Culture and Security: A Strategy for China 9781844644537, 9781844644520

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Culture and Security: A Strategy for China By Han Yuan

Culture and Security: A Strategy for China

Han Yuan

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 1 Basic Theoretical Issues of Chinese National Cultural Security in the Age of Globalization .. 1 1. The Connotation and Nature of Globalization .............................................................. 1 2. Globalization and National Cultural Security Issues .................................................... 7 3. Basic Theoretical Issues about National Cultural Security ......................................... 10 Chapter One ............................................................................................................................ 25 Strategic Background of China‘s National Cultural Security in the Age of Globalization ..... 25 1. Three Pairs of Strategic Relations in the Global Cultural System............................... 25 2. International Cultural Strategy in Globalization ......................................................... 30 3. Cultural Strategy of the U.S. in the Context of Globalization..................................... 36 Chapter Two ............................................................................................................................ 53 The Current Situation of Chinese National Cultural Security in the Age of Globalization .... 53 1. The Strategic Environment for Chinese National Cultural Security in the Age of Globalization ........................................................................................................................... 53 2. The Current Situation of Socialist Ideology in China ................................................. 58 3. Problems in Chinese National Cultural Development ................................................ 62 4. Challenges to the Development of Public Culture in China........................................ 68 5. Drawbacks in China‘s Culture Management System .................................................. 72 Chapter Three .......................................................................................................................... 75 Orienting the Strategic Focus of Chinese National Cultural Safety ........................................ 75 1. Innovation-oriented construction of ideology ............................................................. 75 2. To Promote the Spirit and Culture of the Chinese Nation ........................................... 97 3. Guiding the Healthy Development of the Public Culture ......................................... 107 Chapter Four ......................................................................................................................... 117 Planning and Management of Strategic Measures for Chinese National Cultural Security .. 117 1. To Enhance Strategic Researches on National Cultural Security .............................. 117 2. To Establish and Perfect Decision-Making Management System of National Cultural Security ................................................................................................................................. 122 3. To Build a New Structure of National Cultural Innovation and to Improve the Ability 1

of Cultural Innovation ........................................................................................................... 128 4. To Construct a Diversified System of Cultural transmission and Strengthen the Ability of Cultural Transmission ....................................................................................................... 134 Chapter Five .......................................................................................................................... 148 The Profound Exploitation of China‘s National Culture Security Strategy .......................... 148 1. Globalization and the Three Basic Clues to the Development of Chinese Modern Philosophy and Social Sciences ............................................................................................ 148 2. Three Must-solve Contradictions for the Prosperity and Development of Chinese Philosophy and Social Sciences ............................................................................................ 153 3. The Establishment and Scientific Meaning of ―One Guidance and Three Features‖ as the Overall Goal of for the Prosperity and Development of Chinese Philosophy and Social Sciences................................................................................................................................. 158 4. The Key Link in the Implementation of ―One Guidance and Three Features‖: Hierarchical and Classified Implementation of the Marxist Theory Research and Construction .............................................................................................................................................. 161 5. The Important Measures for the Implementation of ―One Guidance and Three Features‖: The Construction of a Dynamic Discipline System ............................................. 164 Chapter Six............................................................................................................................ 169 Strategic Environment Optimization of Chinese National Cultural Security........................ 169 1. Implications and Composition of an International Cultural Order ............................ 170 2. Features of the Contemporary International Cultural Order ..................................... 175 3. General Ideas and Approaches to Building a New International Cultural Order ...... 182 References ............................................................................................................................. 195

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Introduction Basic Theoretical Issues of Chinese National Cultural Security in the Age of Globalization

1. The Connotation and Nature of Globalization Globalization is no doubt a sophisticated historical phenomenon in human society. It has permeated almost every aspect of human life, pushing human history forward. Some even deem the course of human history as the course of globalization. This also wins globalization considerable attention from academia. It is not an exaggeration to say that a national strategy without taking globalization into consideration is incomplete – for all nations are participants in the course of globalization. Current research focuses on national strategic issues that are caused by globalization. The premise is to define globalization. However the problem is that definitions from academia are varied. Yet despite globalization becoming a frequently used word, basic issues that touch upon it are still worth studying.1So to define globalization and clarify its nature is necessary before we consider any issues relevant to it. 1.1 The definition of globalization Nearly every single issue related to globalization poses some controversy, even when it first appeared as a technical word. According to an Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report ―globalization‖ was first coined by

Theodore Levitt in 1985 to refer to the proliferation of goods, service, capital and technologies in the fields of international production, consumption and investment as witnessed in the previous two decades. 2Regardless of the exact time of its first

1

According to the search results on The China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), most theses about

globalization do not focus on globalization itself, but rather uses globalization as a framework to discuss issues in relevant domains. Only a few theses can be found touching upon the basic issues of globalization. 2

See also: Third World Network. ―What is Globalization?‖ Third World Resurgence (Malaysia), no. 10,

(1996). And according to research carried out by Professor Gao Fang, the word ―globalization‖ first came into being in 1944. See Fang Gao, ―The Origin of ‗Globalization‘‖, Study Times, (May 14, 2001). 1

appearance, no one will deny that since the 1980sglobalization has received much academic attention. This period is characterized by increasingly intense disputes about globalization, and soon after, defining globalization came into vogue. Almost every scholar who studied globalization would give his or her own definition, eventually amounting to hundreds. 1 Objectively, it is because globalization is an evolving process that can take a long time, as such this uncertainty hinders the production of a clear and thorough knowledge of globalization. Speaking from the rules of development for knowledge systems and theoretical understanding itself, any initial acquaintance with a new thing or issue in some aspects is like a group of blind men trying to size up an elephant for the first time–piecing together its parts to understand the whole, piecing together superficial phenomenon to understand its true nature, and piecing together specific matters to understand abstract concepts. 2 And our understanding of globalization is far from complete. According to the rules mentioned above, the numerous definitions are necessary for latter abstraction. Figuring out their ―greatest common divisor (GCD)‖, or the most common ideas about the features of globalization, becomes possible because these definitions are largely identical with minor differences. It can act as the logical premise for dealing with theoretical disputes about globalization. Definitions of this kind do not bear any distinctive opinions of any school nor any theoretical precondition, making it eclectic and representative of the essential idea of each specific definition. Thus accordingly, we first categorized the definitions by perspectives and methods and figured out the ―GCD‖ (at least in methodology) of each category. Here we have the following types of definition. The first type is to explicate globalization 1

See also Ye Ma. Whose Friend is History: Definition, Methodology and Trend of Globalization. (China

Minzu University Press, 2003), 25-66. 2

A major breakthrough for the development of knowledge systems and theoretical understanding is arriving

at a more advanced conclusion, generalization, or abstraction of the essence or universal rule of an object from the perceptual understanding of an object‘s individual, part or whole. A knowledge system comes into maturation when abstract theories can be materialized and applied to restore the object being observed. For instance, Marx formed his theory of ―historical materialism‖ by drawing upon knowledge of historical phenomena and summarizing general rules of history. However, this new theory reached its peak when Marx looked at capitalism through the lens of these general rules of history in Das Kapital. As for our current knowledge of globalization, it has yet to reach the first phase, in which general rules are abstracted from concrete phenomena. I hereby want to emphasize the importance of the cognitive process through the discussion of defining globalization. 2

through traits like expanded intercommunication, increasingly close relations, and uplifting interdependency in a certain domain. For example, the International Monetary Fund (IMF) holds that ―globalization refers to the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide through the increasing volume and variety of cross-border transactions in goods and services and of international capital flows, and also through the more rapid and widespread diffusion of technology.‖1To understand globalization from aspects of politics, culture, society, information dissemination, and technological advances belongs to this category as well. All definitions confine themselves to the presumption that globalization can be dismembered or limited only to a few domains, failing to demonstrate the general characteristics of globalization. The second type, arising from global issues that concern or influence human beings, believes that globalization is a consensus reached among nations and a cooperative mechanism for solving global problems. The Club of Rome is typical of this kind. The third type comes from the observed value and interests of globalization; this caused the divide between the ―New Left‖ and Neoliberalism. The fourth category attempts to understand globalization in a bigger framework, creating concepts such as the global village, compression of time and space, and so on. The fifth one frees itself from the limitations of domains and levels, in hopes of drawing a panoramic picture of the features of globalization. For example, scholars in China identified six aspects to define globalization: globalization being a multi-dimensional process, globalization theoretically creating a single world, globalization being a process where unification and diversity coexist, globalization (currently) being an uneven development process, globalization being full of conflicts, and globalization triggering the renewal of concepts and transformation of paradigms.2 However, this kind of definition fails to answer what globalization is and its list of features can never be truly completed. Summing up the five categories above, we are able to calculate the ―GCD‖ and come to the conclusion that is globalization is the product of the worldwide universalization of the basic elements of human social history. Globalization thus embraces three connotations, the first being the impact of basic historical elements in a global context across space, the second is the effect of those factors across time, and 1

IMF. World Economic Outlook. (May, 1997), 45.

2

See also: Xuedong Yang. Globalization: Frontier of Western Theory. (Social Sciences Academic Press,

2002), 14. 3

the third being the impact of historical rules across domains, breaching the lines between politics, economy and culture. 1.2 The nature of globalization Globalization is the global expansion of the capitalist mode of production, exerting profound influence on human civilization. Particularly after the Cold War, developed countries attempted to accelerate and dominate the course of globalization, contributing to both the theoretical and practical advancement of globalization. However, the shortcomings of this ―double-edged sword‖ gradually revealed itself. Those who had not benefited from or even had been hurt by globalization rose up against it. Together with the critical force of traditional capitalism, an accompanying phenomenon occurred – ―anti-globalization.‖Recent academic controversy on globalization and anti-globalization focuses on the advantages and disadvantages of both. But chances are, the pros and cons are not about a same matter at hand, thus the argument is not an argument in its real sense. This is because that people failed to establish a clear logic setting regarding the connotations of the two concepts due to the lack of awareness of their dual natures. Thus we want to stress the dual natures of globalization, being on the one hand an objective course of history and on the other hand a subjective strategy for the Western world. a. Globalization is an objective course of history Productivity motivates the globalization of labor division and socialization of production. As Marx remarks, ―Thanks to the application of machinery and of steam, the division of labor was about to assume such dimensions that large-scale industry, detached from the national soil, depends entirely on the world market, on international exchange, on an international division of labor.‖1Thanks to the achievements in transportation and communication technology, trans-space global human activities have become reality. The new technical revolution in the late 20th century, in particular information technology and other high technology, debased the cost of transportation and communication and thus stimulated the explosive development in international trade, transnational investment, and international finance, and the expansion of high technology tied the world‘s economies closer together. Moreover, from standpoint of the relations of productions, capital is a ―born 1

Karl Marx. The Poverty of Philosophy: Answer to the “Philosophy of Poverty” by Mr. Proudhon. (Beijing:

Foreign Languages Press, 1978), 135. 4

internationalist‖ who seeks global expansion the very moment it goes out into the world. Its accretive and aggressive nature chases the bourgeoisie ―over the whole surface of the globe. It must nestle everywhere, settle everywhere, establish connexions everywhere‖1so that their products will have a bigger market. ―The bourgeoisie has through its exploitation of the world-market given a cosmopolitan character to production and consumption in every country. … In place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction, universal inter-dependence of nations. And as in material, so also in intellectual production.‖2 ―The bourgeoisie, by the rapid improvement of all instruments of production, by the immensely facilitated means of communication, draws all, even the most barbarian, nations into civilization. The cheap prices of its commodities are the heavy artillery with which it batters down all Chinese walls, with which it forces the barbarians‘ intensely obstinate hatred of foreigners to capitulate. It compels all nations, on pain of extinction, to adopt the bourgeois mode of production; it compels them to introduce what it calls civilization into their midst, i. e., to become bourgeois themselves. In one word, it creates a world after its own image.‖3 From Marx and Engels‘ brilliant argument, we see that the bourgeoisie at initiation of world history is a ―natural historical process.‖ Understanding this is crucial for us to capture the nature of globalization. Globalization, whether it presents itself in the advancement of productivity and socialization of production, or in the worldly expansion of capitalist relations of production, is an objective course of history. It is noteworthy that the result of expansion represents not the victory of capitalism in the world, but rather the exact opposite. As capitalism released its capacity of productivity, it also widened and deepened the contradiction that came along with it on a global scale. It is also this very perspective where Marx affirmed the necessity and significance of the ―world history‖ built by the hand of capitalism.

1

Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels Selected Works (In Two Volumes), vol. 1.

(Moscow: Foreign Language Publishing House, 1951), 36. 2

Ibid.

3

Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels Selected Works (In Two Volumes), vol. 1.

Moscow: Foreign Language Publishing House, (1951), 36 – 37. 5

b. Globalization is a subjective strategy for Western countries. Globalization both as a theory and a fact came into being in the Western world. Moreover, it has been dominated by developed Western nations due to the irresistible power of capitalist logic and the support from their strategies and decisions. No one can slow down the pace of the development of globalization, but we can change the distribution of profits brought along with it. In this regard, strategies to deal with globalization really matter for every nation; for each nation yearns to emerge the victor in globalization, hoping international regulations are influenced by their own. It is also for this reason that the Western developed countries would like to direct their strategies to establishing a stable, favorable, and abiding world paradigm to guarantee and consolidate their central status in the world. The U.S.‘s strategy for example, seeks not only military superiority, but also an absolute power in the economy and ideology. The U.S. aims at ―Americanization‖ by taking advantage of globalization. Madeleine Albright, the former U.S. Secretary of State, claimed that the U.S. should seize the historical opportunity and work hard to unify the world under the guidance of the principle of democracy, free market, law, and peace.1 Also, according to the Introduction of the 1999 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices released by the U.S. Department of State, ―Today, all the talk is of globalization. But far too often, both its advocates and its critics have portrayed globalization as an exclusively economic and technological phenomenon. In fact, in the new millennium, there are at least three universal ―languages:‖money, the Internet, and democracy and human rights.‖ 2 This report called promoting American democracy and human rights as ―The Third Globalization,‖ which shows that the U.S. strives for global domination in the global economy, technology and values through the course of globalization. This is not just the national strategy of the U.S. In fact, Western academia has been practically keen on persuading the world to buy their ―perfect‖ mode of development. For instance, the Group of Lisbon regards liberalization, privatization,

1

Madeleine Korbel Albright. ―Enduring Principles in an Era of Constant Change‖, US Department of State

Dispatch, (October 1997), 8. 2

US Department of State. “ 1999 Country Reports on Human Rights Practices‖. Retrieved from

http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/1999/65.htm. 6

and deregulation as the three engines of globalization. 1 This ―global economic integration‖ promoted by the West is, at its core, the diffusion of the ―core logic of the three-in-one‖ all over the world so that a mechanism to ensure high and incessant returns for multinational corporations can be built up. In a nutshell, the uncertainty in profit distribution produced by globalization has afflicted upon globalization the nature of being a strategy of Western nations to chase after their own profits. Just as British scholar Anthony Giddens has pointed out, ―Globalization is lead by Western multinational capitalist interest groups; it represents their ideology, strategic aims, and outlook for future world.‖2

2. Globalization and National Cultural Security Issues 2.1 The origins of the emergency of national cultural security issues a. Globalization highlights the strategic position of national cultural benefits As a multi-dimension social reform, globalization, when observed horizontally, has already exerted its influence far beyond the economy, reaching politics and culture. Meanwhile from a historical point of view, globalization has diversified possibilities in its development. Therefore, globalization is undeniably an objective historical process; however, the result of this process is far from the one and only one. While globalization and the global expansion of capitalism are closely related; this does signify the inaction of non-capitalist countries. In the past century, history has shown us new elements attributed to the founding of socialist nations and the increasingly considerable significance of science and technology. The past one hundred years also witnessed that forces from all around the world converged in the center of the arena of history, making history no longer a single-track evolution, but rather a growing uncertainty. Where history ends up depends upon the concerted forces, or in other words, the subjective initiative of interested parties poses an impact greater than ever on the course of history. In most cases, an interested party that takes part in globalization is a nation including non-capitalist ones. Nations work together and accept and influence each other gradually in globalization, and in the meantime they compete with one another during which conflicts of interest are unavoidable.

1

See also: The Group of Lisbon. Limits to Competition. (The MIT Press, 1995), 32.

2

Quoted from: Hua Xie. ―An Analysis of Anti-globalization‖, Journal of Shanxi University (China), no. 6,

(2011), 42. 7

After all, every country expects globalization to be a benefactor rather than a destroyer, and hopes that international rules are geared towards their own interests. Nevertheless, it is the game among nations that fosters the advancement of globalization; the result of unification and the innate contradiction between the cooperation and competition among nations indicates where and how globalization will end. In this case, the most advisable suggestion may be to welcome globalization with scientific strategies and active participation to protect a nation‘s interest from being displaced or covered up by others. The strategy of a nation is a crucial key to cope with globalization. Western countries are already ahead of the curve. They are promoting a West-oriented way of global development, economically, politically and ideologically, so that they will profit from it in the long run. Besides, now that the U.S. has taken center stage, globalization has been tinted with American ideals and values like ―universalism‖ and ―globalism,‖ which erode the interests of developing nations, especially their cultural benefits. This circumstance calls for a strategy to maintain and fortify a nation‘s cultural interests. On the one hand, international competition in the era of globalization is not only about traditional military force, but also about overall national strength, where cultural power is one of the key components. It is man that competes in the economy and military affairs, uses techniques and methods, and exploits social resources. But in the end man is affected by politics and culture, or in other words, culture has shaped man. Culture is not a vague and vacant spiritual power; it is concrete and is a coagulant that permeates into economic and social structures to either activate people to unite or undermine solidarity. The most influential American scholar on national power, Ray S. Cline believed that the degree to which economy capability and military capability takes effect is determined by spiritual qualities, such as strategic purpose, the will to pursue national strategy, and ability to move people.1His remark indicates the significance of cultural power to overall national strength, and of cultural benefits to a nation‘s interests. Given this, Joseph Nye called culture, ideology and social systems ―soft power‖ and regarded this ―soft power‖ with more importance than ―hard power‖ like a country‘s military and economic capabilities. Nye pointed out that, ―A country may achieve the outcomes it prefers in world politics because 1

See also: Jian Hua. A Battle of Soft Power: Cultural Trends in Globalization. (Beijing: Higher Education

Press, 2001), 4. 8

other countries want to follow it or have agreed to a system that produces such effects. In this sense, it is just as important to set the agenda and structure the situations in world politics as it is to get others to change in particular situations.‖1 Furthermore, globalization stimulates the transfer of international competition and industrial focus, and activates the transformation of society, accompanied by new connotations of national interests and global competition. In agricultural society, land is everything to a country, and thus nations contend for land to maintain their interests. Under the context of industrial production, control and possession over resources like oil and minerals are crucial and necessary. Nations compete for market share and expansion of their own products. While in the information age, which is based on intellectual economy, knowledge is more important than any other resources. The control and occupation of knowledge and information as a part of a nation‘s cultural power has gained a proper place in international competition. All cultures have something in common. However, it is the unique cultural elements that, through maintenance and diffusion, will sharpen the core competitive edge of a nation. For instance, just as Bill Clinton stressed, the U.S. would rather see an economically strong China that accept American values than a weak China that is hostile to America. He said so for the reason that all nations‘ material interests have been interwoven with each other due to globalization. Nye holds that conventional economic sanctions or military strikes can no longer protect, and may even hurt a nation‘s own interests. In comparison, soft power resources like culture, ideology and social systems are low cost and high yield. The intangible force of cultural transmission, in particular, can be scattered over the world to influence the emotions, mentality, and ideas of other peoples, although it is not as aggressive as missiles and bombs.2 2.2 Globalization exacerbates combats and conflicts of cultural interests Apart from promoting mutual understanding and cooperation, globalization intensifies competition among nations. In turn, every country‘s pursuit of interests and development has globalized the world. National benefits are given top priority today, making globalization an effort filled with individual interest groups and aims. Cultural interests, to a large extent, contradict that of national interests, which further triggers

1

Joseph Nye. Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power. (Basic Books, 1990), 31.

2

Joseph Nye. Bound to Lead: The Changing Nature of American Power. (Basic Books, 1990). 9

conflicts in the economic field. ―Where there exists a relationship, it exists for me.‖1 And that is why, as international competition become more and more intense, cultural interests of nations become more contradictory. Here we see that economic globalization has failed to highlight the cultural elements nations share in common, but instead has aggravated the tension between national characteristics and cosmopolitan qualities within culture.2 Moreover, the U.S. has already deemed the maintenance and promotion of its values, specifically its democracy, in the world as one of the three pillars of its national security strategy,3 showing a trend in enhancing the discursive hegemony of cultural imperialism. Many countries therefore stick to their own cultures and fortify their own values and concepts, which sharpens the contradiction of cultural benefits among nations. ―Culture is a sort of theater where various political and ideological causes engage one another. Far from being a placid realm of Apollonian gentility, culture can even be a battleground on which causes expose themselves to the light of day and contend with one another.‖4Just as Samuel Huntington said, ―Men do not care about politics or profits, but would rather sacrifice themselves for their beliefs, family, ancestry, and ideals.‖5 In the age of globalization, nothing is more terrible than the loss of cultural identity in world competition, making national cultural security, which was caused by cultural conflicts, prominent among national strategic issues.

3. Basic Theoretical Issues about National Cultural Security National cultural security has become a hot topic of research in recent years. The first step of the research, like many others on national strategy, is to identify current challenges to cultural security with which China is faced. Relevant published articles in China usually assume the pattern of ―problems plus countermeasures‖ which 1

Karl Marx & Frederick Engels. The German Ideology. (Progress Publishers, 1968), 42.

2

Shichang Song & Ronghai Li. ―Globalization: The Show of Interest Conflicts‖, Philosophical Research, no.

1, (2001). 3

George H. W. Bush. A National Security Strategy for the United States, (1991). Retrieved from

http://nssarchive.us/. 4

Edward W. Said. Culture and Imperialism. (Vintage Books, 1994), xiii.

5

Quoted from: Jisi Wang ed.. Cultural and World Politics: Chinese Reviews on the Clash of Civilizations,

(Shanghai: Shanghai People‘s Publishing House, 1995), 186-187. 10

includes connotations of cultural security, strategic significance, roots of problems, current challenges, and approaches and countermeasures. Their titles are often generic without distinct standpoints. All of this shows that the study of cultural security is still at a primary stage where a cover-all discussion is typical. Given that the overall review about it has been gradually improved, we should move on to the identification of basic theoretical issues, which unfortunately turns out to be a bottleneck that requires a diversion from macro and overall approaches to micro and segmental observation. In fact, to reach a high-level and comprehensive solution for issues about the cultural security of China relies on an in-depth theoretical study and a detailed comprehension about specific aspects of it. For this reason, it is necessary to begin with defining national cultural security and probing into the most basic theoretical issues such issues as decisive variables, spatial dimension, inner structure, and exterior relations. 3.1The definition of national cultural security Unfortunately, there is not a definition of national cultural security that is widely acknowledged in the academia, which indicates that national cultural security is indeed a sophisticated issue as well as so new a topic that scholars may, like the blind man feeling an elephant for the first time, mistake one part for the whole. I am here, not to give an ―accurate‖ or ―universally accepted‖ definition, but rather to figure out the logical base line for correctly understanding national cultural security. Firstly, note that the core word of national cultural security is safety rather than culture. In other words, ―culture,‖ which embodies diversified connotations, depends on the context of ―security,‖ which in turn depends on the subject of a nation‘s security. National cultural security then is a subcategory of national security. So based on this logic, the categories would be as follows: security, national security, and national cultural security. a. Security Security, contrary to danger, describes a condition and the trend that leads to the condition. Given that men strive for only what is closely related to their interests, the safety of everything is that of interest and security shows the trend in the changes of individual interest changes and the current status. In this case, the boundary used to distinguish security and insecurity is the state of vested interests. Accordingly, the state of interest being kept and enhanced is deemed as secure, and vice versa. It must be emphasized that security is subject to particular terms, but ultimately, all security 11

boils down to the security of human being. Meanwhile, human being as the ultimate subject of security takes forms as individuals, groups, peoples and nations, and interest, the object of security, can take form as life, property, liberty, culture, territory, and sovereignty. Therefore, we categorize security into individual security, group security, and national security, which can be further categorized according to its subjects, such as survival security, property safety, territorial security, and cultural security. Note that the two classifications are not absolutely parallel. A subject-based security demands various interests. National interests, for example, contain survival interest, territorial interest, economic interest, and culture interest, and in turn, national security touches upon survival, territorial, economic, and cultural security. b. National security Security is always connected with interests. The nature of national security is the safety of national interests. For China, its number one interest is the material and spiritual demands in building a well-off society in an all-around way under the leadership of the Communist Party of China (CPC) and the government of China. National security problems are often caused in acquiring, maintaining, appealing, plundering, and losing national interests. Interests shape the conditions of security. Different appeals, orientations, and conflicts lead to different security situations. China‘s growth in strength, for example, ensures the safety of China, but poses a threat to the national security of the U.S. Compared to China, who emphasizes safeguarding national sovereignty, having a good control of interior affairs, and standing on its own two feet, the U.S. hunts for interests all around the world and its interests thus are closely related to other nations. If the development of any nation gets in the way of the U.S. keeping its superior status in the world, the U.S. would regard it as an unsafe factor. Hence it is deemed safe provided that the vested interests of a nation will neither put in danger nor suffer a loss. c. National cultural security National cultural security is a subcategory of national security. It actually refers to the security of the cultural interests of a country, demonstrating the necessity of culture in a nation‘s survival and development. Culture, as we know, is never a simple word; it always gains new meanings as the situation changes. In most cases, culture is a concept that corresponds to economics and politics, as well as a spiritual achievement of human beings that differs from material production, social order, and systems. From the view of traditional security, both the subject of 12

and threat to security define the nation as a whole. In a sense, culture is a unification of the universal and individual elements of the different ethnicities, nations and social systems. Universal cultural elements like science and technology do not carry with them the identification of a specific people, country, or system. Thus interest relations embodied in it are not a zero-sum type, and do not pose any security issues. In contrast, individual cultural elements such as cultural mentality, national spirit, values, and ideologies are exclusive to certain peoples, nations and systems. This unique culture identity allows a new country to come into being and remain distinctive, and is tied to the interests of the nation and its people. This kind of individual culture, which is made up of two main parts – ideology and national culture – is also what we refer to when speaking of ―culture‖ in the phrase ―national cultural security.‖Its healthy and smooth development is what national cultural interests and culture sovereignty are dedicated to. With regard to it, an equal position that a culture enjoys in international cultural exchange makes sure that the nation‘s cultural interests are protected and respected; otherwise, it would potentially risk the loss of independent development, which would endanger national cultural security and sovereignty. In fact, unequal cultural communication occurs every now and then in the fashion of either cultural expansion or cultural hegemony, which are both contradict the concept of national cultural security. Furthermore, from the perspective of ―non-traditional security,‖ sub-national cultural units or ―public culture‖ such as the mental outlook of citizens and folk cultural activities should be taken into account. Whether the advancement of public culture is geared with the goals or demands of national development is the main concern for national interests. Moreover, the developmental trends of a nation‘s public culture also indicate the waxing and waning of a nation‘s cultural interests, as well as cultural security issues. Three common mistakes in observing national cultural security need to be made clear. The first is that cultural relativism or cultural conservatism resulted from a discussion of cultural security, which breaks away the subject of security. Any real form of cultural security is a part of the whole interests of a specific cultural topic. There does not exist an abstract security that is irrelevant to people, nor an abstract cultural security that strays away from particular interest groups. However culture itself has nothing to do with security. The value of culture is ultimately reflected in the necessities of man. Every cultural system needs innovation and reform. Its rise 13

and fall is deeply rooted in economic and social situations. A new economic society requires a novel cultural system. Thus to preserve the ―pureness‖ of the original culture and ignore demands of cultural subjects will do nothing but to accelerate the fall of the cultural system, for example, the cultural system of the former Soviet Union. The decline of the Mayan Civilization and Indian culture helped the New World to take the throne of culture. After the Manchu people entered the Shanhai Pass and successfully conquered China, they did not impose its culture on the Han people. Instead, the wise Emperor Kang Xi established the Han culture as the orthodox one, creating a cultural heyday in the Qing Dynasty. The cultural crisis and challenges that China suffered in modern times were eventually and fundamentally solved by the Marxist cultural system. The collapse of the original cultural system left behind positive elements for the new dominant system to adopt and remold. Therefore, the examples above show us that abstract discussion about cultural security without taking into consideration of its benefits is inaccurate. Deep down, cultural security is the cultural security interests of specific cultural subjects. The value of cultural interests depends on the material or mental needs of the subject. Secondly, some mistakenly equate national cultural security to the safety of the cultural industry. There‘s no denying that the cultural industry is relevant to national cultural security. But because the cultural industry is first and foremost a constituent part of the national economy, its safety issue in most cases relate to economic security. Moreover, the development of the cultural industry does not completely correspond to the cultural security situation. In fact, even though cultural industry security and national cultural security share similarities, they also differ in many ways. Cultural industry security is categorized as both an economic security issue when speaking of economic benefit and national cultural security when speaking of its social effect. The cultural industry, as well as cultural products as a carrier may deliver various kinds of information. To consume cultural products can positively cultivate elements that are favorable to national cultural security, and in the meantime may let negative culture run wild in the world. In this case, it is not certain that the growth of the cultural industry would bring with it a supportive force for national culture. Moreover, how much the cultural industry is relevant to national security can hinge on the consumption of cultural products. Nevertheless, there are also many cultural elements that need more than cultural product consumption to nourish its growth. For example the maintenance of the dominant status of Marxism in China, a critical concern to 14

cultural security, is actually not achieved by developing the cultural industry. The third mistake is to generalize the scope of national cultural security to include all matters related to national cultural strategy. National cultural strategies are divided into strategies that concern cultural security and ones that touch upon cultural development. Development is related to security but by no means is it directly a security issue. Otherwise, all matters would be security issues, which in turn would be meaningless. In reality, the main scope of national cultural security tends to center around issues that bring about conflicts of cultural interests, such as concepts like national cultural interests, national cultural sovereignty, and international cultural competition, and related categories like socialism and capitalism, good and evil, independence and dominance. Meanwhile, cultural development mainly probes into issues in aspects of the cultural system, industry and its undertakings. 3.2 Key concepts of national cultural security National cultural interests and sovereignty are the two most basic concepts in the study of national cultural security. a. The concept of ―national cultural interests‖ is the core concept of defining national cultural security. With the development of globalization, national cultural interests have come into prominence in the national interest system in a relatively independent manner, laying a foundation for national cultural security to receive more attention and become a major strategic issue. National cultural interests are in fact national interests in the domain of culture, reflecting the cultural demands of a nation in its effort to survive and develop. The meaning of national interests is a controversial issue. One of the focuses of this dispute is its class nature and national character.1 A basic logic is necessary for any theoretical research and analysis, and the discussion about Chinese national interests is no exception. Accordingly, we have established that in socialist countries, class interest and national interest are unified, and given that the government makes its people the master of their own affairs, people‘s interest are in line with that of the government and political party. In contemporary international contacts, China‘s national interests are the aggregate of the material and spiritual demand of the 1

For relevant discussions see: Xuetong Yan. On China’s Interests. (Tianjin People‘s Publishing House,

1997). 15

Chinese people to build a well-off society in an all-around way under the leadership of the Chinese government and the Communist Party of China. China‘s cultural interests are reflected as cultural necessities. The four basic necessities are territorial integrity, a cohesive people, a stable government, and independent sovereignty. Other than territory, the people, government, and sovereignty are directly related to cultural necessities. National cohesion derives from national cultural identity and national spirit; political stability requires legitimate support provided by ideology. The deepening of globalization highlights cultural sovereignty and upgrades it as a relatively independent part of national sovereignty. b. National cultural sovereignty is another key concept that is closely related to national cultural interests. Of the four cultural necessities deduced from the basic elements of a nation, to safeguard a nation‘s sovereignty is the most direct and reality-oriented strategic issue in dealing with international competition and conflict of interests. A prevailing comprehension of sovereignty is that ―sovereignty refers to the supreme power of a nation to independently manage its internal and external affairs.‖ 1 Since it is characterized by supremacy and exclusiveness, as well as the things mentioned in the discussion above about national cultural interests, national cultural sovereignty can be interpreted as ―a nation‘s supreme and exclusive power to protect and increase its own cultural interests.‖ Logically speaking, power points directly to the actions carried out by the subject of power. Its structure is determined by the method of implementation and the location in which the activity takes place. The complexity of a nation‘s scope of activity leads to the fact that national sovereignty per se is a complicated and multidimensional category. We can classify national sovereignty in several ways based on different perspectives. For instance, vertically national sovereignty can be divided into the sovereignty of survival and that of development; horizontally speaking it includes the sovereignty of economy, politics, and culture; and from a historical point of view, it has evolved from sovereignty of politics, to that of economy and then to that of culture. The mid-twentieth century is a time when people and nations sought for independence in politics. After the disintegration of the colonial system in the 1950s, most countries acquired UN-charter-acknowledged 1

Gengsheng Zhou. International Law (Volume One). (Commercial Press, 1976), 75. 16

independent status and developing countries in particular started to invert its focus from sovereignty to economic construction. Then in the 1990s, the trend of globalization underlined the importance and profound impact of culture. Conflicts of interest between countries began to manifest in culture differences. Western countries continued imposing its cultural expansion and supremacy, posing a threat to the cultural sovereignty of developing countries. Apart from economic security, nations also paid close attention to issues related to cultural sovereignty, which were caused by conflicts of interest between nations, and cultural integration and collision. Cultural sovereignty may not be the core of national sovereignty nowadays, but cultural security issues that center on it have been a major strategic issue among nations. 3.3 Inner structure of national cultural security We mentioned that culture in the context of national cultural security embodies three aspects, ideology, national culture, and public culture. Correspondingly securities in these three aspects make up national cultural security. Ideology is the cultural base for the legitimacy of a government. A solid mainstream ideology represents the maintenance of a nation‘s cultural sovereignty. Thus, ideology, together with state political power, relies on the latter to keep its status and diffuse it across the nation, and in return it culturally ―legitimizes‖ the latter. In this way the ideological identity of people directly influences the solidity of a government; an ideological crisis will inevitably lead to political unrest. So as a matter of fact, the ideological expansion targets the government and certain interests under the protection of political power. Therefore the security of ideology refers to the consolidated status of mainstream ideology. It is important to note here that the concept does not exclude other minor ideologies. National culture is a profound source of national cohesion and a cultural foundation to keep a nation complete. As the base of national identity and the key spiritual bond that holds together a people and its country, national culture and its identity also acts as a source of ―legitimizing‖ a nation.1 ―Ethnic identity in the sense of culture creates a spiritual world and code of conduct for a people. And the positive sense of identity will produce strong inner power, sense of security, pride, sense of

1

Ernest Gellner. Nations and Nationalism. (Blackwell Publishing Ltd, 2007), 133. 17

independence, and self-respect.‖1Once the national culture is challenged or queried, people‘s sense of national identity is faced with a crisis and national cohesion reduces, signaling the decline of the nation. In this case, what a hegemonic national culture will deconstruct is the ―legitimacy‖ of a nation essential to the independent development of the other nation it is about to intrude. In such a struggle, one side will lose its national interests. Therefore, the implication of national cultural security mainly refers to whether or not the people acknowledge that the foundation of their national culture is being threatened or undermined. Here it is unadvisable to understand it as ―pure‖ or not because any alleged pureness is an isolated practice of a cultural system that wears away innovative ideas. Public culture refers to the colorful cultural life and activities of citizens. As for China, national objectives such as a strong state power, the well being of the people, a well-off society, and the rejuvenation of the Chinese people, although in material form, is rich with cultural connotations. The positive and healthy cultural practice in public is a driving force for national development, as well as a significant cultural pursuit. Distinct from ideology and national culture, public culture is a comprehensive presentation of the people‘s cultural activities. It is too diverse and complex to be covered up by ideological orientation or national cultural identity. Thus the criterion to measure the security of public culture is the bottom line of the cultural value that all cultural activities, regardless of form or abide by, and a dividing line to distinguish the true, the kind, and the beautiful from their opposites. In effect, public culture is the ultimate form that culture takes in order to function and realize its goal. The practice of public cultural keeps in line with mainstream ideology and national cultural identity while promoting virtues that will display a nation‘s cultural soft power directly. Otherwise, national culture and cultural interests will be put in danger. 3.4 Special dimension of national cultural security The subject of national cultural security, as mentioned earlier, is the nations of the globalized world. National cultural security is deeply rooted in the conflicts of cultural interests between nations. The source of menace to a nation‘s cultural security is, first and foremost, other nations who are seeking cultural expansion and 1

Xun Xu. ―People, Country, and Nationalism‖, Standpoint of the Intellectual: Nationalism and Fate of China

in Transition, Li Shitao, ed., (Jilin: Time Literature & Art Press, 2000). 18

penetration. Thus national cultural security is an issue of international relations. Nonetheless, origins of the threat in a broader sense include sub-national and supranational factors or in other words detrimental elements inside the country and globalized challenges to culture that all countries are confronted with. A supranational security issue is actually on par with international or global problems that mankind as a whole must tackle. To begin with, cultural security in the sense of international cultural relations accounts for the main body of national cultural security. Conflict of cultural interests is the root cause of all kinds of cultural security problems that any country experiences. In today‘s world, nations are still the main actors and international order is still the core of world order. Despite the appearance of non-traditional security and international consensus on comprehensive security concepts, the role that conflict of interest plays has not been altered nor denied. Moreover, the connotations of national security become more abundant and its structure more complex. National cultural security is brought up as a strategic issue thanks to the culture-oriented shift in international competition. Now that international cultural relations act as the basic frame of reference to evaluate a nation‘s cultural security, national cultural security on the national level becomes the main content of national cultural security. National cultural security on the sub-national level set its subject as the nation rather than an individual, a region, a nationality, or a group. Otherwise it would not be called national cultural security. In most cases, it emphasizes sub-national factors that result in security problems, such as the lack of vitality in mainstream ideology, dated cultural management mechanisms, wrong cultural strategies, and evil elements in public culture. As to national cultural security on the supranational level, there are two main conditions. One is the clear targets and goals of cultural activities that are carried out by non-governmental organizations. For example the Vatican church interfered with church management in China. Another example is Amnesty International‘s attempt to persuade German athletes and tourists to wear so-called ―Gold for Human Rights‖ bracelets during the 2008 Beijing Olympic Games. The other is global challenges to culture, such as cultural diversity being lessened, digital technology reforming mankind‘s way of life and stirring cultural unrest, newly emerging ethical dilemmas due to biotechnologies, and the appearance of negative ideologies like Fascism and racism. 19

3.5 Basic decisive variables of national cultural security To analyze and judge national cultural security and seek proper ways to improve cultural security, the first thing to do is to find out the reasons why the original state of cultural interests was broken and what the relation is between these changing factors and national cultural security. A nation‘s cultural security is put in danger where its cultural interests contradict with that of another nation. It is actually a game and contest of cultural power between nations, during which the culturally superior may extend or export its culture while the inferior would be confronted with the threat of its culture being intruded. In this case, cultural power is one of the key variables that decide a nation‘s national cultural security. That‘s also the reason why nations are busy increasing their cultural soft power. Nevertheless, cultural competition and conflicts do not always collide or end up in ―cultural wars.‖ How they will be solved is up to the conditions of the global cultural order. In a world where cultural expansion and hegemony exist, cultural power is everything. But in a world where the superior do not extend their reach too far and the inferior win due respect, conflicts of cultural interests find a peaceful way to resolve itself based on the principles of seeking common ground while reserving differences, learning from each other, paying respect to one another, and exercising equal communication. Therefore international cultural order and environment are also decisive to national cultural security. The cultural strategy of a nation (i.e., how efficiently cultural resources are organized, what countermeasures are in place to fight the cultural expansion of outside nations, and how effective they are) is also an important element. In a word, the three basic variables to determine a nation‘s cultural security are: national cultural soft power, international cultural order, and national cultural security strategy. As soft power, cultural power is made up by composite and multi-dimensional factors. It is up to potential energy, creativity, and transmissibility of culture. Cultural potential energy is the basis of cultural power and is decided by its vitality, historical accumulation and the size of the practicing community. That is to say that the more dynamic the culture, the richer history the culture accumulates, the bigger the cultural community is, the greater the cultural potential energy becomes, and vice versa. Greater potential energy requires greater external force to change its condition. It acts as the foundation and starting point of cultural power and is a given condition for constructing cultural power; however, it is cultural creativity and transmissibility that 20

to a large extent account for the competitive edges or disadvantages of cultural power. Cultural creativity is the central link in building cultural power, while cultural transmissibility is a direct manifestation of the vitality of culture. Traditionally speaking, cultural transmissibility depends on potential power and creativity. However, in a globalized world, the forms, approaches, and traits of transmissibility are under deep reform. Thanks to the development of science and technology and the trend of industrialization, the methods, skills, and tactics of cultural diffusion gain more space to play. Cultural transmissibility turns out to be one of the decisive factors of the ultimate conditions of cultural power. In modern times, it is largely determined by the state of development in the cultural industry. Global cultural order and environment is another key factor that decides national cultural security. International cultural order is a logical extension and decomposition of the concept of international order. From a historical point of view, the focus of international order has been changing. In the first half of the twentieth century, the world was in such urgent need of a global political order that it brewed the two world wars in the second half of the century. Wars and revolutions have solved the contradictions in political order, and people, especially in developing nations, have started to cast their eyes on the economic domain. Along with the end of the Cold War, world order was reshuffled, aggravating competition between nations. Moreover, the rocketing of science and technology and economic globalization provided a platform of contest with less violence for nations to deal with their conflicts of interests, giving birth to new forms of competition. Joseph Nye put forward the concept of soft power. His acute observation was not accidental. It is for the gradually outstanding strategic importance of building international cultural order that cultural soft power is given great attention. However it takes time and effort to establish a fair international order. Current cultural order is characterized by cultural expansion and hegemony. Thus the primary decisive factor for a nation‘s global position and security situation is national power; just as Deng Xiaoping remarked, ―Development is the absolute principle.‖ The enhancement of power demands effective strategic support because a high-quality strategy can make the best use of resources and bring out the best of national power. Thereby it is necessary to make a good and proper strategy for cultural security. Among which stressing the awareness of a national cultural security strategy is a prerequisite strategy. First, we must construct a vibrant atmosphere conducive to 21

theoretical research on national cultural security in the humanities and social sciences, as well as the culture industry. Doing so will enable academics from all fields and players in the culture industry to collectively form a consciousness focused on national cultural security. Theoretical workers on the one hand should carry out extensive research and function as a think tank to offer theoretical support and suggestions to government. Staff in the culture industry should cultivate an awareness of cultural security in the society, guiding and encouraging people to keep pace with the advancement of culture, carry forward national spirit, and go against cultural hegemony. It is also one of their duties to add cultural security to the national defense consciousness of the people. 3.6 Exterior relations of national cultural security Traditional security mainly refers to military and political safety. The development of globalization and the end of the Cold War added new elements to national security and gave rise to non-traditional security, in which economics and cultural security gained increasing attention. National security has evolved into a sophisticated and open system that includes military affairs, the economy, politics, and culture. It is a system where security and non-security issues interrelate to each other and mutual dependence and interactions among various aspects of the system are commonplace. For this reason, any discussion about cultural security without taking into consideration other aspects of the system is partial and incomplete. To start with, cultural security is a logical extension of traditional security. In fact, traditional military security includes political, economic, and cultural factors, which center on military tasks. Plainly speaking, military security is about safeguarding the country and the people living in it. The existence of a nation is the primary prerequisite for protecting a nation‘s interests, and military security lays the foundation of a nation‘s cultural security. Once a nation is seized, its people‘s livelihoods are at the disposal of the invading nation, its sovereignty is robbed, and its government becomes a puppet. The original cultural system is in danger of crumbling and being displaced and enslaved, and cultural security is lost. National security interests protected by military security are concentrated on a tangible physical form; this lays the necessary material prerequisites for the production of national cultural security. However, military security is a necessary but insufficient condition for cultural security. In fact military security does not need to correspond with cultural security, which can be shown in the case of ―the war without guns,‖ a kind of 22

non-military threat to culture. Conversely, cultural security backs up military security through a fortified mainstream ideology, deepened cultural identity, positive public culture, and a vital and lively national spirit. Without strong soft power and ensured cultural security, a nation is defeated before even entering the battlefield. Secondly, national cultural security and political security are bound together and closely interwoven. It is impossible to separate culture from politics. ―A nation‘s bad political situation will fundamentally affect the whole condition of national security.‖1 Political stability and independence are core elements of national political security. A nation that suffers political unrest internally and political interference externally will not have security in its culture; even its cultural system will crash because a nation‘s cultural interest is always in need of the protection from its political power. The decline of the Soviet Union is one case that illustrates the relations between political and cultural security. Of course, political security also seeks the support of cultural security. Nowadays, gaining political profits through cultural approaches has become an indispensible part of national strategy. Because ideology is the base to legitimize state power, an ideological crisis will undeniably lead to a crisis in political power. Therefore, a solid cultural identity across the country is of great importance to the unification of a nation. Moreover, public culture, as the liveliest presentation of national spirit, shoulders the responsibility of steering political evolvement to the bright side. Thirdly, economic security together with cultural security belongs to non-traditional security. Differing from the above two comparative pairs, their mutual relations are not always positive, sometimes acting as constraints for each other.2To secure its economy, a nation must, for example, be part of the world economic order, accept the free-trade system and an open and prosperous cultural market so that it can get involved in international society. In doing so, it must make concessions in culture and ideology. At the same time, in trying to balance the relationship between boosting economy and safeguarding its culture, some nations will be faced with the pressure of the cultural hegemony of Western countries. For instance, human rights-related 1

Zhengju Ji & Jin Wang. Top Priority of a Nation: New Theory on Contemporary National Political Security.

