Cultural Diversity and Paleomobility in the Andean Middle Horizon Radiogenic Strontium Isotope Analysis in the San Pedro de Atacama Oases of Northern Chile (Tiwanaku)

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CULTURAL DIVERSITY AND PALEOMOBILITY IN THE ANDEAN MIDDLE HORIZON: RADIOGENIC STRONTIUM ISOTOPE ANALYSES IN THE SAN PEDRO DE ATACAMA OASES OF NORTHERN CHILE Kelly J. Knudson and Christina Torres-Rouff

Despite a long history of research, interactions between the Tiwanaku polity of the Andean Middle Horizon (ca. A.D. 500– 1100) and the San Pedro de Atacama oases of northern Chile remain controversial. Here, we investigate Middle Horizon interactions through an isotopic identification of the geographic origins of individuals buried in San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries and present the largest radiogenic strontium isotope dataset generated, to date, for the Andes. For individuals in Middle Horizon San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries of Casa Parroquial, Coyo Oriental, Coyo-3, Larache, Quitor-5, Solcor-3, Solcor Plaza, Solor-3, and Tchecar Túmulo Sur, mean tooth enamel and bone 87Sr/86Sr = .70834 ± .00172 (2␴, n = 273). Overall, the mean 87Sr/86Sr values from Middle Horizon San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries support the idea that interactions between Atacameños and inhabitants of other regions varied by ayllu, an Andean kin-based community structure, with some ayllus incorporating individuals with a wider variety of geographic origins than others. When our interpretations of the radiogenic strontium isotope data are contextualized with analyses of mortuary behavior and recent biodistance analyses, we argue that the San Pedro de Atacama oases appear to be have been inhabited by culturally and biologically diverse groups, rather than by large numbers of colonists from the Tiwanaku capital and the Lake Titicaca Basin.

A pesar de una larga historia de investigación, las interacciones en el Horizonte Medio Andino (ca. 500–1100 d.C.) entre los Tiwanaku y los habitantes de San Pedro de Atacama siguen siendo polémicas. En este manuscrito investigamos estas interacciones a través de la identificación isotópica de los orígenes geográficos de individuos enterrados en cementerios del Horizonte Medio en San Pedro de Atacama, y presentamos la mayor colección de datos de isótopos de estroncio generada, hasta la fecha, en los Andes. Los resultados obtenidos para los individuos de los cementerios de Casa Parroquial, Coyo Oriental, Coyo-3, Larache, Quitor-5, Solcor-3, Solcor Plaza, Solor-3, y Tchecar Túmulo Sur, muestran que el promedio 87Sr/86Sr de esmalte dental y de huesos es .70834 ± .00172 (2␴, n = 273). En general, los valores promedios de 87Sr/86Sr de los cementerios del Horizonte Medio en San Pedro de Atacama apoyan la idea de que las interacciones entre los atacameños y los habitantes de otras regiones variaron por ayllu, con algunos ayllus incorporando más individuos de otras regiones que otros. Los resultados sugieren además amplia variedad de orígenes geográficos para los individuos fuereños. Cuando nuestras interpretaciones de los datos isotópicos se contextualizan con estudios del espacio mortuorio y análisis recientes de distancias biológicas, sostenemos que los oasis de San Pedro de Atacama parecen haber sido habitados por una población local con apenas una pequeña contribución de individuos cultural y biológicamente diversos. Los nuevos datos favorecen la idea de que no hubo un gran número de colonos de la capital de Tiwanaku y la de cuenca del lago Titicaca en los oasis atacameños, a pesar del impacto cultural que esa cultura tuvo en el desarrollo local.

D

uring the Middle Horizon (ca. A.D. 500– 1100), Tiwanaku-style material culture was found throughout the south-central Andes. The complex organization at the capital site of Tiwanaku and its surrounding settlement system in Bolivia’s Lake Titicaca Basin are well studied (Janusek 2008; Kolata 1993, 1996, 2003).

However, the multifaceted interactions between the Tiwanaku polity and Tiwanaku-affiliated sites are quite variable, ranging from diasporic colonies in southern Peru (Goldstein 2005) to more ephemeral relationships in northern Chile (Torres-Rouff 2008). The San Pedro de Atacama oases of northern

Kelly J. Knudson 䡲 School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287 USA ([email protected]) Christina Torres-Rouff 䡲 Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueológicas y Museo, Universidad Católica del Norte, San Pedro de Atacama, Chile, and Department of Anthropology, University of California, Merced, Merced, CA 95343 USA ([email protected]) Latin American Antiquity 25(2), 2014, pp. 170–188 Copyright © 2014 by the Society for American Archaeology 170

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Figure 1. Map of the San Pedro de Atacama oases with Middle Horizon cemeteries indicated.

Chile (Figure 1) comprised a number of thriving residential and mortuary sites important in the vast trade networks that linked the oases to the Titicaca Basin and Tiwanaku polity and to smaller societies in northwestern Argentina and elsewhere. Located at 2,500 m-asl, the San Pedro de Atacama oases are one of the few places in the hyper-arid Atacama Desert with available water

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sources and conditions appropriate for agriculture (Boschetti et al. 2007; Houston 2006a; Hubbe et al. 2012; Magaritz et al. 1990). Perhaps not surprisingly, given the importance of the water sources, the San Pedro de Atacama oases have an occupation history that spans more than two thousand years (Hubbe and Torres-Rouff 2013). During the Middle Horizon, the San Pedro de

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Figure 2. Mortuary objects, including local goods and a Tiwanaku-style snuff tablet, from Solcor-3 (99) (photo by Constantino M. Torres).

