt on the fy.

15.9 – Chapter Review

lighting systems, equipment, and color gives insight into how the technical side of lighting design truly affects the types of artistic decisions that the designer makes.

Lighting design is a multifaceted component of dance production that requires both artistic and technical profciency in a designer. In seeking to understand the basics of lighting, this chapter explored the functions and properties of lighting – both what we can accomplish through lighting and the controllable aspects of the light itself. In addition, we examined the physical theatre space and how where lighting instruments are placed affects distribution. Finally, a focus on

From the choreographer’s perspective, it is advantageous to have a passing understanding of the basics of lighting design. Those who can enter the collaborative process with this knowledge will fnd it easier to communicate with the lighting designer and fnd the end product more closely matches their vision for the production.

Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What do we mean by selective visibility? What are two terms commonly used to discuss the quality of lighting? Describe the components of a lighting system and their individual functions. What is the most common hanging position for achieving side lighting? What is the name of a batten from which lighting instruments are hung? What is a scrim? What does ERS stand for? What is uncommon about how shutters operate? What device is used to fll the air with a long-lasting mist? The combination of complementary colors produces which color of light?

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CHAPTER 16

Creating the Lighting Design

The job of the lighting designer is a delicate balancing act of artistry and technical know-how. The diffcult part of the LD’s role in a production is that much of her work depends on the ability to successful communicate the ephemeral. She must communicate with the choreographer and other members of the production team how a moment will look before ever having hung or focused the lights, cued the show, or sometimes even having stepped into the performance space. In order to make certain that these original concepts are successfully carried over to the performance, the LD must create a number of design drawings and paperwork and work closely with the technicians who set up the lighting equipment. The following chapter details the process of creating the lighting design from concept discussions to opening night. This information is useful to not only the designer, but also to the choreographer in the collaborative process.

16.1 – Working with the Choreographer The process of working with a choreographer is, to a great degree, a question of interpersonal communication and individual personalities. Unlike most theatrical productions, dance allows you to work frsthand with the creator of the artistic work and not have a director as a mediator to the creative process. This would be akin to a playwright directing his/her own play. If all parties approach the process with an open mind and fexibility, this relationship can lead to a rewarding collaborative process.

Collaborative Models The history of dance in the last century is a study of how the choreographer/designer paradigm visibly shifted. Before the early 20th century, much of the larger context of professional dance was ballet-driven; large productions telling a story with elaborate scenery and costumes. In this model, lighting designers were generally expected to create a wash of light across the stage, with follow spots used to track principal dancers. In short, the role of the lighting designer was to create visibility. George Balanchine, considered by most as the father of American ballet, co-founded the New York City Ballet and choreographed for both Broadway and Hollywood. His works from the 1940s onward introduced a new modernist take on ballet that was more abstract and stripped down. As works like these became more prevalent in the classical repertoire and choreographers like Martha Graham popularized modern dance with the general public, lighting design moved away from basic illumination and into the realm of storytelling and artistic expression. In the latter half of the 20th century, Merce Cunningham embraced the notion of “stand-alone” production elements in which the dancing, lighting, scenery, and music were created separately of one another and then combined for the performance. In looking at this brief history, we see many of the basic expectations for lighting designers that remain prevalent even today. While individual cases vary, commonly choreographers expect one or more of these three approaches: make sure I can see the dance; support/comment on the dance’s narrative; I trust you to do what works. As a choreographer and designer alike, it is important to identify expectations before heading into the production.

Talking About Your Dance One of the things that make dance so exciting is how open to interpretation it can be. This can also be a source of frustration when two collaborators fnd themselves with different takes on the work. For this reason, many designers fnd it useful to

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DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-19

Creating the Lighting Design

approach each project with questions for the choreographer that help identify their vision for the dance and any practical concerns that might affect the designer’s workfow. The following list is tailored for lighting design, but can be used to think about a number of different production areas. 1. Describe in two to three sentences what you want your dance to communicate. 2. Is your dance based on or infuenced by any particular work of art? (If so, feel free to include images/links/references with this response.) 3. Is your dance in one piece, or are there distinctly different “movements” or sections within the dance? (Some choreographers like to create a brief “script” of the dance; describing important events or changes in music within the dance. This can be particularly useful to designers who are used to working from the written word. It can help both the designer and stage manager have a better understanding of the choreographer’s intent.) 4. If there are different sections of the dance, how do they differ from one another? 5. Give a few adjectives or short descriptive phrases to describe how your dance (or individual sections) should feel. Try to avoid the temptation to explain your concept – it tends to be more effective to focus, instead, on what the dance or moments should feel like. 6. What is the color scheme of your costumes? 7. What are the skin tones of performers? (Lighting behaves quite differently on different skin tones, so this is an important consideration when selecting color for lighting.) 8. Are there specifc technical needs of your dance related to lighting?

Practical Concerns

• Will projection be involved as a design element? • Are you hoping to use atmospherics (fog/haze) or any other effects?

When working in a collaborative art form, the devil is truly in the details. Communication is everyone’s responsibility to ensure that all production participants are on the same page. When going into collaboration with a choreographer (especially for the frst time), I always try to send a message with a list of practical concerns that will be important to the overall process. Listed below is a checklist of information with which the designers, choreographer, and dancers should be familiar. Keep in mind that the answers to these questions will always vary. It is also possible that the choreographer will not have answers to all of these questions. Some of these questions might best be addressed to the production manager and/or technical director.

16.2 – Communicating the Design Creating a lighting design involves a number of steps bringing together the artistic and technical elements into one elegant presentation. Though the designer creates the concept for the lighting design, it is actually the stagehands that set up all of the lighting equipment for the production. For this reason, there are a series of design drawings and paperwork necessary for communicating the design specifcs to a crew of electricians who implement the designer’s specifcations. Though the choreographer should not be expected to understand all of the requirements of creating these design drawings and paperwork, it is important to have a passing familiarity with all of the elements. Such an understanding invariably leads to an increased appreciation for the job of the designer and his/her role within the production.

• Is this a new piece or a remount? • If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that are important to reproduce? • What is the rehearsal schedule? • What is the tech schedule? • Will there be regularly scheduled production meetings? • At what point will the dance be fully choreographed? • Will you be at all rehearsals, or will a rehearsal director run rehearsals? • Is there a point at which the dance can be video recorded for cueing purposes? • Can you share the music used in the dance? • Will costumes be available to view before tech?

Visual Communication The lighting designer tends to produce fewer drawings or visual representations of her fnalized design as compared to the scenic, costume, or projections designers. Much of this is due to the fact that lighting works atop the palette of and

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pre-visualization programs to create a realistic representation of their design on the computer. Such programs allow the lighting designer to input a 3D model of the theatre, scenery, and human fgures into a program with the exact lighting fxtures included in their hanging positions. Given the tight schedules for dance tech, many dance lighting designers use pre-visualization methods to pre-program the show before entering the space, understanding that they can make changes to these “roughed-in” looks in the space. There are many different options for pre-visualization, though the two most common iterations are stand-alone software that “listens” to cues created by a separate lighting console/program, and

in conjunction with those other design elements. It is much more common to fnd the lighting designer communicating ideas through visual research, storyboards, or verbal exchanges than through a traditional rendering medium. This seems to be even more prevalent in dance lighting than in theatrical lighting. For all that, though, there are a number of methods commonly used by lighting designers to communicate the design idea.

Pre-Visualization As the prevalence of 3D rendering and CAD (computer aided drafting) technology has increased, more designers depend on

Figure 16.1 A repertory light plot used for a dance concert. Drafting: Jeromy Hopgood.

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programs designed to work specifcally with a certain line of lighting consoles.

Draftings: The Light Plot The light plot is a specialized drawing produced through mechanical means for the purpose of communicating details about the lighting system and design. It can be hand-drafted or created by CAD software, such as Vectorworks® or AutoCAD®. Draftings are always executed in scale, meaning that they include all details with accurate sizes, but proportionately shrunk down by a certain amount. For instance, a ½” scale drafting means that every ½” measured on the drafting is equal to 1’0” in the real world. The purpose of a light plot is to include all of the necessary technical information of the lighting design needed by the electricians to hang, circuit, and focus the design (Figure 16.1). Light plots are drafted atop a plan view of the theatre space and any included scenery. This drafting is provided to the lighting designer by the theatre staff or scenic designer. A plan view is a drafting done from a bird’s eye view of the theatre, looking down on the performance space. Light plots include hanging positions, lighting instruments, circuiting and dimmer information, focus (where the light is pointed), color, and other information like if the light uses a gobo or accessory. Another important aspect of the light plot is the instrument key. An instrument key is an information box included on the drafting that shows all of the symbols used for lighting instruments and accessories. This key will include the instrument name, beam spread, and symbols for any included gobos or accessories (Figure 16.2).

Figure 16.2 An instrument key, featuring a number of different lighting instruments.

FYI: Drafting Standards Light plots for theatre and dance use a standardized system of notation developed in conjunction with USITT (The United States Institute for Theatre Technology) called “Recommended Practices for Theatrical Lighting Design Graphics.” There are specifc symbols used to represent certain types of lighting instruments, accessories, and hanging positions. By following these

recommended practices, it helps stagehands across the country clearly understand the intent of the lighting designer. It is worth noting that international standards for preparing a light plot and lighting symbols tend to vary. USITT provides the Recommended Practices for Theatrical Lighting Design Graphics on their organizational website of USITT.org

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Figure 16.3 A lighting section, indicating lighting positions, instruments, and masking. Drafting: Jeromy Hopgood.

Draftings: The Lighting Section

Channel Hookup

A lighting section is another drafting that depicts the theatre in a side view, removing one half of the theatre at the centerline (Figure 16.3). The purpose of the lighting section is to help the designer visualize the theatre architecture, scenery, and masking in the context of lighting positions and equipment. The lighting section helps the designer consider where best to place lighting instruments in the theatre space to accomplish the desired visual effect. As with the light plot, a section view of the theatre will be provided by the scenic designer or theatre staff.

The channel hookup, or hookup for short, is a list designed to show the channels on a lighting console and the information about the lighting instruments controlled by a given channel. It includes information such as channel, dimmer, hang position, instrument number, type, wattage, and focus. A channel hookup is shown in Figure 16.4.

Instrument Schedule An instrument schedule is similar to the channel hookup, but it sorts the information according to the hang position of the theatre. This includes fxture information for every lighting instrument in a given position sorted in fxture order. Fixtures are numbered on a light plot from stage left to stage right and from top to bottom in the case of vertical positions such as booms. This information allows technicians to quickly identify lighting instruments when hanging, focusing, or troubleshooting.

Lighting Design Paperwork A big part of the lighting designer’s job is the creation of design paperwork to be used in conjunction with the light plot for executing the design. Most paperwork follows a standard spreadsheet layout, utilizing rows and columns with outlined borders to keep the information properly grouped. The order of information varies according to the type of paperwork, but the function remains the same – a list of all information related to any lighting instrument in the light plot. In many cases, paperwork is more important to the electricians setting up the equipment than the plot itself.

Color Cut Lists Another type of paperwork useful to electricians is the color cut list. Gel comes from the manufacturer in a large sheet that must be cut down to ft in different lighting instruments. The color cut list includes the different types of gels organized by manufacturer including the color number, number of cuts, and size of gel cuts. This paperwork may sometimes include the necessary number of gel frames as well.

Paperwork was once done by the lighting designer or assistant-designer by hand, but it is more common today to see it created in the drafting program or through specially designed paperwork software, like John McKernon’s LightWright®. Included below is a list of some of the common types of paperwork.

Magic Sheets A magic sheet, or cheat sheet, is a piece of paperwork designed by the lighting designer to help in the process

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Figure 16.4 A simple channel hookup sheet.

16.3 – Hang and Focus

of cueing the show. It is personalized to how the lighting designer likes to work. As such, there is no one-size-ftsall approach to setting up a magic sheet. The goal is creating a simple pictorial example of how the stage is divided into control, colors, and textures. Figure 16.5 is a magic sheet created for Hubbard Street Dance Chicago, illustrating what channels are used for controlling different lights. In this example, the magic sheet is divided into individual systems of lighting, such as back lighting, side lighting, etc. Each designer develops their own preferred system for creating magic sheets, though the dance company may also have their own “stock” magic sheets explaining their repertory lighting plot.

Once the lighting plot has been fnalized and all the lighting equipment moved into the theatre, the process of hanging and focusing the lights begins. The lighting designer is not typically expected to hang the lights, though it is not uncommon for them to be present. Lighting equipment will be hung by stagehands called electricians, with the master electrician heading up the work call. Typically, the process begins with hanging the lights in their appropriate locations, followed by circuiting the lights into the appropriate dimmers. It is essential at this point to record all information and changes onto the updated light plot.

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Figure 16.5 Magic sheet for Hubbard Street’s Winter Series, Princess Grace Awards: New Works at the Museum of Contemporary Art Chicago’s Edlis Neeson Theater. Photo: Hubbard Street Dance Chicago.

lighting instrument in the lighting rig. It includes the focus position (in relation to the center and proscenium line), whether the instrument is spot or food focused, shutter cut information, and any necessary information about color and gobos. Though this is less common for resident companies, it is a way of life for commercial dance tours.

Once the hanging and circuiting has occurred, the lighting designer (or lighting director, if the company employs one) runs the light focus. This is the process of instructing the electricians on the appropriate focus, shutter cut, and diffusion of the light. A common focus involves moving a lighting instrument to the focus point onstage, adding any necessary gobos, shuttering off of scenery or unwanted positions, and adjusting the diffusion of the instrument to create the desired visual quality of light from crisp to soft/diffused.

16.4 – Preparing for Technical Rehearsals

In touring productions, it is common for the crew to use something called a focus chart. The focus chart is a specifc type of paperwork that includes focus information for every

Technical rehearsals are a time-consuming and laborious process devoted to getting all of the technical details

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of the production in place before opening. As the lighting designer, there are a number of details to be addressed before heading into tech.

but if a dark time is not scheduled you can be assured this will be the case.

Cueing the Show

Preparing to Cue

Cueing the show is one of the most important steps in creating lighting design. It is also typically one of the last steps in the design process. Like many other steps in the design process, cueing is a personal approach arrived at by years of experience on the part of the lighting designer. The lighting designer should enter into this process being fully familiar with the dance piece and with a plan of attack for creating cues. The following section details some thoughts on the cueing process.

As the lighting designer prepares for the process of writing cues, there are a few basic questions that must be addressed. Taking time to prepare for cueing sessions can save a lot of time and energy down the road.

Is Everything Set Up? While this may seem like a basic question, it is one of the most important questions to ask. Before the lighting designer begins the cueing process it is a good idea to ask the master electrician if all of the lights have been hung, focused, gelled, and tested for proper operation. A dimmer check (using the hookup paperwork to check each light and dimmer in the system for proper function) should be done at the top of each day.

Cue Sheets Just like the process of writing a paper, creating a lighting design requires an organized plan, taking into account the entire dance piece and the changes that occur to the lighting during the performance. A cue sheet is a type of paperwork used to plan out all of the lighting cues for a performance. It is typically presented in a spreadsheet format, featuring cues and cue information in chronological order (Figure 16.6). A cue sheet often contains the cue number, information about when the cue is called, fade times, and a description of the action of the cue. Like magic sheets, many designers customize their own cue sheets to include information they fnd the most useful. The cue sheet will be used by the designer to write cues and then later given to the stage manager for use in calling cues during the dance.

Dark Time In the period leading up to technical rehearsals a number of different departments will be vying for time on the theatre. Everyone has a lot to accomplish in a short period of time. This is why it is so important for the lighting designer to schedule dark time in the theatre – a period of time in which all of the theatre’s auditorium and work lights will be turned off so the lighting can be seen under show conditions. Nothing is so frustrating to the lighting designer than having to compete with an offstage work light while trying to write cues,

Figure 16.6 A cue sheet, indicating all cues and pertinent information.

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FYI: The Paper Tech Some dance companies have a special meeting called the paper tech, before going into the tech process. The paper tech is a meeting at which all of the designers with cues meet with the stage manager and choreographer to discuss the placement of cues. This can involve scenery, lighting, sound, projections, and special effects. Paper tech is useful for getting all of the cues in the stage manager’s prompt

book and giving an opportunity to talk through the entire dance. Many dance companies simply do not include time in their schedule for a true paper tech. In this case, it is important to confer with the stage manager before heading into tech and provide her with a detailed cue sheet so she can be prepared for calling the show.

The Lighting Console

1. The tech table. One common convention seen in most theatres is the use of tech tables for the cueing and tech process. A tech table is a position set up in the auditorium from which the designers and choreographer can work. The tech table allows the designers to see their work from the vantage point of the audience, rather than from the control booth, which is typically far away from the stage and from an awkward vantage point. Typically, there will be multiple tech tables set up for different departments. The lighting tech table should include suffcient space for a lighting console, lighting paperwork, headsets, and typically room for the lighting designer’s laptop. It is common that the stage manager and lighting console operator will sit at the tech table once in tech. 2. What to bring? When moving into the theatre, it is important to consider what things you will want on-hand at the tech table. It is always wise to think ahead so that you don’t fnd yourself having to leave to get something from home. A well-equipped tech table should include: • Pencils and scrap paper • All design paperwork and magic sheets • A fashlight • A stopwatch • A crescent wrench (keep in mind some union theatres will not allow the designer to touch equipment, but it is always good to be prepared) • A laptop • A portable hard drive and thumb drives for back up and fle transport • Surge protected power strips 3. Representing the fgure. Since dance lighting focuses on the dancers, it is important to include some type of a representation of the dancer during cueing. If you have volunteers to walk the stage while cueing, this can be invaluable. Not every design has this luxury, though. In many cases, I have used a costumer’s dress form as a stand-in for a dancer. In a pinch, I have used a rolling chair or a music stand. Ultimately, having something to focus

As discussed previously, the lighting console is a specialized piece of equipment used for controlling lighting equipment. Today’s consoles are computers with unique control interfaces that vary between different manufacturers. It is important for the designer to understand the individual console and its use. The console is used to create a look onstage and then save the parameters into its memory for playback at a later time. The process of writing cues in the lighting board begins by setting levels of brightness with individual lighting instruments until a suitable look is achieved. Once this look is saved as a cue, the designer can proceed to the next cue. Depending on the nature of the dance, the cues may build atop one another or be completely different looks having little to do with one another. The next consideration is fade time. Fade time means the amount of time it takes for the current cue to disappear while the subsequent cue comes up. Rapid fade times create an abrupt shift, whereas longer fade times create a subtle shift from one cue to the next. It is important for the designer to watch the design in proper order to ensure the timing works for the dance piece. One question that should be addressed is who will physically input cues into the lighting console. In a union setting, the lighting designer is typically prohibited from touching the lighting console because there is a union stagehand dedicated to programming the cues into the board. If the lighting designer decides to pre-program cues, the show fles will be loaded onto the console and any changes will typically be done by the programmer/board operator. In these situations, it is useful for the LD to have their magic sheets and paperwork on hand to quickly give guidance, like “bring channels 1–10 up to 50%.”

The Cueing Process Though the cueing process can vary from designer to designer, there are some aspects that apply to most cueing sessions. The following list includes some thoughts to keep in mind.

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your light on is the most important consideration. Without this, the lighting levels will invariably have to be adjusted once the stage is flled with bodies. Another necessary consideration is the costume color. Whenever possible, include some fabric or clothing that is a similar color to the dance costumes. This will give you the opportunity to see how the lighting affects the costume color. 4. Working with the music. If your dance incorporates music, it can be useful to listen to the music while cueing. Especially in instances where fade times must sync with music, there is no better way to get it right than working with the music. 5. Working with a rehearsal video. As mentioned in previous chapters, a rehearsal video is invaluable to the cueing process. By referencing the video, you can determine the location of certain moments on the stage and ensure the timing is correct. Likewise, if using a rehearsal video that includes music this allows you to include both music and movement into one package. 6. With or without the choreographer? The lighting designer may create the cues alone or in the presence of the choreographer, depending on the practice the choreographer and dance company are accustomed to. It is best to ask about the usual process if you are working together for the frst time. There are benefts and drawbacks to both approaches. If cueing with the choreographer present, you go into tech knowing that they have seen the cues and know what to expect. Unfortunately, this can lead to a longer process than if the designer cues alone. Depending on the time constraints, it may simply not be feasible. Personally, I like to create my lighting cues alone in the theatre while watching the rehearsal video and

making any necessary tweaks to the programming in the frst mark-through of the dance. The specifc details of technical rehearsals vary between different organizations. Some companies have a “tech week” that incorporates many days of tech, followed by dress rehearsals, then opening. This method is most common in academic environments. When looking at professional dance companies, however, the deciding factor for length and numbers of technical rehearsals is the theatre space and budget. If the dance company owns its own space, it is common to see longer periods of tech. If the company is renting the space, the tech process might be limited to one day or even a few hours before going into the performance.