(Chongqing: Chongqing Publishing House, 2006), 5. 2

Xiaojuan Xie. ―The Constraint and Promotion of Economic Security to Cultural Security: on China‘s

Security Strategy‖, Studies on the Socialism with Chinese Characteristics, no 4, (2005). 23

matters often appear during economic and trade exchanges between the U.S. and China. Nevertheless, it is undeniable that economic security promotes cultural security greatly, consolidating and uplifting the mainstream culture. The economic achievements in China cogently demonstrate the influence of national spirit. An improved image of China in the world, in return, unifies the people, boosts their sense of pride and cultural identity, and more importantly builds a stage for the promotion of Chinese culture. Being the most popular way of cultural diffusion, the cultural industry contributes a lot to national economic development and the maintenance of economic security. The cultural industry in the U.S. for instance occupies the largest part of the country‘s export, and plays a significant role in expanding national cultural interests. It is noteworthy that security in whatever aspects will end up integrating into the national security system as a whole. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the security system as a whole when understanding national cultural security.

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Chapter One Strategic Background of China’s National Cultural Security in the Age of Globalization 1. Three Pairs of Strategic Relations in the Global Cultural System 1.1 Socialist cultural system and capitalist cultural system Culture reflects a society‘s economic base and political system. Its core contents cover value and ideology, by which the cultural system can be categorized into two types, the capitalist cultural system and the socialist cultural system. Capitalist culture values the expansion of capital and the maximization of profits, mirroring the nature of capitalism. It is shaped by private-ownership-based productive relations and politics, and in return serves and defends capitalism. In contrast, socialist culture emphasizes on social justice and the independent and comprehensive development of man, as guided by Marxist theory. During the Cold War, the two systems opposed each other. The contradictory situation did not get any relief until the end of the Cold War. Nowadays in the globalized world, international cooperation shows tolerance towards differences. Even though every country will highlight, rather than shun its mainstream ideology, history tells us that a fading mainstream ideology and topsy-turvy ethics are likely to breed social disorder. It thus calls for an investigation into the current situations of these two cultural systems. There are two dominant opinions about how culture moves forward in the era of globalization. Radical globalists represented by neoliberals believe that the globalization of capitalism is inevitable for countries that have gradually come under the constraint of the global market. After the collapse of the former Soviet Union and socialism suffered a huge blow, Francis Fukuyama put forth his ―the end of history‖ theory, in which he postulated that liberal democracy could be ―the endpoint of

25

mankind‘s ideological evolution‖ and ―the final form of human government.‖1 His views sparked sharp criticism from Leftists. On the other hand, Marxists and some of ―the left‖ call for the globalization of socialism. Cuban leader Fidel Castro qualitatively distinguishes globalization into two types: one that is an objective historical process and one that is advocated by neoliberal. In his opinion, contemporary globalization is one led by neoliberal ideologies, as signs of manipulation are evident. The global dissemination of neoliberalism, which is not based on justice and equality, aggravates polarization, causes global environmental disasters, disturbs world economic order, and impacts the sovereignty of developing nations. Given that, Castro puts forward the former paradigm of globalization to displace the latter. He believes that a socialist globalization is a blissful course that would bring about a common prosperity for the world. Moreover, Erik Hobsbawm, a British Marxist historian, shares this view. He agrees that globalization is inevitable, but he believes that neoliberal free-market fundamentalist ideology is irrational. Even though a free capitalist market generates a higher growth rate, it does not produce the best way for wealth distribution. In the twenty-first century, less and less people possess the bulk of social wealth, so the top priority is to distribute wealth properly rather than to increase production. In this regard, to redistribute wealth by taking advantage of the power of government and public authorities might be the only way. Hobsbrawn holds that socialism is based on the evolution of the various contradictions generated by capitalism and it must advance further through exploration. Nevertheless temporary setbacks do not predict the failure of socialism. Rather it stimulates new socialist patterns, for example market socialism. Socialism‘s replacement of capitalism is an inevitable trend for the whole world. Can a socialist cultural system be realized? This depends on the proper handling of the relationship between the two cultural systems. Human beings now are suffer from terrorism, environmental deterioration, and the broadening gap between the rich and the poor, and many other problems that pose a danger to man‘s survival. Neither distributive justice brought up by John Rawls nor the theory of communicative action by Jurgen Habermas can free us from the existential crisis, because modern capitalist society cannot get rid of instrumental rationality or inner contradictions. The task is 1

Francis Fukuyama. ―The End of History?‖ The National Interest (Summer), (1989). 26

also tough for socialism. Lenin has reminded us that the construction of socialist civilization should make the best use of capitalist culture. Deng Xiaoping has also shared the same sentiments, ―In order to win the competitive edge, socialism must absorb all the best achievements of human civilization.‖1 This tells us that to realize social equality and a thorough liberation of man, a socialist culture must be eclectic and innovative, move with the times, and borrow from advanced cultures including new modes of business operation and of management created by developed capitalist countries and other common property of human civilization. Socialist culture, in this way, will become the future of global culture. 1.2 Eastern cultural system and Western cultural system The global cultural system, based on regions and conventions, consists of Western culture and Eastern culture. Western culture generally refers to the cultural system that derived from ancient Greece and Rome, thrived during the Renaissance and the Reformation, and found a firm footing after the Enlightenment, and has continued to prevail for hundreds of years in Western Europe and North America. It is greatly influenced by medieval Christian traditions. Eastern culture, as referred to by academics, covers the expanse of Asia and North Africa, and includes three cultural circles: the China cultural circle (including East Asian cultures that are influenced by Chinese characters), the Indian cultural circle (including South and Southeast Asian cultures that are influenced by Sanskirt), and the Arab-Islamic cultural circle (including Central, West, and North Asian cultures influenced by Islamic culture). The primitive accumulation of capital boosted the industrialization of capitalism as well as contributed to the rise of modern Western civilization. The cultural hegemony formed by the influence of Western culture has become an integral part of Western hegemony. History has told us that after the Second World War, especially the Cold War, the West has interfered with the internal affairs of non-Western countries with the help of cultural hegemony. In the foreseeable future, not only will the economic and political power of the West will grow as globalization accelerates, but so will the frequency of which cultural hegemony is used. From the perspective of the interests of Western corporations, to realize a globally unified political ideology is an important approach for the West to maintain existing international economic and political order, and is also in line with their fundamental interests. However, for 1

Xiaoping Deng. Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping (Vol. 3). (People‘s Publishing House, 1993), 373. 27

international relations as a whole, cultural hegemony advocated by the West exerts a considerably negative impact. The best moments for Eastern culture were ancient times and the Middle Ages, during which the Four Great Ancient Civilizations (China, Ancient Egypt, Ancient Babylon, and India) came into being. In a cultural collision between the East and the West since modern times, Western culture shocked Eastern culture into a decline by with its superior material force. Despite that, the excellent traditional heritage of Eastern culture has greatly contributed to Western culture and even the whole world. Furthermore, unlike Western culture, which emphasizes transforming and conquering nature, Eastern culture seeks out harmonious relations between man and nature. From the history of cultural evolvement, it is clear that cultural collision and integration are the rules without which development and innovation are impossible and culture can hardly go anywhere far. After the outbreak of the First Opium War, China was invaded by Western powers not only militarily, but also culturally. The collision and integration of Chinese and Western cultures have profoundly impacted the politics, economy, education, and military affairs in China. The world today is open; it is witnessing the soar of science and technology, and an increasingly closer communication among nations and peoples. In such a world any closed-door policy would hinder and degrade the culture. While we admit and accept the indispensible role our fine traditions play in today‘s cultural development, only by continuously absorbing the strengths of other cultures can we enliven and develop our own. 1.3 National cultural system and worldwide cultural system The world has entered the post-Cold War era where ―multipolarization‖ and ―unipolarization‖ contend against each other, and the international system has transformed from two opposing poles to a relatively stable paradigm of ―one superpower with many great powers.‖ At the same time, the expansion of capitalist culture has taken a turn into a moment of cultural hegemony. The universality of values and civilization are the fundamental concepts that build up cultural hegemony. In other words, cultural hegemony calls for a global copy of Western free democracy and imposes Western values and behaviors on other nations. A global cultural system is totally different from cultural hegemony, as globalization is not the same as Westernization despite the fact that Western cultural is prevailing. The culture that belongs to a certain region or nation and the culture that is worldly universal are definitely not two extremes, but rather two existential states of culture that can 28

transform into each other under certain conditions. Therefore, the first step in setting up a cultural security strategy is to properly understand and handle the relations between national and global cultural systems. How do you define world culture? How is the relationship between a global cultural system and a national one? How can we properly understand the influence of global culture on national culture? All these are hot topics in the field of cultural studies. National culture is the aggregation of materials, behaviors, and concepts that are formed under a specific ecological background and historical and cultural environment, and contains mainly material and spiritual culture. World culture is, in a broad sense, a culture of unity in diversity that is made up of the cultures of all peoples in the world, and in a narrow sense, a culture universally accepted and widely acknowledged by the world, or in other words, a common element of all cultures. World culture is thus established on the foundation of communication and mutual understanding among cultures. Two conditions are necessary to realize a world culture. One is the openness of each individual culture, which allows it to transform into a universal system of understanding and sharing. The other is a mutual understanding and consensus reached among individual cultures, including the desire to understand each other and reach a consensus, the methods to treat each other fairly, the culturally understanding attitude in communication, and the values and cultural elements that can be shared.1 Research on cultural issues has been confined to traditions and modern times. In recent years, the influence of globalization has drawn academic attention. ―Globalization and localization‖ has become a new pair of research topics. Meanwhile, in the study of globalization, culture has occupied its due position, given its role in the global economy and politics. Under the grand condition of globalization, the challenges it poses to national cultures in particular, we see that on the one hand international cultural exchanges have reached a new peak, and on the other hand cultures of every nation have reached a new level of development. Where to go becomes a question that national cultures must answer seriously, and to deal well with worldwide and national cultures, having a clear knowledge of the collisions and integration of cultures is the key. 1

See also: Junren Wan. ―Confucius Ethics: The Significance of a Universal Ethical Resource‖, Tribune of

Social Sciences, no. 5-6, (1999). 29

Human culture is multilevel and multidimensional. Each national culture in its existence and development is bound to balance between national features and universal ones. Stressing only the side of localization and rejecting external cultures will lead to nationalism and even an appetite for neo-fascist aggression; whereas, an exaggerated emphasis on globalization will readily erase the uniqueness of a culture. Thus a polarized and extreme mentality should be abandoned. What belongs to a nation belongs to the world. The world gives national cultures a wider space to develop themselves and national cultures in return integrate into the world culture so that the latter is endued with endless vitality. In a word, world culture and national culture complement and promote each other.

2. International Cultural Strategy in Globalization 2.1 International cultural paradigm shift after the end of Cold War International strategic paradigm changed fundamentally in the 1990s. The collapse of the former Soviet Union, the tremendous changes to Eastern Europe and other events marked the breakdown of the Cold War paradigm. Since then the world has entered into a crucial period of constructing post-World-War new international political order. In the post-Cold War era, influential factors of global strategy underwent a series of changes as well. The economic power and military control that were vital during the Cold War still functioned but with less influence; meanwhile cultural impact played an increasingly important role. The influence of culture ―does not conquer a land or control the economy, but it subjugates the people‘s mind and soul.‖1 For this reason every nation attempted to attract people from other countries through its superior culture and appealing political values, or sought out economic and political interests in the long run by developing their cultural industry, or showed off to the whole world its unique culture. These were more a victory than any military conquest. a. The ideology is over? Or collisions among civilizations aggravated? Ideological conflicts lessened with the end of the Cold War, but were by no means wiped out. As discussions came underway about international culture in the context of globalization, two schools emerged in the international academic circles. 1

Xin He. The Rise of China and World Future (First Volume). (Sichuan Renmin Press, 1996), 70. 30

One school, represented by Francis Fukuyama holds that mankind has reached ―the endpoint of ideology.‖ The other represented by Samuel Huntington believes that ―the clash of civilizations‖ is salient. The End of History and the Last Man, Fukuyama‘s well-known monograph, describes the changes in ideology, ethnic ideas, and evolution of civilizations in the second half of the twentieth century. Drawing from Hegelian philosophy, Fukuyama put forward and pinned down ―the end of history,‖ arguing that ―liberty‖ and ―democracy‖ have been universally acknowledged since the end of the Cold War and whatever form a society takes, the two ideas will eventually come true. Through the lens of Western liberalism, Fukuyama deems the end of the Cold War as the end of mankind‘s ideological evolution. In his opinion, history is an evolutionary process of ideology; the contradictions that push history forward preexist in man‘s ideology, which once satisfied will end the evolution of history. Human government has taken many forms such as monarchy, aristocracy, and autocracy, among which liberal democracy is better than any other form of government that has appeared and will appear in the foreseeable future, and therefore it might be the only and ultimate form of human government. This and the formation of a universal and homogenous nation is what Fukuyama means by ―the end of history.‖ ―Given that the capitalist economic system, political institution, and values are an integral whole, the global application of liberal democracy as the political superstructure indicates the triumph of Western culture and values as the ideological superstructure in the world.‖1 Fukuyama holds that Western liberalism competes with remnants of autocracy, Bolshevism, fascism, and modern Marxism successively and in the end proves its superiority, universal value, and the dominant position of Western culture. The ―clash of civilizations‖ proposed by Huntington is another important paradigm in the analysis of the post-Cold War global cultural paradigm. He divides the world into ―major civilizations‖ that determine world paradigms after the Cold War, which are the Western, Orthodox, Islamic, Latin American, Sinic, Hindu, and Japanese civilizations, with the sub-Saharan Africa labeled as a possible 8th civilization. In the post-Cold War world, the underlying cause of conflict is no longer 1

See also: Wanyi Huang. ―Review on Research on Foreign Culture within the Framework of Globalization‖,

Journal of East China University of Science and Technology (Social Science Edition), no. 1, (2005). 31

from ideology, but rather from cultural gaps. The ―clash of civilizations‖ is bound to reshuffle the world order. Huntington believes the main reason for the ―clash of civilizations‖ is because the world is getting smaller, which increases the interactions among nations, strengthens the awareness of civilization, and stimulates cultural differences and hostility. Compared with economics and politics, cultural differences are more difficult to remove. Since the twentieth century, the clash of civilizations has become a global issue – non-Western civilizations like Confucianism and Islamic culture going up against Western civilizations led by the U.S. In addition, in the course of modernization, non-Western culture has moved towards localization out of the raised awareness of national identity and conservation of tradition; meanwhile Western culture has gradually fallen out of favor with non-Western countries. Huntington‘s analysis about world politics is not from the perspective of actual interests but from the perspective of spirit and culture. The connotation of culture is narrowed down to religion, which in his opinion plays a more important role than race and national conflict. Racial politics is regional, but the politics of civilization are global. Thus civilization is the final form of human tribes, and the clash of civilizations becomes a worldwide clash of tribes. However, both Fukuyama‘s ―end of history‖ theory and Huntington‘s ―clash of civilizations‖ theory have limits. It is impossible for ideology to come to an end for it always has a multivariant existence. And apart from the possibilities of conflict, there are also elements in civilizations that will bring peace to the world culture. No matter what, the occurrence of those theories shows people‘s desire and efforts to look for a framework for world politics after the Cold War. b. The co-existence of cultures and civilizations has replaced dualistic opposition during Cold War. During the Cold War, people mistook global politics for the politics of America and its allies, the Soviet Union and its allies, and the third world. The groups were distinguished from one and another by political and economic ideology. With the end of the Cold War, ideology was no longer a decisive criterion for new conflict, and coordinative paradigms that appeared in the new world order required a fresh frame of politics. In this regard, diversified cultures and civilizations, instead of a universal culture, will coexist in the post-Cold War world. The nations who are leading those cultures --- the U.S., the EU, China, Russia, Japan, India, and possibly Brazil, South 32

Africa, and an Islamic country --- will co-star on the arena of global politics, which will be unprecedented in human history. The cultural security situation of regions and nations vary in the face of globalization due to discrepancies in history, ideology, natural resources, economic level, political institution, and national culture. According to Rainer Tetzlaff, what constitutes the heterogeneous world culture is hegemonistic America, liberalist Europe, Asia in severe sense of crisis, marginalized Africa, and Latin America that is restricted by regionalization and democratization. China is also one of the countries that will support a multicultural community. Former Chinese president Jiang Zemin remarked at the UN Millennium Summit in 2000, ―The world is as colorful as the universe, so that a single civilization, a single social system, a single mode of development or a single ideology is far from enough for the diversified world. Each country and its people are contributing to the development of human civilization. Thus we should pay due respect to all peoples, religions, and civilizations, and promote communication and mutual improvement between civilizations in line with the spirit of equality and democracy.‖ c. Cultural soft power is becoming more and more crucial in international relations. Since the end of the Cold War, ideology and culture have replaced the state power that dominated the world via military force, becoming the most influential power. In Joseph Nye‘s theory of soft power, a nation‘s culture and values are also put in the forefront. Power, as Nye defines, is an actor‘s capacity to exercise influence over other actors to achieve the outcome he wants. Hard power is ―the ability to use the carrots and sticks of economic and military might to make others follow your will.‖1 It contrasts with soft power. The soft power of a country, according to Nye, rests on three resources: ―its culture (in places where it is attractive to others), its political values (when it lives up to them at home and abroad), and its foreign policies (when others see them as legitimate and having moral authority).‖2 2.2 Cultural strategies of nations and regions a. Nations and regions are setting up cultural strategies in line with their interests 1

Joseph Nye. ―Propaganda Isn‘t the Way: Soft Power‖, International Herald Tribune, (October 1, 2012).

2

Joseph Nye. The Future of Power. (New York: Public Affairs, 2011), 84. 33

and promoting their cultural influence. Nowadays the whole world gives economic development top priority, taking part in the global market and abiding by the international rules of economic operation. This popularizes cultural elements such as democracy, rule of law, regulations, and contracts that are embodied in global economic rules, making a globalized culture unavoidable. Nations around the world are adjusting their strategies to tackle the challenges and opportunities following cultural globalization. China‘s political, economic, and cultural strategies have turned a new page since the 1990s. Given the fast economic development and tremendous changes to international relations, the new group of leaders in China upholds a peaceful development principle. The United States carries out hegemonistic behavior and power politics. Militarily it resorts to unilateralism; culturally it seeks expansion and the diffusion of American values in the world. The EU is a union in not only economics and politics, but also values. Cultural elements have been a spiritual bond since the very start of the European Union and a key variable in the internal and external policies of the EU, forming the third attribute of the European economic and political union. Meanwhile, the EU is dedicating itself to talking and working with other regions and nations in order to exercise its cultural influence over them. The Russian cultural strategy is established on reflections on the long-standing cultural abuse by the former Soviet Union, and aimed at resuming the Eastern Orthodox culture, advocating patriotism, and building a culture of Russian characteristics. Latin American nations rethink their Catholic values and at the same time industrialize and popularize their colorful and unique cultures. In sum, every country and region is enthusiastically taking actions to construct and develop their cultures. b. All nations are structuring a cultural strategic system that is unique and in favor of national security. The confrontation between Eastern and Western ideology and between socialism and capitalism has gone with Cold War. Nowadays, the explanatory power of theories about ―interests‖ and ―balance of power‖ that were used to consider global politics is challenged. Apart from the accelerated integration after the Cold War, there was an upsurge 34

in the clash of civilizations. Racial conflicts, be it between Serbians and Croatians, or between Turks and Armenians, or Chechens and Russians, are practically the clash of civilizations. No one can deny the influence of Confucianism on China, of Islam on the Arab region, of Christianity on the West, or of Hinduism on India. Values shape the people who create different cultures; as a result, values indirectly fashion national culture. ―Once the rights of existence for a culture are deprived, the value system of society are eroded, destroyed and overturned, which indicates the death of the culture.‖1 Thus it is necessary to construct and maintain a culture exclusive to a certain group of people for the reason that spirit embodied by the culture permeates the mind and soul of its people, naturally forming an indelible mindset and feelings across the nation. To preserve national culture as a key element in national security is crucial for a country‘s long-term development. c. As nations emphasize cultural construction, they clearly demonstrate a broad world view. There is always something in a culture that is worth studying and borrowing from. In an era of globalization, a nation‘s idea about culture must be based on fundamental human values. Cultural diversity brings about rich exchanges between cultures. During these exchanges the outstanding elements in other cultures are continuously absorbed to enrich and improve one‘s own culture. Therefore it is not wise to construct a cultural strategy without referring to the latest developments in cultural communication. After all, nations and peoples in a modern society that was built on extensive social division of labor have something in common in one way or another. And all advanced human cultures are ready to share. Even though each culture possesses distinct values and features, values like freedom, equality, democracy, and rule of law are all we need to draw the whole picture of what mankind has been pursuing for thousands of years. But the difference is the application of the values and concepts changes along with the condition of a nation and its people, natural environment, history, and traditions. There are many examples of this. Russia, in pursuing its new culture, did not resort to the cultural autocracy used in the former Soviet Union. The third time Japan opened its doors to the outside world, it openly accepted advanced cultures from around the world. Singapore deciphered its ―Asian values‖ as, on the one hand, 1

Jinqi Li. ―Decoding Cultural Security‖, Thinking, no. 3, (2007). 35

traditional Confucian values that stress on family, ruling by virtue, and a people-oriented government, and on the other hand, observing modern ideas like rule of law, guidance of interests, and restoration of democracy. This method connects its own traditions with modern Western values. China in this regard shall be tolerant and ready to learn when establishing its outlook of national security, particularly national cultural strategy. d. Nations are working to develop a healthy, positive, and distinctive public culture and cultural industry. Basically, the cultural industry is a commercial activity that exploits culture by means of industrial management, creating economic and social benefits. It includes a number of social sectors including literature, art, entertainment, folklore, education, publishing, tourism, sports, and dining. Cultural products accordingly contain things such as publications, print, multimedia, audio-visual products, public performance, and handicrafts. Different from the traditional globalization of culture, the current one ―relies more on the frequent trade of products and services, public culture, the setting of global standards, international tourism, and network information services than military occupation and religious wars.‖1 ―Globalization facilitates a global popular culture with brand new features. This culture is a mixture of transnational mergence, McDonald‘s, Benetton, and public entertainment like soccer.‖2 Almost every nation is making its own policies for its cultural industry with individual features to add national character to the industry.

3. Cultural Strategy of the U.S. in the Context of Globalization 3.1 Evolvement and goals Cultural strategy includes all policies that make use of cultural resources to enhance cultural soft power, safeguard and improve national cultural interests, and to 1 Zhongying Shi. ―On National Cultural Security‖, Journal of Beijing Normal University (Social Science), no. 3, (2004). 2 Eric Hobsbawm. Eric Hobsbawm Interview on the Millennium with Antonio Polito (Chinese Version).

(Beijing: Xinhua Publishing House). 2001, 2. [Note by the translator] This quotation is from the preface of the Chinese version. Its source has been failed to be found in the original English version. 36

realize national goals. In international cultural competition, a nation attempts to enterprise influence upon the concepts, emotion, and mentality of people in other nations by exporting its culture, ideology, and social system in order to achieve its own national interests and specific overseas strategic goals. Culture is a key ingredient of the comprehensive national strength of the U.S.; so it attaches great importance in its cultural influence and cultural infiltration outside of America. The U.S., as we can see from the formation and implementation of its foreign strategy, has been plotting, targeting, and taking measures to expand its culture all over the world. a. Evolvement of American external cultural strategy Since the founding of the United States, Americans have believed that their country is a New World, representing the best future for mankind. This confidence and sense of mission spurred their impulse for cultural expansion. But for a long time in American history, the country was isolated from the Eurasian continent. As a result, it was neither prepared militarily nor economically to impact the outside world. Furthermore, its own development was not yet well-integrated, which led to them adopting an isolationist policy. During that period, American leaders emphasized the importance of being a role model, advertising that America‘s mission was to set a good example for other governments and to become a beacon to guide the world towards a brighter future. As its strength grew, the U.S.‘s expansion plan gradually emerged. The idea of external expansion occurred to the country in the twentieth century. Like the European powers, it began to grab colonies, bully the inferior, propagandize its own culture and values, and established capitalism in other nations in accordance to American will, achieving ―Pax Americana.‖ The Committee on Public Information was set up by then U.S. president Woodrow Wilson in 1917 to take charge of advertising and exporting American culture. This committee contributed to a 300% increase in the amount of exported Hollywood movies from 1918 to 1921. In its effort to deter Nazi Germany from gaining influence in South America, the U.S. facilitated the Inter-American Conference on Peace Maintenance in Buenos Aries, which was the outset of American cultural diplomacy. Later the establishment of the Division for Cultural Relations was the first display of America‘s cultural diplomacy in the form of a government agency.1 1

Huilin Hu. ―On the Cultural Cold War and Cultural Strategy Game among Great Powers‖, Studies on Mao

Zedong and Deng Xiaoping Theories, no. 3, (2007). 37

The Second World War was a turning point for the U.S., whose economic, military, and politic power rocketed during the war. As a leading power in the post-war world, the U.S. abrogated isolationism and stepped on road, striving for hegemony. Before formally joining the Second World War, America devoted itself to understanding its role in post-war world politics, and began researching its external cultural strategy. In 1942, Yale University historian Ralph Turner, who was responsible for drafting guidelines for postwar American foreign policy, submitted a memorandum to the Department of State proposing policies for postwar cultural promotion overseas. In the memorandum he pointed out that work as long as it is related to foreign affairs should serve the state. Accordingly overseas cultural work shall cater to national demands and keep in line with policies on economics, politics, and foreign affairs. In his mind, U.S. cultural policy should lead the world in ―democracy‖ and use its power to exert additional influence on crucial factors during the process‖ in order to achieve its strategic goals; and ―since America was using its power, he should use the cultural exchange as a tool.1 Through achieving a cultural identity in ―the Other,‖ its own culture and political interests can be preserved. The U.S. government spoke highly of Turner‘s proposal. Some criticized that Turner‘s memorandum ―not only proposed this fresh concept of ‗cultural diplomacy‘ by drawing upon the country‘s historical foreign cultural relations, but also an offered a theoretical basis and a guideline for America‘s policy shift from ‗liberalism‘ to ‗power politics.‘‖2 Cold War came hard on the heels of the Second World War. The U.S. government held that in order to win the Cold War, the country needed not only weapons and money, but also ‗cultural diplomacy.‘3

Just as former U.S. Secretary of State John

Foster Dulles pointed out, power included not only military force, but also an economic one, and power in morality and public opinion, although intangible can manipulate people‘s action. The Fulbright Act of 1946 became the first policy to provide the U.S. with legal warrant for international cultural activities. Later the U.S. 1

Frank Ninkovich. ―Historical Route of Foreign Cultural Relations of the U.S.‖, Editors & Translators

Reference Journal, no. 8, (1991). 2

Yongtao Liu. ―Culture and Diplomacy: Post-War American Foreign Cultural Strategy‖, Journal of Fudan

University, no. 3, (2001). 3

Robert H. Thayer. ―America‘s Cultural Relations Abroad‖, (November 5, 1959)‖, The Annuals of America,

vol. 17, (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, Inc., 1976), 546. 38

Information and Education Exchange Act of 1948, popularly referred to as the Smith-Mundt Act pinned down the purposes and tasks of cultural diplomatic activities of the state. Cultural diplomacy has became one of U.S.‘s national strategies ever since. From 1950 to 1967, America carried out a Cold War against Socialist Bloc. In 1953, the United States Information Agency was established. Then President Dwight D. Eisenhower designated two main tasks for the agency, one being explicating American policy to the outside world and the other introducing American culture. Despite later US presidents holding different opinions about concrete task requirements, they all agreed upon the basic principle of expanding America‘s impact and advertising American values. In 1983, the National Endowment for Democracy was founded in the U.S. with the mission of offering financial support to folk organizations to support the promotion of democracy efforts abroad, particularly those of ―non-democratic nations‖ in target states. After the Cold War, America has risen to be the only superpower in the world. Some Americans believe that America has won the Cold War ―not on the strength of its arms or the skill of its diplomats, but by virtue of the power of the democratic ideas on which American system is based.‖1 Leaders in America are more aware of the importance and effectiveness of cultural strategy in realizing national interests. Thus to take culture as soft power and exert influence on other nations through cultural export has become the center of America‘s foreign cultural strategy after the Cold War. In addition, the unique status and advantages in science and technology make it possible for the U.S. to promote its culture extensively and even to build up its cultural hegemony. In April 1990, then American president George H. W. Bush remarked in an interview that he tried to become a president who would help consolidate the worldwide democratic reforms. He also announced that the U.S. government would promote the standard of democracy and human rights, which according to Bush was America‘s new task in the world. In its efforts to accomplish this mission, the US government took several major steps like speeding up the permeation of American values in the then Soviet Union and declaring support for Soviet democratic innovationists, stepping into African affairs, boosting ―democratization‖ and

1

1.

Joshua Muravchik. Exporting Democracy. (Washington D.C.: American Enterprise Institute Press, 1991),

39

intensifying the ideology of the community and American values in the Asia-Pacific region. President Bill Clinton emphasized when he contended for presidency that he would pay more attention to promoting democracy and human rights overseas, while putting forward ―realizing global democracy‖ as the general principle as U.S. foreign policy. Soon after Clinton took office in 1993, he established the ―three pillars‖ for U.S. diplomacy, one of which being to promote capitalist democracy, U.S.-led capitalist values and political system to the world. In early 1994, the U.S. government put forward a strategy to advance Western democracy and the free market economic system worldwide, targeting countries such as Russia, China, Vietnam, and North Korea. This new theory boosted the dissemination of American ideas. The cultural strategy set up by the Clinton administration was very similar to the ―liberation strategy‖ brought up with by Dulles after the Second World War. Later in May of 1997, the new ―Shape. Respond. Prepare.‖ was conceived in A National Security Strategy for a New Century. ―Shape‖ means that America should not passively adapt to international circumstances. Instead, it should work hard to change them and turn them in favor of American interests. One of the elementary ways is through cultural expansion. ―Respond‖ requires that America deal with crises fast and effectively in the light of what are they and how much they endanger American interests. ―Prepare‖ asks America to become fully prepared for the uncertain future in order to make the twenty-first century a U.S.-led century, one that is stronger than ever. This strategy was a key step taken by the U.S. after the Cold War. It complemented its previously implemented foreign policy and marked the transition of American global strategy to the post-Cold War phase. It was diversified, flexible, and aggressive, attaching importance to cultural diplomacy. In March of 2006, then President George W. Bush made a report entitled The National Security Strategy of the United States, which clarified that American policies look for and show support to democratic movements and systems in every other nation in order to end autocracy in the world. The examples above show that cultural strategy has been being an essential part of the strategies for national security and international expansion. b. Purposes and nature of U.S. foreign cultural strategy America has set up its cultural strategy with its core political and economic interests in mind. In essence, American interests are to ensure the absolute safety of the state, boost economy, and maintain its status as a world superpower. Its diplomacy is always related to its fundamental values. It is a tradition for U.S. presidents to 40

attach importance to democratic views, and by making use of it they attempt to increase America‘s national interests. The expansion of American culture protects its cultural benefits in two aspects: firstly to make sure that there are no other nations of equal power who hold opposite political principles and values; and secondly to prevent itself from being threatened by countries with different values. To the U.S., the menace to its security comes not only from foreign nuclear military force, but also from opposing political and ideological ideas overseas. The latter can only be avoided by influencing others with one‘s own cultural policy. Only in this way can a universal culture and an international cultural order led by American values take shape. In fact, American cultural diplomacy is a type of cultural hegemony or cultural imperialism. Cultural hegemony refers to the phenomenon in which a hegemonic power uses their advantages, such as politics, economics, linguistics, and technology, to control the cultural resources and markets and culturally penetrates and expands into other countries, in particular underdeveloped ones, forcing the country to accept the hegemonic values and ideology, and reshaping them for their own interests. There are many reasons and approaches for this cultural control. Alvin Toffler remarks that the world has disengaged itself from the manipulation of violence and money and that future world politics will be in the hands of the powerful, who will achieve their aims through network control, information distribution, and the power of the English language.1 This cultural strategy, in essence, is in service of the basic interests of politics and military affairs. Given their attempts to play the role of the world‘s police and judge other nations‘ behaviors, this cultural strategy is necessary to lay a foundation for their global plan. 3.2 Main approaches As a constituent of national strategy, foreign cultural strategy is supposed to contribute to the realization of national benefits. Essentially, they must believe that American culture and values are of universal and absolute value. Then they must exert its cultural influence on other countries through exports and communication in order to deconstruct the original culture of the receiver and convert them into American values so that cultural hegemony can be kept. This American cultural strategy has been actively and extensively carried out 1

Alvin Toffler. Powershift: Knowledge, Wealth and Violence at the Edge of the 21 st Century. (Bantam Books,

1990). 41

since the end of the Second World War. There are mainly six approaches as follows: a. Cultural exports. Invade and colonize other cultural industries through dissemination and exchanges and alter the people‘s way of living. The U.S. government is fully aware that this is a war of thoughts where the victory requires the cooperation of all forces on all fronts, at home and even abroad, such as news, radio, books, publishing, movies, TV, music, dance, drama, literature, fine arts, education, sports, hygiene, and science and technology. According to Richard Crossman, ―The war possesses a huge arsenal of weapons like magazines, books, meetings, seminars, exhibitions, concerts, and award ceremonies.‖1In June of 1961, American film producer and director Darryl F. Zanuck deemed Hollywood films as ―ambassadors in an iron box,‖ and ―it is these tightly rolled cans of films printed with the ideas, imaginations, and creative talents of American filmmakers that can travel the world. I believe that American films are the most effective force to destroy Communism.‖2In putting core clues into the communication and exchanges of public culture, it is evident that with the assistance of strong economic and scientific power, these core values can spread into and infiltrate the receiving culture. The considerable volume of cultural exports makes possible for American culture to reach its level of popularity throughout the world. TV programs and movies, popular music and trendy lifestyles derived from the U.S. can be found in every corner of the globe. Even American periodicals about science and culture far outnumber that of developing countries. These products flood into nations whose state gates have just opened or are already wide open, enriching local life while assimilating domestic traditions. Fidel Castro once remarked, ―… Their [films, programs,

and

serials]

invasion

of

every

man‘s

soul,

man‘s

mind

is

3

incredible‖. American scholar John Yemma also pointed out that America‘s real ‗weapon‘ is the dream machine of Hollywood, the image factory of Madison Avenue and the production lines of Mattel and Coca Cola. American-made or American-style 1 2

Zelin Cao. On National Culture Security. (Military Science Publishing House, 2006), 27. Jing Liu. Compilation of Western Foreign Strategies (1st Volume). (Contemporary China Publishing House,

1992).16. [Note by the translator]: The quotations are back translated from a Chinese version to English for the original, which according to the book referred is published in a UK Magazine about movies and movie production in June 1961, has been failed to be found out. 3

Quoted from Arthur M. Schlesinger, Jr.. The Cycles of American History. (Houghton Mifflin Company,

1986), 157. 42

movies, clothing, and ‗insulting advertisements‘ have become the global norm from Bujumbura to Vladivostok and this, more than anything else, is what is making the world more American than ever before.1 b. Educational exchanges. Exchange students, visiting scholars, and cultural aids are America‘s main methods to reshape the values of the young in other countries and change non-democratic countries. Educational exchange, in particular student exchanges, plays an important role in foreign cultural policy and is one of tools to implement American foreign policy.2The Fulbright program is the most typical case. In June 1946, the U.S. Congress passed the Fulbright Act, which announced that residual materials during the war would be sold overseas for the purpose of offering scholarships to excellent students in other countries to study or lecture in America. The government believed that, as Frank reveals, the scholarship would mainly benefit young people who are in fields of humanities; overseas students should learn more about democratic system during their stay in America; and their study should be subordinate to the ultimate aim of U.S. foreign policy.3 Whatever the occupation or field of research, policymakers believed that the scholarship recipient‘s experience of being awarded a Fulbright scholarship would be a platform for them to become leaders in their homelands or even around the world. When they undertake leadership roles, they will wholeheartedly become the proponents and embodiments of American values and ideas. Because its funding is primarily aimed at cultural elites such as university students, teachers, writers, and scholars, it is deemed as a paragon for America‘s long-term investment in its interests. In addition, there are quite a few talent exchange and training projects in America, such as the ―International Visitors Leadership Program,‖ ―Information Center Project‖, and ―East-West Cultural Exchange project.‖America also launched other foreign cultural aid projects such as ―Volunteers for Peace‖ by sending American teachers, missionaries, and doctors to work overseas as volunteers and giving away free materials like books, magazines, brochures, and videotapes. In addition, the American government has set up an East-West Center at the University 1

Jonh Yemma. ―The Americanization of the World‖, Boston Globe, no. 10, (1996), 22.

2

Frank NinKovich. ―Historical Route of Foreign Cultural Relations of the U.S.‖, Editors & Translators

Reference Journal, no. 8, (1991). 3

Ibid. 43

of Hawaii, with the aim of promoting and improving relationships between America and Asian countries through joint work, study and research opportunities. All these forms of cultural aids deliver American values and ideology to the outside world. William Benton, who was in charge of foreign cultural relations, expressed his opinion bluntly, ―Educating overseas students is the most promising and highly profitable way of selling American ideas and culture in the long run.‖1 c. Expanding the publicity of American culture, values, and ideology via traditional media such as news, radio, and television by taking advantage of its strong economic and technological power. America has one with most developed media outlet in the world. The U.S. government has perfected the use of the news, radio, and television for cultural propaganda. Former U.S. president Richard Nixon believed that America ―should revitalize Radio Free Europe and Radio Liberty, and set up counterparts of them that can compete directly with Soviet propaganda in those areas of the Third World the Soviets have targeted for aggression‖ 2 Despite the change in the international situation after the 1990s, the focus of America‘s external propaganda had not changed; it still aimed to ―explain and advertise American policies with persuasive and acceptable language.‖ Its mission was still ―to understand, inform, and influence people of other countries for the sake of American interests.‖ The U.S. disseminates its culture and fashion of living by making use of high-tech methods and a well-developed mass media. Its worldwide information transmission system quickens the course of cultural hegemony. Although America only accounts for 5% of the world‘s population, it occupies almost 90% of news in the world. The information released by CBS, ABC, and CNN is 100 times that of any other country and 1000 times that of all non-aligned countries combined. American TV programs that are broadcasted in other countries account for 300,000 hours. AP and UPI release an average of seven million words and a large number of pictures to the world in over 100 languages. CNN has become the most popular visual media source and Washington Post, Time, and Newsweek have become a must-subscribe 1

Quoted from Yuanpu Jin. ―Cultural Diplomacy of the U.S. Government and Its Features‖, Foreign

Theoretical Trends, no. 4, (2005). [Note by the translator] Here the translator back-translates the quotation for failing to find the source. 2

Richard Nixon. The Real War. (Warner Books, 1980), 310. 44

periodical for relevant departments and academia in other countries. In fact, America monopolizes the source of international news and therefore acts as an effective tool for America to propagate its culture. American media and public opinion have entered into other countries, impacting the ideology and lifestyles of the people there. d. Spreading American culture by expanding the influence of the English language. Language is one of major carriers of culture and a symbol of a continuing national history and independent culture. Even though language is not directly connected to ideology or national interests, but a linguistic advantage can be used to disseminate values and concepts and gain national interests. People use languages to communicate, during which cultures interchange. Through language, they gain a cultural identity and a sense of belonging; therefore, language has a vital role in maintaining nationalism. In other words, the longer one studies and uses a foreign language, the less proficient he will be in her/his mother tongue, and the more likely her/his thinking habits and values will change. Foreign language speakers cannot help but become attracted to the culture of the language. Moreover, language bears not only culture, but also connects to politics and economics. In other words, language has been a valid instrument in political and cultural struggles and to win national and state interests. Huntington believes that, ―Throughout history the distribution of languages in the world has reflected the distribution of power in the world.‖ 1 America, who became a military and technological superpower after the end of Second World War, has dedicated much effort to promote the use of English as an approach to sell its culture to the world. Americans hope that ―if the world is moving toward a common language, it be English…and that if common values are being developed, they be values with which Americans are comfortable.‖2 e. Using the Internet and other new information collection and dissemination systems to manipulate the construction and understanding of knowledge in order to popularize the American culture and lifestyle and reshape the world‘s cultural system. The Information Revolution has fundamentally renewed communication tools 1

Samuel Huntington. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. (Simon & Schuster,

1996), 62. 2

David Rothkopf. ―In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?‖ Foreign Policy, no. 107, (summer 1997), 45. 45

and methods, and opened up a brand new era of cultural exchange and transmission. At the dawn of the era of economic globalization and the Information Age, America with its huge capacity of information and capability of disseminating information has great influence on the global paradigm of cultural transmission. With its competitive edge in the international business and information network, American culture is now synonymous with information and knowledge. In 1996, Joseph Nye and William Owens coauthored an article pointing out that, ―The one country that can best lead the information revolution will be more powerful than any other. For the foreseeable future, that country is the United States. America has apparent strength in military power and economic production. Yet its more subtle comparative advantage is its ability to collect, process, act upon, and disseminate information.‖1The United States has taken full advantage of the variety of modern mass media, including the Internet, to carry out their mission of cultural infiltration. Cultural hegemony in the Information Age is quicker and more covert than in the past with cultural colonization. Through this dominant information network, American values are disseminated into physical space as well as the spiritual and interpersonal. Speaking of globalization and cultural integration, David Rothkopf, a former senior officer of the U.S. Department of Commerce, pointed out, ―For the United States, a central objective of an Information Age foreign policy must be to win the battle of the world‘s information flows, dominating the airwaves as Great Britain once ruled the seas.‖2 f. Commanding culture, influencing the institutional reconstruction and selection in developing countries, attracting talents, and manipulating the establishment of international conventions through social science research and theory. The conflict between cultures or ideologies actually indicates different ways of apprehending the world, history, and human society, and of a nation‘s path of development. In modern times, Western culture has impacted and interfered with the primary social development of developing countries. As a result, the latter, particularly those who experience modernization later than others, have been stuck in a dilemma of choosing the correct path in moving forward. Therefore, there becomes an urgent need for the social sciences to construct a series of reasonable theories 1

Joseph S. Nye Jr. and William A. Owens. ―America‘s Information Edge‖, Foreign Affairs, no. 2, (1996), 20.