Atacama oases were an important way station providing food and water in the Atacama Desert (Stanish 2003). In addition, there is ample evidence of trade and exchange of metal ores (Lechtman and Macfarlane 2005, 2006) and the presence of Tiwanaku-style ceramics (Stovel 2001), textiles (Oakland Rodman 1992), wooden snuff tablets (Torres 1987), and pyroengraved bone artifacts (Figures 2–4). Tiwanaku-style artifacts in San Pedro de Atacama were initially interpreted as evidence of colonists (Kolata 1993; Oakland Rodman 1992). Subsequently, scholars have argued that local populations manipulated their cultural affiliation and adopted aspects of Tiwanaku material culture (Knudson 2008; Knudson and Blom 2009; Knudson and Price 2007; Torres and Conklin 1995; Torres-Rouff 2008, 2009). Here, we investigate interactions between the Tiwanaku polity and the San Pedro de Atacama oases through an isotopic identification of the geographic origins of individuals buried in San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries. We first summarize recent scholarship on the San Pedro de Atacama oases during the Middle Horizon. After introducing radiogenic strontium isotope studies in the Andes, including baseline 87 Sr/86Sr values in the south-central Andes and likely sources for bioavailable strontium in northern Chile, we present the largest radiogenic strontium isotope dataset generated to date for the Andes. This includes radiogenic strontium isotope data from archaeological human tooth enamel and bone from the following Middle Horizon cemeteries: Casa Parroquial, Coyo Oriental, Coyo-3, Larache, Quitor-5, Solcor-3, Solcor

Figure 3. Tiwanaku-style wooden snuff tablet from Quitor-5 (2189) (photo by Constantino M. Torres).

Plaza, Solor-3, and Tchecar Túmulo Sur. In the discussion, we contextualize our interpretations of the radiogenic strontium isotope data with analyses of mortuary behavior and recent biodistance analyses. Combining these multiple datasets reveals evidence that the San Pedro de Atacama oases appear to have been inhabited by culturally and biologically diverse groups, rather than by large numbers of colonists from the Tiwanaku capital and the Lake Titicaca Basin. The San Pedro de Atacama Oases During the Andean Middle Horizon

Previous research on the Middle Horizon in the San Pedro de Atacama oases has focused on mortuary investigations at a number of different cemeteries. Earlier researchers focused on the presence of Tiwanaku-style material culture, particularly textiles and hallucinogenic snuff kits, in a number of Middle Horizon mortuary contexts. For example, Oakland Rodman’s (1992, 1994) detailed textile analysis identified a number of Tiwanaku-style textiles in the cemetery of Coyo Oriental. Similarly, Tiwanaku-style snuff kits, ceramics, and basketry are present in San Pedro de

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Figure 4. Tiwanaku-style pyroengraved bone from Solcor3 (113).

Atacama mortuary contexts (Llagostera 1995, 2006; Llagostera et al. 1988; Stovel 2001, 2008; Torres 1985, 2001; Torres-Rouff 2008; Uribe and Agüero 2001). Based on the presence of Tiwanaku-style material culture, a number of researchers have argued that San Pedro de Atacama was inhabited at least in part by Tiwanaku colonists from the Lake Titicaca Basin (Benavente et al. 1986; Berenguer and Dauelsberg 1988; Kolata 1993; Oakland Rodman 1992; Varela and Cocilovo 2000). For example, based on the presence of the aforementioned Tiwanakustyle textiles alongside Atacameño textiles, Oakland Rodman (1992:336) argued that “there were most likely many people physically present whose original home was the Bolivian altiplano.” However, as more analyses have resulted from recent archaeological work in the oases, this perspective has faded in prominence. Interactions Between Atacameños and Polities Throughout the South-Central Andes

Recent research has emphasized the diversity in material culture styles present in San Pedro de Atacama during the Middle Horizon. Tiwanakustyle artifacts— including textiles, ceramics, and snuffing paraphernalia—represent a small proportion of the artifact assemblages from the oases (see discussions in Goldstein and Rivera 2005; Stovel 2008; Torres-Rouff 2008; Uribe and Agüero 2001). Importantly, there is also evidence

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for snuff kits, ceramics, and textiles from northwestern Argentina and other parts of Bolivia, including Cochabamba, as well as neighboring areas in northern Chile (Conklin and Conklin 2007; Llagostera et al. 1988; Stovel 2008; Torres-Rouff 2008). Diversity in material culture found in the oases is reflected both in style and in source material. For example, in addition to the presence of artifacts from northwestern Argentina in the San Pedro de Atacama oases, there is also evidence of cultural connections from northern Chile in northwestern Argentina, including snuffing paraphernalia (Pochettino et al. 1999). Moreover, recent analyses of the wood used in snuff tablets reflect a number of different sources, including some near San Pedro de Atacama, but others from the Lake Titicaca Basin and northwestern Argentina (Niemeyer 2013), and the hallucinogenic snuff (Anadenanthera colubrina) itself likely came from northwestern Argentina (Torres and Repke 2006; Torres et al. 1991). Similarly, the sources of metal ores used in mortuary objects excavated in San Pedro de Atacama were variable (Lechtman 2003; Lechtman and Macfarlane 2005; Lechtman and Macfarlane 2006). For example, while most Middle Horizon axes excavated in the San Pedro de Atacama oases were made from ternary bronze alloy, likely from ore sources south of the Lake Titicaca Basin, some bronze artifacts likely contained ores from northwestern Argentina or northern Chile (Lechtman 2003; Lechtman and Macfarlane 2005; Lechtman and Macfarlane 2006). Incorporating multiple lines of evidence both within and outside of the San Pedro de Atacama oases, it is clear that the oases served as an important site in the vast Middle Horizon trade and exchange networks crossing the south-central Andes. In contrast to the colonization model previously discussed, Llagostera (1996) posits that, during the Middle Horizon, San Pedro de Atacama functioned as a node for the movement of people and goods across the Atacama Desert. At least some of this exchange involved llama caravans associated with the Tiwanaku polity (Janusek 2004; Stanish 2003; Stanish et al. 2010). Regardless of the nature of the relationships between Atacameños and other polities in the southcentral Andes, the Middle Horizon in San Pedro de Atacama is characterized by diversity in ma-

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terial culture, as well as archaeological and bioarchaeological indicators of population variability and emerging hierarchies (Berenguer 2000; Hubbe et al. 2012; Llagostera 1996; Sutter 2009; Torres-Rouff 2008, 2011; Varela and Cocilovo 2000). An Introduction to the Middle Horizon Cemeteries of Casa Parroquial, Larache, Quitor-5, Solcor-3, Solcor Plaza, Solor-3, and Tchecar Túmulo Sur