16.5 – Chapter Review The job of creating the lighting design is a long and multifaceted process that combines together both artistic and technical expertise. The lighting designer must be a master communicator, utilizing visual imagery and verbal and written communication to convey a design idea. In creating a lighting design, the lighting designer must use draftings, drawings/ renderings, and paperwork to communicate his/her ideas. Planning and paperwork are a central skill of the LD, used to ensure continuity from her initial concept through the fnal performance. Through a study of the lighting design process, we gain an increased appreciation for the job of the designer and her role within the production.

Review Questions 1. What is pre-visualization? 2. What is the type of drafting executed in a plan view that is used to communicate the technical information of the lighting design? ` 3. What is an instrument key? 4. What information should be included in an instrument key? 5. Describe a lighting section. 6. What type of paperwork sorts the information according to lighting hang positions? 7. What is a focus chart? 8. What type of paperwork is used to plan out all of the lighting cues for a performance? 9. What type of paperwork does the lighting designer use as a visual example of how the stage is divided into control and, at times, color? 10. What term describes the time it takes to move from one lighting cue to another?

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Project 16–1: Thinking Like a Lighting Designer As you have seen in this chapter, lighting can be diffcult to discuss. One tool that lighting designers use to aid in the process of communicating their ideas is visual research. The old adage “a picture is worth a thousand words” is particularly true when describing light. This project will focus on the use of visual research to communicate an idea through lighting. Frequently, lighting designers are called on to communicate an emotion or mood through lighting. The properties of dance lighting (brightness, color, direction/angle, visual quality, and movement) can be used to successfully create a feeling through lighting. For this project, you will be given a list of words for which you must fnd an image that communicates this idea through the use of lighting. For each of the fve examples below, choose a photo that illustrates how one of the properties of dance lighting could be used to communicate the idea. Include a brief description of why you feel the lighting communicates the word. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

Fear Claustrophobia Excitement Anger Physical attraction

Project 16–2: Cueing with an Ear Towards Music Dance lighting designers work in a medium that most often works together with music or sound. For this reason, it is imperative that the LD consider both the dance and musical aspects of a dance performance to ensure their work complements these important elements. For this exercise, choose a piece of music (ideally three minutes or less) that would work well for a dance piece. As an example, consider the Finale from Act 1 of Tchaikovsky’s Swan Lake (XVII. No. 9, Finale). Next create a preliminary cue sheet that lists the potential placement of lighting cues based exclusively on the music. For beginners, your cue sheet should indicate only where the cue is called (based on the musical time stamp), and the fade-in time (i.e. how long the cue takes to complete from when it is called). This allows you to focus on the timing aspects of how lighting might correspond to changes in the music. For more advanced users, feel free to branch out and include a short description of visual elements (i.e. the stage fades in from black with a dim, light wash of blue lighting across the entire stage). This project will help you begin to assess music as an inspirational prompt for creating light cues and help develop an awareness of how these different art forms complement one another.

The Lighting Designer’s Perspective: An Interview with Emily Clarkson Born and raised in Michigan, Emily received her Bachelor’s degree from Eastern Michigan University in 2012. After graduating, she moved to Richmond, VA to work as a freelance lighting designer. Deciding she liked barbecue too much to leave the South, she gained her MFA in Lighting Design from the University of Arkansas in 2017. Following graduation, Emily moved to New York City to fulfll her duties as the Hemsley Lighting Intern. Recently named one of LDI’s (Live Design International’s) 30 Under 30 Upcoming Designers, she continues to be a lighting designer in the city spanning opera, theatre, and dance – pursuing work that seeks to uproot dormancy the way only art can.

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What was your training in lighting design? I really kind of learned by doing. While in my frst lighting design course late in my undergrad career, I started lighting professionally. That continued into Richmond, VA where I lived for a few years. I knew I wanted to go to grad school because I craved a place where I could fnd who I really was as a lighting artist, and get the formal training I needed. While in grad school, I kept a mantra of Monty Python’s, “And now for something completely different . . .” and allowed it to push me into trying something new with each design. If I liked it, I kept it in my toolkit. If I hated it – no harm, no foul. We didn’t have to speak of it again.

Do you have a dance background/any formalized training in dance? Nothing formal, outside of dance class as a 7-year-old and a few musicals I performed in during high school. I never took a formal course in dance lighting. I had lit dance before moving to New York, and I knew the general idea of what a lighting plot for dance should look like. Moving here and going into the Hemsley Internship program was a fast crash course in dance lighting and dance terminology. I learned a lot about it – and how to do it well – in a short period of time from the companies I worked for.

I know you were selected as the Hemsley lighting intern right out of grad school. Can you tell us a little about that process and some of the work you did in dance lighting? My PSA for the Hemsley internship: it is something I would highly recommend for any lighting student graduating from any school without major connections to New York City, and who is eager to learn and observe some of the best companies in the country/world. Even if you do not apply for the internship, attending the Hemsley Portfolio Weekend and showcasing your work is a great way to make connections with fellow lighting designers and get advice from some top designers working in our feld. PSA over. When I was the intern, I worked for various dance companies including Alvin Ailey American Dance Theatre and New York City Ballet. Up until that point, the dance work I had done was for small modern companies or in educational settings. I didn’t feel inexperienced when I entered the internship, but many of the associates I worked with during that time have since commented on how green I seemed in those frst few weeks. I learned a lot very quickly about what a good dance rep plot looks like, and what it means to work in a rep company. Changing focus and color at intermissions was completely foreign to me and I found it a tad overwhelming at frst. I was able to sit at the tech table while pieces older than my parents were brought back and found it fascinating that the lighting team’s primary job was the ensure that the pieces look exactly as they did when they were frst lit. It was watching a live piece of history unfold in front of you. I found that while new technology could help these companies in a lot of ways, one of their biggest anxieties was triggered by integrating LED lighting into their rep. It unfolded a slew of problems I had never considered. I had always thought of LEDs as the solver of problems and an easy way to be indecisive about color in your plot. But thinking about what R80 looks like at 50% vs. 75%, and how does it mix with L161 at 30% on a cyc and how do they translate that to LEDs in every cue where those intensities continue changing in the short amount of time they’re given to remount a piece without driving themselves mad? In short: how do they encapsulate the amber shift in fxtures devoid of it so we can stay true to the original design?

I know you did a lot of assistant lighting design work through the Hemsley internship. What is that process like in a dance setting and how does it differ from assisting on a theatre project? I will say you tend to see fewer assistant designers in a dance setting. Typically, the dance tech process is so short and you have the company’s lighting team at your disposal, so it would be odd to bring in an extra person unless you needed someone to cover some of your lighting sessions (a rarity). As the Hemsley intern, and with my work now as a lighting director, you sit at the table with the designer and you essentially do the work of the assistant. You’re helping the designer navigate the rep plot, keeping track of all moving light presets and color palettes, and just in general being the left side of their brain so that the designer can be fully in their art. It’s the same as assisting for theatre, but when you work for the dance company, you’re

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helping to make sure the design fts within the constraints of your company – making sure it can be recreated easily, not only in your home theatre but also on the road in spaces that have different fxtures than yours. As the assistant your brain’s left side is going to be the dominant side. It’s useful to be able to engage your right side if your designer asks for a creative opinion, but it’s a vital trait to remember that it’s not your design and it’s their vision you are helping bring to life. The biggest part of your job is staying one step ahead of them and foreseeing all problems that may arise – hopefully fxing them before the designer notices or it halts the process. Finding a designer whose work is similar to your own that you can get along with is vital.

How do you fnd lighting differs for a dance and theatrical project? Howell Binkley told my classmates and I once that the best theatrical lighting designers start in dance. I completely agree and I’m a little sad that more of my early training didn’t involve dance. The only real difference I can pinpoint is that in theatre your work leads with the story, then follows with feeling. Dance, I have found, starts with the emotion and follows with the story. It’s why I love lighting for dance so much. Choreography and lighting design are so closely related in that way – making the audience feel things without fully realizing we are guiding them until they’re already there.

Can you describe your ideal process for working with choreographers? It is very similar to how I collaborate with a theatrical director. I like to talk in terms of metaphors and emotions. I want to know what the piece feels like, and what we are trying to say. I always ask if there are specifc color themes or moments that are important. I don’t want a choreographer trying to talk specifcs – like saying they want a pool of brown light here, or going so far as to give me specifc percentages. Design in any form is trust and collaboration. If you tell me how you want it to feel, I promise we will get there together.

Any tips for preparing for a dance tech? Are there any “must-have” items that you bring along or things you know to expect? I think always mentally prepare yourself for a quarter of the amount of time you are used to – if not less. You want to make sure you are as prepared as possible so you’re making the most of your limited time. If you’re allowed, I would heavily suggest pre-cueing with the intent to edit everything. If you cannot pre-cue, have a VERY detailed cue sheet that you have sent to the SM and have a clear intention of each cue. It’s also helpful if you’ve talked through important moments with the choreographer so you make sure you’re not missing something they want, and not going in a direction they hate. And, of course, a really clear magic sheet – whether that is the company’s rep magic sheet, or one you have edited to make more your own style is up to you.

What advice would you give a young artist interested in lighting for dance? Be yourself. Light it in a way that looks beautiful to you. There are no rules. Be more kind, cautious, and aware of the dancer’s ability to see what they are doing as they are finging their body around the stage.

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CHAPTER 17

Projection and Video

Projection design is the art of integrating still and moving imagery into a live performance. The use of projected flm imagery in live performance dates back at least as far as the 1800s, but the feld of projection design as we know it today is still in its infancy. United Scenic Artists’ Local 829, the union that represents designers and scenic artists in the entertainment industry, created a section for projection designers in 2007. The frst graduate program in projection design began in 2010 at the Yale School of Drama.

17.1 – The Projection Designer

The term projection design can be a bit misleading, since imagery is not always projected. For the purposes of this text, let us defne projection design as the art of integrating dynamic imagery into the dimensional space of a live performance for the purpose of storytelling. This is most often accomplished through the use of digital technology like projectors, video walls, video displays, virtual reality headsets, etc. (though it can certainly make use of older, non-digital technologies such as overhead, opaque, or slide projectors as well). Projection design lives somewhere in the realm between lighting, sound, and scenic design. It is both rhythmic and ephemeral, connected to the rhythm and pacing of the storytelling and with other design elements, such as lighting and sound. When successfully integrated into the production, the projection design functions as another storyteller working in conjunction with the other dance and design elements.

• The ability to tell a story through the use of visual (and, sometimes audio) media, in collaboration with other members of a creative team. • Expertise in creating and editing visual content, including photography, video, graphics, and animation. • Knowledge of the technology, processes, and equipment necessary for designing and implementing a projection system. • Profciency in specifying and documenting all elements of the projection system (creating all paperwork, draftings, and shop orders necessary to assemble the projection system). • Understanding of digital media basics, such as fle formats and their specifc uses/limitations, codecs, transcoding, resolution, compression, etc. • Capacity for organizing data and digital media content in a logical fashion to streamline the design process (i.e. superior fle management skills). • Knowledge of different types of media servers and, typically, basic programming skills related to the chosen system. • Understanding of computers, networking methods, video systems, theatrical equipment, and standards.

Projection design is not a given in every dance production, especially since the equipment required for projection on a large scale remains somewhat expensive. That said, most projection technology has trended towards more affordability, over time. As this trend continues, we see more dance companies incorporating projection design into their production programs. The following chapter addresses the use of projection in dance design and some of the unique challenges inherent in integrating this discipline with dance.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-20

Like so many of the designers addressed in this text, the work of the projection designer is greatly dependent on the scope of the project, the design needs of the dance, and the budget/resources available for the project. There are varying requirements and expectations of the projection designer working across different industries. Despite this, the basic skillset remains relatively consistent:

Projection design seems to use a number of different names in different locations across the world. Some refer to the projection designer as a video designer, media designer, or even video director. Whatever the title, the role of the projection

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designer is a blend of artist, technician, computer programmer, flmmaker, director, and performer. In addition to all of these things, a projection designer must be frst and foremost a collaborative artist. The projected image must ultimately land on a surface, be it a set piece, a prop, a performer, or the walls of the performance space. Since the nature of projected imagery is to always work in conjunction with some other element, the projection designer must be adept in communicating and collaborating with all of the members of the production team in order to create a successful design.

wide range of tools from cameras, to video editing software, display solutions, projection systems, and content creation software. Since the moving imagery will be incorporated into a live performance, the designer must also have a good working knowledge of other production areas such as lighting, scenery, and show control systems. Finally, the projection designer must be quick on his feet, with the ability to incorporate a wide range of imagery into a presentation and be ready to respond to changes that invariably come along due to the domino effect of collaboration (i.e. the wall that you were projecting on has to be moved 10’ upstage, or the choreography has changed and now we need to focus on the downstage instead of upstage right).

As projection design is rooted in the world of flm and animation, the designer must have an understanding of a

FYI: Is It Projection or Lighting? Many people consider the projection design part of the lighting design. While it is true that projection imagery is composed of light, it is important to recognize that the feld is unique and not a subset of lighting design. One important aspect of projection design is the necessity of a truly collaborative arrangement between a number of production team members – primarily the choreographer, scenic designer, lighting designer, and projection designer. That said, it is important to recognize that the lighting design greatly affects the projection design and vice versa. An effective projection design is only achieved through collaboration. This is especially important in limited budget

situations where the dance company cannot afford powerful high-lumen projectors. If the projector is not bright, or the projection surface is not ideal for projections, then the lighting designer must compensate by trying to keep the lighting design from washing out the projected content. Of course, this means the choreographer must also agree to stage the movement away from the projection surfaces, so that there can be both clearly projected images and well-lit dancers. If a dance is to successfully incorporate projection seamlessly with the other design elements, the project must be approached proactively with an open mind from all members of the team.

17.2 – Assessing Projection Needs

treated as a separate production line. Projection design should never be considered an afterthought or a simple solution to creating an environment. In truth, the process of integrating projection design into a dance has the potential to be more time-consuming than any of the other design areas.

Similar to lighting design, projection design cannot be accomplished without specialized equipment. Often the producing dance company will have to rent this equipment for the performance. In addition, projection design requires the creation or acquisition of visual content in order to facilitate the design. For these reasons, it is essential that the designer, choreographer, affected design personnel, and management meet as early as possible to discuss the needs of the project. Projection design is closely related to both scenery and lighting and will affect both areas of design. For this reason, it is important to involve these other designers in discussions related to projections so that they are not surprised. Likewise, even though projections are created with light and also have the ability to serve as scenic reinforcement, the role of projection designer should not simply be piled on as an additional responsibility for either designer without additional compensation. It is a separate discipline and should be

One of the frst duties of the projection designer is to meet with the choreographer and others to determine the actual projection needs of the dance. So many times, a choreographer knows that he/she would like to use projection in the dance, but has no understanding of what that actually entails. The following list of questions offers a starting point for discussion that will inform the entire team as to the reality of the projection needs.

How Do You Want to Use Projection in the Dance? Projection can be used for dance productions in so many interesting ways, with new applications surfacing every

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Another important consideration here is permissions. Like music, video and flm footage is typically under copyright and cannot simply be used without permission. It is important to identify at this stage if there is a need for using footage that is under copyright. If so, that means the added task of securing permission for using the imagery in grand performance. It can be easy in the internet age to forget that the image you fnd on Google image search is actually someone’s intellectual property. Don’t fall victim to this and fnd yourself on the receiving end of a cease-and-desist letter or, worse yet, legal action.

year. Section 17.1 focuses on a number of these functions of projection design. However, if the choreographer and projection designer do not approach the project with a clear vision of how the projection design should be used, it runs the risk of coming off as an afterthought or a design element that seems out of place within the context of the performance. So, the question must be asked; how will we use projection design in this dance? Will the projection be used to create an immersive environment that creates a scenic backdrop for the dance performance? Should the projection be more interactive in nature, with media designed to respond to and interact with a performer onstage? Should it be used in a presentational method, projecting video footage of pre-recorded dancers with which the live dancers “partner?” Perhaps the need is a simple projection of words, like a poem, or quotation onto the cyclorama? Each approach carries with it different challenges and affects the amount of design time and equipment necessary for the project. The following section includes some common starter questions that can help discussing options. Some of these questions can be answered by the designer, while others might be best suited for the entire group.

In addition to footage, another common type of projection content is live video feed. Will the design feature moments within the dance that should be captured on video and incorporated into the projection design? Many projection designs feature a combination of both pre-generated and live content. If so, this adds a number of different pieces of equipment beyond a basic projection system.

What Type of Performance Space? Since projection design is the by-product of light, the performance space is always a concern. One main consideration should be projector positions. There are two common methods of projector placement; front projection and rear projection. Front projection is the method of orienting a projector in front of an object and projecting onto its surface. If there is only room to project onto a projection surface from the front, then there is the potential of the light from projectors to also illuminate the dancers. This would create the appearance of imagery projected onto the dancers and their bodies casting shadows onto the projected background. Sometime this is an interesting visual, whereas other times it is undesirable. Another option is the use of rear projection, the orientation of a projector behind the desired projection surface. For this method, the projection surface must be translucent, in order for the image to be visible from the audience. Figure 17.1 shows a projection design utilizing both front and rear projection.

How Does This Dance Beneft from Using Projection? While projection design can be used in any production, it is important to acknowledge that not every project benefts from the use of projection design. For this reason, it is advisable to ask yourself the question of how the dance benefts from using projection. If there isn’t a good answer for this question, it might be a sign that this project is not a good ft for using projection design.

What Content Do You Want to Project? The answer to this question will no doubt be tied to the previous question of how projections will be used in the production. Specifcally, though, are there certain images, textures, or video footage in mind for the projection? This requires content creation or fnding the appropriate stock footage. Before moving into the world of content creation, the designer would do well to determine what kind of content will be used in the design. Will it all be still images? If so, are they all in a similar style (i.e. sepia toned photos for a show set in the 1800s, or a stylized cartooned look for a superhero musical)? Is the content 2D or 3D? Is it interactive? The answers to these questions will invariably affect the workfow, as different types of content require different processes.

Another important question is the amount of light in the performance space. For theatre spaces, lighting is a factor controlled by the lighting designer. In exterior spaces, though, it is important to consider time of day, season, and shade in order to determine the brightness needed for a projector to overcome natural lighting of the space. Finally, each space has different sightline concerns. Sightlines are such an important aspect of planning, designers often create draftings to determine specifcally what an audience

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Figure 17.1 In this projection design, the upstage wall and ceiling unit use rear projection onto special rear projection material, while the side walls use front projection, due to their solid surfaces. Projection design by David Koltunchik. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

member can or cannot see. Make sure to obtain accurate draftings of the space, featuring a scale ground plan and a section view of the theatre with representations of any fy system and hanging positions.

it is common to project onto the performers themselves. The possibilities are virtually limitless. While it is a fairly straightforward process to project imagery onto a fat surface when the projector is aligned at a perpendicular angle to the surface, it is a different matter to project onto complex surfaces with multiple angles and planes. First, if a projector is not aligned directly centered on an object and at a perpendicular angle to the surface, the resulting image will be skewed, a result known as the keystone effect (Figure 17.2). This distortion of the image makes a square or rectangular projection appear to be trapezoidal. Whether through the projector itself or with projection software, the image must be augmented through a process called keystone correction, or keystoning. This process simply adjusts the image before projecting to be trapezoidal so that the resulting image is squared up when it lands on the projection surface. Because of the keystone effect, it

What Type of Projection Surface(s)? Projections are incredibly versatile as a design medium. Since they are composed of light, virtually any substance, both opaque and translucent, can serve as a projection surface. If the surface is intended to be an extension of the scenery, the scenic designer should have a say in the selection of the material to function as a projection surface. This could be a common fat, scrim, any number of fabrics, or projection screen designed specifcally for use as a projection surface. In addition, dynamic surfaces like fog, haze, or even water can function as a projection surface. For exterior performance spaces, landscape and plant life itself could be used. In dance,

Figure 17.2 The image on the left is the original image. The one on the right shows the keystone effect of the image being projected onto a surface from a non-perpendicular angle. Photo: NASA.

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is important for designers to observe both the projector placement and projection surface locations to determine how to address the problem of keystoned images.

identify early in the production planning process the types of surfaces intended for projection, as each type presents its own unique challenges to the projection designer.