2

David Rothkopf. ―In Praise of Cultural Imperialism?‖ Foreign Policy, no. 107, (summer 1997), 39. 46

based on national conditions and historical pattern, allowing these countries to assess the best possible path. Focusing on the needs of the emerging Third World, America carries out research on the ―modernization theory‖1 in order to meddle with the development of Third World countries. To some American scholars, the building of ―truth‖ is more a ―weapon‖ than a product of knowledge. U.S. national security requires that ―academia deliver politically relevant knowledge about the world and the ways in which the United States could directly promote and manage social change within it‖2. The worldwide distribution of such knowledge that American values, consciously or unconsciously, sway developing countries who were hesitant about their road of development, to base their development on the Western model. In this case, the American route becomes the model for modernization; its pattern and values on democracy and freedom turn out to be those of all nations. 3.3 Major features a. Hiding its nature to confuse all. Generally speaking, every independent nation will set up a national strategy to maintain national security and boost domestic development. Their foreign policies are made to create an exterior environment that is favorable to their survival and advancement. The nature of America‘s foreign cultural strategy is to seek hegemony by popularizing American standards via cultural and ideological export. However, this nature is intentionally concealed. America poses as a humanist, serving the world. It tries to persuade the world into believing that its culture is of universal quality and a criterion to measure whether a culture is advanced or not. In this way it mixes its own benefits with those of the world and of human beings as a whole, attempting to gain moral support and legitimacy of its action. In fact this practice is very captivating and motivating. b. Active output and expansion. Culture is supposed to serve politics. America is fully aware of the significance of cultural strategy. Relying on its confidence in cultural, economic, and technological power, America has established an open, positive, and aggressive policy, which not only responds to the external environment, but also rebuilds and defines actions and practices, and impacts international relations 1

Michael E. Latham. Modernization as Ideology: American social science and “nation building” in the

Kennedy era. (The University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 21. 2

Michael E. Latham. Modernization as Ideology: American social science and “nation building” in the

Kennedy era. (The University of North Carolina Press, 2000), 7. 47

for the sake of its own political and economic profits. From the perspective of cultural transmission, ―the export of democracy‖ is both the content and form of transmission in foreign affairs. As for developing countries that are inferior culturally and economically, they have to passively adapt to it. However, as for America, ―exporting democracy‖ is of dual functions: on the one hand it promotes the spread of American culture and values, and on the other hand it is an approach to intervene in the internal affairs of other countries and of maintaining the U.S. supremacy. Thus, American cultural strategy is one that attacks to protect itself. c. American foreign cultural strategy is the result of a wholesome design and systemic arrangement. It is characterized by methodological diversity, complementary approaches, and orderly planning. It has integrated into the strategies of politics, diplomacy, economy, and military affairs, being therefore comprehensive, wholesome, and systemic. In general, human contact abides by the principle of peaceful means first and force second. This is also the cultural strategy of the U.S. It tries to incite and convince other peoples to believe in their values before resorting to military force, which is the last measure the U.S. would take. Their ways of cultural infiltration are various, including overseas activities of U.S. citizens in business, religion, education, and many other fields, bilateral cultural exchange projects between nations, and exporting American cultural products to the outside world. Government agencies directly or indirectly manage or guide the practices above by issuing certain policies and tactics to ensure that they will benefit the U.S. economy, politics, and national security. Culture is one of the most important driving forces for American diplomacy. However, what is noteworthy is that it always works together with other elements like politics and economics. 3.4 Influences on global cultural security a. American cultural expansion constrains the national culture of developing nations, eliminating their distinctive features and leads to a crisis of national identity. Cultural tradition is one of the essential factors that construct the meaning of a nation and the basis and source of national identity and the ―legitimacy‖ of a country. ―National identity, in the sense of culture, constitutes the spiritual world and norms of the action of a people.‖ And ―a positive one will produce strong mental power and

48

bring forth for individuals security, pride, self-respect, and awareness of independence.‖ 1 On the surface, national culture refers to fashion, conventions, holidays, and traditions, while on a deeper level, it refers to a ethos of a nation. Theoretically speaking, cultures of all peoples are of equal status and value despite diversity because of the times and phases of social development in which were formed. However, the ability of survival and development of a nation‘s culture is connected with its economic and scientific power. Culture in developing countries with a relatively weak economy and insufficient financial resources are inevitably in a more passive and inferior position compared with developed countries. Thus it seems that the more prosperous the economy of a nation is, the more excellent its culture will be. But this is actually an illusion. America manipulates the culture of developing nations by using its economic and scientific advantages. As a consequence, unequal relations between Western and non-Western cultures are formed, shifting from bidirectional and fair to one-way and unfair cultural exchanges. National culture is an indispensible foundation for the independence of a nation, and a premise to keep the characteristics and uniqueness of people living in it. The mainstream culture of a country, once conquered by others and forced to accept other ideologies, will not move forward of its own will. Nowadays with an influx of American cultural products, a Western outlook of world, of life, and of values, and its faith and moral standards have swept through developing countries, shocking their traditions and local cultures, deconstructing their national spirits, breaking up the society, transforming their morality, and taking away traditional virtues. b. American foreign cultural strategy undermines the stability of national ideology and leads to the loss of a value-based system of state power, triggering a crisis of political legitimacy, and bringing about social turbulence. Ideology is the dominant social ideas, values, concepts, and political principles established by the ruling class in order to guarantee their own interests. It is the kernel of a nation‘s culture, and the belief on which a government is built. More often than not, it is hard to distinguish it from national spirit and character. And more importantly it is closely related to the state‘s power, being protected and spread by the latter and creating conditions to ―legitimize‖ the latter in return. In this regard the 1

Xun Xu. ―People, Country, and Nationalism‖, Standpoint of the Intellectual: Nationalism and Fate of

China in Transition, ed. Shitao Li, (Jilin, China: Time Literature & Art Press, 2000). 49

acceptance of ideology among citizens is crucial to the stability and solidity of the government, and ideological crisis necessarily endangers state power. Given the significance of ideology as a major element of the cultural security of a nation, America established a cultural expansion plan that injects its ideology including political and economic models, values and morals into developing countries through economic globalization and their information network. Under such circumstances, developing countries are confronted with huge pressure and a challenge because once the national will is weakened and people‘s spirit breaks down, the whole country falls into disorder. c. It exerts great impact on cultural sovereignty to the degree that countries are deprived of autonomy. Cultural sovereignty accompanies the power generated by national sovereignty. It is the supreme power that can judge, manage, and decide all affairs in the cultural domain, including the rights of legislation and of cultural management, the cultural system, ideology selection, cultural transmission, and right of independent cultural exchange. The cultural security of a nation is first and foremost crucial to a nation‘s sovereignty. It is not allowed to infringe upon the cultural sovereignty of a nation, nor disrespect its cultural tradition. A loss of cultural sovereignty will definitely put cultural security in severe danger. After the Cold War, America has strengthened its cultural influence on developing countries. For example, human rights is a concept used by America to impact the internal politics of other nations. It is no longer a simple cultural element, but also a political word, and even a tool for political suppression. Human rights issues should be judged and dealt with depending on specific circumstances like time, space and cultural environment. However, the U.S. universalizes the meaning it embodies by exporting its ideas and thereby generating ―axioms‖ such as the notion that human rights are superior to sovereignty. In this way, it has changed human rights issues into instruments for interfering with the political and cultural affairs of other countries. The American view of ―human rights‖ is imposed on developing countries. Such a view emphasizes the individualist perspective and confines human rights to be the political rights and freedom of each citizen, without understanding to the reality in developing nation or taking into consideration its economic, social, and cultural situation, and ignoring other collective rights, such as their right to exist and development. Moreover, America lays excessive stress on international intervention, 50

including military actions and economic sanctions, on the human rights situation and other internal affairs of developing countries for the sake of its own interests. This is how cultural hegemony works. To America, human rights diplomacy is a fine arm for free and democratic countries to expand their influence, thus becoming an extension of U.S. foreign cultural policy. d. On the macro level, the U.S.‘s foreign cultural policy has broken up the multicultural structure the world ought to have, creating a situation in which superpowers leads culture, creating conflicts in culture, ethnicity, and societies between nations. A cultural pattern is when different cultures around the world gradually form into a steady structure over time. Nowadays, the world shares a pattern in which cultures coexist thanks to the diversity of human civilizations. As the Cold War came to an end, the antagonism between two superpowers collapsed. Huntington pointed out that in the post-Cold War world, ―The most important distinctions among people are not ideological, political, or economic. They are cultural.‖ 1 Moreover, people have shifted from identifying with and being loyal to their countries and their cultures. This change is reshuffling the world. And according to Huntington, ―for the first time in history, global politics has become multipolar and multicivilizational.‖ In the newly formed world pattern, it is likely that conflicts arise from cultural discrepancies rather than ideological or economic reasons. The ―clash of civilizations‖ will play a leading role. Culture is a reflection of the economy and politics. The powerful economy and politics of the U.S. will surely create an equally formidable culture. In recent years, international cultural exchange has shown a trend of imbalance, peripheral cultures being compelled to accept the dominant culture and the latter choosing and dictating the former according to its own needs. America with its strong culture is propagating its ideas and values, stimulating acute conflicts of ideologies. After the end of the Cold War, the U.S. tried to overcome others with its cultural weapon and determine the future of the world according to its values. Although it may not succeed completely, it has indeed changed the basic pattern of world culture, aggravated collisions that already existed, and exacerbate conflicts to the national level, bringing 1

Samuel Huntington. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. (Simon & Schuster,

1996), 21. 51

forth great menace to the stability of world order.

52

Chapter Two The Current Situation of Chinese National Cultural Security in the Age of Globalization 1. The Strategic Environment for Chinese National Cultural Security in the Age of Globalization 1.1 Globalization enables the transformation of Chinese society and reform in the social foundation of cultural development. Culture is a product of practical activity and its development is closely tied to social practices. The economic reform China is undergoing is a basic social practice that can be used to investigate cultural issues. In a globalized world, China‘s economic reform has pushed forward the improvement and development of the socialist economic system in China. To establish and perfect a market economy was not simply a transformation from a planned to market model, but rather a strategy based upon the overall trend of global economic development that pushed China onto the course of modernization. It upgraded Chinese economy from a traditional one to a modern one, and more importantly contributed to China‘s transformation from a traditional society to a modern one. In order to properly operate a market economy, there needs to be a set of law and regulations, especially a value system. Thus, the market economy is to some extent a type of culture. The imperfections of a market economy show not only the shortcomings in its management, operational methods, and rules and regulations, but also the lack of ideology and culture the economy is not equipped with. In the process of establishing and perfecting a socialist market economy in China, the Chinese culture will also undergo a transformation. With this continuous construction and perfection of the economic system, the existing culture in China will change and take shape into a new culture. 1.2 Conflicts between Multi-dimensional Information Dissemination and Cultural Construction The globalized world has opened itself to a surge of cultural products, frequent academic exchanges, contacts with all walks of life, and unlimited information from 53

the Internet. All these have exerted direct impact on people‘s ideology, encouraging diversified values, ideological patterns, and cultural life, and strengthening the independence, mutability, and discrepancies in cultural selection. The situation greatly challenges people‘s original ideology, value system, moral outlook, and faith, giving rise for concern in cultural security. Without a stable and common value system or a united community devoid of conflicting interest groups, ―national security‖, and ―a stable society‖ are just empty words. 1.3 Asymmetrically open market of culture challenges the development of the Chinese cultural industry The cultural market has been the focus of competition among nations, especially in the areas of film, music, and computer games. As an emerging developing country, China‘s cultural market has huge potential, but its uneven development has created an imbalanced openness and cultural vacuum, undeniably posing a great threat to China‘s cultural market. Moreover, since China‘s accession into the WTO, the import of overseas cultural capital and industries has put much pressure on the domestic development of cultural undertakings and the cultural industry. Take the publishing industry as an example. Look at some of the bestsellers in recent years, such as Who Moved My Cheese (2001 bestseller), Rich Dad Poor Dad (2002 bestseller), and the Harry Potter series (it reached a sale volume of over one million RMB soon after being introduced into China). These books share one thing in common; all of them promote individualism, heroism, and other Western values, which together with the element of witch craft have exercised a profound impact on the mental health, values, and world outlook of the Chinese people, especially teenagers. It is worth noting that the domestic publishing industry has paid insufficient attention to its original culture. Local resources have been overlooked, making it hard to create any work that is pioneering and powerful enough to have a voice in the global cultural market. Moreover, original works have been ignored, which has broadened China‘s trade deficit and minimized the edge that China‘s exported books has on the international market. Furthermore, some foreign-invested cultural enterprises have set foot in the Chinese book market and film and publishing industries since China‘s entry into the WTO, exacerbating the asymmetrical openness of the Chinese cultural market, causing the cultural market security to face many challenges. 1.4 The world culture under globalization develops in a new pattern, 54

influencing cultural development in China. Globalization impels culture and the economy to integrate, and that impetus becomes more and more evident each day, and culture no longer has an independent existence from social consciousness. Instead, it is rigidly tied to economics, and ―the culturalization of economy and economization of culture appear to be a salient phenomenon in the wake of globalization.‖1 This can be seen from following aspects. First, culture is experiencing a process of marketization. Globalization first occurred in the market, which resulted from the application of marketized interest-oriented principles and rules to culture. In this way, the cultural market has become an indispensible constituent of the economic market. Both the creation and production of cultural items rely on the market to allocate resources, to understand product demand, and to propagate and advertise. In this regard cultural activities are economic ones. Therefore, the evaluation of cultural influence starts to turn to criteria like market share, which is demonstrated by attendance, audience rating, amount of circulation, and clicks ratio. It is already a fact that culture has been industrialized, and has taken an increasingly important position in the national economy. Quite a few developed countries give priority to the cultural industry, making it a pillar industry for the nation. In turn, the cultural industry lives up to its name by producing considerable economic profits. The second presentation is the prevalence of public culture, which came along with the marketization of culture and moves forward with the help of globalization. Things like commercial movies, TV dramas, popular music, bestsellers, leisure-oriented magazines, cartoons, advertisements, fashion shows, and profitable sports games have already been a part of people‘s everyday life, and a perceivable cultural pattern. Third, new cultural industries continue to emerge. Apart from the traditional cultural industry and products, new ones in the fields of fashion, catering, tourism, for-profit sports, and fashionable consumer goods start to play a role in cultural dissemination. Knowledge economy fastens the blending of science and technology into culture. Culture makes use of scientific achievements, while the latter gives birth to new cultural industries like the Internet and the software industry. In the foreseeable future, novel cultural industries will spring up as high-tech industries like 1

Ziyi Feng. ―Globalization and National Culture Development‖, Philosophical Research, no.3, (2001). 55

information technology, new materials, biological engineering, genetic engineering, and aerospace, and they will continuously advance and integrate into traditional ones. Fourth, cultural resources, in-vogue consumption, and the market are going global. Take cultural resources as an example. Hollywood blockbusters Jurassic Park and its sequel The Lost World were made by referring to information about dinosaur egg fossils in China. Mulan, a movie produced by Disney, was inspired by the legendary Chinese heroine, Hua Mulan. Fifth, economic advantages shape cultural might and a powerful economy leads to cultural hegemony. Cultures, although different from each other due to the times and social conditions where they were formed, are of equal value. Thus, it is unreasonable if the world is manipulated by only one culture. In reality, culture is supported by capital and high-technologies. Whether the influence of a culture is huge or not, largely depends upon a nation‘s scientific and economic strength. The more powerful a nation‘s economy, the more excellent and important its culture will be. Therefore, the West, in particular the U.S., enjoys a superior status because of its competitive edge in the economy and science and technology. In consequence, unequal relations between Western culture and non-Western culture are aggravated and American culture floods the world. Cultural communication, which is supposed to be two-way and fair, turns out to be one-way and unequal under globalization. 1.5 Cultural hegemony of U.S.-led Western capitalism poses a direct threat to the cultural security of China In our discussion above, we systemically discussed America‘s cultural expansion strategy. It is worth noting that U.S. cultural expansion and intrusion is targeted at socialist countries, in particular, China, and this has become the principal source of menace to Chinese cultural security. The U.S. traditionally attaches importance to promoting ideology to socialist countries. Then U.S. president, Woodrow Wilson commented on the establishment of the Soviet Russia, ―Bolshevik is primarily ideological aggression. You can‘t rely on an army to defeat ideology.‖1 During the Cold War, then U.S. president, Ronald Reagan remarked, ―The ultimate determinate in the struggle [between the U.S. and the Soviet Union] is going on for the world will not be bombs and rockets but a test of wills and ideas.‖ He suggested that the U.S. should influence the people in the Soviet 1

Xiaode Wang. American Culture and Foreign Affairs. (World Affairs Press, 2000), 218. 56

Union through the dissemination of ideas and information. 1 As the pace of globalization sped up after the Cold War came to an end, the U.S. was busy working out its plan to dominate the world, in which cultural strategy played an important role. In the U.S.‘s National Security Strategy of 1991, then President George H. W. Bush said, ―We have entered a new era,‖ one when ―guided by the values that have inspired and nurtured our democracy at home, we will work for a new world.‖2 Clinton implemented a national security strategy with three core objectives: ―enhancing American security; bolstering [America‘s] economic prosperity; and promoting democracy abroad.‖3 As one of the three pillars of U.S. security strategy, promoting democracy has become a core objective of U.S. ideological strategy, which no doubt is targeted at China, the largest socialist country after the collapse of the Soviet Union. With the assistance of its strong economy and technology, America is spreading its ideas to the world through transnational investment, cultural product export, the mass media, and the Internet. In the era of globalization, the socialist government in China maintained and guided by Marxism and the leadership of the CPC is now faced with America‘s aggressive soft power. Apart from American ideology, its cultural values also have entered the national and public culture of China. America looks over the world with its leading position in the economy and science and technology. Globalization offers America an unprecedented opportunity to diffuse its culture across the world. Former U.S. national security advisor Zbigniew Brzezinski wrote in his book Out of Control, that to maintain America‘s leading position in the world required weakening the sovereignty of other nations and promoting American ideology and exemplary influence of its culture in the world.4 Currently, all nations sense the aggressive pressure exerted by American culture. China like many other countries is confronted with the expansion of popular culture, which has consumerism at its core, and in China‘s active assimilation of globalization, the healthy development of their national 1

Xiaode Wang. American Culture and Foreign Affairs. (World Affairs Press, 2000), 219.

2

George H. W. Bush. A National Security Strategy for the United States, (1991). Retrieved from

http://nssarchive.us/. 3

William Jefferson Clinton. A National Security Strategy of Engagement and Enlargement, (1995). Retrieved

from http://nssarchive.us/. 4

Zbigniew Brzezinski. Out of Control: Global Turmoil on the Eve of the 21st Century. (Touchstone Books,

1996). 57

cultural identity also faces serious challenges.

2. The Current Situation of Socialist Ideology in China 2.1 The ideological impact of Marxism becomes less prominent Marxism is the mainstream ideology in China. It criticizes capitalism and reveals the rules of development for Chinese society in a scientific way. Deng Xiaoping believed that, ―More and more people will agree with Marxism for it is a science, indeed.‖1 Recent years has seen a decline in the diffusion of Marxism, although its vitality and scientific nature are undeniable. Moreover, Marxist authors have explicated the advancement and limits of capitalist ideology that is now threatening Marxist ideology. From a historical and logic point of view, socialism and Marxism negate and surpass capitalism and its ideology; it is an unavoidable historical trend that the latter will wither and disappear as the former grows and becomes stronger. Nonetheless, according to Marx, ―A social order never perishes before all the productive forces for which it is broadly sufficient have been developed, and new superior relations of production never replace older ones before the material conditions for their existence have matured within the womb of the old society.‖2With the advancement of science and technology, capitalism has improved and strengthened its vitality. Therefore, we can never underestimate its ideological power, nor can we clearly know what is in the foreseeable future. Thus at present, compared with the declining but still vibrant capitalism and its ideology, the growing but immature socialism and its ideas do not have the upper hand. The collapse of the Soviet Union narrowed the Marxist cultural circle and enlarged the Western capitalist cultural community. The game of culture goes in accordance with the competitive logic of ―positive feedback,‖ which is named ―externality‖ by economists. 3 As cultural dissemination is globalized, cultural externality draws more and more people into it, expanding the cultural circle; conversely the more valuable is a culture, the more people it will attract. Positive feedback produces a virtuous cycle; whereas negative feedback will generate a vicious cycle. The cruelty of cultural competition has brought challenges to the 1

Xiaoping Deng. Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, vol. 3. (People‘s Publishing House), 382.

2

Karl Marx. Preface and Introduction to a Contribution to the Critique of Political Economy. (Beijing:

Foreign Languages Press, 1976), 4. 3

See also: Xiaoguang Kang. ―Outline of Cultural Nationalism‖, Strategy and Management, no. 2, (2003). 58

current central status that Marxism occupies in China. 2.2 The localization of Marxism is far from finished The longer a culture spreads the richer its accumulation. Marxism has been established as a government-related mainstream ideology in Russia for only ninety years and an even shorter time in China. As an exogenous culture, Marxism has been to some extent a part of the Chinese culture, shaping and changing the cultural characteristics of the Chinese people, although it has not set roots as deep as Buddhism, another foreign culture, has after its eight-hundred-year integration with the local Chinese culture. In comparison, capitalist ideology was born in the West. Capitalism‘s four hundred years of development has built a rich cultural heritage. Thereby it is no surprise that it will take more effort for China, with Marxism as its mainstream ideology, deal with the expansion of Western ideology. 2.3 The innovation of mainstream ideology has a blind spot The CPC is keenly aware of the importance of ideological innovation, especially after the ten years of confinement brought on by the Cultural Revolution. Deng Xiaoping pointed out in his speech at a party meeting after the Cultural Revolution, ―If a party and a people refuse creative thinking, over-worship books and theories, and wallow in superstition, the party and the nation will cease to live and not move forward, and end up in extinction.‖1 His remark lifted up ideological innovation onto a crucial level that closely linked it to the prosperity of the nation and political party, initiating ideological emancipation in China. Chinese ideology has been constantly improving since then. China freed itself from the shackles of rigid and exclusive thinking, abandoned a planned economy, surpassed the argument of public versus private, and socialism versus capitalism, and broke through many other ―bottom lines‖ to finally work out the principle of ―advancing with the times.‖ However, since there is no fundamental change in the political system of ―Soviet paradigm,‖ cultural activities under such conditions still rely on politics. In this case, the political party becomes the decisive actor in innovating ideology. The rulers of a nation care most about the solidity of their government; consequently, ideological innovation only focuses on realms that are relevant to governing policies and unconsciously ignore the needs in other domains. To put it plainly, ideology only reflects ―political rules‖ rather than ―cultural rules.‖ 1

Xiaoping Deng. Selected Works of Deng Xiaoping, vol. 2. (People‘s Publishing House, 1994), 143. 59

Ideology therefore becomes completely attached to politics, leading to the instability and incompleteness of ideological creation. It reminds us to pay attention to the shortcomings of the current innovative pattern while appreciating the creativity of ideology under the guide of Marxism. In contrary, Western capitalist ideology has a core value surrounded by a complicated system of various schools of thought. It is because the Western social structure has experienced everything from unification to separation, it can push ideology back onto a cultural track that parallels to and interacts with politics. Diversified ideas in the ideological domain and academic criticism are not political issues but rather cultural events. This gives ideology a broad space to bring forth new ideas. However, capitalist ideology deals with the crisis of ―explanatory power.‖ It has not explored a way deal with social contradictions or brought about a ―bright future‖ for mankind. Marxism advocates ―keeping pace with the times,‖ which offers abiding innovative power. However creativity cannot come to us by itself. It requires a full and sober knowledge of the disadvantages in China‘s ideological innovation system and the creativity of capitalist ideology. 2.4 The mode of transmission for mainstream ideology urgently needs transforming. The CPC has always stressed the transmission of ideology. Even in recent years the CPC regards ideological and political work as a lifeline. The control on ideas, public opinions, and culture is assured by political power. Concepts such as the mainstream channel, the mainstream theme, mainstream media, and the mouthpiece of the political party indicate the current dissemination of ideology. This mechanism truly worked in the Soviet paradigm of a planned economy and during the days of isolation. However, situations have changed along with economic transition, social transformation, accelerated globalization, and multiple ideologies. Moreover, factors that affect ideas have increased; sources and routes for the transmission of information have diversified. The transmitter alone cannot decide what the mainstream will be; rather it is up to ―the recipient.‖ The power of a ―mainstream idea‖ has weakened considerably, calling urgently for a shift in the mode of transmission. However, the actor of cultural diffusion is not soberly aware of the shortages, resulting in fixed forms, phony politics, and formalism. The transmissibility of Marxism as a mainstream ideology is not optimistic. 60

It is worth noting that many people subconsciously think that the West, especially America, does not care about ideology. Many young scholars in particular are reluctant to bring forth the topic in fear of being labeled as a ―left‖ thinker. In fact, America is one country that lays much emphasis on the transmission of ideology and is also the best transmitter. Indeed the U.S. is trying to ban the diffusion of certain ideologies even though it upholds freedom of speech and expression in its laws. But its deep-rooted indigenous ideology makes it a country with a strong ideology, whose diffusion relies mostly on people‘s cultural awareness. America can be seen in cultural products around the world, many of which have obvious ideological tendencies. The computer game ―Red Alert‖ vilifies and adopts a hostile attitude towards a red government, which serves a function beyond entertainment.1 The movie Air Force One connects terrorism with communism, propagating that ―democratic‖ nations are the only way to keep world in peace. Saving Private Ryan delivers an ethical dilemma of utilitarianism. There are many others like these, and America‘s cultural infiltration has already become too tactful and imperceptible. 2.5 Marxist ideology faces challenges in its ability to integrate social ideas. China's economic reform and initiation of a socialist market economy brought in new concepts and principles like freedom, democracy, equality, competition, human rights, credit, and legal institutions. At the same time, these market economic agents have diversified people‘s ideologies and thoughts. The utilitarian values and equivalent exchange in the market economy have become the code of conduct. In terms of value, citizens tend to prefer economic profits, money and materials, and individualism, undermining traditional collective values like ―national interest comes first.‖ The democratized politics and rise of civil society encourage people to think and act differently, to no longer blindly chasing after mainstream ideology. Moreover, the profit-oriented market educates them to concern themselves more about their own interests, to chose and judge an idea according to their own needs. These phenomena deal a blow to mainstream ideology and put it at stake. In addition, the development of a market economy makes possible large-scale long distance, and prolonged employee turnover a reality. It also increases ―blind spots‖ and ―faults‖ in the spread of mainstream ideology, and consequently weakens its integrative capability. 1

See also: Yuan Han. ―Analysis on American Cultural Infiltration from the Computer Game Red Alert‖,

Journal of Ideological and Theoretical Education, no. 7, (2004). 61

The globalization of the dissemination of information has greatly enriched people‘s stock of knowledge and information. However, some of the ideas being spread out, like individualism, egoism, utilitarianism, and pragmatism, have posed acute threats to the socialist ideological system. If all kinds of Western thoughts and cultures swarm into China, collisions and turbulence in ideology maybe triggered. Under the brilliance of the various schools of thoughts, theories, and point of views that China has draw into its own, China also suffers from the negative impact of flawed ideologies. Furthermore, the openness of network communication has broken the censorship and selective system of the nation. As a result, multiple social ideas and values coexist, offering alternatives for people to choose. The conflicts and contradictions of the formation of a guiding ideology and the diversification of the social consciousness have caused the guiding force and integration of Marxism to face many challenges.

3. Problems in Chinese National Cultural Development 3.1 The potential energy of Chinese culture is its losing competitive edge Chinese culture is extensive, profound, and with unique charms. As British historian Arnold Toynbee has pointed out, the Chinese culture is one of the few that has passed down to the present from ancient times. Its continuous existence shows its vitality as well as the selection of history. Compared to Western culture, which has dealt with obstacles and problems, the twenty-first century has brought new growth and excitement for the Chinese culture. But since the core value of Chinese culture is closely related to production in an agricultural society, the contemporary culture of China has not been fully successful in its ―creative transformation‖, even after the May 4th Movement devoted to a cultural turn by science and democracy it was upholding. While as to the vitality of American culture, opinions vary. Some hold that America is a cultural desert, where its consumer culture is a ―pseudo-culture‖ that lacks humanistic care. It is indeed one of the problems American culture is faced with. But objectively speaking, America being the most developed country in the world, its culture is characterized by the achievements and problems brought along by industrialization, as well as the dilemmas and reflections of a post-industrial society. There is no denying that American culture is valuable and full of energy. Chinese culture, thanks to its long history, has a great cultural accumulation, which is the most crucial factor in deciding its cultural potential energy, as well as a 62

key source of national identity and cohesion. In contrast, the U.S. has no ―childhood.‖ Its traditions were not created in its own land but brought to the continent by immigrants, altered and formed by eventually suppressing the aboriginal culture. The two-hundred years old American culture is still young compared to the history of human civilization. It delivers the energy of youth as well as reveals its lack of depth. Man is the carrier of culture. Chinese people are thus the symbol of its culture. The number of Chinese people shows, to some extent, the scope of the community of Chinese culture. Some East Asian countries are also historically influenced by Chinese culture, resulting in elements of Chinese culture being integrated into their local cultures. Since the American cultural circle has extended all over the globe, it has overlapped with the Chinese culture in many places, but as a whole, the American cultural circle is bigger. In summary, relations between the cultural potential energy of China and the U.S. are intricate, accentuating the importance of cultural transmissibility and creativity. 3.2 The worrisome creativity of Chinese culture Cultural potential energy is the foundation and starting point of cultural power, or in other words the given conditions for building cultural power. Therefore, the changes in competitive edges or disadvantages of cultural power mostly depend on cultural creativity and transmissibility, of which the former being the central link is the decisive force that shapes cultural power. Chinese culture is a dynamic concept and not entirely equal to traditional culture, for it has been developing for thousands of years, of which different stages gave different connotations to Chinese culture. We all agree that Tang Monk, the erhu, and the cheongsam are a part of Chinese culture despite being borrowed from outside cultures and not strictly traditional. When we speak of Chinese culture and the creativity of Chinese culture, we often refer to the contemporary culture in China, including the achievements of cultural reform during the May 4th Movement. The Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of the CPC held in 1978 is a watershed in Chinese history, leading Chinese culture development into a golden, prosper, and innovative age. However compared to the outside world, theoretical results and artistic work that can be counted as innovation and attract the world‘s attention are few in number. The reason is that the development of Chinese national culture is attached to, subject to, and at the service of ideology, so the part of 63

national culture that directly serves ideology will update as the latter does, while the rest part of it stays in place. It results in the absence of sounds from the ―Chinese schools of thought‖ because China‘s academic frontier is too busy learning and spreading Western opinions. ―What we call the ‗innovative part‘ of Chinese academia is the literature since the 1980s which is nothing but Western modernism and postmodernism. Even literary criticism is filled will Western theories like existentialism, reception aesthetics, post-structuralism, feminism, post-colonialism, and globalization. In this regard, even the best Chinese critics are repeating Western words and ideas.‖1 ―Modernism and postmodernism have already become a new type of mental and cultural stagnation in China, resulting in the weakened creativity of modern Chinese culture.‖ 2 In a word, the creativity of Chinese culture needs stimulating, which however is suppressed by the introduction of Western thoughts and cultural products. It is of particular concern. Waves of Western thought come to us one after another, from Wallerstein and Habermas to Giddens, from neoliberalism and the Third Road, to the clash of civilization, and from Red Alert and Titanic to Harry Potter. All of them acutely impact our thinking and senses. In the contest of cultural creativity, Chinese culture is at a disadvantage. 3.3 Chinese national cultural identity is threatened by post-Cold War national secessionism and religious extremism. According to culturology, nationalism is the state institution and cultural identity of one people. It emphasizes the concept of history and cultural individuality, and prefers ―collective rationality‖ rather than the ―human identity‖ held by cosmopolitanism. Nationalism first came into being as a modern thought and practice on the European land in the late eighteenth century when Western countries were being built and the Great French Revolution took place.3 Two key phases constitute the evolvement of nationalism. The first is from Napoleon stirring up wars in the 1

Ning Fang, ed.. ―Turn of the Century: Review and Prospect on Theoretical Research of Art and Literature in

China‖, Guangming Daily, (July 22, 1999). 2

Huilin Hu. ―Culture Industry Development and National Culture Security: Development Issues about

Chinese Culture Industry under the Background of Globalization‖, Quarterly Journal of the Shanghai Academy of Social Sciences, no. 2, (2000). 3

Eric Hobsbawm. Nations and Nationalism since 1780: programme, myth, reality (2nd Edition). (Cambridge

University Press, 1991), 101. 64

nineteenth century to the establishment of international order by the European nations. The second is the multiple development of nationalism worldwide after the Second World War. In Asia, Africa, and Latin America, the fast spreading nationalist thoughts backed up national independent movements in these continents, which eventually put an end to the colonization of Europe on their land. In Eastern Europe, the fall of Communism and collapse of the Soviet Union from the late 1980s to early 1990s encouraged nationalist activities, which developed extremely into national secessionism. The world after the Cold War is one of turmoil in which the new global order struggled to replace with the old one and national separatist forces seized the chance to gather strength and aligned themselves with religious extremists, menacing the security of nations. In China, the most typical cases are groups with a terrorist nature like Tibetan separatists and Eastern Turkistan forces. Extremist forces like these are usually equipped with a complete theoretical system, propagating what goes against national unity advocated by the Chinese cultural system. It is a vital threat to the national interests of all people in China, as well as to national security and culture security of China. Western opponents are used to resorting to ethnic and religious issues to ―Westernize‖ and ―differentiate‖ China. Under the financial support of anti-China forces in foreign countries, the extremist forces distort history and churn out lots of theories that are inconsistent with historical truth by making use of ethnic and religious culture. For example, the East Turkistan forces has made up a theory of ―the supremacy of East Turkistan‖ and of ―the independence of Xinjiang.‖ They boast a long history of its nationality, and the vast land of its ―country,‖ and even claim that the ―country‖ is the birthplace of human civilization. They call the nationalities that lived in northern and western ancient China, including those that spoke and did not speak the Turkic languages, as Turk or Tujue. Their cultures are categorized as Turkic culture, and they have included into their ―nation‖ all the places in which they have been or lived. This extremist force incites all who speak Turkic languages and are Muslim to join up to build an Islamic nation where the state and the church are unified. Based on this theory, they put forward another to separate Xinjiang from China. They intentionally distort history and fabricate the story of ―East Turkistan‖ being an independent country ever since ancient times and of nationalities in northern and western ancient China belonging not to China but to East Turkistan. It is a fallacy that 65

fundamentally denies the history that Xinjiang has been an indivisible part of China since the Western Han Dynasty. The ―independence of Tibet‖ is an action based on the concept of a ―Greater Tibet.‖False theories in academic disguise enter China and carry out national separatist practices. The threat to national culture is more dangerous than that to politics. ―The most dangerous cultural conflicts are those along the fault lines between civilizations‖ 1 These theories through various forms of socialization lessen the national identity of people. In the post-Cold War world, national separatists try hard to instill their ideas into the Chinese culture through various means including the Internet. They attempt to internationalize their issues by taking advantage of ―human rights,‖ ―the right to national self-determination‖ and other so-called international laws. With overseas assistance, national separatists have united other separatist forces and become a severe menace to the national cultural security of China. It is an urgent task for China to deal with challenges to national and cultural securities in the post-Cold War era. 3.4 Networks and digital technology pose a challenge to Chinese cultural dissemination The communication of culture always needs a channel. The international network is one of the channels that push forward globalization. The extensive application of the Internet makes cultural exchanges more direct and convenient. Cultural communication is one where people share their knowledge, concepts, and social ideologies. In an information-based society, network communication technology has become a strategic one used to control information and commercialize cultural resources. Network communication technology is derived from America and supplements the Western patter of globalization, characterized by American ideologies. It is a cultural expansion made possible by digital technologies. The most typical phenomenon is the supremacy of English in the network. English is the most widely used language in the world, over seventy countries recognize it as an official or unofficial language, 380 million people speak English as their mother tongue, and about 1.6 billion use English. Moreover, 80% of all electronic information in the 1

Samuel Huntington. The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order. (Simon & Schuster,

1996), 28. 66

whole world is stored in English, and more than 80% of content in the network is also in English. Roy Weatherford, an American scholar was glad to see English replacing other languages and deemed it as a result of ―America being the super power in military, economy, and entertainment.‖ He believed that this will ensure world peace, or ―what the patriots and Chauvinists fear most is going to be true, that is we are finally becoming one world, one government, and one culture.‖ ―While we are importing English-written textbooks about natural science and the humanities and social science, setting rules to teach in English and to think in English, we are losing the chance to think and create things in our mother tongue, and even the ability to innovate.‖1 The complicated and changing network environment and the fragile information system objectively determine the safety of a network‘s security. And at the same time, the Internet is a technology that is value-orientated. It becomes a formless territory for national security when it has permeated every corner of the world. ―Cyberspace is just a concept and a framework of planning the world and designing activities. In this framework, the language barrier will disappear, under which circumstance whoever makes the best use of the linguistic and informational advantages will gain profits up to the hilt.‖2 In a sense, the one who controls the Internet controls everything; the one who loses its control of the Internet may put itself in danger. Some Western developed countries take advantage of their advanced technology to culturally expand into developing countries. In the era of the Internet, the national culture in developing countries and regions is marginalized and in a weak position in the midst of cultural globalization. To preserve national characteristics and promote the modernization of culture is a pair of contradictions that need dealing with especially in developing countries. One of the typical examples is the ―media transfer‖ of cultural legacy, which has been a concern for cultural organizations and enterprises all over the world since the popularization of digital technology. The transfer requires fully developed technologies and large investment demand, putting underdeveloped countries in a disadvantageous position. According to World Culture Report issued by UNESCO, underdeveloped countries are faced with two dangers in terms of the digitalization of their cultural legacy. One 1

Jun Xu. ―Language, Translation, Cultural Diversity‖, Weekly Book Reading Newspaper, (June 28, 2002).

2

Huilin Hu. Chinese National Culture Security. (Shanghai People‘s Publishing House, 2005), 202. 67

is that in this era of the knowledge economy, they are likely to rely on other countries to digitize their cultural legacy so that they export cheap cultural resources and import cultural products (even domestic ones that are processed by other nations). The other is that their legacy is digitized by non-legacy-source countries and the right to explain their own culture is lost and the basic meanings of the legacy have changed. The intangible cultural heritage in China is abundant, urgently calling for digitalization. However, cultural information in China is relatively left behind. Relevant talents are insufficient, plus unhealthy content prevails through the Internet. All these conditions form a worrisome prospect of network security for Chinese culture. The Internet is the speaker of the future. Cultural construction of the Internet is a core issue that is related to national cultural security now and in the days to come.

4. Challenges to the Development of Public Culture in China 4.1 Imbalance between the economic and social benefit of cultural production The masses are the subject of public culture; and the production and consumption of cultural products are the main ways to realize public culture. China is now experiencing acute social reform, during which the commercial features of public culture stimulate the tendency of vulgarity, forming a threat to public spiritual culture. ―Public cultural production no longer sets aesthetics or spiritual values as an ideal. Instead, the exchange value and usage value of products come first. People are regarded as the consumers of products.‖ 1 Motivated by commercial profits, public cultural products become the method and tool for making money. Producers care more about popularity and economic profits than the quality and aesthetic value of cultural products. The value of a product depends on whether or not consumers are willing to pay for it. This phenomenon leads to the bungling of cultural products that aim only to please the masses, to satisfy their wants and desires, causing the rationality that public culture should have to become overwhelmed by interest. In turn, this causes public cultural products of vulgar or low quality to appear.

1

Lixu Chen. Urban Culture and Spirits. (Southeast University Press, 2002), 168. 68

They advocate violence, superstition, and carnal desires. Catering to market demands, cultural trash alike is massively duplicated and spread to every corner of society. Social benefits are replaced by economic ones that start to guide cultural production. 4.2 Elite culture and public culture become two worlds apart Public culture corresponds to elite culture to some degree. ―If the cultural resource does not offer points of pertinence through which the experience of everyday life can be made to resonate with it, then it will not be popular.‖1 Thus different from elite culture, public culture has the following features. Firstly, it is commercialized. With the massive production and marketing of cultural products, public culture activity is a consumption behavior that came into being along with trade and commodity production. Secondly it is popular. Public culture is not exclusive to one certain social stratum, but has been scattered throughout the grassroots culture. Its nature of popularity and grassroot origins become more and more prominent as Internet technologies advance. Third, public culture is an epidemic culture and a culture in vogue. It shows the superficial nature of cultural production. The quick pace of modern life accelerates the updates of demands for new products. How fast a cultural product will become fashionable is up to its production phase. New social demands will also abridge the production phase. Last but not the least, public culture is recreational. In a consumer society, consumers are surrounded and lured by overwhelming advertisements, visually heavy movies, and absurd soap operas. Nowadays, elite culture tends to be entertaining, vulgar, and over commercialized. For instance, some classic literary works are adapted into movies and degraded into simple and superficial stories devoid of the original charm of the classics. What is worse, ancient poems, historical records, and literature are paraphrased using vernacular Chinese; Lao Tse and Chuang Tse are recomposed in the form of cartoons. Serious academic works alike are illustrated in order to cater to the need of fast-food reading. Some classic works of art are changed into ridiculous products of entertainment and are even spoofed on Internet. To present elite cultural materials in pictures and on the Internet intensifies people‘s preferences for images and an audio-visual experience. In this way, people‘s aesthetic values become more perceptual and their ability to think weakens, which brings about adverse affects on society. 1

John Fiske. Understanding Popular Culture (2nd Edition). (Routledge, 2010), 102. 69

Public culture answers to the needs of mass consumption and serves as entertainment, which results in a fixed mode of consumption and a low and mediocre cultural lifestyle. ―The sacredness and rich emotion embodied in classic arts, the reasoning and deep thoughts in literary masterpieces, and the passion and will in revolution-related

artistic

works

gradually

disappear.‖

1

Popular

and

easy-to-understand literary works and even erotic literature, which replace ancient and serious ones, are in vogue. People have easy access to risqué VCDs. Talent shows are widely welcomed and accepted. The rational part of traditional culture is gradually ignored. People aesthetically prefer shallow and direct ways of expression, financial pursuits, sexual freedom, and even promiscuity. In recent years, college students in China have taken a ―fast food‖ approach towards love, one with less romance and faster progress. Pushed forward by commercial capital, commercial exploitation has become a conventional practice for public culture. Idols originally established under the mainstream ideology have lost the attention of the ordinary people. Instead, people are more concerned with mindless cultural trivia, like the love triangle between pop stars Nicholas Tse, Cecilia Cheung, and Faye Wong, singer Sandy Lam‘s small eyes, actor Leonardo Di Caprio‘s new love interest, Kate Winslet‘s divorce, athletes Ronaldo and Michael Jordan, and even video game characters. One could say that blindly idolizing pop stars is now a hot topic of consumption in public culture. Historically speaking, public culture is a development process that corresponds to elite culture. Mainstream ideology in China has, to a large extent, accommodated itself to the demands of the market economy and the overall trend of a multicultural coexistence since China‘s economic reform. It encourages and promotes the growth of public culture and at the same time ensures the unification, efficacy, and leading role of mainstream ideology. The market-oriented cultural industry continues to grow vigorously under the support of government policy. Meanwhile, the humanistic spirit of the elite culture that pursued ultimate care is bewildered and loses its values in the tides of globalization, leading to increasingly highlighted cultural fracture and less mainstream-oriented works of arts. As a result, we are now entering into an era of pictures and sounds, and the elite culture has changed greatly. As society transforms and polarizes, and higher education becomes universal, the connotation of the intellectual as the promoter of elite culture has been rewritten. Only 1

Wang Bin. ―Influence of Public Culture on Young People‖, Journal of Teenagers, no. 3, (2001). 70

a group of intellectuals who are dedicated to science and technology, together with the newly-formed cultural media, is differentiated from the rest who hold steadfastly onto the original intellectual conviction. After China opened up to the outside world, knowledge and intellectuals came to play a more important role in society. The elite culture in particular broke away from the mainstream culture and became one of the driving forces of the reform and social transformation in China. It has taken the lead in the debate of truth, the ideological liberation movement, on literature from reform literature to neo-realism literature, rational thinking over the market economy, the establishment of theory about mixed economy, and on discussions of losing of humanistic spirit. Elite culture is in a sense a carrier of social cultural ideal and humanistic spirit, being made, spread, and shared by intellectuals. Its values can be accepted by the society via popularization. It shoulders the holy task of educating society and enterprising innovation and acts as the interpreter and disseminator of classical and orthodox ideas. Nevertheless, the formation of elite culture is restricted by history and culture system. In the market economy, the gap between elite culture and the public one is widening. First, we can see this from the values they promote. Elite culture has the responsibility of enlightenment, carrying forward the truth, safeguarding ideals, and setting an example for social development while upholding humanistic care. In contrast, public culture refers to industrialized, commercialized and fashion-oriented cultural consumption. It is reciprocal and able to be produced in large amounts, with the goal of satisfying people‘s demands for recreation and other sensory desires. Another difference lies in aesthetic taste. Elite culture cares about the construction of values, morality, life, innovation, and beauty. Its aesthetic pursuit is in a sense metaphysical. Public culture, in comparison emphasizes contentment of desires and short carnal experience, and consuming beauty, which is a physical trend of aesthetic taste. Since public culture has joined hands with the market economy, elite culture is on a sticky wicket. With the market mechanism, public culture can gain popularity without much advertising. Some intellectuals take part in the production of public culture, enhancing people‘s taste for and quality of cultural products and while weakening the power and voice of elite culture. Thus, while we support the development of public culture, the elite culture, especially the scientism and humanism that it holds fast to, deserves protection and respect as the pacemaker for public culture. 71

4.3 The true, the good, and the beautiful are losing their guiding function in public culture The security of public culture is demonstrated mainly by the development of what is true, good, and beautiful. Commercial capital gradually erases the positive guiding function of the cultural industry due to its profit-oriented nature. ―Being different from film and TV in the 1980s, those in contemporary life no longer chase after the ultimate meaning, absolute value, or nature of life, or regard themselves as a magic key to universal salvation and social concerns. Nor will they act as a stage to display spiritual and intellectual superiority of men of letters. What‘s worse, the cognitive, educational, and even aesthetic functions of films and TV programs are somewhat suppressed, but its sensory stimulation, game features, and entertainment features have been strengthened and highlighted.‖1 For example, criticism on themes of movies like The Promise, and Curse of the Golden Flower reflects the concern of people to the vulgar films and TV programs. Moreover, books related to privacy become the apple in publishers‘ eyes. ―People start to cast away traditional themes like respect, trust, emotional events, and nostalgia for suspicion, rebellion, anger, and ridicule.‖2 As we all know, the content of public cultural products concerns the cultural security of all. Lately public cultural products in various forms have enriched the whole culture market, and extended the scope of the recipient and transmission of culture. This attracts the masses to mentally and emotionally come closer to culture. Nevertheless, it challenges original values, ethics, and faith, changes the criteria of the rational part of public culture, and makes the non-rational constituents stand out. A nation‘s cultural security is fundamentally reflected by the individuals in a society. From the basic features of public culture and contemporary Chinese popular culture, we can conclude that an effective preservation of public spiritual cultural security is of importance to consolidate the nation‘s cultural security.

5. Drawbacks in China’s Culture Management System The Chinese cultural system was formed under a planned economy before

1

Hong Yin. ―Witness at the Turn of the Century: Chinese Screen Culture in the 1990s‖, Social Sciences, no.