In this manuscript, we focus on the cemeteries of Casa Parroquial, Larache, Quitor-5, Solcor-3, Solcor Plaza, Solor-3, and Tchecar Túmulo Sur (Figure 1). These nine cemeteries span the Middle Horizon (Hubbe and Torres-Rouff 2013), yet there is increasing evidence for diversity within and between the Middle Horizon cemeteries in San Pedro de Atacama. Spatial variability is present in the physical location of each cemetery and its association with a different ayllu in the present and likely the past; here, we use the term ayllu to refer to an Andean kin-based community structure that incorporates lineage, geography, and sociopolitical groups (e.g., Abercrombie 1998). For example, while some cemeteries, such as Solcor and Larache, are located more centrally in the core of the oases closer to the San Pedro River, other cemeteries, such as Coyo and Solor, are located in more distant areas. The spatial patterning may reflect group-level differences in the oases, since there is also variability between cemeteries in the material culture present in burials. For example, the cemetery of Larache is associated with Tiwanaku-style gold keros, or drinking vessels, and has been identified as one of the “wealthiest” cemeteries in San Pedro de Atacama (Barón 2004; Benavente et al. 1986; Berenguer and Dauelsberg 1988; Kolata 1993; Tamblay 2004; Varela and Cocilovo 2000). The cemetery of Casa Parroquial is also known for its quantities of Tiwanaku-style gold objects, although the small mortuary collections available are, unfortunately, not well provenienced. However, biological distance studies have demonstrated that the individuals buried at Casa Parroquial share closer biological ties with Lake Titicaca Basin populations than other San Pedro de Atacama populations (Sutter 2009). As at Casa Parroquial, the Solcor cemeteries contain relatively large

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quantities of high-status mortuary objects, leading some researchers to argue that individuals buried there held an advantageous position in the oases (Bravo and Llagostera 1986; Llagostera et al. 1988). All of these cemeteries are located in the core of the oases (Figure 1). In contrast, the cemeteries of Coyo-3 and Coyo Oriental are located south of the main core of the oases (Figure 1). Similarly, Solor-3 and Tchecar Túmulo Sur are located in the south, while Quitor5 is located at the northern edge of the oasis (Figure 1). The mortuary assemblages at these sites vary, and generally include relatively small numbers of high status and/or non-local objects compared to the cemeteries of Larache, Solcor, and Casa Parroquial (Cocilovo and Zavattieri 1994; Costa and Llagostera 1994; Llagostera et al. 1988; Torres-Rouff 2008). Diversity within ayllus and individual cemeteries is also present during the Middle Horizon. For example, within the present-day Solcor ayllu, individuals buried in the cemeteries of Solcor-3 and Solcor Plaza had differential access to highstatus mortuary objects, as well as cemetery-specific differences in cranial modification styles, traumatic injury, paleodiet, and geographic origins (Nado et al. 2012; Torres-Rouff 2011). These patterns may reflect such things as differences in social standing or eliteness or perhaps kin or labor relations to distant groups. Here, we use a contextualized radiogenic strontium isotope analysis to better understand relationships between the San Pedro de Atacama oases and the Tiwanaku polity, incorporating recent research on variability within and between cemeteries in the oases. Radiogenic Strontium Isotope Analysis in the Andes

Radiogenic strontium isotope data (87Sr/86Sr) vary geologically and can be used to examine paleomobility in archaeological human remains (see discussions in Bentley 2006; Knudson et al. 2010; Slovak and Paytan 2011). Briefly, bioavailable strontium is incorporated into human tissues during enamel and bone formation, so that if “local” strontium is consumed and/or imbibed, the 87 Sr/86Sr values will reflect the geologic region or regions in which that individual lived during enamel and bone formation. Radiogenic strontium

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isotope data have documented paleomobility in a number of regions and polities of the Andes, including the Nasca (Buzon et al. 2012; Conlee et al. 2009; Knudson et al. 2009), Tiwanaku (Knudson 2007, 2008, 2011; Knudson and Blom 2009; Knudson and Price 2007; Knudson et al. 2004; Knudson et al. 2005), Wari (Knudson and Tung 2011; Slovak et al. 2009; Tung and Knudson 2008, 2010, 2011), and Inka (Andrushko et al. 2011; Andrushko et al. 2009; Knudson, Gardella, and Yaeger 2012; Turner et al. 2009). Baseline Radiogenic Strontium Isotope Values in the South-Central Andes: Geologic Data

The south-central Andes exhibit the geologic variability necessary for the successful application of radiogenic strontium isotope analysis to questions of paleomobility. In particular, the geologic region in which San Pedro de Atacama is situated is composed largely of Cenozoic volcanic rocks, namely andesites (Hawkesworth et al. 1982; James 1982; O’Callaghan and Francis 1986; Rogers and Hawkesworth 1989). In the region, exposed bedrock samples exhibit mean 87Sr/86Sr = .70646 ± .00020 (1␴, n = 8) (Rogers and Hawkesworth 1989) and 87Sr/86Sr = .70653 ± .00036 (1␴, n = 16) (Francis et al. 1977). In addition, one water sample from Río San Pedro exhibited 87Sr/86Sr = .70746 (Boschetti et al. 2007). The neighboring altiplano has much higher 87 Sr/86Sr values than San Pedro de Atacama (Coudrain et al. 2002; Grove et al. 2003; Placzek et al. 2011). The Lake Titicaca Basin consists of alluvial deposits and Paleozoic andesites, sandstones, and red mudstones (Argollo et al. 1996). Surface water samples from Lake Titicaca exhibit 87 Sr/86Sr = .70834 ± .00013 (1␴, n = 3) (Grove et al. 2003) and 87Sr/86Sr = .70834 (Coudrain et al. 2002). Similar values are found in surface water and groundwater from other areas that drain water from the Western Cordillera of the Andes, including the Salar de Uyuni and the Salar de Coipasa (Coudrain et al. 2002; Placzek et al. 2011). However, to the south and east of the Lake Titicaca Basin, altiplano water sources ultimately come from the Eastern Cordillera; for example, water from Lake Poopó in the southern Bolivian altiplano exhibits 87Sr/86Sr = .71404 to 87Sr/86Sr = .718372 (Grove et al. 2003; Placzek et al. 2011). Continuing south, the region of northwestern Ar-

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gentina that is adjacent to the San Pedro de Atacama oases exhibits a mixture of Cenozoic volcanic rocks such as andesites and Quaternary sedimentary formations. Data from andesites in Cerro Galán exhibit 87Sr/86Sr = .70852 and 87Sr/86Sr = .70953 (Francis et al. 1980). Finally, in the loweraltitude zones to the east of the altiplano, the Cochabamba Valley is composed of Quaternary sedimentary rocks and Ordovician sandstones and siltstones overlain by alluvial deposits (Stimson et al. 2001); radiogenic strontium isotope analyses have not yet been undertaken on geologic or water samples from the Cochabamba area. Baseline Radiogenic Strontium Isotope Values in the South-Central Andes: Faunal Data