Another important consideration with projection surfaces is the number of faces or planes on the surface. When projecting on a fat surface, the image remains consistent. With the addition of raised, recessed, or angular planes to the projection surface, the resulting image will be distorted. Projection designers use a process referred to as projection mapping to address this phenomenon. Projection mapping is the manipulation of a projected image through the use of specialized computer software to “map” the projection in such a way that allows three-dimensional multi-plane surfaces to function as a suitable display surface for projections (Figure 17.3). Projection mapping enables the use of many non-traditional forms as projection surfaces, such as architecture, landscaping, stage props, or even the human body. For all of these possibilities, it is important to

Does the Company Have Any Equipment in Stock? One important consideration is if the dance company already owns any projection equipment. It is always a good idea to talk to the production manager or technical director early on and request an inventory of the theatre’s projection equipment. Keep in mind that this should also include any pertinent computers, software, and media servers, in addition to projectors and cabling. In all likelihood, if the theatre already owns equipment, they will expect the designer to put at least some of this gear to use in designing a projection system. If the designer prefers using a different media server than the one already owned by the company, they will either need to make a successful argument for using a different media server, learn how to use the one owned by the theatre, or hire in a programmer to do the programming. We will discuss projection systems in depth later in the chapter, but some common needs for projection would include: projector(s), a mount for hanging the projector, a control computer (or multiple, depending on the needs), cabling to run from the computer to the projector, and a dowser to eliminate the light of the projector (especially important if there is ever a blackout, or low-lighting situation). If a dance company already owns this equipment, then the cost of projections are reduced. Also, unless the equipment was purchased for the dance in question, it means that the company has used projections in the past and should be more familiar with the process and any potential problems that occurred in the past.

What Is the Timeline? The timeline for creating projection designs can vary greatly based on the needs of the project. For something relatively simple, like the projection of words or a single image, the design can come together in a shorter timeframe. If the design is more complex and requires pre-production work (flming dancers, editing the flm, creating animations, etc.), the timeline must be adjusted to facilitate these needs. Likewise, it is important to recognize that the needs of the projection designer may affect the schedule of the choreographer and other designers. If, for instance, the projection design incorporates pre-recorded video of the dancers then the choreographer must complete the choreography for those sections early enough in advance to

Figure 17.3 Projection mapping used in DLECTRICITY, Detroit’s nighttime exhibit of art and light at the Detroit Institute of Arts. The projection content was mapped to interact with the facade of the DIA building. Production credits: TLS Productions, Inc. XL Video. Mindfeld. Photo: Courtesy of Carl Kedzierski.

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projection designer and choreographer to both understand the goals of the projection design and how to go about accomplishing them. Listed below are seven functions of dance projection design that explain how projections can serve the dance.

allow for flming the dancers. Likewise, if the dancers must be in the same costumes, then the costume designer’s timetable will be affected by this decision. The projection designer is the only person qualifed to determine how much time is needed for the recording, editing, and post-production work necessary to assemble the footage. Make sure to plan ahead and allow for ample time in the schedule or everyone will feel the crunch.

Creating a Dynamic Environment This function refers to the use of projections to create a scenic environment for the dance. Projections are, by their very nature, ephemeral. The imagery projected onstage has the potential to be constantly changing. This leads to a dynamic sense of movement on the part of the projection design, something that very naturally works in the context of dance. Some might be tempted to refer to this as virtual scenery, but that is only one component of the dynamic environment. While projected scenery is certainly one possibility, the interesting thing about projections is how it marries together both scenery and lighting. In addition to virtual scenery, projections could be used to create ambient textures as a background, something popularized in concert touring and club environments for some time now (Figure 17.4).

Reality Check: Is Projection Right for Your Dance? Projections are an amazing design element that can contribute a certain magical element to a production. The bottom line, though, is that projection design is not suited to every production situation. For the young choreographer, it is so important to remember that fashy design elements are no substitution for well-conceived, purposeful choreography. Any design element can help or hinder the dance, but in my experience, projection seems to be one of those areas that have the most potential for seeming out of place in the world of the dance. Don’t just decide to use projections for the sake of novelty. Make certain that it is a tool to help illuminate your vision for the dance and the themes you want communicated to the audience.

Mood

Always keep in mind that projections will have a completely different aesthetic quality to them than painted scenery. Like LED lighting, projectors will create a bright and vividly colorful presentation. By its very nature, projection is eye-catchingly theatrical. It is important to remember that, if not carefully executed, projection has the potential to draw focus away from the dancers and overpower the visual composition of the stage.

Projection design is an excellent tool for establishing a mood, the emotional tone to a scene, or moment within the play. In lighting terms, the lighting designer can manipulate elements such as color, angle, direction, intensity, or movement of the lighting in order to create a mood. Many of these elements are also employed within the projection design, as well, with the added beneft of using specifc imagery in order to elicit a certain response from the audience. When creating a projection design, mood can be affected by a number of different elements, such as color choice, texture, composition, balance, contrast, and more. It is always important to consider what mood your media is putting off and comparing this to your goals for storytelling. Changing one or more simple elements of the design can lead to a completely different mood for the stage moment.

The unfortunate reality of projection design is that it is an expensive and time-consuming endeavor. It has the potential for looking amateurish if the designer does not have access to projectors that are both bright enough and can fll a large enough area of the stage. If you are in the position to decide on the inclusion of projections into a dance production, ask yourself if it can be executed in a professional and aesthetically pleasing fashion. A dim image that flls a small window of the stage picture can be much more of a distraction than a beneft.

Interacting with the Dancer(s) Potential for interactivity is an important element of projection design. Typically, there are two basic approaches to projections design content: linear, and interactive. Linear content is imagery that will always be presented in the same fashion for each performance without the potential for change. This is common in many theatrical, cue-based environments where it is desirable to reproduce similar results for each performance. Interactive content is created with the intent of featuring media with which the performer interacts and

17.3 – Functions of Dance Projection Design (What Projection Design Can Accomplish) Projection design can be used to accomplish many different outcomes in a dance production. It is important for the

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Figure 17.4 An ambient video background, utilizing amorphous starbursts, pulsating lights, and numeric sequences. Dead Man’s Cell Phone. Eastern Michigan University. Scenic design by John Charles. Lighting design by Emily Clarkson. Projection design by Jeromy Hopgood. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

projection designers have integrated this into their toolkits to expand the possibilities of interactive projection.

changes in response to the performer’s actions. This type of interactivity has become ubiquitous in projection design with the proliferation of motion capture technology. As computer technology has advanced, giving the public access to multiple forms of motion capture and movement sensitive devices,

One common use of interactivity is projecting directly onto the bodies of the performers (or onto the environment

Figure 17.5 This interactive projection design utilizes bio-sensors and motion tracking to capture the movements of the dancer and create an interactive pairing between the dancer and projections. Photo: João Biera.

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around the dancer, without projecting onto them). This can be accomplished through a number of means, such as infrared (IR) cameras, marker-based tracking systems, or depth cameras. Another possibility is using sensors that allow for certain elements of the projection design to change in response to environmental changes, such as lighting, movement, sound, or velocity. For instance, a microphone could be connected to an input sensor that changed the color of projected media, allowing the look of the content to change as an actor sings. Another possibility is allowing the dancer to change their environment through interaction; triggering changes in the projection design, appearing to move projected elements, or many other possible interactions. In this way, the projection design almost functions as another performer, allowing the dancer to “partner” with the projections and add another level to the choreographed movement of visual elements on the stage.

the performer and present them in a magnifed format via projection. Another possibility is using projection to represent the performer. There are a number of ways that this can occur. As mentioned earlier, motion capture and sensors have made it possible to analyze the movements of a fgure in real time. One possible application of this uses sensors to watch the actor’s movements and then impose them onto an avatar (a graphic representation of a performer) projected in real time. This representation of the performer can mimic the actor’s movements in a completely different physical form, projected in real time. In addition, projection could be used as a more abstract representation of the dancer’s movement, mood, or character through the use of changing colors, textures, or forms.

Visual Reinforcement Like some of the other design areas mentioned earlier, projection design is useful in reinforcing elements seen onstage. Projections can reinforce the storytelling of the dance, thematic elements, or support other production elements such as scenery, sound, or costumes. In addition, one of projection’s greatest strengths in reinforcement is the fact it is a kinetic element itself, which makes it a natural choice to reinforce movement within the dance. If the projection

Presenting/Representing the Dancer(s) Another important function of projection design regularly employed in dance performances is the presentation or representation of the dancer as a projection element. Whether this is in the form of pre-recorded content, or through a live video feed, both options serve to capture

Figure 17.6 These images illustrate the use of projection to create a graphic representation of the dancer. Photo: João Biera.

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Figure 17.7 A projection design for ballet utilizing rear projected imagery as a kinetic backdrop. Opera (2013). La Scala Ballet. La Scala, Milano. Choreography by Alexei Ramansky. Projection design by Wendall K. Harrington. Costumes by Colleen Atwood. Lighting design by Mark Stanley. Photo: Wendall K. Harrington.

moves in conjunction with or in counterpoint to the type of movement that occurs onstage, it can help draw attention to the movement of the dance. Projection, when used in conjunction with the visual storytelling of the dancers, can help communicate a tone or emotion in a given moment.

changes based on the actor’s movements. A follow spot might isolate the performer, while haze flls the air and projection is isolated on the background.

Stage Magic/Special Effects

Projections can be used to comment on certain elements presented onstage. This can be done in a number of different ways. Quite often imagery can be used to draw comparisons, and point out similarities or differences between actions being seen onstage and a concept with which the audience might already be familiar. An example of this might be a dance piece that features a dancer in obvious emotional/psychological duress onstage juxtaposed with a projected image of her idealized self; well dressed, smiling, and as she would want the world to see her. This form of commentary obviously is used to illustrate two opposite realities.

Creating a Commentary

Projection design is a logical choice for the creation of special effects or magical moments for the stage. It can be used to create explosions, magical appearances, fight, underwater sequences, or more. Projected effects are easily combined with other production elements, such as lighting, properties, or atmospherics. As a case in point, the projection design might be used to create the spectacle of fight by using rigging to fy a dancer while projection tracks the movement of the dancer around the stage and makes

Figure 17.8 Dr. Faustus being pulled into the fames of Hell by a pack of demons. Dr. Faustus. Eastern Michigan University. Scenic design by Jeromy Hopgood. Lighting design by John Charles. Projection design by David Koltunchik. Costumes by Melanie Schuessler. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Figure 17.9 This image showcases the use of projection to comment on the action of a scene. Urinetown: The Musical. Eastern Michigan University. Scenic design by John Charles. Lighting and projection design by Jeromy Hopgood. Costumes by Melanie Schuessler. Photo: Randy Mascharka.

Video Workstation

Another common use of projections as commentary is the integration of text into the projection design. Words or commonly understood visual symbols (such as a stop sign or skull and crossbones signifying poison) could be used to literally comment on the action in the dance. This is a dramatic tool that was pioneered in the theatrical works of Bertolt Brecht whose style of Epic Theatre purposefully reminded the audience that they were watching a theatrical performance. As a function of projection design, using projection as a commentary runs the risk of coming off as overly simplistic or pedantic in its approach. While it certainly has its place, one should use it sparingly and with consideration of the tone it can create in a performance.

Though not specifcally part of the projection system used in a performance, the video workstation is the frst step necessary to creating and/or editing content for playback. A video workstation is any computer with the necessary peripherals and software used to generate and edit video content. You could easily spend tens of thousands of dollars to create a high-end editing station with digital video cameras, editing software, interfaces, graphics software, and more. Likewise, the beginner can do rudimentary video editing through software that comes pre-installed on their home computer. For video editing considerations, the most important hardware aspects to consider are processor speed (CPU), RAM, and graphics card (GPU). Another important consideration is storage. Video fles are large and take up a lot of space. A video editing workstation should have a dedicated drive for video storage with a minimum of 1 terabyte storage capacity that is separate from your startup disk. In addition, invest in portable hard drives for backup and transportation purposes since the projection designer deals in vast amounts of data transfer.

17.4 – Projection Systems A projection system can be defned as a collection of all the equipment necessary to execute the projection design. As such, each system is variable depending on the needs of the project. A basic system might include a collection of components: a media storage unit (computer); cameras; cabling/network; and output devices (monitors, projectors, televisions, LED/LCD panels). More complex systems might include peripheral devices that interact with the projection, such as motion capture devices. As you might assume, there are a number of different confgurations one could choose, based on the needs of the project. The following section details the purpose of different projection systems and their components.

The Video Playback System Video playback systems are a combination of all the equipment necessary to play back pre-recorded video or still images in a live performance/installation environment. Like audio systems, the video playback system is a combination of one or more computers connected either directly to an output device(s) or into a network. It is much more common in the video system,

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however, to fnd a number of different computers networked together, each controlling different aspects of the playback.

to one or more displays. It is somewhat uncommon to see a video system that is exclusively live video. More commonly, it is a hybrid system combining playback and live video into one system.

The most basic form of a playback system is a computer connected to one or more displays for presenting content. Each computer comes with a graphics card, a device used to process graphic information on the computer and output to external display devices. Some computers have multiple outputs available on the graphics card, allowing the computer to connect to more than one display device. For a simple playback system, this computer could be running any of a wide range of software-based media server applications, such as Isadora, or QLab. The media server software accesses digital media fles saved onto the system and plays them back on one or more displays. This type of playback system is commonly seen in touring dance companies and academic environments.

Interactive Systems Interactivity is a possibility for both playback and live video systems. For the purposes of this discussion, an interactive video system is any type of video system that allows a performer to control aspects of the playback or live video. Interactivity can only be achieved by creating a system that allows the performer to send some type of stimulus to the video system. As discussed previously, there are many peripheral devices used in conjunction with a standard playback or live video system to add interactivity. In most instances, there is more than one tool or process that could work to accomplish your goal. Common components used in an interactive video system are tablets and mobile devices, phones, cameras, microphones, MIDI instruments or devices, game controllers, or interactive sensors. When using an interactive system, make sure to leave some time to experiment with different methods and determine the strengths and weaknesses of each.

While software-based applications are an excellent option, sometimes a more robust playback system is required. In this case, the designer might opt for a turn-key media server like disguise, Watchout, or Hippotizer. These companies provide high-end workstations specifcally designed for working with video. Unlike the software-based system, these media servers are customized PC-based rack-mountable computers, typically featuring multiple graphics cards, thereby allowing the user to process multiple streams of high-resolution graphics across multiple outputs.

17.5 – Projection Equipment Depending on the needs of the project, projection design can require a staggering amount of equipment. While this book is not intended to serve as an introduction to hardware, it is important to have a basic understanding of the tools used in creating a projection design. While it is by no means an exhaustive list, the following sections list some of the fundamental tools to the design process.

The Live Video System Most media servers, whether software-based or stand-alone turn-key solutions, have the capability to do more than just playback. In addition to playing back pre-recorded video, many also support live video as part of the projection design. This is referred to as a live video system, or a video reinforcement system. This type of system is similar to the playback system except that the input video signal comes from a camera, rather than from a video or graphics fle. This system can include many components, but the basic setup would consist of a video camera as an input for the media server, being outputted

The Digital Video Camera The digital video camera is a tool that captures moving light, and then sends the light through one or more sensors to

FYI: What’s a Pixel? A pixel is short for “picture element,” the tiny dots of colored light that make up a digital image. Typically, thousands of pixels combine together to make an image viewed on a digital monitor. The number and size of pixels in an image is related to the image quality. Images

with smaller pixels (and greater pixel count) have higher resolution, the measurement of pixels in a given image. Images with lower resolution tend to be a bit fuzzier and, when enlarged, have a blurry, unclear look with individual pixels more visible called pixelation.

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translate this captured light into images. The captured video image is then translated into pixels. For live performance, the digital video camera will be connected to a computer interface so the video signal can be sent through the projection system.

output. Typically, this is one of the commonly overlooked costs of setting up a projection system. Keep in mind that each project can have considerably different needs, based on the number of input devices, computers, output devices, and the distance between each component in the system. Check with all of your equipment to determine what types of connectors are required. It is also a good idea to sketch or draft out a plan that takes into consideration the distances between each component and the required physical connections between each device.

The Computer In any projection system, you will likely fnd one or more computers serving various functions. For most basic systems, the computer serves as a media storage device and an interface for transmitting live video footage from the video camera. If recording video for later playback, the computer will be used in conjunction with video editing software to edit audio and video components of the digital video fle.

Display Devices A display device is any type of equipment used to receive a graphic signal and translate it into light impulses for visual display. There are many types of display devices that can be used in a projection system; digital projectors, fat panel displays, LED walls, monitors, television sets, etc. The ultimate result is the visual display of graphics and video footage for the projection system. The list below covers some basic information about the most common types of display devices.

The Media Server In short, a media server is a device or application that allows for dependable and repeatable playback of media. In the context of today’s world, this has come to mean an application or turnkey device that stores, manipulates, and plays back media over a computer network. This section approaches some of the basic types of media servers and considerations that might come into play when selecting a media server. It is important to note that, due to the constant software updates, changes to hardware, communication protocols, and more, media servers are in a state of constant fux. Most companies have major updates or new versions of their software every three to fve years. As such, I try to speak about the technology in broad strokes here, in order to avoid having outdated information from the moment of publication.

Digital Projectors Digital projectors, sometimes called video projectors, are digital outputs that accept audio and video signals from a number of different source types, from computers, to DVD/Blu-ray, or live input from a video camera (Figure 17.10). Digital projectors work by receiving a video signal, transmitting it via

Most media servers perform many of the same basic functions as others on the market. The distinguishing factor that tends to separate them is the way in which the media server deals with cueing and its programming system. The biggest difference in different servers tends to be the method of interface and their workfow. A professional projection designer should have a good understanding of the differences between varieties of media servers and what tools they have for addressing specifc operations. See Section 17.6 for specifc information on media server types.

Interface Connections For any type of audio/video system, physical connections (both hardware devices and cabling) comprise a substantial amount of the necessary components. Each device in your system will require some type of cabling for input and

Figure 17.10 A digital projector. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

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a bright light source and through a lens to enlarge the image and project it across a distance.

have zoom lenses, most ratios will be variable in nature (i.e. 2–2.4:1). All decisions for projector selection should take into consideration both the need for lumens and throw distance.

Considerations for digital projectors tend to fall into two categories: brightness (lumens), and operating distance (throw ratio). Brightness of a projector affects how visible the projected image will be perceived, especially when in the presence of other light. The amount of light in a given space (outside of that created by the projector) is commonly referred to as ambient light. When ambient light refects onto a projected image, there is a potential for the projected image to appear “washed out,” or lacking in defnition and color. This is why most dance applications call for the use of a digital projector with high brightness output, typically referred to as “high-lumens.”

Flat Panel Displays A fat panel display is a type of display surface known for being thin and lightweight (i.e. fat screen TVs). Most fat panel displays today are liquid crystalline display (LCD) technology. Another variety of fat panel is the plasma display, known for producing vivid colors and deeper blacks, enabling a high contrast ratio for displayed video. Plasma displays can be manufactured in large panels and are quite thin – typically around 4”. Another possibility with video displays is the ability to link multiple displays together to create a video wall. The term video wall refers to the use of multiple display devices arranged to create one large screen. In this instance, the displays are not treated as individual devices, but as one display.

For most entertainment applications, there are three suitable categories of lumens: mid-range (2500–5000 lumens), high-performance range (5000–10,000 lumens), and ultrabright range (10,000 and above). For some applications the high-performance range is suitable and not cost-prohibitive. As throw distance and ambient light increases, though, the ultra-bright range is a must. Of course, the price of this range is incredibly high as compared to the lower range models.

LED Panels One of the emergent trends in all areas related to lighting and media is the use of light emitting diode (LED) technology. LED displays are quite popular due to their ability to produce incredibly bright, vivid colors while using a smaller amount of electricity and having a longer life than traditional lighting fxtures or projectors. LED panels are basically circuit boards with clusters of LEDs attached to the facing (Figure 17.11). They can be easily connected together to form large surfaces and can even be constructed as a curved display surface.

Operating distance is the second consideration that will infuence the type of projector necessary for a given project. All digital projectors have a given throw ratio that describes the ratio of the distance to the screen (throw) to the resulting image width. For instance, if a projector has a throw ratio of 2:1 and the projector is placed ten feet away from the screen, then the resulting image width would be fve feet. It is worth noting that, since most projectors

Figure 17.11 A projection design utilizing an LED wall. Merrily We Roll Along by Stephen Sondheim. Encores! New York City Center. Direction by James Lapine. Projection Design by Wendall K. Harrington. Photo: Wendall K. Harrington.

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17.6 – Types of Media Servers

to a spreadsheet with information organized into columns and rows, with each row representing a unique cue. This should be familiar for anyone who has used a lighting console, as it is a very similar feel. Figure 53’s QLab is an example of a media server that uses a cue-based approach.

As previously mentioned, most media servers perform many of the same basic functions as others on the market. The distinguishing factor that tends to separate them is the way in which the media server deals with cueing and its programming system. For the purposes of discussion, we can break media servers down into four basic categories: cue-based; timelinebased; node-based; and VJ solutions.