1, (1998). 2

Ming Xu, et al.. Theory of Cultural Development. (Peking University Press, 2005), 323. 72

China‘s economic reform. The management of cultural units was highly concentrated. The Chinese government financially supported the operation of these units, which resulted in the absence of an incentive mechanism. This fashion of management worked for some time. But as a socialist market economy took root, it started to hinder the development of Chinese culture. The reform has brought many changes to the cultural mechanism, but there are still quite a few problems left. 5.1 Highly concentrated cultural management system According to China‘s traditional cultural management systems, the government had full responsibility to take care of cultural affairs by planning economic approaches. There was no distinction between enterprise and government, politics and cultural affairs, or management and operation, nor were laws and regulations to standardize the cultural industry well equipped. Instead, what the government or political leaders commanded was the order and direction. Cultural construction was different from an economic one, but the cultural undertakings and industry needed to abide by market rules during some parts of production and consumption. From this we can see the conventional mode of management was obviously outdated. On the one hand, government intervened directly in cultural production. Creations were produced according to planning and policy. Even the time, amount, and theme of works were strictly limited. This went against the natural rules of creation. Authors, artists, and actors were managed by the administrative system instead of a competitive mechanism and given titles for their technical post. Moreover, cultural production could not adapt to the changing market needs or keep pace with the mentality of consumers. Thus in the past few years, foreign cultural products have taken up a large proportion of the consumer market. On the other hand, high concentration resulted in unclear functions of cultural units and inactive production. The reform of the cultural management unit only focused on the inner cultural system without considering the society as a whole and globalization or being correspondent to the socialist market economy. A problem was that there was a lack of awareness of the need for change, the positive cultural atmosphere, and the legalization of cultural management. 5.2 Strict control of ideology and culture, using ideological and cultural unity to replace diversity, and using a monopoly to replace competition China used to mix up cultural issues with political ones and interfere with discussion about thoughts and culture. Take the Great Cultural Revolution as an 73

example. Cultural disputes were dealt with via revolutionary struggle, and intellectuals were criticized severely, causing a huge loss in cultural undertakings. Since the reform, the ―Hundred Flowers Campaign‖ 1 resumed its status as the guideline; however, the cultural management system was not changed completely, nor was the relationship between culture and policy clear cut. This excessive control resulted from the effort to seek ideological leadership from the Chinese government. It is also for this reason that innovative cultural achievements are few in number. 5.3 Institutional shortages in education, talent selection, and publishing The educational system in China is still exam-oriented and rote-based. In most cases, the students who are adept at reverse thinking are deemed alien and weird, while those who accept educational indoctrination receive the highest mark. Even the most valuable remark from supervisors on a postgraduate is ―steadfast‖ rather than ―creative.‖ A master‘s thesis or doctoral dissertation that is mediocre but rich in quotations will definitely pass with flying colors during the defense. In contrast, one that contains individual and different opinions is likely to be challenged, scrutinized, and even denied. Postgraduate study is the start of academic research for most Chinese students. This thesis evaluation tradition has suppressed the creativity of students. Those holding innovative ideas are marginalized academically by the current talent selection system. Most universities and research centers do not appreciate them. This situation has cornered the individuality of students to its minimum. Moreover, if an innovative intellectual is lucky enough to be selected to join the academic circle, there are still many obstacles on his path ahead. It deprives the most excellent academic papers of the chance to start a dialogue with the international academia. At the same time, more and more scholars and researchers have given up their pursuit of novel findings and start to pander to the profit-oriented publishing mechanism. In a nutshell, ―the absence of innovation in Chinese academia boils down to the shortcomings of the system.‖2

1

It is a guiding principle that the Chinese government set up for art and literature. It specifically it refers to

saying ―let a hundred flowers blossom, and a hundred schools of thought contend.‖ 2

Xiaohua Wang. ―Chinese Academic Crisis‖, The Academia, no. 5, (2001). 74

Chapter Three Orienting the Strategic Focus of Chinese National Cultural Safety — Clarifying the Ideology, Ethnic Culture, and the Direction of Construction for Chinese Public Culture

1. Innovation-oriented construction of ideology 1.1 The definition of ideology The concept of ideology was first introduced by French philosopher Antoine Destutt de Tracy. He used ―ideology‖ to emphasize his concern of naturalism, that is to construct a basic theory of philosophy through ideology which employs the methods of ‗back to sensation from reason‘ in order to abandon religion and to re-elucidate the basis of policy, ethics, law and other disciplines.1 For Destutt de Tracy, ideology was not only a description, but also a decisive exploration about what is true and what is false. ―Through a careful analysis of ideas and sensations, ideology would enable human nature to be understood, and hence would enable the social and political order to be rearranged in accordance with the needs and aspirations of human beings.‖2 That is to say, ideology has dual goals; one is to provide certain knowledge, and the other is to get rid of metaphysics, theology, emotion, and morals, which ruled in Europe before the Enlightenment, and to construct morals and knowledge on a solid foundation. However, by the age of Napoleon, ideology was used to refer to unrealistic fantasies. The person who had a significant contribution to ideological theory is Karl Marx. Thanks to his academic efforts, the concept of ideology gained a new status and became a very important part of Marx‘s ideology system. According to Mills there are three types of opinions on Marx‘s definition of ideology. First, Marx basically uses ―ideology‖ in a contemptuous way, seeing it as an ―illusory‖ and unscientific concept of class. Second, in some ways Marx treats it as a neutral and descriptive concept, a 1

Quoted from Wujin Yu. On Ideology. (Shanghai People‘s Publishing House, 1993), 21.

2

John B. Thompson. Ideology and Modern Culture: Critical social theory in the era of mass communication.

(Stanford University Press, 1990), 30. 75

general class concept whose epistemological standpoint is not biased. Third, Marx uses ―ideology‖ both in a contemptuous and neutral way, so it has to be distinguished in different context. About a three-quarter of Marxists and Non-Marxists hold the first opinion.1 Although Marx has repeatedly used the concept of ideology, he did not give an intact and precise definition for it. During his debate with Young Hegelians, he established the theory of historical unconsciousness when ideology happened and emphasized its general effect. While in The German Ideology his ideas became more evident, and he started to associate ideology with class and regarded ideology as a concept system that represented the interests of the ruling class depending on economic conditions and economic production relations. Ideology is ―the superstructure of a kind social thought; a theoretical system‘s self-conscious reflection of the existing society by a certain society or a certain social class or group based on its own fundamental interests. This theoretical system includes definite politics, laws, philosophies, morals, art, religion, and other social doctrines and opinions, which are the theoretical bases of the political platform, code of conduct, value orientation, and social ideal of a certain class or social group.‖2 1.2 The starting point to thinking creatively about the construction of China’s dominant ideology Among the studies on the development and construction of China‘s dominant ideology—Marxism, most literature focuses on the enrichment and development of the content and viewpoints of Marxism. Some examples include: how to combine the universal principles of Marxism and the practice of the Chinese socialist construct with the China‘s economic reform; how to use the developing Marxist ideology to guide new practices; how to develop Marxism with time; how to resist the influence of the decadent ideas of Non-Marxists and Anti-Marxists against the background of the reform; these are the core proposition among theorists. However, only enriching the content and viewpoints of Marxism cannot solve problems like: how to maintain and consolidate the dominant status of Marxism, and how to make the most out of Marxism‘s utility as the dominant ideology. It is necessary for us to jump out of the 1

Quoted from a secondary source. Jianxing Yu. ―Ideology: A Political Analysis--New Theory on Marxist

Concepts‖, Southeast Academic Research, no. 3, (2002). 2

Huichang Song. Study of Contemporary Ideology. Publishing House of the Party School of the CPC Central

Committee, (1993), 11. 76

specific content. Analyzing and investigating Marxism‘s laws of governing the whole social structure from a sociology of knowledge point of view would help probe into and find the developmental pattern that can consolidate and develop the dominant status of Marxism, and make the most out of Marxism‘s utility as the dominant ideology and promote the construction of ideology. At the present time, sociology mainly studies the nature, function, and other aspects of ideology. The classical works do not take ideology as the general research object, but rather, they probe profoundly into ideology‘s nature and function. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels‘ The German Ideology, Mannheim K‘s Ideology and Utopia, Antonio Gramsci‘s ―cultural hegemony‖ theory and Louis Althusser‘s ―Ideological State Apparatuses‖ theory play a fundamental role in opening up a new area. In addition, the Frankfurt school of social psychological perspective undoubtedly is in a unique position to answer the problem to the production of the mechanism of ideology. Western academic circles have engaged in a fervor discussion over ideology since the 1960s. Nowadays Daniel Bell‘s book The End of Ideology has started a new debate. Generally, the Western academic circles‘ discussion about the nature and function of ideology is critical on the surface. In the book Structure and Change in Economic History, Douglass C. North to some extent underlines the ―universality‖ of ideology, but he puts more emphasis on probing constructively and positively into the function of ideology. Since the 1990s, China has studied the ―universality‖ of ideology; it has been an important topic. Yu Wujin‘s On Ideology and Song Huichang‘s Study on Contemporary Ideology have greatly contributed to the discussion. Zheng Yongyan‘s Study on Socialist Ideology and Study on Socialist Ideology Development are works that truly use the theory of ideology to study the construction of China‘s dominant ideology. However, the scholars mentioned above have paid little attention to the general study of the development of ideology. To summarize, the analysis of the above two aspects, the study of ideology construction in China lacks the exploration of ideology‘s ―universal‖ disciplinary from a sociology of knowledge perspective. Foreign studies of ideology done from the perspective of sociology of knowledge pay much more attention to ―criticism‖ than ―construction.‖ Fortunately, for the past few years, articles have explored both ―criticism‖ and ―construction‖ and further uncovered the law of development governing ideology in order to actively come up with strategic thinking regarding the construction of ideology. ―The Developmental Model of Modernized Ideology‖ is just one valuable exploration into this research topic. 77

However, this article only constructs a unidirectional ideology development model, and it seems to consider Marxism a ―secondary ideology‖ in China‘s construction of ideology and believes Marxism will cease to become the state ideology.1 Therefore, knowing how to utilize the general rule of the development of ideology at the macro level and from a sociology-of-knowledge perspective as builder to promote construction of Marxism with Chinese characteristics as the dominant ideology is still a great problem. This thesis will follow this idea to construct a three-dimensional development model of ideology and come up with a strategic idea on how to think creatively about the construction of China‘s dominant ideology according to this model. 1.3 Construction of the development model of a dominant ideology a. Confirmation of model elements The three-dimensional development model of ideology is the multidimensional theoretical description of the dynamic development system of ideology. An ideology system develops mainly based on three dimensions: form, subject (namely whose ideology), and internal structure. In analyzing these three aspects, the specific element that determines the status of ideology system can be found. First, what are the forms of ideology? Marx and Engels have mentioned in their classical exposition that ideology is a basic link in social structure. It first exists as an aspect of social consciousness, which is determined by social being. The social-economic base under certain conditions of productivity determines the nature of ideology and at the same time ideology has a motile reaction to economic base. However, it is not explicit in what ways the economic base determines ideology and through what kinds of mechanism ideology has a motile reaction to economic base. Even though Georgi Plekhanov was the first person to fill in this missing link by bringing in social psychology,2 but he still could not answer how a state system and ideology function. In fact, Antonio Gramsci‘s ―culture hegemony‖ theory3 and Louis

1

Baoyun Yin. ―The Developmental Model of Modernized Ideology‖, Strategy and Management, no. 4,

(2000). 2

For details see Georgi V. Plekhanov. The Materialist Concept of History. (Wildside Press, 2008).

3

For details on Gramsci‘s ―culture hegemony‖ theory see Antonio Gramsci & Quintin Hoare (eds. & trans.).

Selections from the Prison Notebooks of Antonio Gramsi. (Lawrence & Wishart, 1971), and Jing Sun. Study on the Theory of Culture Hegemony. (Social Sciences Academic Press, 2004). 78

Althusser‘s ―Ideological State Apparatuses‖ theory

1

have put forward the

institutionalized form of ideology. Moreover, with the representative personage of institutionalized economics Douglass C. North systematically discusses the institutionalized function of ideology. He successfully reveals the exquisite mechanism between ideology and economic development from the perspective of transaction cost. With a deeper understanding of the law of interaction between ideology and some aspects of the social structure, such judgment can be made that ideology exists first as an ideological form and gains a social psychological or social institutionalized form when it interacts with some aspects of the social structure. Therefore, in terms of form, there are three types of ideology: conceptualized, institutionalized, and social psychological. Second, what is the subject of ideology? As the reflection of certain class or group‘s interests, the question of ―whose ideology‖ is one that needs to be explored. The difference in interests is the essential feature of ideology and also the key to distinguishing between various kinds of ideology. Different ideology corresponds to different interests group with different subjects. Ideologies that are different in nature are incompatible, like bourgeois ideology and proletarian ideology. Moreover, as a social structural link, a given ideology has different subjects at different stages in its development. However, these different subjects are compatible because each is part of a range of subjects in the development process. Ideology is the social consciousness rooted in certain stakeholders, thus the subject of ideology is the stakeholder. According to the progress of the stakeholder, as represented by certain ideologies, from certainty to extensive expansion, ideology in the different stages of development in the modern state can be classified into different subjects: social (folk) ideology, ideology of a political party, and state ideology.2 Lastly, we can analyze the internal structure of ideology. Here, ideology is not used as a single universal concept, but as a given ideology to analyze its internal structure. The internal structure of a given ideology is still composite and

1

For details see Central Compilation and Translation Bureau. Marxism-Leninism Research Material, no. 4,

(People‘s Publishing House, 1988) and Jidi Ren. ―Interpretation of ‗Ideology State Apparatus‘‖, Academics, no. 6, (2003). 2

―State‖ here is not a tool of the ruling class, but the national country as the main body of international

relations. 79

multidimensional. Since this thesis aims at analyzing the development of ideology, it is better to analyze from the internal elements that restrict and effect the development of ideology. First of all, as a special ideological form, ideology is the reflection of social being through cognition, explanation, judgment, and visualization based on the interests of a certain group. This reflection, after being more or less systematized and theorized by ideologists and political leaders, often in the form of concepts, manifests as realistically improving society through maintaining or reconstructing society through criticism. Thus, the internal structure of ideology can be divided into three levels: value, theory, and policy proposals. Among these three levels, value, rooted in certain interests, is the soul and core of ideology; theory and political proposals exist in service of value. As a result, value is essential to distinguishing different ideologies. To sum up, here is a table including all the elements of the three-dimensional development model of ideology: Form of ideology

Subject of ideology

Internal structure of ideology

Conceptualized

State ideology

Value

Ideology of a political party

Theory

Social (folk) ideology

Political

ideology Institutionalized ideology Social psychological

proposals

ideology b. The correlation and path between elements In this paper, the development of ideology refers to the ideology that has already obtained dominance and has in fact gone through the development process or will go through construction in the present or in the future, rather than all the spontaneous and inevitable development process of ideology. That is because only the ―advanced‖ ideology or the ideology that ―has not yet completely lost its advancement‖ can achieve the complete form presented in the three-dimensional development model of ideology through ―construction.‖The complete form is the precondition to maximize the utility of ideology, direction of development, and the aim of ideology. Now I will analyze the three dimensions of the model to reveal the correlation and path between various elements and describe the process of achieving a complete form of ideology. 80

There are three different forms that occur under different conditions. The initial form of ideology has two cases. One buds from the psychological reflection of the real world laid down by a particular economic base. The ideas and theories are obtained through social psychology and the rational and speculative processing by ideologists and political leaders. The other is directly formed by ideologists following their accumulated knowledge, a process of inheritance and innovation, and the filtering of the unsurpassed ―political unconsciousness.‖1 After obtaining the theory, the conceptualized ideology can indicate as the starting point of the evolution of ideology. In the conceptualized ideology, only the dominant one can be ―institutionalized‖ and ideology can further play its utility after being ―institutionalized.‖ For ideology as concept is originally only mastered by ideologists and political elites, but its utility depends upon integrating this ―concept‖ into the operating mechanism of the whole society. Thus, propelling the institutionalization of a conceptualized ideology is an important part of ideology construction by those in power. The institutionalization of ideology is a multidimensional process and the pattern of institutionalization is also multiple; some examples include, the canonization of the text of theory and ideology (concept), the institutionalization and normalization of concept dissemination, the reformation of politics and legal system via ideology, and the transformation of policy into a ―routine‖ social behavior. Institutionalization allows ideology to possess both the concept and the institution. However, as a ―conceptual violence,‖ institutionalized ideology does not fundamentally solve the problem of ―voluntary‖ and ―consent.‖In order to maintain an institution, the ruling party must pay a huge price; and when the cost exceeds the interests of the institutionalized ideology, the regime becomes the ace in the whole. Therefore, the institutionalization of ideology can neither maximize the utility of ideology and nor obtain the most stable form, and it is impossible to become the complete form of ideology development. On one hand, reducing the cost of an institution lays in the recognition of the institution, so the key is to create ―consent.‖On the other hand, the stability of ideology relies on internalizing the concept and idea to turn into motivation, cognition, attitude, and cultural character 1

Huichan Song. ―Ideology: Political Unconsciousness‖, Journal of Party school of the CPC Central

Committee, no. 4, (2002). 81

and making it people‘s psychological motivation and behavior norm in dealing with problems. Both these two aspects reflect the social psychological level. Thus, only when ideology obtains the social psychological form can ―nationality‖ be rooted1 and the maximization of an ideology‘s utility realized. Obtaining social psychological ideology is based on the premise of the establishment of an institutionalized ideology, but institutionalized ideology cannot automatically turn into a social psychological ideology. There is a huge strategic space. Conceptual ideology is the ―blueprint‖ of institutionalizing ideology; institutional ideology is the ―switchboard‖ of psychological ideology, which is the ―drive‖ of action. Ideology develops from conceptual ideology to institutionalized ideology and at last social psychological ideology, simultaneously possessing three identities as a concept, an institution, and a mindset. This completes the manifestation of the period of motion for the ideology‘s form, and it is then that ideology obtains a stable and efficient mature form. On the subject of the dimensions of ideology subject development, ideology is originally generated from ―folk‖ ideas. During this period, the subject of ideology generally appears as the ―spokesperson‖ through ideologists, intellectuals, and non-governmental organizations with certain stakeholders. At this level, the subject of ideology is spontaneous and uncertain and always appears as the social group consciousness with an unclear limit. There is no legal recognition or legal guarantee of political status. This stage could be referred to as social (or folk) ideology. The social (or folk) interests can be further realized through the clarification of the limits of stakeholders. That is to say, a special organization is needed to integrate certain stakeholders and this special organization is the political party in modern society. The establishment of the political party gives ideology a definite carrier and brings

1

Social psychology is complex with man levels. The superficial level, such as feelings, emotions, desire, will,

propensity, is the unstable and variable part of the social psychological system. There is no obvious difference between different countries and nationalities. However, things like thought patterns, intellectual characteristics, national personality, national temperament, customs and aesthetic taste belong to the stable and invariable deep level. This part is the ―national character‖ Yan Fu referred to. This thesis uses the concept of social psychology to define ―nationality.‖ ―National character‖ is formed through a long-term deposition of ―mainstream culture.‖ For further discussion on the levels of social psychology and ―national character‖ refer to: Yanjun Dai. ―On the Influence of Social Psychology‘s Hierarchy and Ideology‖, Weishi, 1998(6). Gongqin Xiao. ―Nationalism and Ideologies during China‘s Transformation‖, Strategy and Management, no. 4, 1994. 82

about the transformation of the subject of ideology from social (or folk) to political party. At this moment, the identity of ―social (or folk)‖ fades out and is replaced with the identity of the political party. The infiltration of the political party facilitates the formation of the ideology of political party and accomplishes the first leap of the development in the ideology‘s subject. The immediate political end of political party is in power, so its ideology construction will focus on striving to be in power. At this time, the dividing line between the ideology of a certain political party and other ideologies is quite evident. The interests‘ analysis of class or group becomes the most important thought pattern; social criticism becomes main theoretical mission of ideology and criticism is the fundamental feature of ideology. When a party comes into power, (which may be the same kind of political party in the form of multiple parties), its ideology is also in the dominant position. Even though the party‘s attributes like class and interests group do not change because of the newly obtained power, its political purpose and political task, however, transforms tremendously. Moreover, the direction and condition of realizing the utility of ideology is also greatly different from before. Whether the party can find out this transformation and construct an ideology according to this transformation is the key for ideology to obtain a stable status and to maximize its utility. The basic task of the ruling party is to realize its interests through ―construction‖ and to maintain the legality of its rule through constant ―construction.‖ The characteristic of the ruling party‘s mobilization and operation of social material is to integrate to the greatest degree. So to establish the ideology with more universality and compatibility and to expand the subjects of ideology becomes the main task of ideology construction. This kind of development of an ideology‘s subject is the nationalization of ideology, namely the construction of state ideology. Here the state does not refer to the tool by which a certain class uses to rule—that is, the ―regime‖, for the nature of this kind of ideology‘s subject is the same as the ruling class or the political party representing the ruling class; and at this time the state ideology is the ideology of the political party. The ideology of political party only changes the status of the ideology, not the expansion of the subject; therefore, there is no national problem. To obtain more forms than political party or the class or interests group it represents, the subject of ideology must expand from the perspective of ―national state‖ as the main body of international relation. And then the difference is then 83

transformed into a conflict of interest between different nation states. At this time the alleged state interests is more similar to national interests and the ruling class become different from party‘s interests.1 The consistency between the ruling party‘s interests and national interest in this sense directly determines the legitimacy of its ruling status. Thus the degree of nationalization of the political party‘s ideology corresponds with the degree of legitimacy.2The nation state as the main body of international relations (not as the tool of the ruling class) has the largest integrative space for interests. Political ideology can only expand universality and develop compatibility at the national level, and transform from an ideology that focuses on class struggle, violent revolution, and a dictatorship that reflects the identity of class and group to an ideology that focuses on patriotism, social justice, democracy, human rights, and the people that represent its national identity. Only in this way can it achieve the leap from political ideology to state ideology and the mature form of ideology in the dimension of subject development. Ideology increases its utility during this development and gains longer vitality, so it is the basic direction for the construction of the ruling party‘s ideology to develop its ideology‘s subject from that of a political party to that of a state. In the dimension of the development of ideology‘s internal structure, we have to first realize that ideology is a multilevel compound concept system. All the concepts 1

For a detailed discussion on national interests refer to: Xuetong Yan. Analyzing China’s State Ideology.

(Tianjin People‘s Publishing House, 1993). 2

―Ideology of the political party‖ here does not refer to certain political party‘s ideology, but rather a level of

the development of in the subject of ideology. Certain political party‘s ideologies may be at the ―political ideology‖ level and may also goes through the process of nationalization and evolve into ―state ideology‖. For instance, the Chinese Communist Party‘s ideology is Marxism. When Marxism is constructed based on class struggle, violent revolution, and dictatorship within the scope that reflects the identity of a class and group, it is a ―political ideology.‖ If it is constructed based on patriotism, social justice, democracy, human rights, and the people within the scope that represents national identity, it is a ―state ideology.‖ The difference between ―political ideology‖ and ―state ideology‖ is not about whether it is in power or not, but whether it expands at the national level. In the multi-party system implemented by Western countries, despite the difference in ideologies among different parties, their political proposals and natures are the same. So the substitution of political parties does not change the nature of the dominating ideology. After a long-term administration, Western bourgeois parties (in the form of different parties) have better achieved the ―nationalization‖ of their political ideology. And whether a particular political party's ideology is reflected "nationalization" construction is of the basic conditions for the legitimacy of the party. So the ideologies of these particular parties are mostly beyond the level of "political ideology" and to an extent embody the ―characteristics of state ideology.‖ 84

internally associated with a certain social-economic base contain attributes of ideology, but not all concepts are exactly ideologies. Concepts as ideology have to possess three things, value, theory, and political proposal. And most fields in the humanities and social sciences emerged first in the form of theory. Although they cannot completely strip its attributes of ideology, with the development of clear value and political proposal they can exist directly as ideology. This is the ideologicalization of theory. Take for example, neo-liberalist economics, which was established by economists like Friedrich August von Hayek, Milton Friedmann, and Robert Lucas. They cannot completely strip its attribute of ideology either, but as with the ―Washington Consensus‖ it accomplished ideologicalization and became an international monopoly capitalist ideology and plays its utility as ideology. 1 So the development of ideology‘s internal structure is not about the formation of the three elements, but the transformation of their relationship. The formation of the three elements is just the starting point of the development of an ideology‘s internal structure. A given ideology as a system of knowledge and concepts should include various theory and forms of concepts like philosophy, law, and morals—that is to say, different ideology should contain various forms of theories mentioned above. They belong to values, theories, and policies respectively (some kind of theory can manifest in multiple levels). And different relations, arrangements and combinations between the three levels form different structures and hence possess different functionality and utility. There are two basic structures among the numerous possible forms. One is when these three levels overlap, creating one state, in which theory appears in the form of political proposal and becomes a complete expression of value. At this time, specific policy and theories become the core ideology, coinciding with values. This type of structure has attributes like concentricity, oneness, exclusiveness, and dogmatism, and the corresponding function then has the capability to mobilize core social resources (rather than entire social resources). However, its high level of ―uniformity‖ leads to the lack of self-consistency, compatibility, and flexibility during its development. In fact, policy and theory are both dynamic, but value possesses a sense of 1

Neo-liberalism Research Group, Chinese Academy of Social Science. ―Research on Neo-liberalism‖,

Research on Marxism, no. 6, (2003). 85

―ultimacy.‖ This kind of conflict often results in tension and instability. This type corresponds with the social structure combining various fields in traditional society.1 With the social structure transforming from a traditional form that combines various fields to a modern form that separates various fields, the structure of ideology must implement transformation accordingly to obtain its modern form. That is to say, the reasonable separation of theory, value, and policies should be accomplished, allowing them return to its position and maintain their unity so that they develop in their respective areas according to their own characteristics and laws of development. This type of structure possesses attributes like dispersivity, diversity, openness, and absorptivity, and the corresponding function has the ability to integrate all social resources. Its development also has more self-consistency, compatibility, and flexibility. Thus, the transformation of the ideological structure reveals the reasonable direction of the development of ideology. c. A brief summary of the three-dimensional development model of ideology When the form of ideology starts from the initial conceptual ideology, and then further acquires institutional ideology, social psychological ideology, its subject development changes from that of social (folk) ideology to political ideology, and then further develops into a state ideology. Its internal structure transforms from a combination of value, theory, and policy to a separation of them. Ideology, as a dynamic developmental system, achieves its mature complete form. Its status is more stable and representativeness is broader. It obtains better social integration ability, interest coordination ability and flexibility of its own development. And it also maximizes its utility. It should be pointed out that ideological systems can only be optimized through the coordinated development of the three dimensions. Delay in any aspect will affect the whole condition of ideology. In extreme cases, it can even lead to the distortion of the ideological system. For example, a particular interests group‘s ideology, generated at a certain time and place, does not evolve into a state ideology and there is no structural transformation and single-faceted emphasis on its transformation into ―national character‖ at a social psychological level, this could lead to the distortion of ideology. That was the situation for Fascism and Nazism, militarism. 1

For related discussion refer to: Nanshi Wang. From Combining Fields to Separating Fields. (Shanxi

Education Publishing House, 1998). 86

1.4 Dominant ideology development model’s utility test and empirical analysis The vitality of a theory lies in its ability to explain phenomenon and its ability to find a solution for the problem. Now, I will use the three-dimensional development model of ideology established before to explain several ―phenomenon‖ in the ideological domain to test the validity of this model. a. The underlying causes for Confucianism‘s ―super stability‖ Why could Confucianism last thousands of years as a legitimate dominant ideology in China‘s history? How isit still rooted in the society and has affected the current dominant ideology a great deal even after the feudal society collapsed and lost its dominant position? In regards to these two questions, an ―orthodox‖ explanation for the first one is because Confucianism as an ideology reflects the production requirement of the small-scale peasant economy in Chinese feudal society, which represented the interests of the feudal landlord class and becomes the ideology suitable for the economic base. Thus, Confucianism exists as the concomitant of the feudal production mode. As for the explanation to the second question, ideology has relative independence. So its rise and decline does not completely synchronize with the change of economic base. This explanation is not wrong, but offers nothing valuable. Actually, the reason why Confucianism is so stable is that it has gone through institutionalization and then psychologization. The establishment of Confucianism as the ideology of the ruling class since the Western Han and Eastern Han Dynasties was just the beginning of its construction of status stability. In the Southern Song Dynasty, after the Confucian classics became canon, Confucius became a saint, and Confucian principles became part of the imperial civil service exam-based education system and political legal system,1 Confucianism accomplished the construction of a mechanism that connected the ―symbol establishment‖ of the upper strata and the ―culture practice‖ of the bottom strata.2In doing so, it became a mature form of institutional ideology. Ideology developing into this level obtained a connection with the state 1

For related discussions refer to: Chunsong Gan. Confucianism’s Institutionalization and Disintegration.

(China Renmin University Press, 2003). 2

Nianqun Yan. ―The History and Termination of Confucianism‘s Legitimacy as Traditional Chinese

‗Ideology‘‖, Tingyang Zhao ed., Annual Academic 2003, (China Renmin University Press, 2004). 87

political power, namely the establishment of the ideological state apparatus. However, this form still could not get rid itself of its dependence on the regime. The completion of Confucianism‘s institutionalization established its stability and the ―cultivation‖ procedures as norms. Then people‘s socialization integrated into the culture practice of institutional Confucianism, which propelled it, transforming onto the social psychological level. Confucian thinking, values, emotion, customs and other aspects became the core essence of ―national character‖ and became the Chinese people‘s motivation and norm for dealing with problems. It is in this moment that Confucian ideology simultaneously embodied the three identities of a conceptual ideology, institutional ideology, and social psychological ideology that it obtained a stable and effective existence form. This is the underlying cause for Confucianism‘s ―super stability.‖1 b. The mystery of the outbreak of the Cultural Revolution The Cultural Revolution first broke out as an ideological incident. However, ―the revolution in cultural dimensions‖ later evolved into a political movement. What is the reason behind this? This question has long been given a standard textbook answer. This thesis only aims to offer a brief analysis from the knowledge sociological perspective. From the stereoscopic development model of ideologies presented in this thesis, it can be seen that the evolution of the ―cultural revolution‖ into a ―political revolution‖ actually verifies the necessity of the evolution of a political party‘s ideology into a national ideology as a counter example. After the establishment of a socialist economic system and government, the Communist Party of China changed from a revolutionary leader and a power seizer to a construction leader and a long-term governor. Meanwhile, its ideological functions followed this trend as well. The ideology of the political party evolved into a national ideology in order to popularize the mainstream ideology and fully integrate and mobilize social resources. However, the determinative influence of 1

It should be emphasized that after Confucianism lost its advancement in content, its stability became an

obstacle for the flourishing and consolidation of the new ideology. And in the dimension of subject development, because the concept of group politics and a nation state with political parties had not come into being and the interests of the dynasty were basically the state‘s interests. Thus, Confucianism could not develop into the state ideology as defined in this thesis. In the dimension of internal structure, the traditional society‘s social structure of combining different fields determined that ideology could not achieve a modern transformation. These all determined that Confucianism‘s stability and utility are relative and limited. 88

the economic base on the national institution and ideology was not understood in an ―ultimate‖ manner. In fact, the relation was partially and mechanically interpreted as a one-to-one, direct, and one-way relationship, instead of a multilevel and multidirectional complex one. As a result, the People‘s democratic dictatorship evolved into an ideological and cultural dictatorship by the proletariat. Later on, this kind of ―dictatorship‖ was regarded as the core, or even entire ideological and cultural construction. The objective developmental law of culture and ideology was completely neglected. This kind of view and practice strengthened the differentiation in the characteristics of a political party‘s ideology. However, it also restrained the integration of the characteristics of national ideology, which encumbered the evolution of the political party‘s ideology into a national ideology. The state‘s governing and dictatorship function expanded so much that its management function was overwhelmed. In the same pattern, the class character that served the state governing function and ―soft state apparatus‖ feature of culture and ideology were absolutized, but their nature of social spiritual resource serving the state management function was totally neglected. The subjective development of ideology did not go any further on the political party level. As a result, the ideological construction was all about the core propositions of the political party‘s ideology, such as class, revolution, and political power. This course would undoubtedly lead to the previous political revolution based on class struggles. c. The secret to the ―dilution‖ and ―diversification‖ of ideology in Western countries When speaking of ideology in China and Western countries, people often have misconceptions. In China, there seems to be propaganda about ideology everywhere. Even ideological and political courses in college need to be examined and approved by the members of the standing committee of the Political Bureau. While in Western countries, there is less tension when talking about ideological construction. (Some people even believe that there‘s no such thing as ideological construction there.) Academic research is prosperous due to the space given to it to develop freely. The ―different‖ ideologies of various political parties also take turns coming into power. Are they not ―worried‖ about losing their leadership of ideology? What is the secret behind this? According to the rules revealed by the structural transformation of ideology in the stereoscopic development model of ideologies, different internal structures of 89

ideology lead to different functions. In the two basic structures, values, theories, and policies are separate, each having their own role. The features of the structural style include its dispersibility, diversity, openness, and absorptivity. Corresponding functions demonstrate its integration capabilities of social resource as a whole. Development of such functions themselves is also more self-consistent, compatible, and flexible. After hundreds of years of development, the Western ideological structure has long been modernized, even though it is still fundamentally capitalist ideology. Values, theories and policies are separated in Western ideological systems, keeping internal conformity based on independence. There have been multiple theories, schools, and ideas in different time periods, many of which are even contradictory or opposite. However, these theories always keep in line with mainstream Western capitalist values, such as liberty, equality, and fraternity. For instance, some core values that can be observed from the economics of free competition include the governing theory of checks and balances, the spirit of rule and law which values order, and a social atmosphere that encourages personality. Due to the separation of these three factors, changes in academic theories do not lead to tensions between values. Therefore, it is this conformation in ideology that lies behind academic prosperity. And the seemingly different ideologies held by different parties are in essence just differences in their policies, which aim to realize their ideals from different angles. The self-consistency, compatibility, and flexibility of Western capitalist ideology come from the modernized construction of its internal structure. This kind of structure shows a fantastic image of a ―diluted‖ and diversified ideology due to ―matured‖ system and ―flexible‖ construction. 1.5 China’s strategy for constructing a dominant ideology This thesis aims to reveal the inherent multidirectional rules of development of ideology as an open social concept system in order to better understand China‘s strategy for constructing a dominant ideology, rather than building a stereoscopic development model of ideologies. According to the model presented (revealed) in this thesis, to achieve thought innovation in constructing dominant ideologies, China should attach importance to three strategic tendencies. a. Build China‘s dominant ideology as simultaneously a concept, an institution and a mindset. Ideology‘s development from a concept to an institution and then to a mindset is not a mechanical or one-way process. It is, in fact, a complex extending process, like 90

concentric circles. That is to say, the institutionalization of ideology does not necessarily start at the point when the conceptualization process is completed. Also, ideology as a mindset does not necessarily begin to function when the institutionalization process is done. This means the construction of a triple identity should not be simply understood by expanding the three forms one by one. Instead, importance should be attached to the balance, coordination and interconnection of these three identities. Therefore, according to this model, the construction of the triple identities of China‘s dominant ideology includes not only a ―new construction,‖ but also ―reconstruction.‖ Marxism as an ideology first appeared in China as a concept. After 1949, the Socialist Transformation began and was later completed, and the socialist system was established. In this process, Marxism established its leading position with the protection and promotion of state power. Later on, it began to institutionalize itself. Professional ideologists or politicians who are proficient in theories do not ultimately realize the practical utility of ideology. Instead, it is realized through the ideological practice of the people. Therefore, it became the core content of institutionalizing Marxism and built a ―coherent‖ mechanism that popularized Marxism for all, from the ―elites‖ to the ―masses.‖ Thereupon, various kinds of reactionary propaganda organizations and publications were eliminated; cultural and educational institutions sponsored by foreign funds and religious groups were ―taken over;‖ old education was reformed. On this basis, Marxism was finally manifested as an institution by a series of measures including putting Marxism theories into textbooks, making Marxism a standard in the cadre and talent selection system, standardizing Marxist education in schools and different levels of the Party and Youth League organizations, and reforming the national political and legal system according to Marxist values. Up until now, institutionalized Marxism is already an accomplished, but far from perfect form in China. There is still much room for ―reconstruction.‖ Ever since the initiation of China‘s Open Door policies, deep changes have taken place in China‘s socialist economic operation and political life. Marxism as a concept has also made great progress during this period of time. However, not enough efforts have been made to reform institutionalized Marxism, which was built in the context of a traditional planned economy. Presently, the control and education of Marxism as China‘s leading ideology is mainly promoted and protected by state power, making it largely dependent on state power. Concepts like the mainstream channel, mainstream 91

theme, mainstream media, and the Party‘s mouthpiece intuitively reflect the status quo of the transmission and education of ideology. This ―Soviet paradigm‖ in the operation mechanism of institutionalized Marxism indeed had its advantage in the ideological transmission and control in the context of planned economy and the days of isolation. However, the people‘s ideologies become unprecedentedly diversified with the economic transition, social transformation, and the acceleration of globalization. More factors may have also influenced the people‘s ideologies. More sources of information and routes of transmission have appeared. The so-called ―mainstream‖ is no longer completely determined by the transmitter. Under most circumstances, it is now actually determined by the ―audience.‖ ―Mainstream‖ transmissibility is now largely weakened. The traditional Marxist education mechanism uses ossified school education, highly ―standardized‖ media, and hierarchical Party and Youth League organizations as its main carriers. This mechanism is increasingly failing to meet the needs of the market economy and the open conditions of the market, and it urgently needs change. It should now become the important link in the construction of ideology to reform and ―reconstruct‖ institutionalized Marxism. Regardless of innovation on the conceptual level or perfection on the institutional level, the ultimate utility should be realized by guiding people‘s practice. Hence, building Marxism as a social mindset is the key process in building Marxism‘s triple identities. To know and understand a certain kind of value and to accept and establish it are two entirely different aspects. Concept and thought can only effectively guide people‘s practice if it is internalized on asocial-psychological level, such as motivation, knowledge, attitude, cultural character, and the dynamic of people‘s behaviors. While on this level of construction, we have not established a specific strategic measure to guide our operation. Hence, although institutionalized Marxism has long been established, the previous Marxism educational mechanisms neglected the construction of Marxism on a social-psychological. As a result, ideology is a mere formality and phony politics. It is disharmonious psychological undercurrent under the surface of going through the motions and fussing in political education and propaganda. This dual social personality makes the social psychology accumulated in the ―old ideology‖ to become the deep strength that guides people‘s practice under the cover of theory. The understanding and knowledge of theories are easy to change, but internalized ―nationality‖ which is ―unconsciously‖ reflected as a way of thinking, 92

emotion and volition, value system and customs is deeply rooted. For this reason, the key to Marxism‘s rooting in China is to build Marxist ―nationality‖ on the social-psychological level.1 There is a crucial strategic point here, which is to build a coherent and interactive mechanism between Marxism, traditional Chinese ―national character,‖ and modern ―cultural personality,‖ in order to bring Marxism into traditional Chinese cultural practices and modern ―cultural consumption,‖ The dominant position of Marxist ideology can only be deeply rooted in its uttermost utilization if its triple identities as concept, institution and mindset can interact with each other and achieve a harmonious development. b. Pushing forward the nationalization of China‘s leading ideology and construct national ideology in a modern sense. According to the analysis model in this thesis, it is after the founding of the Chinese Communist Party that Marxism began to transform from a social ideology to a political ideology. During this period of time, the subject of Marxist ideology transformed from an ideology with ambiguous boundaries to one that clearly distinguished between classes and groups. This process of transformation is a two-way construction, which includes transforming the three internal levels of Marxist ideology (values, theories, and policies) to meet the needs of the political party, as well as transforming the social consciousness based on the scope of political party (such as class, revolution, state power, discipline) to be more Marxist. The Chinese Communist Party transformed from a power seizer to a governor, making the Party‘s ideology, Marxism, the dominant ideology. But the change in role of a party‘s ideology does not ensure its direct transformation into the national ideology. Therefore the subject scope of Marxist ideology did not automatically extend to the ―nation.‖ After taking power, inherent features of the Party‘s ideology such as the exclusiveness and significance still remained, so the society that was guided by this ideology was still perplexed with conflicts and political struggles. The leading ideology of a modern country is definitely a nationalized one. It is China‘s inevitable choice to realize the evolution from the Party‘s ideology to a national one in the 1

The reasonable premise for transforming an ideology into ―nationality‖ is the legitimacy, validity, and

advancement of the ideology. Here the legitimacy, validity, and advancement of Marxist ideology are presupposed and emphasized. This is also the premise to discuss the construction of China‘s leading ideology. To cultivate ―youngsters with four virtues‖ is actually a process of constructing ―nationality.‖ 93

construction of China‘s dominant ideology. Before the Reform, Marxism manifested as mainly the Party‘s ideology. The dominant ideology in most cases manifested as core concepts, such as class, revolution, and state power. The nationalization of Marxism as the Party‘s ideology is a two-way construction, including the nationalization of Marxist political values, theories and policies, as well as the Marxist orientation of social concepts based on national interests, such as patriotism, national revival, social justice, social order, democracy, freedom, people-oriented spirit, human right, and rule of law. Specifically speaking, on the one hand, Marxist values, theories and policies should be adapted into China‘s modernization, the improvement of overall national strength, richening the people and strengthening the state, realizing the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation, and building a well-off society in an all-around way. In a word, it should be a ―national level‖ construction with the emphasis on China‘s national interests. On the other hand, Marxist ideas, such as patriotism, national revival, social justice, social order, democracy, freedom, people-oriented spirit, human right and rule of law, should be given a prominent position in the dominant ideology. Ever since the Reform, the nationalization process of China‘s dominant ideology has achieved its initial results. Concepts like ―one country, two systems,‖ fair competition, rule by law, people-oriented spirit, and all-around development of people have been gradually internalized and have become the national ideology shared by all social classes and political forces. New measures and new concepts, such as including human right into the constitution and China‘s peaceful rise, also enrich the connotation of national ideology. Meanwhile, the specific description of ―two vanguards‖ in the definition of the nature of the Chinese Communist Party also reflects its tendency of nationalization both in theory and in practice. In short, the nationalization of ideology will integrate social resources to the largest extent. At the same time, it seeks the broadest and most solid basis of legitimacy for the governing party, in order to ensure that its ideology is in the most stable position and that it is exerted to the largest extent. Therefore, currently, the construction of a dominant ideology should be based on following, the developmental rules of ideology, summarizing the useful experience of the nationalization of ideology since the Reform, and taking an initiative and proactive attitude in promoting the nationalization of ideology. c. Achieving a modern transformation in the structure of China‘s leading ideology. 94

In the ―traditional‖ ideological structure, the three elements of ideology, namely values, theories, and policies, are in a state of unity. China‘s dominant ideological structure was basically in this pattern before the Reform. The Great Leap Forward, which was known for the Three Red Banners, the People‘s Commune, the General Line, planned economy, and even the operation of public-owned enterprises were actually all under the category of policies. Due to the ―overlap‖ of values, theories and policies, these policies also became the core content of ideology for values. Adjustments or even changes in policies are blameless. Whereas in fact, any doubt, criticism or even negation of policies meant one‘s doubt, criticism, or negativity towards the whole dominant ideological system, implied one‘s challenge to the ―soft state apparatus,‖ and the ―challenger‖ naturally became the target of the dictatorship. In theoretical research, arguments of different theories might be both ideological and scientific. But it is whether an argument centers on ideological core or interests-based values that matters most. However, maybe due to the unity of the three ideological structural elements, regular scientific arguments, which should be put under the category of theories, were often upgraded to fundamental ideological disagreements, and were later distorted for political struggles. Some arguments, like the theory of ―Combination of Two into One‖ by Yang Xianzhen in philosophy, the theory of ―Profit Assuming Leadership‖ by Sun Zhifang in economy, and the theory of ―Concession Policy‖ by Jian Bozan in history, all aroused controversies. Theses controversies were in essence only ordinary ―academic incidents,‖ but they took place as political incidents in history. Also due to the overlap of theories and values, some theories composed by specific conclusions with specific objects were also viewed as natural and the core of ideology and thus were regarded as unchallengeable ultimate truths. This ―unity‖ of the internal structure of ideology centralizes, simplifies, and solidifies the whole ideological system, showing its dogmatic characteristics, exclusiveness, and isolation. This ―rigid‖ structure has its deficiencies. Once policies and specific theories formed in specific conditions are fighting to be practiced due to changes in historical conditions, this conflict is very likely to extend to the whole ideological system. As a result, neither policies nor theories are adjusted and innovated in time. There has been huge ideological resistance in the implementation of the Reform, and this ―rigid‖ structure of the dominant ideology is one of the main reasons. 95

In fact, with the advancement of the Reform, Deng Xiaoping realized this ―rigid‖ structure of the dominant ideology. The thought of ―Non-argument‖ brought up by him was indeed a great creation. ―Non-argument‖ here does not mean academic argument is not allowed or not supported; it is neither to neglect the guiding function of ―values‖ or the science of decision-making. Instead, it is to separate specific theories from values and policies, in order to frequently avoid becoming entangled in problems dealing with values like nature and essence which might finally lead to delays in the implement of national policies. We should be inspired by the thought of ―Non-argument‖ as ―coined‖ by Deng, and keep ideological values, theories, and policies each in their own position, in order to realize the reasonable separation of the three ideological elements and to realize dynamic unity in the developmental pattern of relative independence. To realize this transformation in the dominant ideology, we should first extract from the most essential content from the dominant ideology of Marxism, which can be formed together to the ―supreme idea‖ and the ―ultimate value.‖ The ―supreme idea‖ and ―ultimate value‖ here is different. They are ultimate and stable, and the heart and soul of the dominant ideology. Marxist values, like human beings gradually ridding itself of ―natural slavery‖ and ―social slavery‖, achieving ―human liberation‖ and ―development from human liberation‖, building up a ―community of free individuals‖ that had access to a ―free country‖, have a sense of ―supreme‖ and ―ultimate‖ and fall into the category of ―supreme ideas‖ and ―ideals‖ in socialist ideology.1 Secondly, we should give theories and policies enough space for innovation and development because they are not ―supreme‖ or ―ultimate.‖ Thirdly, we should use ―supreme ideas‖ and ―ideals‖ as the starting point, principle, and foothold for theoretical innovation, institutional design, policy implementation, and guidance of public opinion. We should neither confuse theories and policies with ―supreme ideas‖ or ―ideals‖ nor let go of them without the valuable guidance of the 1

In the past, we have emphasized the construction of ―the new era in the future‖ on the social institutional

level. We upgraded the actualization of these institutions as value goals, while actual value pursuit was forgotten. However, all of this was just the means by which to realize values. It is not ―supreme‖ or ―ultimate,‖ because we can carry on asking why we build such institutions. Therefore, it is necessary to reflect on our understanding of the real ideals and supreme goals of Marxism, Socialism, and Communism. It should be noted that Engels once concluded and expressed the basic ideas and goals of ―the new era in the future‖ with a paragraph about a ―community of free individuals‖ in The Communist Manifesto. For details, see Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. Marx/Engels Collected Works, vol. 29, (Chinese Version). (Beijing: People‘s Publishing House, 1974), 189. 96

―supreme idea.‖ Only in this way can we achieve a modern transformation of ideological internal structures and endow the dominant ideological system with self-consistency, compatibility, and flexibility. Then we will be more capable of social integration and interest coordination, in order to achieve dynamic stability and permanent vitality.