While radiogenic strontium isotope values in exposed bedrock are a useful way to begin to understand geologic variability and the suitability of isotopic paleomobility studies, examining bioavailable strontium enables researchers to more accurately identify “local” signatures (Bentley 2006; Price et al. 2002). Modern and archaeological faunal samples, particularly from small mammals with limited ranges, give a useful estimate of the radiogenic strontium isotope values that would be expected in individuals consuming strontium from that geologic region (Bentley et al. 2004; Evans and Tatham 2004; Price et al. 2002). Bioavailable radiogenic strontium isotope values in local modern and archaeological small mammal samples from San Pedro de Atacama exhibited mean 87Sr/86Sr = .70764 ± .00013 (1␴, n = 3) (Knudson and Price 2007). In contrast, modern faunal samples exhibit mean 87Sr/86Sr = .70963 ± .00028 (1␴, n = 8) in the northern altiplano’s Lake Titicaca Basin (Knudson and Price 2007). In the Cochabamba Valley of Bolivia, local modern and archaeological small mammal samples from the archaeological site of Piñami exhibit mean 87Sr/86Sr = .72148 ± .00162 (1␴, n = 4) (Lucas 2012). Finally, in the southern altiplano near Lake Poopó, modern faunal samples exhibit higher radiogenic strontium isotope values, such as 87Sr/86Sr = .7014 (Knudson et al. 2005). Modern and/or archaeological radiogenic strontium isotope baseline data are not yet available from northwestern Argentina and will be a fruitful area for future research.

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Bioavailable Strontium Sources in the South-Central Andes

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The San Pedro de Atacama oases are agriculturally fertile, with reliable drinking water sources, and they most likely supplied the dietary strontium consumed and imbibed by the individuals who lived there during the Middle Horizon. Biogeochemical and botanical paleodietary analyses from earlier Formative period (1500 B.C.–500 A.D.) sites in the Atacama Desert demonstrate a reliance on algarrobo (Prosopis spp.), with some access to marine fish, likely as individuals traveled to the coast (Knudson, Pestle et al. 2012; Torres-Rouff et al. 2012). However, isotopic paleodietary research at Middle Horizon sites in San Pedro de Atacama is ongoing, so we turn to the available botanical and faunal remains from San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries to help reconstruct paleodiet and likely strontium sources during the Middle Horizon. Botanical remains from cemeteries in the oases are dominated by algarrobo (Prosopis spp.), with smaller amounts of maize (Zea mays) and chañar (Geoffrea decorticans) (Costa 1988). Faunal remains from mortuary contexts include camelids (Lama glama and/or Vicugna pacos) (Costa 1988). It is probable that the greatest contributions to dietary strontium in individuals from the area would have been highcalcium terrestrial plants; while camelids were likely consumed, the meat would contribute very little strontium to the total diet, given its low strontium concentrations. The salt consumed was likely from local sources near the oases, or possibly from the surrounding highlands, such as Gran Salinas in northwestern Argentina or the Salar de Uyuni in Bolivia. However, there is very little evidence for the consumption of marine products in San Pedro de Atacama itself, which would exhibit 87Sr/86Sr = .7092 (Veizer 1989). Finally, water sources in San Pedro de Atacama are generally derived from a large and isotopically homogeneous groundwater aquifer system and from rivers and streams that carry precipitation from higher altitudes (Boschetti et al. 2007; Houston 2006a, 2006b; Magaritz et al. 1990; Nester et al. 2007).

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Definitions of “Local” and “Non-Local” Values

One of the important challenges for scholars using biogeochemical techniques to better understand paleomobility is distinguishing “local” individuals from “non-locals” (Knudson 2011). There are a growing number of complementary approaches that can be used to define the “local” radiogenic strontium isotope signature for a given geologic zone or zones. As previously discussed, small archaeological and/or modern mammals can give a very good sense of the 87Sr/86Sr values in bioavailable strontium in a given region. Defining the “local” range as the mean 87Sr/86Sr value of small mammal samples and adding and subtracting two standard deviations generally gives a large, and conservative, “local” range (Bentley et al. 2004; Evans and Tatham 2004; Price et al. 2002). Using this definition, the “local” range in the San Pedro de Atacama oases is 87Sr/86Sr = .7074–.7079 (Knudson and Price 2007). In contrast, the “local” range for the southeastern Lake Titicaca Basin, the area around the site of Tiwanaku, is 87Sr/86Sr = .7087–.7105 (Knudson and Price 2007). Descriptive statistics can also be used to evaluate the extent of a “local” population, since one population consuming the same strontium source or sources would be expected to exhibit normally distributed 87Sr/86Sr values (Wright 2005). Therefore, a population that contains outlying “nonlocal” values would be non-normally distributed, and removing the proposed “non-local” values would give a more normally distributed population (Wright 2005). More recently, Tung and Knudson (2011) proposed an examination of the natural breaks in a dataset as a way of separating “locals” from “non-locals.” When the difference between adjacent radiogenic strontium isotope values, arranged in ascending order, is calculated, one would expect to see the biggest difference between the “local” population and any outlying “non-locals” (Tung and Knudson 2011). By using multiple, independent, and complementary definitions of “local” ranges, a more clear identification of the “non-local” individuals in a population can be obtained (Knudson 2011).