Timeline-based media servers look and behave more like traditional video or audio editing programs, meaning the interface uses a playhead that scrolls from left to right, showing the progression of time. The vertical elements in the timeline indicate how layers are stacked on top of one another. Within the overall timeline of the software, there might be multiple layers of video or imagery composited together (the process of combining together different elements to make a new

Cue-based media servers operate in a manner similar to lighting consoles, where you program a series of cues to perform specifc functions, and then progress down the cue list in a top-to-bottom progression. This layout looks similar

Figure 17.12 QLab uses a cuebased approach, with the ability to have one or multiple cue lists inside of a single workspace.

Figure 17.13 disguise uses a timeline-based interface, with multiple layers stacked on top of one another, and the timeline scrolling from left to right. The timeline is visible at the bottom of the computer monitor in this photo, with the upper portion of the screen showing playback.

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composition). As with most video editing programs, timelinebased media servers dictate that higher layers on the timeline (at the top) are visible above layers placed beneath them. Likewise, the left to right motion of the timeline indicates how long certain media is present within the playback. Those familiar with video editing programs may fnd the learning curve less steep for timeline-based media servers. Watchout and disguise are both popular examples of timeline-based media servers.

example of a node-based media server designed to be used for live performance. A VJ (video jockey) is a broad term used to describe a visual artist who creates, curates, and manipulates video content to be played in real time, often with music. This is a popular form of entertainment in night clubs, music festivals, and concerts. While this is not the same process as designing for theatrical events, there are a number of similar elements. As a result, VJ-based media servers tend to take a different approach than other varieties and focus on the ability to coordinate the moving image with music or sound. Most VJ-based media servers include the ability to coordinate with timecode information streamed into it, so the artist can more readily sync video with audio. In addition, many include the ability to control lighting instruments through DMX. Most VJ software includes built-in tools for adding audio-responsive effects to the video output as well as a number of fexible options for changing the look of content on the fy. While most VJ-based media servers are not

Node-based media servers make use of a visual programming language method. For those unfamiliar with visual programming languages, the software uses a series of image operations (referred to as nodes) into a kind of map that explains how the media will be presented. The node-based platform resembles a fowchart in which nodes link together, visualizing the progression from input (the media fle) all the way to its output, with each node along the way representing some type of operation or process affecting the fnal look and operation of the media fle. TroikaTronix’s Isadora is a popular

Figure 17.14 Isadora uses a node-based interface with hundreds of nodes called “actors” that implement functions such as image warping, opacity, and more. By combining multiple actors together and applying them to a media fle, the designer can manipulate the media in interesting and interactive ways.

Figure 17.15 Screen capture of the Resolume media server’s programming interface.

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ideal for theatrical purposes, many include protocols that allow them to be controlled by outside devices, such as another media server or a lighting console, which can make them serviceable in a pinch. Some of the most popular names in VJ-based media servers are Resolume, Modul8, and Millumin.

presenting the choreographer’s vision for the performance. The technology used in projection design is changing at a rapid pace, making it possible for a wider range of users to have access. Even so, it is a production area that requires a great deal of planning and fnancial investment on the part of the producing dance company. As such, it should be discussed early in the production process with an honest assessment of the company’s resources. It is important for the choreographer and production team to consider the way in which projections will be used and how projection design affects all of the other areas.

17.7 – Chapter Review Projection design is an important feld of dance production that enables a greater level of interactivity and versatility in

Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What is rear projection? How does ambient light affect projections? Describe the keystone effect. What is projection mapping? What is the difference between linear and interactive content? Explain the difference between a video playback system and a video reinforcement system. What is a media server? Describe a video wall and how it functions. Which program is ideal for linear, cue-based playback? Which program is a popular node-based media server?

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CHAPTER 18

Creating the Projection Design

The role of the projection designer, perhaps more so than any other dance designer, is defned by the needs of the project. As illustrated in the previous chapter, so many aspects of the design are dependent on the requirements of the dance. Like the lighting designer, the projection designer deals with the ephemeral and must communicate their design ideas in great detail, often before even having stepped foot into the performance space. In order to communicate the design idea, the projection designer relies on research, pre-visualization, draftings, and paperwork in addition to the basic written and verbal communication skills. Since the world of projection design is still a young and rapidly changing art form, there are a number of different approaches to the creative process. The following chapter details a few key concepts for how a designer progresses from the design idea to execution.

18.1 – Working with the Choreographer The collaborative process for projection design can be a bit more circuitous than some of the other disciplines, since projections tend to affect so many other areas of design. The successful projection designer must be prepared to be in constant communication with the choreographer, scenic designer, and lighting designer as it relates to design decisions, since those decisions (and the decisions of the other designers) can have such a great impact on the process and affect a number of factors. One of the most important factors for working with the choreographer is determining the function of projection within the dance. As discussed last chapter, there are a number of ways in which the projection design might function in the dance setting. Determining the choreographer’s expectations

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-21

for projections will help defne the nature of your collaborative model. Sometimes the choreographer will enter the process with a specifc vision in mind for the projected imagery. For instance, perhaps he/she wants to use the work of a well-known painter to create a three-dimensional environment. In this example, the role of the projection designer is more centered on composition and visual storytelling, rather than being rooted in the creation of original visual content. In another example, the choreographer may have only a loose concept in mind of the dancers creating movement onstage that will ultimately be represented in the projection design, with the projections serving as a counterpoint to the movement of the dancers onstage. In this instance, the projection designer will likely be involved to a greater degree in the rehearsal process and might even have a hand at collaborating with the choreographer to determine how the movement might best serve the projections and vice versa.

Setting Goals Projection design tends to be the area with which choreographers are the least familiar. As a result, there is often a tendency to rely on the projection designer to defne the goals and outcomes of the project. While this can seem helpful at frst, it can sometimes lead to negative outcomes in collaboration. Clear communication from the earliest stages is important to ensure all parties know what the goals are for the projection design and how the designer hopes to accomplish them. Like the other design areas discussed thus far, it is useful to present the choreographer with a series of questions to help focus the conversation. Sometimes the answer will be, “I don’t know. What do you think?” This opens the door to conversation that will help guide the way.

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Talking About Your Dance 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Describe in two to three sentences what you want your dance to communicate. If possible, describe the basic “plotline” of your dance, describing important events or changes within the dance. How do you see projection contributing to the storytelling? Is your dance based on or infuenced by any particular work of art? (If so, feel free to include images/links/references with this response.) Give a few adjectives or short descriptive phrases to describe how your dance (or individual sections) should feel. Do you see the projection as part of the scenery, or more of a stand-alone element? Do you see the projection as a presentational design element or one with which the dancers interact?

Practical Concerns

design. In the area of projection design, this is particularly important since the projected imagery interacts with so many other areas of the production. The following chapter details some of the ways in which projection designers can communicate ideas.

When going into collaboration with a choreographer (especially for the frst time) I always try to send a message with a list of practical concerns that will be important to the overall process. Listed below is a checklist of information with which the designers, choreographer, and dancers should be familiar. Try to address as many of these questions as possible early in the production planning process, since the answers will dictate choices regarding equipment, content, budget, and more.

Visual Communication The projection designer tends to produce fewer drawings than the scenic, costume, or projections designers and deal more in the world of digital imagery. It is much more common to fnd the projection designer communicating ideas through visual research, storyboards, verbal exchanges, or pre-visualization than through a traditional rendering medium. The following list includes some common methods of visually communicating design ideas.

• Is this a new piece or a remount? • If a remount, are there elements of the premiere that are important to reproduce? • How will projections be integrated with the scenic and lighting design? • Is there specifc graphic content needed for the projection design? • If so, has permission been secured for its use? • What is the rehearsal schedule? • What is the tech schedule? • Will there be additional time built into the tech process for working with projections? • Will the projections require flming the dancers? • If so, will costumes, hair and makeup, props, etc. be a requirement? • Will projection design require syncing with audio (i.e. actor voiceover, video syncing with music, etc.)?

Research One of the frst methods of communicating projection design ideas is the use of visual research. One of the primary benefts of this method is the ability to show a number of different ideas without having to commit to hours of work in producing visual content. This can be assembled in a collage method, or as a slideshow featuring certain types of imagery for different moments in the dance, or simply as individual photos to discuss. The designer should always walk the choreographer through the research, pointing out what aspects are important; color, the actual image, the contrast, etc.

Pre-Visualization Since light is such an ephemeral medium and is heavily affected by the projection surfaces, it is diffcult to emulate the fnished product of a design without the use of computer technology. As mentioned in our discussions of lighting design, pre-visualization (or pre-viz, for short) has become an expectation of many lighting and projection designers.

18.2 – Communicating the Design No matter the design area, one of the primary roles of the designer is communicating their design ideas to other members of the production team and those working to execute the

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In projection design, as in lighting, there are a number of software solutions that can be used for pre-viz. For some projects, the use of graphics editing programs such as Photoshop would be suffcient for presenting a design idea. This is not, however, true pre-visualization. Pre-visualization requires a 3D rendering program that allows the designer to input a 3D model of the theatre, scenery, and human fgures into a program and include the projectors in their exact placement, as well. Through the use of the software’s graphic engine, the geometry is calculated to determine exactly how the visual content will appear when projected on an object.

and angle of a projector, as well as a tool for representing the throw distance and size of the projector’s output. This centerline section is often included on the same printed sheet as the ground plan, oriented in a side view to align with similar planes on the ground plan. The only substantial difference between the projection designer’s section and the scenic designer’s section is the representation of the projection equipment and its beam spread.

Design Paperwork and Informational Graphics The projection designer utilizes a vast amount of paperwork to complete the projection design. Unlike lighting design paperwork, there are few software solutions on the market created specifcally for use by the projection designer. One interesting thing to consider about the projection design industry is that, since it is such a young feld, there are not as many industry standards to design approaches as in the other areas examined. You will fnd that the workfow, paperwork, and design methodology will vary greatly from designer to designer. That is not to say that there are not approved methods and recommended practices, but in many ways the feld is still discovering how best to defne its own industry standards. Listed below are some different types of paperwork and informational graphics used by projection designers to plan for the design execution.

Draftings: The Projection Plot and Centerline Section While the projection designer tends to produce less draftings than the scenic or lighting designer, it is professional expectation that the designer create some draftings to communicate information about the projection design and equipment. Since some projection designers come from backgrounds where they did not receive this training, this might mean hiring an assistant to create draftings for them. Whether you create the draftings yourself or work with someone to create them, it is important that the designer have a foundational understanding of theatrical drafting practices and terminology. The projection ground plan (sometimes called the projection plot), closely resembles a light plot, but is used for showing the placement of projection equipment in relationship to the performance space and scenery. The purpose of this plot is to include all of the necessary technical information of the projection design rig needed to hang, circuit, and focus the equipment. It is drafted atop ground plan of the theatre space and any included scenery. In addition, the projection plan should include representation of hanging positions, pertinent measurements needed for placing the projectors, and the projectors’ beam spread. It is not uncommon to fnd local notes included for the technicians, like “placement is approximate. Adjustments may be made in order to accommodate 24’ projection width.” In some instances, specifc measurements such as trim height from stage foor or distance from batten might be included to assist in precision. Since projection, lighting, and sound equipment are frequently vying for the same space, it is important to coordinate with the other designers to determine placement possibilities.

System Diagrams Beside the projection plan or section, the principal tool for communicating the system design and requirements is called a system diagram (sometimes called a riser drawing, or block diagram). The system diagram is a drawing of the projection system that uses simple symbols, called blocks, to represent the major components of the system. For instance, a rectangle might represent a computer, or a triangle could signify a power supply. Typically, specifc details are included in the labeling, rather than creating unique graphics for each individual component in the diagram. Unlike design draftings, a system diagram is not to scale. These block diagrams are also commonly used in sound design and control systems as well. Common practices for creating a block diagram include: • Use of common symbols and/or colors to represent similar elements in the system • Use of lines to connect separate components in the system, representing the signal fow from one element to another • Attaching arrowheads to these lines to indicate the direction of signal fow (input/output) • Including the appropriate number and type of inputs/outputs on each component

The section is a drafting of the theatre cut down the centerline and viewed from one side. Again, this is very similar to the lighting designer’s centerline section – used to visualize the theatre architecture, scenery, and masking in the context of hanging positions and equipment. The projection designer uses a centerline section to determine the appropriate placement

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• Labeling each component with inputs on the left and outputs on the right of the block • Inclusion of other control systems, if connected to the projection system (lighting console, sound system, etc.) • Use of dashed lines surrounding certain objects with labeling to indicate placement of all elements in the system (i.e. booth, tech table, onstage, etc.)

This type of chart can be used to increase productivity and help instill a sense of accountability to the process.

Cue Sheets As the designer nears the process of creating cues for the dance, it is important to create a cue sheet, a form that breaks down the dance according to individual cues, their timing, description, and routing (which computer/ projector sends the image to what surface). The cue sheet can be organized in a number of different formats, but it is common to use the spreadsheet-style approach, utilizing columns and rows to track the information. Important considerations are cue number, description (what happens onstage that motivates calling a cue), and timing (how long it takes for the action to occur), though there may well be a number of other areas included. The cue sheet is an important way for the designer to cement his/her thoughts on what will happen in the projections design and is used to communicate to the stage manager how the cues should be called for the dance.

Though system diagrams often make use of the traditional block diagram, many projection designers have made the move to use graphics to represent specifc elements within the diagram, rather than geometric blocks. In this format, the projection designer creates graphics to represent specifc elements, such as media servers, projectors, network switches, and more. This approach eliminates potential confusion between different components of the system and allows a designer to personalize their approach to the system diagram.

Content Workflow Diagrams When creating the projection design, it is always important to consider workfow. Workflow can be described as the sequence of events and tasks required to take a design from concept to completion. Each designer develops his/her own unique approach to workfow. When working alone, the timetable is dependent on only one person. In a collaborative environment, however, other members of the production team affect the workfow. For instance, if the projection design uses video footage of the dancers, flming might have to wait until costumes are complete. Likewise, there might be multiple members contributing content. In this case, it is important to identify exactly who is doing what task and in what order. This is the purpose of the content workfow diagram. This diagram illustrates not only who will be providing what content but in what order and how one step affects others in the process.

18.3 – Content The successful projection designer must have a balance of artistic talent and technical profciency – an ability to generate original graphic content with an understanding of the tools of image and video editing. This is an area in which the artistic ability of the projection designer shines. Content creation allows the designer to create new artistic works for presentation on a wide scale, whether they be photography, typography, digital art, video, or animations. The following section details a few of the tools common to the projection designer for content and editing.

Figure 18.1 A system diagram for a simple projection system. Note the use of similar shapes and colors to communicate components and signal fow. Created by Jeromy Hopgood for Pipeline at the Detroit Public Theatre.

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Video Content

graphic is expressed in a specifc mathematical equation that enables the image to be reduced or enlarged without distortion. Vector graphics are created in programs such as Illustrator, Corel Draw, or Inkscape.

When discussing video content creation, the basic requirements are a video camera and some type of editing software. Cameras can be either digital video or analog, though if a camera is not digital video your computer must have specialized inputs for converting analog video to digital. Digital video cameras have become incredibly affordable and offer up a number of highdefnition options, even in entry-level models.

3D Rendering and Animation In addition to the two-dimensional graphics mentioned above, projection designers are frequently called upon to create 3D images. 3D graphics, in contrast to 2D, use a three-dimensional representation of geometric data to create a representation of a three-dimensional object. The fnal image created by this software, featuring color, textures, and lighting, is referred to as a 3D rendering. These images are amazingly realistic and often cannot be distinguished from an actual photograph or video.

Once the video has been captured, it is necessary to edit the video takes into a fnal presentation. Freeware applications can be used for basic video editing. For more complex applications, programs like Final Cut Pro or Adobe Premiere are all solid choices. Each of these programs has built-in functions to trim and splice video, create fade-in/fade-out effects, add titles, manipulate brightness, contrast, and color settings, etc. It is common for a projection designer to have access to a number of different video editing programs.

Audio Content Finally, no projection designer’s content creation setup would be complete without considering sound editing. Even though the projection designer does not execute the overall sound design for the production, it is a common occurrence that video would feature an audio feed. In these cases, the projection designer must be profcient in editing and/or creating audio content for the design. While many video editing programs have built-in sound editing capabilities, projection designers may also use programs such as Apple’s Logic Pro or Avid’s Pro Tools, both of which offer the ability to integrate video into the editing workspace and sync audio with your video.

In addition to basic editing, programs like Adobe After Effects allow the projection designer to create motion graphics, 3D and visual effects to video fles. There are many interesting effects that these post-production editing programs can accomplish, such as explosions, blurring imagery, or animating moving elements into a video.

Stills In addition to video, photo stills are a common content element for projection design. For creating this type of content, the normal tools are a digital camera and/or some type of graphics software. Graphics programs like Adobe Photoshop and Illustrator have become staples in content creation for image stills. There is also freeware software such as Gimp that can accomplish many of the same outcomes. A common attribute of most graphics editing programs is the ability to stack different layers of imagery atop one another and change the opacity, enabling the designer to create rich and dynamic compositions.

Stock Footage When creating a projection design, the designer has a number of choices for content. In addition to making content from scratch, many designers utilize stock footage as components of the design. Stock footage is a catchall term referring to any type of pre-existing imagery, either stills or video, which can be used as part of the projection design. Stock footage can come from a number of different sources. There are numerous companies that provide stock footage for a fee. Of late, there are also many websites that offer free stock footage. Most projection designers also create a database of stock footage for their own use that can be repurposed for a number of different projection design projects. For these purposes, it is essential that the designer create a logical system of naming and organizing the fles.

The two standard types of graphics software generate either raster graphics or vector graphics. Raster graphics are images made up of a series of dots called pixels, where each pixel is assigned a specifc color value. These images are created in programs such as Photoshop or Gimp. While raster images are great for print and web media, they are not always ideal for projection design. Since raster graphics are designed at a specifc resolution, when the image is enlarged or reduced, the resulting image might become blurry or “pixelated.” Vector graphics, on the other hand, are images created from basic geometric forms such as points, lines, and curves. The vector

Live Content Live content, such as incorporating video cameras to capture actors live onstage, obviously cannot be created in advance.

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There are still a number of factors that will have to be planned for in advance, such as the type of camera, video settings, exposure and lighting considerations, etc. In addition, real-time graphics applications such as Notch or Unreal Engine can create interactive and generative content that plays back through your media server. When dealing with interactive content, there is often a concern for the type of equipment needed in order to actually interact with something. This might be as simple as the media server itself, with a microphone or camera as an input, or as complex as hundreds of specially designed sensors. In this case, the system must often be designed in order to fully realize what the interactive content will look like.

Not all stock footage is part of the public domain, however. If using an image from a stock footage service, it is likely licensed under very specifc terms. Two common types of licensing are royalty-free and rights-managed. With royaltyfree images, you typically pay a one-time licensing fee and then own the right to use the image in whatever way you choose. It is important to recognize that royalty-free does not mean free to use. In most every instance, royalty-free images must still be purchased up front to ensure licensing. With rights-managed imagery, there is a licensing fee as well, but your right to use the image is restricted to a greater degree. There are typically limitations for image use related to timeline, geographic location, purpose, etc. In this case, the license agreement will indicate exactly how the images can be used.

Legal Concerns

The complexities of copyright law are far too great of a scope to be completely covered in this text. Keep in mind that the surest course of action is to use original imagery and, when in doubt about the legality of image use, err on the side of caution and look for another option. Another note of caution should be extended to those in academia. Many academics make the false assumption that, since their work is created in an academic environment, the use of copyrighted materials is covered as fair use. While it is true that the classroom is typically covered as a fair use environment, the moment that the work is integrated into a performance it leaves the domain of the classroom and becomes a public event. When in doubt, seek out permission for the use of copyrighted works.

There are many different legal concerns when dealing with the use of an image created by another person. Technically speaking, the artist who created an image or took a photograph owns the copyright for that work of art from the moment of its creation. This means that, when using someone else’s work, you really need to understand the legality of use without violating someone else’s copyright. You should typically have the copyright holder’s permission when using any artistic work not of your own creation. Listed below are some important considerations for securing permission. Always get permission in writing for using the image. This permission form should indicate how the image will be used, in what performance, the number of performances, the number of seats in the performance space, and how/if the acknowledgement of the copyright holder will be listed to the audience. It is best to confer with a legal representative about the specifc wording of such permission forms, so as to protect yourself. When dealing with photographs of people, there is also a secondary consideration of the model. Ask the photographer if there was a model waiver form signed for the work. If the artist did not explicitly have permission to photograph the model in the work, then he/she may not be able to give you permission to use the work.

18.4 – Preparing for Technical Rehearsals Unlike scenery or costumes, much of the work of the projection designer is accomplished once the load-in occurs in the performance space. One of the indications for a designer’s success in technical rehearsals is often the amount of preparation done beforehand. A well-prepared designer will respond to the rigors of technical rehearsals much better than one who plans on “winging it.” Listed below are some things to consider before heading into the tech process.