2. To Promote the Spirit and Culture of the Chinese Nation 2.1 Enhancing the whole nation’s “cultural consciousness” ―Cultural consciousness‖ is a point repeatedly emphasized by Professor Fei Xiaotong. According to Professor Fei, cultural consciousness means people living in a certain culture should be ―conscious‖ of their own culture. They should know the origin, formation, features, and future direction of the culture. To be conscious of one‘s own culture is to enhance the independent ability to promote cultural transformation in order to gain an autonomous position when adapting to a new environment and choosing a new culture. Thus, it can be seen that to enhance cultural consciousness, we should deepen our understanding of the culture of the Chinese nation. We ought to analyze its content, know its essence, explore its value, relate it with our real life, keep pace with the times, blaze new trails in a pioneering spirit, make it a strong spiritual power in pushing forward our economic and social development and a long term strategy to benefit the nation and the people. To realize this object, the cultural construction of the Chinese nation should be popularized. Studious and united efforts should be made to realize the great rejuvenation of the Chinese nation. In a word, cultural consciousness is a deep cultural thought, a broad cultural realm, a persistent cultural pursuit, and also a cultural idea with highly humanistic care and social responsibility. In the construction of a national cultural security strategy, it is very important to build a ―cultural consciousness.‖ Only with this consciousness can we perceive a national cultural legacy with deeper insight, develop culture with a more positive and proactive attitude, and obtain research achievement and work performance in a more innovative way. We should not and cannot limit cultural consciousness within the so-called circle of intellectuals. Instead, it should be popularized to the greatest extent. Culture is the common heritage shared by all human beings. Everyone has the right to know, to enjoy, and to create culture. People of different classes, different professions and different groups are internally the same in their sense of identity and enthusiasm 97

for culture, although they might have different understandings and levels of culture. Based on this, we need to work hard to explore cultural consciousness from different levels. For Party and cadres, they can integrate cultural construction as an important agenda in their daily work, and plan, and implement it earnestly. For intellectuals, they can support and pay close attention to the cultural development using their own feeling and experience, as well as write about and discuss it. For economic administrators, they can bring up new ideas in economic work from a cultural angle. For entrepreneurs, they can kind-heartedly donate or invest in cultural programs with their earned income. For ordinary farmers, they can do what they can to help protect historical relics or inherit local folk culture. Above are all expressions of cultural consciousness, which deserve praise and encouragement. Cultural consciousness is the reflection of the consciousness in the cultural dimension. As long as this consciousness is evoked and gradually becomes a part of the social atmosphere, our cultural construction and development will have a reliable basis and a fundamental guarantee. 2.2 Developing an advanced socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. By advanced culture, we mean culture that accords with the developmental direction of human society, reflects the development needs of social productive forces, and shows the development tendencies of the time. It complies with the developmental laws of human society, reveals the developmental direction of human society, and provides a strong ideological guarantee, spiritual motivation and intellectual support to the civilization and progress of human society. Once formed, advanced culture will become a potential power in the development of human society. It will educate social members, regulate people‘s behaviors, maintain social identity, create social cohesion and consensus, and facilitate social development via knowledge system, values, ideology, beliefs, behavioral norms, and by means of evaluation, verbalization, and communication. Values carried by advanced cultures are not only value sources for the construction of social systems, but also our basic value standard in building a series of moral norms. It not only includes value support about ―what society is like,‖ but also a value idea about ―what should it be like.‖ Therefore, advanced culture is the concentrated reflection of national wisdom and civilization; the spiritual motivation to push forward the ongoing history, and also the soul of the development of human society. Modern Chinese advanced culture has its abundant substance. In summary, modern Chinese advanced culture is a culture which is guided 98

by Marxism, sticks to the direction of serving the people and serving socialism, sticks to the policy of ―letting all flowers bloom together and all schools of thoughts contend with each,‖ inherits and carries forward an outstanding traditional national culture while showing the spirit of the time, and is based on China‘s national situation while widely absorbing outstanding cultural achievements from all over the world. To represent the direction of China‘s advanced culture is the very important and innovative content found in the ―Three Represents.‖ As the vanguard of China‘s working class, the Chinese Communist Party should not only push forward the development of China‘s social productivity, but also promote the progress and prosperity of China‘s national culture. If advanced productivity is the material basis of its existence and to represent the interests of the majority of the people is its nature, then advanced culture is its symbol of the times and the banner of social progress. The construction of advanced culture as the banner and direction is in its main role in the overall cultural strategy. It is the core strategic task to lead the whole cultural construction. We must keep in accordance with the needs of representing the progressive direction of China‘s advanced culture, clarify the importance of cultural construction, understand the profound meaning of cultural construction, facilitate the coordinative development of cultural construction, and vigorously boost socialist cultural construction with Chinese characteristics. 2.3 Building national, scientific, and popular socialist culture. It is the Chinese Communist Party‘s policy to build national, scientific, and popular new culture. During the democratic movement, the Chinese Communist Party had already attached much importance to cultural construction. In On New Democracy by Mao Zedong, quite a bit of it is about new democratic culture. Mao points out that ―New democratic culture is national. It opposes imperialist oppression and upholds the dignity and independence of the Chinese nation. It belongs to our nation and bears our own national characteristics.‖1 ―New democratic culture is scientific. It is against all feudal and superstitious ideology. Opposed as it is to all feudal and superstitious ideas, it stands for seeking truth from facts, for objective truth and for the unity of theory and practice.‖2 ―New democratic culture belongs to the broad masses and is therefore democratic. It should serve the toiling masses of 1

Zedong Mao. Selected Works of Mao Zedong, vol. 2. (Beijing: People‘s Publishing House. 1991), 706.

2

Zedong Mao. Selected Works of Mao Zedong, vol. 2. (Beijing: People‘s Publishing House. 1991), 707. 99

workers and peasants who make up more than 90 per cent of the nation‘s population and should gradually become their very own.‖ 1 Mao points out, ―A national, scientific and mass culture – such is the anti-imperialist and anti-feudal culture, the culture of New Democracy, and the new culture of the Chinese nation.‖2 This pointed out the progressive direction for China‘s cultural construction at that time. During the democratic movement, which was guided by Marxism, the Chinese Communist Party became the strong party that promoted China‘s new cultural development, representing the progressive direction of China‘s advanced culture. Since the Third Plenary Session of the 11th Central Committee of Chinese Communist Party, the second generation of leaders led by Deng Xiaoping has also attached much importance to cultural construction. The CCP‘s Central Committee vigorously strengthens the construction of a socialist spirit civilization with an emphasis on ideological and moral education as well as the popularization of cultural and scientific knowledge. Deng stresses that it is socialism with Chinese characteristics only if we can construct both civilizations well. He stresses that we should educate the people to be ambitious, moral, intellectual, and disciplined in order to enhance national quality. Deng also stresses that we should do things like inherit national cultural traditions, absorb outstanding achievements of human civilization, and respect knowledge and talents. In the new era, former Party secretary Jiang Zemin points out ―When developing socialist economy and politics, we must attach importance to the construction of a socialist spiritual civilization as well. We should vigorously develop national scientific socialist culture for the masses oriented towards modernization, the world and the future, in order to constantly enrich the people‘s spiritual world and strengthen the people‘s spiritual power.‖ ―We should make the cultivation and advancement of national spirit a crucial task of cultural construction, in order to make sure that the people are always enthusiastic and courageous in the journey of building socialism with Chinese characteristics.‖3 From the discussion about cultural construction by several generations of leaders 1

Zedong Mao. Selected Works of Mao Zedong, People‘s Publishing House, vol. 2 (1991), 708.

2

Zedong Mao. Selected Works of Mao Zedong, People‘s Publishing House, vol. 2 (1991), 708-709.

3

At the graduation ceremony for at the advanced class for cadres at the provincial-ministerial level and

above at the Party School of the CPC Central Committee, Jiang Zemin stresses that importance of building socialism with Chinese characteristics by uploading the great banners of and fully implementing Deng‘s ―Three Represents,‖ (Xinhua Daily Telegraph, June 1, 2002). 100

of the Chinese Communist Party we can see that it is fundamental for a socialist culture with Chinese characteristics and the direction of China‘s cultural construction be national, scientific, and for the masses. Therefore, as a long term strategic goal for China‘s cultural development, China should stick to the construction of a socialist culture that is national, scientific, and for the masses. 2.4 Achieving the creative transition of traditional culture of the Chinese nation. The traditional culture of the Chinese nation is the basis for the survival and development of the Chinese nation. It is also the premise of national identity. The Chinese nation‘s traditional culture is not only the spiritual heritage of the Chinese people, but also a common fortune shared by the human race. Traditional culture is the key to national spirit, where a nation‘s personality lies. Only when rooted in a local civilization can traditional culture communicate equally with the outer world, instead of being submerged by the standards of modernization. In today‘s cultural strategic games of the world, it is of vital importance for our country and nation to properly inherit traditional culture, actualize the creative transition of China‘s traditional culture, carry on the Chinese nation‘s culture and spirit, and give it a practical purpose. Globalization has provided a good opportunity for China‘s traditional culture to realize a creative transition and global communication. When speaking of the capitalist concept of opening up the world market, Marx and Engels made an incisive discussion about the relationship between economic production and cultural production. They pointed out that ―In the place of the old local and national seclusion and

self-sufficiency,

we

have

intercourse

in

every

direction,

universal

inter-dependence of nations. And as in material, so also in intellectual production.‖1 In the context of globalization, as a direct reflection of economic life, culture makes it possible for multiple cultures to communicate and complement each other. With the enhancement and expansion of economic communication, cultural communication will undoubtedly enhance and expand with it. International free trade not only brings about the circulation of commodity, but it also will create more chances for communication on cultural ideas, structure, and management. In this multi-cultural 1

Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Selected Works (In Two Volumes),

(Moscow: Foreign Language Publishing House, 1951), 36. 101

communication, the internal vitality and humanistic values of Chinese traditional culture face its challenges as well as a precious opportunity for development. We should carry forward the openness and compatibility of Chinese culture vigorously with proactive and constructive attitudes, absorb the achievements of foreign culture, integrate and re-structure the strength of Chinese culture, form a complementary communication platform for Chinese and foreign culture, proactively catch up and surpass the world civilization, and facilitate a sustainable and healthy development of Chinese society and Chinese culture. It is a fundamental project to take advantage of globalization and actualize the creative transition of China‘s traditional culture. The foundation and premise of China‘s cultural security strategy system is to realize the creative transition of traditional culture of the Chinese nation. 2.5 Promoting Chinese Culture and Building a Common Spiritual Home for the Chinese Nation National spirit is the spiritual support for the survival and development of a nation, and the measurement of a country‘s comprehensive national strength. ―Without its own spiritual pillar, a nation or a country does not possess its soul, losing cohesion and vitality.‖1At the same time, national spirit is the most symbolic spiritual light that leaps out of the matrix national culture. Only profound national culture can cultivate the noble national spirit, whose influence and guidance provide it with the motivation and direction for advancement. The culture of a nation can create and mold a nation‘s moral and soul, and thus loads and determines the connotation of its spirit. As the backbone of national culture, national spirit formulates its essence. During thousands of years of development, having overcome loads of difficulties, the Chinese nation has gone through a progress of growth, becoming a great power covering mainland China and other regions including Hong Kong, Macao, and Taiwan, as well as overseas Chinese communities, and has increasingly gained the attention of the world. This cannot be separated from the existence and promotion of the Chinese culture and ethos. In the context of globalization, the Chinese national culture is being severely challenged by Western culture; thereby, a sense of crisis and responsibility upon the survival and development of Chinese national culture rises. With five thousand years of 1

Zemin Jiang. Selected Works of Jiang Zemin, vol. 2, (People‘s Press, 2006), 230-231. 102

traditional culture, Chinese culture has formed a patriotic national spirit, which has grown into a powerful self-maintained system. Chinese national culture should purposefully foster China‘s national character, enhance the awareness of Chinese culture, take foreign security threats seriously, and adopt a definitive awareness of national culture security. Only in this way can China voluntarily resist foreign, erroneous, and decadent culture; protect, pass on, and foster national culture; as well as maintain its national culture security. A nation‘s culture consists of its historical cognition and experience of reality of the world and itself. It also contains deep spiritual pursuits and code of conduct. The extension and development of any national culture is the inheritance, reform, and innovation based on existent culture and tradition. Without the inheritance of culture, people would lose their roots and their identities. Throughout its five thousand years of history, the Chinese nation has created a splendid Chinese civilization, culture, and tradition, which has pooled together national spirit and made great contribution to the world civilization. If China attempts to make cultural achievements from this new historical starting point, it must review and respect the past, build from the present, look forward to the future, and revere its national tradition and culture. By finding and classifying the tradition and culture, China needs to keep its essence and discard its dross in order to pass on the China‘s spirit and to keep its uniqueness and independence. Chinese culture is comprised of the Chinese national characteristic of unyieldingness and tolerance, the lofty quality of ―putting the country and the people before anything else,‖ the ideas that ―peace is the most precious‖ and ―harmony without uniformity,‖ and the wisdom of balancing the relationship between humans and with the nature. Therefore, a report to the 17th National Congress of the Communist Party of China points out that China should promote vigorous development and prosperity of socialist culture, one of whose four strategic deployments is to ―promote Chinese culture and build a common spiritual home for the Chinese nation.‖ Consequently, with long-term infiltration and influence, Chinese culture has been a constant driving force for the Chinese nation in keeping its unity and making progress from generation to generation. Even in a technological and multicultural modern society, there are some core traditional values shared by the Chinese people and the whole world regardless of time and space. As a result, traditional culture should not be abandoned or accepted totally. The right attitude is 103

to keep its essence and discard its dross; not to preserve all its characteristics, but to keep its national character and have its changes reflect the change in time. It is necessary to do away with two oppositional thoughts in order to foster Chinese culture. The first one is to set Marxism against studies of Chinese ancient civilization. With the advancement in the establishment of socialism with Chinese characteristics, institutes of ancient Chinese studies were set up at many of universities and colleges. However, in the promotion of traditional Chinese culture, some people belittled the origins of other cultures. Some of them even believed that Marxism belongs to the Western culture system; so, they believed that in order to spread Chinese traditional culture, they should get remove the influence of other culture systems. In fact, neither being obsequious to foreign cultures nor respecting Confucianism alone conforms to the development of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Recognizing the association between Marxism and traditional Chinese culture is the key to strengthening the culture development of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Marxism shares similar views with traditional Chinese culture on the practice, dialectics, indomitable enterprising spirit and concept of a peaceful and harmonious society, which boosts the wide and successful acceptance and spread of Marxism after its introduction to China. The second one is to set cultural globalization in opposition to cultural nationalization. ―We must have a comprehensive understanding of traditional Chinese culture, keep its essence and discard its dross to enable it to fit in with present-day society, stay in harmony with modern civilization, keep its national character and reflect changes of the times.‖1 In this open world, with shifting technology and culture, and a rise communication between various ethnic groups, any form of isolation will lead to the stagnation and slump of national culture. As far as the history of human cultural development, it is a natural law that cultures conflict and integrate. Without conflict and integration, there would be no development and innovation in culture, resulting in a standstill or even extinction. Cultural globalization provides all cultures equal opportunities to communicate with and complement each other. Nonetheless, in the process of cultural globalization, 1

Jintao Hu. ―Hold High the Great Banner of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics and Strive for New

Victories in Building a Moderately Prosperous Society in all Respects--Report to the 17th National Congress of the Communist Party of China‖. October, 2007 104

conflicts between foreign cultures and native cultures emerge. On the one hand, strong or weak cultural forces create uneven communication in reality. Even worse, cultural aggression and cultural colonization emerge. On the other hand, sticking to a native culture and displaying fear for and refusal of cultural communication as well as foreign culture can trigger conflicts and clashes between native and foreign cultures. To resist cultural hegemony and to ensure the development of an advancing culture, China needs to base itself on a culture with Chinese characteristics, take advantage of cultural globalization, and absorb the essence of multiple cultures into its native culture. In addition, by strengthening the spiritual value of its native culture, it can acquire opportunities to promote itself exchanges and integration with foreign culture, which can help improve its ability to spread outwards and resist unhealthy culture. With five thousand years of civilization, traditional culture in China is broad and profound with a long history. The promotion of Chinese culture and spirit does not mean that it will practice narrow nationalism and exclusionism. On the contrary, the advocacy and development of cultural nationalism are for the purpose of going global and of learning from other cultures. The Chinese culture will take in and develop from the era and the world through nationalism. In a certain sense, nationalism without culture cannot carry culture to the world or to a certain era. Similarly, a culture will lose its roots and vitality if it does not connect with the times and the world. In the trend of globalization, when fostering a brilliant tradition and culture, China should adhere to the principle of ―harmony without uniformity‖ and ―tolerance.‖ It should be noted that as cultural globalization is different from cultural Westernization, culture security does not mean that we should practice xenophobic nationalism. A country can only obtain its cultural security on the basis of maintaining its advancement through cultural communication with other nations, in particular with developed counties, continue absorbing global advanced cultures, and transforming its own national culture. It is crucial to guarantee the extension of cultural nationalism, whose key is to integrate the progressiveness of culture into its nationalism, placing the nation‘s culture on the forefront of the times. Advanced culture is the product of the combination of native culture and foreign culture, and of traditional culture and modern culture. Therefore, only by correctly recognizing the relationship, such as the relationship between the socialist culture system and 105

capitalist culture system, between the Western culture system and Oriental culture system, and between the foreign culture and native culture, can we provide a safeguard for the nation‘s cultural security and cultural development. 2.6 Advocating for the Sinicization of Marxism and Integrating Mainstream Ideology into National Culture to Accumulate Cultural Potential Energy A nation‘s cultural power is made up of cultural potential energy, cultural innovation, and cultural transmissibility. Cultural potential energy is the fundamental resources of cultural innovation and cultural transmissibility, offering inexhaustible motive. Conversely, cultural innovation and cultural transmissibility prompt the accumulation of cultural potential. Cultural potential energy determines the stability of specific ―cultural gene.‖ With more cultural potential energy, it needs a stronger external force to convert cultural identity. There are two coexistent and effective ways to accumulate cultural potential energy: the first one is through ideology and respective innovation and spread of diverse national culture; the second one is to merge ideology into national culture. With the combination of two cultural potential energies, the total energy is powerfully enhanced. Both Marxism and socialism did not originate from traditional Chinese culture. As a result, as a ―foreign culture,‖ how to integrate into Chinese culture has been a major historical issue; therefore in the accumulation of cultural potential energy, the latter has greater strategic value. Naturally, native ideology comprises of ideology and national culture, which tends to form a higher national cultural potential energy, while ideological innovation and transmission and national cultural innovation and transmission tend to perform equally. Under this circumstance, the dissemination of ideology can be more involved in the consciousness of national culture, giving the ideology the most powerful and stable dissemination pattern. The localization of non-native ideology is a vital determinant of its vitality and transmissibility. A higher level of integration of ideology and national culture leads to a higher level of cultural consciousness and relatively lower dependency on regime. In China, the people of the Communist Party of China make arduous efforts to achieve the sinicization of Marxism. In the process of combining Marxism with China‘s revolution and socialist development, Marxism has helped produce Maoism, Deng Xiaoping Theory, the important thought of ―Three Represents,‖ a Scientific Outlook on Development, and other major strategic ideologies, guiding China‘s revolution and development to historic success. In this sense, the sinicization of 106

Marxism has achieved great success. However, it ―only completes the sinicization of Marxism from a political aspect; the sinicazation of Marxism from a cultural aspect is not as effective.‖ 1 As it does not penetrate comprehensively into all aspects of national culture, such as ideas, cognition, values, literacy, and psychology, Marxism cannot internalize the behaviors and habits of the Chinese people in order to understand the world and thrive in the society. In spite of its class nature, ideology will lose its cultural roots if there is excessive focus on the nature of class. This will result in ideology that only considers policy, rather than cultural connotations; create innovative leaders, rather than thoughtful scholars and the indoctrination of ―official‖ things, rather than the ―public‖ consciousness. The long-term state of ―separation‖ between two crucial national strategic resources, ideology and national culture will greatly weaken China‘s overall strategic force in the international cultural competition. As a result, it is strategic to safeguard China‘s cultural security by making great efforts to drive the sinicization of Marxism, especially from a cultural aspect. China must also integrate the mainstream ideology into national culture, which can be used to understand Marxism and be transformed by Marxism. In the process of cultivating and fostering the national spirit of culture, China can merge the cultural essence of Marxism into it. In the meantime, China can imprint the national spirit of culture when spreading and developing Marxism. The convergence of these two cultural potential energies will uplift the whole nation‘s cultural potential energy, strengthening the country‘s cultural power.

3. Guiding the Healthy Development of the Public Culture In facing the challenge of the vulgarization of public culture to national cultural security，under the condition of culture entering the market, it is key to effectively integrate the mainstream ideology into the public culture, expanding the influence of the dominant cultural potential energy into the domain of public culture. Furthermore, it helps the public to accept multidimensional value of culture, which links to the daily lives and consumption of the public, forming a cultural system that connects with ideology and national culture. 3.1 Core Socialist Values Guide Mass Culture Development

1

Quanxing Xu. ―The distinction between political aspect and academic aspect of the sinicization of Maxism‖,

Frontier Theory, vol. 23, (2003). 107

The Communist Party of China‘s Decision on Major Issues Regarding the Building of a Harmonious Socialist Society passed in the Sixth Plenary Session of the 16thCPC Committee points out that, ―fostering a culture of harmony is an important task for building a harmonious socialist society, whose foundation is the system of core values.‖ In addition, it states that ―the basic content of the system of core socialist values includes the guidance of Marxist ideology, our common ideal of socialism with Chinese characteristics, patriotic national spirit, the spirit of the times centering on reform and innovation, and the socialist maxims of honor and disgrace.‖1As the main body of socialist ideology, the system of core socialist values is the inner spirit and the soul of the socialist system, which plays the governing and dominant role in the socialist value goal. The crucial task of building the system of core socialist values is the key to the development of socialist ideology, displaying the orientation of an advanced socialist culture and becoming the main issue in the era of development. In the development of mass culture, China should incorporate socialist core values, which embody the essence of socialist ideology, into all stages of national education and the entire process of cultural and ethical progress to make them the goals that people will pursue of their own accord. We will also keep the balance between the commercialization of mass culture and cultural pursuit. ―The main determinant of mass culture is the profit its production and marketing can make from its potential mass market. If it can‘t make money then it is unlikely to be produced.‖2 Therefore, the content and form of mass culture should be adjusted under the guidance of the socialist core values. To see actual results in the development of mass culture, China needs to take effective measures to establish a system of education on core values, in a way that is favorable with the public. For example, China should provide relevant texts, train teachers, and satisfy the public‘s practical spiritual needs. In particular, China needs to publicize and educate on the thoughts and behaviors to millions of young people. At the same time, China can learn from the experiences of developed country on the 1

The Communist Party of China. ―The Communist Party of China‘s Decision on Major Issues in Building a

Harmonious Socialist Society.‖ (October, 2006). Retrieved from http://cpc.people.com.cn/GB/64093/64094/4932424.html. 2

Dominica Strinati. An Introduction to Theories of Popular Culture. (Routeledge, 2001), 11. 108

education of mass culture, which in turn increases the investment in the construction of public cultural facilities; lowers the costs of the public‘s reception of culture; and builds museums, cultural facilities, and art facilities; promotes literature, art, and various media that reflect core value. This makes it easier for people to visit, learn, and enrich their spiritual lives. Only through a comprehensive scientific education on values can core values take root among the people, and subconsciously help people achieve both their personal and social ideals, cultivate people‘s noble temperament in knowledge and appreciating art, and form a healthy personality, as well as scientific and noble values. 3.2

Integrate

Scientific

Spirit,

Humanistic

Spirit,

and

Modern

Consciousness into Public Cultural Life China must merge scientific spirit, humanistic spirit, and modern spirit into guiding the healthy development of public culture, making it serve the public and accomplish the richness and diversity of culture in the multicultural frame so as to achieve cultural consciousness. As culture gives people a sense of belonging and a platform to appeal to their emotions, it contains values and creativity, a knowledge system and lifestyle, especially a cultural ideal. Once we lose the cultural value, integrative capability, and cohesiveness of national spirit, it only highlights the economic dimension of the public culture and its products. Although this would be easier to connect with the international culture, because of the inward atrophy of culture, on the global platform for communication, China may be reduced an image of ―otherness‖ to prove the dominance of Western culture. All the measures China has taken have proven that as culture is more market-oriented and the cultural industry is more prosperous, they are more able to protect original scientific research as well as literary and artistic creations, to nourish the elite culture, and to provide more freedom and options for cultural consumption to the public. Under market conditions, the former hierarchical and enclosed cultural pattern is deconstructed via market principle. The relationship between mainstream culture, elite culture, and mass culture is one that conforms to market rules, rather than any distinct hierarchy. In order to survive, each culture has to depend on itself and follow the new rules, attracting consumers, and promote scientific spirit, humanistic spirit, modern ideas and other cultural ideals. Only in a fair and competitive market can all cultures be ordered and harmonious. Instead of instillation, mainstream culture should follow the rules of cultural development and conform to 109

market characteristics, which are closer to reality. Multidimensional cultural patterns can be integrated with the values of ―advanced culture‖ and common cultural ideals by strongly fostering advanced culture and supporting a healthy and useful culture to develop a new socialist culture. The cultural missions of China‘s ruling party is gaining a reputation on the international stage, attracting mass consumers, retaining cultural ideals, as well as improving themselves and influencing consumers under market conditions. In doing so, China can build a national cultural image for the world, and standing firmly among nations with its fascinating civilization. With the infiltration of the market and an in-depth development of history, China must reflect on and generalize certain signs that have appeared due some degree of integration between mass culture and elite culture. In order to expand its influence and voice, elite culture must make use of the operation pattern of mass culture, participate in some of its practices and connect with mass culture through mass media, such as popular TV dramas adapted from pure literature, televised lectures by scholars and their frequent media exposure, performances during ―drama season‖ in metropolis like Beijing and Shanghai, and academic lectures in libraries. In the meantime, to upgrade its quality, by using the style and technology of elite culture, mass culture must popularize it with its own production mechanisms and make it belong to mass culture. For instance, cultural products and activities including advertisements, decorations, image designs, and fashion shows are flooded with the rhetoric, technique, styles, and aesthetic of pure literature, which creates more aesthetic images. This illustrates that despite the conflict and negation two cultures can mutually infiltrate, correct, and complement each other. They can even mutually recognition and promotion one another. Consequently, it is significant to expand the influence of mainstream culture through new cultural integration, and set up the national cultural security system with national characteristics. 3.3 Paying Attention to the Reasonable Guidance of Internet Culture In the era of globalization, using the Internet as a channel for public culture is quite common. On the one hand, it satisfies the public‘s need for cultural consumption. On the other hand, it brings some negative influence, which emerges and spread in a spontaneous and disorderly state. To prevent this negative effect, first, China must distinguish right from wrong and make use of correct values to lead Internet cultural development. The key is the art of guidance, which takes root among people and puts people first to understand the public‘s mindset and need. Unlike the Internet, both 110

people and culture should have their goals and perspectives. Thus, we need to prop up Internet mainstream culture, create positive mainstream public opinions, strengthen the social recognition of mainstream culture, and form a healthy service system for public culture. Secondly, with new technologies, we can improve the network operation system, encourage the decent establishment and usage of the Internet, and keep a balance between reality and virtual, providing a free, healthy, and civilized atmosphere for Internet culture. Families in Germany, England, and other countries should register with their real names and use fixed IP addresses. Since Octobers 2005, Korea has implemented a real-name registration system for the Internet, in which netizens can only surf the Internet after the verification of their names and ID numbers. In China, this system is also being promoted and gradually implemented, even in the Internet cafes and in certain online games. Those underage are prohibited from these cybercafés in order to protect them from harmful messages. Thirdly, China should integrate the administrative accountability system of different departments, set up innovative new management methods, and find the point in which technology and policy join together, to achieve a balance between development and management. Moreover, with the comprehensive use of legal, administrative, economic, technological, ideological education, self-regulation and other measures, an Internet information transmission order should be formed with legal supervision, self-regulation in the industry, social supervision, standards, and order. In addition, attention should be paid to the ethical development of the dissemination of Internet culture. Owing to its abundance, variety, and two-way interaction, cultural dissemination in the Internet era brings both sensual enjoyment and danger. In the face of abundant Internet cultural resources and various Internet cultural

products,

the

Internet‘s

cultural

consumers

obtain

unprecedented

independence over consumption. In the Internet cultural space where everything is available, consumers have vast choices and can freely consume according to their own consumption preferences. Persistence in the unification of a utilitarian target and ethical goal in Internet cultural consumption makes the moral choice of Internet cultural consumption beneficial to the promotion of morals and quality of the consumption subjects. Besides, China must insist both free choice and authorization for use, guaranteeing that Internet cultural consumers will not use Internet cultural 111

resources and Internet cultural products without authorization to assure the technical security of Internet culture. In the meantime, legislation is needed to standardize Internet cultural consumption to conform to morality. To sum up, in the course of establishing national cultural security system, ideology, national culture, and public culture, the three dimensions of this system, are needed to be reshaped and guided, forming the cultural potential energy in the context of globalization, offering motivation for national cultural security strategy. 3.4 Further Purifying the Social Cultural Environment Purifying the social cultural environment is the crucial guarantee for the healthy development of public culture. Since 2004, the CPC and China has continuously promulgated several rules and regulations for purifying the social cultural environment, and has launch special projects, achieving marked periodical results. Nonetheless, from the experience of purifying the social cultural environment and the reality that ―administration cannot ban disobedience,‖ there is still a possibility that resurgence may emerge. ―Tough administration‖ may not work well; hence it is more reasonable to adopt the comprehensive measurement of ―dealing with the root cause and symptoms.‖ Not only does China need to adopt ―tough administration‖ on harmful behaviors and phenomenon, but they should also take a long-term approach to and overall governance of the social and cultural information environment, as well as social cultural entertainment and environment. China should fight against the falsehood and indecencies from the channel and source of information, eliminate them from information sources, and set up an effective security system for public culture. The following relationships should be focused on in purifying the social cultural environment. a. Maintaining a balance between divided monitoring and full-time ―control‖ The divided monitoring and full-time ―control‖ refer to the effect of governance on purifying the social cultural milieu. The divided monitoring refers to the ways of governing in accordance with time and space, while its counterpart--the full-time ―control‖ stresses constant surveillance and control. The relationship between the two is point to surface, ring to chain, aiming at enhancing the effectiveness of public cultural security. Currently, the focus of purification is on divided monitoring instead of full-time control, leading to the failure of policy implementation. Online regulation still has some vulnerabilities, including: the separate 112

regulations on television and radio; severe measures taken against the black hole that interests protection; the intersection of administration and law enforcement, making both futile; the existence of laws and regulations in a vacuum; and the loopholes surrounding school campuses. All these problems expose the propensity to meet emergencies in the current socio-cultural environment. Its purification should start from the root of maintaining public security as well as cultural benefits of the masses. On the basis of the present ―Regulations on the management of social security,‖ we can set up ―Regulations on public cultural security‖ or related legislations, and supplement them with the ―Law of the People's Republic of China on the Protection of Minors,‖ protecting the citizens‘ interests and safety in the form of laws and regulations. Secondly, the monitoring mechanism for ensuring social and cultural information should be established by gathering the public security department‘s internet surveillance, cultural and publishing department, the administrative enforcement of the administrative department for industry and commerce, and forming a joint law enforcement agency for public cultural security to fill the vacuum. Thirdly, focusing on the governance of schools campus surroundings, the local police should establish a healthy partnership with the security department of all schools, and heavily monitor during summer and winter vacations and long statutory holidays. b. Properly handling the relationship between the freedoms of cultural activities and correctly identifying of undesirable factors The relationship between the freedom of cultural activities and the identification of undesirable factors is the relationships between cultural openness and the identification of what is fake, ugly, and evil. The present issue is that the discussion of freedom has replaced that of identification, because in talking about identification, we may restrain culture‘s freedom to innovate and develop. As the Reform took root, the openness of culture became increasingly obvious. Moreover, market interests, cultural globalization, and cultural invasion by Western anti-China forces through the rules of global trade often abuse the freedom of cultural activities, resulting in untold quality of cultural input and disordered cultural activities. In the field of public culture security, to pick out undesirable cultural factors, we need to set a standard for public culture security, which is the dividing line between beauty and ugliness, between truths and lies. If we lost or abandoned this bottom line, everyone would pursue absolute freedom, which would mean no freedom Being identified and selected, cultural activity freedom is the freedom for 113

cultural energy as well as creativity. The depth thought and cultural prosperity level lie in the vitality and creativity of public culture, in other words, the cultural ―soft power,‖ which exist among beauty and truth rather than ugliness and lies. c. Maintaining a balance between active guidance and close supervision Active guidance refers to the state department for cultural administration leading the social cultural environment to a healthy and ordered development; while supervision is a compulsory rule, forcing the social cultural environment to go to a positive development. Their relationship is to block and to unblock. Active guidance can direct cultural consumption and cultural activity towards a decent direction, but supervision aims at blocking leaks and resisting false and immoral cultural information. Current measurements being taken, such as ―tough administration,‖ ―concentrated regulation‖, and ―special governance‖ focus on regulation rather than on positive guidance. Therefore, China must learn to integrate both. On the one hand, China needs to promote the moral education of citizens, covering not only schools, but communities, neighborhood, and industry. Education includes ethics education for citizens, cultural traditional education, education on laws and regulations, and education on the international situation, which can be led by the government and then by volunteers. On the other hand, China can implement education on industry access, opening up Internet cafes, setting up websites, form culture and art groups, and find places for entertainment. In addition to the scrutiny of its qualification and condition, China should provide special education and training for legal representatives and practitioners. At the same time, governments and industrial competent organizations should take irregular appraisals and examination on business on public cultural service, encourage and reward excellent ones. Nowadays, there exist varying degrees of ―paradox in the public domain‖ in the supervision of the public cultural industry, which means there is no difference in terms of quality and those mercenaries often acquire more benefits. Eliminating this paradox can add more attraction to mainstream culture and healthy culture, hence we can issue ―rewards for good citizens‖ and ―moral awards,‖ like offering free bus tickets for individuals or tax breaks for departments. d. Keeping a balance between the economic benefits of cultural products and their social interests The Scientific Outlook on Development requires that development should not be achieved at the cost of cultural progress, ecological environment, and people‘s lives. 114

The socialist market economy is the market mechanism concentrating on the win-win benefits, that is, economic, as well as social benefit. Any behavior that abandons one of the benefits disobey the just and justice of socialism. We need to be vigilant about and oppose the undue emphasis on economic benefit. Under the condition of a gradually maturing socialist market economy, cynical behaviors still exist. For example, pornographic videos are sold publicly on the market. False commercial advertisements are published via authorized media. Some unscrupulous operators sell illegal cultural products to teenagers. Not only do these acts destroy social conduct and exert a negative influence on several generations, but it can also corrode the social foundation of public cultural security. The development of the social spirit and culture as well as the healthy growth of ―human beings‖ can be achieved with economic benefits. China should promote the developmental strategy of cultural ―soft power,‖ to adjust the policy of the culture industry. In the process of developing a national cultural ―soft power,‖ China can expand the market of the cultural industry, and maintain public culture security on the basis of cultural ―soft power,‖ achieving a win-win situation with both economic and social benefits. e. Finding the balance between cultural autonomy and heteronomy The accomplishment of public cultural security depends on the increase of the subjects‘ cultural immunity against ugliness and lies. There are two ways that cultural subjects can resist bad culture, that is, autonomy and heteronomy. The realization of autonomy is that the subject has to improve his/her cultural cultivation, and strengthen cultural immunity. As for heteronomy, its achievement consists of public opinions, ideological and political education in schools, family education, and laws and regulations. Autonomy emphasizes self-adjustment and self-constraint, which are purely moral restraint, while heteronomy is the comprehensive means of public opinion, school education, family education and law enforcement. Currently, owing to the decline in the importance of the traditional family, there are more single-parent families and only children, undermining the heteronomy of family education. Moreover, the incomplete coverage of laws and regulations against harmful social culture creates a blank gap between morality and law. As a result, the purification of social cultural environment should pay attention to ideological and political education at schools and cultural and moral education for citizens, along with law enforcement, autonomy, and ameliorate family education, in order to strengthen the cultural immunity of the subjects of public culture securities. 115

f. Properly handling the relationship between system construction and breakthrough System construction refers to overall planning and management of the sociocultural environment, including environment of social and cultural information, cultural entertainment and activity environment, as well as public culture in the area of policy, infrastructure and mass communication, and so forth. Breakthrough, mainly focuses on solving the problems which severely influence current situations, and has two problems should be valued: one emphasizes key areas and the breakthroughs in key areas; these are the special campaigns aimed at purifying sociocultural environments, like the adverse environment of an internet cafe, the audiovisual influences, the environment around a campus. For another, the purification of the socio-cultural environment should be treated as a national cultural interest for the purpose of avoiding the deviation of socio-cultural environment from the cultural environment itself, so that we can obtain what we lack. Only by upholding the unity system establishment and breakthrough can the integrity of security in public culture be maintained.

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Chapter Four Planning and Management of Strategic Measures for Chinese National Cultural Security ——To improve the cultural management system and reinforce cultural soft power

1. To Enhance Strategic Researches on National Cultural Security 1.1 Brief Introduction on Chinese National Cultural Security Strategy In the context of the current international environment, it is national strength that decides a country‘s international position and security status, just as Deng Xiaoping emphasized, ―Development is a top priority.‖ No matter how important a country‘s strength is, the significance of strategic planning can never be neglected. High quality strategic planning can play a well-leveraged role by fully mobilizing national strategic resources, giving national strength an opportunity to shine. Low-quality strategic planning, on the other hand, would waste national strategic resources and reduce national strength. In this way, maintaining Chinese national cultural security requires both focus on intensifying national cultural strength and emphasis upon the strategic planning of national cultural security. As a matter of fact, the problem itself of how to reinforce national cultural strength is an issue of strategic planning. At present, the problem of maintaining Chinese national cultural security lies in the lack of a complete, comprehensive, and systematic national cultural security strategy. In other words, strategic consciousness and strategic measures of national cultural security have not been fully demonstrated in the general strategy of Chinese cultural development. A study of Chinese national cultural security strategy should be conducted from two aspects: one is strategic consciousness, the other strategic measures. Strategic consciousness is the background and foundation of strategic decision, which refers to how decision-makers and their think tank know about their objects of strategic planning. The most prominent problem facing the strategic consciousness of Chinese national cultural security is an insufficient acknowledgement of the current situation 117

of Chinese national cultural security. Although Chinese strategic think tanks have not been sound and perfect, researchers on ideology and culture as well as social scientists have exerted an ever-increasing influence on strategic decision through the ideological and theoretical atmosphere they create. The influence of globalization on cultural development caught the attention of Chinese scholars early in the latter half of the 1990s and has remained a hot topic up until now. However, ―national cultural security‖ did not come into the theoretical view for some Chinese scholars until 21st century, in spite of its lately gained attention from the academia for that is merely a start of theoretical research on strategic decisions making. In the top decision-making circle, Hu Jintao clearly put forth the need ―to maintain national cultural security‖ in the 7th Collective Learning Conference of the 16th Political Bureau of the Central Committee of CPC, which was the first time a leader of the central authority adopted the concept of ―national cultural security.‖ The top decision-making circle has always placed emphasis on cultural development and spiritual civilization, yet the comprehensive construction of national cultural security strategy from the perspective of ―national cultural security‖ has only started, as noted in Hu Jintao‘s speech. In terms of strategic measures, the tenth five-year plan adopted the concept of a ―cultural industry‖ for the first time in the official paper and placed great importance on ―the development of the cultural industry,‖ which grasps the strategic point of enhancing Chinese cultural strength. Jiang Zemin placed ―cultural development‖ an unprecedented height during the CPC 16th National Congress, defining the basic guiding ideology, principle, and direction of cultural strategy. In the CPC 17th National Congress he noted the importance of reinforcing cultural soft power and propeling the development and prosperity of socialist culture. However, up until now, a strategic plan to maintain cultural sovereignty and security has not yet taken shape. 1.2 Status Quo and Problems of the Chinese Think Tank on National Cultural Security Strategy Think tank, or brain trust, is a consulting institution of soft science. Think tank, in a broad sense, refers to institutions that take part in analyzing and studying public policies. They provide intellectual support for parities, government, enterprises, or social organizations to make decisions through research and consulting. Think tanks play a vital role in social development. In the United States, think tanks are critical in 118

preparing, forming, deciding, and evaluating American national policies, so much so, it is even called the fourth power, next to legislative power, executive power, and judicial power. After the Second World War, think tanks fit for a social economy and providing services for national policies sprung up all around world; some include the RAND Corporation, Stanford Research Institute, Brookings Institution and American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research in the U.S., Nomura Research Institute, Mitsubishi Research Institute in Japan, The International Institute for Strategic Studies in Britain as well as the multinational ones like the International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis and the Club of Rome. As China‘s reform begins to take root, the issue of national cultural security has come into light and draws the attention of more and more institutions on cultural security. In addition to institutions from cultural system, institutions for international relations, economics, and politics have also stepped into this field. Research institutes for cultural industry innovation, similar to think tanks, have been established one after another and have published a series of research reports and monographs, providing intellectual support for making decisions on national cultural security. Compared with the well-developed think tanks in Western developed countries, China has many problems in their strategy research of Chinese cultural security. First is lack of funding. Because most research institutions for national cultural security belong to cultural administrative departments, universities, or scientific research institutions which rely on fiscal appropriation, funding depends on what the government at all levels know about cultural security strategy, which leads to a lack of stability and a single channel of funding. Another is the lack of flexibility in choosing the research problems of cultural security strategy. The research content is up to the decision-making center of government, which deprives think tanks of initiatives on strategic subjects. Programs in preparation are often limited by how higher authorities think, thus it lacks independence and objectivity. In the solutions proposed to the government in relation to cultural security, some policy suggestions are more a literal expression than a real solution. The third is the personnel structure at cultural security research think tanks lacks a comprehensive interdisciplinary educational background. Most of China‘s think tank researchers graduate from the liberal arts. Judging from foreign experience, researchers are divided as follows: professional administrative leaders, main experts 119

of research, assistant researchers capable of independent data processing and computer analysis, employees doing independent data exploring, executive secretaries with close connections with clients, editors, librarians and other service staff. Besides, the interdisciplinary research tasks require the think tank to structure its teams in a diverse and professional manner. For instance, RAND Corporation organizes its research teams where engineers, physicians, mathematicians, computing and statistical experts, economists, sociologists, systems analysts, digerati, litterateurs, psychologists, legal experts, and commercial personnel gather together. Foreign think tanks are not only well experienced because they hire government officials who know about the decision-making process of their presidents or senior researchers, but they also encourage their employees to work in all levels of government. The American Enterprise Institute for Public Policy Research attracted over 20 people from the Nixon-Ford Administration (including Ford himself) as its researchers. Half of its 30 senior researchers have held important positions in the office of Republican administrations. For the RAND Corporation, whether Republicans or Democrats are in power, there is always someone from the ruling party who takes up the post of senior researcher. This communication and infiltration of personnel greatly increases the authority and prestige of the think tank, and it yields better results in their research. Foreign think tanks are different from those of Chinese ones in personnel, in both skills and tasks. However, the general tendency is to increase the number of interdisciplinary researchers with a larger proportion of social scientists. Staff with different educational backgrounds can learn from each other‘s strong points and inspire each other to produce compound intellectual advantages. At the same time, it complies with the historical trend of intersection and intermingling between the natural and social sciences. The fourth problem lies in the absence of a brand. Achievements in scientific research from Chinese cultural security research think tanks have a lower degree of conversion or influence. In the field of cultural security, China hardly has any research brand that can influence national policies. Even though institutions have their own publications, there is no authoritative publication that specializes in national cultural security strategy research. There is also less publicity for its research achievements, which poses the problem of keeping the public up to date with the latest situation on Chinese cultural security. On the contrary, foreign think tanks attach great importance to the publicity of their research achievements. The RAND 120

Corporation provides policy suggestions to policymakers in the form of research reports and background information, as well as attending hearings of Congress. It explains its own policies and ideas to the general masses by holding lectures and presenting papers on TV and in magazines. The Rand Corporation publishes 350-450 reports every year, along with many papers and monographs. Its reports can be found in many libraries in the U.S. and other countries. With the wide reach of its research achievements, think tanks can serve as bond between academic circles, press circles, business circles, and the government. Doing so creates more exposure for the think tanks, allowing people to understand its operations and objectives, adding weight to the influence and prestige of think tanks. The last problem of Chinese think tanks is that the information system for cultural security research needs improvement. Getting accurate and comprehensive information is the prerequisite for a think tank. At present, the information system for Chinese think tanks has not reached a high enough level. The inefficiency in making use of the Internet has divided the information systems of different think tanks making a shared information system impossible. These underdeveloped skills in information processing lead to the lack of promptness and accuracy of information. Foreign think tanks adopt advanced research methods and measures to integration of information through the complete network of intelligence information and provide guidelines and solutions for predicting the future. The Nomura Research Institute has offices in London, Washington, New York, Singapore, and Hong Kong. The International Institute for Applied Systems Analysis has a computer network connect to 17 member states. The Stanford Research Institute has set up branches not only in big domestic cities but also overseas in London, Paris, Zurich, Tokyo, Milan, Madrid, and Stockholm. These many branches spread far and wide make up the Stanford Research Institute‘s network of intelligence and information. The RAND Corporation has established many more branches and small-scale research centers, including the Center for Asia Pacific Policy, the Analysis Center of Information Innovation, the Research Center of Russia and Europe and Asia, the Research Center of Drug Policy, and Research Center of Greater Middle East. 1.3 To Establish and Perfect Chinese Cultural Security Research Think Tanks First of all, the Chinese government should provide more support for think tanks by recognizing the important role cultural security think tanks play in national cultural 121

security strategy and actively encouraging the establishment of related institutions. The organizational structuring of think tanks should be guided under the principle that think tanks are ―for experts to research and should be based on specifically themed teams. The leadership system or operating mechanism should be in line with the laws of scientific research.‖1 Second, channels for promoting research achievements should be widened and marketing for think tanks needs to promote marketable research achievements. To broaden the channels of promotion, research achievements can be comprehensively introduced to the local government, society, and related people by way of reports like Cultural Security Research Report. Special research reports on hot issues can be published to introduce the research progress of other think tanks. High-level forums and interviews on special topics through the effective use of news media can be used to promote research results and policy suggestions. Think tanks can be encouraged to consult in the making of policy. And by encouraging proper communication between think tanks, government, and research departments, China can expand the popularity of think tanks and promote the results of their research. Lastly, efficient information systems for cultural security strategy research should be established, ensuring an accurate information source for think tanks and improving the quality of scientific research. Central and local governments should invest and jointly development intelligence and information on cultural security research, establish a circulation system between cultural security information base and intelligence, and actively promote its connection to the international information network for cultural security. In doing so, it can obtain extensive and comprehensive information and should enhance the communication of information between the world and China in cultural security. China should absorb the cultural security information of Western countries and find effective resources from traditional China to make a modern transformation, making a greater contribution to the Chinese national cultural security strategy.