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Materials and Methods

Here, we analyze the Middle Horizon cemeteries of Casa Parroquial (MNI = 22), Larache (MNI = 50), Quitor-5 (MNI = 181), Solcor Plaza (MNI = 78), Solor-3 (MNI = 75), and Tchecar Túmulo Sur (MNI = 202). We also collected additional samples from the previously analyzed cemeteries of Coyo Oriental, Coyo-3, and Solcor-3 (Knudson and Price 2007). For each cemetery, at least 15 percent of the mortuary population was randomly selected for inclusion. When possible, multiple enamel and bone samples forming at different times during life were collected in order to understand changes in paleomobility throughout the life course (Supplemental Tables 1 and 2). At the Archaeological Chemistry Laboratory at Arizona State University (ASU), samples were mechanically and chemically cleaned with a series of weak acetic acid washes to reduce diagenetic contamination (Nielsen-Marsh and Hedges 2000; Price et al. 1992; Sillen and LeGros 1991). Strontium was separated from the sample matrix using EiChrom SrSpec crown-ether resin. Samples were analyzed using a Thermo-Finnigan multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS) in the ASU W.M. Keck Foundation Laboratory for Environmental Biogeochemistry, where recent analyses of SRM987 yielded 87Sr/86Sr = .71029 ± .00003 (2␴, n = 10). A subset of samples was analyzed for major, minor, and trace elemental concentrations to assess the degree of diagenetic contamination in the dataset. Approximately 10 mg of tooth enamel powder or chemically cleaned bone ash were dissolved in .64 ml of 5 M HNO3, and diluted with 9.36 ml of Millipore H2O. These data were generated using a Thermo-Finnigan quadrupole inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer (QICP-MS) in the ASU W.M. Keck Foundation Laboratory for Environmental Biogeochemistry, where mean Ca/P = 2.18 ± .01 (2␴, n = 5) for ACL standard CUE-0001. Results from Biogeochemical Analyses

For individuals in Middle Horizon San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries, mean enamel and bone 87 Sr/86Sr = .70834 ± .00172 (2␴, n = 273) (Supplemental Tables 1 and 2). By cemetery, mean

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data (all 2␴) are as follows: Casa Parroquial Sr/86Sr = .70835 ± .00175 (n = 36), Coyo Oriental 87 Sr/86Sr = .70771 ± .00024 (n = 17), Coyo-3 87 Sr/86Sr = .70765 ± .00023 (n = 18), Larache 87 Sr/86Sr = .70986 ± .00335 (n = 38), Quitor-5 87 Sr/86Sr = .70790 ± .00049 (n = 29), Solcor Plaza 87 Sr/86Sr = .70837 ± .00123 (n = 16), Solcor-3 87 Sr/86Sr = .70820 ± .00077 (n = 40), Solor-3 87 Sr/86Sr = .70864 ± .00205 (n = 20), Tchecar Túmulo Sur 87Sr/86Sr = .70796 ± .00072 (n = 59) (Table 1). A subset of samples were analyzed for major, minor, and trace elemental concentrations in order to better understand diagenetic contamination; for these samples, mean Ca/P = 2.14 ± .05 (2␴, n = 29). 87

Discussion

Evidence for Biogenic Data from San Pedro de Atacama

To date, no diagenetic contamination has been identified in archaeological human enamel or bone from San Pedro de Atacama (Knudson and Price 2007). In addition to the major, minor, and trace elemental concentration data generated for previously published datasets (Knudson and Price 2007), we generated new data for a subset of samples (Table 2). Since mean Ca/P = 2.14 ± .05 (2␴, n = 29), which is similar to biogenic bone and enamel where Ca/P = 2.1, we argue that there is no evidence for diagenetic contamination in the San Pedro de Atacama cemetery samples analyzed here. This is perhaps not surprising, given the extreme aridity, where many human remains are naturally mummified and organic preservation is excellent, although site hydrology is not the only factor in diagenetic contamination. Additionally, as discussed above, dietary strontium sources are likely local to the oases. Therefore, we interpret radiogenic strontium isotope data from archaeological human remains in San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries as reflecting geographic origins. Radiogenic Strontium Isotope Data from San Pedro de Atacama and Definitions of “Local” vs. “Non-Local” Values

As mentioned above, the “local” range in San Pedro de Atacama is 87Sr/86Sr = .7074–.7079

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Table 1. Comparison of Mean Radiogenic Strontium Isotope Data from Middle Horizon Cemeteries in San Pedro de Atacama, Chile.

Site Casa Parroquial Coyo Oriental Coyo-3 Larache Quitor-5 Solcor Plaza Solcor-3 Solor-3 Tchecar Túmulo Sur

Mean 87Sr/86Sr .70835 .70771 .70765 .70986 .70790 .70837 .70820 .70864 .70796

Standard Deviation (2σ) .00175 .00024 .00023 .00335 .00049 .00123 .00077 .00205 .00072

Number of Samples 36 17 18 38 29 16 40 20 59

Table 2. Elemental Concentration Data from Middle Horizon Cemeteries in San Pedro de Atacama, Chile.

Laboratory Number Quitor-5 ACL-2413 ACL-2420 ACL-2424 ACL-2426 ACL-2431 ACL-2432 ACL-2434 ACL-2435 ACL-2441

Specimen Number QT5-2246 QT5-3346 QT5-2006 QT5-2171 QT5-2070 QT5-1978 QT5-2154 QT5-SN9647 QT5-2164

Material ULM2 URM1 URM1 URM3 URM1 URM2 URM3 URM1 URM1

Ca/P 2.2 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.1 2.2 2.2 2.2 2.2

Solor-3 ACL-1851 SO3-0912 ULM1 2.1 ACL-1855 SO3-0913 ULM1 2.1 ACL-1862 SO3-0915 LLP3 2.1 ACL-1846 SO3-0922 ULM1 2.1 ACL-1856 SO3-0931 ULP3 2.1 ACL-1853 SO3-0940 ULP3 2.1 ACL-1861 SO3-0943 ULM1 2.2 ACL-1860 SO3-0960 ULM1 2.2 ACL-1854 SO3-0978 URP3 2.1 ACL-1857 SO3-0998 URM2 2.1 ACL-1859 SO3-1018 ULM2 2.1 ACL-1844 SO3-1036 ULM1 2.1 ACL-1845 SO3-1039 URM2 2.2 ACL-1858 SO3-1096 URP4 2.1 ACL-1852 SO3-1191 ULM1 2.1 ACL-1863 SO3-3269 LLM1 2.2 ACL-1848 SO3-4837 ULM2 2.1 ACL-1850 SO3-4839 ULP3 2.1 ACL-1847 SO3-4840 ULM1 2.1 ACL-1849 SO3-4841 ULP4 2.1 Note: Each unique specimen number refers to one individual, while each unique laboratory number refers to the specific dental and/or skeletal elements analyzed from each individual.

(Knudson and Price 2007) based on modern and archaeological faunal samples (Evans and Tatham 2004; Price et al. 2002). Using this definition of “local” range, 95 of our enamel and/or bone sam-

ples (95/273 or 34.8 percent) are “non-local.” It is important to note, however, that this percentage is artificially high, as it does not distinguish between data just outside the “local” range, varying

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Figure 5. Radiogenic strontium isotope data from early-forming enamel samples, arranged in ascending order from Middle Horizon cemeteries in San Pedro de Atacama, Chile.