Licensing is another important thing to be aware of as a design. There are a number of different of license types for imagery. If an image is part of the public domain, it means that the rights for the image have been released for public use without cost. If the copyright expires on a work of art, it will fall into the public domain. Likewise, certain entities can choose to automatically release the work into the public domain. For instance, any videos created by the United States Government and its entities (US military, NASA, etc.) are part of the public domain and a valuable resource for stock footage.

Preparing to Cue Much of the content creation and organization can be done offsite, but it is sometimes diffcult for the projection designer to truly cue the show outside of the theatre space. Since so much of the specifc detail of the design is related to the physical projection surfaces, cueing is a process best

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accomplished in the performance space. Before beginning the cueing process, however, there are a number of questions to address.

will affect his/her cueing process. No matter what setup is used, though; there are some common considerations for the cueing process. Listed below are some of these thoughts.

Do You Have All of Your Content?

1. The tech table. Like the other areas discussed previously, it is common for the projection designer to have a tech table set up in the auditorium. The tech table allows the designer to see her work from the vantage point of the audience, rather than from the control booth which is typically far away from the stage and from an awkward position. Sometimes it is impossible for the projection control equipment to be positioned at the tech table, however. In these cases, it is important that the projection designer have headsets for communicating with the operator and, ideally, a method for remotely accessing and controlling the projection control system. 2. What to bring? When moving into the theatre, it is important to consider what things you will want on-hand at the tech table. It is always wise to think ahead so that you don’t fnd yourself having to leave to get something from home. A well-equipped tech table should include: pencils and scrap paper, cue sheet(s), design paperwork, a fashlight, a stopwatch, a laptop for the designer with a network connection, a backup computer for the control system, a portable hard drive and thumb drives for backup and fle transport, and surge protected power strips. 3. Working with the music. If your dance incorporates music, it can be useful to listen to the music while cueing. Especially in instances where projection must sync with music, there is no better way to get it right than with working with the music. In addition, if the sound design must sync with the projections, it is essential to meet with the sound designer and discuss the necessary equipment used and how the two systems must integrate. For these purposes, a device called a word clock is used to synchronize the multiple devices in the system. 4. Working with a rehearsal video. As mentioned in previous chapters, a rehearsal video is invaluable to the cueing process. By referencing the video, you can determine the location of certain moments on the stage and ensure the timing is correct. Likewise, if using a rehearsal video that includes music, this allows you to include both music and movement into one package.

In preparing for the cueing process, it is important to collect and organize all of the content to be used in the projection design. At this point, the cue sheet and paperwork is an indispensable tool for knowing what content is secured and what needs to be completed. Plan on bringing in all of the content and backup copies with a few different methods for accessing the materials. It is unfortunate to be in the space with only one copy of the content when a hard drive malfunctions or is damaged.

Is All of Your Equipment Installed and Working? While this might seem like an obvious question, it is essential that all of the equipment be set up and tested before going into the cueing process. Time is money and the projection designer will only be given so much time in the space. You don’t want to waste the valuable cueing time troubleshooting non-functioning equipment. In addition to basic questions of equipment function, this is the time to consider any specifc needs that might be required for cueing. For instance, is the projection computer(s) positioned in a location where the stage is visible? If not, is it possible to set up a remote network to control the computer? Perhaps a video feed of the stage would be another option to aid in cueing. Taking the time to answer these questions before the cueing session will save a lot of time later on.

Do You Have Dark Time Scheduled in the Space? Everyone has a lot to accomplish in a short period during the time leading up to technical rehearsals. This is why it is so important for the projection designer to schedule a period of time in which all of the theatre’s auditorium and work lights will be turned off so the projections can be seen under show conditions.

Cueing the Show The cueing process for projections is similar to the approaches to both lighting and sound. Like lighting design, it is important to be in a darkened performance space to see the work come to life. Similar to sound, so many of the cueing choices will be linked to timing and sequences of events. Similar to both lighting and sound, the cueing process will be affected by the type of projection equipment and control software. Each program has its own unique process for the creation of cues. The projection designer should be intimately familiar with the use of the software and understand how it

18.5 – Technical Rehearsals The nature of technical rehearsals varies from project to project. At its essence, technical rehearsals are those sessions dedicated to working through the dances with all technical elements included. It might be a long process over the course of multiple

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18.6 – Chapter Review

weeks or only a day, depending on the specifc production arrangements. If the dance company owns its own space, it is common to see longer periods of tech. If the company is renting the space, the tech process might be limited to one day or even a few hours before going into the performance. The duration of the tech process is defnitely a deciding factor for projection use and how they are integrated into the production. With a production that requires a high level of interaction between the performers and the projections, it is wise to schedule more time in technical rehearsals. Likewise, if the technical rehearsal is a shortened time period, it will require that the designer plan ahead and have the projection design fully cued and ready to go from the beginning of tech. These are the types of factors that must be brought up early in the discussion of a production to ensure everyone has a suffcient amount of time and resources to complete their work in time for opening night.

The job of creating the projection design is a complex process with a number of different requirements. The projection designer must balance artistry and technical expertise to create a dynamic and visually interesting design that contributes to the dance without drawing focus away from the performance. In creating the design, the projection designer must use draftings, drawings/renderings, paperwork, and verbal communication to communicate his/her ideas. Planning and workfow are a central concern of the projection designer, used to ensure continuity from his/her initial concept through the fnal performance. Through a study of the projection designer’s process, we gain an increased appreciation for the job of the designer and his/her role within the production.

Review Questions 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10.

What is a system diagram? Which document is used to communicate who is providing content and in what order work is done? What document is used to break down the dance according to individual cues, their timing, description, and routing? Name a software program that can be used for basic video editing. What is a raster-based graphic? What is a vector-based graphic? What is a 3D rendering and how is it created? What is stock footage and how is it used? Explain the difference between royalty-free and rights-managed stock footage. What is a word clock used for?

Project 18–1: Thinking Like a Projection Designer The projection designer is responsible for using imagery, data, text, and more to visually communicate the ideas of the dance and reinforce the emotional and psychological subtext of the choreography. This project asks you to embrace the design process in order to better appreciate the steps necessary in creating a projection design for dance. Once again, revisit your work from Project 1–1 (or, better yet, one of a classmate’s if you are doing this as part of a class). Using a dance described in Project 1–1, create a presentation that showcases your vision for a projection design supporting the dance concepts. It should include: 1. 2. 3. 4.

Your concept: A brief (one paragraph) description of what your dance should communicate. Reference the music used for the dance. If not previously specifed, fnd a piece of music that fts the original concept. Three adjectives that best describe how you want your projection design to feel. Three to fve examples of content that might work well with your projection design (consider elements such as color, mood, texture, artistic style, timing, etc.). 5. A brief statement on how you think projection will be integrated with your dance, the choices you might make, and the rationale behind the content used.

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This project should be a fun opportunity for you to start thinking about how projection designers work and exploring the thought process that goes into creating a design. Be creative and do your best to remain true to the choreographer’s concepts for the dance.

The Projection Designer’s Perspective: An Interview with João Beira João Beira describes himself as a new media artist and visual performer. His work in projection design is related to research in spatial augmented reality, interactive design, and responsive and immersive digital environments in real time. João is the founder and artistic director of Datagrama, a visual performance art project focused on interactive live visuals, stage design, and 3D video mapping. For the last decade, he has performed internationally at art and music festivals, participating in artistic residencies, and collaborating with many artists and performers. He is also a collaborator with Kansas City’s Quixotic Fusion, a performance group that merges together dance, acrobatics, projection mapping, music, and fashion into a multidisciplinary spectacle. Since 2010 he has been working on a dual degree PhD in Digital Media at the University of Texas at Austin and University of Porto, FEUP. João holds an MA in Multimedia Art from the University of Porto and a bachelor’s degree in Fine Arts from ESAP. Two of his recent projects, 2&4 and 3D [Embodied], were nominated by the Austin Critic’s Table Awards for the Best Video Design 2012 and 2018.

The projection design world is such a new feld in dance. Could you tell me a bit about how you got started as a projection designer? My exploration of video and design started with electronic live music events in my youth. This style of work is usually referred as VJ-ing and has been attracting young visual artists over the last decade to projection design. Through music and using real-time strategies, VJs use light and video projections to invoke an expression and design process. My background was in fne arts and design. My focus has always been related to real-time visuals, even when that was not fully accepted as an art form in the academic world back in the beginning of 2000. I wrote my Master’s thesis about the computer jockey and his relevance in upcoming art forms such as live cinema. Their live experience with media and in particular with digital media is the core of my expression as a visual artist. In 2010 I moved to the United States to do a PhD and I met Professor Yacov Shariv who became my mentor and also my supervisor. He worked for decades in the intersection of dance with technology and introduced me to interactive media design for dance. I have devoted my research and work to combining motion tracking with 3D video mapping since then, collaborating with many different artists such as musicians, choreographers, architects, designers, dancers, art directors, FX artists, etc. My experience as a projection designer extended from the VJ and electronic music scene; since then I started to use motion and 3D video mapping as my main forms of expression. I believe that the role of the VJ has gained new meaning over the last decade, adding a stronger layer of creativity and DIY solutions for projection design and interactive art.

One of the companies for which you have done some interesting work is called Quixotic Fusion. Can you describe what Quixotic is and the process of working with them? Quixotic Fusion is an ensemble of artists from various disciplines including aerial acrobatics, dance, design, music, and visuals. It is a collective of creative designers and performers. My collaboration and role with Quixotic Fusion was an extension of the work that I was developing as a practice-based PhD student working with interactive dance – more precisely with my work with depth sensors and motion tracking with dancers. Quixotic Fusion has provided me with an amazing framework to explore the potential of motion capture technologies for dance artists. In particular, to explore the depth camera visualization tools with body mapping in real time. For this we use generative design strategies. First, through the use of motion sensing input devices we capture 3D data of the dance performer, the cloud point. This data is then translated into shaders and to specifc design pallets. The visual outcome is

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projected back onto her body and a transparent screen right in front of the performer – a scrim. This process changes and grows as we perform every show. It is an evolving process just like a music band’s creative process. Using a depth sensor camera means that instead of working with light values that we have from video cameras we now use data values of depth and motion. The mapping process of this data to creative design strategies is the core of my work with Quixotic Fusion.

I know one of your areas of expertise is interactive dance. Many of our readers may not be particularly familiar with that feld. Can you tell us about interactive dance as an art form? Interactive dance is a feld that emerged from performing and interactive arts. Choreography in the digital age had a diffcult start due to the complexity of digitizing human movement. Technological developments in computer hardware and software have made it possible to record digital 3D representations of moving bodies. During the 90s most of the work was based on pre-recorded content and based in pre- and post-production usage of the data gathered from dancers. I believe this was not really augmenting the dancers’ movement but actually restricting it. In general, performers had to do the same routine, leaving almost no space for improvisation, creating a disembodiment for the dancers, for movement freedom and expression. During the last decade this has changed signifcantly. With the introduction of motion tracking and data processing began a new philosophy and media design strategies for movement in the digital age. Dance and technology attained a new and higher level of integration. The scientifc breakthroughs in sensing technology combined with computer animation have created a signifcant number of artistic projects in interactive dance. As Peter Kin wrote in 2011 in his blog www.createdigitalmotion.com: “the combination of sensing with projection is to live digital visuals what a technique like perspective was to painting centuries ago. It’s a calculated illusion, but it could be the basis for an entire body of work, both a marvel in itself and a springboard to new art.”

I know you work on a wide range of projects. How does working in a dance-based art form differ from what you do in some other genres? My work as a projection designer is based in interactive strategies for real time and also the exploitation of 3D space with video. This means I do a wide range of shows, varying from architectural lighting with 3D animation, to live visuals, theatre, and dance performances. Dance-based art relies on a collaborative process and the articulation of different arts, and it’s based in motion. This changes profoundly the creative process for media design. When you work with musicians you usually focus on sound and time, while in theatre we usually focus on storytelling and narrative. In dance we focus on the body, space, and time. With the use of sensing technologies this process might be described as augmented reality, as we use the live direct physical real-world environment to augment in the virtual space. This process is referred to as mixed reality and this output can be also described as spatial augmented reality, merging real and virtual worlds in one display and reality for the audience. In conclusion, the nature of the art form that you collaborate with dictates the creative process.

Do you have a dance background/any formalized training in dance? I do not have any formal training in dance; my background was in fne arts and multimedia.

Have you done any “traditional” dance design? If so, how does this process differ from the work you do in interactive dance? No, I have never done traditional dance design. But this question brings us to the nature of “dead” media –pre-rendered or pre-recorded media – and “live” media –real-time generative media. Real-time feedback and the use of sensing natural interfaces are two benefts of choreographing in the digital age. The dance performer practices with the system like an instrument and the process is quite similar to the computer gaming experience. Me, as a media designer and visual artist, I engage in regular sessions with them, and the outcome of each project is based on this collaborative process. With analog media, or “dead” media, it was too complex and demanding to map such large amounts of data. This process and technological development changed profoundly the creative process of media design for live dancers.

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I know you have worked internationally as a designer and educator. What are some of the key differences you notice in American vs. international work? My experience as a teaching professional and designer in Portugal and Europe was quite relevant since it allowed me to gain experience and interest in the DIY culture and architectural light design. French-based projects like 1024 and AntiVJ highly infuenced me to start to expand the traditional approach of video design for live events. When I moved to the United States in 2010 as a PhD student, I found there were opportunities to use live video design for events. At this time, it seemed to me that there were clearly opportunities in the entertainment industry and that not many people were creating work with a wider range of skills than traditional projection designers. In general, there are more resources and opportunities to develop large-scale projects in the United States. This is also visible in the academic world, especially in large universities, where you can have access not just to equipment, but also to multidisciplinary collaborations with different departments within the same university. I also found in the United States opportunities to conduct my PhD work as practice-based research, which is a great framework to work with as a designer and educator. Overall, I believe that there is a lot of space for experimentation and pioneering development in Europe, but it is usually in the United States that these ideas gain a different scale and exposure. I also found that the American public is extremely receptive to new ways of experiencing video and calculated illusions with light. My work and collaboration with Quixotic Fusion is a great example of that, as we perform mostly in the United States, but also in Asia and Europe.

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PART III

Quick Reference

CHAPTER 19

Dance Terminology

Every successful collaborative project relies on good communication. One of the challenges in a multidisciplinary endeavor such as dance production is making sure everyone is communicating in the same language. Some years back, when I frst began polling colleagues about what would be most useful in a dance production text, the most frequent request was a glossary of commonly used terms. These fnal chapters present just that – a quick reference guide of common terms used in both the dance and theatre world. Neither chapter is meant to represent the entire canon of dance or theatrical terminology, as that would be two separate books’ worth of material. Instead, I have tried to distill the information down to the terms that will be of the most use to the uninitiated from either dance or theatre. This should be a good starting point to give you a working vocabulary of some of the most essential terms and concepts. As a fnal thought, when in doubt please ask a question! It is so much better to know that you truly understand what is being said rather than to smile and pretend. This will lead to problems down the road. I hope that you fnd this as useful and interesting as I did when compiling it.

Alternate In dance, an alternate is a role performed by more than one dancer. Unlike an understudy, who only performs if someone gets hurt or can’t go on, an alternate is guaranteed some number of performances.

And The “and” refers to the half-beat that is counted between the consistent down beat of music – i.e. counting rhythms out for a dance as “one-and-two-and-three-and-four-and . . .”

Arabesque A ballet term referring to a dancer standing on one leg with the other leg extended behind the body with a straight knee. There are a number of different arabesque positions, defned by the placement of the arms in relation to the body (Figure 19.1).

A. Abstract dance An abstract dance refers to a type of choreography that does not follow a narrative construction. Another way to look at this is “movement for the sake of movement,” that is not related to story, symbolism, ideas, or association. Accumulation The notable choreographer Trisha Brown created a dance called Accumulation in 1971, comprised of dancers meticulously working through the graduated gestures of the piece. The title became used widely as a way of describing this method of choreography, with the repetitive use of movements or gestures that gradually build up, or “accumulate.”

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Figure 19.1 A dancer in arabesque. Photo: Randy Mascharka.

DOI: 10.4324/9781003291794-23

Dance Terminology

Figure 19.2 Dancers in attitude dévant. Photo: Randy Mascharka.

Attitude Attitude is a ballet position similar to arabesque, but with the extended leg bent at the knee (Figure 19.2). The position can either be attitude dévant (with the leg extended in front of the dancer), or attitude derrière (with the leg extended behind the dancer).

the ballets often featured themes revolving around a return to nature or the supernatural. The romantic ballets showed a decline in the use of male ballet dancers, and instead focused on the ballerina. Ballet blanc Ballet blanc, literally translated as “white ballet,” refers to the romantic style of ballet popularized in the 19th century in such works as La Sylphide, Giselle, or Swan Lake. The term originates from the tradition of dressing the ballerinas and corps de ballet in all white romantic tutus.

En Avant The French term, meaning “forward,” or to execute a move towards the audience.

B.

Bar (measure) In musical terms, a bar refers to a section of the musical composition that contains a certain number of beats. In some instances, the measure may begin with an accented beat, as in the case of a waltz. For instance, waltzes are written with measures containing three beats. The frst beat is a strong downbeat, with the last two beats having a lesser emphasis (i.e. 1–2-3, 1–2-3. . .).

Ballet Ballet is the theatrical work which a choreographer creates to express his/her ideas through solo and group dancing to musical accompaniment, including scenery, costumes, and lighting. Ballet (classical) A formal and structured style of dance that originated in the French courts in the 16th century. Classical ballet is typically performed to classical music and combines together highly technical dance work with elaborate scenery, lighting, and costumes in order to tell a story. It is often characterized by the use of light, graceful, and fuid choreographed movement. The term classical ballet is often used loosely to refer to the type of ballet that adheres to the performance framework established in the 19th century.

Barre French for “bar,” this horizontal railing is either attached to the studio wall or free standing on support legs (Figure 19.3). The railing is used primarily at the beginning of class period for stretching, warming up, or performing specifc exercises – commonly referred to as barre work.

Ballet (romantic) Romantic ballet refers to the type of ballet created in the early 19th century. Based on the artistic concepts of romanticism,

Battement An extension of the leg to the front, side, or back, creating a beating action of the extended or bent leg.

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Quick Reference

Figure 19.3 Barre work. Photo: Jim Lamberson.

Beat See also down beat, up beat.

choreographic methods, most choreographers work specifcally with the production staff and performers to ensure their vision is realized onstage.

A beat is the primary unit of time used to measure both music and dance. It is the regular repeating pulse that is felt when listening to the music. In dance terms, the beat is often a series of pulses counted aloud while learning choreography – often occurring in a sequence of eight beats and starting over again at one (i.e. 5–6-7–8-1–2-3–4. . .).

Coda In ballet, the fnal suite of dances (called the grand pas) is used as a high-energy showcase for the dancers. The coda, literally translated as “tail,” refers to the concluding portion of the grand pas, in which the principal performers execute the fnale – either separately or with their partners. If a large number of performers participate, this might be referred to as the coda générale, or grand coda générale.

C. Canon See also unison.

Contemporary dance Contemporary dance is a form of dance that emerged in the mid-20th century, best illustrated by the works of Merce Cunningham. In terms of style, contemporary dance draws on both classical ballet and modern dance, creating a movement language drawing from a number of different sources. Contemporary dance is typically an unpredictable, non-narrative form of dance that focuses on creative freedom. Often contemporary dance features the use of scenery, lighting, projection, and sound elements functioning independently from the dance elements.

In choreographic terms, canon refers to the repetition of choreographed movement by a number of dancers starting at different points in time. Character artist See also corps de ballet, coryphée, principal, and soloist. A character artist is a senior position within a ballet company who often performs roles within the ballet that require a great deal of acting, as well as dancing. Seasoned professionals within the company or guest artists hired on for the ballet often fll these positions. Choreographer

Contraction See also release.

The choreographer is the artist who envisions the movement of the dance. Though there are a number of different

A common term used in Graham technique, Horton technique, and jazz. In Graham technique, all movement was based

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around the opposite movement concepts of “contraction and release.” The process of contracting the abdominal muscles makes the lower back curve out and the abdomen appear hollowed out. In contraction, the shoulders should remain positioned above the hips.

The down beat refers to the frst beat of a measure of music, i.e. number one. In many musical styles it is also the accented, or emphasized, beat of the bar.

E.

Corps de ballet See also character artist, coryphée, soloist, and principal.

En pointe See also pointe shoes.

In ballet, there are typically three tiers of performers in the company: principals, soloists, and the corps de ballet or corps, for short. Literally translated as the “body of the ballet,” the corps is a group of dancers that do not have lead roles and perform in group numbers, similar to a chorus role in the theatre. Most often, the corps is composed of a greater number of females than males.

To support the weight of the body on the tips of the toes, while wearing pointe shoes. Evening length dance A dance piece, at least one act in length, which could be used as a stand-alone performance. Extension This term is used in a number of different dance styles to refer to extending an arm or leg away from the body and held in place for a period of time. Often, the extension is an exaggerated pose or posture, done to accentuate a particular bodyline and to create an interesting picture at the end of a phrase.