2. To Establish and Perfect Decision-Making Management System of National Cultural Security 1

Huichang Song. ―Modern Think Tank: Property, Value and Methods‖, Chinese Cadres Tribune, vol. 3,

(2004). 122

The decision-making management system of national cultural security is the key to launching a national cultural security strategy. Its establishment is not based on original national cultural management system, but rather gives decision making functions and management functions to the original system through structural reform and institutional innovation. The original Chinese cultural management system was the product of a planned economy, featured by the concentration of power, centralization, and unity, which were greatly influenced by the Soviet model. Despite dramatic changes in the cultural management system over the past 30 years due to the Reform, compared with the task of enhancing the development and prosperity of the socialist culture, and the new tasks and demands of Chinese cultural security in the era of globalization, the cultural management must become more innovative, especially for the purpose of exploring the establishment a mechanism that is suitable for Chinese current situation in order to deal with the cultural security crisis. 2.1 To Further Deepen the Structural Reform of Cultural Management Cultural structural reform should take into full consideration enhancing national cultural benefit and maintaining national cultural security by adapting to the demands of the socialist market economy. China should learn from the successful experience of economic reform and foreign countries, to establish gradually a cultural management system and a mechanism for the production and operation of a cultural product that can arouse the enthusiasm of cultural workers and propel cultural innovation with more quality products and talents. The key to structural reform is: to improve the leadership of the Party towards cultural work; smooth out the relationship between the government and cultural enterprises; improve and regulate institutions of cultural professions; discover ways in which to establish a new macro management system under the leadership of the Party, the state, self-regulated professionals, and in the lawful operation of enterprises and cultural institutions. China should improve the market system of culture, perfect management mechanism, regulate market order, and explore a market that disseminates healthy cultural products, promoting the optimal configuration of resources and orderly competition. China should gradually and selectively its doors to the outside world under the principle of ―using foreign experience for reference in favor of China.‖ There are several tips: a. To reform and establish macro-management system for national culture First of all, cultural management departments and cultural units should know their duties and functions. Cultural management departments should practically 123

change their functions from ―doing‖ to ―managing.‖They should show respect to the independence of the legal status of cultural institutions and decentralize the power of administrative, finance, and office personnel, eliminating unnecessary administrative intervention. They should not directly handle cultural production and management activities, which should be undertaken by cultural units. Instead, they should concentrate on researching and making cultural policies, enhancing legal administration to provide plans, guidance, coordination, and supervision for the development of the cultural industry. For a long period, the macro-management system of Chinese culture has had the problems of improper division, overlapping functions, and confusion in management and administration. It demands the optimization and integration of the macro management of national culture to establish a managerial institution of unity and efficiency, along with government structural reform and transformation of function. Based on this, by disintegrating the current functions of the national cultural macro management department will strengthen its management function and weaken its functional control on industry. Doing so will maintain and strengthen administrative functions, such as strategic planning for national cultural development and cultural policies, market access for franchising industries, and other industries. Functions, like industry management and self-regulation, market management and supervision will gradually disintegrate into industry associations, and provide institutional guarantees and macro-policy support to bring about a transformation in the government's function and accelerate the construction of China's culture. For commercial cultural units, they should improve business capability, establish group cultural enterprises, and become independent legal entities and subjects of market competition. In this way, they independently control the accounting, management, development and self-regulation under the prerequisite of correct guidance of public opinion and obeying national laws and regulations. b. To improve laws and regulations on culture In order for a structural reform of the Chinese culture and the facilitation of cultural innovation, and for cultural reform and development to go without a hitch, cultural laws and regulations need improvement. First, China must legalize it in order to safeguard national cultural security. Laws and regulations are made with the purpose of guaranteeing people their full freedom and rights. Cultural development is, in nature, a promotion of cultural freedom and a guarantee of cultural rights. So it is 124

necessary to make laws and regulations to safeguard people‘s cultural freedom and cultural rights, ensuring every citizen of the society can enjoy the cultural life and cultural order they are entitled to. This includes basic entitlement and expression to public culture, as well as the loss of public culture because of economic poverty. For the present, Chinese cultural legislation is still in its initial stage with many problems such as inadequate laws and legal blind spots. We should actively facilitate the legislation process for the development of the cultural industry. Right now, there are three aspects in the construction of cultural laws and regulations need special attention: First, China should reinforce the legislation process, by continuing the cultural development of public welfare as the basic way to safeguard people‘s basic cultural rights through a variety of means to ensure that all citizens can enjoy the rights of basic public culture by subsidizing public cultural consumption and improving people‘s ―cultural livelihood.‖ At the same time, China should track down behaviors that are harmful to the cultural security of the country and its individuals, providing a harmonious space for a social cultural order of justice and fairness based on security and freedom. Second, China should make and improve local laws and regulations on the cultural industry as soon as possible, including policies for industrial organization, investment, and financing, fiscal levy, distribution and incentives, land policies, and the protection, development and utilization of cultural resources. Cultural laws and regulations covering the main fields of the cultural industry in order to form a sound system of policies, laws and regulations that is beneficial to the development of a cultural industry. c. To manage according to categories of objects of management. We should make a reasonable distinction between cultural undertaking and the cultural industry, stepping out of the wrong region of the binary opposition to achieve a win-win situation and avoid the same one-track mindset of management. Cultural undertaking sees the members of society as its subject, every one of whom can freely obtain the cultural products that can satisfy his spiritual needs. Moreover, it can improve people‘s ideological and ethical standards as well as scientific and cultural standards, playing a unique role in influencing the civilization as a whole. To this end, cultural undertaking represents more attributes of its public welfare and possesses the nature of public production. As to the structural reform of management inside cultural units, the key for the reform of culture units lies in differentiated guidance, of which 125

libraries, museums, cultural centers, art galleries, and other units of public welfare should improve its quality of service and efficiency by strengthening management. China should explore a reform in enterprization of some public cultural institutions to establish a scientific and effective inner operation system according to the modern enterprise system. In addition, we should further rationalize the relationship between cultural organizations and individuals, establishing and improving a mechanism that is competitive, incentive-based, and bound by responsibilities. Compared with cultural undertaking, the cultural industry is the production and management of cultural projects, and like other industrial sectors, may become industrialized. At the same time, cultural industry is related to industrialization of the economies of scale and socialized mass production. In this way, one the one hand, the cultural industry represents the particularity of value guidance of culture itself; on the other hand, it represents what the production sector and industry have in common, all of which should follow the law of market value while representing the law of ideology. Based on the studies above, governmental departments should have distinctive managerial patterns of thought on planning and management. According to the guiding thoughts above, China should distinguish between cultural institutions for public welfare and commercial operation, to make commercial ones operate as modern enterprises with and independent management system, and assuming sole responsibility for their profits or losses, conducting itself as a business. The management reform of the cultural industry should put the reform of state-owned cultural departments at the forefront. These departments account for a vast majority of Chinese cultural, resources including human resources, and play a leading role in developing cultural industry. To some extent, accelerating the strategic reform of state-owned cultural departments and realizing the optimal configuration for cultural stock resources and the transformation in the production mechanism of cultural products are both difficulties and key points of the cultural structural reform, as well as critical point for amplifying cultural structural reforms and accelerating the development of the cultural industry. Furthermore, China should step up the reform and development of intermediary agencies such as performance and exhibition. They should vigorously advocate for an intensive, systematic, and network marketing of cultural products, to expand outstanding national cultural products in both at home and abroad. China should encourage some qualified corporations, such as theater companies, exhibition 126

companies, and audiovisual companies to restructure, creating groups capable of competing in cultural communication with the rest of the world. China should break the monopoly and encourage local and folk theater companies to take part in international competition. 2.2 To Establish a Suitable Crisis Management Mechanism for China’s Culture Security Against the backdrop of globalization, crisis management has become a common situation for the management of modern nations. National security is a growing challenge as various forms of cultural security crises and unexpected cultural events happen from time to time. Taking into account the different permeability of cultural crises, if mishandled, it will greatly affect a country‘s politics, economy and culture, even jeopardizing the country‘s entire strategic interests, and national image, which will trigger new national cultural security issues. Under these circumstances, it has become a top priority to establish a crisis management system suitable for China‘s cultural security. First, China should establish a standing organization for the management and coordination of cultural security crisis, a prerequisite to establishing a mechanism for crisis management. ―Crisis response is of vital realistic importance to many countries, and potential critical significance to all countries. The more common or deadly a crisis is, the more critical an effective crisis response is. Decisions under crisis are very important, most of which are irreversible.‖1 Judging from the international experience of crisis management and China‘s current situation, China should establish high-level institutions to lead, direct, and coordinate the crisis management of national cultural security, including departments of culture, radio and television, press and publications, as well as departments of publicity and security. Their main functions lie in: making strategies, policies and plans for the crisis management of cultural security; managing information on the cultural security crisis; assessing the risks of the cultural security crisis; in a no-crisis period, the prevention and alarming of cultural security crisis; in crisis, the leading and coordination; supervision and management of the cultural security crisis; educating and training government authorities and social public on the crisis management of cultural security. In the 1

Pacific International Strategies Research

Institution

of Beijing.

―Crisis Response--American

Decision-Making Mechanism of National Security‖, Current Affairs Press, (2001), 2. 127

meantime, assistant departments of cultural security crisis management should be established to give full play to the special professional skills and all kinds of service needed in crisis management. Under the unified leadership of central departments, .

they should clearly define the different functions, duties, and responsibilities of assistant departments of cultural security crisis management. In light of the diverse nature of cultural security crises, different governmental departments should know clearly their specific functions and duties during specific crises, forming a crisis management system under a unified leadership and divided coordination. Second, we should establish an information system and decision support system of cultural security crisis as well as a long-acting communication mechanism. No matter in the prevention and preparation stage or in the response and reestablishment stage after the crisis, cultural security crisis management must be based on accurate and comprehensive information. A well-developed crisis management system of information and strategic support system includes: data bank, knowledge system, standard model, pre-warning system, application platform for electronics information and technology, and the establishment of a decision-making consultation system. At the same time, China should establish good communication for cultural security crisis, preventing misinformation and rumors during the crisis. Timely communication between the government and the public during a crisis can comfort people, and play the role of reassuring, warning, educating, and supervising. Third, China should establish a prevention and early warning mechanism for national cultural security. ―An early warning mechanism is the warning light for a chain reaction of emergencies, the smooth operation of which provides support for the effective operation of the whole crisis management mechanism. On the one hand, it eliminates the crisis in the budding stage preventing the crisis from breaking out; on the other hand, it wins precious preparation time to control the situation in a timely manner, minimizing the harm.‖1Therefore, the establishment of a prevention and early warning mechanism for national cultural security is the key to safeguarding national cultural security.

3. To Build a New Structure of National Cultural Innovation 1

Fang Yu. ―Constructing and Perfecting a Prevention and Early Warning Mechanism for Government Crisis

Management‖, Journal of Yunnan Administration College, vol. 4, (2006). 128

and to Improve the Ability of Cultural Innovation 3.1 The important strategic significance of cultural innovation The ability of innovation occupies a core position in the composition of cultural power, which is the source of enhancing cultural power and engine of accumulating cultural potential energy and broadening cultural communication. To this end, the ability of cultural innovation is the key to changing the balance of international cultural strategic power. The recipe for reinforcing the cultural innovation lies in insisting on the advancement of culture, which will mutual supplement and promote cultural innovation. Maintaining cultural advancement gives the energy to cultural innovation and only through innovation can culture maintains its advancement. Looking back on the developmental course of Chinese culture, every cultural crisis was caused by a loss of advancement and decrease in innovation while every leap in the crisis came from the recovery of advancement and breakthrough of innovation. In the latter half of nineteenth century, Chinese culture underwent an unprecedented crisis due to its isolation. Not until the cultural transformation of the New Culture Movement (around the time of the May 4th Movement in 1919) with democracy and science at its core, as well as the introduction and localization of Marxism as a ―foreign culture,‖ did Chinese culture regain its advancement and reinvigorate. Chinese culture is not a fixed and rigid pattern; instead, it is a process of development surging in the world culture, so the essence of Chinese culture is a complete cultural history,1 a process of keeping advancement and innovation during the fusion with and surge of foreign cultures. If we mistake maintaining Chinese national cultural security for keeping the ―purity‖ of Chinese traditional culture and socialist ideology, Chinese culture will, therefore, be closed and self-fettered. In the end, it would cut its own throat even without the threat of cultural hegemony and expansion. Over the past century in Chinese cultural history, debate of West or East and the Hua-yi distinction (i.e., Sino-barbarian dichotomy) have been culture complexes lingering in the heads of generations of intellectuals. It continues to be a topic of discussion, like in the debate of wholesale Westernization or Confucian revival. The acceleration of globalization impacts cultural cycle thinking. Only by transcending the 1

Huibin Li. ―Globalization: Chinese Road‖.(Social Sciences Academic Press, 2003), 62. 129

limits of west or east, and standing in the current practices of Chinese culture while absorbing advanced cultural achievements with a global perspective, a global mindset, and global courage, can China maintain the advancement of culture and irradiate the innovative energy of Chinese culture. Of course, against the backdrop of globalization, China should oppose and look out for cruel and savage ―cultural invasion,‖ especially ―cultural hegemony,‖ which uses strength to bully the weak, and the sinister design of ―cultural infiltration.‖However, China cannot say no to ―culture,‖ especially that of advanced and excellent culture. Only by this, can Chinese culture possess true advancement and fresh innovation, as well as true security. The report of the 16th National Congress of the CPC points out that cultural innovation should ―be established in the practices of reform and opening up, and construction of modernization. It should set its sights on the cutting-edge of global cultural development, carry forth the fine traditions its national culture, learn from other ethnicities, proactively innovate in both contents and form and continuously enhance the appeal and charisma of a socialist culture with Chinese characteristics.‖1 Hu Jintao also emphasized that ―A nation without cultural deposits or unable to be culturally innovative will find it hard to develop and get its position in the world.‖ 2 Looking at the world, it is extremely urgent for China to establish an innovative system of national culture. 3.2 Basic thinking of cultural innovation As an important part of national cultural security strategy, the development and improvement of cultural innovation ability is a construction project of national culture that influences the whole nation. To construct national system of cultural security, it should primarily focus on the ability to establish a national innovation system based on individual cultural innovation, with the purpose of improving group cultural innovation by means of the innovation in the cultural system and administrative policy. As a result, to improve the ability of cultural innovation from the bottom up requires one to learn the basis of Chinese traditional ideology and culture. They must also encourage and guide people to innovate boldly in cultural field, and respect and protect people‘s enthusiasm and creativity in cultural innovation. They must also 1

Zemin Jiang. Selected Works of Jiang Zemin, vol 3. (People‘s Publishing House, 2006), 559.

2

The Editing Group. Studying Textbook of Entrenching Socialist Concept of Honor and Disgrace. (People‘s

Publishing House, 2006), 130

establish an innovation system of national culture dominated by the government, guide and coordinate relations between cultural management department, academic circles, and civil society, and jointly promoting the creation and exploration of concepts, systems, and policies needed in national cultural innovation. To establish the innovation system of national culture and improve the ability of cultural innovation requires a good environment for cultural innovation, which includes two aspects: one is that there should be social environment suitable or in favor of cultural innovation, such as policies, laws and regulations, and system to form a good environment that respects, encourages, and protects innovation. These will certainly exert influence on cultural innovation activities; the other one is the cultural accomplishment, concepts, value orientation, spirits, thinking patterns, and behavioral patterns of all of society‘s members, and their concern for cultural undertaking, two of which are in mutual connection and independence. In fostering this external environment, measures should be taken to form a public opinion environment in favor of cultural innovation and increasing cultural vitality with the purpose of producing quality goods, talents, and benefits. There needs to be awareness that the only way to foster culture is to emancipate and develop productive forces. China should establish a social value-appraisal system for correct cultural development and innovation to guide people to pursue the true, the good, and the beautiful, rejecting the fake, the bad, and the ugly. They should also cultivate cultural innovation in social morality and public order, representing the enrichment and improvement of the people‘s ideological consciousness, moral integrity, aesthetic level, and capabilities. In particular, the interconnection of cultural innovation lies in mainly three aspects; one is the innovation of thoughts and theories, the core of cultural innovation. Marxism is the core and spirit of Chinese advanced culture, the guiding role which cannot be wavered. China should maintain the mental state that keeps up with the times, opening up the boundaries of Marxist theoretical development. The second is the innovation of cultural concepts, the inner impetus of cultural innovation. China should be brave enough to jump out of traditional cultural concepts that do not match the demands of the time, and establish in society new concepts, new morals, and new regulations that comply with developing socialist economy, to strengthen the appeal and attraction of a socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. The third is the innovation of the cultural system, the important guarantee of cultural innovation. 131

China should strengthen the Party‘s leadership in developing culture, improve the policy system and legal system for cultural innovation, energetically explore and establish a management system and operating mechanism which is line with the demands of Chinese advanced culture, and follow the rules of production and creation for intellectual products, and strive to cultivate a cultural industry of international competitiveness and blaze the trail of socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. There are three things the basic method of cultural innovation should deal with: the first is criticism and inheritance of traditional Chinese culture as the basis for innovation. Chinese traditional culture is composed of positive and negative contents. As far as historical heritage, much as been passed down to the present and exerts profound influence upon Chinese values and lifestyles. China should use the standing, opinion and method of Marxism to sublate the cultural heritage of the Chinese nation, taking the best and eliminating the worst, promoting the modern transformation of traditional culture based on inheritance to create brand new advanced culture. The second is referencing and fusing, to innovate based on outstanding world culture. Cultural innovation is inseparable from the fusion of foreign cultures, which teaches us to learn from and absorb from the accomplishments of all the advanced cultures in the world. In trying to construct socialist modernism under the circumstances a backward economy and culture, China need open heart and breadth of spirit to watch closely the developments and changes of world culture, to conduct extensive cultural communication, to absorb advancements, science, and the other benefits, and firmly reject to the backward, the decayed, and the harmful, to integrate and innovate in the amidst fierce cultural conflicts. The third is to respond and surpass, to create with the new era as a starting point. To continuously create Chinese advanced culture requires absorbing beneficial content from national and foreign culture; however, it is not as simple as ―copying‖ and ―transplanting.‖ Rather, China should transcend the past and transform in a response to history, create culture based on the demands of the times, accumulate new experiences to reinvent the culture of the past and present, local and foreign with Marxist ideals. In sublimation and innovation, it will be equipped with scientific content and means of expression, and become an organic component of socialist culture with Chinese characteristics. 3.3 To protect intellectual property, and to promote cultural innovation

132

In the construction of a national cultural innovation system, to improve the system of intellectual property is of special significance.1 As an important system to guarantee the effective operation of innovation, the intellectual property system plays a critical role in promoting the cultural innovation of human beings. No matter what type of cultural industry, its level of developmental largely relies and is dependent on the level of intellectual property. Compared with products of traditional industry, cultural products are extremely vulnerable to infringement. This feature of high risk demands that to develop the cultural industry we must reinforce the protection on intellectual property, especially on the industrial end. Without the protection of intellectual property, these products can be copied and used by anyone, thus the development of the cultural industry will lose its basis, and it will hard to realize the guarantee for national cultural security. Especially, with the popularization and development of Internet technology, the phenomena of online piracy and patent infringement of all kinds start to take place, so it‘s imperative to protect online intellectual property. The occurrence of Bit Torrent (BT) and peer-to-peer (P2P) software makes it possible to transfer audio, video, software and game files of high capacity at low cost, offering convenience for cultural transmission while opening a door for unlawful infringement online. Currently, Internet download has become an important channel for pirated audio, video, and online games products to enter the Chinese market. Online piracy and patent infringement has not only severely hindered the survival and development of copyright-related industries and seriously violated the legal rights of Chinese and foreign copyright owners, but also jeopardizes the innovative ability of national culture, harms the national image, and destroys public rights. Some unhealthy online pirated products also negatively impacts juveniles. China‘s Regulation on the Protection of the Right to Network Dissemination of Information, which took effect on June 1, 2006, made detailed stipulation on the 1

Joseph Schumpeter emphasizes the important role the intellectual property system plays in innovation. He

introduces the concept of innovation in his book The Theory of Economic Development, and puts forward five elements of innovation that must be taken into consideration in the process of economic growth, including using new products and techniques, controlling supply source of new materials, exploiting new markets, and forming new business organizations. His theory was enriched and developed by economists in the latter half of twentieth century. The most important achievement is the theoretical problem of institutional innovation, which is to say, there are two vital elements in economic growth: one is innovation in techniques and the other is institutional innovation. The most important institutional guarantee of the latter is the intellectual property system. 133

proper use and legal permission of network cultural products. The system realizes the legal protection of network property by setting up a mechanism of ―notice and counter-notice,‖ saving network operators who strictly follow the mechanism to operate information service from copyright disputes. We can say that Chinese Internet content industry has gradually formed a fine legal environment. In June 2007, the World Intellectual Property Organization Copyright Treaty (WCT) and WIPO Performances and Phonograms Treaty (WPPT) (―Internet Treaty‖ for short) under the management of World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) took effect in China. The ―Internet Treaty‖ extends the protective principle of traditional copyright and neighboring rights confirmed in the Berne Convention and Rome Convention to the digital environment, especially the Internet, to solve the problem these new techniques bring to copyright protection, which marks a new level for Chinese intellectual property protection. Online copyright protection needs updating too. Up until now, Chinese search engine Baidu has reached a comprehensive strategic agreement with The Stones (TS), in which TS provides songs on Baidu MP3 for a free trial and both sides share the advertisement revenues, a win-win situation. Although, China has conducted effective protection on intellectual property contents including Internet through the measures above, related laws and regulations have been passed by the departments of culture, industry and commerce, and public security without a systematic

and

integrated

coordination

mechanism,

which

has

caused

disproportionality in the scope of law enforcement and difficulty in forming an ordered and scientific management situation due to the vacuum of institutional governance. So China should start from the general strategy of national cultural security and promotion of cultural innovation, set its eyes on the legal system, institutional settings, personnel allocation, and system evaluation, in order to construct an intellectual property protection system in favor of propelling cultural innovation and maintaining Chinese cultural security.

4. To Construct a Diversified System of Cultural transmission

and

Strengthen

the

Ability

of

Cultural

Transmission 4.1 Let cultural development lead the cultural industry, the material basis for strengthening the ability of cultural transmission 134

With the rapid development of science and technology, and the acceleration of globalization, cultural transmission presents a tendency of globalization, and the carriers of cultural transmission are more complex and diversified, of which the developmental situation of the cultural industry will, to a maximum extent, decide the ability of national cultural transmission. It is worth noting that cultural industry is ―neutral,‖ as a carrier, the information it carries is not specific. Cultural products can transmit different cultural information. The characteristic of a ―neutral‖ carrier of the cultural industry provides a broad strategic space for the cultural transmission of all countries. Therefore, the growth and development of the cultural industry will not necessarily automatically strengthen the transmissibility of national culture. Cultural industry security is not exactly the same as national cultural security despite its strong correlation with national cultural security, part of which belongs to economic security. The 16th National Congress of CPC, sets cultural industry as ―an important means to enrich socialist culture and satisfy the people‘s needs for spirit and culture under the circumstance of a market economy.‖ Hu Jintao also highlighted in the 7th Collective Learning Conference of the 16th Political Bureau of the Central Committee of CPC that ―to develop, the cultural industry should put social benefit first.‖ 1 Therefore, the development of the cultural industry should not be seen as just a new economic growth point, but a method and way to strengthen the cultural construction and expand cultural transmission. So whether cultural construction can lead the development of the cultural industry is a commanding height of maintaining national cultural security, which demands us to ensure that Chinese cultural products be the carrier of transmitting advanced culture and national culture while developing the cultural industry. On the other hand, China should make full use of strategic space the WTO gives to compose cultural products and cultural investment coming to China with more Chinese cultural information. The cultural industry is a generic term for enterprises and industries that make culture the main resource, profit from its production, management and market operation, provide spiritual and cultural products and service for consumers, and inject cultural power into the development of an economic society. The report of the 16th National Congress of the CPC points out: ―All party comrades should obtain deep 1

Jintao Hu. ―Adhere Consistently to the Heading of Advanced Culture and Strive to Develop Cultural

Undertaking and Cultural Industry‖, People’s Daily, July 13, 2003. 135

insight into the strategic meaning of cultural construction to promote the prosperity of socialism… We should improve the policy for the cultural industry, support the development of cultural industry, and reinforce the overall strength and competitiveness of Chinese cultural industry.‖ The 17th National Congress of the CPC puts forward ―the great prosperity and development of socialist culture.‖ It has become a global trend to rapidly develop the cultural industry in a global world, which has become the important pillar industry to a country. China should continue to change its ideas and take multiple measures to accelerate the development of the cultural industry: a. To speed up structural adjustment and to perfect the modern cultural market system Many cultural institutions in China are products from the system of planned economy, they overlap in function and only produce and transmit locally. The structure of such industrial distribution leads to a waste of cultural resources, which can neither satisfy the people‘s ever-growing and multi-layered cultural demands and objective reality in colorful cultural forms, nor adapt to the economic law of circulation in the socialist market economy, and even less so to the ever-intense competitive situation of cultural markets both at home and abroad. To this end, we should establish the developmental concept of a ―mega-culture,‖ properly adjusting and integrating all kinds of cultural resources between literature and art organizations, and media, to yield a comprehensive profit. Currently, the focus should be on organizing cultural industry groups with outstanding performance and strong management ability under the modern enterprise system, to improve levels of intensive, large-scale, and efficient operations, as well as to increase the competitiveness and ability to resist risks. On the basis of structural adjustment and deepening reforms, we should establish and foster cultural industry groups with demands of profession division and scale operation according to plans, by means of modern enterprise operation methods such as joint operations, restructuring, and mergers. Moreover, regional segmentation and industrial barriers should be broken down, and industrial groups should be encouraged and supported to operate across regions and industries. The industrial groups which are established by linking capital and business should adopt multiple ways of operation to share resources and complement each other‘s advantages, sharing the benefits and the risks. China should make sure, based on market competition, that they have some strong cultural 136

industrial groups that can resist the impact from foreign cultural capital. To establish and improve a modern cultural market system in line with the economic system is a key in developing the cultural industry and enriching people‘s spiritual and cultural life. First, this demands strengthening the construction of cultural products and a factor market, breaking the old system of monopolized planned distribution of sources and products featured by segmentation of departments and regions, to form a market system which is unified nationally, open, competitive, ordered, and prosperous. To form a big market, China should strongly promote the big circulation of cultural products of centralized distribution, chain-store operations, and e-management. China should also accelerate the construction of cultural production factor markets of capital, property rights, talents, information, and techniques, in order to support the market growth of burgeoning cultural products based on new technique, vigorously expand the rural and international market, and expand the market coverage of cultural products. China should break the old frames born from the planned economy that distributed cultural resources and cultural products according to administrative levels, divisions, and departments, and establish modern circulation and trans-regional marketing networks with the help of market mechanisms to concentrate resources towards competitive enterprises, and promote products towards the terminal market. At the same time, China should develop and perfect market intermediary agencies such as management, proxy, assessment, authentication, referrals, counseling, and planning, to improve the marketization degree of cultural production operation and cultural service. The market should also be legally regulated and governed, fostering a competitive market and cultural environment that is honest and fair. We should further adjust and perfect the structure of ownership of the cultural industry, giving active support to privately-operated cultural enterprises in industry policies to expedite the development of private cultural enterprises, forming a good situation where all kinds of cultural enterprises can compete with each other. b. To reform the system of cultural investment and financing, increasing capital input into the cultural industry To develop a Chinese cultural industry requires a corresponding system of investment and financing as a guarantee. Investments in the cultural industry and cultural undertaking should increase proportionally every year in the nation budget. The investment and financing of major cultural projects should be included into the annual plan for government departments for economic management. The government 137

should give active support to the treasury through investment bonds, giving birth to an investment growth mechanism for government capital. China should lose no time to establish funds for the cultural industry, to give special funds support of the industrial development of promising cultural resource projects. Domestic and foreign people of all circles in the society should be encouraged to donate and establish all kinds of cultural projects of public welfare, forming a financing mechanism from diversified fund for nonprofit cultural projects for countries and communities. First, the government input should be the main channel of the cultural industry‘s input, so China should increase the budget for the cultural industry, and establish special funds to support the development of the cultural industry. According to the developmental demands of cultural undertaking and the increase of national financial resources, governments of all levels should, on the premise of gradually increasing input in the cultural industry, change its investment methods, adjust input structure, and give full play to the utilization benefit of financial investment according to the law of market economy and the developmental rule of culture itself. Second, the government should further adopt more liberal policies, extensively attracting all social forces and civil forces to participate in the cultural industry, the input of which is the essential method to increase input in the Chinese cultural industry. China should break the monopoly, increase market access, and encourage social capital to invest in the cultural industry, forming a multi-investment mechanism. As long as there is foreign capital, the cultural industry should first and foremost be opened to social capital. China should encourage the state-owned enterprises to participate in cultural construction, encouraging social capital to invest in cultural enterprises, museums, art galleries, and arts groups recognized by the government, and encourage social circles to join in the protection, development, and utilization of cultural resources, forming a system of cultural transmission with quick transport and extensive coverage. Third, China should make full use of international capital through various channels and forms to introduce to the Chinese cultural industry while keeping an eye on maintaining its cultural security. c. To promote innovation in cultural talent policy, laying the foundation for the cultural development of human resources. To strengthen cultural team construction and management is the basic condition for developing the cultural industry as well as the basic guarantee of giving full scope 138

to the theme of the times. Nowadays, cultural industry has already become a field closely connected to high-tech with increasing demands for the talents‘ knowledge and capability structure. After Chinese accession to the WTO, the competition of talents has been increasingly fierce and the flow of talent capital will be the accelerated in cultural industry. Great importance should be attached to cultivating the sustainable development of the cultural industry and give a full play to the role of universities as the base for national cultural industry innovation and development and research. Relying on the strength and resources of colleges and universities and cultural circles, highly qualified individuals should be trained in the cultural management and operation for local community development. These professional talents, trained in culture, operations, and management will manage the cultural industry who are cultured, have knowledge of operations and management will accumulate human resources to sustain the development of the cultural industry and dominant the commanding position for talents in the cultural industry. All types of cultural units should foster a mechanism and environment conducive to the growth of talents and give them a space to standout by deepening the inner structural reform, and fully motivate and give play to the enthusiasm and creativity of cultural workers, giving them a safe space to strengthen the construction of the socialist cultural front. Human resources are the key resources of cultural enterprises, so China should establish a performance-evaluation system and incentive mechanism that is fair, equal, and reasonable to facilitate the rational flow of cultural human resources. China can absorb and learn from the successful experience from other industries to explore a suitable performance-evaluation system for cultural talents, thus forming a team of cultural innovation. At the same time, cultural workers with outstanding contributions should be commended by establishing a national awards system to strengthen the sense of achievement and honor of cultural talents. Artistic and economic methods should be used to foster a batch of high-quality talents in cultural operation management and artists and cultivate ―life artists‖ and cultural consumers market through aesthetics education. d. To strengthen the application of modern science and technology in the Chinese cultural industry The remodeling of China‘s cultural enterprises demands involvement of high technologies that on the one hand stimulate new modes of cultural production, and on the other hand demonstrate the features of the ―digital age‖, i. e. cost-free copy and 139

transmission, customer-made and interactive services, virtual reality and ubiquity in daily life. That will help enhance the core competitiveness of an enterprise and establish cultural industrial bases bearing local specialty and cultural industrial groups within a region. The rapid advancement of modern science and technology has closely integrated the information and cultural industries into a global trend. The digital trends are bringing revolutionary change to the existing form and trends in the cultural industry. The integration of high-tech innovation and the development of arts and culture are important methods to strengthen Chinese national culture and art. The boom of the Chinese cultural industry must reflect the modern scientific and technological achievements in the cultural industry; this includes: the improvement of scientific and technological level in cultural industry and cultural products, strengthening the digitalization of the cultural industry and its resources, and networked construction, leading to a leapfrog development of the cultural industry. e. To improve the quality of cultural products and pay attention to the construction of a brand in the cultural industry As the ―sunrise industry‖ of future society, the vitality of the cultural industry comes from the economic value of culture and cultural connotation of economy, which must be supported by a specific cultural brand. The brand is the mark of an enterprise, the bright spot of the cultural market. If China‘s cultural industry wants to win the market, participates in the fierce competition of international and domestic cultural resources, and makes itself invincible, it must use branding methods to establish its own brand because only a brand has an economic advantage and appeal in the market. Taking media, the main area of cultural industry, as an example, there are nine media giants dominating the cultural market on world media: Time Warner, Disney, Bertelsmann, Viacom, News Corp, Sony, American Telephone & Telegraph, Universal Studios, and Japan Broadcasting Corporation (NHK), all of which get billions in revenue annually. From the aspect of globalization, 95% of the recreational market is dominated by the world biggest 50 media entertainment corporations and more than 90% of news production is monopolized by American and Western cultural groups. There is no cultural enterprise in China with an annual income of more than one billion RMB. The biggest, China Media Group, only gets eight billion RMB of revenue every year. The absence of cultural branding has become a critical obstacle to the growth of China‘s cultural industry. 140

In terms of the meaning of brand construction, the cultural industry in China is still immature, being a ―weak plate;‖its backwardness has a great impact on China‘s cultural transmission capabilities. Building a brand is a systematic project. In analyzing the experiences of brand production for famous brands, the general process of creating a brand usually covers the operational steps of ―creating awareness of the brand, brand plans, brand positioning, quality control, brand communication, and brand protection.‖ Cultural enterprises should choose or create unique ways to build and maintain a brand according to its own features. Cultural enterprises should build a whole set of brand image strategies inside enterprises, which makes culture the fundamental purpose for all the acts of a cultural enterprise. Paying attention to establish an effective brand framework can represent the logical relationship between a main brand and sub-brand and to achieve a dynamic integration and prioritization of the brands with international influence. Attention should also be placed on the connection between a brand and fostering an enterprise‘s core competitiveness to form a product supply chain oriented by brand and to facilitate the comprehensive competitiveness of cultural enterprises. When building brands for the cultural industry, special attention should be paid to combine national culture with cultural brand. The cultural industry includes products, techniques, service, and so on. Brands for big festivals enjoy great comprehensiveness and encouragement, and successful ones can bring profitable economic benefits by mobilizing related industries such as tourism and hotel. In the development of the Chinese cultural industry, there have been famous festival brands, such as the Chengdu Gourmet Festival of China, the Shanghai International Festival of Arts, and the Kunming National Flowers Exhibition, which have boosted the local economy and strengthened Chinese ability for cultural transmission. f. To establish the policy orientation of a developing creative cultural industry Creative culture studies scholar John Hawkins points out clearly in his book The Creative Economy that the global creative economy makes 22 billion USD and increases at 5% each year. In some countries, the speed is higher, America at 14% and Britain at 12%. Looking around the world, many creative products in developed countries have generated a big wave in the creative economy. The creative industries in different developed countries rapidly develop through the orientation of their strong points, field, and method, forming an intense scene of creative industries springing up in the world. 141

Creative industries, which have risen in recent years in the domestic cultural industry, have become a new industrial cluster because it meets the spiritual and cultural demands of people in this age of consumption is supported by technology, and adopts the new transmission method of Internet. Cultural industries related to this – such as the press, radio, film, and television industry, audio and video industry, performing industry, art training industry, cultural tourism, mass culture industry, library industry, museum industry, exhibition industry, advertising industry, consulting industry, gaming industry, and competitive sports – are flourishing. China‘s creative industry has made great progress, especially the one in Shanghai, which has experienced rapid development in just a few years. It has helped a number of creative enterprises to flourish, establish a group of high profile creative industrial parks, and assembled a group of outstanding creative talents. However, the creative industry is an emerging one, which develops later in the global industrial development, the concept of which is much different from the concept development, mindset, and managerial experience of the traditional manufacturing industry. Therefore, developing the Chinese creative industry demands that cultural administrative departments make a general development plan for the creative cultural industry, based of the learning and mastery of theories and strategies on the development of cultural industries around the world. The planning for the creative industry should take into consideration national character, traditional features, particularity of audiences and market, the integration Chinese traditional culture or Chinese cultural traditions to create and produce more creative cultural products with proprietary intellectual property rights and Chinese cultural elements through technological innovation and application, improving its capacity to supply creative cultural products and services, and enhancing the overall strength and international competitiveness of China‘s cultural industry. 4.2 To strengthen cultural diplomacy and external cultural communication to improve cultural competitiveness and promote the international transmission of Chinese culture In the twenty-first century, countries around the world, especially developed ones attach great importance to external cultural transmission and cooperation and carry forward their own culture to add weight to their influence. Cultural factor has become increasingly vital in international relations, which makes culture a key strategy to promote one‘s international standing and influence. The case of national cultural 142

security is directly linked to its cultural creativity. Therefore, it is crucial to strengthen national cultural competitiveness and enhance cultural creativity to guarantee national cultural security. China should actively introduce China‘s national culture and art to the world to add weight to China‘s international influence. China should integrate into the international community with a more open attitude, explore new fields, new channels, and new forms of external cultural transmission, actively propel China‘s outstanding culture and art to the outside world and promote the international communication of Chinese culture. a. To strengthen the guidance on cultural diplomacy and boost the normalization and legislation of cultural diplomacy Cultural diplomacy is an important stage for the strategic games between current world cultures. About 52 American government organizations participate in all kinds of cultural diplomatic events every year. After ―9•11‖ and the Iraq War, the American government realized that the ―image issue‖ has become an important topic in American national security, so cultural diplomacy reclaimed its strategic position. As long as there is an element of cultural transmission, communication projects will be listed as cultural diplomatic activities, most of which are arranged and administrated by the U.S. Department of State‘s Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs, ensuring the success of cultural diplomacy. In recent years, to adapt to the worldwide cultural competition, China has conducted all kinds of cultural diplomatic activities such as ―China-France Culture Year,‖ ―China-Russia Culture Year,‖ ―Africa Theme Year,‖ and ―China-Africa Cultural Year: Chinese Culture in Africa,‖ greatly promoting the development of Chinese cultural diplomacy. However currently, in the promotion of Chinese cultural diplomacy, it is typical for the departments of culture, diplomacy, and publicity to participate at the same time, which weakens the power of cultural diplomacy due to the absence of a leading coordinating organization. So, China should make related policies, laws, and regulations on cultural diplomacy to identify its purpose and task, managing cultural diplomacy to legally ensure the political position and financial resources of cultural diplomacy. Experience from the world proves that the legalized management of cultural diplomacy avoids the arbitrariness of work while the smooth execution of cultural communication projects via cultural diplomacy ensures the overall effect of cultural diplomacy. b. To deal with the relationship between cultural diplomacy and public diplomacy 143

China should employ multifaceted public policies to transmit Chinese culture while strengthening cultural diplomacy. People are the most direct cultural symbol. Compared with cultural diplomacy, public diplomacy is more targeted and is able to concentrate on letting other countries know about Chinese culture. To construct a public diplomacy system with Chinese characteristics, China must first fully develop the demonstration effect of summit diplomacy. The state leaders and government officials, forerunners of public diplomacy, can represent the Chinese national spirit and personal charisma through diplomatic activities, increasing the foreign public‘s intense interest and giving a good impression of themselves and China. Second, China should strive to conduct people-to-people diplomacy, bidding for more international exhibitions, economic forums, academic communications, and sports games to be held in China while inviting celebrities from all circles like businessmen, scholars, or athletes to show up, letting their views influence the public‘s opinion in their own countries. China should also strengthen the awareness and quality of overseas officials, making efforts to locally build good images of Chinese unity, fairness, and warm-heartedness. From now on, China should continue to encourage Chinese people from all walks of life to start with themselves and start with the little things in order to establish a national consciousness of openness, cooperation, responsibility, unity and independence. c. To achieve the fusion of cultural diplomacy and cultural communication and build a three-dimensional structure for external cultural communication The essence of cultural diplomacy lies in the spiritual and emotional communication among people from all over the world, and in the understanding and respect based on communication. Cultural diplomacy exerts a subtle influence, depending on the continuity, down-to-earth nature, and ordinariness of the communication. Big event of cultural communication can produce a sensational effect, but be hard for people to understand subtleties of the foreign culture. So when promoting cultural diplomacy, China can hold big events as well as adopt ways that

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are easily recognized and accepted by foreigners.1 For example, China can turn to overseas study, training, visits, and surveys, which last a long time and can touch more, exerting a subtle influence by offering conditions for foreigners to deeply understand Chinese society and culture. With the advent of the Internet, ―surfing on the Internet‖ has become a main method for people to get all kinds of information. China can fully develop methods of offering information to Chinese institutions functioning abroad to establish various terminals for information and inquiries, and in time offer huge amounts of multimedia information on Chinese politics, economics, and culture, which can give full play to the advantages of Internet resources and techniques, reflecting the characteristics of cultural diplomacy in the information age. The power of culture has its peculiarities. It is not produced through coercion but through the beauty and spirit of culture. It is subtle, silent, and enchanting, with strong permeability and transcendence. Therefore, China should attach great importance to constructing a three-dimensional network of cultural communication and should promote different cultures to get along harmoniously in communication, maintaining national cultural security at root. Against the backdrop of globalization, China can creatively carry out national cultural communications on all levels to strengthen the attractiveness of Chinese culture, to form a situation where big national events occupy the principle position associated with non-governmental cultural communication. In big cultural communication events, China should attach great importance to a panoramic strategic plan and pay attention not just to the event itself, but to its marketing as well, with multifaceted public relations activities. China can also inform people of the event via 1

Former Chinese Ambassador Wu Jianmin took the following examples to illustrate the significance of

taking proper methods to conduct cultural diplomacy. He said in the Special-themed Consultation of Chinese People‘s Political Consultative Conference of 2007: ―When I was ambassador to Europe, I was repeatedly asked a question by foreigners: ‗Ambassador Wu, can you recommend a book about Chinese culture?‘ I was ashamed that I couldn‘t. Books on Chinese culture written by Chinese are either too long or too formal. I think it‘s time we promoted talented writers who know Chinese culture to write books from different perspectives. These people should not only know Chinese culture but also know the how a foreign audience thinks and how to get them excited. If the books only catch the attention of Chinese people, but not that of foreigners, then it won‘t work. Writers should not be blamed, as writing this kind of book is not easy. If Chinese have the ability to write in a foreign language, that would be preferred. If not, we can invite foreigners to do the translations, during which extents can be adjusted. ‖ See Jianmin Wu. Some Thoughts on Conducting Cultural Diplomacy. Retrieved from http://cppcc.people.com.cn/GB/34961/90780/90789/6030348.html. 145

the media and outdoor advertising; in the host city, information can be transmitted on local media and posted in the main streets. In addition, every big event can design and create lots of promotional items like picture albums and lists. Furthermore, China should also strongly support and develop all kinds of non-governmental cultural events held by organizations and individuals, to actively explore rich civil cultural resources, facilitate the integrity, development, and utilization of cultural resources, and build ―cultural brand‖ projects that can go into the world. For current traditional cultural projects, China should market it towards the international cultural market, and strive to promote China‘s excellent national cultural and artistic projects to the world. At the same time, China should help capable private enterprises improve their operational ability for external cultural communication, forming a good situation for external cultural communication where government and civil society are in cooperation. d. To proactively disseminate outstanding national cultural thoughts and promote the realization of collective security in the field of cultural security in international society The Chinese national cultural strategic pattern is an important part of international cultural strategic competition, a representation of a diversified world culture. So, the construction of Chinese national culture cannot be divorced from the overall trend of international competition. In regards to the problem of Chinese cultural strategy‘s lack of competitiveness of in international cultural scene, China should change from their passive stance of defense and precaution of Chinese national cultural strategy to a more active one that constructs cultural strategy, clearly putting forward the cultural strategic concept of building a ―harmonious world.‖1 In a word, China should develop international cultural relationships beyond social systems and ideologies and implement a national cultural security strategy centered on a new national security concept. In the process of international cultural competitions, China should use an open heart to see all the advanced cultural valuation concepts of human beings. As a matter of fact, the Chinese Constitution has clearly stated universal ideals of moral value, such as ―rule of law,‖ human rights, and freedom, fully identifying with mankind‘s universal pursuit of value and faith. At the 1

Huilin Hu. ―On Cultural Cold War and Cultural Strategic Games of Major Powers‖, Studies on Mao Zedong

and Deng Xiaoping Theories, no. 3, (2007). 146

same time, China must avoid passive defense and passive precaution and explore the vigorous elements in its culture that would benefit world stability and peace. Confucianism‘s concept of ―harmony in diversity‖ has greatly enlightened China in how to manage international relation in a multicultural environment. Up until now, China has signed 123 agreements to establish Confucius Institutes with 51 countries and regions in the world.1The transmission of Confucius theory to the West started over 400 years ago when Italian missionaries translated and brought to Europe The Analects, a book that recorded Confucius speeches. Currently, Confucianism has gone to five continents where the establishment of Confucius Institutes is the realistic representation of the concept that ―all within the four seas are brothers,‖ ―harmony in diversity,‖ and ―a gentleman makes friends through his learning and cultivates virtue and through those friends.‖ This is of extreme significance to the transmission of Chinese traditional culture to the world, to enhancement of world peace, and to the construction of Chinese national cultural security in the new century.