Figure 6. Radiogenic strontium isotope data from third molar and bone samples, arranged in ascending order from Middle Horizon cemeteries in San Pedro de Atacama, Chile.

in the fourth or fifth decimal place, and data points that are clearly distinct from the San Pedro de Atacama oases, exhibiting variability in the second or third decimal place. When the difference between adjacent radiogenic strontium isotope values, arranged in ascending order, is calculated (Tung and Knudson 2011), the largest differences are in the third decimal place, and all occur in samples that exhibit 87Sr/86Sr = .709 or higher (Figures 5, 6). This suggests that, in our case, it is more meaningful to identify the individuals with very high radiogenic strontium isotope values as “non-locals,” while individuals who exhibit values just above the “non-local” range determined through faunal samples may or may not be “non-local” to the region. Finally, following Wright (2005), we assume that a “local” population should exhibit normally distributed radiogenic strontium isotope values if consuming strontium from the same sources. When examining descriptive statistics for the entire dataset and a trimmed dataset that excludes radiogenic strontium isotope values above the largest break in

the data, the entire dataset is more variable than the trimmed dataset (Table 3). Removing outliers with the highest radiogenic strontium isotope values results in a more normally distributed trimmed dataset (Supplemental Table 2). While the dataset shows that the vast majority of individuals exhibit radiogenic strontium isotope values consistent with time spent in San Pedro de Atacama during enamel and/or bone formation, there are a small number of interesting outliers or “non-locals,” which we discuss below. Geographic Origins and Paleomobility in San Pedro de Atacama

Despite the general homogeneity of the radiogenic strontium isotope dataset from the San Pedro de Atacama oases, there are a small number of individuals who clearly moved between different geologic zones during enamel and bone formation. For example, individual CAP-0002 exhibited a “local” bone value (ACL-0052, 87 Sr/86Sr = .70757), while second molar and premolar enamel samples were clearly “non-local”

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Table 3. Descriptive Statistics for Radiogenic Strontium Isotope Data from Middle Horizon Cemeteries in San Pedro de Atacama, Chile.

Statistic Entire Dataset Mean .70834 Standard Deviation .00172 Number of Samples 273 Minimum .70685 Maximum .72046 Variance 2.96E-06 Coefficient of Variation .00243 Skewness 3.838 Skewnesss Standard Error .147 Kurtosis 19.086 Kurtosis Standard Error .291 Median .70781

Trimmed Dataset .70787 .00031 249 .70685 .70912 9.80E-08 .00044 1.499 .153 6.831 .304 .70778

(ACL-0050, 87Sr/86Sr = .71434 and ACL-0051, 87 Sr/86Sr = .71456) (Knudson 2011). This young adult male lived in a geologic zone or zones with much higher radiogenic strontium isotope values, possibly the southern altiplano (Knudson and Torres-Rouff 2009; Knudson et al. 2005), for at least his first approximately seven years. This individual then likely lived in the oases for the last years of his life. A similar pattern of mobility is seen in adult female CAP-0014. Adult males LAR-0358, LAR-0360, LAR-0390, and LARS/N(10753) also exhibit enamel radiogenic strontium isotope values that are consistent with those from the southern altiplano (Supplemental Tables 1 and 2). While not necessarily entirely affiliated with the Tiwanaku polity, the southern altiplano contains metal ores and salt sources, as well as smaller archaeological sites that may have been contact points for Atacameños. Finally, one individual, LAR-0221, exhibits a very high radiogenic strontium isotope value (ACL-0159, 87 Sr/86Sr = .72046) that is consistent with 87Sr/86Sr values from the Cochabamba region (Lucas 2012). This is particularly interesting given the strong Tiwanaku presence in Cochabamba (e.g., Anderson 2009; Caballero 1984; Higueras-Hare 2001; Varela et al. 2008) and the Cochabamba Tiwanaku-style ceramics present in San Pedro de Atacama (Uribe and Agüero 2001). Interestingly, the only individuals with enamel radiogenic strontium isotope values consistent with origins in, or movement between, the southern altiplano and the San Pedro de Atacama oases

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were buried in the cemeteries of Casa Parroquial, Larache, and Solor-3 (SO3-3269). In these cemeteries, as well as Quitor-5, Solcor-3, Solcor Plaza, and Tchecar Túmulo Sur, a small number of individuals are present with radiogenic strontium isotope values that are within the “local” Lake Titicaca Basin range, defined as 87Sr/86Sr = .7087– .7105 based on modern faunal samples (Knudson and Price 2007). This was not true for a previous, substantially smaller, dataset where no individuals were identified as having radiogenic strontium isotope values within the Lake Titicaca “local” range (Knudson 2008). Should these new data points be interpreted as evidence that there were immigrants from the Tiwanaku heartland physically present in San Pedro de Atacama? One possibility is that some individuals (CAP-0022, LAR-0116, QT5-2185, QT5-2171, SCP-0625, SCP-2938, SCP-2940, SC3-006(1080), SC3-0097, SO3-0978, SO31191, SO3-3269) lived in the Lake Titicaca Basin during enamel formation and moved to the oases later in life, based on “local” bone values and/or burial in the San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries. These individuals may have accompanied the vast trading caravans that linked the south-central Andes during the Middle Horizon. In particular, adult males TCH-0849 and TCH-1115 exhibit higher radiogenic strontium isotope values in later-forming enamel or bone, and may have lived in the oases during their first years of life yet spent their teen years in or moving between the Lake Titicaca Basin and the oases, a pattern that would be consistent with the growth of the caravan trade at this time. Other individuals with “non-local” radiogenic strontium isotope values may also reflect movement between the San Pedro de Atacama oases and the Lake Titicaca Basin or other regions with higher radiogenic strontium isotope values. For example, individual CAP-0010 may have moved between these two regions during early enamel formation, as evidenced by higher radiogenic strontium isotope values in a second molar and second premolar, yet spent more time in the San Pedro de Atacama oases during the first years of life and late teen years, as evidenced by first and third molar values. We may be seeing similar averaging effects and paleomobility in a series of individuals from Quitor-5, Solcor Plaza, Solcor-