Coryphée See also character artist, corps de ballet, principal, and soloist. A coryphée is a member of the corps de ballet who has been elevated to a higher rank position within the corps. They sometimes perform solos, while maintaining their position in the corps de ballet.

F.

D.

En face A French term referring to the dancer facing the audience.

Dance captain The dance captain is a role most often seen in musical theatre. The dance captain is a dancer who is in charge of overseeing dancers in a production, maintaining the choreography, and running “put-in” dance rehearsals for an understudy coming into a role.

Fall A term used to describe a dancer quickly dropping his/her body to the foor with the weight centered over the ball of the supporting foot.

Dance theatre See also Tanztheater.

Freeze When the dancer instantly stops movement and holds a fxed body position.

Dance theatre is a term used to describe a genre of performance that blends together performance elements from both dance and theatre. Dance theatre is similar to musical theatre, with less of a focus on the dramatic storytelling through the use of song. Though dance theatre may incorporate dialogue and some song, the focus will remain on storytelling through dance.

Full out See also mark (mark it). To run the dance as choreographed, executing each move in the proper time and place with the music. Show conditions.

En diagonal The French term meaning “on the diagonal.”

G.

Down beat See also beat, up beat.

Grand pas See also coda.

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In ballet, the grand pas is a suite of dances of the ballet, used as a showcase for the dancers. This suite of dances comes towards the end of an act, or at the fnale of the ballet itself. Though there are different variations on the grand pas, it typically consists of the entreé (the introduction), the grand adage (also referred to as the adagio, in Italian) that features dance partnering, and the coda.

the word merde, the French curse word literally meaning “shit.” Like all superstitions in the performing arts, there are a number of wildly different theories on why this became the norm. One posits that in the olden days a successful ballet would be visited by a number of the wealthy elite who arrived in horse-drawn carriages. The more successful the show, the larger the pile of horse droppings. Another theory is that in the olden days, animals were often onstage for performances leaving droppings. The term merde would be used before the performance to wish the dancer good luck and a reminder to avoid stepping in the manure. Whatever the true origin of the term, it has remained a part of dance vocabulary in theatres across the world.

J. Jeté A ballet term that means “throwing.” Though the term is often combined with other words, when used by itself it means to lightly spring off of the foor on one foot and land on the other.

Modern dance In many circles, the terms modern dance and contemporary dance are used interchangeably. When referring to specifc dance movements, however, modern dance typically refers to the type of dance that emerged in the late 19th century and continued on until the late 1950s. Modern dance was a direct response to classical ballet, leaving behind the strict forms, tight corsets, and pointe shoes and embracing more of a free sense of movement and expression. Martha Graham, Mary Wigman, and Lester Horton are three pioneers of modern dance. As the movement progressed, artists such as Paul Taylor, Twyla Tharp, and Alvin Ailey continued in the modern tradition.

L. Legato See also sustained. In dance, as in music, legato refers to a sense of movement that does not stop, creating a smooth sense of connected movement without breaks between the motions.

Motif A motif is defned as a theme or idea that makes up a pattern in a work of art. In dance, a motif is most often a movement or gesture that becomes the framework for repetition and variation, creating a pattern that appears within the work.

Lift A lift is a dance movement in which one partner lifts the other with both feet off of the foor. There are many different variations on lift types.

M.

N.

Mark (mark it) When a choreographer uses the term “mark it,” it refers to running the dance with the music, keeping your general place on the stage without executing the more complex moves like lifts or falls. This is often done in a technical rehearsal setting for the beneft of the designers to see the placement of dancers onstage without making the dancers physically exhausted by running the dance “full out” each time.

Notation Notation refers to the process of documenting the choreography for a dance. There are two main methods for notation: Labanotation, and Benesh notation.

Merde Like all of the performing arts, it is considered bad luck to say “good luck” before a dance performance. In music and theatre, performers often say break a leg instead of good luck. For opera, the phrase “toi, toi, toi” is used, often accompanied with knocking on wood and spitting (whether literally or feigning the act) to ward off bad luck or a hex. Dancers prefer to use

Pas de deux In ballet, the pas de deux refers to a dance for two. The French word pas, meaning “step,” is combined with a number of other words to describe numerous ballet terms. Since most of these other terms are never shortened, the pas de deux is sometimes simply referred to by dancers as the pas for short. All classical ballets have at least one pas de deux, so it might be necessary

P.

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to indicate which specifc pas de deux is being referenced (i.e. the Giselle Act 1 pas de deux). Phrase A phrase is a series of dance movements that create a sense of choreographic pattern, typically with the distinct feeling of having a beginning and end. Pirouette French for “spinning,” this term describes a dancer spinning on one leg with the other off the ground. Plié This is a key position in ballet that allows the dancer to execute a number of different moves. Derived from the French word meaning “to bend,” a plié is the bending of the legs outward at the knees with the heels positioned on the foor. The grand plié is a deeper version of this bend, in which the heels lift slightly off the foor when the dancer reaches the lowest part of the bend. Pointe shoes See also en pointe. Pointe shoes are special ballet shoes devised for dancers (typically female) to perform en pointe. These shoes are typically covered in satin with no heel and a reinforced toe called the box that helps support the weight of the dancer. Pointe shoes are secured onto the ankle through the use of ribbon and/or elastic straps (Figure 19.4).

Figure 19.4 Pointe shoes. Photo: Jim Lamberson.

promoted from within the company ranks to take on both solo and pas de deux pieces. Principals may also occasionally take on a guest performer position at a separate dance company.

Post-modernism In dance, post-modernism refers to the 20th century dance movement whose work reacted to the compositional and presentational forms of modern dance. Post-modern dance championed the notion that all movement is dance and supported novel new methods of dance composition. Though short-lived (occurring mostly in the 1960s–1970s), post-modernism formed the bridge between modern and contemporary dance. Famous post-modern choreographers include Trisha Brown, Yvonne Rainer, and Judson Church.

Q. Qualities of Movement The Qualities of Movement, sometimes referred to as Dynamics, are a group of six terms used to describe the nature of physical movement. These terms are particularly useful when describing choreography and should be a working part of every dance artist’s vocabulary.

Principal See also character artist, corps de ballet, coryphée, and soloist.

1. Swing (Quality of Movement). A type of movement that appears the most natural in performance. It begins with a slight impulse and allows the movement of the dancer to follow the natural fow of gravity along the natural path of an arc. A free sense of movement. 2. Sustained (Quality of Movement). See also legato. Sustained movement is smooth and even, without the

The term principal dancer, or simply principal for short, describes the highest rank of dancer within a professional dance company – particularly in ballet. In short, the principal dancers are the marquee performers who have earned a position of prominence in the company and play the lead roles. Principal dancers are typically hired by the company or

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3.

4.

5.

6.

Re-staging A new interpretation of a pre-existing work of choreography.

perception of accent, or abrupt starts/stops. This type of movement uses a continual release of energy and requires a heightened amount of physical control. Compared to musical terms, sustained movement is comparable to the term legato (some artists might use the terms interchangeably). Percussive (Quality of Movement). The term percussive refers to a type of movement that is short, choppy, and has a broken, disconnected sense to it. In musical terms, this type of movement might be referred to as staccato. This is in direct opposition to sustained movement. Suspending (Quality of Movement). The moment when all opposing forces reach equilibrium – the moment, for instance, when after exerting a great amount of energy, the dancer is suspended at the peak of a jump. This is the moment when kinetic energy has run out; the moment before the body succumbs to gravity and falls to the foor. Vibratory (Quality of Movement). Quick, repetitive, and percussive movements that produce the visual effect of vibration. In vibratory movement, energy is exerted in brief, intermittent spurts. Collapse (Quality of Movement). Collapse is a movement in which gravity takes over and the movement takes the dancer towards the foor. It can occur in a gradual or sudden fashion. Often collapse is followed by a recovery movement upwards.

Retrograde This term is often used by choreographers in reference to the performance of choreography in reverse – from end to beginning. Run To execute the performance of a dance from beginning to end without stopping.

S. Site-specifc The term site-specifc refers to any dance piece created for performance in a specifc location, most often not a traditional performance space. Site-specifc works include locations such as art galleries, elevators, shopping malls, or even rock quarries. Soloist See also character artist, corps de ballet, coryphée, and principal. In ballet, there are typically three tiers of performers in the company: principals, soloists, and the corps de ballet. The soloist is a performer who has earned the rank above the corps, but not yet attained principal status. In many dance companies, the soloists perform dance solos and understudy the principal roles, occasionally performing them.

R. Release See also contraction.

Spotting Spotting is a technique used during pirouettes and other turning movements to keep the dancer from getting dizzy. The dancer focuses on one spot (often a light in the back of the auditorium called a “spotting light”) as the turn is made, keeping his/her eyes on that spot until the head has no choice but to whip around.

A common term used in a number of different dance techniques (including Graham, Cunningham, Horton, Laban, etc.). Release refers to a relaxing or arching movement of the body. In Graham’s technique, for instance, all movement was based around the opposite movement concepts of “contraction and release.” In addition to a movement, release can refer to “release technique,” a movement practice that focuses on breathing, relaxation, and the use of gravity and momentum to create effcient movement.

Sprung Sprung is a term referring to the process of creating a foor surface with the ability to fex and move under the dancer. A sprung foor is typically made using a special wooden framework or foam blocks beneath the performance surface that allows for fexibility of the foor. This type of foor absorbs shock and is easier on the dancers’ knees and joints.

Repertoire The collection of choreographic works commonly performed by an individual or a dance company. Repertory concert A concert featuring several shorter dances.

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Supporting leg See also working leg.

Tutu The traditional costume for a ballerina composed of multiple layers of net. The tutu comes in a number of different styles, often associated with specifc ballet styles (i.e. the romantic tutu for romantic ballet). The tutu is often worn accompanied with a bodice.

The supporting leg refers to the leg that holds up the weight of the body during a dance move, in contrast to the working leg, which does the movement.

U. T.

Unison See also canon

Tableau Tableau is French term meaning “picture.” In dance terms, this refers to the dancers freezing in one position to create a stage picture.

As the name implies, unison is a term referring to a number of dancers performing identical choreography at the same time.

Tanztheater See also dance theatre.

Up beat See also beat, and down beat.

German term, meaning “dance theatre.” This style of German Expressionist dance emerged during the Weimar period in Germany. Rudolf Laban was the most famous artist working in this style. He believed that Tanztheater represented a new interdisciplinary total art form. Tanztheater combines dance, speaking, chanting, and song with traditional theatrical devices to create a performance with no narrative plot – focusing instead on a train of thought or central theme.

The up beat refers to the last beat in a bar of music. When looking at a sequence of musical bars, the up beat is the beat that anticipates the frst beat (or down beat) of a bar.

V. Variation In ballet terms, a variation is a solo dance performed in a classical ballet.

Tempo In dance, as in music, tempo refers to the speed at which something is performed, measured in number of beats per minute (bpm).

W. Working leg See also supporting leg.

Turn-out Turnout refers to a dancer turning his/her feet or legs at a 90-degree angle away from the hips. Also referred to as rotation.

The working leg refers to the leg performing the movement, in contrast to the supporting leg, which holds up the weight of the body.

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CHAPTER 20

Theatre/Stagecraft Terminology

A. AD Abbreviation for artistic director.

Automation A mechanized method of moving stage elements around, in contrast to using stage hands who manually move and position these elements.

ASM Abbreviation for assistant stage manager.

B.

Amplifer An amplifer, or amp for short, is an electrical device used to take low power audio signals and amplify them to a level powerful enough to activate a loudspeaker. Apron See also proscenium line. The area of the stage, downstage of the proscenium line, that extends out towards the audience. Arbor The portion of the counterweight system where stage weights are added to balance out the load added to a batten. Also known as a cradle. Arena stage Arena staging, or theatre in the round, is a type of stage featuring audience on all four sides of the stage. Typically, the seating is raked so that the audience is looking down on the stage.

Back light See also front light, side light, up light, top light. An angle of light in which the lighting instrument is positioned to project light from the upstage to the downstage, illuminating the back of the fgure. This type of lighting accentuates the head and shoulders of a fgure and visually separates the form from the background. Back Painting To paint the upstage side of scenery, typically with black paint, as a method of fre-proofng and to eliminate light from bouncing off the scenery. Often paint is mixed with a fame retardant chemical, such as Rosco Flamex. Ballyhoo To move a follow spot beam around in a fgure-8 pattern onstage. Barn door See also Fresnel.

Atmospherics Any number of methods used to add particulates into the air of the performance space, such as haze, smoke, fog.

A lighting accessory attached to the color slot of a lighting instrument (often a Fresnel) with four hinged panels used to shape the beam of light.

Auditorium The portion of the theatre with audience seating, sometimes known as “the house.”

Bastard amber A color of lighting medium frequently used for dance lighting. The resulting colored lighting is a slightly warmer “white light”

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Theatre/Stagecraft Terminology

with a pinkish hue. Bastard amber is a popular color for dance lighting as it naturally enhances a wide variety of skin tones.

2. A name used to refer to black masking curtains, such as borders or legs, used to mask offstage areas.

Batten See also fy.

*It is important to note that the term “blacks” used alone is losing favor due to the understandably negative connotations associated with phrases like “hang the blacks” to mean hanging curtains. To avoid unintentionally harmful or triggering references, many people have adjusted to terminology such as “running blacks” or “black masking,” etc.

A batten is a long metal pipe suspended above the stage from which lighting and scenic elements are hung (Figure 20.1). In a theatre with a fy system, the batten can be lowered to stage level or raised out of sight high above the stage deck.

Black box A small, simple performance space – frequently with four walls and black masking curtains along the sides (ergo black box). Black box spaces often feature adjustable seating so the audience orientation can be reconfgured for different styles of performance.

Beam The light produced by a lighting instrument, or projector, particularly in reference to the width of light created by the fxture. Blackout To turn out all of the stage lighting and leave a completely darkened stage.

Boom A vertical lighting position, typically in the wings of the theatre, used as a side lighting position. Booms feature a steel boom base on the foor into which a tall vertical pipe is threaded. Since booms are frequently top-heavy, it is also common to use sand or shot bags placed on the boom base to keep them from tipping over.

Blacks* 1. Black clothing worn by stage management and stage hands during productions. This is sometimes referred to as “running blacks.”

Figure 20.1 A batten, in the foreground. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Quick Reference

Booth A dedicated space, often at the back of the auditorium with a clear line-of-sight of the stage, from which operators control lighting, sound, and projection equipment. Sometimes referred to as the control booth.

Typically, the stage manager will post a call sheet (a listing of all personnel called for the session) on a bulletin board in the backstage public space, referred to as a call board. 2. The specifc time personnel are required to arrive for their working session (i.e. call time). 3. A backstage announcement made over the PA system as a reminder for upcoming information (i.e. “This is the call for the Act 2 fnale.”) 4. The process of a stage manager announcing a cue over headset to system operators. To “call the show.”

Border A border is a masking curtain that hangs horizontally from a batten above the stage. Its primary purpose is for masking lighting instruments and scenery that might be fown overhead. Some people might refer to a border as a teaser, but technically speaking the teaser is the furthest downstage border used to frame out the top of the proscenium opening.

Catwalk Any access path or “walkway” above the stage or auditorium, used for accessing equipment. Typically, catwalks are suspended from the ceiling structure and have handrails and/ or safety elements such as a wire tension grid to keep users safe. Sometimes the use of a fall arrest device will be required.

Boundary mic A specifc type of microphone designed to be placed on the perimeter of the stage, typically on the stage foor. This microphone is commonly used in dance performances to reinforce the sounds made by a dancer. Common models are the PCC (phase coherent cardiod), which picks up sound from one direction, and PZM (pressure zone microphone) that picks up sound in all directions.

Centerline See also proscenium line. The imaginary reference point running down the center of the stage from the upstage to the downstage, dividing the stage at the center. On a ground plan, the centerline is drafted as a long–short–long dashed line marked with the letters “CL.”

Bows See curtain call.

Channel 1. The assigned name of a control signal used to control equipment such as lighting, sound, or projection systems (i.e. channel one is used to control the downstage front lights; channel two controls the mid-stage fronts). 2. When discussing stereo audio, each signal is referred to as a channel of audio (i.e. the right and left channel).

C. C-wrench See crescent wrench. Cable 1. Noun: Any wiring used to transmit electrical current, either for power or control purposes. Often called by the connector type, such as an “XLR cable,” a “TRS cable,” or a “MIDI cable.” 2. Verb: To attach the appropriate cables to a device or system in order to achieve function (i.e. “Did you cable that speaker?”).

Channel check See dimmer check. Chase A repeated sequence of lighting cues that creates the effect of movement in the lighting. Sometimes referred to as “chase lights.”

Cable tie A thin strip of durable plastic material with a lockable connector, used to tie together bundles of cable and numerous backstage functions. Typically, cable ties can only be used once and must be cut to be removed, though there are some re-useable varieties. Also known as zip ties.

Circuit See also dimmer A circuit is the plug into which lighting instrument is connected to provide electricity. In most theatres, the circuit is connected directly to a dimmer that provides variable electrical fow. Most theatrical circuits utilize the stage pin connector.

Call 1. A listing of which people are needed for a particular working session (i.e. a band call, a photo call, etc.

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Color drop Color drop, or dropping color, is a term that refers to dropping of gels into the lighting instruments. For dance concerts, it is common to have stagehands drop color in the side lights between the different dance pieces, enabling the lighting designer to achieve a wider variety of looks.

US and Canada, the most popular manufacturer of the wrench was the Crescent Tool Company, leading to the common term “crescent wrench.” Some people refer to the crescent wrench as a “c-wrench” for short. Cross To move from one part of the stage to another (i.e. to cross down, to cross right, etc. . .).

Color frame See also gel.

Cross-fade Cross-fade is a term that refers to shifting from one cue into another over a period of time. As the frst cue is fading out, the second cue begins to fade up, creating a seamless transition between the two cues. This term can be used to refer to transitions in lighting, sound, or projections.

A typically metal frame used to hold a color flter in place on a lighting instrument. These color frames are often specifc to the instrument, with many different sizes and shapes used within the entire lighting inventory. Crescent wrench See also c-wrench, and spanner

Crossover See also cyclorama

A type of wrench commonly used for hanging and focusing lighting instruments and other types of equipment (Figure 20.2). The crescent wrench features an adjustable spanner whose opening is opened or closed by turning a threaded spindle. The proper name for a crescent wrench is the adjustable wrench (US) or adjustable spanner (UK). In the

A crossover is the space used to cross from one side of the stage to the other without being visible to the audience. For dance, it is important for dancers to have access to a crossover for quick movement from one side to the other. This is often upstage of the cyclorama, or a hallway located behind the back wall of the stage.

Figure 20.2 A crescent wrench. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

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Quick Reference

Cross-spot To light an area of the stage with two crossing beams of light. Typically, one beam is a warm color and the other is cool.

Cut drop A stage drop with certain portions cut out of it in order to make specifc areas of the drop be seen through or to create an interesting profle shape.

Cue 1. The pre-programmed combination of any visual or auditory signals saved into a control device (such as a lighting console, a sound mixer, or a media server) for playback of a moment within the performance. The cue combines all of the control commands and timing into a signal triggered by the operator. 2. The command given for stage hands to carry out their designated functions within the show (i.e. Fly Cue 1, Lighting Cue, Sound Cue, etc.). Typically, cues are called by a stage manager over the headset system (known as a called cue), but some cues are taken directly from watching an action onstage (a visual cue).

Cyclorama The cyclorama, or cyc for short, is a large grey or light blue stretched drop positioned in the upstage of the stage as a backdrop. The cyc is commonly used for lighting effects to create a colorful background for the dance.

D.

Cueing See also plotting.

dB Abbreviation for decibels, the unit of measurement for sound.

In American theatre, the process of writing cues.

Daisy chain Connecting multiple pieces of equipment together by linking one device to the next in a “chain.” This process enables signal to pass from one device to the next, without having to send discrete cabling for each individual piece of equipment.

Cyc lights Lighting instruments specifcally designed to create a clear and even wash of the cyclorama or other types of drops.

Cue light A cue light is a type of light positioned at key locations backstage and operated by the stage manager to cue a particular event, such as a dancer entering or a scenic change.

Dark 1. Dark is a term used to refer to a day in which there is no show at the theatre (e.g. The theatre is dark on Mondays). 2. Going dark is a phrase used to describe turning off lights, either on the stage or in the auditorium. Before turning off stage lights during a rehearsal, it is common etiquette to announce “going dark” so that no one is caught by surprise.