1

Ding Cao. ―China to Establish Confucius Institutes in The Republic of Belarus‖, (November 16, 2006).

Retrieved from http://news.xinhuanet.com/overseas/2006-11/16/content_5339896.htm. 147

Chapter Five The Profound Exploitation of China’s National Culture Security Strategy ――Prosperity and Development of Philosophy and Social Sciences In the national culture security strategy system, the prosperous development of philosophy and social sciences has a basic function. It is not only a solid foundation for the expansion of ideology, national culture, and public culture, but is also an important prerequisite for the promotion of cultural potential energy, innovation, and communication. The prosperity and development of Chinese philosophy and social sciences should be placed in the background of globalization. China should pursue this logical starting point, delve into the rules of development, and make strategic thoughts while considering current circumstances.

1. Globalization and the Three Basic Clues to the Development of Chinese Modern Philosophy and Social Sciences The history of human civilization can be simply divided into two phases: history of the state (or national history) and world history (or global history). During the first period of history of state and national history, the civilization pattern of every state and nation had its own developmental logic. Although there are fusions, conflicts, and integrations among different cultural systems, the cultural gene and historical logic from each cultural system generally maintained a dynamic and continuous inheritance. Even if there is a large-scale division or combination, only new culture developmental logic from different states and nations will be formed. Therefore, the multidimensionality and diversity of historical logic are the basic characteristics during this stage. Chinese civilization is a typical case that reflects this characteristic. Although Chinese civilization has gone through dramatic changes for thousands of years, there is a consistent thread of historical logic during its evolution, which is obviously different from Western civilization. However, ever since capitalism pioneered world history, the evolution of human history has been propelled by globalization along the common cultural logic. Human civilization begins to transform into the world and global history phase. Started and dominated by capitalist 148

culture, this process is a cultural integration of global conflicts and fusions. The basic trend of this process is that the development of human civilization tends to follow the common historical logic. Cultural diversity and difference in historical tracks still remain. They show themselves in the same period of global transformation ignited by capitalist culture sometimes even as the major thread, as well as in reply to the upheavals originally brought about by the capital. From then on, the splendid picture of human history is drawn by globalization. It can be argued that all the problems confronted by the modern culture should be solved within the framework of globalization. The world issues can be solved in this way and so can Chinese matters. 1.1 Triple Logic for China’s Involvement in Globalization The original source for the globalization motive is mainly manifested in the worldwide expansion of the capitalist mode of production. The nature of capital is to pursue the surplus value and obtain the maximum profit, which determines the expansion trend of the capitalist mode of production. To construct a worldwide production system under the control of capitalism is an inevitable outcome of the capital expansion. ―…the extension of markets into a world market, which had now become possible and was daily becoming more and more a fact, called forth a new phase of historical development,‖1 which is the phase of global history based on the theme of capitalist culture. The globalization of capital is inevitable. ―It compels all nations, on pain of extinction, to adopt the bourgeois mode of production; it compels them to introduce what it calls civilization into their midst, i.e., to become bourgeois themselves. In one word, it creates a world after its own image.‖2 Since then, all the national cultural logic has involved into the same process of global history. Chinese civilization has also experienced ―a great change which has never occurred in three thousand years‖. This great change broke the historical logic that has been relatively stable and inherited independently for three thousand years. The single linear development of Chinese civilization is interrupted, which marks the transformation from a national history to a global history. This transformation with the theme of ―capital expansion‖ determines that the main development thread for Chinese history would no longer stick to the traditional cultural logic. 1

Karl Marx & Frederick Engels. The German Ideology. (Progress Publishers, 1968), 73. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels Selected Works (In Two Volumes). (Moscow: Foreign Language Publishing House, 1951), 37. 2

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However, the inherited contradictions of ―capitalist civilization‖ determine that the global history will not end in capitalism. During the globalization propelled by the capital, it ―draws all, even the most barbarian nations into civilization.‖1 However, capitalism pioneers the new phase of human civilization while spreading new brutality at the same time. The limitations of a capitalist civilization grow together with the glory it has created. Marx deeply revealed this limitation while praising the progress of capitalist civilization. ―The more capital develops, the more it becomes the limitation for production and consumption. There is no need to talk about other contradictions which make capital become the limitation for production and communication.‖ 2 Capitalism produces civilization as well as corresponding contradictions. Consequently, capital will be buried by its own hand. Marx has seen the negative factors of capitalism and pointed out that ―the universality that is pursued by the capital meets limitations from the nature of capital itself. When developing at a certain phase, the limitations are the capital itself. People will be forced to eliminate the capital with capital.‖ 3 Therefore, capital expansion as the original logic of

globalization would surely produce its own negative factor. However, capital would not eliminate itself spontaneously and naturally, but rather this elimination is a kind of transcendence and regeneration. While revealing the secret of capital, Marx did not ignore the deduction and proposition of a plan that surpasses capitalism and even put the theory into practice. The world socialist movements have thrived under Marx‘s findings and propositions, which is an essential part of capitalist civilization and capital expansion. From this the inner logic of globalization has gradually evolved into two clues: the expansion and suppression of capitalist civilization and the development of the world socialist movements that surpass the capitalist limitations. These two clues and paths are inevitable choices as China has been involved in globalization. It should be noted that the world created by capitalism according to its own features; it does not however have the same glory and civilization as the established capitalist countries, but rather the exploitation and inner contraditions that come with 1

Marx Karl and Frederick Engels. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels Selected Works (In Two Volumes), (Moscow: Foreign Language Publishing House, 1951), 36. Marx Karl and Frederick Engels. Marx/Engels Collected Works, vol. 30, (Chinese version). (Beijing: People‘s Publishing House, 1995), 397. 3 Marx Karl and Frederick Engels. Marx/Engels Collected Works, vol. 30, (Chinese version). (Beijing: People‘s Publishing House, 1995), 390-391. 2

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global expansion. Within this global capitalist system, China would be exploited by the established capitalist countries, and carry global contradictions if it underwent the capitalist path. Therefore, the main thread for China in the global historic transformation cannot be capitalism, which has already been verified by Chinese history since the 19th century. Between the two clues to globalization, the expansion of capitalist civilization would decline with the increase of its negative factors. The world socialist movements will surpass the capital limitation and mark the central logic of global history. The world socialist movements represented by the October Revolution have pointed out the direction for Chinese realization of national independence and rejuvenation in the global historical transformation. It can be concluded that the realization of a Chinese civilization in global history must go through two negations and transcendences. First, China‘s previous national cultural logic is negated and transcended by capital as the original logic of globalization. Second, Chinese national cultural logic and the original capital logic are negated and transcended by the world socialist movements which mark the final direction of globalization. The double negations and transcendences are also double inheritance and integration. Therefore, whether in the Chinese history or world history, the future path for China will neither be separated from tradition nor stick to tradition and will neither avoid capitalist civilization nor follow the Western path. Only with the guidance of socialist development can solve these double contradictions and realize a double transcendence. With the above analysis, the triple logic of the realization of Chinese civilization‘s global transformation during the world great changes is clearly demonstrated: firmly taking the socialist path, fully absorbing capitalist civilization, and creatively inheriting Chinese civilization. 1.2 Three Basic Clues to the Development of Chinese Modern Philosophy and Social Sciences The transformation of Chinese history is an overall process that covers economy, politics, culture, social life, and all the other areas. The production and development of Chinese modern philosophy and social sciences, which belongs to the realm of culture, has also inherited a whole historical transformation. Corresponding to the triple logic of the entirety of history, globalization has not only broke down the single development of Chinese traditional academic studies but also made the original logic for the production of Chinese modern philosophy and social sciences converge with the three clues of the Western capitalist theory, Marxist 151

theory, and Chinese traditional academic studies. The essence of ―the Western Civilization Taking over the East‖ is the Chinese cultural pattern in the globalization of capital. With the increasing number of translations of the capitalist ideology in Western theories and the expansion of propagation, according to the division principles of Western disciplines, learning and students‘ affairs, more and more Chinese intellectuals have introduced all the academic categories in the Western natural sciences and social sciences to China during the establishment of new types of schools and the reformation of old schools. They have also gradually constructed modern Western academic division systems and knowledge frameworks based on the integration of both Chinese and Western disciplines. Chinese philosophy and social sciences have also realized a traditional to modern transformation with Western academic capitalist theories as the mainstream. This is the first negation and transcendence in the global transformation of Chinese philosophy and social sciences. The central logic of China‘s involvement in the globalization should go through the double negations of Chinese tradition and capitalist civilization in order to establish the direction for socialism. Just like that, the theme of Chinese philosophy and social sciences is certainly produced from the double transcendence of the Chinese traditional academic and the mainstream Western academic with capitalist theories. The victory of the October Revolution and the development of the New Culture Movement accelerated the ideological emancipation of the Chinese people. Marxism has been widely disseminated and ―has increasingly been understood, accepted, and believed by people as science.‖1 It provides a realistic way for the double transcendence and it is also the result of this transcendence. From then on, the convergence and function of Chinese philosophy and social sciences, which take Marxism as the mainstream, have formed the basic clue for its development. Within the triple historical logic to realize the ―transformation‖ of ―the dramatic change,‖ socialism is the direction for Chinese development and the framework for its system. The foundation for its development is Chinese civilization, which has been creatively converted. At the same time, it should absorb and draw lessons from the fruit of capitalist culture during the realistic development. Marxist theory is the essence, the

1

Zehou Li. On the History of Chinese Modern Thought. (Tianjin: Tianjin Academy of Social Sciences Press, 2003), 58. 152

core and the direction for the three basic clues which is reflected in philosophy and social sciences. However, ―Believing in Marxism as the right thinking method does not mean that we ignore the values of Chinese cultural heritage and non-Marxism foreign thoughts.‖ 1 It is reasonable to inherit the essence of Chinese traditional academics for the historical development and to absorb the excellent academic achievements created by capitalist globalization. All these three aspects are the basic and main factors though they are not the whole factors that determine the development of Chinese social sciences. Only by grasping the operation mechanism of these three basic clues can Chinese modern philosophy and social sciences find out the exact historical position.

2. Three Must-solve Contradictions for the Prosperity and Development of Chinese Philosophy and Social Sciences The world changes brought about by globalization have produced three clues to the development of Chinese philosophy and social sciences. The integration of these three clues forms three pairs of contradictions in the development of Chinese philosophy and social sciences: science and value, traditional and modern, and nation and world. The contradictions derive from the original logic for China‘s involvement in globalization, which are three forces in the same development process of the realm of philosophy and social sciences. The solutions to the three pairs of contradictions construct the historical theme for the Chinese philosophy and social sciences. 2.1 The Contradiction between Science and Value The development of Chinese philosophy and social sciences is affected by the three clues, which brings about the contradiction between science and value. In order to solve this contradiction, we should adhere to the scientific basis and highlight the value orientation. In the study of philosophy and social sciences, although we should pay attention to its objectives and pursuit of values, we should not reject the scientific methods such as analysis, summary and conclusion and the scientific ―general rule‖ of using concepts and categories to express research rules and conclusions. Though there exist limitations, shortcomings, and even errors in both Western capitalist theories and Chinese traditional academics, there are also ―scientific‖ factors, which to some 1

Zedong Mao. Collected Works of Mao Zedong, vol 3. (Beijing: People‘s Publishing House, 1996), 191. 153

extent reveal the objective laws and at least reflect which phase of human understanding of the laws of history has been achieved. Thus Chinese philosophy and social sciences has been constructed on the identical scientific basis of Marxist theory, Western academia dominated by capitalist theories, and Chinese traditional academia. Its scientific basic position has also been established. It should be noted that all theories from different discipline have different schools or systems. Any theory has ―scientific‖ characteristics in order to form its own school (using a certain method from one perspective to reflect or reveal the inner laws of the discipline, which is not determined by the adopted perspectives and methods.)All these characteristics are shared by the systems of theories, which can be called ―the general scientific rules.‖ The difference of the system of theories comes from the different answers to two questions. The first question is: what is the value direction of the theory? Any philosophical and social science theory cannot ignore this question, which is the first requirement to distinguish Marxism and non-Marxism. The second question is: how can these values be achieved? The different answers to the first question will determine the different responses to the second question. Large numbers of detailed questions (include research perspective and methods) derive from these two ―basic questions.‖The distinctive answers and the different values to these questions cannot be judged by the same standards. This incommensurable characteristic is the symbol to distinguish between different systems of theories. Currently, the prosperity and development of philosophy and the social sciences should not bypass the mature and still developing systems of Western philosophy and social sciences, which is in the background of the academic mainstream. This requires China‘s construction of philosophy and the social sciences to fully absorb the social scientific paradigm of ―Western systems.‖ This ―absorption‖ changes from the debate between ―body‖ and ―function‖ to the debate about what should be absorbed and how it should be absorbed, a point that was brought about in a recent article written by Liu Guoguang.1 The key point lies in the study of the commensurable ―scientific rules‖ based on Marxist theory, the Western academia dominated by capitalist theories, and Chinese traditional academia. The comprehensive absorption and integration is the premise for the scientific and prospective study of philosophy and the social sciences. 1

Guoguang Liu. ―Problems in Economic Teaching and Research‖, The Study of Economy, no. 10, (2005). 154

The tendencies to weaken the value directions of Marxism in order to establish the ―scientific‖ basic rules should be avoided. The construction of philosophy and the social sciences with economics as its representative, to different extents, has the tendency of ―de-ideologization,‖ which only emphasizes its characteristics as ―a tool for analysis.‖1 However, no theory of philosophy and social sciences can objectively avoid answering the value questions.2 It should be pointed that Marxism deeply reveals the objective laws of human historical movements. Marxist philosophy is a scientific world outlook and methodology. Meanwhile, the distinctive political stance and value orientation of Marxism are identical with the fundamental interests of the majority of the people in the world. Marx‘s criticism of capitalism has constructed a socialist plan beyond its limitations and realized the organic unity of science and value. ―The inner power of science and value in Marxism has been and is repeatedly proved by both negative and positive social practice for more than a hundred years.‖3 Therefore, Chinese philosophy and social sciences should establish the final Marxist orientation on the basis of these three clues of scientific ―genes.‖ 2.2 The Contradiction between Traditional and Modern The contradiction between traditional and modern formed by the three clues has been the major topic among Chinese humanities intellectuals for one and half centuries. Within this topic, Western capitalist theory and Marxist theory generally belong to the modern. The original logic of ―dramatic change‖ determines that the solution for the contradiction cannot be realized by the integration of Western theories within the framework of the Chinese academic system. Western academia that takes capitalist theories as main stream together with Marxism have dispelled the central discourse status of Chinese traditional academics with the irresistible force of globalization. The old-fashioned tradition is no longer accepted by the new discourse while the foundation of new philosophy and social sciences can neither be ignored nor taken away from ―local resources.‖ Therefore, the only solution is to recreate and 1

Guoguang Liu. ―Problems in Economic Teaching and Research‖, The Study of Economy, no. 10, (2005). In his elaboration on the concept of ―Value free‖, Marx Weber does not deny the existence of the value of social sciences. He remarks that ―the choice of the object of investigation and the extent or depth to which this investigation attempts to penetrate into the infinite causal web, are determined by the evaluative ideas which dominate the investigator and his age. In the method of investigation, the guiding ‗point of view‘ is of great importance for the construction of the conceptual scheme which will be used in the investigation.‖ See in Marx Weber, Edward Shils & Henry Finch (trans. & ed.). “Objectivity” in Social Science. (Illinois: The Free Press, 1949), 84. 3 ShenMing Li. ―Another Replacement for Globalization: the Outlook of Socialism Development Prospect in the 21st century‖, The Study of Marxism, no. 1, (2006). 2

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innovate of traditional academia. Since then, the modifier in the discourse system of Chinese philosophy and social sciences has been changed from ―traditional and modern‖ into ―creatively transformed traditional and modern‖. However, this has created new problems: based on the structure and content of philosophy and social sciences, how to embody the modified discourse and how to combine it with the ―modern.‖ The key point to solve the problem is to establish a principle based on the modern and draws on the traditional. The development of Chinese academic thought is the utilization of inheritance and innovation as well as the traditional and modern. Western theories are not the only resources for all theories of Chinese philosophy and social sciences. The prosperous development of Chinese philosophy and social sciences depends on the academic theories from Chinese civilization. It should be noticed that the emphasis of the value of traditional academics should maintain vigilance against ―old doctrines.‖ 1 We should avoid the wrong tendency that considers some traditional Chinese academic theories as an omnipotent medicine that ―cures all kinds of illnesses.‖ The value of traditional academics can only be presented in its modern form when it is included in the modern discourse system. The core and orientation of the ―modern‖ form of China‘s philosophy and social sciences is Marxism, which includes the lessons drawn from the paradigm and theory of Western mainstream social sciences. China should take modernization as the foundation and absorb traditional elements. That is to say, China should interpret the positive achievements of Chinese traditional academic theories and traditions under the leadership of Marxism by using the Marxist discourse system and give them new meaning in this new times, just as Mao Zedong pointed out that ―learning our historic heritage‖ should be ―criticized and summarized with Marxism methodology.‖2 The prosperous development of Chinese philosophy and social sciences should take its ―modern‖ form as the basic framework and absorb the positive achievements of traditional academics. With the integration of the spirit of times, traditional academics should be placed in the construction of modern philosophy and social sciences. We should think and answer the new issues with the application of thought and intelligence accumulated from tradition. By realizing the organic unification of inheritance and innovation, the Chinese academic thinking will 1 Enfu Cheng. ―Continuously Emancipate the Mind to Promote Socialism with Chinese Characteristics‖, The Study of Marxism, no. 6, (2008). 2 Zedong Mao. Collected Works of Mao Zedong, vol. 2. (Beijing: People‘s Publishing House, 1991), 533.

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become an important part in the modern Chinese philosophy and social sciences. 2.3 The Contradiction between Nation and World The historical theme since the beginning of modern China is the transformation from national history to global history. In the areas of culture and philosophy and social sciences, the theme is how to solve the contradiction between the world ―mainstreams‖ and national traits. ―Western theories‖ and ―Marxist theories‖ have jointly constructed the major academic discourse in the current world. The manifestation of the solution to its relationship with China‘s developing national culture is the contradiction between nation and world, which accompanies the whole development of modern Chinese philosophy and social sciences. The theme for the development of Chinese modern philosophy and social sciences is not the heritage of national thought logic but the transformation from individual nations to the world. This kind of transformation is not a replacement. In order to deal with the relationship between nation and world, we should stick to the principle that is sees the world as the foundation and promotes the national spirit. Only by putting the two concepts of ―nation‖ and ―world‖ in the globalization context can they gain true meanings that are distinctive from each other. Globalization has made various historical factors become worldwide. As the limitations of time and space are surpassed, globalization is no longer a passive formation of nationality. It is an independent, novel, and substantial concept in comparison with nationality. With globalization as the impetus, and ―in place of the old local and national seclusion and self-sufficiency, we have intercourse in every direction and universal interdependence of nations. And as in material, so also in intellectual production. The intellectual creations of individual nations become common property. National one-sidedness and narrow-mindedness become more and more impossible, and from the numerous national and local literatures, there arises a world-literature.‖1 Since globalization, the concepts of world and globe have become the starting point for the interpretation and realization of nationality. China should not only emphasize ―only the nation is the world‖ but also realize that the world can assume the real nationality. Just as Vissarion Belinsky put it, ―Only when literature bears features of both a specific nation and human being, can it become of true national characteristics.‖2 Therefore, 1 Karl Marx and Frederick Engels. Karl Marx and Frederick Engels: Selected Works (In Two Volumes),vol. 1. (Moscow: Foreign Language Publishing House, 1951), 36. 2 Vissarion Belinsky. ―The Overall View of Folk Poetry and Its Meaning‖, Selected Works of Belinsky, vol 3.

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the promotion of nationality is not to firmly adhere to the distinctive features. It is a process of pursuing a global nature, the world, and the general process. It is noted that ―Chinese schools‖ on the world academic stage can only be produced from the transformation from Chinese national history to world history without being totally Westernized. As the outcome of globalization, Marxism solves the world issues in national forms. Marxism itself is a unity of the nation and the world. Therefore, the transformation of Chinese philosophy and social sciences is based on the worldwide framework of Marxism, which focuses on the absorption and integration of national academic thoughts. ―In order to promote and cultivate the national spirit, we should hold a historical position and a world view.‖ 1 Chinese national academics and cultural spirits can only be promoted in an open, integrated, renewed, and creative global transformation.

3. The Establishment and Scientific Meaning of “One Guidance and Three Features”2 as the Overall Goal of for the Prosperity and Development of Chinese Philosophy and Social Sciences Under the common historical logic of globalism, the historical process created by capitalism, the world socialist movements used as motivation for the criticism of capitalism, and the development logic of Chinese civilization integrate with each other and become the main clue for the social development of contemporary China. It can be assumed that these three factors are the source of China‘s problems when it underwent the process of transforming from a national history to world history, which is ―a great change that has not occurred for three thousand years.‖For one and half centuries all the social transformations, contradictions, and development problems

(Shanghai: Shanghai Translation Publishing House, 1980), 187. 1 YunShan Liu. ―Based on the Construction of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics to Promote and Cultivate National Spirit‖, Qiushi, no. 6, (2003). 2 In August 2004, CPC Central Committee and State Council issued an official document entitled as Suggestions from the CPC Central Committee and State Council on Further Strengthening and Improving the Ideological and Political Education of College Students for the first time required that Chinese government ―under the guidance of contemporary Chinese Marxism, formulates discipline and textbook systems with Chinese characteristics, Chinese styles, and Chinese spirits for philosophy and social sciences‖, which is short for ―One Guidance and Three Features‖. 158

have been extracted from these three factors. Therefore, the solutions to all ―Chinese problems‖ should focus on the general rules of the integration of these three factors. The fundamental path of flourishing and developing Chinese philosophy and social sciences should also start from these three factors. Modern Chinese philosophy and social sciences derived from the historical logic of China‘s involvement in globalization. Its prosperous development is based on the great practice in the construction of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Socialism with Chinese characteristics is a successful path that was a response to the dramatic global changes in the past one and a half centuries, and a result of China‘s transformation from a national history to the world history. The prosperous development of Chinese philosophy and social sciences provides cultural and academic dimensions for this path. The great practice in the construction of socialism with Chinese characteristics is the only source for its development. The essence of socialism with Chinese characteristics is to follow a triple logic in China‘s passive involvement in globalization. China draw from the lessons learned from capitalist cultural achievement, surpass the capital limitation with the socialist path, and seek the actualized form of Chinese socialism. In the field of cultural studies and humanities, it is corresponds with the guidelines of Marxism. China should absorb and draw from Western academia that is dominated by capitalist theories. Just as the development can neither follow the Western road nor return to old traditions, the development of philosophy and social sciences should also avoid following these two incorrect paths. The academic paradigm blinded by western ideals and the fantasy of reviving of tradition only focus on one aspect of the triple logic of China‘s involvement in globalization. China‘s philosophy and social sciences should only grow from the practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Only by correctly grasping the triple historical logic and three developmental clues can we obtain its prosperous development. ―The vigorous socialist cause with Chinese characteristics and the great practice of building a well-off society in an all-round way will provide a broad theoretical stage and an inexhaustible source of theoretical innovation for the prosperous development of philosophy and social sciences.‖1 In the present field of 1

Ji Zhou. ―Hold High the Great Banner of Socialism with Chinese Characteristics and Further Promote the

Development of Philosophy and Social Sciences in Colleges‖, Theoretical Front in Higher Education, no. 3, (2008). 159

global academic, the voices coming from Chinese academics should not fall behind the promotion of Chinese international status. The studies of philosophy and social sciences should be based on and rooted in the great practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics, which is the strategic commanding point to break down the hegemonic Western academic discourse. Chinese philosophy and social sciences cannot develop without social practice. The actual process also corresponds to the development of China as a whole. Derived from the Third Plenary Session of the Eleventh Central Committee, socialism with Chinese characteristics marks a new starting point for the development of Chinese philosophy and social sciences. In the new century, socialism with Chinese characteristics begins to promote a well-off society in an all-round way, which puts forth new requirements for the prosperous development of Chinese philosophy and social sciences. In January 2004, the CPC Central Committee issued Opinions on the Further Prosperous Development of Philosophy and Social Sciences. It clearly proposed that ―we should make efforts to build philosophy and social sciences with Chinese characteristics which faces towards modernization, the world, and the future; we should build a textbook system which fully reflects Marxism, Mao ZeDong Thought, Deng Xiaoping Theory, and the important thought of the "Three Represents," and form a complete discipline system with the characteristics of the times and reasonable structures within about ten years.‖ In August 2004, CPC Central Committee and State Council on Further Strengthening and Improving the Ideological and Political Education of College Students further proposed that we should make great efforts to ―formulate discipline and textbook systems with Chinese characteristics, Chinese styles, and Chinese spirits for philosophy and social sciences under the guidance of contemporary Chinese Marxism.‖ ―One Guidance and Three Features‖ is based on the great practice of socialism with Chinese characteristics and is the fundamental requirement for the development of philosophy and social sciences. It shows the overall characteristics of the development of philosophy and social sciences under new historical conditions. It is also the general objective for the construction of philosophy and social sciences. ―The characteristic, style, and spirit of philosophy and social sciences are in fact those of social practice which supports the formation and development of philosophy and

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social sciences.‖1 The development of philosophy and social sciences has roots in the practice of China‘s transformation from a national history to a global history. The contemporary form in this practice is the construction of socialism with Chinese characteristics. Corresponding to the triple logic in the huge historic transformation, the interaction between the three clues to the development of philosophy and social sciences have formed three pairs of contradictions. Therefore, the essence of ―One Guidance and Three Features‖ should be placed under the tension formed by the three clues and interpreted within the framework of the three contradictions. ―The Guidelines of Marxism‖ emphasizes the dominance of Marxism over the ideological field, which corresponds to the developmental direction of Chinese socialism within the triple logic of social transformation. The specific and current practice under the guidance of Marxism is actually the leadership of the theoretical system of socialism with Chinese characteristics, which should include drawing lessons from capitalist cultural achievements and absorbing traditional Chinese cultural achievements. The essence of ―Three Features‖ is the promotion of individuality. Chinese countries and nationality can have the reality only in the course of global and world historical process. Only by solving the three pairs of contradictions – ―science and value‖, ―traditional and modern,‖ and ―nation and world‖ can we make it come true. Therefore, the scientific meaning of ―One Guidance and Three Features‖ is that we should continuously try to solve the three major contradictions along the developmental direction determined by the three clues and thus promote the prosperous development of philosophy and social sciences.

4. The Key Link in the Implementation of “One Guidance and

Three

Implementation

Features”: of

the

Hierarchical Marxist

Theory

and

Classified

Research

and

Construction The core and soul issue is to flourish and develop Chinese philosophy and social sciences according to ―One Guidance and Three Features‖ and to implement the guiding position of Marxism. The fundamental point to the prosperous development is 1

Ji Zhou. ―Constructing a System of Philosophy and Social Sciences Subjects and Books Under the Guidance of Modern Chinese Marxism‖, Journal of Ideological and Theoretical Education, no. 9, (2006). 161

to put the Marxist standpoint, viewpoint, and methodology all through the work of philosophy and social sciences. The current key link is to the hierarchical and classified implementations of Marxist theory research and construction. The knowledge and theories of philosophy and social sciences usually have value and ideological functions. But in the philosophy and social sciences ―different disciplines embody ideology with different tension,‖1 which have different functions in the value guidance and ideological maintenance. Therefore, in order to strengthen the construction of the dominant ideology and highlight the direction of Marxism, it is necessary to distinguish the ideological strength in different discipline theories and implement the hierarchical and classified construction according to different levels of strength. Different disciplines can be divided into several levels of the ideological strength: powerful, strong, normal, weak, and little of none. Generally speaking, powerful ideology is the socialist core value system and the corresponding theories and

subject

forms,

especially

the

theoretical system of

socialism with Chinese characteristics. The construction of this type is the direct self-development and improvement of Marxist theories. The ideological strengths of philosophy, economics, political science, law, and journalism are strong. They are related with the arguments of Marxist core issues. These type of disciplines should apply the Marxist standpoint, viewpoint, and methodology into the construction of corresponding disciplines‘ theoretical system. The fundamental and central position of Marxism should be established and intensified from various aspects like the theoretical framework, the research paradigm, the concept category, and the basic viewpoint, which will assign a basic supporting position of Marxism in these disciplines. The ideological strengths of literature, history, sociology, and pedagogy are normal. This discipline category mainly focuses on the application of the world outlook and methodology in dialectical materialism and historical materialism. It does not overemphasize the uniformity of opinions and distinguish the boundary between Marxism and non-Marxism. The ideological strengths of anthropology, management, arts, linguistics, and physical education are weak. These disciplines have the distinction between people and objects without the distinction between personal relations. For disciplines with weak ideological strength, the establishment of the

1

(1999).

Jingquan Dong. ―The Study of the Developmental Laws of Social Sciences‖, Social Science Front, no. 1,

162

leading positions of Marxism should be concentrated on the functional location of the modern socialist construction and men‘s free and full development. We should fully release the vitality of free innovation in these disciplines. This is only a rough division of discipline categories; there are discrepancies under the same discipline category. For example, the ideologies of Marxist philosophy and logistics, which both belong to philosophy, are different. Likewise, the ideologies of political economics and finance are different though they both belong to economics. Therefore, a more microscopic theory construction can put forward corresponding plans. A major work of the prosperous development of philosophy and social sciences is the construction of disciplinary and textbook systems. These ―two systems‖ especially the textbook system is directly related with the establishment of Marxist ideology in the dominant position. Therefore, more attention should be paid to the construction of the textbook systems, which will have a large coverage. That is, giving some preferences in the selection of key disciplines and textbook. The strength of ideology and the coverage of students can be taken as two indexes to determine the priority of the construction. In the present implementation of ―Marxist theory research and construction‖ the key textbook project, the textbook constructions for four ideological and political theory courses and nine basic courses have fully considered the great ideological strength of these disciplines. The full coverage of the ideological and political theory course clearly reflects that ―the strong ideology and a huge coverage of students‖ is the first priority for the order. To make a further analysis, the constructions for the second, third, and fourth batches of key textbooks obviously attach great importance to the orientation of the textbooks. The textbooks for political science, law, and sociology assume a predominant position. But from the perspective of the distribution of college students, the total number of students from these disciplines is far lower than that of students from management, foreign language, art, and economics. However, the number of the selected textbooks for these four majors is quite small. It can be seen that the selection of key textbooks do not pay enough attention the coverage of textbooks. Therefore, it is necessary to cope with the two indexes that determine the priority for the discipline and textbook constructions. Disciplines and textbooks with a powerful ideology and a huge coverage should be given the first priority. Disciplines and textbooks with a strong ideology and a huge coverage or with a powerful ideology and a small coverage can be put as the second priority. Following this, disciplines and textbooks with a weak ideology and little 163

coverage should be the last one. This is demonstrated in the table below and the division is not necessarily too detailed.

The Strength of Discipline Ideology

Power ful

The

Little or

Strong

Normal

Level 2

Level 3

Level 4

Level 3

Level 4

Level 5

Level 4

Level 5

Level 6

Level 5

Level 6

Level 7

None

Distribution of Students Huge

Level 1

Large

Level 2

Medium

Level 3

Small

Level 4

5. The Important Measures for the Implementation of “One Guidance and Three Features”: The Construction of a Dynamic Discipline System Apart from the emphasis on the accumulation and innovation of theory and academics, the prosperous development of philosophy and social sciences should also pay attention to the setting, adjustment, and abolition of the disciplinary system and construction. The development of construction is an important aspect of the development of philosophy and social sciences. An important task of the prosperous development of philosophy and social sciences is to promote the healthy development 164

of the discipline structure under the requirement of ―One Guidance and Three Features‖. The development of the discipline structure should not only embody the leading position of Marxism but also absorb the experiences of disciplines in the Western academia that takes capitalist theories as the mainstream, and the characteristics of Chinese traditional academics. This realizes the unity of the three pairs of contradictions: science and value, traditional and modern, and nation and world. It is considered that the construction of a dynamic discipline structure and system can follow four directions: ideology, national characteristics, the demand for social development and talent cultivation, the global mainstream discipline norm. Ideologically, the establishment of ―Marxist theory‖ as the first level discipline is an important and timely decision, but problems still exist after the adjustment. It is farfetched that ―Marxist theory‖ still belongs to the ―law category‖. It does not fully embody the Marxist theory‘s special position of in the philology and social sciences research, and it is not wise to strengthen the guidance of Marxism for disciplinary construction. Since ―Marxist theory‖ does not belong to any specific discipline, it should set up as an independent discipline category to focus on its construction. It should be noted that there are four tasks in the construction of Marxist theory and discipline. Firstly, the self-developments of knowledge and academic system in a discipline should be promoted and an international communication platform should be built for Marxist academics, rather than for politics. Academically, Chinese Marxist scholars should make positive contributions to the development of global Marxist academic studies. Secondly, Marxist theory should continuously provide theoretical support for the ideology of the ruling party. Thirdly, the ruling party‘s theory should be integrated in the talent cultivation can support the construction of ideological and political course book system. Fourthly, Marxist theory should play a guiding role in the prosperous development of the whole philosophy and social sciences. Therefore, we should correct the narrow understanding that the construction of Marxist theory discipline only contributes to university courses on ideological and political theory. We should hold a right relationship between Marxist discipline system and ideological and political theory course book system. The status of the discipline does not simply correspond to political status. The decisive factors are the academic development level and the construction level of the discipline. The simple tendency to replace Marxist theory disciplinary system with the textbook system of an ideological and political theory course should be avoided. The dominant position of 165

Marxist theory as a discipline should be well established. In the aspect of the guidance of national characteristics, it should embody Chinese characteristics, Chinese styles, and Chinese spirits. In the application of Marxist theory ―specifically, England is different from France, France is different from Germany, and Germany is different from Russia.‖1 Looking at the present discipline catalog, the settings of the discipline categories mainly derive from the consequence of the internationalization of Western academics since globalization. The development of Chinese philosophy and social sciences should adhere to the requirements of the triple logic, which is an effective match with Chinese traditional academics. Compared with the casting situation of Marxism in the whole area of philosophy and social sciences, Chinese traditional academics do not delve into the core of the current academic research in philosophy and Social Sciences. The fundamental premise is that Chinese traditional academics should establish its own status as a discipline and obtain a prosperous development. Therefore, setting up an individual ―national study‖ discipline category is a method that is worthy of consideration. From the perspective of the adaptation to the requirements of social economic development and talent cultivation, the adjustment of the disciplinary structure of philosophy and social sciences should be practice-oriented and focus on the coordinated development of the economic society. It should delve deeply into the new situations and problems in the new developing phase. ―Only when philosophy and social sciences play a role in correctly answering the major theoretical and practical issues at home and abroad, can they embody practical value and theoretical strength.‖2 Discipline construction must be oriented towards practice. The practice is developing and so is the discipline construction. For instance, since the reform, the establishment of the central position of economic construction requires and promotes the rapid development of economics which has become ―a distinguished school.‖ Currently, with the goal of building a fully well-off society, the status of social and cultural constructions is prominent. This requires a corresponding rapid development of academic theories and disciplines. For this area of disciplines, the discipline 1 Vladimir Lenin. Selected Works of Lenin, vol 1(Chinese Version). (Beijing: People‘s Publishing House, 1995), 274-275. 2 Yunshan Liu. ―Building Philosophy and Social Sciences with Chinese Characteristics, Chinese Style, and Chinese Spirit—a Reflection on ‗Opinions on the Further Prosperous Development of Philosophy and Social Sciences‘‖, Qiushi, no. 11, (2004).

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construction should expand to new disciplines or improve its level in order to expand the discipline field. Take another example;, in the context of a ―global risk society,‖ it is of great importance to urgently settle of significant events. The theory of ―crisis management‖ has enough room to expand, which can be promoted from the perspective of the disciplinary planning. Social practice is certainly one aspect while the condition of disciplinary research and practice is another aspect. Disciplines are the mature products from the development of scientific research. ―Not all research areas can finally develop into new disciplines. The sign that a discipline has matured through scientific research and can become an independent discipline lies in the independent research content, mature research methods, norms, and discipline systems.‖1 The construction of the discipline system should pay attention to the leading direction, seek the truth, and consider the current situation of academic and educational development. From the aspect of the global mainstream direction of disciplinary norms, the important principle of discipline construction is to actively get involved with the prevalent international conventions and norms. Chinese modern philosophy and social sciences are the products of globalization and thus must get involved into the developmental pattern of global philosophy and social sciences. Under the guidance of Marxism, the prosperous development of our philosophy and social sciences should make full use of the mainstream patterns of global academics and the experience of discipline construction. In professional settings, in some academically powerful countries, a combination of courses determines a student‘s major rather the other way around. This pattern can quickly reflect scientific progress and social changes and largely meet the requirements of the scientific progress, social development, and individual growth. As for the disciplinary structure, with China and Russia as the representatives of the prescribed ―standard,‖ this mode standardizes the specifications and fields for the cultivation of college talents. Through it is orderly, it lacks flexibility. The ―statistical and induction mode‖ represented by America is a statistical summary of the personnel training in college, which can be characterized as logical, continuous, adaptive, and developmental. This discipline catalog is employed by most countries.2Moreover, setting up an integrated, cross-category, or a first-level discipline 1 Shushan Cai. ―The Relationship between Science and Discipline and the Construction of a Discipline System‖, Chinese Social Science, no. 3, (2002). 2 For more information see: The Chinese Society of Academic Degrees and Graduate Education. Research

167

is a big trend in the development of the world disciplinary structures. The experience which reflects the mainstream global development trend should be an important reference for China‘s discipline construction. The important premise for the voice of Chinese philosophy and social sciences on the international academic stage is to become familiar with the prevalent international conventions and norms in order to become involved with the world‘s mainstream. In the end, apart from the four directions mentioned above, it is worth emphasizing that the adjustment of disciplinary structure should also consider the maturity of the content system of philosophy and social sciences. In this way, we can distinguish disciplines at different levels and make a targeted construction. Generally speaking, the establishment of ―One Guidance and Three Features‖ as the orientation is the first basic requirement for the prosperous development of philosophy and social sciences in the construction of a disciplinary system. Generally speaking, the basic requirement for the prosperous development of philosophy and social sciences in the construction of the discipline system is to stabilize mature disciplines, adjust developing disciplines, and plan a new and cross-category discipline..

Report on the Course Setting in Foreign Countries and HK, Macau, and Taiwan, China. (January 2006). 168

Chapter Six Strategic Environment Optimization of Chinese National Cultural Security — Promoting the Establishment of a New International Cultural Order International cultural order is one of the fundamental factors that influence or even determine the cultural security of a country. Almost all the previous studies of international order have paid more attention to international political and economic order. With the progress in globalization, the cultural security of a country becomes more and more important. Therefore, the issue of international cultural order should be included in the category of international order. The old international order is characterized by the expansion of hegemony, rule of the jungle and winner-take-all, which is also the root cause of many international security problems. To gain security in the truest sense, we need to make efforts to build a fair and rational new international order, a new international cultural order included. China, as a developing country whose cultural security is under threat due to the existence of the old international cultural order, attaches much importance to international cultural strategy. Against this background, China sets the goal of promoting the building of a new international cultural order as the primary task in the construction of the national cultural security strategy. To build a new international cultural order does not simply mean that China should unite with all the peace-and-justice-loving developing countries and fight against the cultural aggression of Western countries. This, in essence, is still the ―Cold War Mentality‖ with confrontation as its core. The emphasis should be put on construction rather than destruction in the process of building a new international cultural order. As China‘s former chairman Jiang Zemin pointed out, different cultures should ―respect each other, learn from each other in competition and comparison, and co-develop by seeking common ground while reserving differences.‖1 The core ideas are equality, mutual assistance, and harmony. To build a new international cultural 1

Zemin Jiang. Selected Works of Jiang Zemin, vol. 3. (People‘s Publishing House, 2006), 567. 169

order is to apply these core ideas to the ―rules of the game‖ in international cultural exchanges. The irrationality of the current international cultural order results from the irrationality of the ―rules of the game‖ in international cultural exchanges, which is formulated by only a few countries. Given this, all the developing countries, China included, should actively blend into the mainstream of the international community and strive to become the ―rule maker‖ in the international society. China needs to take the strategic opportunity of building a new international cultural order, flexibly handle the conflicts in the international cultural strategic pattern, and gradually construct a Chinese international cultural strategy with clear objectives and a complete system.