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3, Solor-3, and Tchecar Túmulo Sur. However, it is also possible that the individuals with radiogenic strontium isotope values between approximately 87Sr/86Sr = .708 and 87Sr/86Sr = .710 may have moved between other geologic regions in the south-central Andes and do not have ties to the Lake Titicaca Basin. For example, andesites examined near Cerro Galán in northwest Argentina, approximately 200 km from San Pedro de Atacama, Chile, exhibited 87Sr/86Sr = .70852 and 87Sr/86Sr = .70953 (Francis et al. 1980). Finally, despite the presence of small numbers of individuals with “non-local” radiogenic strontium isotope values in all of the new cemeteries examined here (Casa Parroquial, Larache, Quitor5, Solcor-3, Solcor Plaza, Solor-3, and Tchecar Túmulo Sur), there is evidence that certain cemeteries exhibited greater variability in geographic origins (Table 1). The most variability in 87Sr/86Sr values is seen in the cemetery of Larache, where mean 87Sr/86Sr = .70986 ± .00335 (n = 38). Interestingly, while some individuals buried at Larache had greater access to gold objects, there was no clear relationship between “non-local” 87Sr/86Sr values and the presence of “non-local” mortuary objects. The least variable cemeteries, in terms of radiogenic strontium isotope values, were Coyo Oriental (mean 87Sr/86Sr = .70771 ± .00024 (n = 17) and Coyo-3 (mean 87Sr/86Sr = .70765 ± .00023 (n = 18), sites where we have not detected outliers, based on radiogenic strontium isotope values. Overall, the mean 87Sr/86Sr values from Middle Horizon San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries support the idea that interactions between Atacameños and inhabitants of other regions varied by community, with some groups in the oases incorporating individuals with a wider variety of geographic origins than others. Based on the present and historic distribution of ayllus in the San Pedro de Atacama oases, we would argue that the Middle Horizon cemeteries may have been associated with ayllus and that variability in interactions throughout the south-central Andes was ayllu-specific. This interpretation is supported by biodistance analyses of individuals buried in the San Pedro de Atacama oases as well, which point to biological diversity during the Middle Horizon (Sutter 2009; Torres-Rouff et al. 2013).

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When only one early-forming tooth, such as a first molar, canine, or premolar, from each individual is included, mean 87Sr/86Sr = .70850 ± .00202 (2␴, n = 132) (Figure 5). In contrast, when only later-forming third molars and bone samples are included, mean 87Sr/86Sr = .70820 ± .00129 (2␴, n = 64) (Figure 6). When comparing radiogenic strontium isotope values from early-forming and late-forming elements, there is no statistically significant difference (t = 1.97, df = 179, p = .22). Therefore, there is no evidence that individuals were more mobile in the first years of life compared to the last years of life in the population as a whole, or that they had significantly different geographic origins, despite burial in the San Pedro de Atacama oases. If the San Pedro de Atacama oases were a colony of the Tiwanaku polity, in concert with archaeological and biological evidence to support a colonial model, one would expect larger numbers of individuals who lived in a different region or regions during the first years of life and then spent the last years of their life in the San Pedro de Atacama oases (see discussions in Alcock et al. 2001; Doyle 1986; Goldstein 2005; Stein 2005). Alternatively, if most of the individuals buried in San Pedro de Atacama were originally born in the oases and then spent all or part of their later years in different regions, one would expect a dataset with little mobility in the first years compared to later years. Therefore, in the population as a whole, patterns in mobility over the life course do not clearly support a model of colonization or a model in which individuals from the oases were highly mobile during adulthood, perhaps as caravaneers. Mortuary Contexts and Geographic Origins in San Pedro de Atacama

To better understand the geographic origins of the individuals buried in Middle Horizon San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries, and particularly the relationship with the Tiwanaku polity, here we highlight some features of the mortuary context as another line of evidence. We focus here on both mortuary treatment and mortuary objects. In terms of mortuary treatment, individuals in these San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries were

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buried in a flexed position in a small pit dug into the earth. It is notable that the way in which bodies were interred does not vary in these cemeteries across space or time, suggesting the preeminence of local modes of burial that involved the placement of a seated and flexed body directly into a small pit. This consistency both before and after the Middle Horizon period suggests that there was no substantive shift in mortuary ideology associated with Tiwanaku influence. Similarly, there are no tombs that stand out as decidedly foreign or even predominantly foreign in terms of the mortuary assemblage (Stovel 2001; Torres and Conklin 1995; Torres-Rouff 2008). Rather, mortuary objects of both local and non-local origins and styles are found throughout the cemeteries; for example, an individual could be buried with a Tiwanaku-style snuff tube but an Atacameñostyle snuff tablet (Cocilovo and Zavattieri 1994; Costa and Llagostera 1994; Llagostera et al. 1988b; Torres-Rouff 2008). In the same fashion, there is a complex relationship between mortuary artifacts and geographic origins, as determined by radiogenic strontium isotope analysis, as there is not a simple correspondence between “non-local” radiogenic strontium isotope values and non-local mortuary objects. For example, while non-local ceramics were excavated from Coyo-3 (Costa and Llagostera 1994), the individuals buried in those tombs exhibit “local” radiogenic strontium isotope values. At Larache, a group of individuals received a distinct mortuary treatment involving numerous gold objects, including some with Tiwanaku iconography, but no other classic grave inclusions. Interestingly, these individuals, who were clearly made distinct during the act of burial, were not solely or even predominately “non-locals,” as determined by radiogenic strontium isotope analysis. While some individuals (5/19) from Larache showed “non-local” radiogenic strontium isotope values, they were distributed between the atypical burials and the remainder of the mortuary population. This type of mosaic patterning is characteristic of San Pedro cemeteries at this time and stresses the integrative nature of Atacameño society. Particularly interesting patterns are visible at Solcor-3, a cemetery with numerous Tiwanakustyle artifacts (Bravo and Llagostera 1986; Torres-Rouff 2008). For example, SC3-107, a “local”

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Figure 7. Aguada-style textile from northwestern Argentina from the Middle Horizon cemetery of Quitor-2 (Quitor-2.1983:15 Tunic C8) (photo by Constantino M. Torres).

young adult male, was buried with a Tiwanakustyle snuff tray and a tunic. His hallucinogenic snuff kit also included a tube carved with Atacameño iconography, visually incorporating both cultures into this ritual practice. Moreover, SC3107 and SC3-113, a young adult female who also displays “local” values (although possibly with averaging effects mentioned above), were interred with both Tiwanaku-style artifacts and objects from northwestern Argentina, in addition to a suite of Atacameño goods (Figure 7). The pattern seen with SC3-107 and SC3-113, in fact, repeats itself in other graves, indicating that certain individuals may have had increased access to foreign goods. The case of SC3-050 provides evidence of this integrative approach in the opposite situation. This individual appears to have spent his youth in the altiplano and was then acculturated in Atacameño society, ultimately buried in the oases in the standard fashion, with no Tiwanaku objects (Torres-Rouff and Knudson 2007). As such, this information from the mortuary context stands as evidence for oases populations appropriating foreign goods into the presentation of their social identities.