Cue-to-cue The term used in American theatre to indicate a technical rehearsal in which most dialogue and action between called cues is skipped over. The process literally jumps from one cue to another, skipping over anything that passes between. Relatively uncommon in dance productions. Curtain call An acknowledgement of the performers with applause from the audience and the dancers bowing. In a dance concert with multiple pieces, this often happens at the end of each individual dance, rather than the end of the entire performance.

Dead hung A term that refers to rigging an object overhead without the intention of it ever fying. Deck The stage foor – particularly in instances where a stage foor is laid atop of the main stage foor.

Curtain warmer See also grand drape

Diffusion Diffusion is a specifc type of gel made of a thicker, partially opaque material. The purpose of a diffusion gel is to soften the resulting light and eliminate “hot spots” or harsh shadows in the lighting.

Light projected onto the grand drape/main rag to accentuate the fullness of the drapery. Often used as a pre-show look while the audience is being seated in the auditorium and between individual dance pieces in the show.

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Dim To decrease the intensity of a lighting instrument (e.g. “Dim that light, please”).

Dress parade The dress parade is a specifc event in which all of the dancers come onstage in costume, giving the choreographer and designers a chance to see the dancers all in costume under stage lighting.

Dimmer See also circuit.

Dress rehearsal A full rehearsal presented with performers in costume and all design/technical elements included, typically under show conditions.

An electrical device that regulates the fow of voltage to a circuit, thereby dimming or brightening the lighting instrument plugged into it.

Dressing room A backstage space used for performers to dress and put on makeup.

Dimmer check The process by which every lighting instrument is checked for power, control, focus, and attributes (in the case of intelligent fxtures). With conventional instruments, dimmer check is achieved by going through the list of all dimmers and turning them on to see if the lighting instruments plugged into that dimmer work. With intelligent fxtures there is often a programmed routine for checking their functions. This is typically done during the call period before a performance.

E. Electrician An electrician is the name given to a stagehand working in lighting.

Down light See also back light, front light, side light, up light

Electric See also batten.

Down lighting is a direction of stage lighting, in which the light is focused on a fgure from above, shining down at a steep angle. This type of lighting creates strong slightly unnatural shadows on the fgure. Down light is sometimes referred to as top light, as well.

An electric is a type of batten with electrical circuits dedicated to powering lighting instruments (Figure 20.3). Entrance 1. A physical location onstage through which performers can enter. 2. The physical act of a performer moving onstage from the wings (i.e. “to make an entrance”).

Downstage See stage directions.

Figure 20.3 An electric. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood

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ERS The ellipsoidal refector spotlight, or ERS for short, is a type of stage lighting instrument that creates a defned pool of light. ERS instruments have the ability to shape the beam of light, color slots for using gels, and accessory slots for items like gobos and/or irises. The frst ERS unit introduced in 1933 was named the Leko, after the last names of its creators. The name stuck and remains a common nickname for all varieties of ERS lighting instruments to this day.

A theatre with a dedicated fy system. Fly loft See also fy, grid. The area over the stage in a fy house that contains the grid, blocks, and battens necessary to fy elements out of the audience’s overhead line of sight. The fy loft is typically two-and-a-half times taller than the height of the proscenium arch.

Exit 1. A physical location onstage through which performers can leave the stage. 2. The physical act of a performer moving offstage (i.e. “to exit stage right.”).

Fly system A theatrical rigging system that utilizes battens, cables, pulleys, and counterweights in order to fy components such as lighting, scenery, soft goods, etc. overhead. Focus 1. Noun: In performance, a performer giving attention to another performer, object, scenic element, etc. (e.g. “Where is your focus on that lift?”). 2. Noun: The area of the stage, performer, or work that is supposed to draw the audience’s attention. To steal or draw focus means to divert the audience’s attention away from what they should be paying attention to. 3. Verb: To adjust a lighting instrument or projector in terms of its direction and visual quality (e.g. an electrician might focus a light to make its shape appear “blurry” or “crisp”).

F. Fade See also levels, cross-fade To increase or decrease the levels of lighting, sound, or projection. Typically referred to as a “fade-in” (to gradually bring up a level from low to high), “fade-out” (to gradually change the levels from high to low/none), or “cross-fade” (to transition from one set of levels to another, with one set decreasing while the other increases in intensity). Fader A vertically oriented slider used to control levels on a lighting console, sound board, media server, or other similar devices. The top of a fader represents 100% output, whereas the bottom represents 0%.

Follow spot A manually operated, moveable spotlight lighting instrument that can pan (move in the horizontal plane) and tilt (move in the vertical plane) allowing a follow spot operator to “follow” a performer across the stage with a pool of light.

Fit-up See load-in.

Footlights See also up-lighting.

Flat A vertical panel of scenery, typically framed of wood with either wooden or muslin fabric covering. Flats framed with wooden facing are often referred to as Hollywood fats, whereas those covered in muslin are called soft fats.

A row of lights positioned along the front edge of the apron, pointing upstage to illuminate the performers in low-angle up-lighting. Fresnel See also barn doors.

Fly To raise or lower an item overhead by means of a rigging system in the theatre.

A Fresnel is a type of wash lighting instrument so-named for its used of the Fresnel lens, a lens that utilizes a series of stepped glass rings on the outside, giving it the characteristic appearance of concentric circles on the lens. Fresnel instruments do not have the ability to shape their beams of light without using barn doors. The Fresnel is

Fly house See also fy, fy system.

268

Theatre/Stagecraft Terminology

a popular choice of lighting instrument for back and top lighting because of its ability to wash wide areas of the stage with an even distribution of lighting. Another interesting characteristic of the Fresnel is the focus knob that allows the light to be changed from food (a wider beam of lighting) to spot (a narrower beam).

stagecraft applications. Gaffe tape comes pre-dyed in a wide range of colors. Gel A gel is another name for a thin sheet of plastic color medium, used to shift the color output of a lighting instrument. The gel is placed into a metal gel frame and inserted into the color slot of the lighting instrument. Gel is purchased in large sheets and then cut to ft individual instruments, often with a large paper-cutter (Figure 20.4).

Front of house 1. Theatre architecture: All parts of the theatre in front of the proscenium arch. 2. Personnel: Staffng for various positions involved with customer service for the audience, such as box offce, bar personnel, coat check, house management, ushers, etc.

Get-in See load-in.

Front light An angle of lighting in which the fgure is illuminated from a light source shining from downstage to upstage, particularly used to light the faces of the performers.

Ghost light A ghost light is a portable light left onstage during times when the other lighting instruments would be turned off. It is typically rolled onto the center stage position and left turned on for reasons of both safety and superstition. The light enables someone to walk onstage in the dark and avoid accidents like colliding with scenery or falling into the orchestra pit. The superstition holds that all theatres have at least one ghost. Keeping a ghost light running allows the ghost an opportunity to perform onstage, thereby appeasing the ghost and preventing them from cursing the theatre or sabotaging a production.

FX An abbreviation for special effects (pyrotechnics, water effects, atmospherics, etc.).

G. GM Abbreviation for general manager.

Gobo A gobo is a template inserted into a lighting instrument that creates a pattern of light. Gobos are made of metal or glass for conventional instruments, and sometimes plastic for LED lighting fxtures.

Gaffe tape Also known as gaffer’s tape. A type of paintable fabric tape used for taping down electrical cables and in a wide variety of

Figure 20.4 Three separate gels cut to size and a gel frame, resting on a paper cutter. Photo: Jeromy Hopgood.

269

Quick Reference

Hold 1. To pause. During a technical rehearsal, the stage manager may call “hold” to get everyone to stop and pay attention to the next instructions. 2. When the show starts later than planned in order to get patrons into the auditorium, it is referred to as “holding the door.”

Gobo holder See also gobo A frame used to hold a gobo in place on a lighting instrument. Gobo rotator A motorized accessory used to rotate a gobo and create moving light. Often the gobo rotator offers variable speed and direction control and may even allow the use of two gobos with independent control.

Hollywood fat See fat. House A term indicating both the auditorium of the theatre (i.e. sitting in the house), and the audience (i.e. “how big is the house?”).

Grand drape The grand drape is the name for the theatre’s main curtain, fown directly upstage of the proscenium arch. The grand drape is typically made from a heavyweight velour fabric with fullness sewn into the curtain and is sometimes referred to as the main rag.

House lights The lighting system used for illuminating the auditorium, typically dimmed during the performance.

Grid 1. Noun: The grid is the framework of steel beams at the top of the fy loft. The grid supports the blocks and cabling necessary for operating the fy system. 2. Verb: To fy a batten as high as possible into the fy space (e.g. “Grid that drop!”); such a piece is said to be “gridded.”

I. In 1. Fly systems: To fy the batten “down” and towards the stage foor. 2. Levels: To brighten a light/projection, or to add a sound (e.g. “bring in the Center Right special”).

Ground row 1. Lighting: A row of strip lights positioned at the bottom of the cyclorama pointing upward. 2. Scenery: A low-profle scenic element, typically positioned in the upstage area near the cyclorama. For dance productions, it is common to have both a lighting ground row with a scenic ground row positioned to mask the appearance of the lighting instruments.

Ins See in-between. In-Between See also wings. The area of the wings located between the masking legs, where the side booms are positioned. These positions are named according to stage directions, moving from downstage to upstage (i.e. Stage Right In-1, Stage Right In-2, etc. . .).

H. Hang 1. Verb: To suspend any piece of scenery or gear overhead. 2. Noun: A work call in which stage hands hang their gear (i.e. a light hang, or a projection hang).

Interlude See intermission Intermission The time period between acts in a performance when houselights are brightened. In dance concerts, there are often short rests between each dance performance where the audience in encouraged to remain seated and chat amongst themselves. There may be one longer intermission in which

Head high A side lighting position from side booms with the lighting instrument positioned approximately head high from stage level.

270

Theatre/Stagecraft Terminology

M.

the audience is encouraged to move into the lobby, purchase concessions, use the restrooms, etc. In British terminology, referred to as an “interlude.”

MD Abbreviation for musical director.

J.

ME Abbreviation for master electrician.

Jack A triangular shaped brace affxed onto the back of a fat to hold it vertically in place.

Main rag See grand drape.

Jumper 1. A short electrical cable (typically 5’–10’ in length) with stage pin connectors used to span the distance to connect a lighting instrument and a circuit. 2. An adapter to convert one electrical connector type to another.

Masking Any material, typically neutral in color and appearance, used to conceal sightlines or backstage areas (i.e. masking curtains, or masking fats). Mid high A side lighting position from booms with the lighting instrument positioned approximately waist high from stage level.

K. Kicker See shin busters

MIDI MIDI, or musical instrument digital interface, is a serial control protocol originally designed to allow musical devices such as keyboards and synthesizers to share musical information. Many lighting, scenery, and other show controllers respond to MIDI commands such as “GO,” “STOP,” and “FIRE.”

Kill To turn off a light or sound immediately.

L.

Monitor 1. Sound: A speaker, often positioned offstage, used to allow performers to hear musical accompaniment, etc. 2. Video: A video display device often used as a method of showing a live video feed for performers or the orchestra conductor.

LD Abbreviation for lighting designer. Leg A vertical masking curtain used to mask of the audience’s view of the theatre’s wing space.

O.

Leko See ERS.

Offstage See stage directions.

Levels 1. Referring to different portions of the stage that are at varying heights above or below the stage foor. 2. Referring to the intensity of certain elements of a design (i.e. the brightness of a light, the loudness of a sound, the brightness/opacity of a projection cue, etc.).

Onstage See stage directions. Opposite prompt/off prompt See stage directions.

Load-in The process of loading in all of the production elements before going into tech rehearsals. In British terminology, also referred to as a “get-in” or “ft-up.”

Orchestra pit A sunken area located downstage of the apron, intended to house the orchestra performers. In many theatres, the

271

Quick Reference

Prompt/Prompt Side See stage directions.

orchestra pit is built with an elevator that allows for it to be raised or lowered. The pit is commonly positioned several feet beneath the seating level of the auditorium so the audience’s line of sight is not obstructed but acoustics are not inhibited.

Proscenium The portal that separates the audience from the stage and frames the action of the performance.

Out 1. Fly systems: To fy the batten “up” and away from the stage foor. 2. Levels: To dim a light/projection, or to remove a sound (i.e. “take out the Center Right special”).

Q. Quick frame See also color frame, gel. A cardboard frame rather than metal frame used to hold a color flter in place on a lighting instrument. Attached with Brad Fasteners. Typically used for quick changes of gels during a dance concert.

P. PM Abbreviation for production manager.

R.

PSM Abbreviation for production stage manager.

Rack A cabinet into which various electrical components can be connected, typically made to ft an industry-standard size. Examples include a dimmer rack, sound rack, etc. Commonly used for touring equipment, since the rack is typically open on the back and front to allow for quick, modular connections.

PARcan A PARcan is a simple and cost-effective food-type lighting instrument. The name is derived from its use of a PAR lamp (parabolic aluminized refector) housed in a simple metal housing (the can).

Raked stage A stage foor built so that the surface inclines as it moves upstage.

Pit See orchestra pit.

Rig check See dimmer check.

Plaster line See proscenium line.

Running lights Low-intensity light fxtures, often with a deep blue color flter, used to allow visibility backstage without allowing the audience to see it.

Plotting See also cueing. In British theatre, the process of writing cues.

S.

Proscenium line See also centerline.

SM Abbreviation for stage manager.

Also referred to as the “plaster line,” the proscenium line is an imaginary reference point running perpendicularly to the centerline, aligned with the upstage edge of the proscenium arch. Combined with the centerline, these two reference points divide the stage into quadrants.

Scrim A type of stage fabric with an open weave, similar to gauze. When lit from the front, the fabric appears opaque. When lit

272

Theatre/Stagecraft Terminology

Stage directions Stage directions refer to the directions used by performers on a stage. Stage directions, in contrast to house directions, use the dancer as the frame of reference – the right of the performer (when facing the audience) is stage right, and the left is stage left. To move away from the audience is upstage, whereas to move towards them is downstage. Moving towards the centerline is referred to as onstage, and moving away from the centerline is called offstage. In British usage, the term Prompt or Prompt Side is synonymous with Stage Left, whereas Opposite Prompt or Off-Prompt refers to Stage Right. Historically, “prompt” refers to the place where the person calling cues would sit backstage in British theatres.

from behind, it will appear translucent. Due to this “scrim effect” the fabric is often used for magical theatrical reveals. Scroller A mechanical device that scrolls a loop of gels in front of a lighting instrument, allowing the designer to transmit multiple colors from one lighting instrument. Shin busters The lowest side lighting position from booms with the lighting instrument positioned approximately shin-high from stage level. Sightlines The area of the stage and backstage visible to the audience.

Strike To remove all of the production elements of the show from a space. In British terminology, also referred to as a “get-out.”

Soft fat See fat. Soft goods The stage draperies, masking, scrims, etc. used in a theatre for performance purposes. This includes, but is not limited to, legs, borders, cycloramas, blackout curtains, scrims, etc. Soft goods typically have a jute webbing attached to the top, with grommets for reinforcement, and tie line used to tie it off to a batten.

T.

Spanner See also crescent wrench.

Thrust A performance space with the audience positioned on three sides of the stage. Also called a ¾ round space.

TD Abbreviation for technical director. Teaser See border.

A British theatrical term for an adjustable wrench, also commonly referred to as a crescent wrench in the US.

Throw The distance between a lighting instrument or projector and the object being illuminated.

Special A light hung for a specifc purpose, i.e. the downstage center special used for the fnal lift in the Act II pas de deux.

Top light The lighting position with the lighting instrument positioned above and pointing down at the stage.

Spike A spike is a mark on the stage foor to signify the placement of an object, set piece, or location of signifcance. Spike marks are typically made with spike tape or, in some theatres, paint pens.

Tormenter See leg.

Spill Unwanted light that “spills” off the edges of the desired location.

Trap An opening in the stage foor through which people, items, or scenic elements can pass. A stage foor with traps is referred to as being “trapped.”

Spot op An abbreviation for spotlight operator.

Trap room The area beneath a trapped portion of a stage.

273

Quick Reference

Traveler A draw curtain that can travel from side to side on curtain tracks.

Visual A visual is a cue that is called based off of physical action on the stage.

Trim The height from the stage deck of any fown or dead-hung object.

Vomitorium A vomitorium, or vom for short, is a passageway positioned beneath the seating in a theatre space with raised seating, such as a thrust.

Two-fer A theatrical lighting plug used to connect two lighting instruments to one circuit.

W.

U.

Wagon A wagon is a mobile platform that can be used to transport three-dimensional scenery on a stage. In most instances, the scenery is built onto the wagon and can be moved as a single unit.

Up-lighting See also footlights. Lighting a fgure from a lighting instrument placed low (typically on or beneath the stage foor) pointing upwards. One example of this is the use of footlights.

Wash A general, even illumination for a large area of the stage.

Upstage See stage directions.

Wings See also in-between

V.

The area of the stage deck located offstage right and left, typically masked by the legs. Of importance to dance, the in-betweens in the wings are where booms are positioned for side lighting and must be considered for movement patterns and obstructions.

Vertical sightlines The overhead area of the stage and backstage visible to the audience.

274

Index

Note: Page numbers in bold are for terms that appear in the quick reference section. Page numbers in italics are for illustrations. artistic director (AD) 5, 7–8, 9, 262 ASCAP (The American Society of Composers, Authors, and Publishers) 120 assembling a team 11 assessment (post-mortem) 12, 38 assistant stage manager 10 asymmetrical balance 81 Atlas, Charles 7 atmospherics 262 attitude 255, 255 audience: identifying your 29–30; in a non-traditional performance 61 audience seating 48–50 audio engineers/technicians 108 audio equipment 111–115 audio input 111 audio supervisor 56–57 auditions 96–97 auditorium 48–49, 262 automation 262

3D model 181 3D printing 181 3D rendering and animation 245 Ableton Live 128 abstract dance 254 accompaniment 109 accompanist 9 accumulation 254 action (dance element) 76–77 active speakers 114–115 Actors’ Equity Association (AEA) 26 administration staff 7–8 Adobe After Effects 73 Adobe Illustrator 73 Adobe Photoshop 73 Adobe Premier 73 advertisements 32, 33 advertising space (selling) 23 Ailey, Alvin 85–86 alcohol sales 60 alternates 254 Alvin Ailey Dance Theater 5 amber drift 211 American Federation of Musicians (AFM) 27, 130 American Guild of Musical Artists (AGMA) 26, 96 American Guild of Variety Artists (AGVA) 26 amplifer 114, 262 analogous colors 208 annual budget 22 apron 262 arabesque 254, 254 arbor 48, 48, 262 archivist 9 arena stage 50–51, 51, 262 arrangements of music 120–121

back light 201–202, 201, 202, 262 back painting 262 Baird, Campbell 188–190 balance 81 Balanchine, George 212 Balanchine/Karinska 145–146 balcony (seats) 49 Ballard, Julie 63–64 ballet 255 ballet blanc 255 ballet pointe shoes 147 ballet slipper 146–148, 147 ballyhoo 262 barefoot (dancing) 148 bar (measure) 255

275

Index

barn door 205, 262 barre 255 barrel 204–205 barre work 256 base layer 141 bastard amber 262–263 battement 255 batten 48, 263, 263 beam 263 Beira, João 249–251 biketard 142, 143 Bill T. Jones/Arnie Zane Dance Company 5, 133–134 black box 51–52, 263 blackout 263 blackout curtain 45 blacks 263 blanket license 120 BMI (Broadcast Music, Inc.) 120 board of directors 8, 18–20 board meetings 19–20 bodice 146 body (dance element) 76 booking agent 27 boom 44, 199, 263 booth 264 border 45, 264 boundary mic 112, 112, 264 box offce manager 8 box seats 49–50 budget: annual 22; managing 92; production 34–35 build list 157 business of dance: board of directors 18–20; booking 27; business identity 20–21; contracts 24–25; fundraising and development 21–24; not-for-proft (NFP) companies 18–19; organisational identity 17–18; proft models 18; unions 25–27 business identity 20–21 business manager 8 bylaws 19

Caplan, Elliot 7 Capri pants 143 catwalk 264 c-clamp 204 ceiling height 62 ceiling slot 201 centerline 42, 43, 264 centerline section 182–183, 183 Chanel, Coco 68 channel 264 channel hookup 216, 217 character: communicated by costume 137, 137; relations 138 character artist 256 character shoes 148 charitable funding 23 Charleroi Danse 59 chase 264 choreographer 256; contracts 25; costume designer collaboration 153–154; lighting designer collaboration 212–213; projection designer collaboration 241–242; resident 9; role of 5–6; scenic designer collaboration 177–178; sound designer collaboration 122–123 choreologist/dance archivist 9 circuit 197, 264 Clarkson, Emily 222–224 classical tutu 145 coda 256 collaboration: assessment in 14; creative process 11–12; defnition 4–5; establishing process of 12–15; importance of 4; with intent 4–5; models of 5–7; pointers for successful 14–15; team members 7–11 collapse (Quality of Movement) 260 collective bargaining agreement (CBA) 25, 26 collective model 6 color: analogous colors 208; asking questions about 83; complementary colors 208; in costume design 140, 140; design element 79, 80; hue 207; in lighting 207–211; primary and secondary colors 208; saturation 207; value 208, 208 color drop 265 color flters 209–210 color frame 265 color mixing 208–210, 209 color slot 205 commercial model 18, 99 Committee on Research in Dance 85 communication (importance of) 13, 87 company manager: overview of role 8; touring performances 55–56 company model 6 complementary colors 208

cable 264 cable tie 264 Cage, John 7 calendar 35–38, 97 call 264 callboard 94–95 calling the show 95, 102 camera movement 72–73 cameras 70 camisole top 146 canon 256