1. Implications and Composition of an International Cultural Order 1.1 Implications of International Cultural Order ―Order,‖ meaning ―in order‖ or ―not in disorder,‖ stands opposite to such terms as ―disorder‖ or ―out of order.‖ It refers to a kind of arrangement or layout in which the relationship between things remains relatively stable. In the context of social life, ―order‖ can be used to describe a kind of state in which the code of conduct or the social system is aimed to realize. International order reflects the arrangement or layout of the relationship between countries, which refers to the rules to maintain such a relationship on one hand, and to the actual state of relative stability in international relationships on the other. A specific international order is determined by a specific international pattern, with the latter referring to the situation or pattern of power balance among the major behavioral agents (e.g. country, bloc – group of countries with similar political aims and interests, or international organization) in the world at a given time period.1 Generally, the world paradigm is a kind of power balance formed through the fierce evolution of the world system, the readjustment of worldwide interest relationships, as well as the growth and decline of the interest subjects in various international relationships. Hence, relative stability is the essential characteristic of a world paradigm. The international paradigm determines the international order and reflects the overall state of interest distribution in the whole world; while, international order is composed of a series of international mechanisms 1

2004), 8.

Zhongqi Pan. World Order: Structure, Mechanism, and Model. (Shanghai People‘s Publishing House,

170

and rules to consolidate and maintain the established pattern based on the specific international paradigm. International order is ―the relatively stable, peaceful, and orderly state between the international action subjects, characterized by their interrelation, interaction, and mutual communication, formed in the process of dealing with various international problems, based on the established international system and in conformity with specific principles, rules, and mechanisms‖.1 The relationship between the international action subjects is complicated and multidimensional. As one of many aspects manifesting this relationship, the international order is further manifested in many aspects and on different levels. National activities can approximately cover three basic fields – economics, politics, and culture; correspondingly, the arrangement and layout to illustrate the interrelationship between the international action subjects in each of the three fields could be termed as international economic order, international political order, and international cultural order. The three dimensions of international order are not completely separate, but rather three profiles of one large system. With the evolution of the international system, the development of national interest and the changes of competition between countries, one of the three profiles would become more prominent in different periods of time. After the end of the Cold War, with the accelerated progress of globalization, the focus of national interest and competition between countries began to gradually shift to the field of culture, making it the frontier of international competition and raising the strategic position of the international cultural order in the whole system of international order. One proof of this shift is the fact that many world renowned strategists and scholars have focused their attention on the international cultural order and put forward many theories, such as the ―Soft Power‖ theory of Joseph S Nye, the ―Clash of Civilizations‖ theory of Samuel Huntington, the ―End of History‖ theory of Francis Fukuyama. International cultural order does not exist completely independent from international economic order or international political order, but rather as the logical extension of the two. International order covers the value goals for which the international action subjects with conflicting interests share common concern and of

1

Zhongqi Pan. World Order: Structure, Mechanism, and Model. (Shanghai People‘s Publishing House, 2004), 431. 171

which the aforementioned subjects are in common pursuit, like peace and development. Thus, international order reflects the reality of interest distribution on the one hand and the expected interest pursuit on the other. In this sense, international cultural order can be defined as ―the relatively stable international cultural relationship formed between the action subjects involved, based on the reality of cultural interests distribution and the expected cultural interests pursuit, all in accordance to specific systems, principles, rules, and mechanisms.‖ 1.2 The Basic Unit of International Cultural Order How can we understand the world order in this age of globalization? This is a prerequisite question deserves great concern in order to handle any major strategic issue in today‘s world. The study on the issue of national cultural security also needs to be done within the framework of world order. International cultural order, as the sub-system of the international order system, must has basic components and general trend that conform with the large system of world order while having a relatively independent operation rules of its own. A prerequisite question that must be considered while studying the international order is to determine the basic unit of international order. The basic unit that constitutes the international cultural order refers to the cultural community that can effectively make demands on the world cultural order, participate in the competition of international cultural interests as well as in the construction, maintenance, and transformation of international cultural order. It can be approximately divided into the national cultural community and non-national cultural community. Although there has been controversy between ―National-Centric Theory‖ and ―Multiple-Unit Theory‖ over the basic unit of international order, it is undeniable that the studies on the international order issue shall always consider national interest as their starting point, even if not the only one. Therefore, sovereign nations remain the basic unit in the current international order, and the national cultural community remains the basic unit of the most important international cultural order. An important quality in becoming the basic unit of international cultural order is that it has its relatively independent demands of cultural interests and can take active and effective cultural behaviors to meet this demand. In this respect, sovereign nations have its own advantage. It has absolute authority over domestic and foreign affairs, has a relatively clear boundary for national cultural interests, and can independently formulate and execute the national culture policy free of outside interference. Hence, 172

sovereign nations, with its own unique status in the framework of world order, play a decisive role in the construction, maintenance, and transformation of the international cultural order. However, it is noteworthy that the way the national cultural communities participate in the construction, maintenance, and transformation of international cultural order is not in the form of single and separate communities, but more often in the form of a supranational cultural community alliance. The cultural order during the Cold War, characterized by the confrontation between ―the East‖ and ―the West,‖ was constituted of the capitalist cultural system with the United States as its center and the socialist cultural system with the Soviet Union as its center. The existence of the supranational cultural community alliance does not affect the role of the sovereign national cultural community as the most fundamental unit of the world cultural order, in that the growth and decline of all the ―vertical‖ and ―horizontal‖ alliances of nations is but the result of the interaction between the sovereign national cultural communities. A national cultural community is the manifestation of the function of a sovereign nation in the international order within the cultural dimension, with each sovereign nation as a cultural unit. Such cultural communities, no matter how it is constituted or what its intensions are, have their function and values reflected in the protection and promotion of their national cultural interests as well as the interest of the whole nation. To consolidate the cultural foundation of national power, to promote the national culture identity and strengthen the national sense of cohesion, and to maintain the unique value pursuit of the nation, all of these are among the main concerns of the national cultural community. The complicated picture international cultural order is just the state of ―equilibrium‖ reached through the interest competition of different national cultural communities that resulted from different national interest. While emphasizing that the sovereign national cultural community functions as the most fundamental unit in the world cultural order, we could not neglect the fact that supranational cultural community is also an indispensable and essential unit in the international cultural order. Particularly, with the development of globalization, international order as a whole is undergoing profound transformation; thereupon, the interaction between supranational cultural communities exerts an increasingly greater influence on the international cultural order. While studying the issue of national security, we should not be confined to the category of action subjects on the national level, but rather we should pay more attention to the issues relevant to non-traditional 173

security. Similarly, while studying the issue of international cultural order, we should not be confined to the national cultural community, but rather we should be highly concerned about the cultural interaction between non-national cultural communities. Non-national cultural communities can be divided into three categories: subnational, transnational and supranational ones. Subnational cultural community mainly refers to the cultural unit within a sovereign nation. In reality, the national cultural community itself is a multicultural whole composed of diverse cultures, including different ethnic and regional cultures, as well as different ideologies. All these components would manifest as national cultural community in the form of the integration of these components for the sake of national cultural interests or in the form of the mainstream of this multicomponent system. However, globalization brings profound transformation to the interaction of human society and in consequence, many subnational cultural elements go onto the world stage not necessarily through the national channel. A global, not national, society is taking shape. The interaction between subnational cultural communities on the platform of the world culture is becoming more and more frequent, which greatly promotes the construction and transformation of international cultural order. Transnational cultural communities refer to the communities constituted by the same kind of cultural elements contained in different cultural units in different countries. Such a cultural phenomenon includes religion, the socialist culture, and the capitalist culture after the Cold War. They are not manifested in the national identity but in the identity of the transnational cultural phenomena, as the mainstream or just branches in the culture.1 The supranational cultural community is the cultural alliance constituted by national cultural communities with similar mainstream culture or similar national cultural interests, such as the seven or eight civilizations formed after the Cold War as proposed by Huntington – the western Christian civilization, the Confucian civilization with China as the core, the Japanese civilization, the Indian civilization, the Islamic civilization, the Orthodox civilization, the Latin American civilization, and potentially the African civilization.

2. Features of the Contemporary International Cultural 1 The awareness of the socialist and capitalist culture as transnational cultural communities dictates that the focus has shifted from the previous standpoint in which ideology was the dividing line. Such a perspective actually viewed socialist and capitalist culture as national or supranational cultural community, i.e., two cultures that could appear only in national identity.

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Order 2.1 Unbalanced distribution of technological resource for cultural transmission Before the end of the Cold War, the television and video transmitters in the developed countries in Europe, North America, and Japan accounted for 71% of the total number in the whole world; while the ones in developing countries in Asia, Africa, and Latin America only accounted for 28%, with only 3% of the total sparsely scattered in Africa and Latin America. Moreover, 45% of developing countries did not have their own television station. As for the publication and distribution of newspapers, the circulation of newspapers in developing countries only accounted for a quarter of the total amount in the world. In respect to news agencies, nearly all the developed countries had their own news agency, while only one-third of the developing countries did not have their own news agency. All of these hindered the equal communication of international news between developing and developed countries.1 In the current technological resource distribution pattern for global cultural communication, with its unique advantage in economics, politics, military, science and technology, popular culture, communication media, as well as in the English language, the U.S. remains the only superpower and still has a strong enough power to influence the worldwide communication of news, culture and media, allowing them to further exert great influence on global opinion. Meanwhile, other great powers, including the UK, France, Germany, Russia, China, India, and Japan, with their own advantages in language, culture, history, and tradition, also have the ability to do the cross-regional news, cultural, and media communication on a global scale, and in turn partly influence global opinion. The basic paradigm for contemporary international cultural order, which underwent severe differentiation and integration as a result of the Cold War, has experienced the great transformation from Europe and America having an overwhelming advantage to a situation in which there is ―only superpower and many greats power, with more emerging.‖ Although the status and influence of developing countries like China are on the rise in the international cultural order, the problem of the unbalanced distribution of international cultural resources still exists. 1

For more see: Anxiang Min. ―Discussion on the International Communication Pattern in the New Century‖, Modern Communication, no. 6, (2006). 175

Entering into the 21st century, information resources have become the core strategic resource for a country‘s economic strength and international competitiveness. The disparity across countries and regions in the construction of Internet infrastructure and the popularization of operating technology results in the great gap in the ability to access information resources (including the gap in receiving, producing, transmitting, and utilizing information).This further influences the economic strength and international competitiveness of the weak countries, causing such problems as ―information gap,‖ ―information imbalance,‖ ―knowledge gap,‖ and the ―polarization between the rich and the poor.‖ It‘s been shown that 90% of the global Internet communication traffic is initiated, terminated, or transmitted in America; 80% of the 320 million web pages worldwide belong to America; 94 of the 100 most-visited websites are situated in America; 81% of all web pages are in English, most of which are American ones; over 60% of internet hosts and users are in America; the code and domain name policies for the Internet are dominated by America; and 10 out of 13 root servers in charge of global domain name administration are situated in America. Among the computers with access to Internet, the ones in developing countries account for only less than 5%.1 ―Thirty-five of the 49 nations that have less than one telephone per 100 people are in Africa. Only 1.5 out of a 100 people in the Third World have access to telephone lines, and those lines are located in mostly affluent urban areas. The six most-wired countries based on networks per million of population are in the West. Globally, more than 80% of the world‘s population still lacks that most basic telecommunications.‖2 In addition to the number of Internet users, the Western developed countries have an absolute advantage in other aspects like the network information quantity, the network market share, and the construction of network hardware.3 More importantly, there is a trend of a higher concentration of cultural resources in a new way. In the current international cultural order, the inequality in the cultural communication paradigm is not only reflected in the fact that one country or region owns more newspapers, electric wave transmitters, and computers than other countries or regions, but further reflected in the current situation in which the right of 1 For more see: Youquan Ouyang. ―Media Breakthrough of Internet Literature and the Paradox of Self-Representation‖, Social Science Front, no. 4, (2002). 2 Bosah Ebo. Old Wine in New Wine Bottle: The Internet and the Techcolonization of Africa. Retrieved from http:// www.arts.uwa.edu.au/MotsPluriels/MP20002be.html in 2002. 3 Ibid.

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communication is more and more concentrated in the hands of a few people. With the substantial progress of economic globalization, the popularization of the market economy brings the global-scale cultural industry into a trend of integration, contributing to the formation of the oligopoly in the world‘s cultural industry. At present, the global media market is mainly controlled by 7 transnational corporations: Disney, AOL-Time Warner, Sony, News Corp., Viacom, Vivendi, and Bertelsmann. Fifty media and entertainment companies account for 95% of the global market. Just to cite AOL-Time Warner as an example, it has the Warner Music Group which has the best record business in the world and a large user group, including 120 million magazine readers, 320,000Internet users, over 1 billion viewers, 35 million HBO (premium cable network) subscribers, 13 million cable TV subscribers and more than 320,000―Highway Messenger‖ users. American on Line, under Time Warner, as the largest Internet service provider, provides service to15 countries worldwide in7 languages. It occupies the leading position in interactive technology development and has the world‘s largest dial narrowband network and the music player with the largest number of downloads. AOL has 20 million registered users in total and 6 million European users. The number of its DSL (Brandband) users exceeds 1 million. The Cable News Network (CNN) under Time Warner reaches an audience of1.5 billion, in 212 countries and regions; even within America, it has almost 90 million household users and nearly 1 million hotel users. In this sense, it can be called a global media kingdom.1 It is thus clear that the distribution of technological resources for cultural transmission is severely unbalanced. 2.2 Unbalanced Flow Quantity and Flow Direction of Cultural Information The western developed countries, by virtue of its economic strength and advanced communication technologies, dominate ―the right to speak‖ in global communication and control the power and ―valve‖ in this field. In the flow of information dissemination, the developed countries occupy the absolute advantage. Their information the release account for more than 80% of the total information worldwide and their cultures dominate the cultures of developing countries, becoming the main factor of the unbalanced development of the information ecology. For a long time, international cultural trade has been out of balance, and cultural

1

For more see: Xingchang Lei and Wenhuan Cao. ―Analysis of the Current International Cultural Trade Pattern‖, Social Sciences Review, no. 10, (2008). 177

information exchanges are more concentrated in the developed countries. More than 70% of global cultural trade is concentrated in 5 countries – America, Britain, France, Germany, and Japan, while the culture-oriented product output of other countries is very little. In 1990, America, Japan, Germany, and the UK were the largest cultural product exporters, with their export value accounting for 55% of the total of that year; USA, Germany, Japan, Britain, and France were the largest cultural product importers, with their import value accounting for 47% of the total of that year. In 1998, the member countries of APEC and the EU achieved a cultural product import value accounting for 91% of total cultural product imports, an import value accounting for 94% of total imports. On the other hand, such cultural trade was mainly conducted between a few developed countries. The cultural trade royalties and license fees of the major world trading powers, plus their export value in cultural and entertainment industries for 2004 are listed below: U.S., $59.059 billion; Japan, $15.773 billion; UK, $15.383 billion; France, $7.334 billion; and Germany, $ 6.045 billion.1 Another phenomenon of imbalance is that a few Western transnational news agencies conduct large-scale business in the world, almost monopolizing the field of international news reporting and circulation. The volume of news issued by Western developed countries floods developing countries; in contrast, the volume of news issued by developing countries to developed countries is rather small, and such news has little possibility to appear on the news media of developed countries. The large Western news agencies, like the Associated Press and the Reuters, total 35 million words. Sixty percent of the international news distributed in the Third World is from Western news agencies, and American daily news circulation accounts for 21% of the world. More than 90% of the news currently distributed around the world is from America and other Western countries, 70% of which is further monopolized by transnational corporations. The

Third

World

countries

are

increasingly

dependent

on

Western

communication technology and cultural products in their various books, magazines, news programs, movies, and TV entertainment programs. According to UNESCO, about 85% of the foreign films released worldwide are made by Hollywood. The share of developing countries in the cultural trade is decreasing gradually. The whole

1

For more see: Xingchang Lei and Wenhuan Cao. ―Analysis of the Current International Cultural Trade Pattern‖. Social Sciences Review, no. 10, (2008). 178

continent of Africa only produces 42 films every year, and 95% of the films on the African market are imported. Norton Stearns and Warris surveyed nearly 50 countries and deemed that the communication through TV programs is mainly unidirectional, i.e. from America, Britain and France to the countries in East Europe, Asia, Africa and Latin America.1 At present, America sells TV programs to more than 160 countries and regions, with a high annual duration of hundreds of thousands of hours, controlling 75% of the world market share. In many Third World countries, 60% 80% of the TV programs are from America; for Arica, this proportion reaches as high as 90%, nearly making Africa an American television broadcast station.2 The United Nations Development Program (UNDP), in its Human Development Report in 2000, noted that, 85 out of 100 transnationally-circulated books are circulated from developed countries to developing countries. According to the latest UNESCO materials, there are about 24,000 kinds of translated works published every year, among which about 60% are translated from English to other languages, and among these books, over 60% are American ones. For the works of developing countries that are written in their own language and translated into other languages, only 5% of the total could be translated into English or French. The imbalance in the Chinese cultural trade is also an aspect of the North-South cultural trade imbalance. Over the years, Chinese book imports and exports have shown a deficit of 10:1, with a high deficit to Europe and U.S. amounting to over 100:1 and the books are mainly exported to some African countries and other Chinese regions – Hong Kong, Macao and Taipei.3 2.3 Cultural Communication Serves Political Purposes In international communication nowadays, some Western capitalist countries (especially America), according to their Western news value concept and by using their strong propagation power (e.g., the telecommunication network extended in all directions, the broadcast television network with global coverage, and the points of communication all over the world), dump their ―spiritual products‖ onto Third World countries and regions. They even attempt to include the Third World into the capitalist market of cultural communication by means of staff training or technology transfer. In this way, the Third World would be totally reduced to their domination, oppression, 1 Peiren Shao. ―Information Equality – In Pursuit of A New Order for World Communication‖, Journal of Zhejiang Institute of Media & Communications, no. 8, (2008). 2 Jingzhe Guo. ―The Expansion Strategy for the Radio and Television of Western Countries‖, International Broadcast Information Reference, no. 6, (2004). 3 Yajun Shen. ―How to Dispel the Chinese Cultural Deficit‖, Guangming Daily, (April 26, 2007).

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and exploitation and the world of communication would enter into a kind of ―communication imperialism.‖ ―Communication imperialism‖ is essentially the extension of international power politics and international exploitation in the field of international communication, forming a component of contemporary capitalism. America, with its advantage in economics, politics, military, media, and communication technology, directly or indirectly, exerts influence on developing countries, resulting in the communication dependence of the latter and furthering the loss of their sovereignty in communication policies and media as well as their right to control

the

content

to

be

transmitted.

Meanwhile,

through

its

global

telecommunication, radio, and television network, America vigorously promotes its cultural products (ideology included) and wantonly distorts and belittles the image of the Third World, thereby raising its own international image. Moreover, America insists on playing television programs intended to subvert the Cuban government in the areas close to Cuban territory, which has caused the strong reaction of Latin American countries, including Cuba. In order to achieve its political objectives, America uses international communication as the ―powerful weapon‖ in this ―war without gunpowder.‖ In recent years, the Western countries pay more attention to the ―soft power‖ under the control of media opinion; and under the disguise of democracy and freedom, carry out their propaganda on the global scale, with a special focus on ideological transmission into the developing countries. For instance, in the ―Color Revolutions‖ of Central Asian countries like Georgia, Ukraine, and Kyrgyzstan, the Western media especially American media are particularly active. In the 2002-2007 Strategic Planning of International Broadcasting released by the Broadcasting Board of Governors (BBG), the propaganda in China and Russia is listed as the focus of its five-year plan. 1 An official at the American Foreign Broadcasting Commission once said, the influence of ―Radio Free Europe‖ on Eastern Europe is equivalent to that of ―an expeditionary corps.‖2 After the Cold War, the West copied the ―Radio Free Europe‖ model and built the ―Radio Free Asia‖ which focused on China. The Voice of China also shifted its focus to China. At present, ―Voice of America,‖ ―BBC‖ and ―Free Asia‖ have built a large transmission network 1

Jinping Zhu. Opinion War. (Yanshi Press of China, 2005), 225. Mo Hong. ―A Survey on the Scale, Strength, and Deployment of Western Overseas Broadcasting‖, International Broadcasting, no. 10, (1999). 2

180

in China, which exactly meets the strategic need of the West to ―Westernize‖ and ―differentiate‖ China. In the process of Westernizing or differentiating China, the soft power of Western media is playing an important role. In this ―smoke-free war‖ characterized by the contest over soft power, cultural communication has become the political tool of America and the West. 2.4 Bias in Cultural Information Another major problem of the current cultural communication order is reflected in the bias and distortion of cultural information, especially in the lack of authenticity of the international news. Due to the reality that reports on international news is basically monopolized by Western transnational news agencies, the vast majority of the international news is selected and written in accordance with the political viewpoint, economic interests, cultural traditions, and news values of the developed Western countries. As a result, their report on the Third World is sometimes one-sided, biased, or even inauthentic and distorted. The root of the bias is the ideology of Western countries and dominant values centrism. They believe that Western values are ―universal in the world‖ and use these so-called ―universal‖ values to pass judgment of right or wrong. They promote their values in news, and impose their opinions in reports about China. Consequently the forces like ―Falun Gong Propagandists‖, ―Taiwan Separatists‖, ―Tibet Separatists‖ are described as persecuted liberals to be sympathized with, while the Chinese government suffers the false accusation of ―China Threat theory‖, ―human rights violation‖ and ―autocracy/dictatorship‖. The differences in ideology and values lead to the differences standpoint on the same event in the news report. China is a socialist country that is totally different from America, the European countries, and all the other Western countries. There exists an absolute opposition between the East and the West in the social system, ideology, and values. Thereupon, no matter in what way China tries to integrate into the international community, the public of America and the West will not accept China. After the Cold War, things become even worse – the Western media seized every chance to attack China. The Western media has always taken the ―Western-centric Values‖ as the aesthetic standard to perceive the world and also the standard with which to judge right from wrong. So, while looking upon some events, their viewpoint and logic would be different from developing countries and other countries with ideology 181

different from theirs, which brings about their ―double standard.‖ For the riots in France in 2008, they called the people who caused the riots as ―mobs‖ and held a tolerant and positive attitude towards government actions; while the 3·14 Riot in Tibet was described as a struggle for human rights, and the lawful action of Chinese government to maintain order was distorted into a ―military crackdown.‖ When the news is reported with a ―preconceived notion‖ or even a ―bias,‖ the reporter must be purposely catering to Western politicians, to fool the Western public by covering up the truth and twisting the facts, in order to achieve their attempt to isolate and split China. The American scholar James Mann points out, ―The American news reports on China have made a fundamental mistake, that is, they always put China into a simple conceptualized framework. Even if the news is positive, they must mention the political repression of China to ‗drag‘ China back to its autocratic framework of the 1990s.‖ 1 This conceptualized mindset determines their political stance while reporting on China, with the report theme always centered on issues like human right, Taiwan, Tibet, and the China threat theory.

3. General Ideas and Approaches to Building a New International Cultural Order 3.1 To build a new international cultural order is the logical extension of building a new international political and economic order. As was pointed out before, the three dimensions of international order is not completely separate, but rather three profiles of one large system. Thus, the rebuilding of world order after the Cold War not only included the building of a new international political and economic order, but also included the construction of a new international cultural order. China considers the ―five principles of peaceful coexistence‖ as the main framework for which to build a stable, peaceful, fair, and rational new international political and economic order. In politics, China is strongly opposed to hegemonism and power politics and promotes democracy and equality in international relations. Every country, big or small, strong or weak, rich or poor, shall have the right to choose its own social, political, and economic system and its own path of 1

J. Mann. ―Framing China‖, Media Studies Journal, (winter 1999), 102. 182

development based on its own conditions, according to its own will, without interference from the outside. Any country, especially big countries, shall not be allowed to interfere with the internal affairs of other countries. Every country should respect the sovereignty and territorial integrity of one another, and any country shall not be allowed to infringe or annex the territory of other countries for any reason. International disputes should be resolved through peaceful negotiations, and the means of war shall be opposed in any case. All countries are equal members of the international community, and international affairs should be decided through the negotiation of all countries on an equal basis. Any country or countries shall not have the privilege to monopolize or dominate international affairs. Any country should not seek hegemony or carry out power politics. In economics, all countries in the world, big or small, strong or weak, rich or poor, should respect each other, participate in the international economic affairs as equal members of the international community and develop economic and trade relationships based on the principle of mutual benefit. All countries shall have permanent sovereignty over their natural wealth and resources and have the right to carry out effective restriction over the exploitation of the natural resources. The South and the North should carry out dialogues and cooperation with each other, and conduct necessary adjustment and reform in such important economic fields as goods, services, trade, debt, capital and currency. Developed countries should respect the interests of developing countries and fulfill their promise to increase their unconditional assistance to developing countries. We should further promote the South-South cooperation, strengthen the consultation and exchanges among developing countries, and seek codevelopment through mutual learning and exchange. All these are consistent with the purposes and principles of the Charter of the United Nations, and have adapted to the trend of the times – peace and development. Following the same logic, we can summarize the new international cultural order with the following basic propositions. The diversity of the world culture should be maintained – the cultural sovereignty of every national cultural community is inviolable; all cultural communities, strong or weak, big or small, shall participate in the international cultural exchange; we should strive to realize harmony in diversity and share mutual tolerance with one another. Cultural communities with a national identity should conduct dialogues and different cultures should respect each other and live in harmony in the big family of world culture. Each culture has its own 183

advantages and characteristics, cultural expansion or hegemony in any form shall be opposed. Any country should not impose its own values, ideology, and mode of development on others. We should, based on the principle of mutual learning and common prosperity, build a new international cultural order, achieving the ultimate harmony of all cultures – ―Every form of beauty has its uniqueness; precious is to appreciate other forms of beauty with openness; if beauty represents itself with diversity and integrity, the world will be blessed with harmony and unity.‖ 3.2 The General Ideas of Building New International Cultural Order To determine a rational goal for international cultural order is the fundamental premise to actively build a new international cultural order. The history of human society is a unity of regularity and intentionality; this is a fundamental point of view of the Marxism. The history of the world is not shaped by spontaneous and natural evolution. Rather, the "natural history" of mankind is shaped by his own creation. Evolution of the world cultural order is not the passive and spontaneous interaction of individual cultural units, but a process in which some realistic or ideal value goals of common pursuit are realized after a long period of world cultural interaction. These value goals can be approximately divided into realistic value goals and ultimate value goals, with the former intended to pursue the maximum of cultural interests, and the latter covering many aspects, such as the equality of different cultures and their mutual respect, the maintenance of cultural diversity and the common prosperity of different cultures,. The pursuit of every cultural unit for the realistic cultural interest goal and their interaction in this process is the main reason for the formation of a realistic international cultural order, while the ultimate value goal is leading the future development of international cultural order. Therefore, the basic track for the development of international cultural order is jointly determined by the dynamic interest competition of different cultural units and a fair and rational value guide. Based on the previous discussion of basic propositions of new international cultural order, we could summarize the basic ideas to build new international cultural order into the following three points. a. Multicultural coexistence, mutual tolerance, harmony in diversity The international community should be multipolar; the world culture should be characterized by diversity; diversity is the basic feature of human culture. The Human Progress Foundation put forward in 1994 seven principles for the future behavior of human beings, including the principle of diversity. It was pointed out that the diversity 184

of culture is the common heritage of mankind, as well as the source of a human‘s strength and wisdom to deal with all kinds of complicated situations and to meet various challenges; therefore, we must maintain this diversity.1 ―The origin of human culture is pluralistic. The world culture did not only originate in Eurasia and North Africa, but also in Central and Southern Africa and America. The cultures of all nations make their own unique contributions to the development of the world culture.2 The CPC‘s thoughts on the harmonious world provide an important theoretical source for the establishment of a new international cultural order. To build a harmonious world, we need to incorporate things with diverse nature and seek common ground while reserving differences; whereas the old international order is built based on the Western ways of thinking and is characterized by the lack of inclusiveness and rejection of diversity. At present, the root cause hindering international social peace and harmony is the lack of inclusiveness, i.e., some countries take their values and culture as the global model, resulting in various forms of cultural exclusion, ideological hostility, and the clash of civilizations. The key to realize the lasting peace and common prosperity of a harmonious world is maintaining the diversity of civilization. Hu Jintao, in his speech at Yale University, compared the relationship of ―world/diversity‖ to ―tune/notes‖ and ―picture/color‖, saying that ―one note cannot make a beautiful melody, nor can one color to portray a colorful picture.‖3 Jiang Zemin also pointed out that ―The world is colorful. Just as the universe should not only have one color, the world should not only have one civilization, one social system, one development model, one concept of value. Every country and nation has made their own contribution to the development of human culture. So we should show due respect for the diversity of different nations, different religions, and different cultures. We should, with the principle of equality and spirit of democracy, promote the mutual learning and mutual exchange between different civilizations and seek common progress.‖4 To build a new international cultural order, we should hold the spirit of ―multiculture coexistence, mutual tolerance, and harmony in diversity‖, recognize and respect the diversity of world civilization and the diversity of development models, 1 Human Progress Foundation. ―Joining Hands to Create the Future of Our Planet‖ (Chinese Version), Foreign Theoretical Trends, (1994), 19. 2 Zhaoyin Yi. History of World Culture. (East China Normal University Press, 2000), 6. 3 Jintao Hu. Speech at the Yale University. People’s Daily, (April 23, 2006). 4 Zemin Jiang. Selected Works of Jiang Zeming, vol. 3, (People‘s Publishing House, 2006), 110.

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thus codeveloping. b. Advocate dialogues and show respect to each other Establishing a constructive relationship of equal dialogue between cultures is the fundamental guarantee to the construction of a new international cultural order in the era of globalization. The concept of creating ―dialogue between cultures‖ was first put forward based on Huntington‘s ―Clash of Civilizations‖ theory, which has drawn more attention from the international society since the 9/11 incident. In September 2000, a round-table conference was held in New York and attended by many state leaders, famous scholars and thinkers, with the aim to carry out a dialogue between cultures. At the conference, the United Nations Millennium Declaration was passed, emphasizing that ―we should actively advocate the peaceful dialogue between different civilizations.‖ At the 2001 UNESCO Convention, then French president Jacques Chirac in his speech ―The Cultural Challenge for the Globalized World,‖ appealed for the equality, mutual respect, mutual exchange, and dialogue between cultures. The theme of the Ninth Francophone Summit in 2002 was ―Dialogues between Cultures.‖ The international political situation indicates that dialogue, rather than confrontation, has become an inevitable trend for international cultural communication. International relations are a platform for different concepts, forces, practices, and spirits to interact with one another. We should expand the spirit of ―peaceful coexistence‖ from international politics and economy to international culture, and advocate that different cultures could achieve mutual communication, mutual learning, and mutual understanding through dialogues. The old international order was formed in the external expansion and colonial rule of capitalist countries. They have never shown any respect for the civilization of weaker countries or paid due attention to their interests. The capitalist countries believed in the Western centrism; after the Cold War, they advocated global Westernization and cultural Americanization, which led to hegemony and power politics, hindering friendly communication between different countries, resulting in the estrangement of nations or even in mutual attack or war. History and reality have proved that only by mutually respecting on another and seeking common ground while reserving differences can we maintain the harmony and stability of the world. The war started by America under the disguise of ―freedom and democracy‖ are all behaviors to realize cultural expansion by force, attempting to destroy the ―heretic‖ culture of the conquered countries so as to promote its own ―excellent‖ culture there. 186

The essential premise for the exchange and coexistence of different cultures is peace, not war. Peaceful coexistence is a basic principle of international politics. Hoping for peace is not only suitable for interstate relationships, but also suitable for dealing with the relationships of different cultures. The conflicts of interest between countries can be settled only by political and diplomatic means; similarly, the clash of different cultures can only be resolved by dialogue. In today‘s world that is comprised of different cultures, these cultures should respect each other, and seek common ground while reserving differences, thus living together in harmony. The former UN Secretary General Boutros Boutros-Ghali once said, ―Only by exchanging ideas through continuous dialogue between countries can we promote the democratization of international relations, which is the basis for world peace.‖1 War and conflict always start in people‘s heart. If we want to promote peace and settle international disputes with peaceful solutions, we must carry out the dialogues and exchanges between cultures. c. Anti-hegemony, mutual learning, and common prosperity. A big disadvantage of the old international cultural order is that a few big cultural powers, especially America, carried out the strategy of cultural expansion and cultural hegemony, emphasizing the superiority of their own culture and falsely degrading other cultures. It should be seen that every culture has its own unique advantages, so all cultures should enhance their dialogue and mutual exchange and cooperation and seek to codevelop by learning from each other. To establish a new international cultural order, we should strongly oppose cultural hegemony and advocate mutual learning and common prosperity, instead of mutual exclusiveness. The concept of the harmonious world we have been advocating for is a powerful weapon to fight against cultural hegemony because this concept proposes dialogue between civilizations, as well as mutual learning and the harmonious coexistence of all cultures. It is against this concept if any culture ―sanctifies‖ itself and discriminates or excludes other cultures with an egoistical attitude. Nor can any country impose its own ideology and values on others. Every country has the right to choose its own social system, development path, values, and internal and external policy orientation; any country or group of countries cannot interfere or infringe for any reason.

1

Boutros Boutros-Ghali. ―International Relations should be Democratized‖ (interview). People’s Daily, (September, 14, 2001). 187

Respecting the right of every country to choose its own social system and development path according to its will is an important principle of the Charter of the United Nations, and has gradually become the guiding principle for countries with different social systems and different levels of development to establish and develop relations with each other.1 In the history of mankind, every civilization has made a positive contribution in its own way to the progress of human civilization. With differences, different cultures could make progress together through mutual learning; demanding uniformity would deprive the impetus of human culture and eventually lead to the rigidity and decline of human culture. Different civilizations should learn from each other, instead of deliberately rejecting each other. As British philosopher Bertrand Russell said, ―Contacts between different civilizations have often in the past proved to be landmarks in human progress. Greece learnt from Egypt, Rome from Greece, the Arabs from the Roman Empire, mediaeval Europe from the Arabs, and Renaissance Europe from the Byzantines.‖2 Different cultures or cultural communities actively absorb, accept and tolerate other cultures, accumulate and create new cultural elements, inject new vitality to enrich their own cultural systems, thus realizing prosperity and development of their culture systems. In the history of Chinese culture development, there are many classical cases for such cultural blending – the introduction of Buddhism, the formation of culture during the Tang Dynasty, and the times when the Western world crossed paths with China on the Silk Road. The introduction of Indian Buddhism into China promoted the development of Chinese philosophy, religion, and art. We can put it in this way, Chinese culture benefited from Indian Buddhism; at the same time, Indian Buddhism successfully developed in China, more successfully than in India. New Buddhist Sects formed in the ―sinicization‖ process of Indian Buddhism, which not only affected the development of Neoconfucianism during the Song and Ming dynasties, but also had great influence on the Korean and Japanese cultures after spreading to these countries. Obviously, the existence of culture differences became a cultural treasure. Without differences and the diversified development of cultures, the human culture would not be as colorful as it is today. We should strengthen dialogues and exchanges between civilizations, learn 1 Jintao Hu. ―Making Efforts to Build a Harmonious World with Lasting Peace and Common Prosperity,‖ People’s Daily, (September 16, 2005). 2 Bertrand Russel. The Problem of China. (George Allen & Unwin Ltd, 1966), 75.

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from each other in competition and comparison, codevelop by seeking common ground while reserving differences, eliminate misgivings and estrangements, and make the human society more harmonious, and the world more colorful. 3.3 The Basic Approaches to Building a New International Cultural Order a. To adjust the cultural diplomacy order. To build a new international cultural order, we need to build the basic rules for international cultural relations by mobilizing the international mechanism. The core of order is rule; i.e., there is no order without rule. ―To build new international cultural order, we must build and perfect a large quantity of rules related to issues of civilization.‖1 Just as the international political order cannot do without the Charter of the United Nations, international treaties and the resolutions of international organizations, as the international economic order cannot do without a WTO agreement and international trade laws and regulations, the new international cultural order also cannot do without rules. Because cultural relations are largely dependent on political and economic relations, the formulation of rules for cultural order must be based on the basic system of international law. In addition to the maintenance of international peace and security, the development of friendly relations between nations, and the constitution of the center for harmonizing the actions of nations, to promote international economic, social, and cultural cooperation is also one of the purposes of the Charter of the United Nations. The five principles of peaceful coexistence that China has long advocated have gained recognition with more and more countries. This also reflects the progress of human civilization, and provides a basis for establishing a new order of international civilization.2 It must be emphasized that, in the international rules within the framework of the Charter of the United Nations, the establishment of the principle of ―national sovereignty‖ is a fundamental premise; therefore, the foundation of the new international cultural order should be the legitimacy of ―national cultural sovereignty.‖ The Charter of the United Nations clearly stipulates the basic principle that ―national sovereignty cannot be interfered.‖ Cultural sovereignty, as an inseparable part of national sovereignty, is also confirmed by many international law documents.

25.

1

Zhongjie Li. ―How to recognize and treat the diversity of world civilizations‖, Outlook Weekly, (2005),

2

Kaijin Miu. Study of Chinese cultural diplomacy, (Doctoral thesis, Central Party School, 2006), 224. 189

In 1965, the UN General Assembly passed the Declaration of the International Laws and Principles for All Countries to Build Friendly Relations and Carry out Cooperation Based on the UN Charter, declaring that ―armed intervention or any attempt to interfere with a country‘s political, economic, or cultural affairs would be seen as violation of international law,‖ fully proving that ―national cultural sovereignty‖ is legitimate and cannot be surmounted. In 1993, at the World Conference on Human Rights in Vienna, facing the criticism of developed countries on the human right situation of Asia, the Asian countries jointly signed the Bangkok Declaration, again clearly declaring that ―any country, big or small, has its right to determine their political system, to control and freely utilize its own resources, and freely pursue its economic, social, and cultural development.,, [and that]while the issue of human rights is universal, but we should be mindful of the different characteristics of different countries or regions that resulted from their own situations and different historical, cultural, and religious backgrounds. We should look at the human rights issue according to international standards that are continuously remade.‖Developing countries have made positive efforts in opposing Western cultural hegemony and maintaining their own cultural sovereignty. b. To standardize the cultural trade order. In today‘s world, the rapid development of the cultural industry produces a cultural market that is continuously growing. The cultural industry of developed countries is taking greater account of national economy, which has become an important pillar industry. Up until now, in world‘s most developed countries, 80% of the GDP comes from service industry: the cultural industry has become America‘s number one export industry, while in Japan the revenue of culture and entertainment has exceeded that of the automobile industry. Some economists claim that the cultural industry should be listed as the fourth industry, which will become a leading industry of national economy with a big part of the market share. With the industrialization of cultural communication in all countries and the globalization of global cultural industry, multinational corporations have gradually become the main part of global cultural trade. They not only have great influence upon the global cultural industry, but also occupy an absolute monopoly. The severe imbalance of world cultural trade is one of the major characteristics of the current international cultural order, which is shown in the trend of one-side exports from developed countries to developing ones. Developed countries are the 190

exporting centers of global cultural products and cultural thoughts, which not only take the lead role in international cultural trade, but also spread modern social values to developing countries. America, the country with the world‘s biggest cultural industry sells its cultural products to every corner of the world, in the name of free trade, with purpose of huge profit in the international market, as supported by America‘s overpowering economic strength and guarded by American government‘s politics and diplomacy. Cultural products mean the export of new knowledge and new concepts. Because of the wide gap of educational, scientific, and technological development level, developing countries can hardly produce cultural products of new knowledge and high scientific and technological content, leading to their lack of competitiveness in the international cultural market. Developed countries have its advanced education and strong scientific and technological innovation capabilities that lead to a high volume content on knowledge and science and technology. As such, they naturally occupy a dominant position in the international cultural market. For mega multinational comprehensive media groups like AOL-Time Warner, Viacom, Disney, and News Corp., the rule of the game is ―freedom‖ so that they have leeway. Therefore, to realize the cultural trade balance between the North and the South, the key lies in breaking the ―law of the jungle‖ in which ―the weak are the prey of the strong‖ and ―winner takes all‖ in the old international order, and intensifying the protection and supportive development of the cultural industry in developing countries while enhancing cultural trade freedom. However, there is a serious lack of fair and rational rules in international cultural trade. The Berne Convention emphasizes on following intellectual property for cultural creation and transmission. There is no basic rule on the establishment and utilization of cultural equipment like broadcasting stations, transnational Internet crimes, and industrialization and cultural protection. In this way, a problem is to regulate the international cultural industry and cultural market, and establish fair and reasonable international cultural trade order. Since China has been admitted to the WTO, it cannot passively accept the current regulations of WTO; instead, it should participate in the making of WTO‘s system and regulations by its own efforts and influence. China should take a basic stance on the protection of cultural diversity in the world, and should strive to build a multilateral cultural trade system of openness, fairness, transparency, and participation. c. To reform the order of information transmission. ―To establish a new order of global information transmission‖ is a purpose of 191

the system of reform for global transmission that was put forward in the 1970s and widely welcomed by the Third World. The reform tries to revolt against the global transmission order dominated by America and other Western developed countries as well as their global media groups, to establish a brand new global transmission system which is more democratic, fair, and balanced, and can communicate culture and information with the transmission systems of other countries. This stems from both the dissatisfaction of Third World countries at the information imbalance and cultural invasion, and cultural imperialism caused by current and traditional global transmission order. It also arises from the concern of possible hazard to the survival of national cultural and the ecology of information, as well as the appeal and expectation of a new order of global information transmission. At the intergovernmental conference of the 16thUNESCO meeting in 1970, several representatives from developing countries first clearly mentioned the issue of imbalance in the cultural and informational transmission distribution and demanded to organize a cultural communication system that was more suitable and more balanced, lifting the curtain on the global transmission order. At the Communication Problems Meeting of Non-Aligned Countries held in Tunisia in 1976, the term of ―the new order of international journalism‖ was used for the first time. In 1978, UNESCO passed the ―Mass Media Declaration‖ which stated, ―In terms of information communication, the establishment of new balance and more interaction and communication will be in favor of maintaining fairness and lasting peace, as well as strengthening the political and economic developmental independence of developing countries. Therefore, it‘s necessary to correct the inequality of information flow between developed countries and developing countries, and inside developing countries.‖ In 1979, the ―McBride Commission‖ finished a research report delegated by UNESCO entitled ―Many Voices, One World: Communication and Society Today and Tomorrow,‖ which studies many major problems of information transmission in the international community. The 21st Conference of UNESCO in 1980 passed a resolution which approved the report of the McBride Commission, emphasized the measures needed in the future and clearly put forth the concepts and basic thoughts of establishing a ―New World Information and Communication Order.‖ Holding a series of meetings in the 1970s, UNESCO put forward a package of reform proposals aimed at breaking the current imbalance of global information transmission. It aimed to protect and promote the cultural traditions, cultural industry, and cultural 192

identification of developing countries by providing them with material and informational products, to reverse the imbalance of information and entertainment transmission, and narrowing the gap between countries rich and poor in information. Just as Belgian scholar Armand Mattelart pointed out, the debate on new world information is ―the first cry towards the imbalanced communication of images and information.‖ 1 In October 1993, Chinese representatives pointed out at the UN convention that to establish a more reasonable, efficient and fairer new order of international journalism and transmission, efforts must first go towards building a new international political and economic order. One of the main functions of the UN Department of Public Information should be establishing a new order of international journalism and transmission based on the acknowledgement of global diversity and differences between countries. With human beings stepping into a new century, media is playing a more and more critical role in economic globalization and society informatization. The cultural spirits and values of developed countries have expanded while media development in developing countries is limited by several aspects due to the relative backwardness of information technology and degree of informatization. This often puts developing countries at a weak position in international public opinion, as represented in the biased coverage in international mainstream media. So developing countries hope to ―promote the establishment of a new world transmission order that promotes objectivity, fairness, and balance, to facilitate the understanding of people from all countries, and to maintain world peace and human progress‖.2 It should be recognized that the situation of international transmission imbalance is the result of the interconnected nature among the international economy, politics, and military affairs. Some big powers of international transmission will not easily give up its vested dominant position. America has adopted ways and methods, stubbornly maintaining the old order of news transmission, and confronting and destroying the establishment of new news transmission. With the support of UNESCO, developing countries have been making unremitting efforts and put forward many concrete measures to establish a new order of global information transmission. Some 1 Weixing Chen, ed.. International Relations and Global Transmission. (Beijing: Broadcasting Institute Publishing House, 2003), 8. 2 Guoqing Wang. ―To Establish a New Order of Global Transmission‖, People’s Daily, (September 26, 2002).

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of the constructive suggestions and measures brought up by developed countries are adopted. However, the media infrastructure of information transmission in many developing countries still lags behind and no radical change has taken place. International information flow is still seriously imbalanced and international news reports are still biased. Just like in the establishment of a new international political and economic order, the establishment of a ―new order of international transmission‖ has faced many obstacles and struggles. However, the concept of ―many voices, one world‖ represents the inevitable trend of global development. We should bring international public opinion into the horizon of international security. China should include the facilitation of establishing a new order of international transmission into its international strategy system. With integrated planning and proper management, this can create a good international cultural environment for Chinese cultural security.

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Culture and Security: A Strategy for China Author: Han Yuan ISBN: 978-1-84464-452-0 EBook ISBN: 978-1-84464-453-7 Copyright © 2016 by Paths International Ltd and by Social Sciences Academic Press, China All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, translated, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying or otherwise, without the prior permission of the publisher. The copyright to this title is owned by SOCIAL SCIENCES ACADEMIC PRESS (CHINA). This book is made available internationally through an exclusive arrangement with Paths International Ltd of the United Kingdom and is only permitted for sale outside China. Paths International Ltd www.pathsinternational.com Published in United Kingdom