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The homogeneous mortuary treatments of individuals buried in Middle Horizon San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries and the mosaic patterning of “non-local” radiogenic strontium isotope values and mortuary objects of various archaeological styles is in contrast to mortuary populations at other Tiwanaku-affiliated sites. For example, the site of Chen Chen in Moquegua, Peru, has been interpreted as a diasporic colony of the Tiwanaku polity (Goldstein 2005, 2009). Mortuary treatment and cranial modification styles are homogeneous (Blom 2005a), though distinct from that in the San Pedro de Atacama oases, and mortuary artifacts are exclusively Tiwanaku-style (Vargas 1994). When the radiogenic strontium isotope data is contextualized within broader mortuary behaviors, which are exclusively Tiwanakuaffiliated, and genetic data (Blom 2005a, 2005b; Lewis and Stone 2005), the archaeological and bioarchaeological data together support the hypothesis that Chen Chen was a Tiwanaku-affiliated settlement inhabited by some individuals born in the Lake Titicaca Basin, as well as the descendants of first-generation immigrants to the Moquegua Valley from the Lake Titicaca Basin (Knudson 2008; Knudson and Blom 2009). In contrast, the homogeneity of the Atacameño mortuary treatment at San Pedro de Atacama, the small number of mortuary artifacts from a number of different regions in the south-central Andes, and the heterogeneity in the small number of “non-local” individuals buried in Atacameño cemeteries do not point to a Tiwanaku colony in San Pedro de Atacama. Conclusion

Together, radiogenic strontium isotope data and mortuary contexts do not point to a large number of Tiwanaku migrants from the Lake Titicaca Basin buried in Middle Horizon San Pedro de Atacama cemeteries. A small number of individuals with enamel and/or bone radiogenic strontium isotope values consistent with the Lake Titicaca Basin and the Cochabamba Valley are present in the oases. However, when radiogenic strontium isotope data are contextualized with the rich mortuary data from San Pedro de Atacama, we do not see a simple one-to-one correspondence between “non-local” individuals and

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non-Atacameño mortuary objects, particularly Tiwanaku-style objects; no “Tiwanaku graves” are found in the oases. Rather, the wide range of radiogenic strontium isotope values seen in the small number of “non-local” individuals and the diverse material culture styles seen in mortuary artifacts point to a mortuary population dominated by individuals born and raised in the oases, with a much smaller number of individuals engaged in movement and exchange with multiple foreign groups during this time. Our data appear to be evidence of a heterogeneous trading community in which individuals with access to foreign resources incorporated them into mortuary contexts. In an emerging view of the San Pedro de Atacama oases as a heterogeneous and diverse node, rather than a Tiwanaku colony, we see complex relationships between individuals who likely moved between the northern and southern altiplano (and likely other areas as well) and the San Pedro de Atacama oases. These individuals constructed, manipulated, and presented their social identities through mortuary contexts, with objects from San Pedro de Atacama, the Tiwanaku polity, and sites in northwestern Argentina, in concert or contrast with their geographic origin. The population of the San Pedro de Atacama oases maintained clear signifiers of their own community identity in the way they buried their dead and the objects that were chosen to accompany them. While the Middle Horizon was clearly a time where Atacameños engaged in contact with members of many different societies, evidence of these contacts was incorporated into a pluralistic society.

Acknowledgments. We gratefully acknowledge funding from the National Science Foundation (NSF BCS-0721388 and BCS-0721229), American Association for the Advancement of Science, Colorado College, Institute for Social Science Research (ASU), and School of Human Evolution and Social Change (ASU). We also thank the personnel at the Archaeological Chemistry Laboratory (ASU), W.M. Keck Foundation Laboratory for Environmental Biogeochemistry (ASU), and Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueológicas y Museo in San Pedro de Atacama. Finally, we gratefully acknowledge the constructive comments from three anonymous reviewers and the editors.

Data Availability Statement. The biogeochemical and bioarchaeological data on which this research is based are available as Supplemental Online Materials. They are also on file at the Instituto de Investigaciones Arqueológicas y Museo in San Pedro de Atacama, Chile, and at the Archaeological

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Chemistry Laboratory at Arizona State University and are available by request to the authors.

Supplemental Online Materials. Supplemental materials are linked to the online version of the paper, which is accessible via the SAA member login at www.saa.org/members-login

Supplemental Table 1. Osteological Data from Individuals Included from Middle Horizon Cemeteries in San Pedro de Atacama, Chile. Supplemental Table 2. Radiogenic Strontium Isotope Data from Middle Horizon Cemeteries in San Pedro de Atacama, Chile.

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Notes

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1. Here we use the term “radiogenic strontium isotope analysis” to distinguish paleomobility studies from the recently introduced stable strontium isotope analysis, which uses ␦88/86Sr to elucidate paleodiet and the trophic levels of the sources of strontium in the diet (Knudson et al. 2010). 2. QT5-2070, QT5-2150, SCP-0621, SC3-0012, SC3-0020, SC3-0038, SC3-0052, SC3-0055, SC3-006(1080), SC3-0069, SC3-0071, SC3-0078, SC3-0107, SC3-0111, SC3-0113, SO30912, SO3-01913, SO3-0915, SO3-0922, SO3-931, SO3-0940, SO3-0943, SO3-0960, SO3-1018, SO3-1036, SO3-1039, SO31096, SO3-4837, SO3-4840, TCH-0690, TCH-0844, TCH0850. 3. Past excavation and curation strategies resulted in a large number of individuals for whom no post-cranial elements are present, generating a dataset of late-forming bone samples smaller than that of early-forming enamel samples. Submitted January 23, 2013; Revised March 21, 2014; Accepted April 11, 2014.