276

Index

complimenting colleagues 14 composer 9, 25, 107–108 composition: in dance flm 71–72; lighting and 192, 193; principles of 80–81; tools (sound) 126–128 computing and models 180–181 concept statement 87 concert breakdown 156–157, 157 condenser microphone 111 conductor 9 confgurations of performing space 52 constructive criticism 14 contact sheet 97 contemporary dance 256 contraction 256–257 contracts 24–25 contrast 81 copyright 120 corner block 173 corporate giving programs 23 corps de ballet 257 coryphée 257 costume design: communicating 154–158; executing 158–160; paperwork 155–158; practical concerns 154; setting goals 153; visual research 155 costume designer: attending rehearsals 154; Liz Prince (interview) 163–165; role of 9, 136; working with choreographer 153–154 costume list 157 costume plot 156, 156 costume renderings 155, 156 costumes: base layer 141–143, 142, 143, 144; bottoms 143–144; components of 141–148; dresses 146; fabric selection 159; fttings 160; footwear 146–148, 147, 148; functions of 136–139; measuring for 158–159; patterns 159–160; as a prop 137–138; properties of 139–141; in rehearsal 160–161; rentals 159; shopping for 159; skirts/ tutus 144–146, 145, 146; tops 146; working from stock 159 costume sketches 155 counterweight systems 46–50 coves 201 Crawford, Sam 132–135 creative process 11–12 crescent wrench 265, 265 cross 265 cross-fade 265 crossover 265 cross-spot 266 crowdfunding 23 Cubase 128 cue 266

cue-based media servers 238, 238 cueing 266 cueing sessions 36 cueing the show: lighting design 219–221; projection design 247; sound design 130–131 cue light 266 cue sheets: lighting design 219, 219; projection design 244; sound design 126 cue-to-cue 12, 37, 266 culture (of the business) 20–21 Cunningham, Merce 212, 256 curtain call 266 curtain warmer 266 cut drop 266 cutting plane 182 cyc lights 206–207, 266 cyclorama 45, 202–203, 266 Cymbeline 170 dailies 101 daisy chain 266 dance artists 9 dance captain 257 dance (defnition) 58–59 dance elements 76–77 dance flm: basic equipment 69–70; camera movement 72–73; editing 73–74; framing/composition 71–72; history of 67–68; licensing and rights 68; location 70–71; planning 69 dance fooring: laying surface 36, 171–172; marking the foor 98; Masonite 36, 174; safety 62; sprung foor 170–171, 170 dancer care 62 Dance Research Journal 85 dance studio 17–18 dance theatre 257 Dance Theatre of Harlem 151 dark 266 David Dorfman Dance 134 David H. Koch Theater 43 dead hung 266 Dead Man’s Cell Phone 231 decibels (dB) 266 deck 266 design: assessing needs 82–84; elements 77–80; presenting ideas 87–88; principles of composition 80–81; using research 84–87 design concept 84 design elevations 183–184, 183, 184 designer contract 25 designer runs 35

277

Index

design package 124 design presentation meeting 88 design team 9–10 development director 8 development and fundraising 21–24 devised dance 59 diffusion 266 digital audio workstation (DAW) 126–128 digital projectors 236–237, 237 digital video camera 235–236 dim 267 dimmer 197, 267 dimmer check 267 direction of sound 110 disguise media server 238, 239 display devices 236–237 diversity and design decisions 151, 210–211 diversity, equity, and inclusion (DEI) statement 21 donors 24 Dormael, Jaco van 59 down beat 257 down light 267 draftings 125–126, 181–182 dressers 161 dresses 146 dressing room 267 dress parade 267 dress rehearsal 12, 37, 161, 267 Dr. Faustus 168, 233 drop 172, 173 dynamic microphone 111 dynamics 118–119

extreme sightlines 43–44 EyeSpace 142 fabric 139, 159 fabric swatches 155 fade 268 fader 268 fall 257 flm see dance flm; projection; video fat 268 fat panel displays 237 fats 172–173, 173 foor see dance fooring fy 268 fy house 268 fy loft 47–48, 47, 268 fyman 11, 48 fy system 268 focus 268 focusing the lights 218 fog machines 207 foldback system 116 follow spot 205, 205, 268 footlights 201, 268 footwear 146–148 form (of costume) 139 freelance model 6 free rhythm 77 freeze 257 frequency (pitch) 110 Fresnel light 205, 206, 268–269 front of house 269 front light 200–201, 200, 269 front projection 227, 228 full out 257 fundraising and development 21–24 fundraising plan 22 FX 269

editing: dance flm 73–74; sound 126–128 educational dance 5–6, 17–18 electric 267 electrician 267 ellipsoidal refector spotlight 204, 204, 268 emphasis (in composition) 82 employer volunteer grants 23 en avant 255 en diagonal 257 energy (dance element) 77 en face 257 en pointe 257 entrance 267 equalizer 113–114, 114 equity 21, 151, 210–211 evening length dance 257 event-based fundraising 23 exit 268 extension 257

gaffe tape 269 GAM gel 209 GarageBand 128 Gay, Alex 39–40 gel 269 gel flters 209 gel frame 205, 269 general manager (GM) 8, 269 ghost light 269 glass color flters 210 goal setting 30, 122–123, 153, 177, 241 gobo 195, 196, 269 gobo rotator 270 278

Index

gobo slot 204 God mic 95 governance vs. management 19 Graham, Martha 137, 212 Graham technique 256–257 grand drape 44–45, 45, 270 grand pas 257–258 grand rights 120 grants 23 grid 47–48, 270 ground plan 182, 182 ground row 46, 270 guillotine (curtain) 44

jazz shoes 147, 147 jeté 258 Johns, Jasper 7 jumper 271 keystone 173 keystone effect 228 kill 271 Kiss & Cry 59, 59 Lamentations 137 Laurens, Henri 68 laying foor surface 36, 171–172 lecture-demonstration 29 LED lighting 210 LED panels 237 Lee gel 209 leg 45, 271 legal concerns: licensing and rights 68, 120–121; non-traditional spaces 60; projection design 246 legato 258 leggings 143 Leko 204 length of concert 30 lenses 70 leotard 141–142, 142 Le Train Bleu 68 levels 271 licensing and rights 68, 120–121, 246 lift 258 light board operator 10 light (design element) 79, 80 lighting: angle of 194–195, 195, 196; atmospherics 207; the background 202–203; back lighting 201–202, 201, 202; brightness 194, 194; color 194, 207–211; composition 192, 193; in dance flm 70; direction in 194; down lighting 202, 202; focusing the lights 218; front lighting 200–201, 200, 269; functions of 191–193; hanging the lights 217–218; mood 192–193, 193; movement of 195; properties of 193–196; for reinforcement 193; rhythm 192; sculpting 192, 192; selective visibility 191–192; side lighting 198–200, 199; technical rehearsal preparation 218–221; visual quality 195 lighting console 198, 220 lighting design: channel hookup 216, 217; color cut lists 216; communicating the design 213–217; cueing the show 219–221; instrument key 215; instrument schedule 216; lighting section 216, 216; light plot 214, 215; magic sheets 216–217; paperwork 216–217; practical concerns 213; pre-visualization programs 214–215; working with the choreographer 212–213 lighting designer (LD) 10, 36, 191, 222–224, 271

hairpieces 149 hair and wigs 148–149, 151 halter-top 146 hang 270 hanging the lights 217–218 harmony: in composition 81; in music 118 hats 149 hazers 207 head high 270 headpieces 149, 149 hold 270 Hollywood fats 173, 173 Homasote 174 house 270 house lights 270 house manager 8, 102 house technicians 8–9, 58 IATSE 26 iMovie 73 in 270 in-between 46, 47, 270 inclusion 21, 151, 210–211 independent model 7 input/output (signal fow) 115, 115 inspiration 11 intelligent lighting 207 interaction with scenery 167, 168 interactive content 230–232, 231 interactive dance 59, 250 interactive video system 235 interface connections 236 intermission 30, 270–271 inventory checklists 58 Isadora media server 239 jack 271 jazz pants 143 279

Index

lighting ground row 203 lighting instruments: cyc lights 206–207; instrument key 215; intelligent lighting 207; overview 198; spotlights 204–205; wash lighting 205–206, 206 lighting supervisor 56 lighting system 197–198 line: in costume design 139; design element 78, 78, 79, 80 linesets 48 live-distanced performances 65–66, 67 live streaming 65, 67 live video system 235 load-in 36, 271 loading gallery 48 load-out 38 lock rail 48, 49 Logic Pro 128 looping/sequencing 128 loudspeaker plot 125

mixing console 113, 114 mix of sounds 111 Mobile Dance Film Festival 68 models (scenic) 179–181, 180 modern dance 258 modern dance footwear 148 Modul8 media server 240 monitor 271 mood/mood board 87–88, 138, 167–169, 169, 230 motif 258 movement: in composition 81–82; in costumes 136–137, 137; of sound 111 musical director (MD) 271 music for dance 116–120 musicians: contract 25; different roles 9; organising the 108; placement of 31 music rehearsals 129–130 music/sound samples 123–124

mailings (fundraising) 23 makeup 150–151, 151 makeup crew 11 marketing 32 marketing director 8 marking 37 mark it (term) 258 Marley foor 171–172 Marley tape 98, 171 Martha Graham Dance Company 5 masking 44–46, 45, 271 masks 149, 149 Masonite fooring 36, 174 mass/form (design element) 78–79, 80 master electrician 10 measurement-taking (costumes) 158–159 media designer 10 media servers 236, 238–240 melody 117–118 Merce Cunningham Dance Company 7, 7, 142, 212 merde 258 Merrily We Roll Along 237 Mey, Michèle Anne De 59 mezzanine (seats) 49 microphones 70, 108, 111 microphone tracking sheet 126 mid high 271 MIDI (musical instrument digital interface) 127, 271 Millumin media server 240 minors as performers 60 Mintz, Cheryl 103–106 mission statement 12, 20

negative space 80 Nijinska, Bronislava 68 Nikolai, Alwin 137 node-based media servers 239, 239 non-traditional productions 58–62 non-traditional spaces 52, 60–61 notation 258 not-for-proft (NFP) companies 18–19 Nutracker, The 155, 184 nutrition 62 offcers 19 on-demand video 65, 67 opening night 38 Opera 233 orchestra pit 43, 271–272 orchestra (seats) 49 organisational identity 17–18 out 272 packing equipment 57 painted backdrop 203 painter’s elevation 184 paint shop 185 pancake tutu 145 pants 143, 143 paper tech 37, 100, 220 PARcan 272 PAR fxture 205–206, 206 pas de deux 258–259 passive speakers 114 patterns 141, 159–160, 160

280

Index

percussive (Quality of Movement) 260 performance reports 95 performer tracking sheet 126 performing spaces: arena theatres 50–51, 51; black box/ studio theatres 51–52; confgurations in 52; non-traditional spaces 52; questions to ask about 52–54; rental fee 52; thrust theatres 50; see also proscenium theatres photo call 37–38 phrase 259 Picasso, Pablo 68 pick-up patterns 112–113 pipe ends 200 pipe pocket 172 pirouette 259 pitch 110, 117 pixels 235 planning the production: identifying purpose 29–30; marketing 32; production budget 34–35; production calendar 35–38, 97; programming 30–32; public relations 32–34 platforms 174 platter tutu 145 playback system 116, 116, 131 plié 259 plotting 272 pointe shoes 259, 259 positive space 80 positive work environment 93 post-modernism 259 post-mortem 12, 38 post-production phase 92 powderpuff tutu 145–146 power system 197, 197 pre-production collaboration 13 pre-production phase: production management 91; stage management 96–97 pre-recorded music 107, 120 presentation model 180 presenter role 8, 25, 27, 39–40 press release 33–34 pre-visualization programs 214–215 primary colors 208 Prince, Liz 154, 163–165 principal dancer 9, 259 printed program 31–32 production budget 34–35 production calendar 35–38, 97 production management 90 production manager (PM): responsibilities of 8, 90–93; in touring company 56 production meetings 6, 97 production phase 91–92

production stage manager (PSM) 94, 103–106, 272 proft models 18 programming 30–32 projection: assessing needs 226–230; front projection 227, 228; not always suitable for the production 230; and performance space 227–228; rear projection 227, 228; surface for 228–229; vs. lighting 226 projection design: 3D rendering and animation 245; audio content 245; centerline section 243; communicating the design 242–244; content 244–246; content workfow diagrams 244; creating a commentary 233–234; cue sheets 244; defnition 225; functions of 230–234; interacting with the dancer(s) 230–232, 231; licensing and rights 246; live content 245–246; for mood 230; paperwork 243; practical concerns 242; presenting/representing the dancer(s) 232; projection plot 243; setting goals 241; stage magic/special effects 233; stills 245; stock footage 245; system diagrams 243–244, 244; technical rehearsals 246–248; video content 245; visual reinforcement 232–233; working with the choreographer 241–242 projection designer 10, 225–226, 249–251 projection equipment 235–237 projection mapping 229, 229 projection systems 234–235 promotion 32 prompt book 95, 100 props 186 props design 175, 185–186 props designer 10 props list 185 props table 187, 187 proscenium 272 proscenium arch 41 proscenium line 42–43, 43, 272 proscenium theatres: counterweight systems in 46–50; in-betweens 46; masking 44–46; stage 41–44 public domain 120 public relations 32–34 purpose (identifying) 29–30 QLab 128, 238 Qualities of Movement 259–260 quick frame 272 Quixotic Fusion 249–250 rack 272 radial balance 81 raked platform 174 raked stage 272 Rauschenberg, Robert 7 rear projection 227, 228

281

Index

recording information 95 recording system 115, 115 Red as Blood, White as Snow 169 rehearsal announcements 99 rehearsal director 9 rehearsal music 126 rehearsal reports 94 rehearsals: collaboration through 13; communication during 99; stage manager role 97–101; see also technical rehearsal rehearsal space 98 reinforcement: from lighting 193; from projection 232–233; from sound 109, 116 reinforcement system 116 relationship building 61–62 release 260 rental fee 52 repertoire 260 repertory concert 260 research (visual) 84–87, 85, 155, 178–179, 178 resident choreographer 9 Resolume media server 239, 240 re-staging 260 retrograde 260 Revelations 86 rhythm: in design 81–82; in music 117; and time 77 rights and licensing 68, 120–121, 246 rise/run (stairs) 174–175 Ritual Series One 143 romantic ballet 255 romantic tutu 145 Rosco gel 209 run 260 running crew 10–11 running lights 272 running sheets 100

scenic ground row 203 schedule 11 Screen Actors Guild –American Federation of Television and Radio Artists (SAG/AFTRA) 26 scrim 45, 46, 203, 203, 272–273 scroller 273 sculpting 192, 192 seating (audience) 48–50 secondary colors 208 selective visibility 191–192 self-examination 12 sequencing/looping 128 SESAC 120 SFX 128 shape: in costume design 139; design element 78, 80 Shape of Things, The 229 shin busters 199, 273 shop bible 158 shorts 144, 144 shot list 69, 71–72 show bible 158 shutters 204 side lighting 198–200, 199 sightlines 43–44, 273 signal fow 115, 115 site-specifc 260 skin tones (lighting and) 210–211 skirts/tutus 144–145 sky drop 45 social media 33 soft fats 172–173, 173 soft goods 273 soloist 260 sound board operator 10–11 sound (defnition) 116 sound design: audio equipment 111–115; communicating 123–126; for dance 108; editing and composition tools 126–128; functions of 109; planning 107–108; practical concerns 123; properties of 110–111; recording 127; setting goals 122–123; signal fow 115, 115; sound systems 115–116; technical rehearsal preparation 129–131; working with the choreographer 122–123 sound designer: role of 10; Sam Crawford (interview) 132–135 sound playback software 128 sound plot 124, 124 sound quality 110 sound reinforcement 109, 116 soundscape 109 sound section view 126 sound technician 108 space: dance element 77; defned by scenery 167; design element 80

safety concerns 62 scale (in costume design) 141 scale model 180 scenery: assessing scenic needs 166–167; elements of 170–175; functions of 167–170; rehearsing with 186 scene shop 184 scenic charge artist 185 scenic design: communicating 178–181; design specifcations 181–184; models 179–181, 180; practical concerns 178; renderings 179, 179; scenic construction and painting 184–185; setting goals 177; sketches 179; working with the choreographer 177–178 scenic designer 10, 188–190 scenic elements: dance fooring 170–172; drop 172, 173; fats 172–173; platforms 174; props 175; stairs 174–175; traps 43, 168, 175 282

Index

spacing rehearsal 12, 37 spanner 273 speakers 114–115 special 273 special effects 233 spike 273 spike tape 98 spill 273 spotlight 204–205 spotlight operator 10 spot op 273 spotting 260 sprung 260 sprung foor 170–171, 170 stage 41–44 stage coordinate system 42–43 stage directions 42, 42, 273 Stage Directors and Choreographers Society (SDC) 26 stagehands: contracts 25; local 58; overview 11; union 26 stage magic 233 stage manager (SM): Cheryl Mintz (interview) 103–106; during the run 101–102; kit 99; overview of role 10, 93–94; pre-production 96–97; rehearsals 97–100; responsibilities 94–96, 101–102; in touring production 56 stage pin connector 197 stage weights 48, 48 stairs 174–175 stiles 173 stock platform 174, 174 storyboard 69 streamed performances 65–66 strike 38, 161, 273 studio theaters 51–52 studio time 12 style: choice of 11; costume and 138–139; scenery and 169 Summit, The 156, 168 supporting leg 261 suspending (Quality of Movement) 260 sustained (Quality of Movement) 259–260 swing (Quality of Movement) 259 symmetrical balance 81 synchronization (sync) licensing 121 system block diagram 124–125, 125

technical drawings 184–185 technical rehearsal: collaboration in 13–14; lighting preparation 218–221; overview 12, 37, 100–101; projection design 246–248; sound designer preparation 129–131 technical rider 54 technical staff 10 tech packet 53–54, 101 tech run 12 tech table 130–131, 220 tech week 36–38 telemarketing 23 temperature 62 tempo 261 texture: in costume design 140–141; as design element 79, 80; in lighting 195 theater staff 8–9 theme 11, 138 throw 273 thrust 50, 50, 51, 273 tie line 172 tights 143, 144, 151 timbre 110, 118 time (dance element) 77 timeline-based media servers 238–239, 238 time period 85, 138, 167 timing 82 timre 110 top light 273 tops (costume) 146 touring performances: Julie Ballard interview 63–64; non-traditional productions 58–59; personnel 55–57; travel concerns 57–58 tour manager 8, 55–56 transporting equipment 57–58 trap 43, 168, 175, 273 trap room 273 traveler 44, 274 trim 274 Tudor, David 7 turn-out 261 tutus 144–146, 145, 146, 261 two-fer 274

tableau 261 Tagliabue, Benedetta 7 tank top 146 Tanztheater 261 tap shoe 148, 148 Teamsters union 26 technical checks 102 technical director (TD) 10

unions 25–27, 96 unison 261 unitard 142, 142 United Scenic Artists, Local 829 26, 96 unity 81 up beat 261 up-lighting 274 Urinetown: The Musical 234 283

Index

wagon 274 wardrobe crew 11, 161 wardrobe supervisor 57, 161 Warhol, Andy 7 wash 274 Watchout media server 239 website/social media 33 white model 180 wigs 149 wigs/makeup crew 11 wings 44, 274 wired microphone 111 wireless microphone 112 working leg 261

values statement 20–21 variation 81, 261 ventilation 62 vertical sightlines 274 vibratory (Quality of Movement) 260 video: benefts of remote performances 66; licensing and rights 68; live-distanced performances 65–66, 67; live streaming 65, 67; on-demand 65, 67; streaming 65–66; see also dance flm video playback system 234–235 video workstation 234 virtual instrument 127–128 vision: adherence to 92–93; statement 20 visual 274 visual research 85, 155, 178–179 VJ-based media servers 239–240, 239 volume 110 vomitorium 274

yoke 204 Your Heart & Your Belly & Your Whole Insides Felt Empty & Wanting & Hollow 135, 186, 186

284